STROKE DRINK

.\ND

TOBACCO SMOKE;

THE STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND USES OF
MALT, HOPS, YEAST, AND TOBACCO.

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SEVEN ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS,
DRAWN AND ENGRAVED ON STEEL.

BY

HENRY P. PRESCOTT, F.L.S.

Pto |0tli:

WILLIAM WOOD & CO.

1870.

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PREFACE.

Much of the matter contained in the following pages
formed the subject of a lecture, delivered on various
occasions to country audiences, in which the attempt
was made to popularise an interesting branch of science :
Plant structure, life, and growth. For this purpose it
mattered little what plants should be selected as illus-
trations, but it appeared to me, on reflection, that those
which form the basis of our " Strong Drink and Tobacco
Smoke " (the title chosen for the lecture) would prove
more interesting and instructive than so-called less useful
plants.

The introduction of the tobacco leaf as a subject for
analysis was thought desirable, in these days of universal
smoke, as affording an illustration of the simple means
necessary to detect its spurious substitutes ; thus enabling
the smoker to become, if he choose, his own analyst.
It affords an opportunity to display some striking
illustrations of the variations which Nature elaborates
in the minutiae of the leaves of plants.

VI

PREFACE.

Practical men— farmers, brewers, and maltsters — will,
I think, find in the pages of the book some hints which
may prove of value, as suggestive of the waste of
material constantly occurring in the granary, the
brewery, and the malthouse.

Whilst divesting any sul)ject of the technicalities of
scientific language, I have endeavoured to be strictly
accurate as to facts, and the definitions of them.

For the rest, Nature may speak for herself in her own
eloquent language, through her works and the marvels
of them.

HENRY PRESCOTT, F.L.S.

St. John's Wood,
July 1868.

BOSTON

PUBLIC

LIBRAR--:

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EDITOR'S PEEFACE.

Though having no special knowledge of the .subject
treated of in this book, I have endeavoured to see
it safe through the press for the sake of its writer,
who was a very old friend of mine. The son of
an actor who stood high in the estimation of the
past generation of playgoers, but who died while his
children w^ere young, Henry Paul Prescott was very
early thrown upon the world to shift for himself
Gifted with much natural taste and feeling for art,
he tried as a boy to carve out a career for himself
among the painters. But before starvation overtook
him, he was fortunate enough to find shelter in the
Excise. Mr. Wood, long the chairman of the Board,
who had known his father and always took a kindly
interest in the fortunes of Prescott and his elder
brother, providing places for both in the service over
which he presided.

It was while serving in the lower grades of the
Inland Revenue hierarchy that my friend acquired the

viii EDITOR'S PREFACE.

familiarity with the character of malt, hops, and
tobacco, which is evidenced in the following paper.

He took to the microscope, partly for the love of
it, partly for its usefulness in his profession, and
partly, I think, because it gave him an excuse for
the practice of etching, an art of which he was
passionately fond, and in which the plates which
accompany this work show that he had attained no
mean proficiency.

For years past the preparation of these plates,
and of the text which accompanies them, had been
the solace and occupation of his leisure ; and it was
his great ambition to publish them. But a few
months ago he fell into a rapid consumption, that
which carried off his elder brother twenty years ago,
and died without having seen more than the first
sheet in type.

Critical readers will note much room for imj)rove-

ment in the text of the little book; but on the

whole, it seemed to me better not to attempt to do

more than remove obvious errors, or supply the

place of obvious deficiencies in a work which

pretends to be but an imperfect memorial of an

incomplete life.

T. H. HUXLEY.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I.

PAGE

INTRODUCTORY 1

CHAPTER II.

MATERIALS 9

CHAPTER III.

^ HOW BARLEY GROWS 17

CHAPTER lY.

STRUCTURE OF BARLEY AND SOME OTHER SEEDS 32

CHAPTER V.

HOPS AND YEAST 39

CHAPTER VI.

MALT, BEER, SPIRIT 51

CHAPTER VII.

TOBACCO AND SOME OTHER LEAVES 63

h

LIST OF PLATES.

Vei-tifial section of Coffey's Distilling Apparatus ...... To face p. ^^

PLATE I.

Fi(;s. 1. A representation in miniature of an inflated slieep bladder. — 2. Part of
same ent across its length. — 3. A collection of same supposed to be
held together. — 4. A vegetable cell with two rings formed in its
interior. — 5. Another, with six rings. — 6. Four cells .super-imposed,
united to form a tube. — 7. Dotted ducts. — 8. A vegetable vessel with
deposit formed on its interior in a .spiral curve. — 9. Spiral vessels
from leaf veins. — 10. A reticulated vessel. — 11. A scalariform duct.
— 12. A double-pointed wood cell. — 13. A square-ended Avood cell. —
14. A collection of same as tisstie. — 15. A pitted cell fi-om a deal
shaving. — 16. A part of a single-pointed wood fibre. — 17. A branched
wood fibre. — 18. A pointed ditto. — 19. A branched fibre from woody-
portion of a seed-coat. — 20. An oblong cell from skin of leaf. — 21.
Two irregularly-ishaped cells from skin of leaf. — 22. Two irregularly-
shaped cells from the skin of C'occulus Indiciis. — 23. A cell with wavy
outline, from .skin of leaf, under side. — 24. Kidney-shaped cells from
skin of leaf forming a stoma.— 25. Same viewed in vertical section.

PLATE II.

Figs. 1. A grain of barle}^ with the husks removed from lower end to show the
Embryo. — 2 to 8. Grains of barley in different stages of develop-
ment.— 9. The young barley -plant. — 10. A young rootlet. — 11. A
newly-formed leaf with strap. — 12. Portion of a fully-developed leaf
of barley. — 13. A minute portion of a leaf blade cut transverse-
vertically. — 14. A horizontal section of barley stem. — 15. A vertical
section of the same.— 16. A minute portion of skin of young straw
with hairs developing.

LIST OF PLATES. xi

PLATE III.

Figs. 17. A barley plant. — 18. Part of same divided down the centre, showing
the size and position of inflorescence. — 19. The same, showing the
divisions of the inflorescence into undeveloped and developing por-
tions.— 20. Inflorescence in a very rudimentary condition. — 21.
Further development of same into lobed masses. — 22. More advanced
inflorescence. — 23. One of the lobes developed into a perfect flower. —
24. Ovary and one stamen separated.

PLATE IV.

Figs. 25. A vertical section of mature barley straw. — 26. A portion of silicated
epidermis or skin from mature stem, showing the curved prickly hairs.
—17. A portion of the epidermis of a leaf without hairs. — 28. A
minute portion of a very young awn, with spiral vessels and young
hairs developing. — 29. A diagram showing the position of the inflores-
cence relatively to the surrounding leaves. — 30. Portion of barley ear
showing the lateral supports by which each grain is protected. — 31,
Pollen granules.

PLATE V.

Figs. 1. A grain of barley. — 2. Another (damaged) gi-ain. — 3. Another (perfect)
grain. — 4. The needle. — 5. Hard silicated hairs from its borders. —
6. The tuft removed from base of grain. — 7. The position of the tuft
relatively to the embryo when the gi-ain is cut across. — 8. A minute
portion of wing of tuft, showing the cellular tissue to which the long
delicate filaments are attached. — 9. Section of seed through the
embryo. — 10. Horizontal section of upper or leaf portion of embryo.
— 11. Ditto, of portion forming rootlets. — 12. Starch granules from
albumen of seed.

PLATE VI.

Figs. 13. Seed coats of barley seeds. — 14. Silica plates on outer layer of cells of
skin when dry. — 15. The same after the grain has been steeped in
water for some time. — A strobile or fruit of the Hop. — 17. A bract of
same, showing the position of: 18. The seed at its base. — 19. Seed
with investing membrane to show the liqndite, very abundant on this
membrane. — 20, 21. — Seed divested of membrane viewed in face and
on edge. — 22. A granule of luptditc burst with dilute sulphuric acid.
— 23. A portion of a fruit of brewer's spent-iiops, showing the
position of the seeds and lupulite grains unafi"ected by boiling.
— 24. A minute portion of the seed peUicle or base of bract (17),
beset with lupulite.

PLATE VII.

Figs. 1. A grain of Cocculus Indicus. — 2. A diagram of the seed constructed
from dissections. — 3. A grain of Paradise. — 4. A diagram of the
seed. — 5. Oil globules from the large cysts. — 6. A grain of Datura
Stramonium. — 7. A horizontal diagi-am of the seed.

ii LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE VIII.

Figs. 25. A minute portion of a Hop leaf. — 26. The seed of the Hop. — 27, 2o.
Portions of the acorn-cup of the Valonia Oak. — 29, 30. Branched
and simple hairs.

PLATE IX.

Figs. 1. A leaf Virginian Tobacco attached to stem. — 2. Portion of skin from
under surface.— 3. Hairs separated. — 4. A transverse-vertical section
of portion of leaf-blade, with hairs and breathing pores on under
surfiiee. — 5. A horizontal section of midrib of leaf.- — 6. A leaf of
Burdock. — 7. Hairs from under surface of leaf terminating in long
delicate filaments. — 8. Horizontal section of midrib of leaf with lobed
outline, and bundles of woody fibre separated. — 9. Leaf of Dock, the
stipule at base of stalk detached. — 10. Club-shaped, striated hairs,
from skin of midrib and veins. — 11. Horizontal section of midrib,
with lobed surface, and woody bundles separated. — 12. A portion of
skin of under side of leaf blade.

PLATE X.

Figs. 1. A leaf of Chicory.— 2. A horizontal section from midrib of leaf,
with thin woody bundles. — 3. A portion of the skin removed from
under side of leaf. — 4. Leaf of Comfrey. — 5. Horizontal section of
midrib of leaf, showing the position and character of woody bundles.
— 6. A minute portion from the skin of the leaf on its irnder side. —
7. Leaf of Jerusalem Artichoke. — 8. Horizontal section of midrib of
leaf, with woody bundles. — 9, Epidermis from under side of leaf.

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTOEY.

" To eat, drink, and be merry," whilst life lasts, appear
to be instincts of man's nature, scarcely requiring the
sanction or the recommendation of a proverb ; but from
the hurried toil of life in which too many of us eat our
daily bread, it may be good and refreshing to rest awhile,
and turn to the green hill-side, to " look at the lilies of
the field how they grow."

There we shall see all living objects, whether it be the
insect on the wing in drowsy flight, or the bird up
yonder carolling his song as if in praise and thanks-
giving for the permission of life in this beautiful world ;
w^hether it be the huml^le plants of the varied thousands
that adorn our English heda-erow : —

o o

" A violet by a mossy stone
Half hidden from the eye ; "

or the countless roses of delicate hue that adorn its
summit — or, in the ditch beneath it, the brilliant flowers

B

2 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

of tlie water-crowfoot, lying in graceful repose on its
outspread leaves, whilst its silken tresses sway gently
from side to side with the eddying current underneath ;
all these, as parts of animated Nature, fulfilling with
thorough steadfastness of purpose the conditions for
which they were called into being, a full and vigorous
life, and so contril)uting their share to the enjoyments
of man. Viewed thus, the most familiar objects of life
that surround us afford ample scope for the attain-
ment of real knowledge, exercise for thought, and an
inexhaustible field for inquiry and research.

On the other side of that hedgerow lies a field of
growing barley, and two fields beyond it, the graceful
hop plants rear high in air their dazzling green festoons,
stretching from pole to pole. Perhaps no two plants,
since the world began, have had so great a moral
influence on the human race ; it may be that no other
two products of nature, varied and beautiful as these
are, ever so gladdened or made sad the hearts of men ;
for if to the fruit of these tv,^o plants we add another,
the humble yeast plant, all the ingredients are present
from which " strong drink," whisky, and beer, are
obtained.

I purpose, therefore, to trace the life history of the
barley plant, from its earliest growth to maturity and
death, giving a description of the structure and minute
anatomy of the root, stem, leaves, and seed. I shall
show the careful provision which Nature has made for
the healthy life of tlie plant in every stage of its growth,

STRONG BRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 3

mDi'c particularly during its most critical period, the
flowerins;, and maturing; of the seed.

A careful examination of hop-fruit will show in what
part of it is lodged the bitter principle, so valual>le to
the brewer, and, incidentally, it will be seen how much
of it he unconsciously wastes. The nature and action
of the yeast plant, with a glance at its use in the brewery
and distillery, and a sketch of the "patent apparatus"
by which English whisky is distilled at the rate of
several thousand gallons per hour, will complete the
chapters on strong drink.

Whilst smoking my 2:)ipe with you, reader, I will
mix a leaf or two (literally " weeds") with your best
cavendish, and when our cloud is blowinof we will
put our heads together, and try if we can find out
what those " weeds" are.

