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THE STUD FARM.

' London :

SpoTTiswooDEs and Shaw,

New- street-Square.

THE

STUD FARM;

OE,

HINTS ON BREEDING

THE TUEF, THE CHASE, AND THE ROAD.

ADDRESSED TO

BEEEDERS OF RACE-HORSES AND HUNTERS,

TO LANDED PROPRIETORS,

AND ESPECIALLY TO TENANT FARMERS.

BY CECIL.

LONDON:

LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.

185L

/

Sv

PREFACE.

For more than five and twenty years, the author
of this little work has been engaged in the ma-
nagement of horses ; and as during all that period
he has never neglected any opportunity of ac-
quiring practical information on every point con-
nected therewith, he is not without hope that he
may be able to throw out a few hints on this
subject, that may be worth the reader's attention.

To extensive and experienced breeders, he can-
not expect that many of his suggestions will be
new ; though, possibly, even they may " cull a
spray" that may be useful. But the less prac-
tised, he trusts, will find in this little volume
many hints which may be turned to good ac-
count. To the farmer, especially, the author
desires to address himself, and would earnestly
call his attention to a source of profit which, if
zealously pursued, will assuredly exceed most, if
not every other speculation coming within his
province.

It requires no political economist to prove that,

A 3

VI PREFACE.

if there is any commodity for which the demand
is certain, that commodity must be worth pro-
ducing. Now good horses command as high, if
not higher, prices than ever in the home and
foreign markets. Hence any farmer who will
devote his attention to '' Breeding" will not be
disappointed ; that is, provided he enter upon it
with spirit and perseverance. It is often said
that farmers cannot obtain sufficiently remunera-
tive prices for the horses which they rear. But
the reason is obvious; — they do not breed from
the right sort, neither do they take sufficient care
of their stock. To describe the sort that ought
to be produced, and to explain the treatment
which horses require to render them valuable, is
the chief object of the present labours of

CECIL.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

MOTIVES FOR BREEDING. — SITE OF BUILDINGS AND
PADDOCKS.

General interest connected with breeding Horses. — The subject
recommended to the attention of Farmers. — Increase of
thorough-bred Stock, and decrease of Horses of other Classes.

— Stage Coaches and Steam. — Delusive Arguments. — Pre-
vailing notions of Farmers relative to breeding Horses, con-
sidered— Comparison between Horses and Bullocks in point
of profit. — Causes of 111 Luck explained. — Causes of the
superiority of the English Horse of the present day. — Probable
Effects of the present condition of Racing Affairs. — Different
Classes of Horses. — Caprices of Nature. — Selection of ap-
propriate Situation. — Example. — Soil. — Drainage. — System
of rearing Young Stock. — Manure, Solid and Liquid. — March
of Improvement. — Size of Paddocks. — Arrangement of
Young Stock. — Grass in the Paddocks not essential. — A
Grazing District not essential. — The late Lord George Ben-
tinck's selection of a Stud Farm. — Arrangement of Buildings
considered, and Hovels in the Paddocks. — Plan for Buildings.

— Ventilation Boussingault's calculation of the Elements

respired by the Horse. — Materials for Buildings — Hovels. —
Pine Varnish recommended. — Gas Tar deprecated. — Mate-
rials used for Paving. — Frequent Cause of Strains. — Drains.

A 4

VIU CONTENTS.

— Fittings. — Cleanliness. — Prevention of Infectious Maladies.

— Windows. — Surface of the Yard Paddocks. — Open

Drains deprecated. — Inequality of Surface considered. — Size
of Paddocks. — Fences ... - Page 1

CHAP. II.

SELECTION OF MARES.

Procreation. — The Superiority of Horses of the present and
past Ages considered. — Immense Increase of Racing during
the last Century. — Consolation to Breeders. — Formation of a
Stud — Causes of Disappointment. — Symmetrical Proportions
essential, combined with fashionable Blood. — Attributes
enumerated. — Loss and Disappointment averted by judicious
Selections of Mares and Stallions — Importance of Beauty in
Hunters and Hacks — A young Farmer's Idea of a Brood
Mare, and his Selection of a Stallion. — Racing Blood- —
Aged Stallions and Mares generally most successful — Sort
of Mares to breed Hunters and Hacks. — Extremes objection-
able— Hereditary Defects - - - - 33

CHAP. III.

BARREN AND OTHER MARES.

Importance of Quietude. — Mares to Stallion. — Slipping Foals,
frequent Causes thereof. — Prevention of Evils. — Arrange-
ment of Mares without Foals - - - - 47

CHAP. IV.

STALLIONS.

Demand for Thoroughbred Stock. — Descendants of Penelope.

— Changing Sires. — The Quagga and Arab Mare. — Colour.

— Choice of Stallions for particular Mares. — Improvements
must be acquired by Degrees. — Superiority of the English
Horse. — Their Size. — Anatomical Proportions. — Incon-

CONTENTS. IX

sistency of Breeding from very Large Sires and Small Mares,
and vice versa. — True Symmetry most frequent in Animals
of moderate Size. — Standard of Excellence. — Effects of

Food Comparative Texture of Bone in the Thoroughbred

and Cart-Horse. — Effects of Training and Racing. — Hero
and his Pedigree. — Hereditary Properties. — Curious Inci-
dents connected with celebrated Stallions. — General Opinions
of Breeders. — Extremes deprecated. — The most likely
Means of breeding valuable Stock. — Hereditary Defects. —
The Opinion of a Veterinary Surgeon thereon. — Exercise
for Stallions. — Hocks. — Shape and Make. — Bay Middleton.

— Sir Hercules. — Touchstone. — Their Pedigrees com-
pared. — Breeding In and In. — Arabian Blood not advis-
able for racing, but admissible for Hacks. — Horses are
acclimatised. — Breeding Hunters and Road-horses especially
considered. — The Distinction of the Term Thoroughbred.

— Erroneous Data. — Apartments for Stallions. — General
Characteristics ----- Page 52

CHAP. V.

TREATMENT OF MARES IN FOAL AND WITH FOAL.

Period of Foaling. — Beneficial Effects of Warm "Weather —
Spring Grass. — Evil Effects of Catarrhal Affections. — Late
Foals. — Preparations for Mares about to Foal. — Litter. —
Water. — Anecdote. — Term of Gestation. — Attentions at the
Time of Foaling. — Indications. — Assistance. — The Foal. —
Treatment of Mare and Foal. — Precaution against Wet. —
The State of the Bowels. — Lard, as a Laxative. — Relaxation
of the Bowels — Cause thereof. — Com to Foals. — Worms,
Remedies against. — Foals' Feet — require Moisture during Dry
Seasons. — Handling the Feet of Foals. — Tar Ointment. —
Weaning, and preparatory Management. — Secure Apartments
imperative. — Objection to putting two Foals in one Place. —
Examination of Mares - - - - - 76

X CONTENTS.

CHAP. VI.

FOALS AFTER WEANING.

Foals deprived of Milk require Good Keep Linseed Gruel.

— Carrots. — A Trainer's Opinion of them. — Swede Turnips.

— Food suitable to the Constitution. — Change indicated

by the State of the Bowels Caution to be observed

with newly weaned Foals. — Confinement deprecated. —
Wet to be avoided. — Necessity of Exercise. — Habits of

the Horse in a State of Nature. — Consequences of Colds

The Approach of Winter. — Frost. — Shelter sanctioned by
Reason. — Degrees of Exercise - - Page 97

CHAP. VII.

YEARLINGS, TWO YEARS OLD, AND OTHERS.

Rules of the Jockey Club concerning Age. — A Late Foal —
Leading Yearlings to Exercise. — Enlargement in the Paddock .

— Wisping over. — Appropriate Places for Exercise. — At-
tention to the Feet. — Thrushes. —Foot Lameness commonly
attributed to the Shoe. — Frequent Cause of Thrushes. — The
Frog and its Properties. — The Structure of the Foot influenced
by Thrushes — Incipient Lameness the Result of Inattention.