Barley seed, when converted into malt, forms the
practical ingredient of our strongest drinks — whisky,
gin, and beer ; and, although many other seeds of plants,
such as rye, maize, oats, &c., can be malted, yet none
are found so profitable for this purpose as barley.

And here, at the very outset of our inquiries, we may
well be struck with astonishment : 1. At the fact that
these seeds, which, when broken open, consist apparently
of nothing but a fine white flour, surrounding a small
conical body scarcely so large as a small pin's head,
should, by being steeped in cold water for a few hours,
become endowed with the marvellous power of strong
healthy growth, even when free from contact with the

B 2

4 STBOXG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

eartli. Tlioiigli by no means difficult to observe in what
part of the seeds this vital activity commences, or to
demonstrate, with the assistance of the microscope, that
the seeds of barley, like the plants which they produce,
are nothing more than a collection of minute cells, we
are nevertheless, after doing so, but a little nearer to
the solution of those mighty mysteries w^hich are in-
cluded in the word. Life, although we have arrived
at a comprehension of some of those agencies which
produce its earliest manifestation.

This, though matter too deep for our philosophy, need
not deter us from seeking the knowledge of other facts
connected with the life of our barley plant, nor of
studying some of the most beautiful provisions which
Nature has made for the conservation and reproduction
of a plant, that may be said to have become one of the
staple necessities of society at the present time.

A special interest attaches, too, to the hop plant, as
the source from which are derived the bitter and
aromatic qualities for which English beers are prized, as
the finest in the world. The dried fruit of this plant
yielded, until recently, an enormous revenue to Govern-
ment. It is, however, peculiarly liable to the attacks
of the "fly," or "blight," and, on this account, it
became so difficult to collect the hop duty, that it has
been abandoned by the Government.

Yeast, with which both our bread and our beers are
fermented, takes its place in the vegetable kingdom as
a plant very low in its organization, but nevertheless

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 5

immensely rapid iu its growtli, and appearing to rerjuirc
exactly the medium which is supplied by a saccharine
solution, such as that of malt or mixed grain, for its
continuous development.

From these three plants, then, we get our " strong
drink," and it is a remarkable circumstance, that to use
them in the manufacture of our beer, as in brewinir, or
of our whisky, the distilled spirit, we have to begin
where Nature does — to grow the barley and yeast plants.
In generating barley to convert it into malt, or in adding
yeast to the brewer's worts to excite fermentation, we
but imitate the earliest 2:)rocesses of actual plant-growth,
though in Ijoth cases the operations are, at a certain
stage, suddenly arrested. The result of fermentation, as
is well known, is the production of the intoxicating
element of both beer and whisky — alcohol — which is
left mixed with saccharine matter, and hopped by the
brewer; or separated from it in its more concentrated
and purer state by the distiller.

Such, then, are the l:tascs of our strong drink. I
fear that our tobacco will not always bear so satis-
factory an analysis. The reason of this is obvious.
The temptation to adulterate tobacco is very strong,
and will ever remain so whilst the tax on importation
bears such an enormous ratio to the value of the taxed
material, as that of a 3s. tax on tobacco leaves worth
from ijcl. to Is. per pound. Besides, not one person
in one hundred, or, it may safely be stated, in one
thousand, has the slightest acquaintance with the

6. STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

general features and cliaracters of genuine tobacco.
Most of us, therefore, must be powerless in tlie bands
of the fraudulent manufacturer, to whom we not un-
frequently pay something more than 35. 6cZ. per pound
for the leaves of wayside plants — dock, burdock, fox-
glove, elecampane, &c. &c. — with which our tobacco
leaves are, at times, contaminated. If it is somewhat
unpleasant to be thus reminded of what we may be
smoking, it is equally satisfactory to know that very
little patience and attention are all that are requisite
to gain a knowledge of those marked and unchangeable
characters which Nature has stamped on the leaves of
plants, as on all her productions ; and thus, those of
them invisible to the naked sight can, with the help
of a microscojoe, be traced in our cigars, our cut
tobaccos, and even in our snuffs. Nor is much learn-
ing requisite to master the few and simple features
which characterise these leaves ; for they are of so
marked and constant a character, so easily to be under-
stood, and the analysis of them lies so completely
within the reach of ordinary intelligence, as to be well
worth the trouble of acquiring.

And this leads iije to the manner of treating my
four plants. A. cursory glance at some of the numerous
illustrations of the book, will impress many readers with a
notion that the objects delineated are as strange-looking
as they are novel ; but they are not, on that account, diffi-
cult to understand, or, as I believe, unworthy of being
studied. Prominent amono: these will be found sections,

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 7

or slices, of the various parts of the phints under con-
sideration, and in every instance they are intended to
represent their structure in a given direction. For
instance, in order to trace the growth of the barley
plant, we must begin by placing the seeds in moist
earth, or in water, for a day or two, and then watch
their germination, and the gradual development from
day to day of the young plants. The examination of
the tissues composing the leaves and the straw, in their
gradual development, will exhibit some most interest-
ing structures under the microscope. Carrying our re-
searches a step farther, the germs of the future flowers
of the plant may be easily discovered, and these traced
to their fructification and ultimate development into
mature seeds ; thus completing the cycle of the plant's
life from a seed to the seed again. So, again, with the
hop plant ; if the leaves and bracts of the fruit are
examined with a magnifying glass, our admiration is
immediately aroused by the beautiful form, colour, and
arrangement upon their surfaces, of thousands of minute
golden-coloured, granular bodies, which contain the
lupulite, so valuable to the brewer.

Descendinor to the lowest recjion of vegetable life, we
have the yeast plant, whose marvellous development
from simple cells into long threads or filaments, by cell-
division and multiplication, may actually be Avatched on
the field of the microscope, when the plant is fed with a
solution of sugar.

The external characters of tobacco leaves contrast

8 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO S3I0KE.

curiously with those of other phmts. Interesting on
this account, they become even more so when examined
under the microscope. AVe then see the never-ending
variations which Nature elaborates in the internal struc-
ture of the leaves of plants, no less than in the form
and characters of the minute, invisible hairs with which
their surfaces are adorned ; these last serving us, even
when the leaves have been pounded to dust, as inf\illible
records of the plant which has produced them.

In short, search where we will in Nature's laboratory,
her surjDrising variations of form, her myriad methods of
varying minutiae, excite our wonder at every stejD we
take in the endeavour to unravel these hidden Ijeauties.

CHAPTER 11.

MATEEIALS.

Before proceeding to grow our barley seeds in order to
obtain young plants for the examination of their tissues,
it will be necessary to give a brief sketch of the elements
of which plants generally are composed.

Let Plate 1, fig. 1, represent, on a very large scale, a
minute bladder, distinguishable only as such by the aid
of a microscope. This, when cut across at a right angle
to the direction of its length, or horizontally, would have
the appearance represented at fig. 2, seen in perspective.
Suppose a number of such bladders to be held together
at certain points of their surfaces, and their ends to lie
in different planes ; if a knife-blade were passed throug]''
them, as in the previous instance, the section would have
the appearance represented at fig. 3. A second cut
through such a tissue, in the direction of the transverse
line, would divide three of the bladders just above their
ends, and w^ould escape the other two. Now we have
only to call these suppositious bladders vegetable cells,
and their skins the cell-ivcdls (in nature much more
transparent than these skins), and we have a tolerable

10 STRONG DRINK AN I) TOBACCO SMOKE.

illustration of the composition of the soft, juicy parts of
most plants, that is to say, cellular tissues, and the
illustration will further show the vacant or intercellular
spaces, where the cell- walls do not infringe upon each
other. AVhen such a section as that included between
the upper surface and the line a, fig. 3, is placed under
the microscope (supposing it to be sufficiently thin and
transparent to transmit light), it is evident that the
side walls of five of the cells will be visible, and the
ends only of two.

But many plant cells possess the singular property of
forming on the inner surface of their walls a deposit,
which takes sometimes very eccentric and very beautiful
forms. Of these the most simple is that of a ring or
rings, as in the cells found in many of the Cacti, one of
which is represented at fig. 4, in which two such rings
occur, serving probably to give it strength. Fig. 5 is
another cell, with as many as- six distinct rings visible
on the inner surface of its wall. This deposit very
frequently overlies almost the entire surface of the cell,
leavino:, where it is absent, minute dots which admit the
light readily through them. Fig. 6 represents a row of
such cells, which are also very abundant in elder pith,
but possess fewer markings or dots.

Any or all these forms of cells, when collected
together, as shown at fig. 3, form what is called, tech-
nically, a cellular tissue, as distinguishing it from
another tissue common among plants and abundant in
wood, which I will now describe.

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 11

In the growing parts of plants are found, in all stages
of developnient, long tubes or vessels. These, in many
instances, are seen to be formed by a series of cells
placed one above another (Plate 1, fig. 6), their ends
becoming finally obliterated, when they form canals or
vessels, such as are represented at fig. 7, having their
walls dotted. This description of vessel is called a
dotted duct, and is very common in the roots of many
plants, such as chicory.

Vessels, like cells, have their walls lined internally
with a deposit. Fig. 8 represents one of them with
such a deposit, in the form of a fibre wound spirally
on its wall, the fibre having become stretched by the
elongation of the vessel.

Beautiful examples of spiral vessels occur in the veins
of leaves (fig. 9) ; they are abundant in the stem of the
strawberry plant, and are readily seen by passing a
knife-blade gently round the stem, and then dividing
it by gradually drawing the parts asunder. The fine
threads thus obtained, when examined under the micro-
scope, will be found to consist of spiral vessels, with
the fibres more or less unrolled at their extremities.

Another very common form of vessel (fig. 10) is
known as 7'eticulated, owing to the broken irregular
form which the deposit assumes.

Fig. 1 1 represents portions of three vessels taken
from the stem of the vine. These are called scalari-
form ducts, owing to the deposit being formed in bars,
similar in appearance to the rungs of a ladder.

12 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

Groups of any or of all these forms of vessels (Plate
1, figs. 7 — 11) are known as vascular tissue, as dis-
tinguished from the ceUular tissue above described.

The continuous growth of a plant is generally ac-
companied by the formation of wood ; that is to say,
much of the cellular tissue is supplanted by tougher
and more unbending material, more suitable for the
support of the plant during growth. These Avoody
parts are mostly composed of long Jihrous cells with
thick walls. Fig. 12 represents one of them pointed
at both ends, and fig, 13 another with nearly square
ends. They occur in abundance in herbaceous plants,
and in all wood knit together into a tissue, such as is
seen at fig. 14. When united in one tissue with the
vessels before described, the comj^ound tissue is called
Jihro-vasciilar.

A common deal shaving exhibits, under the micro-
scope, a tissue composed of long cells pointed at both
ends, and having on their sides pits, or cup-shnped
depressions (fig. 15), which in two individual cells are
fitted face to face, and thus form a cavity for the
reception of the resinous matter which we smell so
perceptibly in freshly-cut deal, or in newly-planed deal
shavings and sawdust.

A curious form of the fibrous cell is, according to
some authors, found in bark (figs. 16, 17), some being
Ijranched. Fig. 18 is another form of fibrous cell, also
found in bark, and like some cells dotted. In inner
coats of seeds are commonly found minute, elonoated

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 13

cells that have coalesced to form long delicate fibres
(Plate 1, fig. 19). Stringy, tough vegetables, with which
we sometimes make unpleasant acquaintance, owe their
unpalatableness to the large quantity of fibrous tissue
which they contain.

The outer coverings or skins of herbaceous plants are
very frequently composed of thick-sided, flat, tabular
cells (figs. 20, 21). The upper surfaces of leaves are
frequently covered with a thin pellicle of cellular tissue
(fig. 22) ; their lower surfaces with a tissue composed
of flat, tabular cells with wavy outlines (fig. 23).

Many readers will be surprised to learn that plants
breathe principally through their leaves, but the experi-
ments of philosophers have placed the fact beyond
question. The delicate organisms by which this function
is performed may be well seen by detaching a minute
piece of skin from the under side of a leaf, and placing it
in water under the microscope. These will be seen lying
in great profusion amongst the peculiar flat tabular cells,
with undulating outlines (fig. 23), peculiar to this part,
as minute, kidney-shaped cells, touching at their ends
and having a slit or minute opening between them.
One of these, viewed from above, and greatly mag-
nified, is seen at fig. 24, and cut through vertically at
one point of their junction at fig. 25. As moisture
is supplied to or withdrawn from the leaves either
by imbibition or evaporation, these breathing pores
(stomates as they are called) expand or contract, and

14 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

in so doing partically close or open the slit, and so
regulate the passage of moisture and gaseous matter
from or to the interior of the leaf. Though very-
minute, they must, from the fact of thousands of them
occurring within a square inch of surface, play a most
important part physiologically in the life of the plant.

It is also on the skin of the leaf that the peculiar
cellular appendages, hairs, are placed. These are found
sometimes in two or three different forms on the same
leaf, and although frequently invisible to the naked eye,
are, from their excessive transparency, very beautiful
objects under the microscope. Their forms and charac-
ters are as constant for each leaf as they are diversified
in the leaves of different plants ; and, as our investiga-
tions proceed, it w411 be seen how objects so simple
as a hair may be made available in the analysis of
tobacco leaves.

The plants and leaves, the structure of which we
have now to study, are nothing more than variously
disposed groups of cells and vessels held firmly together ;
I have now to describe briefly the manner in which they
may be most profitably studied.

An architect, desirous of conveying an idea of the
form and construction of the house he intends building,
prepares very carefully a series of drawings, exhibiting
ground plans and sections of the various parts of the
proposed building. We, on the other hand, have to take
to pieces the fabric which Nature has constructed, in

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 15

order to obtain our ground plans and sections. This is
accomplislied by making careful sections of tlie plant
from every part of it and in every direction of its growth,
and submitting tliese to tlie searching power of the
compound microscope, in order to view the structure
from every point. For instance, a thin slice of the
young green stem of barley cut horizontally (at a right
angle to the direction of its growth), and placed in
water on the stage of the microscope, will show whether
the woody {Jihro-vascular) tissues lie together in one
mass, or are scattered in small w^edge-shaped bundles
(Plate 2, fig. 14). A thin slice from the same stem,
cut vertically in the direction of its growth (Plate 2,
fig. 15), will show the composition of its tissues, and
from this, individual cells and vessels can be carefully
dissected out under the dissecting microscope with
tw^o fine needles, for examination under the compound
microscope, when their beautiful transparency will render
their minutest structure very evident. If, in cutting
these sections, the knife blade should by accident pass
through (as it will do frequently) some part of a minute
vessel in a somewhat slanting direction, the student
will be rewarded with a view of a part of the in-
terior of it, and will thus be enabled to compare
the appearances of both surfaces. In fact, in this as
in other matters, chance or accident w^ill sometimes
accomplish for us that which our most patient labour
Avill not.

16 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO S3I0KR

I shall have to speak of the method of examiuing
leaf structure when treating of hops and tobacco, taking
it for granted that the reader knows what books to read
amongst the numerous published works on the micro-
scope and its management. For the rest, successful
study should depend less on books than on hearty desire
and a strong will.

CHAPTER III.

HOW BARLEY GROWS.

Having given a general outline of the composition of
a plant, the reader will be prepared to understand
tlie process of growth of a simple grain of barley. If
a grain be taken, and the outer husk and inner skin
are removed from the thick end of it, on its smoother
or ungrooved surface a small conical body will be found
lodged in the white mealy portion of the grain, and
darker than it. This is the emhryo of a young jjlant
(Plate 2, fig. 1) awaiting some exciting cause to bring
its latent powers into action. Place a few of these grains
whole in moist earth for three or four days, and watch the
result. On examining the grain at the end of that time,
it will be found that, although in external appearance it
only exhibits a swollen appearance, yet, on opening it, or
tearing away the husk, its internal characters have very
much changed. Instead of the white mealy mass, we
have a pasty-looking substance, the embryo has elongated
considerably (fig. 2), and a number of slender filaments

c

IS STROyO BRINK JXI) TOBACCO SMOKE.

are protruding from the end of the grain, having burst
throuoli its husk. In two or three days more, if we
remove the husk from another grain, v.e find a tough,
ahnost horny structure, to which the little remaining
mealy part of the grain most tenaciously adheres (fig. 3).
This body is called the cotyledon or embryonic leaf.
Growing as it were from this, and attached to it, is a
small greenish conical body, another young leaf, whilst
the extension in growth of the horny mass downwards
forms the basis from which the young rootlets grow
into the earth (Plate 2, figs. 4, 5). In a day or two,
a still further development of the plant is seen ; by re-
moving the upper leaf, another still younger is found
to have grown from the stem within it (fig. 6).

It will be observed, that one important feature of the

plant's structure is illustrated in the growth of the

leaves one icithin another, each younger one forcing the

older one next to it in an outward direction. Fig. 7

represents a young plant about nine days old, removed

bodily from the soil. The husk of the grain is still

adhering slightly to the plant, but when this is removed

(fig. 8), the contents of the grain are found to have

undergone an entire change ; instead of the white mealy

mass which it once contained, its place is occupied by

the bases of the leaves, and the tough horny substance

to which these and the rootlets are fixed. The fact is,

that the embryo, whilst growing, and forming rootlets

and leaves, has evidently done so at the expense of the

mealy portion of the grain — a beautiful provision that

STROXO DNLXK JXD TOBACCO SMOKE. If)

Nature has made for the young phiiit, until it is uLle
to assimikte other food.

The diagram (Phite 2, fig. 9) represents, on a much
enhirged scale, a section of the young plant at the fore-
going stage of its growth, cut open vertically, the leaves
being represented by lines. There are six of these,
exclusive of the cotyledonary leaf (c), and the figures 1
to 6 represent the order of their growth. No. 1, the
first formed leaf, has been superseded in growth by
No. 2, and has then died down ; No. 2 in its turn will
be outgrown by No. 3, and will then die down ; and so
with the others, the point from which they grow being
a dense mass of living vegetable tissue. I shall have to
return to this part of the subject when treating of the
stem ; in the meantime let us examine the rootlets of
the plant. These are so delicate, that they may be
placed bodily on the stage of the microscope in water,
and pressed down under a thin glass cover. They will
be found to consist of a mass of minute elongated cells,
with very thin walls ; in the centre of the mass spiral
and other vessels are forming. But at the point of each
rootlet is a peculiar conical body (fig. 10) called the
root cap, which is supposed to assist materially in
absorbing; the salts and other matters held in the soil
for the nourishment of the plant. This function is
denied to it by many, but it is clearly proved that if
these caps are broken off they are never reproduced
and the rootlets wither.*

* Scbleidi-n's Principles of Botany, p. 220.
C 2

20 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

The structure of tlie mature leaf will have to be
considered presently. I draw attention now to the
leaf in its youngest state, in order to illustrate a pecu-
liarity in its structure that has a most important relation
to the mechanical support of the entire plant. Examine
one of the leaves of barley in as early a stage of its
growth as possible (Plate 2, fig. 11), and here will be
found, at the base of it, an elevated ridge of cellular
tissue. This never lengthens to any great extent during
the growth of the leaf, but it thickens considerably, and
becomes, in a mature leaf, very tough and elastic. It is
called the strap (figs. 11, 12 st), and performs the most
useful office of preserving all that portion of the leaf
which grows after it, for a time, in a cylindrical form.
It thus encloses and protects the inner younger leaves
(and, as we shall presently see, the flowers and fruit)
until these, becoming too bulky, snap the strap asunder.
The economy of Nature, vast as it is, can scarcely show
a single contrivance more simple, or more admirably
adapted for the purpose which it serves.

Fig. 13 represents a portion of a transverse-vertical
section of a mature leaf of barley. In the centre of the
section is the bundle of woody tissue (fibrous cells, spiral
and other vessels) forming the middle vein of the leaf,
and on either side of it three other such bundles runninsf
parallel to it. They are surrounded by loose cellular
tissue, and enclosed or covered on both surfaces by
abular-shaped cells, forming the upper and under skins
of the leaf.

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 21

Plate 3, fig. 1 7, represents a young barley plant about
six inclies liioh. A slis-bt swelling will be observed at one

o o o

jDart of it, g. When cut open vertically its whole length
(fig. 18), the stem is found to be perfectly hollow, except-
ing at certain points of it, where (as at a, h) diaphragms,
or solid plates of cellular tissue, extend across it. Just
above the upper one of these plates is a small, conical
semi-transparent body, g. Fig. 19 is a highly-magni-
fied representation of this part, which in reality is, at
this time, no bigger than the head of a pin. Observe
that all but the two inner leaves of the stem have
been removed to show it more clearly. This minute
body consists of two parts, and from it grow, by con-
stant addition of new tissues, the inflorescence or flower
axis, a (fig. 19), and h, the leaf axis or stem, the entire
mass forming the terminal bud of the plant of which a
and h are the flower and stem portions in a rudimentary
state.

The mode of growth may be thus explained. Whilst
the base of the terminal bud rested as it were on the
diaphragm d, a leaf-bud was formed, and, on expanding
into a leaf, the tissues from which it grew on the stem
also increased and lengthened by the constantly renewed
vitality imparted to them by the respiration of the leaf.
By the time the stem has grown the length of the inter-
node (fig. 18, a to h), the terminal bud has also increased
in diameter, another leaf-bud is forming, and the phsnt
repeats the process of horizontal and vertical growth.

At each point, where a new leaf-bud, and consequently

22 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

a new leaf, was produced, a solid plate of tissue (dia-
phragm) remains for a time ; Lut as the diameter of each
node of the stem increases, the central portion not being
renewed, the stem in time becomes hollow.

In the centre of the lobed inflorescence (fig. 19, a)
may be clearly distinguished, even at this early stage of
its development, the flower and fruit-bearing stalk ; at the
base of this again is the last undeveloped joint of the
stem, and beneath this the solid mass from which other
leaves and internodes of the stem will be formed.

Plate 2, figs. 14 and 15, represent a horizontal and
a vertical section of the mature green stem of bar-
lev. The sections are not cut across or thi'oucrh the
middle of the last formed diaphragm, for then we
should have a solid mass without the intervening
space represented by the white ring which here sepa-
rates the outer developing stem from the inner more
immature portion, but at a point just above d (Plate 3,
fig. 19).

The structure of the stem is well seen in the vertical
section at Plate 4, fig. 25, where the spiral vessels are seen
lying amongst the woody and dotted fibres, whilst the
inner circular cells of the pith are gradually being torn
asunder by the horizontal expansion of the stem at the
internode above. The development of hairs on the outer
skin may be easily traced on the young green stem. Jn
early growth they have the appearance of minute knobs
(Plate 2, fig. 16). AVhen they are mature, and have
become silicated on their outer surfaces, they have a more

STROyO DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 23

formidable appearance (Plate 4, fig. '1Q>). They are most
numerous on the green awns of the seed, where they may
be seen in all stages of development (Plate 4, fig, 28 h).
A remarkable feature in the growth of our plants is
the power they possess of absorbing frc)m the soil, and
secreting in their tissues, a very large amount of silica,
the basis of fiint-stones and of glass, Tn the ashes of
barley straw De Saussure, a French chemist, found 57
per cent, of this substance ; more recently our own
illustrious chemist, Fownes, has given the analysis of
straw from Ijarley grown in Battersea Fields. When
burned, it yielded 6 "9 7 per cent, of unconsumed ashes.
These ashes, on analysis, yielded in the soluble portion
of them : — •

Sulphate of potash 16 "6 per csiit.

Chloride and little silica 0-4-

11

In the insoluble portion : —

Siliceous scales 70 -5

•>

Phosphates of lime and m igUf.-i.i . . 8'5

Carbonate of lime 2 0

Alkali, magnesia, and loss 15 ,,

Water ."»

1)

5)

lUO-0

Of this silica, 87 per cent, was uncombined with any
earthy or alkaline base.

Under the blow-pipe this silica may be made to fuse
into a glass of topaz-yellow colour. L^ider the micro-

24 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

scope it is seen as an extremely delicate transparent
layer overlying and penetrating the cells of the outer
skin, and is in many places rent and torn by the
distension of this tissue (Plate 4, figs. 26, 27). Silica is
one of those substances which the chemist finds some
diificulty in obtaining in a perfectly pure state, yet we see
our humble barley plant, in some most mysterious way,
assimilating it in truly wonderful proportion.

I come now to the most interesting part of my subject.
There are few people w^ho do not take some interest in
flowers. Those who do will not have failed, during a
summer walk through a field of standing corn, to have
seen and to have admired the wild poppy growing up
amongst the forest of straw, and if they have plucked
them, will recall to their minds those exquisite lines of
Robert Burns, from his poem of " Tam O'Shanter:" —

" But pleasures are like poppies spread,
You seize the flower, the bloom is fled ;
Or, like snow-flakes on a river,
A moment Avhite, then lost for ever ! "

All can appreciate the aptness of Burns' simile of
fleeting pleasure, and the evanescent beauty of one of
our loveliest wild plants ; too often, the farmer would
say, the close companion of growing barley. But from
the eyes of Burns, as from our own, lay hidden many
beautiful objects teeming with wealth for us. Though
showing no outward signs of attractiveness, there yet
lie carefully enfolded within the leaves of those green

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 25

modest-looking barley plants, the germs of future flowers,
and of fruit yet to be garnered. Plucking up a plant,
root and all, and examining its exterior very carefully,
a slio'ht distension or swellinof will be observed about
midway {g (j Plate 3, fig. 1 7) up the stem. If the plant
is now cut vertically through its entire length (fig. 18)
a small conicat, semi-transparent body, in reality no bigger
than a pin's head (to which allusion was just now made
in speaking of the stem), will be found at g. Fig. 19 c
is a highly magnified representation of this body, which
is the inflorescence, or flower-bearing portion of the plant,
whilst still very young. When detached and more
highly magnified it has the appeararance represented
at fig. 20 ; that of a gelatinous, semi-transparent,
conical body, with lobed margins. If we watch closely
from day to day the development of this inflorescence,
it will be found to increase rapidly in bulk, and to alter
considerably in form.