— Cure of Thrushes. — Tar recommended. — The Legs. —
Frequent Cause of Crooked Legs.— Upright Pasterns. — Ob-
lique Pasterns. — In some Degree maybe remedied by At-
tention to the Feet. — Spontaneous Growth of Horn. — Brittle
Feet — Allowance of Corn. — Healthy Condition preferable
to Fat. — Castrating. — Its Effects on the Coat. — Half-bred
Stock - - - - - - 109

CHAP. VIIL

BREAKING.

Maturity promoted — Breaking Tackle introduced Bitting.

— Lounging. — Boots or Bandages. — Action improved by

CONTENTS. XI

Uneven Surfaces. — Anecdote of a Hunter. — Lessons in
Leaping. — The Dumb Jockey — The Palate, or Slabbering
Bit. — Crouper. — Straps, and Divers Objects. — Putting a
Rider up. — Importance of a Good Mouth. — Reins, and

Application of Bridles Efficiency of the Bit used by the

late Lord George Bentinck. — Nose Bands. — Pelhams. —
Gagsnaffles - - - _ . Page 123

CHAP. IX.

PHYSIC.

Physic after Weaning. — Strong Doses deprecated. — Physic to
Yearlings. — Symptoms which indicate the Necessity for
Physic. — Preparation. — Time of giving Physic. — Water
an auxiliary. — Administering Balls. — Worms. — How
they are nourished. — How they are detected. — Remedies
for their Expulsion. — Table of the Proportions of Medicines
to be given to Horses. — Formula for Aloetic Purgatives. —
Time of giving Physic. — Formula for Alteratives. — Re-
marks ------- 142

CHAP. X.

SHOEING.

Diversity of Opinions. — Accounted for. — Difference of Shoes
and Treatment to be regulated by the Nature of the Feet and
the Country or Purpose for which the Animal is used. — Import-
ance of stopping the Feet. — A Shoe with a wide Web necessary
in Stony and Flinty Districts, but not recommended other-
wise. — Removing. — One Side nailing. — Expansion of the
Foot. — Position of the Navicular Bone and other Parts of
the Foot. — Altered Structure occasioned sometimes by Ac-
cident. — Kind of Shoe best adapted for Young Stock. —
Time when Shoes become necessary. — Stopping the Feet of
great Importance - - - - - 159

XU CONTENTS.

CHAP. XL

CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND.

The Elements of Nutriment derived from the Earth. — The
Effect of Soil, Situation, and Culture. — Draining in most
Cases essential. — An Example on light Land. — Draining
Tiles. — Cultivation of Lucerne : Manure best calculated to
promote its Growth. — Tares. — Clover. — Saintfoin. — Liquid
Manure and its Application. — Value of Manure made by
Horses Caution respecting Artificial Manures. — Guano.

— Supply of Green Food in Summer. — Haymaking. — Salt.

— The Produce of Meadows. — Capabilities of. Land for the

Production of Hay Improvement of Grass on Downs and

Conmions. — Swedes preferable to Carrots - Page 166

CHAP. XIL

FOOD, ITS PROPERTIES AND EFFECTS.

Effects of Food on the Growth of Animals. — M. Liebig's
Researches. — Testimony to the practical Truth of M.
Liebig's Remarks. — The Nature of Food. — Muscular De-
velopment and other Animal Substance promoted by the
Quality of Food. — Oxygen : its Effects. — The Practice of

wetting Oats objectionable The Powers of Digestion. —

The Gastric Juice. — Reasons for varying the Nature of
Food in Winter and Summer. — Habits of the Natives of
hot and cold Climates compared. — The Re-supply of Blood

by Food necessary to Life Effects of over- stimulating

Food. — The Growth of the Horse promoted by the Quality
of the Food Boussingault's Analysis — Criterion for Selec-
tion of Food for specific Purposes. — Comparative Nourish-
ment derived from Grass and Hay. — Grass distends the

Bowels, and substitutes Fat for Muscle The unborn Foal

partakes greatly the Condition of the Dam. — Suitable Food

CONTENTS. XUl

of the utmost Importance. — Sugar and Starch the Elements
of Nutrition in Hay and Oats. — The Amount varies in

different Samples The Kind of Hay best calculated for

Horses. — Clover Hay. — Saintfoin Hay. — Old Hay. —
Oats, their Qualities ; dried on Kilns condemned. — Bruising
Oats recommended. — Prejudice Schemes adopted to in-
duce Mastication. — Mastication. — Saliva. — Anecdote from

Dr. Paris on Diet. — Deglutition. — Economy Beans- —

Mashes. — Mucilage obtained therefrom. — Linseed To be

Boiled. — Effects produced by Carrots. — Grasses. — Eco-
nomy and Advantages of mowing the Grasses and giving to
the Stock in preference to grazing. — Kinds of Grasses de-
termined by the Nature of the Soil.— Deductions Page 175

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THE

STUD FARM.

CHAPTER I.

MOTIVES rOR BREEDING. — SITE OF BUILDINGS AND
PADDOCKS.

General interest connected with breeding Horses. — The subject
recommended to the attention of Farmers. — Increase of
thorough-bred Stock, and decrease of Horses of other Classes.

— Stage Coaches and Steam. — Delusive Arguments. — Pre-
vailing notions of Farmers relative to breeding Horses, con-
sidered.— Comparison between Horses and Bullocks in point
of profit. — Causes of 111 Luck explained. — Causes of the
superiority of the English Horse of the present day. — Probable
Effects of the present condition of Racing Affairs. — Different
Classes of Horses. — Caprices of Nature. — Selection of ap-
propriate Situation. — Example. — Soil. — Drainage, — System
of rearing Young Stock. — Manure, Solid and Liquid. — March
of Improvement. — Size of Paddocks. — Arrangement of
Young Stock. — Grass in the Paddocks not essential. — A
Grazing District not essential. — The late Lord George Ben-
tinck's selection of a Stud Farm.— Arrangement of Buildings
considered, and Hovels in the Paddocks. — Plan for Buildings.

— Ventilation Boussingault's calculation of the Elements

respired by the Horse. — Materials for Buildings — Hovels. —
Pine Varnish recommended. — Gas Tar deprecated. — Mate-
rials used for Paving. — Frequent Cause of Strains. — Dx'ains.
— Fittings. — Cleanliness. — Prevention of Infectious Maladies.

B

THE STUD FARM.

— Windows. — Surface of the Yard. — Paddocks Open

Drains deprecated. — Inequality of Surface considered. — Size
of Paddocks. — Fences.

Every circumstance connected with the Turf has
acquired such general interest, that the most
minute particulars are investigated and scrutinised
with attention. But independently of the class of
horses exclusively adapted for racing purposes,
those which may more immediately form a portion
of the agriculturist's stock demand our especial
notice.

There are at the present period two most
coffent reasons for assertinor that horses are the

O CD

most profitable stock a farmer can breed; first,
the very low price which grain produces at market ;
and, secondly, the value which horses maintain.
It is not necessary, in these pages, to discuss the
policy which has reduced farming speculations to
their present condition ; but, in pointing out the
means by which an agriculturist can raise any de-
scription of stock that will repay him, a more sub-
stantial benefit will be conferred upon him than
by the repetition of arguments, which have no
weight with those interested in other vocations,
and whose opinions are at present unquestionably
in the ascendant.

During the last ten years the thoroughbred
stock which has been reared, has been on the in-
crease, while horses calculated for pleasure, or

DEMAND FOR HORSES. 3

business, have not been so extensively produced.
There are obvious reasons for each of these events.
The encouragement that has been given to racing
has promoted the first object, and the appre-
hension of railway travelling superseding the use
of stage coaches, led to the idea that there would
be no market for the immense numbers hereto-
fore required for that purpose, and hence that a
great number of pleasure horses, or those used
by private individuals, would be dispensed with.
The expectation that the stage coaches would be
run off the road by the united powers of fire and
water, has been fully realised; albeit there w^as
something of delusion in the argument that any
profit could ever accrue to breeders of horses,
in consequence of the demand which formerly
existed on the road. They were not generally
employed for that purpose, until accident or
blemish had reduced their value, plain or badly
shaped ones excepted. A coach proprietor seldom
gave a breeder a remunerative price for a horse
merely to work him up. Nevertheless, when the
immense numbers of horses now used to convey
travellers from railway stations to the various
towns and villages in the vicinity are considered,
it will be found that there are nearly as many
kept as during the time of the stage coaches.
There are infinitely more persons in private life
who employ horses for pleasure and convenience

B 2

THE STUD FARM.

than ever there were, and the demand from that
source is therefore not only increased, but it is
certain to continue, encouraged by the moderate
price of hay and corn.