Another stage of its growth is exhibited at fig. 21,
in which the lobes are more strongly marked, and more
numerous, and the mass has become broader. In a
short time a still further development is observed (fig.
22), each lobe assuming distinct parts, the rudiments
of floral leaves. Each lolje at length develops into a
perfect flower (fig. 23), which, with its appendages, is
something larger than the head of an ordinary pin,
and of a pale yellow colour, with all its parts semi-
transparent.

Whilst in this condition, the inflorescence is most

26 STRONG DRIXK AXD TOBACCO SMOKE.

cautiously protected from violent accident or atmo-
spheric influences. Plate 4, fig, 29, is a rep)resentation of
a horizontal section of the plant through the inflorescence,
and the surrounding leaves. In the drawing, the centre
or midrib of each leaf, from the oldest to the youngest,
is represented l)y the letters a, h, c, and if the convo-
lutions of each leaf are traced, the leaves- will be found
to be so situated relatively to each other as to form five
distinct coverings within which the inflorescence in the
centre is. Truly this part of the plant's economy has
been wonderfully contrived !

When mature, it will be seen that each lobe of
the inflorescence has developed into a minute body, com-
posed of three distinct parts, ov jiorets (Plate 3, fig. 23).
The two lateral ones [a a) are barren, and produce no
seed ; the central one is fertile, and consists of two
outer scales {h h) with awns, which soon wither aw^ay ;
two other inner ones (c/), enclosing a small body, the
pistil, to which are attached, at its base, three oblong,
yellowish bodies, with slender stalks ; these are the
stamens of the flower. We have here, then, a perfect
flower with its reproductive organs, three stamens
and a pistil. On opening one of the anthers of the
stamens, a (fig. 24), there will be found lining its sides
a quantity of fine yellow powder. This is known as
pollen (Plate 4, fig. 31), and is the fertilizing principh^
of the flower.

At a certain period of the plant's growth, and whilst
the inflorescence is yet protected by the sheathing leaves.

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 27

these pollen granules fall from the anthers on to the
feathery stigma {st) at the top of the ovary (Plate 3, o,
fig. 24) ; they then thrust out long slender tubes, which
penetrate the ovary through the style [st), and there dis-
charge a viscid secretion which they contain. When thus
impregnated, the embryo of a new plant is formed within
the ovary, which becomes in time the seed. After impreg-
nation, the stamens wither and fall off; the inner and
outer scales of the flower close around the ovary, and
become the inner and outer coats of the future barley-
seed ; and the barren florets (a a, 23) form, in time, the
lateral appendages which help to keep the grains firmly
fixed on their fruit-bearing stem (Plate 4, a a, 30).

Each lobe of the inflorescence having developed into
a flower, the process explained takes place simultane-
ously, or nearly so, in each of them ; and, in a short
time afterwards, we see the green ear of barley Ijursting
the strap of the uppermost and youngest leaf, which has,
until now, enfolded it. It then bends downwards by its
own weight, and is seen as the graceful ear of barley.

I found the fertilized ovaries to weigh, on an average,
one-twentieth part of a grain, and the ripe, mature seed,
seven-tenths of a grain ; so that, from the time of the
impregnation of the ovary to its maturity as seed, each
ovary has increased its original weight thirteen times.

What particular office do the awns of the seed
(fig. 30) fulfil in the economy of the plant 1 Com-
paring an ear of wheat with one f»f barley, the seeds
of the former are found to be surrounded by several

28 STRONG BRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

loosely-fitting coats (husks), wliicli readily fall away
on thresliino;, leavinor tlie seeds naked. These serve
as a sufiicient j)rotection from rain and atmospheric
influences. In place of these, barley-seed, as we have
seen, is furnished with two tightly-fitting tunics ; and
lest these should become damaged by moisture, they
are furnished at their points with long, tapering awns,
covered with minute hairs. The awns serve as admir-
able contrivances to carry ofi" an excess of moisture,
which might otherwise act injuriously on the seed.
Such appears to me an explanation of the use of
these very elegant appendages of the seed.

The use of the hah's, which are so abundant in the
awns (and which, on reference to Plate 4, fig. 26, will be
seen to curve outwards and upwards), is not so readily
explained. The story is told of a youth who, whilst
passing through a field of growing barley, carelessly
snatched and placed in his mouth a few of these
" barbed " awns. It so happened that they passed
down the wind-pipe with the points of the hairs
uppermost, which efi"ectually prevented their dislodg-
ment by coughing. This seemingly trifling incident
led to violent haemorrhage of the lungs, caused by
these silicated hairs, and speedy death.

I have considered our Ixirley plant hitherto as in
a flourishing and healthy state of growth ; but it, like
other things, is subje(;t to disease and death before
reaching maturity.

Contrast, for instance, the two plants on the next page ;

1^® <?

g © *S @

'© ©

d

®^ ® m ®

(^

i ^i)

0

% ^ ^

30 STRONG URLXK AXD TOBACCO SMOKE.

tlie one blooming with healtli, the ear just ready to
leave its last loving support and covering, to bend
downwards with its weight of fruit ; the other, stark and
stricken with a black disease, a lifeless and almost shape-
less mass of cankering dust. This appearance is caused
by smut, a fungus that attacks the barley plant during
its flowering, and destroys what, but for it, had become
a thing of l^eauty and of use.

The smut is a very fine black powder, which has
entirely replaced the tissues that were developing into
flower and seed ; no trace of them being left, excepting
such as hold together quite feebly a rude, shapeless mass,
that was once almost a perfect flower. In what peculiar
way this fungus settles on its victim it is difficult to
imaoine, for we have seen that the inflorescence of the
plant is so carefully protected by the sheathing-leaves as
to render any attack upon it from without, even by the
deposit of minute gems floating in the air, scarcely pos-
sible. But there it is, all too plainly, and the reader
m.ay judge of its impalpable fineness when told that the
figures represent the spores of this fungus in a dry state,
and in water, magnified 400 diameters.

If I have been successful in describing the barley
plant, and have made its life-history intelligible, the
reader cannot fail to perceive how admirably Nature has
adapted it for the growth and protection of its flowers.
She has lod2;ed them with amazins; skill within a series
of folding leaves, whose convolutions form around it a
covering five times repeated. She has further endowed

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 31

tlic plant with the wonderful power of abstractmg silica
from the soil in which it grows to harden and protect
Loth stem and leaves with a nature as glistening as steel
itself, and has so adapted its form and mode of growth
as to suggest the utmost economizing of space : finally,
to complete her fair work, ere its life is ended by the
reaper's sickle, and its gracious fruit is gathered for our
use, she has clothed it in golden hues to gild —

" A gailj'-cliequered, lieart-expanding view,
Far as the circling eye can shoot around
U abounded, tossing in a held of corn."

CHAPTER IV.

STEUCTURE OF BARLEY AND SOME OTHER SEEDS.

Almost at tlie commencement of our studies, rccader,
we had occasion, whilst watching the development of the
barley plant, to take particular notice of a minute body,
the emhryo, where we found vital activity first mani-
festing itself, after steeping the grain in cold water for a
few hours.

A section of malt at that part of the grain in which
this embryo is lodged is given at Plate 5, fig. 9. At 5
are the cells composing the two seed-coats of the grain ;
at a the white mealy portion (albumen), the cells of
which have been freed from starch o-ranules in nourishing
the embryo ; e is the embryo. This now consists of three
folded leaves, in a rudimentary state, attached to a mass
of vegetable matter, in which lie the undeveloped stem
and rootlets. Horizontal sections of the embryo (figs.
10, 11), taken from above and below the centre of the
embryo, exhibit these parts of its structure very plainly.

Looking at the outside of the base of the grain, on its
grooved surface there will be observed a minute, very

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 'S.i

hard, conical body (Plate 5, n, fig. 1), to which, as I have
never yet seen any description of it, I have given the
name of the needle. If the base of the grain, that is, the
part by which it was attached to the stalk when in the
car, remains undamaged in threshing, as in fig. 1, and the
outer husk of it is removed after being soaked in water
for a short time, there will be found lying on the inner
coat a peculiarly formed, mijiute body, which I call the
tuft (fig. 3, t). Separated from the grain, as at fig. 6, it
is seen to consist of a central body of a spongy nature,
furnished with two long arms, which, when considerably
magnified, are resolved into plates of cellular tissue,
furnished with innumerable long silky hairs.

Fig. 8 represents a portion of the extremity of one of
the arms of the tuft.

From careful observation of many grains of barley,
I have found that those which are damaged at their
bases (fig. 2), in other words, whose ends are broken,
seldom or ever contain the tuft ; whilst those grains
which have been more carefully threshed, and whose
ends are perfect, iuvarialjly do. In examining such
grains, after being steeped in water and allowed to
dry, either naturally, or Ijy artificial means, I have
invariably found the tuft to contain amongst its
filaments more or less of moisture, whilst all the rest
of the seed is dry. AVe have then, I believe, in this
minute body one of the essential elements for the
successful cultivation or growth of the seed ; it is,
in fact, a true sucker to the seed, and when its

34 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

position relatively to the embryo is considered, there
can be little doubt that it fulfils the office of drawing
water to the seed; and l)y the capillary attraction
which its numerous delicate filaments offer to that
medium, conveys it upwards to bathe the parts imme-
diately surrounding the embryo.

It is well known that barley-seed communicates
a strono; ting-e of its own colour to water in which it
is steeped. The tuft lies immediately on the inner coat
of the seed, and this coat consists of four layers of
cells charged with coloured matter. By dissolving this,
some peculiar action takes place on the starch of the
albumen, by which the first phenomena of life are
elicited and maintained. Barley - growers, brewers,
maltsters, and distillers, having a special interest in
the careful threshing of the grain, would do well, before
purchasing samples for use, to examine the percentage
of damaged corns it contains by means of a simple lens
and a pair of needles.

The uses of the " needle " are not so apparent. It is
very hard, highly silieated, and clothed with shorter and
less elastic hairs than those on the tuft (Plate 5, fig. 4).

The seed-coats of barley ofier some curious points for
observation (Plate 6, fig. 13). The outer layers of
elongated or fibrous tissue are covered externally with
plates of silica, between which minute holes make their
appearance, these being probably the points to which the
bases of hairs were once attached To these cells succeed
four or five rows of broad, tabular cells, which form the

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. :?.-)

outer coat. The inner one is made up of four or
five rows of long cells \\'itli very tliin walls, forming
a tliin pellicle, which lies on four rows of cells con-
taining much colouring matter. These skins enclose
the large, irregularly-shaped cells, forming the alluimen
in which an abundance of starch is lodged (Plate 5,
fig. 12). The silica plates on the outer layer of cells
separate at their edges, when the grain swells from
moisture (Plate 6, figs. 14, 15).

CocGulus IncUcus (Plate 7, figs. 1 and 2). — In most
illegal companionship with our malt liquors are
frequently found the ground berries of the Cocculus
Indicus, which possess great stupifying and poisoning
power. The plant from which they are produced is a
native of Malabar and Eastern Islands of India, and
its fruit is imported to us in bags from Bombay, jNIadras,
and Ceylon.

Fig. 1 is a berry of the natural size, of a dark brown
colour, and corrugated surface. When examined under
the microscope, after careful dissection, its structure may
be thus described. The exterior skin is composed of three
or four layers of irregularly-shaped cells, with very thick
and dark-coloured walls (Fig. 2, a), overlying the woody
fibres (b) which are interlaced in every direction with
branching ligneous cells and spii'al vessels (sv). Under-
lying these are the double-pointed, channeled, wood
cells, lying horizontally, with others interwoven per-
pendicularly to them [d, g, c) ; and underlying these is
a delicate pellicle formed of rows of delicate thin-wnlli d

T. 2

3G STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

cells {h), which enclose the albumen {e), here seen full of
minute starch grains; at (/) are three cells of the
albumen freed from starch to exhibit the pores on
their surfaces.

Grains of Paradise (Plate 7, figs. 3, 4, 5) find their
legitimate use in the pharmacopoeia of the veterinary
surgeon, but they have been extensively used to give
an artificial strength to spirits, beer, wine, and vinegar
■ — a curious perversion, as it seems to us, of the Afri-
can's favourite spice, with which he seasons his food.
Fio-ure 3 represents a grain magnified six diameters. Its
surface is rough, and shining reddish brown, the thin
end of the corn being of a pale yellow. The outer
coloured skin consists of a series of cells, with curiously
undulating walls, highly coloured, which overlie a series
of thin-walled long cells placed at a right angle to
them. To this succeeds the woody portion of the shell,
consisting of very short, double-pointed, channeled cells
id), amongst which lie the branched ligneous cells {e).
Amongst the woody fibres occur the large coloured oil
reservoirs, or cysts, from which some globules of oil or
resinous matter have been expelled.

Datura Stramonium (Plate 7, figs. 6 and 7), the seed
of the thorn apple, a native of Greece. It is of the
same family as the tobacco plant, and, like it, is
highly narcotic in its properties. Its legitimate use is in
medicine, administered in very minute doses, either
as the dried leaf or powdered grain. Death has resulted
from smoking the leaves. The seed, when finely

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 37

powdered, has been frequently used by desperate cha-
racters for hoccussing or stupefying the intended victim
of a robbery, by surreptitiously adding it to his beer
at the public-house bar.

Plate 7, fig. 6, is a grain twice the size of nature ; fig. 7
is a diagram, viewed superficially, of the structure of the
grain. There is an outer pellicle formed of very thin-walled
elongated cells (o), which overlie the coloured skin (h),
formed of minute irregular cells with very thick walls.
The woody portion (shell)- is composed of rows of delicate
fibres, placed at right angles to each other (c, d), and
amongst these are numerous cysts containing colouring
matter (e). Two layers of cells {/) enclose the square-
shaped cells with very thick walls (g), containing abun-
dance of starch.

Hop-seed (Plate 8, fig. 26), divested of the thin
pellicle that covers it, and which is covered with innu-
merable grains of Lapulite, the bitter principle so
valuable to the brewer, is a greyish conical seed (Plate 6,
fig. 18). We have here only to treat of its structure,
which contrasts very curiously with that of those we
have been examining.

An exterior layer of thick- walled cells (1) ov^erlies
the short double-pointed channeled cells with woody
fibres interlacing them {w), which together form the
hardened (woody) epiderm of the seed. These form
the outer coat (a). Immediately underlying these is a
thin, bright, green pellicle, formed of layers of minute
cells, with bright green contents (8) ; these rest upon

38 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

two sets of elongated cells, one with thick, the other
with thin walls (4, 5) ; at right angles to these, as to
length, are placed a series of rectangular cells, coloured
light brown, which enclose the horny albumen (c 7),
containing much oil.

CHAPTER V. (Plates 6, 7.)

HOPS AND YEAST.

The hop, like the barley plant, originally grew wild,
and has been brought to its present condition of beauty
and fertility, by the care and cultivation which has
for years been bestowed upon it, more especially in
England. It is classed by botanists amongst a tribe of
plants, Urticacece, taking their name from Urticadioica
the common stinging-nettle of our hedgerows. Unlike
the barley plant, it does not bear what are called
perfect flowers, or those which have both stamens and
pistil ; but these organs are borne by different plants,
staminiferous or male, pistiliferous or female.

The seed or nut, when fully ripe, is found at the
base of each of the leafy bracts which compose the
cones or fruit used by the brewer. These cones are
gathered whilst still in a green state, dried on a kiln,
and pressed into bags for the market. It is stated that
the use of hops in beer was not known until Henry
Vni.'s time in 1524, when, the rhyme says,

" Hops, reformation, bays, and beer,
Came into England all in one year."

4:) STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

Six years afterwards the same king forbade brewers to
put into ale hops and sulphur. In the English laws hops
are mentioned for the first time in the fifth year of the
reign of" Edward VL, that is, in 1552, when some
privileges were granted to hop grounds. "\Ye may
therefore safely presume that they have been carefully
cultivated from that time until now, when the best
English hops are considered the finest and most deli-
cately flavoured in the world.

The fruit of the plant (technically called strohilce),
which is so largely used in l^rewing, consists of a series
of delicate green, semi-transparent bracts, attached to a
common stalk (Plate 6, figs. 16, 23), and overlapping at
their edges in a very elegant manner.

The seeds (fig. 18) are minute, flattened, conical,
berries of a light brown colour ; they are attached to the
bases of the bracts, which fold over at their lower edges
to afford them additional support ; and each inner
seed-containing bract is covered by another externally
(fig. 23). Attached to the outer seed-coat is a beautiful
transparent membrane (figs. 19, 24), and on this lie, in
countless numbers, minute golden-coloured oval bodies,
which are the Lupulite so valuable to the brewer.
These granules are abundant on the bracts, especially
at their bases, where the seed is lodg-ed ; thev are also
present in large quantities on the leaves of the plant
(Plate 8, fig. 25).

When one of these granules is placed in water under
the microscope, and a drop of sulphuric or nitric acid is

STRONG DRL\K AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 41

added, it immediately bursts, and the coloured matter
discharged is seen to consist of excessively minute, some-
what spherical, particles of an oily nature, that move
freely and with great rapidity amongst each other with
a tremulous motion (Plate 6, hg. 22). This peculiar
motion may at times be observed in the contents of the
granules before they are broken.

The structure of the bracts is identical with that of
the membrane, viz. a layer of oblong cells with thick
undulating walls (fig. 24), traversed here and there,
where veins occur, with delicate spnal vessels and woody
fibres. Minute hairs, with tuberculated surfaces, are
also present.

A comman practice amongst hop-buyers is to take a
small quantity of the dried hop-fruit, place it in the palm
of one hand, and with three or four knuckles of the
other to chafe and bruise it. The value of the sample is
judged of by the aroma it emits, and the sticky, almost
resinous stains left upon the hand. This is a rough but
effective way of judging both of the number and pro-
duce of the lupulite granules by crushing them. Good
sound hops will yield about one-sixth part of their
weight of these grains ; analysed by the chemist they
are found to contain, besides a volatile oil, no fewer than
thirteen substances, more or less in combination with
each other. But it would appear that to the volatile oil,
soluljl.i in water and alcohol, and the bitter princijilc,
lupulite, the most valuable properties of the fruit
are due.

42 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

Knowing from observ^ation how carefully the lupulitc
granules are lodged on the fruit, I have frequently been
at the pains of examining the "spent hops" on the
refuse heaps at breweries. I have found a large pro-
portion of the granules perfectly intact, that is to say,
not burst, or in any way having yielded their contents ;
and I may safely affirm that, under the present system
adopted at most breweries, of boiling hops without any
further separation of the leaves of the fruit than such as
is eftectcd by that process, not mare than half their
lupulite is made availahle. I am not aware that
any use has been found for hop leaves, but from the
abundance of the lupulite granules on them it is reason-
able to presume that, wdth better knowledge, it will be
found that they are not amongst the things which should
be thrown aside as useless.

There was at one time an interest of a peculiar kind
attaching to the hop plant, one pertaining to the pockets
of the British public. Every one has seen, at some time
or other, the leaves of roses and other trees swarming
with quiet, stupid-looking, green insects, familiar to most
under the name of " blight ;" but called scientifically
plant lice or a^jhides. These creatures have not been
objects of my own special study, but I wall quote a passage
or two relating to them from a most interesting book,
" The Letters of Eusticus," by Mr. Newman, which
contains an admii'able description of these minute
creatures, and how, by their formidable depredations,
they actually at one time controlled a large share of

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKK 43

the national exchequer, at the time when the hop eliity
was levied.

" To this singular tribe belongs the hop fly, an insect
which has more rule over the pockets and tempers of
mankind than any other ; its abundance or scarcity
being almost the only criterion of a scarcity or abundance
in the crops of hops ; and of all articles of merchandise,
the hop is consequently the most variable in price.
Owing to the interest taken in the crop of hops, much
more close attention has been paid to the hop fly than to
any other insect, and you find men conversant with its
habits who would blush if you were to suppose them
possessed of enough natural history to know the name
of the commonest beetle or even bird ; but let me
assure those that there is nothing derogatory to their
manhood, their common sense, or their dignity, in
knowing somethino' of the works of nature. I never

O o

met with an individual who was the worse man for
it. I don't go myself the length of some of your
contributors, who measure the joints of an insect's
ears, as Professor Kennie called them. But perhaps
even this is necessary to acquire an accurate knowledge
of each kind.

" The hop counties are Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Wor-
cester, and Hereford, The produce of these are termed
on the market, Kent, Sussex, Farnham, and Worcester
hops. The Farnham are invariably the highest priced,
and the Sussex the lowest. The Worcester hops never
come on the London market, and have a price of their

44 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

o\\'n which is not much iufluencecl by the general price,
as no hops are ever, or very rarely indeed, introduced to
supply a deficiency of the Worcester crop should that
fail. The hop affords scope for the speculator in two
ways : first, the hop itself ; secondly, the hop duty. The
last is the subject of betting to a very large amount
annually.

" The old duty on hops is 10s. Qd. per cent. ; the new
duty, imposed in 1802, is 125. 7d., making with the
fractions 23s. id. ; in 1805, 4,9. 9>d. per cw^t. was reduced,
so that the actual duty paid is 18s. 8c?. per cw^t. In
betting on the duty the old duty is always understood,
and so generally adopted is this mode of expressing the
probability of a crop by the betted duty, that the common
question is, ' AVhat is the duty laid at ? ' and as the duty
falls the price of hops of course rises, and vice versa.
This duty is, however, too much guided by a few men in
the Borough, who frequently rise and fall it to answer
their own purposes ; yet, as the day of joicking ap-
proaches, the near correspondence of the betted duty and
the old duty actually paid is truly surprising. In the
year 1802, on the 14th of May, the old duty was laid at
£100,000 ; the fly, however, appearing pretty plentifully
towards the end of the month, it sunk to £80,000 ; the
fly increased, and by the end of June the duty had gone
down to £60,000; by the end of July to £30,000 ; hy
the end of August to £22,000, and by the end of
December to £14,000 ; the duty actually paid this year
was £15,403 10s. 5f/.

STRONG BRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 45

"111 182G the summer was remarkably dry nnd hot;
we could hardly sleep at night with the sheets on ;
the thermometer for several nights continued above
70° all the night through ; the crop of hops was
immense, scarcely a fly was to be found, and the
betted duty, which began in May at £120,000, rose
to £2G5,000 ; the old duty actually paid was
£269,331 Os. del, the gross duty £468,401 IQs. Id,
being the largest amount (until then) ever known.
From this it will appear that in duty alone a little
insignificant-looking fly has control over £450,000
annual income to the British Treasury ; and supposing
the hop grounds of England capable of paying this
duty annually, which they certainly are, it is very
manifest that in 1825 these creatures were the means
of robbing the Treasury of £426,000. This seems a
large sum, but it is not one-twentieth part of the
sums gained and lost by dealers during the year in
question.

" The hop fly makes its first appearanpe generally
about the 12th of May, sometimes two days earlier,
but almost invariably between the 10th q,nd the 30tli ;
and it is worth noticing that it usually appears on the
same day in the four districts of Kent, Sussex, Farn-
ham and Worcester. It always makes its appearance
in the winged state. If the weather is warm, with
mild, kind rains, during the last twenty days of May
these flies begin to produce young ones, which are
very small, and are called dep(mt, or hills. These

46 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SJfOKF.

grow very fast, and in a few days become green lice,
whicli is merely a larger form of the same animal.
These lice very soon begin to breed, and so keep on
knits and lice, knits and Uce only, to so great an
extent as to destroy the plant, when they appear to
die with it. I have never found that the deposit of
the hop fly leaves the plant at all, or ever becomes a
fly while there ; in this respect differing from the
aphis of the rose, guelder-rose, bean, &c. Frequently,
when the weather in May has been dry and cold and
windy, the fly has been known to leave the plant
and entirely disappear, even after remaining several
days. The direction of the wind has nothing what-
ever to do with their first appearance ; liut in a warm
westerly wind they will take flight most readily, and
be thus distril3uted.

" You will never find a plant of any kind infested
with the aphis, without also observing a number of
ants and lady-birds among them, and also a queer-
looking insect like a fat lizard, whicli is, in fiict, the
caterpillar of the lady-bird. The connexion of the
ants and the aphis is of the most peaceful kind that
can be conceived : their object is the honey-dew whicli
the aphis emits ; and far from hurting the animal
which aff"ords them this pleaso-nt food, they show it
the greatest possible attention and kindness, licking it
all over with their little tongues, and fondling it and
patting it and caressing it with their antennae in the
kindest, prettiest way imaginable. Not so the lady-

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO S.VOh'/:. 47

bird, or its lizard-like caterpillar : these feed on the
' hU(jhts' most voraciously, a single grub clearing a
leaf, on which were forty or more, in the course of
a day. The perfect lady-bird is a decided enemy to
them,' but not so formidable a one as the grub. The
eggs of the lady-bird may often be seen oii the hop-
leaf ; they are yellow, and five or six in a cluster
placed on their ends ; these should on no account
be destroyed (as is too often the case), Irat, on the
contrary, every encouragement should be given to so
decided a friend to the hop-grower."