One of the main points urged by a farmer
against breeding horses is, that he has to wait
so long for a return of his capital. That as-
sertion is readily met. In the first place, if he
cannot command an adequate capital, he cannot
embark in a more injudicious speculation than
that of agriculture. In the next, how much
longer has he to lie out of his money by breeding
horses than bullocks? The latter are not fit for
the butcher till they have attained from three to
four years. The cost of rearing a bullock is nearly
equal to that of rearing a horse, till they have
respectively arrived at the age of three years. The
cost of fattening a bullock, which requires six
months or more to accomplish, is greater than is
requisite for the keep of a horse during a similar
term at any period of his life ; for the former will
readily despatch one peck of oats or barley, five-
and-twenty pounds of hay, with five or six pounds
of linseed, per diem — more than double the
quantity of hay and linseed that a horse will con-
sume ; and a peck of oats is more than a horse
requires, unless in work. A good bullock, when
fat, is worth about twenty-five pounds — and he
can never be expected to realise a vast deal more.

CAUSES OF ILL LUCK EXPLAINED. O

An inferior horse, of the same age, is worth quite
as much money; and a superior- shaped hunter or
carriao^e horse will fetch three or four times that
sum, especially if he be kept till he is a year older,
which will not cost an equivalent difference ; and
a very first-rate horse will occasionally produce
from loOZ. to 200Z. Kacing stock is of course not
included in this category.

A great number of farn^ers have abandoned the
pursuit of breeding horses in consequence of what
they denominate ill luck ; but they have not set
about it in the right wa}^ They have made an
injudicious selection of mares and stallions, the
produce of which have been badl}^ kept ; to save
expense, as they have erroneously supposed, the
stock has been turned into pasture fields during
the summer months to acquire pot-bellies and
misshapen limbs deficient of muscle. Under such
treatment the frequent occurrence of accidents
occasioned by their getting out of the fields has
been the constant cause of expense and disappoint-
ment. In the winter, the only asylum for shelter
has been the farm yard, where, in company with
the cows, the roughest food has been offered to
them, and if a feed of corn per diem has been
allotted to each colt, that was considered quite
suflScient, and thus they became emaciated. Few
animals, so treated, are worth a twenty pound
note at four years old, yet the quantity of land,
B 3

b THE STUD FARM.

the produce of which they consume, is consider-
ably more than is necessary for their keep under
proper management. By well manuring the land,
and cultivating artificial grasses, for consumption
during the summer months, double or treble the
quantity of stock may be reared, in the best pos-
sible condition, on the same acreage that will afford
bare sustenance for animals turned out to graze.
Unless a farmer will determine upon keeping them
well, he had better never attempt to breed horses,
or, in fact, any other kind of stock.

It may operate as an additional stimulus to the
agriculturist to devote his attention to breeding
this kind of stock, when it is observed that while
foreigners are suffered to compete with him in any
kind of produce he can raise, as regards horses, he
can be under no apprehension of rivalry, from
the incontrovertible fact that no country in the
world can breed horses of equal value with those
of the United Kingdom.

On the present occasion it is unnecessary to
inquire from what source the English race horse
is derived, — he has now become naturalised to this
country, although not indigenous to the soil.
That the climate, and the treatment which he re- i
ceives, are conducive to his well-doings, and suit-
able to his constitution, are facts to which must
be attributed the superiority which he possesses
over the horses of all other nations.

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF HORSES. 7

Care, attention, and judgment, during a series of
years, have contributed to improve the condition
of an animal above that which he enjoys in a wild
or native state; and, with judicious treatment, there
is ample reason to expect that the breed of English
horses is still capable of improvement. What
effect the present usages of the turf may have in
retarding that improvement, offers an ample field
of discussion. But whether the present system of
racinor is calculated to encourao;e that class of
horse w^hich is of most value for other purposes, is
a question with which it is useless to deal, because
all the ar2;uments I could adduce asiainst it, and
these are many, would be of no avail, as they
could not change the current of fashion. It is
sufficient for a breeder, w^hose object is racing, if
he succeeds in breeding such horses as are remu-
nerative. If it is his intention to breed animals of
another class, and he makes a profit by them, his
purposes are answered.

The speculation of breeding may be divided
into two classes, — the one of such horses only as
may be calculated for racing or steeple chasing,
when some will be found worth training, others
valuable for the saddle, and some quite useless (a
man must not calculate upon holding a handful of
trumps every deal) — the other for hunting, road,
and harness work. The ostensible motive which

B 4

8 THE STUD FARM.

in either case will assuredly prevail is profit.
Kacing is the test of breeding, and that breeder
who exercises the greatest judgment will, in the
long run, obtain the greatest success. To suppose
that breeding is dependent entirely upon chance,
is an absurdity. Events may, and doubtless will
occur, to baffle human foresight; but they will
act as cautions for future guidance. Discrepancies,
frequently set down as the caprices of Nature,
may often be accounted for, if people will take the
trouble to search deep enough into the mystery.

The first consideration in the formation of a
breeding establishment is its situation and aspect;
for unless those points be attended to, success
cannot reasonably be anticipated. Dryness of
soil, and a clear but not bleak atmosphere, are most
essential. Districts where fogs prevail, and all
tendencies to local humidity, are peculiarly adverse
to the healthy state of the equine tribe. Many
years since I was taught a lesson on the im-
portance of situation. I occupied two paddocks
in Shropshire, the soil of which was a sandy
loam of fair quality, and although they were not
far apart, the difference in the condition of the
mares and foals occupying them was most ap-
parent. Of course they were all fed alike, and
when the inmates were exchanged from one to the
other, a corresponding alteration in the appearance

SITUATION AND ASPECT. 9

of the animals became very shortly perceptible.
The paddock in which they did not thrive was
enclosed by a brick wall, and to the eye appeared
to possess every requisite, — in fact, it seemed pre-
ferable to the other. It was screened from the
northern aspect by rising ground and the house,
and sheltered also by trees, which I believe far
from being beneficial were the reverse, by render-
ing the atmosphere damp, — the ostensible cause,
no doubt, of the unhealthiness of the situation.
The hovels opened to the north, which I considered
to have been another cause of evil. The other
paddock, which I found to be so much superior,
was more open; it contained three hovels placed
in a row facing the south, an aspect which should
always be selected for such buildings. Both pad-
docks were drained.

The stabling, likewise, which at that time I used
for hunters, afibrded an equally striking evidence
of the effect of aspect. One, consisting of three
stalls, lofty and commodious, erected by a pre-
vious occupant, " regardless of expense," was im-
measurably inferior to another building near at
hand, which I converted into loose boxes, pre-
senting a far less aristocratic style of fitting up
and appearance than the three-stall stable ; but the
boxes were in every respect all that I could de-
sire, as far as their habitation could eflfect the

10 THE STUD FARM.

condition of the horses by which they were
occupied. So great was the distinction as to
induce me to abandon the use of the three stalls
for hunters, or even for horses of an inferior
class, if I could find room elsewhere. It was
so situated as to be almost constantly secluded
from the rays of the sun; the door and one
window faced the east, and originally another
window, which I bricked up, faced the north ;
verily, nothing could have been more injudiciously
planned. The door of the boxes opened to the
west, and they had the sun almost continually
shining upon them, whenever we were favoured
with his cheering rays; an influence which the
three stalls did not enjoy, but which should be
courted with the greatest assiduity.

Light, dry, sandy soils are evidently the most
conducive to the healthy condition of the equine
tribe ; but in this selection I do not include the
black peaty sands approximating to bogs, or
which, in point of fact, are bogs partially re-
claimed by draining, surrounded by large tracts
of land in their primitive condition ; for in such
situations humidity of atmosphere invariably
prevails, most prejudicial to the health of the
horse. Such land is found in the neighbourhood
of Ascot, Bagshot, and the surrounding country,
Avhere fogs most prevail. Very few, if any, horses
are bred in that locality.

SITUATION AND ASPECT. 11

Those situations where chalk or limestone forms
the substratum are eligible, also dry loams ; but
strong clays are exceptionable for this reason —
they are retentive of superficial moisture to a
great extent in wet weather, and during the dry
periods they become excessively hard, both of
which extremes are injurious to the legs and
feet.

In any case, unless it has been previously per-
formed, the land used for paddocks or yards to be
occupied by blood stock, or horses of any other
description, as well as that upon which their food
is raised, should be thoroughly drained. The
humid, rich pasture land found in many districts
producing gross succulent herbage, adapted as
food for young or fattening cattle and cows, is
not to be selected for the horse. Such productions
may tend to augment the quantity of a mare's
milk, but at the same time it will have a pre-
judicial influence on the quality ; a most important
consideration in reference to the welfare of the
young foal, as I shall endeavour to illustrate in
future pages.

The most intellisient and able agrriculturists
have decided that the best system of rearing cat-
tle is that of keeping them in yards or enclosures,
well sheltered with suitable buildings, where food
is regularly supplied to them throughout the year.

12 THE STUD FARM.

green crops being provided to be mown for the
purpose during the summer months. It is, no
doubt, a system far preferable to that of turning
them out at any time in pasture fields, because
the food goes so much further, the cattle are more
quiet, less exposed to accident, and the annoyance
of flies and other insects which torment them in
hot weather. Moreover, the vast amount of
valuable manure that is collected, and the soakage
secured in tanks, admits of an increased quantity
of stock being kept on a given quantity of land.
The great obstacle of the system of rearing cattle
according to the above-mentioned system, arises
from the want, on most farms, of suitable sheds
or buildings. Prejudice in favour of old customs
may likewise in many instances prevail ; but these
are times when prejudice must give way to reason,
or the evil consequences will be seriously felt.
In the arts and sciences, manufactures and com-
merce, the march of improvement makes rapid
strides ; if the occupiers of land do not bestir
themselves, and endeavour, at least, to follow if
not rival their fellow men who cono-resrate in
towns, their relative position in social life must
undergo a mortifying change. If the practice
be good, which no doubt it is, of keeping cattle
in yards and sheds all the year round, it is of
much greater importance in the management of

SIZE OF PADDOCKS. 13

a breeding stud, and the profits will assuredly be
more remunerative. I do not mean to advise that
young colts are to be kept in a positive state of
confinement, a course adopted by some breeders
of racing stock, but which, from experience and
reflection, I believe to be most erroneous. I would
recommend paddocks from one to three acres in
extent, in which they should be enlarged a few
hours daily during fine weather. Exercise is
necessary to promote the development of muscle
and increase the strens^th of horses, althourfi it is
not essential to the well-doing of cattle, to whom
quietude and repose are more beneficial in order
to promote a propensity for the accumulation of
meat.

Three or four fillies or geldings may be turned
into the same paddock together, by which arrange-
ment a small tract of land will suffice as the play-
ground for a considerable number. Thoroughbred
colts which have not been castrated will, of course,
require separate enclosures. The number and
size of these paddocks must, of course, be regu-
lated by l/ie magnitude of the stud. At the same
time that there is no objection to it, it is not
essential that any grass or pasturage should be
cultivated in them ; in fact, if they are constantly
occupied by any number of horses, they will be
sure to destroy nearly all the vegetation. Air and
exercise are in this case the only objects in view.

14 THE STUD FARM.

Hence, another reason for asserting that grazing
land is not at all essential for the use of a stud farm,
and that many of those agriculturists who occupy
arable farms, which at the present crisis cannot
be made remunerative by the cultivation of wheat
and barley, may convert their land to profit by
breeding horses. In corroboration of this I will
cite an example worthy of notice. When the
late Lord George Bentinck (whose experience in
such matters was unquestionable) commenced
breeding race horses on an extensive scale, his
principal establishment was at Danebury, where
he formed paddocks, and erected such buildings
as were required. For the information of those
who are not acquainted with the spot, it is neces-
sary to mention that Danebury is surrounded by
arable land and extensive downs of a dry cha-
racter, with a substratum of chalk. His lordship,
as all the world will acknowledge, was too good a
judge not to have made a suitable selection, and
having to incur the expense of fencing round the
paddocks and constructing the buildings, there
can be no doubt of his having chosen that spot as
being well calculated for his object.

When a breeding stud of any magnitude is
about to be formed, it will be requisite to erect
suitable buildings, or render those which may be
in existence convenient for the purpose. Two
arrangements present themselves ; one having the

BUILDINGS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. 15

boxes and such like constructions surrounding an
extensive yard ; the other that of building boxes
or hovels in the paddocks, dependent upon cir-
cumstances, such as the taste of the proprietor, and
the size of the enclosures ; when the advantages
and objections attendant upon either arrangement
are fairly considered, they will perhaps be pretty
equally balanced, giving a preference possibly to
the first plan ; yet, when circumstances will per-
mit, the most desirable course is undoubtedly to be
provided with both; that is, a homestead, and a cer-
tain number of the paddocks supplied with hovels.
The principal objection to having all the boxes
together, appears to exist in the trouble, and per-
haps some trifling amount of risk attendant upon
taking the stock backwards and forwards to the
paddocks. Much of this, however, depends upon
the distance or contiguity of those enclosures. If
the hovels are in the paddocks, it must be remem-
bered there will be a trouble incurred of supplying
the stock with hay and corn at certain intervals of
the day, with the disadvantage of some waste of
provender, or, perchance, occasionally of its mis-
appropriation. For the accommodation of a small
establisliment the existence of old buildings wdll,
in all probability, influence the determination.
Hovels in some of the paddocks will unquestionably
be found useful for the accommodation of brood
mares whose vicious dispositions render them un-

16 THE STUD FARM.

safe in the company of their own species. That,
however, is not very commonly the case ; for, in
justice to the species, it must be said that they
are social creatures, and may generally be trusted
in lots of four or five, which, in large establish-
ments, with enclosures of adequate proportions,
will be found a great convenience.

If I were about to erect buildings for the pur-
pose of a stud farm, I would have them arranged
as nearly as possible after the following plan.
Frontino; the south should be the cottao;e or resi-
dence appropriated to the use of the stud groom
or principal having the management of the estab-
lishment, the arrangement of which it is not ne-
cessary to give in detail, but in some convenient
outbuilding connected therewith, conveniences for
boiling water and preparing linseed are indispen-
sible. The cottage facing the south will thus
occupy that portion of the yard which, if fitted
with boxes or hovels, would have a northern en-
trance,— at all times to be avoided. Surrounding
the yard, boxes or hovels must be erected in num-
ber according to the proposed magnitude of the
stud ; and as a southern aspect is preferable to any
other, it is desirable to arrange the proportions of
the yard as much as possible to attain that desi-
deratum. Each box or hovel ought to measure
twelve feet by sixteen feet. At the corners of
the yard it is convenient to have a large hovel for

PLAN FOR BUILDINGS. 17

mares to foal in, or for use on pardcular occasions.
A building in the centre of the yard containing
an apartment for an attendant, with a large box or
hovel on each side, also, for the convenience of
foaling mares, or in case of indisposition requiring
constant attention. This edifice may contain a
granary entered into through a room for hay; and
by having the granary at the end of the attend-
ant's apartment, an arrangement can readily be
effected to supply a bin or receptacle with a cer-
tain quantity of oats, to which he could have con-
stant access. The other portion of this building
may be set aside for straw, or sheds may be pro-
vided on the outside. The doors to the boxes or
hovels, and the hay and straw compartments, by
being placed at the corners, and cut off, would
be the means of avoidinsj accidents which fre-
quently occur where there are angular projections.
The entrance to all the boxes should be on the
left hand, as it affords most space, and the doors,
which should be four feet wide, should be con-
structed to open outwards ; there should be hooks
in the wall to keep them back during the ingress
and egress of the inmates. Rollers should be
placed on the door cases to prevent accidents in
passing and repassing. If the doors are cut through
transversely at the height of five feet, the upper
portion being secured with iron bars, they may
be so contrived as to be thrown open in hot wea-
c

18 THE STUD FARM.

ther ; but by no means are such doors to be recom-
mended without the protection of the iron bars,
as many instances have occurred of mares and
foals endeavouring to leap through half-doors, and
of course by so doing seriously injuring them-
selves.