Such is ]\lr. Newman's brief and lucid account of
the hop fly, and after reading it, one cannot feel
surprised that science, applied to the cultivation of
the hop, has not as yet supplied the means of subdu-
ing this troublesome pest. Of late years, the inability
of the hop-growers to pay the duty led to those frequent
interviews with the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the
Treasury for a further instalment of credit for payment
of the duty ; which, owing to its variable nature, was
finally abandoned.

YEAST.

According to Pereira, it was only in the year 1835
that the true vegetable nature of yeast was determined,
by a French chemist, Cagniard-Latour. Until his re-
searches were made into the nature of ferments, strong
doubts were entertained whether the plant was not

48 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

a microscopic infusorium ; although so far back as
1680 the great Leeiiwenlioek had both figured and
described it as a plant.

If a small portion of fresh yeast is placed on a slip
of glass under the microscope, and fed with a moderately
strong solution of sugar or saccharine matter, such as
fresh worts, it will exhibit a singular appearance.
It is composed of a series of cells with minute dots
or nuclei contained within them, and they are so
transparent that the cells can be seen through over-
lying one another. After being in the brewer's worts
an hour or so, these cells begin to germinate by a pro-
cess of buddino;. In the course of about three hours
the younger cells have attained to the dimensions of
then- parents, and in about eight hours they begin to
form into filaments. At the end of three days they
become branched.

Turpin states that in the brewing of 14 butts of beer,
in which 35 pounds of dried yeast had been used, 212
pounds of new yeast were produced ; in other words,
the plants had multiplied to 605 times their original
quantity, an astonishing iiicrease for the short jperiod
occupied in their production.

There is, however, a difference in the appearance
between what is known as top yeast and bottom yeast,
when viewed under the microscope. The former consists
of large cells, at the extremities of which small ones
are developed ; it would, therefore, appear to be pro-
duced by a process of Inidding of individual cells. A

STROyCr hniNK and tobacco smoke. 49

temperature of 77° appears to be most favom*al»le to
its oTowtli. Bottom yeast does not present tliis appear-
ance of budding, tlie cells multiplying most rapidly at
a temperature between 32° and 48° F.

Ale yeast is generally considered the l)est and
strongest, and is preferred by bakers. Porter yeast is
used in distilleries. There is a very curious fact vouched
for by the importers of German and Dutch yeast, and
that is that mechanical injury kills or destroys it ; it is
for this reason imported in bags placed in baskets, and
if these be allowed to fall violently on the ground the
yeavSt is spoiled. Yeast thus injured may be distin-
guished by its dark colour ; and from being crumbly
or powdery, it becomes soft and glutinous, and sticks
to the fingers like flour-paste. Its appearance under
the microscope remains unaltered.

When yeast, or the yeast plant, is added to a saccharine
solution, such as brewers' worts, a singular and violent
action takes place, during which the plant multiplies
itself, as we have seen, prodigiously. At the same time,
the saccharine matter of the worts becomes decomposed
during the growth and multiplication of the plant ; and
its elements, carl3on, hydrogen, and oxygen, re-arrange
themselves and become alcohol, carbonic acid gas, and
water. This process is known as fGrmentation, and
requires simply the addition of yeast to a saccharine
solution to produce it.

No very satisfactory solution has yet been arrived at
of the exact nature of the forces set in motion by the

E

50 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

presence of a plaut of the very lowest type of organiza-
tion when placed in a medium which forms, as it were,
its proper food. The chemist can evolve carbonic acid
gas from marble, and he can produce water by the com-
bination of its elements, hydrogen and oxygen ; but by
no process yet known can he combine carbon and
hydrogen with oxygen, in proportions to produce
alcohol, excepting by the agency of the yeast plant
placed in a saccharine solution.

i

CHAPTER VT.

MALT, BEER, SPIRIT.

Setting aside skill in process of manufacture, malt, beer,
and spirits depend for their production mainly on the
exertion of the vital forces with which barley and
other seeds are endowed, and the peculiar properties of
the yeast plant.

I have before spoken of the wonderful vigour ex-
hibited by barley seeds when placed in favourable cir-
cumstances. Indeed, we have only to steep the grain
in cold water for a few hours to convince ourselves
of the change this simple medium is enabled to exert
upon it in a short time. The maltster, in converting
barley into malt, strives to imitate as closely as possible
the natural growth of the seed when placed in soil, and
for this purpose he has to supply it with moisture and
a certain degree of warmth. The first of these objects
is attained by steeping the grain in cold water for about
fifty hours, changing the water once during this interval.
At the completion of this stage of the process the grain

E 2

52 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

is found to have lost its light colour, to have swollen
considerably, and to have become comparatively soft.

The water is next drained from the grain, which is
now removed to a four-sided rectangular frame (for
the purpose of being charged with duty by the revenue
officers) to a depth varying from ten to thirty inches.
From this frame it is removed in a few hours to the
working floor (a level surface of slate, tiles, or stucco),
and laid thick and close so as to preserve the heat
evolved by germination, which has now actively com-
menced. Small white pips will, in a few days, make
their appearance at one end of the grain, whilst on
its back a raised protuberance underlying the husk
will be seen lengthening itself from day to day.

It is now the maltster's special care, by turning the
grain on the floor, spreading it thickly or thinly, to
regulate its temperature, so as to obtain a thoroughly
even growth throughout the floor, a result which is made
more certain of attainment by sprinkling the grain with
water. AVhen the rootlets extend beyond the grain
some half an inch in length, and the plumule extends to
about three-fourths of its length (Plate 2, fig. 2) the
germination or growth of the grain may be considered
sufficiently advanced, and at this stage is arrested by
throwing it into a chamber of hot air provided with
a tiled floor, perforated with minute holes. The heat
of this chamber (the kiln) is maintained by a fire of
charcoal, wood, or coke, placed underneath, and is
gradually raised as the water escapes from the grain

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 53

as steam, wliicli finds its way throiigii the roof, usually
furnished with a wooden dome, which turns with the
wind. In projoortion to the briskness of the kiln fire,
and the skill with which the grain has been turned
during this process of drying, will much of the value
of the malt depend.

Pale malt is generally dried at a temperature of
140° to 150° F. The darker kinds, used for highly
coloured beer and porter, are known as " amher " malt,
and "snapped" malt, these being obtained by drying
at a temperature varying from 185° to 210° F. To
produce the latter description of malt the kiln fire is
fed with wood only (dry oak or elm being preferred
for this purpose), and by increasing the draught of
the kiln fire, the flames are made to reach the perforated
tiles on which the malt rests. Whilst thus heated, the
malt is laid very thin and kept continually stirred by
the workmen, and as each grain becomes gradually
scorched, the husk bursts with a snapping noise ; hence
its name. Eoasted malt is prepared by roasting the
paler descriptions of malt in cylinders before a strong
fire, until it becomes black. In this condition it is
used merely for giving a dark colour to porter and
stout.

In the manufacture of j9ct^e/i^ or crystallized malt,
barley of inferior quality is generally used, and the
process of malting it is conducted in the same way as
for making ordinary malt, excepting that the grain,
whilst working on the floor, is more plentifully supplied

54 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

mth water, and tlie germination of the grain is carried
to a greater extent, the process being continued until
the future stem extends the whole length of the grain.
In some cases it is allowed to grow until it bursts the
husk, and extends to the length of half an inch or
more beyond it.

The drying apparatus consists of an oven, having
closely fitted ii'on doors. This contains an iron cylinder
covered with Avire gauze, which is fixed in the oven
and so arranged that it can be readily withdrawn for
filling or emptying. A rotatory motion is given to the
cylinder by means of machinery, and it is so placed
that, when at rest, one side of it is exposed to the
action of a coke fire placed at one side of the oven.
The process of drying consists in charging the cylinder
Avith the germinated barley, allowing ample space for
the free motion of the grains ; it is then made to rotate
on its axis slowly, so that every part of its surface
becomes in turn exposed to the action of the fire. The
process of drying occupies about three hours, and when
successfully conducted the grain is found to have
increased in size, and to have assumed a beautiful
amber colour ; internally the contents have become
highly ^crystalline in structure, possessing a remarkably
sweet, aromatic taste. Brewers have found patent malt
a valuable addition when used in small quantities with
ordinary malt.

Competent authorities state that during the con-
version of barley into malt one-fifth of its original

STRONG BRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 55

weight, or twenty per cent., is lost. Of tliis two per
cent, is dissolved out in the process of steeping the
grain, two per cent, more is given off during the
early stages of fermentation in the form of carbonic
acid gas. In the process of kiln-drying four per cent,
loss occurs by the death and falling away of the
rootlets, and twelve per cent, more by the evaporation
of the moisture which the grain has absorbed. A
good sample of barley skilfully worked in malting
will yield an increase in bulk of about five per cent.

In outward appearance malt differs from barley in
the greater fulness of the grains, and by the appear-
ance of a " bloom " upon their outer husks, which
replaces the brighter golden hue observable on the
grains of barley before being steeped in water. Inter-
nally the contents of malt grains should be extremely
white and friable, and possess an almost aromatic
sweetness ; and the ends through which the rootlets
once protruded will be found to be distinctly perforated.

The chano;es brouo;ht about in the conversion of
barley into malt are best exemplified when malt is
crushed and submitted to the action of hot water
by the brewer or distiller. Then, instead of the turbid,
milky solution which crushed barley yields by this
treatment, we have a transparent and sweet solution,
perfectly palatable ; and it is of this solution, technically
called " worts," that the brewer and distiller manu-
facture "our strong drink."

A peculiar principle, called diastase, is evolved in the

56 STROXG DRTNK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

process of malting barley, and on its production much
of the value of malt depends, A part of the starch
which barley contains is converted, by the influence of
the diastase, into grape sugar. And when brought into
contact with the meal of other grain, such as oats, &c.,
in the presence of hot water, diastase has the power
of converting the starch of the raw grain also into
grape sugar, and it thus saccliarizes, or sweetens, the
whole mass.

In the manufacture of beer the use of raw grain is
prohibited by law, but the brewer obtains his worts,
as they are called, by bruising the malt, adding to it
hot water at 150° to 180° F., whilst stirring the mixture.
To this solution when cold he acids the hops, either in
infusion or as they come from the grower, concentrates
the whole mixture by boiling, and when sufficiently
cooled he adds the yeast as a ferment, and when fer-
mentation has proceeded to a given point he checks it.
The distiller places both crushed malt and crushed
grain (oats most frequently) in his mash tun, adds
warm water, and keeps the whole thoroughly stirred.
"When the wort so obtained has sufficiently cooled,
which requires to be rapidly clone, he dispenses with
hops, but adds yeast as a ferment. This fermenta-
tion he drives to its utmost limit, — his endeavour
beinof to convert all the saccharine matter of the
wort into alcohol, and this alcohol is separated from
the wash as it is called by distillation, a process now
to be briefly described.

1 0 Taxe. u :,b-

STRONG DRINK JND TOBACCO S3I0KE. 57

DISTILLATION.

The ordinary metliod of distilling Distillers' Wash,
and the only one formerly practised, is by boiling
it in a closely-covered copper vessel, the head of
which is attached to a pipe of considerable length,
surrounded by cold water. In this pipe the impure
vapour of spirit, called " Low Wines," is condensed in a
receiver, and again subjected to the same process to
extract the pure spirit. By this process there are four
different products obtained by two distillations : in the
first, a very impure spirit distils over, known as Low
AVines, which has a most nauseous smell and taste.
After being collected in a receiver, this is again dis-
tilled, the product being a tolerably pure spirit and
an essential oil, called Feints ; and a fourth product,
in not very abundant quantity, Fusel oil.

Of late years the practice of distilling by steam
with " Coffey's Apparatus " has become very common ;
it is a very interesting process, and will be easily
understood on reference to the illustration. The appa-
ratus consists essentially of two large upright wooden
or iron boxes, divided at intervals into compartments
by a series of perforated copper plates (represented
by the dotted lines), called the Analyser and the
Rectijier. Each plate of the analyser is, in addition,
furnished with a pipe {p), inserted into it and rising

58 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

a few inches above its surface ; the other end of it
dips into a shallow cup (c) on the plate beneath.

The rectifier is similarly furnished with dipping pipes
and cups ; but, in addition to these, a closed metal
pipe of great length is inserted conthiuously between
every compartment by being bent upon itself as it
enters each of them.

The wash being in readiness, and the steam in the
boiler in sufficient c[uantity to work at a pressure of
from 6 to 7 lbs. to the square inch, the wash is
forced, by means of a pump, into the pipe which
leads from the inteynnediate wash charger to the top
of the rectifier, in the direction of the arrow. It
passes through this pipe for its entire length, and
through each bend of it, until it at length reaches
the top of the analyser, on to which it is discharged.
When it has fallen on this plate in sufficient quantity
to fill the cup, and has risen to the height of the
orifice of the dipping p>ipe, it fiows through this to
the plate beneath, and so on in succession downwards
from plate to plate.