One of the principal features in the good ar-
rangement of buildings for the purpose of shelter-
ing horses in is ventilation. A moderately warm,
at the same time dry, temperature is necessary for
the health of these animals; to promote which,
some measures must be adopted to allow the es-
cape of foul air, but without admitting cur-
rents of air to come in contact with the in-
mates. Holes in the walls are frequently formed,
having little wooden shutters to slide backwards
and forwards as occasion may require ; these should
be as high as the side walls will permit. There
should be also tunnels through the roof, made with
four boards from nine to twelve inches wide, with
cupola tops to prevent rain from descending. One
of these may be so arranged as to afford ventilation
for two boxes which are contiguous to each other,
and I believe them to be the most effectual of any.
If the walls, and consequently the roof, be lofty,
they may, probably, be dispensed with, and the
apertures in the walls only adopted ; but the most
complete and satisfactory plan is to be provided
with both, as either can be closed at pleasure. Most

NECESSITY OF GOOD VENTILATION. 19

persons are willing to acknowledge the importance
of ventilation ; and yet many buildings, appropri-
ated to the use of horses, are very imperfectly con-
structed in this respect. It may, therefore, appear
necessary to add a few more words on this import-
ant subject, the result of investigation made by an
acknowledged authority. Boussingault calculates
that the horse consumes thirteen pounds three
and a half ounces of oxygen in twenty-four hours,
which is used in converting the carbon into car-
bonic acid. Presuming, therefore, that the same
excess of oxygen is consumed by the horse that
is consumed of carbon, according to the experi-
ments of Boussingault, a horse requires more than
^ve times the amount of fresh air essential to the
vital process in man ; and, furthermore, when it
is observed that the air in a confined room or
building, that is, where no admission of fresh or
atmospheric air exists, becomes contaminated and
deprived of its vital properties by the process of
inspiration and expiration, how important it must
appear that horses should be kept in apartments
very perfectly arranged for the admission of fresh,
and the escape of foul air, which being expanded
by heat and contracted by cold, the amount of
oxygen is unequal under different temperatures.
A moderate degree of warmth is essential to the
healthy condition of the horse. It therefore fol-
lows, that a considerable amount of ventilation
c 2

20 THE STUD FARM.

mtist be provided, in order to supply the vital
principle of the atmosphere. During every mo-
ment of life animals are taking in oxygen by
means of the organs of respiration ; but no part
of that oxygen remains in the system ; it is given
forth in the form of carbon and hydrogen, com-
monly called sweat, by exhalations from the skin,
and the ordinary evacuations. The number of
respirations is regulated by the extent of exercise
or work. Every man acquainted with the treat-
ment of horses is aware of the consequence which
follows from bringing them into confined stables
or buildings.

When about to erect new buildings, the mate-
rial of wdiich they are to be constructed becomes
a matter for consideration. The selection will, in
some measure, be determined by locality; in other
words, the productions of the district. Economy
and durability are two important considerations.
In those countries where a slaty kind of stone
abounds, provided it is not so soft and porous as
to cause the buildings to be damp, it may be
brought into use very advantageously. Much of
this is found in parts of Oxfordshire and Glouces-
tershire, especially on the Cotswold hills. Where
this is not to be obtained, for substantial work
bricks w411 bear the palm. Temporary hovels may
be built with gorse ; in which case flakes, made
with rods similar to the hurdles used in some

MATERIALS FOR BUILDINGS. 21

countries, formed in panels to fit the frame-work,
usually protect the interior; but they are very
fragile, and a kick injures them. Elm slabs might
be substituted with good effect. Very neat, in-
deed ornamental, hovels are constructed with fir
poles sawn asunder, placed perpendicularly, and
faced externally with a round and flat surface al-
ternately, by which means the flat surfaces come
together, and being sufficiently lapped over and
carefully joined, will be thoroughly air tight. Two
coats of the pine varnish on the outside will pre-
serve them from the effects of the weather. It
has an infinitely better appearance than that
abominable production, gas tar, which becomes
soft in hot weather, when it adheres to everything
which comes in contact with it ; but besides that,
I believe it to be exceedingly offensive to the ol-
factory nerves of the equine race, and, conse-
quently, highly injurious to mares in foal, as ren-
dering them liable to premature labour. Where
chalk can be procured, it forms excellent walls for
outbuildings, and, if properly constructed, is very
durable. It is, however, indispensably necessary
to protect the inside with boards from four feet
six to five feet hiorh, if horses are to be lodo-ed in
the interior. It is, no doubt, particularly con-
ducive to health, and neutralizes the acidulous salt
produced in stables. Clay may also be brought
into use if near at hand at a very trifling expense,
c 3

22 THE STUD FARM.

The inside of the building being formed with
boards, on the outer side, at the distance of one
foot, flakes made with rods are firmly fixed, and
the intermediate space filled up with well tem-
pered clay and rammed as the work proceeds ; it
should be thoroughly softened with water, so that
portions of it may be forced through the apertures
in the flakes ; the exterior is then coated over with
common plaster and white-washed, which gives it
a very sightly appearance, and will last many
years. The worst description of hovels that can
be constructed are those which are formed with
weather-boarding, which very soon warps, pre-
senting interstices for the admission of the wind ;
cold draughts are thereby admitted, which ought
at all times to be most sedulously guarded against.

I have been thus profuse in enumerating a
variety of materials for the construction of out-
buildings, as there are some localities in which
they are available at a very trifling expense, and
which may answer the purpose for a small estab-
lishment ; but in a general way bricks are un- p
questionably the best materials, and as the duty
upon them is reduced, their cost is now somewhat
less than formerly.

For the roofing of all buildings to be occupied
by horses, nothing appears to be better adapted
than thatch, beinor less obnoxious to the chancres
of atmosphere than slates or tiles. Slates certainly

MATERIALS FOR RAYIXG. 23

present the nicest appearance, and they admit of
a flatter roof; but wiien the rays of the sun strike
upon them in hot summer weather, they reflect a
degree of heat almost insufferable ; during cold
rains, frost, and snow, they are subservient to
extreme chilliness. To obviate this, the rafters
should be ceiled inside — a precaution also neces-
sary with tiles. Either of the latter are, of course,
more durable than thatch, which has the disad-
vantao'e of beino- liable to harbour rats. The
material of which the walls are formed may, in
some measure, determine this question, slates or
tiles being the usual companions of bricks.

AYe now come to the very important considera-
tion of the material with which the paving or
bottoms of the buildings are to be prepared.
Architects in general propose bricks ; but they
are very objectionable on account of the exceed-
ingly smooth surface which they present. When
horses are rising from a recumbent position, they
are very apt to slip and strain themselves, from
want of foot-hold. In a state of nature, a com-
parison quite admissible on this occasion, the horse
always finds a resistance for his hind toes in the
earth on which he lies. Many a lameness, the
cause of which could never be satisfactorily ac-
counted for, has had its origin from the animal
slipping when in the act of rising. It is in all
cases desirable, when a horse meets w^ith an acci-
c 4

24 THE STUD FARM.

dent, to ascertain the cause, not only as regards
certain indications to be derived from that know-
ledge, which will direct, to some extent, the appli-
cations or remedies best calculated to promote a
cure, but to prevent a recurrence of the evil. It
is so clear to any one who will take the trouble to
observe a horse in the act of getting up, that he
requires a fulcrum for the toe of the hind foot,
from which he may make his spring, or effort to
raise his hind quarters, that it is extraordinary
any one having regard for the safety of his stock
should permit the apartments specially appro-
priated to the repose of the animals to be so con-
structed as to be constantly pregnant with danger.
For this reason, small stones, neatly and nicely
laid in sand, form the most eligible paving for all
descriptions of buildings in which horses are to lie
down. The more level it is laid the better, pro-
vided there is sufficient fall for the water to run
off, declining to the outer wall, where there should
be a grating over a drain, to allow the escape of
any moisture, but of which there will be very
little when the litter is carefully removed and re-
plenished at proper intervals. Drains carried to
the centre are objectionable, inasmuch as they
convey a current of air to that part where the
horse is usually either standing or reposing ; but
if placed close to the wall, no such inconvenience
is produced; besides which they assist ventilation.

MANGERS. 25

The fittings or furniture required in boxes,
hovels, or, in fact, any kind of stabling, cannot be
too simple ; and they should be as few as possible.
The ostentatious display of variety incurs expense
without utility. Any projections or ledges which
the inmates can take hold of with their teeth, and
be thereby induced to contract the abominable
habit of crib-biting, should be studiously avoided.
A well for the hay is certainly preferable to a
rack; the only objection I ever heard advanced
against the former being, that horses will turn
over the hay so offered to them with their noses,
and, by blowing upon it, render it unpalatable,
thus creating waste. This they may do to a cer-
tain extent, but it is a mistaken notion respecting
waste. If given to them in racks, they will fre-
quently pull it out and tread it under their feet,
when much of it is soiled and carried away with
the refuse litter. Moreover, when placed in a
well or manger, the hay is in a position more
natural to the horse than in a rack: it is his
custom to feed from the ground, not to browse the
trees, with which habit racks appear to be more in
conformity. There are certain propensities and
functions of the animal, in a state of nature, which
it is desirable should be assimilated as nearly as
possible in a state of domestication. The usual
materials for mangers are slates, quarries, iron, or
oak, the superiority of which may be estimated

26 THE STUD FARM.

in similar rotation to that in which they are enu-
merated. Excellent mangers are formed of slate,
especially when made out of one solid block ; but
they can only be procured in that fashion at the
quarries, from which, if the distance be consider-
able, the expense of carriage is a consideration.
The mangers should be hollowed out something
after the form of a pie-dish, with an excavated
rim at the upper edge, to prevent horses from
throwing the corn out ; and, with a similar view,
they should be of considerable depth ; the bottom
should be worked quite flat. A tolerably large-
sized manger is at all times to be preferred, as
many persons entertain an opinion that when the
corn is spread thinly over a large expansive sur-
face, it is a means of preventing greedy feeders
from bolting their oats without thoroughly masti-
cating them. Although not quite in a condition
to acknowledge the truth of this assertion to the
full extent, it may assist in a very trifling degree.
The front part of all mangers, whatever material
they be made of, should be sufficiently thick to pre-
vent horses from gnawing them ; and they should
be made round. If of wood, they should be pro-
tected with iron. Very superior mangers are made
with slabs of slate — the only inferiority which they
present, compared with those made from blocks,
consists in the corners or angles, which prevent
their being kept so scrupulously clean, a desidera-

MANGERS. 27

turn of the utmost importance, affording a sub-
stantial reason for recommending solid slate in
preference to any other material for this purpose.
AVood is open to the same objection with respect
to angles and corners, with the additional one of
being so much more porous, consequently per-
mitting the adhesion of any wet or moist sub-
stance, especially of bran- mashes, which form a
considerable portion of the dietary of brood-mares
and young stock. Such mangers, therefore, should
be chosen as are capable of being most readily
and perfectly cleaned. If particles of bran-
mashes are suffered to remain alono; the edojes
and corners of mangers, where horses cannot
reach, they soon become sour and offensive to
these delicate-feeding animals, independent of
which the food afterwards offered to them becomes
contaminated and unwholesome. Iron mangers
are much in fashion, but they are seldom made
deep enough or sufficiently flat at the bottom.
An improvement has lately been introduced, by
lining them with a kind of white w^are, which I
have no doubt answers a good purpose ; but many
people object to iron for mangers in consequence
of its being very cold. Hard red quarries are
often used, the front of the manger being formed
of a semicircular piece of cast iron, representing
the half of a pipe ; it possesses one recommenda-
tion, that of not being enticing to horses to take

28 THE STUD FARM.

hold of with their teeth ; but as the quarries can-
not be laid without the angles already deprecated,
they must give place to the solid blocks of slate.

Apart from the nicety requisite in offering
food to horses, and the importance of thoroughly
cleansing, at all times, the apparatus from which
they feed, there is another very important con-
sideration, that of being able to purify tho-
roughly every part of their habitation in the event
of illness. The mangers are on such occasions of
paramount importance. The exudations of offen-
sive mucus, which prevail in cases of colds and
strangles, should be most scrupulously extirpated,
but this cannot be performed so effectually from
wood as from slate, quarries, or iron.

The influenza is a malady always to be regarded
as contagious, and it is one which will, at times,
attack the best regulated studs ; being contagious,
and therefore likely to affect healthy animals if
placed in stables previously occupied by invalids,
it is of the utmost importance that such buildings
should be so constructed as to admit of purification
to the utmost extent, and with the greatest
facility. Chloride of lime is the best disinfectant
that can be used, and should always be applied to
the mangers when influenza or strangles have
made their appearance.

Receptacles for water should also be provided,
60 that brood mares may have constant access to

SURFACE OF THE YARD. 29

it : and any contrivance by way of pipes, which
the position of the buildings will admit, is far
preferable to the labour incurred by carrying the
water to replenish them.

Each box or hovel should be furnished with a
window, which should be placed sufficiently high
as to be secure from breakaoje : to guard as^ainst

o o o

accidents it should also be protected with iron
bars. If made to open and shut, it may be used
for the purpose of ventilation when required.
The most convenient plan appears to be that of
hanging it upon a pivot or axis, by which means
it may be opened to any extent, and shut at
pleasure.

Before concluding the arrangements for lay-
ing out the stud farm, we must advert to the
material with which the space in front of the
boxes is to be covered. The choice will, I think,
be in favour of tan. Gravel may look neater;
but it is objectionable from its liability to in-
sinuate itself into the clefts of the tender frogs of
foals, and thereby engender thrushes. Straw
may be the substitute if tan is not easily pro-
cured ; but, as that space may be required in
stormy weather for the occupation of a few mares
and their foals during an hour or two of the day,
when the elements prohibit their being taken out
into the paddocks, it is evident that nothing in
the fashion of paving is admissible. Here I must

30 THE STUD FARM.

remark, however, that, much as I am opposed to
the carelessness of allowing foals or young stock
to be exposed to rain, I am still more adverse to
having them shut up, unless imperatively com-
pelled by the inclemency of the weather.

Passing now to the arrangements of the pad-
docks, enough has already been urged on the
necessity for rendering the soil thoroughly dry,
by means of drains : but it may be well to offer
a caution upon the danger attending open drains
or ditches of any kind. Mares, especially when
in foal, and more so as the time approaches when
they are about to bring forth, are very fond of
rolling themselves on the ground. Lands, raised
as they commonly are in Leicestershire, Warwick-
shire, and other grass countries, are, from the
same cause, replete with danger : if a mare rolls
over upon her back into one of the hollow parts,
it is very probable she may not be able to recover
herself without assistance; and, in struggling to
do so, will incur serious injury. It will thus be
seen that paddocks, having a perfectly smooth
surface, are the best adapted for the occupation
of brood mares. For colts and young stock it is,
however, another affair : the more numerous and
prominent the undulations the better; uneven
surfaces improve their action, and give suppleness
to their limbs. A horse that has never been
accustomed to move upon anything but the

FENCES ROUND FADDOCKS. 31

smoothest surface of grass, is a helpless creature
when ridden over fallow fields and other in-
equalities. Even supposing that the stud farm is
intended solely for the purpose of breeding
racing stock, it is highly desirable they should be
accustomed to the free use of their limbs to the
utmost limits that safety will permit; but, as
these pages are intended to convey suggestions
for rearing stock for general purposes, it would
be an unpardonable oversight to have omitted
these remarks.

It will be found most convenient to have a
certain number of paddocks ranging from one to
two acres ; and, if the establishment be extensive,
some of larger dimensions: but, as they should
be considered exclusively intended for the purpose
of exercise, and not for the pasturage which they
aiford, it is a waste of ground to have them very
spacious. No doubt can exist as to what consti-
tutes the best kind of fence: a brick wall is
certainly the most durable and effective, but it is
expensive. In those districts where stone walls
form the boundaries of fields, the same material
may be brought into use most effectively. They
should be at least six feet or six feet and a half
high. Large doors may be introduced with ad-
vantage with walls of any kind. The chalk walls
already alluded to form excellent fences where
that substance is procurable. Strong quick hedges.