Whilst the flow of wash is thus proceeding in one
direction through the metal pipe, steam is let in at
the bottom of the analyser, and rises through each
perforated plate. Coming in contact with the wash
which is on it, the steam combines with the impure
spirit of the wash (low wdnes vapour), and conveys
it through the pipe at the top of the analyser down
to the bottom of the rectijier. Here, in rising, it

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 59

meets with the surfaces of the pipe containing the
descending wash, and as these surfaces are necessarily
coklest at the top (because there exposed less to the
heating effect of the rising vapour), they act as more
powerful condensers than the lower ones in separating
the vapour of water from the spirit and the feints.
So much of the spirit and feints vapours as are not
condensed at the plate to which the spirit pipe is
attached are so either at the top of the rectifier from
which they fall to the spirit plate, or else pass on as
vapour to the refrigerator, where they are condensed
into the liquid state and collected in separate vessels.
Whilst the process is going on, the feints fall from
plate to plate of the rectifier in a condensed state, and
are collected through a syphon pipe passing from the
bottom of the rectifier to the hot feints receiver. From
this vessel they are pumped up through a pipe and
discharged nearly on to the top plate of the analyser,
and are redistilled from the down-flowing wash, with
w^hich they mix. As the wash in the analyser becomes
deprived of its spirit, or " spent " as it is called, it
passes to the spent-wash tank, from which it is deli-
vered to be used as a useful drink for cows and pigs.
The real merits of this very ingenious contrivance
are a saving of time, labour, and fuel, and in addition
a more complete separation of the spirit from its im-
purities and from water. The time and labour attached
to a second distillation (the low wines), as in the
ordinary still, are both saved, the comparatively low

60 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

temperature of the wash in the rectifier acts as a refri-
gerator on the spirit and feints vapours, whilst, on the
other hand, the heat of this vajDour in the analyser
warms the descending wash, and causes it more readily
to part with its spirit.

It has the additional merit of separating the spirit
from the wash more effectually than by the common
method. This is due to the fact that all the wash is
brought into contact with the steam in the analyser,
and such of the products as are condensed in the
rectifier, as '' hot feints," are again subject to the action
of the steam.

Coffey's apparatus is capable of producing spirit with
only four and a half per cent, of water mixed with it ;
and when in good working order can exhaust from two
to three thousand gallons of wash per hour, producing
a spirit of a imiform strength, ranging from sixty-five
to sixty-seven per cent, over-proof.

Mr. Young, of the Inland Eevenue, states that "the
quantity of spirits which may be produced from the
several materials used by distillers depends very much
upon the quality of the respective materials ; but it
may be assumed that, on an average, —

1 quarter of Barley Malt will yield 1 8 gallons at proof.
1 „ Malt and Grain „ 20

1 cwt. of Sugar „ 10

1 „ Molasses „ 7

1 „ Rice „ 7|

1 ton of Beetroot „ 15

w

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STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE 6i

Proof spirit is merely an arbitrary standard of
strength, adopted by the Legislature in laying the
duty. It means that distilled water at 51° Fahrenheit
being considered as unity, an equal measure of proof
spirit shall weigh twelve-thirteenths of such water.

The following table will show the quantities of spirit
in gallons, at proof, which have been manufactured in
the United Kingdom in each year for the last ten
years.

Scotch and Irish whiskies, whether made from pure
malt, or malt and grain, are the direct product of dis-
tilled wash, with water added to decrease their strength.
English spirit of similar manufacture is generally used
for rectifying or redistilling with juni^yer berries,
carraivay and other seeds, for the production of gin,
or for compounding with various ingredients in the
manufacture of British brandy and cordials.

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CHAPTER YII.

TOBACCO AND SOME OTHER LEAVES.

If the reader has mastered the detail of the foregoing
chapters, he will find what follows of some use, should
he care to analyse for himself the tobacco which he
smokes or chews, or the snuif which he uses.

Most of the tobacco leaves imported into this country
arrive packed in large hogsheads, in which after packing
they are submitted to an enormous pressure. They
rarely suff*er any injury in this process, and for purjDOses
of microscopic analysis are, after steeping in water,
nearly as useful as if green and freshly plucked. Com-
paring the margins of any tobacco leaves with those of
other plants we shall find them entire, that is, even
and unbroken (Plate 9, fig. 1), unlike the borders of
other leaves cut into toothed notches, or into rounded
segments, or into larger segments like the dandelion leaf.
American, German, Dutch, and most of the tobacco
leaves of cormnerce are without stalks, being attached
to the stem of the plant by the midrib, or large central
vein ; and this is a very marked character which they

«^^

5>

64 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

possess. So that if we found in our cigar a portion
of a leaf, either possessing a stalk or a divided margin,
we should safely conclude that we had alighted upon
an adulteration.

Moreover, the midiib of tobacco in section presents
(as in " bird's-eye" cut tobacco) a horse-shoe form (Plate

9, fig. 5), in which the ivoody or Jibrous tissue lies as
a central mass, surrounded by the cellular tissue. In
this latter character it closely resembles foxglove (Plate

10, fig. 5), but this last differs from it in the ivoody
tissue being curved upwards at the ends, and the margin
of the section, more particularly on its upper surface,
havino' strono; and decided curves.

In all the leaves with which tobacco is, or is likely to
be adulterated, the woody tissues of their midribs, or
stalks, lie in separate detached bundles, as will be readily
seen on comparing Plate 9, figs. 8 and 11, and Plate 10,
figs. 2, 5, and 8, with Plate 9, fig. 5.

The forms of the leaves of dock (Plate 9, fig. 9),
burdock (Plate 9, fig. 6), chicory (Plate 10, fig. 1), fox-
glove, and comfrey (Plate 10, fig. 4), with the trans-
verse-vertical sections of their midribs, are given in
Plates 9 and 10. The peculiar characters of the leaves
will be evident on inspection ; those of the sections of
the midribs consisting of diSerences in the forms of
their outlines, Avhether plain, more or less grooved or
lobed, and the general form and distribution of the
woody tissues of each amongst the cellular tissue.

Compare, for instance, the forms of the leaves of

STROXO DB.INK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 65

burdock and dock (plants growing wikl nearly every-
wkere in Britain, and to be had for the plucking),
or either of tliese, again, with comfrey ; and all three
with the tobacco leaf. Observe the forms of their
bases, points, and margins, and. the characteristic dis-
tinctions of them will be immediately apparent.

Take a portion of the midrib of each leaf, and cut a
very thin slice of it at a right angle to its length, and
compare them with each other under the microscope
with an object glass of low power. The differences
of these will be seen in the general forms of their
outlines, whether plain, grooved, or lobed, and the shape
and distribution of the ivoody amongst the cellular
tissues. Notice, more especially, the general outlines
and upper surfaces of the midrib sections of dock (Plate
9, fig. 11), and burdock (Plate 9, fig. 8), and the marked
characters which distinguish them from that of tobacco
(Plate 9, fig. 5) or comfrey (Plate 10, fig. 5). Those
of cliicorij (Plate 10, fig. 2) and foxglove are as de-
cidedly marked.

Carrying our analyses still further, by adding greater
power to the microscope, our leaves furnish us with
invaluable and infalliljle evidence in the minute hairs
with which their surfaces are clothed, and which, from
their delicacy and pliability, elude the grinding action of
the snuff'-mill. These hairs are attached to, and grow
on the skins of the upper and under surfaces of leaves,
their micMbs and veins, lying scattered in greater or
less a.l)undance amongst the stomates or breathing-pores

F

66 STRONG BRINE AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

of these parts. The tobacco leaf is furnished with
two forms of hairs, long and short. The former are
composed of three or four elongated cells, joined end to
end, the whole surmounted by a cluster of minute cells,
forming a gland which contains a rich brown colouring
matter. These are called glandular hairs, and they
have a pair, sometimes more, cells forming a compound
base. The short hairs are unicellular, with a cluster of
cells at one end, also containinoj colourins^ matter. I
call these hairs club-shaj^ed ; their bases are simple
(Plate 9, figs. 2, 3, 4).

The leaves of dock are furnished with peculiar club-
shaped unicellular hairs, free from colouring matter,
but having their surfaces marked with peculiar wavy
lines (striated), formed by a wrinkling, as it were, of
thin cell walls (Plate 9, fig. 10). This is a very marked
feature of them ; equally so is the presence on the skin of
the blade, or thin portion of the leaf, of numerous circular
cavities (glands), composed of clusters of cells built into
the substance of the leaf, forming minute chambers con-
taining crystals of oxalate of lime (raphides) (Plate 9,
fig. 12). The hairs described are found mostly on the
midribs and veins of the leaves, the glands on the
leaf-blades.

Leaves of the hiirdock plant are covered on their
under surfaces with a dense, greenish- white, woolly
substance. AVhen a minute portion of the skin to which
this is attached is separated from the leaf, this woolliness
is resolved by the microscope into a mass of very beau-

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 67

tiful transparent hairs, each composed of a string, or
bead, of square-shaped cells, joined together ; these
gradually diminish in size towards the end of the hair,
which terminates in a slender, transparent filament of
very great length. The bases of these hairs are
compound (Plate 9, fig. 7).

The leaves of the chicory plant have a peculiar interest
in connexion with the subject of tobacco adulteration.
Some years ago, tons of these leaves steeped in tar oil
were seized in Ireland by the revenue officers on the
premises of a cigar maker, by whom they had been
freely used as '\fillers" for pure Havannahs, and so
good was the sophistication, that many practical men
were actually deceived by them. When the leaves were
unrolled their margins (Plate 10, fig. 1) at once told
a tale, and when their skins were stripped and examined
under the microscope they told another, for attached to
them were discovered an abundance of minute hairs, as
unlike those on the tobacco leaf as could be well imagined.
For about a third of its length each hair is composed
of a number of oblong cells, laid side to side, and end
to end ; these gradually lessen in number until they
form a row of single cells joined together, the hair
being finished by a single cell, curiously curved. A
cluster of cells form a compound base to each hair
(Plate 10, fig. .3).

Among the simplest forms of hairs are those which
form the peculiar down on the under surfaces oi fox-
glove leaves. They are simple filaments of single oblong

F 2

68 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

cells, joined end to end, ending occasionally with a
single oval cell, perfectly colourless, but more frequently
with one that is slightly curved, like that of chicory.
It is, however, readily distinguished from that hair by
the form and structure at its base and lower series of
cells ; but, like it, the foxglove hair has a compound
base.

Another of our wild plants, comfrey (Plate 10, fig. 6),
found growing on hedge-banks and in marshy places, is
furnished with two forms of hair, both of them very
singular in their appearance. On this leaf are a pro-
fusion of unicellular hairs, with compound bases, and
very sharp points, the whole surface of the hair being
wrinkled or striated (as we found in doch but much
more coarsely). This is the first instance we have seen of
a single-celled hair with a compound base, which in this
instance is very prominent. The length and sharp point
of this hair readily distinguish it from the club-shaped
ones of doch The second form of hair on comfrey leaf
is also single-celled and curved, ending in a sharp point,
which gives it a form somewhat resembling a fish-hook.
The surfaces of these hairs are not striated, and their
bases are simple.

The leaf of the Jerusalem artichoke furnislies in
abmidance examples of beautiful compound haii^s with
recurved points and compound bases ; their surfaces being
covered with minute warts (Plate 10, fig. 9). The student
may usefully compare the horizontal section of the midrib
of this leaf; first, with that of chicory, which it most

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 69

resembles, and, next with those previously illustrated. 1
think it will be difficult to find amongst natural objects
better examples of exquisite gradations of form and
structure than these wayside weeds do furnish.

For the purpose of studying the forms and characters
of these hairs under the microscope, the epidermis, or
skin of the leaf is detached from the main rib of veins
on the under side of the leaf by gently cutting it with
a very sharp knife-blade, raising the edge of the skin
with a pair of delicate forceps, and peeling it off in a
lateral direction. Or, if the skin of the leaf-blade is
required, by making a slight incision at that point where
the blade joins a vein or midrib. The delicate mem-
brane thus obtained is carefully placed in water on a
glass slide covered with thin glass, and, if necessary, a
drop of caustic potash added to the water by means of
a glass rod to remove impurities.

To examine the structure internally, a piece of it
is inserted between two pieces of cork ; these are then
placed face to face and inserted into the mouth of a
glass tube. After moistening the cork with water, thin,
transverse, vertical sections may be obtained by using
a very sharp razor, or, what is better, one of the fine
knives used by surgeons in delicate dissections and
operations on the eye.

Sections thus obtained will resemble, according to
their thickness, the loosely aggregated cells of the
tobacco leaf (Plate 9, fig. 4), or those more compactly
arranged, as in the leaf of the hop.