32 THE STUD FARM.

formed as they are at Newmarket, are very good,
but they require a lapse of some years ere they
grow sufficiently strong and high, ejther for the
purposes of shelter or security; during which
period it is necessary to guard them with posts
and rails on each side : similar contrivances, but
made to move away, must also protect the gate-
way. Gorse or furze planted upon a bank, faced
with stone, may be suggested as an excellent
fence : horses have a great antipathy to the
prickly nature of that shrub, which, being an
evergreen, affords as much protection in winter as
in summer. The propensity which horses possess
of breaking through fences, some more so than
others, must dictate the propriety of having them
so strong as not only to prevent them from
accomplishing that feat, but also of attempting it. [

33

CHAP. II.

SELECTION OF MARES.

Procreation. — The Superiority of Horses of the present and
past Ages considered. — Immense Increase of Racing during
the last Century. — Consolation to Breeders — Formation of a
Stud. — Causes of Disappointment. — Symmetrical Proportions
essential, combined with fashionable Blood. — Attributes
enumerated. — Loss and Disappointment averted by judi-
cious Selections of Mares and Stallions. — Importance of
Beauty in Hunters and Hacks. — A young Farmer's Idea of
a Brood Mare, and his Selection of a Stallion. — Racing
Blood. — Aged Stallions and Mares generally most successful.
— Sort of Mares to breed Hunters and Hacks. — Extremes
objectionable. — Hereditary Defects.

If the ingenuity of man could by any possibility
define certain causes which would insure certain
results in reference to the procreation of animals,
infalhble rules might be established. But this
cannot be accomplished, and therefore the breed-
ing of all kinds of domestic animals must, in some
measure, remain subservient to the decrees of
Nature. Still there are many obvious principles
which so generally lead to similar consequences,
that they may be very faithfully held as acknow-
ledged facts. Nature appears sometimes to thwart
man's hopes with little incidents, which at the

34 THE STUD FARM.

first glance are not only unexpected, but seem to
be unaccountable ; yet a little reflection will clear
up the mystery. The union of a black horse
with a chesnut mare may give birth to a grey
foal; and many similar events may take place,
quite as readily to be accounted for when reflection
and investigation are brought into action. It is
to control, so far as lies in human nature, such
results as may be most conducive to profit and
convenience, that experience and circumspection
are so important to the successful management of
a breeding stud.

Much has been written on the question whether
the horses of the present day are superior to those
which were bred by our immediate ancestors.
This is a query which must remain in some doubt,
as we can only be guided by the fallacious result
of timing race horses ; of other kinds, there is no
test whatever. It is well known that the qualltiea
of race horses of the same age can only be de-
termined by running them together. How much
more delusive, therefore, must be the time test in
those comparisons where a series of years has
intervened between the respective probations, since
we are well aware that such ancient records are
less accurate than those of the present day.

One great object in breeding domestic animals,
whether they be horses, cattle, sheep, or pigs, has
been to improve as well as to perpetuate the re-

INCREASE OF RACING. 35

spective species. Has so much time, money, and
experience been wasted over the first of our domes-
tic animals, the horse, to no good purpose?
Candour will, I think, respond in the negative,
and upon this reasoning we may surely infer that
the present breed of horses quite equals, if it does
not excel, those of our forefathers. That they
did not bring to the post so many bad horses as
are trained and brought out to run at the present
time is an incontrovertible fact, but then there
were not the same motives in existence. There
were not anything like the numbers of race meet-
ings held in those days. In 1750 there are only
the records of twenty- two assemblages of this kind,
at which no more than sixty-four races were run,
and mention is made of seventeen horses which
won at minor places. In 1825 there were sixty-
six meetings, at which five hundred and ninety-
five races took place. In 1850 they were increased
to one hundred and four meetings, which afforded
one thousand and twenty-five races, besides a vast
number of village sports during fairs, wakes, and
such like rural festivals not enumerated in the
Racing Calendar, fully equal in increase of propor-
tion to the seventeen winners mentioned as hav-
ing run one century ago ; thus the augmentation
during that period is in proportion to sixteen fold.
Racing, in its early stages, was altogether on a
different footing to what it now is. There were

D 2

36 THE STUD FARM.

very few handicaps or engagements of that kind
yielding remuneration and inducement to culti-
vate and train worthless weeds. Those contri-
vances are now propounded to a great extent to
the encouragement of bad horses. The nobles of
the land, and the wealthy patrons of the turf, who
laid the foundation upon which the structure has
so prosperously risen, ran their horses from mo-
tives of laudable ambition and honour, more than
for gain. They only brought their best horses to
the post, as those alone had a chance of winning
a four miles' race of heats at weight for age.
Some consolation to breeders of racing stock is
now in embryo in the hope that if they do not
succeed in breeding first-rate horses, they may
breed those which will pay expenses by winning
handicaps, while the stimulus to obtain good
horses need not be relaxed, as, under any cir-
cumstances, they are capable of being turned to
the greatest profit if judiciously managed.

When about to form a stud of thoroughbred
brood mares, the first and most certain step towards
success is unquestionably to purchase those which
have bred good runners. Their foals, if they be
the offspring of a popular sire, will always com-
mand a high price when offered for sale in the
event of their not being kept on for the purpose
of training ; but the purchase of such mares cannot
be accomplished without a very considerable out-

CHOICE OF MAKES. 37

lay of capital, and such as few persons have the
means or inclination to invest. Moreover, they
are scarcely to be obtained at any price, unless
the death of a breeder or some other very im-
perative event compels the breaking up of an
establishment. Mares that have been very ex-
cellent runners themselves are often sought after
for the purpose of breeding at enormously high
figures, and have, in many instances, proved to
be the worst speculations ; many of them never
having produced a foal worth training ; and al-
though it is not necessary to enumerate them, a
reference to the Stud Book and comparison with
the Racins: Calendar will bear out the assertion.

It appears necessary to assign some reason for
the disappointment which not unfrequently at-
tends the speculation of breeding from mares that
have evinced such vast superiority on the turf.
Several may be adduced, one or more of which
may weigh with the same individual. In the
first place it often happens that such good crea-
tures are so severely trained, and so frequently
brought to the post, that their constitutions be-
come impaired, some internal malady is esta-
blished, or the functions of certain members are
disorganised, most especially the lungs, when a
vitiated condition of the blood takes place, and
yet no external appearances will lead to the sup-
position that there is anything amiss ; for it some-
p 3

38 THE STUD FARM.

times happens that horses labouring under the
effect of internal chronic disorders will carry-
much flesh, especially when they are not at work.
Experienced veterinary practitioners may detect
these disorders, but they are not easily discovered
by those who have the selection and care of
horses in general. The nervous excitement fre-
quently produced by a repetition of severe races
has at times a great and most injurious influence
over some animals, and which, in many instances,
they never overcome. The effects on the con-
stitution are permanent. It may be ascribed to
temper, but still it is analogous with the constitu-
tion, if severe races, often repeated, cause the
functions of the animal to be impaired; under
such circumstances the produce may be influenced
thereby.