70 STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE.

In both these sections the cells containing green
colouring matter, the intercellular cavities of the leaf,
the external stomates, and the epidermis with hairs
attached, are well seen.

Snuff, whether moist or high dried, should consist of
nothing but the tobacco leaves (with or without midribs)
in a fairly divided state, being reduced to powder after
undergoing the processes of fermentation, and, in the
manufacture of high-dried snufl', of roasting.

Starches of the cereals, pea-meal, bran, sawdust of
various woods, malt rootlets, fustic, oxides of iron and
lead, and ground glass, have formed at various times
favourite adulterations with unprincipled tradesmen.
In a certain part of Ireland, which shall be nameless,
the acorn-cup of a large species of oak, Valonia, grow-
ing on the shores of the Mediterranean, have been
extensively used in the adulteration of high-dried snuff.
It need not be supposed that they were introduced into
the country solely for this purpose, their proj^er applica-
tion being in the tanner's pit, where they are very
valuable. On the principle, I presume, that they would
form a difficult ingredient to find a name for, even
with a powerful microscope, they were freely used for
a time, until detection and punishment put an end to
the speculation. I have given a figure of the microscopic
structure of the Valonia acorn-cup at Plate 8, fig. 27,
and of the liairs with which it is covered externally. It
partakes largely of the peculiar characters which distin-
guish the structure of our fruit-stones, and like them,

STRONG DRINK AND TOBACCO SMOKE. 71

contains an abundance of very thick walled, porous cells,
lying scattered or in masses amongst cellular tissue.
No such cells as these exist anywhere in the tobacco
leaf or plant, and they are so characteristic as to pro-
claim at once theii* nature, if not their exact origin.
The hairs are simple hollow filaments, and are occa-
sionally branched.

It is unnecessary, even if space permitted, to allude
further to snufi" adulterations. It is sufficient to have
named them for the purpose of showing the student in
what direction to look for the purpose of observing and
detecting them.

Any student wishing to gain an elementary knowledge
of j)lant structure, cannot, I think, do better than follow
me in this analysis of " Our Strong Drink and Tobacco
Smoke."

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES.

PLATE 1.

PLATE I.

1. A representation in miniature of an inflated sheep bladder.

2. Part of same cut across its length,

3. A collection of same supposed to be held together.

4. A vegetable cell with two rings formed in its interior.

5. Another, with six rings.

6. Four cells super-imposed, united to form a tube.

7. Dotted ducts.

8. A vegetable vessel with deposit formed on its interior in a spiral

curve.

9. Spiral vessels from leaf veins.

0. A reticulated vessel.

1. A scalariform duct.

2. A double-pointed wood cell.

3. A square-ended wood cell.

4. A collection of same as tissue.

5. A pitted cell from a deal shaving.

6. A part of a single-pointed wood fibre.

7. A branched wood fibre.

8. A pointed ditto.

9. A branched fibre from woody portion of a seed-coat.

20. An oblong cell from skin of leaf.

21. Two irregularly-shaped cells from skin of leaf

22. Two irregularly-shaped cells from the skin of Cocciilus Iiidicus.

23. A cell with wavy outline, from skin of leaf, under side.

24. Kidney-shaped cells from skin of leaf forming a stoma.

25. Same viewed in vertical section.

PLATE II.

FIG.

I. A grain of Barley n. s. with the husks removed from lower end to

show the embryo.
2 to 8. Grains of barley in different stages of development

(growth) when placed in moist earth : 4 to 1 6 days.
9. A diagram of the young barley plant.

10. A young rootlet greatly magnified, showing the cap or sucker.

11. A young newly-formed leaf with strap, s.

12. A portion of a fully-developed leaf of barley : s, stalk, st, strap,

b, blade.

13. A minute portion of a leaf blade cut transverse-vertically and

highly magnified, showing the position of the parallel veins
{v) of the leaf.

14. A horizontal section of barley stem (straw), highly magnified.

The inner circle represents a section of the growing point of
stem, wood bundles in both.

15. A vertical section of the same.

1 6. A minute portion of skin of young straw with hairs developing,

highly magnified.

PLATE 2.

PLATE 3.

PLATE III.

17. A barley plant, n. s. : ^, swelling caused by contained inflorescence.

18. Part of same divided down the centre, showing the size and

position of inflorescence {g) : a, and b, nodes of the stem.

19. The same highly magnified, showing the divisions of the in-

florescence into undeveloped {a), and developing {c) portions :
these last will form the future flowers, b is the growing point
of the stem just separated from the last-formed node.

20. 1? florescence in a very rudimentary condition, highly magnified.

21. Further development of same into lobed masses.

22. More advanced inflorescence : in which the lobes are seen forming

divisions amongst themselves.

23. One of the lobes developed into a perfect floAver : c, stem,

a a, lateral florets, b b d outer, and e inner coats of flower.

24. Ovary (^) and one stamen (<?), separated : s, styles with feathery

stigmas, on which a pollen granule has fallen.

PLATE IV.

FIG.

25. A vertical section of mature barley straw, highly magnified,

showing the dark woody bundles of spiral and other vessels
amongst the elongated fibrous cells. The central portion
(pith) is not renewed, the stem therefore becomes hollow.

26. A portion of silicated epidermis or skin from mature stem,

showing the curved prickly hairs, highly magnified.

27. A portion of the epidermis of a leaf without hairs.

28. A minute portion of a very young awn, with spiral vessels

(z'), and {Ji) young hairs developing.

29. A diagram showing the position of the inflorescence relatively

to the surrounding leaves : a, the oldest leaf; b c, those next
formed.

30. Portion of (e) barley ear, showing the lateral supports {ss) by

which each grain is protected.

31. Pollen granules, enormously magnified.

PLATE 4.

PLATE 5.

PLATE V.

FIG.

1. A grain of barley greatly magnified, showing the small hard

body n — the needle — at the base of the grain covering the
folds of the outer skin.

2. Another (damaged) grain. The outer seed-coat (//) has been

raised to show the manner in which it separates with force,
the central portion being cut away; hh, is the inner coat.
The " needle " in this specimen was wanting.

3. Another (perfect) grain, in which is present a peculiar minute

body overlying the inner coat — the tuft, t : h and h h as in
previous figure.

4. The ?ieedle, greatly magnified.

5. Hard silicated hairs from its borders, highly magnified,

6. The tuft removed from base of grain : W7v, wings ; s, spongiole.

7. The position of the tuft (/) relatively to the embryo {e) when the

grain is cut across : a, albumen of the seed ; hh, outer seed-coat.

8. A minute portion of wing of tuft highly magnified, showing the

cellular tissue to which the long delicate filaments are
attached.

9. Section of seed through the embryo (e), highly magnified :

s, seed-coats ; a, albumen deprived of starch.

10. Horizontal section of upper or leaf portion of embryo.

11. Ditto, of portion forming rootlets.

1 2. Starch granules from albumen of seed, greatly magnified.

PLATE VI.

FIG.

13. Seed coats of barley seeds, a, the outer one formed of three

layers of cells : i. the tabular silicated cells of the epiderm ;
2. the elongated fibrous cells underlying these; 3. the tabufer
thick-walled cells lying across and under these, b^ the inner
coat, consisting of, 4. a delicate pellicle formed of long very
thin-walled cells, overlying four or five rows of cells ; 5. with
thick walls containing brown colouring matter. 6. c, large
albumen cells loaded with starch granules.

14. Silica plates on outer layer of cells of skin when dry, highly

magnified.

15. The same after the grain has been steeped in water for some

time. The dark lines show the separation of the plates owing
to the distension of the grain.

16. A strobile or fruit of the Hop, n. s.

17. A bract of same highly magnified, showing the position of —

18. The seed at its base, n. s.

19. Seed with investing membrane highly magnified to show the

lupuUte, very abundant on this membrane.

20. 21. Seed divested of membrane viewed in face and on edge.

22. A granule of lupidite burst with dilute sulphuric acid.

23. A portion of a fruit of brewer's spent-hops, showing the position

of the seeds and lupulite grains unaffected by boiling.

24. A minute portion of the seed pellicle or base of bract (17), beset

with lupulite : s v, spiral vessels and fibre ; /i, hairs ; c, cellular
tissue in layer, largely magnified.

PLATE 6.

PLATE

/.

PLATE VII.

FIG.

1. A grain of Cocculus Indicus, n. s.

2. A diagram of the seed constructed from dissections ; a, the outer

skin, composed of irregularly-shaped cells full of dark brown
colouring matter in three or four layers overlying ; b, elon-
gated branching fibrous cells, anastomosing amongst the
elongated fibres (r) and the cylindrically formed wood cells
at g: these form the hard or woody portion of the grain, in
which are seen at intervals the spiral vessels {s v) ; d, layers of
double-pointed fibres with thickened walls and lateral channels ;
e, albumen of the seed (cellular), containing much starch ;
/, cells of albumen separated to show their pores.

3. A grain of Paradise, magnified 8 diameters.

4. A diagram of the seed : a, the elongated wavy cells of the outer

skin, overlying b, the woody tissue, amongst which are
numerous oil receptacles, 0 : the branched fibres are seen
anastomosing amongst these, e; c, the thin tough-walled
cells of the albumen, containing abundance of minute starch
granules.

5. Oil globules from the large cysts at b.

6. A grain of Datura Stramonium, magnified 2 diameters.

7. A horizontal diagram of the seed : a, long thin-walled cells of

outer seed coat ; b, layer of thick-walled coloured cells under-
lying it ; <", a layer of long delicate cells underlying these, and
overlying a layer of same fo'rm at a right angle to these ;
e, cyst containing dark brown colouring matter ;/, a layer of
long delicate cells with thin walls, and another of short cells
with thick walls firmly attached to albumen [g), composed of
very thick-walled cells laden with minute starch granules;
g, cells of albumen very highly magnified.

G

PLATE VIII.

25. A minute portion of a Hop leaf, viewed from its under side as an

opaque object, and highly magnified to show the lupulite
grains.

26. The seed of the hop, cut horizontally.

a, I. The outer seed coat, consisting of four or five rows of
thick-walled cells with irregular outlines.
2. Double-pointed ligneous cells, lined with sderogen and
with intercommunicating channels, w are the ends of
elongated woody fibres, situated at right angles to
these.

h, 3. These thin layers of cells constitute a thin pellicle
coloured bright green.

4. A layer of oblong transparent cells.

5. Another layer of thin-walled transparent cells ; and at

right angles to these, underlying them, —

6. A series of coloured cells with thick walls overlying —

f, 7. The albumen, containing much oil, here seen in globules
forced out of the cells.

27. A small portion of the acorn-cup of the Valonia Oak, magnified,

showing the woody cells lined with sderogen {to) lying amongst
the cellular tissue (e) ; h h, are the hairs on the exterior.

28. A portion of same, highly magnified, a a. are groups of large

porous cells, which when dissected out are seen to have large
intercommunicating channels : fig. 31.

29. 30. Branched and simple hairs, very highly magnified.

PLATE 8.

PLATE 9.

PLATE IX.

FIG.

1. A leaf of Virginian Tobacco attached to stem, ~ n. s.

2. Portion of skin from under surface, greatly magnified, to show the

two forms of hairs (// /i) lying amongst the breathing pores, s.

3. Hairs separated, and highly magnified.

4. A transverse vertical section of portion of leaf- blade, with hairs

and breathing pores on under surface.

5. A horizontal section of midrib of leaf, magnified.

6. A leaf of Burdock, | n. s.

7. Hairs from under surface of leaf terminating in long delicate

filaments, highly magnified.

8. Horizontal section of midrib of leaf with lobed outline, and

bundles of woody fibre separated.

9. Leaf of Dock, ^ n. s. ; a, the stipule at base of stalk, detached.

10. Club-shaped, striated hairs, from skin of midrib and veins,

greatly magnified.

11. Horizontal section of midrib, with lobed surface, and woody

bundles separated.

12. A portion of skin of under side of leaf blade, greatly magnified,

to show the position of the glands Qf) amongst the breathing
pores (s).

PLATE X.

FIG.

1. A leaf of Chicory, l n. s.

2. A horizontal section from midrib of leaf, with thin woody

bundles.

3. A portion of the skin removed from under side of leaf, greatly

magnified to show the hairs on this part.

4. Leaf of Comfrey, ^ n. s.

5. Horizontal section of midrib of leaf, showing the position and

character of woody bundles,

6. A minute portion from the skin of the leaf on its under side, with

a, large curved hairs with striated surfaces ; l> b, hairs formed
like fish-hooks : very highly magnified.

7. Leaf of Jerusalem Artichoke, ^ n. s., attached to stem.

8. Horizontal section of midrib of leaf, with woody bundles.

9. Epidermis from under side of leaf, greatly magnified, to show the

peculiar form and texture of the hairs.

R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYl.O?., PRINTERS, LONDON.

PLATE 10

jff^

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