The most practicable, and generally the most
profitable and satisfactory, course to be adopted
for the establishment of a stud of brood mares
for racing purposes, is that of purchasing good
shaped animals, combining the most fashionable
blood that can be obtained, and which has already
been tried in the stud as well as on the turf.
Those only should be admitted possessing the
recommendation of sound constitutions and free-
dom froQi hereditary defects or blemishes, with
good legs and feet, uniting the sources of those
perfections with the symmetrical proportions of

DESIRABLE PERFECTIONS. 39

the body, on which is dependent the position of
the legs, and to a great degree their quality.
The wear which a horse's fore lesjs will sustain is
greatly influenced by the form of the shoulders,
and the union of those members. Action is also
very materially governed by the same causes. The
goodness of the hind legs is in a similar manner
determined by proportions of the loins, thighs, and
gaskins, with the hocks, all of which being nicely
connected ensure a favourable position of the
lower extremities. For it may be received as a
general principle that horses not symmetrically
proportioned cannot enjoy the requisite qualities
of speed, action, and endurance. Symmetry must
not, however, be mistaken as descriptive of beauty,
for there are many plain-looking horses excellent
racers ; but upon minute examination they will be
found to possess that harmony of proportion which
is essential to true action. Shape and make, is a
subject of the utmost importance, and yet, in racing
establishments, too frequently overlooked. " Like
begets like," is a maxim which, although not
infallible, ought not to be forgotten. It is more
frequently applicable to defects than perfections.
If the axiom could always be depended upon,
breeding would be reduced to a certainty. By
the union of a superior mare with a horse of
equal merit, an equally good foal would be pro-
D 4

40 THE STUD FARM. I

duced. As it is more frequently the case that
hereditary imperfections and constitutional defects
are entailed on the offspring than otherwise, too
much circumspection cannot be observed in these
particulars. If these subjects were more generally
attended to than they are, less disappointment
and loss would ensue ; but if a mare be fashion-
ably bred, no matter how ill-formed she may
be, or has shown some running, as soon as her
career on the turf is over, she is consigned to
the harem. Beauty of proportion and appear-
ance is a matter of still greater importance
when it is the intention to breed hunters, hacks,
or carriage horses, of which denomination twenty
handsome ones, with showy action, are more
readily sold than one whose merit consists in his
goodness, without style and appearance to recom-
mend him. Especially for the service of a stud
farm, from which they must usually be sold before
their qualities* are put to the test, appearances are
most essential desiderata.

Unfortunately many persons are sadly mistaken
in the qualifications of animals, or the purposes
for which they are calculated, and thus in making
their selection of brood mares choose those for
occupations which they are totally unfit for. In
illustration of this, a short time since a young
farmer, whom I met in the hunting-field, called my
attention to a mare he was riding, inquiring at

ANECDOTE. 41

the same time if I did not think she would be
valuable as a brood mare. Looking her over I
found her to be a thick, cloggy, vulgar animal,
without the appearance of fashion, but having a
great back and loins, her only recomm^dations.
She had a short neck, with defective upright
shoulders, round fleshy legs, small feet for her
bulk, and little weak hocks : with such a frame
it is scarcely necessary to add that she had no
action. My inquiry was, what sort of foal he
expected to obtain from her ? he answered, " A

" hunter. I shall send her to ," mentioning

the name of a horse that won the St. Leger a
few years since. I do not introduce his name,
having no desire to injure the reputation of the
animal, and consequently the profits of his owner,
but I consider him to be the most perfect brute
as a stallion imaginable. He is a great coarse,
heavy animal, with long striding action, and as a
hunter, in deep ground, would tire himself in a
mile. Two such animals neyer ought to be
united with any expectation of success. Put to
an active cart stallion, or Yorkshire horse, the
mare alluded to would no doubt breed something
calculated for the vans in London, for which
purpose horses of great size command a remune-
rative price.

The production of a happy medium by the
union of two extremes, is scarcely, if ever, realised.

42 THE STUD FARM.

Persons sometimes fancy that by putting a huge,
clumsy, cart mare to a thoroughbred stallion, they
will have a produce with power and action ; reason-
ably expecting to obtain some of the proportions
of each parent. Imagine a creature with the head
and body of the dam, the neck, shoulders, and legs
of the sire, and a pretty specimen of the equine
tribe it will be. But that is a common result of
such attempts.

The racing success of the family to which a
mare is related may be looked upon as a criterion
worthy of attention, not only with reference to
the parentage, but also in the brothers and sisters.
There are numerous examples of mares showing
very little superiority as racers themselves that
have produced excellent stock ; but then it will be
generally discovered that their parents have dis-
tinguished themselves either on the turf or in the
stud. The faculty of racing in such cases seems
to have remained in abeyance, as it were, during
a generation, manifesting itself also in some of
the collateral branches. The age at which mares
are put to the stud must depend upon circum-
stances ; so long as their services, in their various
employments, are valuable, few persons are will-
ing to commence breeding from them. It has
often proved the case, both with mares and
stallions, that their best foals have not come
forth till they became advanced in years ; this,

THE BEST AGE FOR BREEDING. 43

however, more generally applies to stallions than
mares. I am quite unable to state the cause, or
even to assume the reason, neither have I ever
met with any person who could do so satisfac-
torily. Racing mares often end their career on
the turf at three years old, some even at two, and
most when six or seven, at which latter period
they may be considered most eligible for stud
purposes. Many breeders appear to covet very
young mares, but, from the observations which I
have made, I have no reason to recommend them.
It may sometimes occur with blood stock that
cannot race, and are worthless for other purposes,
that no occupation can be found for them, and
thus they find their way into the stud ; yet it is
often more than questionable whether they are cal-
culated for that, and if it would not be more pru-
dent to consign them to the boiling house of the
nearest kennel. Mares will continue to breed till
five-and-twenty, sometimes till they are nearly or
quite thirty years old, but as they approximate to
that age their produce is generally smaller than
durino; the more viojorous term of their lives.

The class of mares available for breeding
hunters and hacks are not readily to be procured
until they are at an advanced age. Persons do
not like to part with those of a superior description
till they have done their work, and none but good
ones ought to be admitted. Who would be willing

44 THE STUD FAKM.

to give up a clever hunter so long as she carried
her owner safe and well ?

To commence breeding with an old worn-out
creature at the age of sixteen or seventeen years,
cannot be sanctioned, the object being profit, by-
breeding fine, vigorous, and powerful animals. It
is from such mistaken practices, conjoined with
others quite as erroneous, that farmers have so
frequently in disgust given up breeding as an un-
successful employment, ostensibly in consequence
of the very injudicious selections which they have
made both of sires and dams. To obtain a good
sort of mare it is far better to give a good price
for one at six or seven years old, than to attempt
the speculation with one whose infirmities render
it very problematical whether her produce will be
worth rearing. From a good sound young mare
you may expect to have some ten or a dozen fine
colts, which in due time may sell for one hundred
sovereigns each ; an infirm, aged, worn out animal,
may favour you with foals which will not produce
thirty pounds each. You have therefore a large
margin for the contingent profit upon an additional
outlay of twenty or thirty pounds for a brood
mare.

Blind mares and stallions do not often produce
blind foals, neither does it invariably follow that
foals are roarers, because their progenitors were
afflicted with that malady ; yet these are defects

BLINDNESS. — ROARING. 45

which should be most suspiciously entertained, — I
use that expression advisedly, — because I would
not reject the one or the other without most scru-
pulously investigating the cause, provided the
animal was unexceptionable in other respects.
Accidents, such as blows from inhuman savages,
or bites from other horses, may deprive the un-
fortunate creature of eyesight. Such an event
cannot be imagined by the most fanciful as tend-
ing to produce the like evil in the offspring.
High feeding, bad stable management, especially
when labouring under cold, and excessively violent
exertion, may cause inflammation, which occasion-
ally terminates in blindness. Those are not cases
which need create apprehension. But cataract is
another affair, having an hereditary tendency.
Whenever constitutional blindness is to be traced
through former generations, or collateral branches,
the animal certainly ought not to be used for the
procreation of its species.

We do not often hear of roaring in mares, and
being the effect of inflammation it may not gene-
rally be characterised as hereditary, yet in some
cases it would appear to be so, arising probably
from a peculiar formation of the trachea, or wind-
pipe, and in some cases from a peculiar suscepti-
bility to inflammation of the mucous membrane,
with which it is lined ; thus it may be fairly termed
an hereditary defect in a modified degree.

46 THE STUD FABM.

Spavins and curbs being on most occasions re-
sults proceeding from a peculiarity of form in the
hock, may truly be denominated hereditary defects :
they certainly ought to be rejected on all occasions.
More attention has undoubtedly been paid to this
subject of late years, for there are evidently not
so many horses affected with them as were to be
seen some five and twenty years ago.

47

CHAP. in.

BARREN AND OTHER MABES.

Importance of Quietude. — Mares to Stallion. — Slipping Foals,
frequent Causes thereof — Prevention of Evils. — Arrange-
ment of Mares -without Foals.

Having fully discussed in another chapter the
period of the year most eligible for foals to be
brought forth, it is only necessary in this place
to offer a few remarks upon the attainment of
that object. I will pass over the minutiae of
trying, and the subsequent event, as subjects so
thoroughly understood as not to require any de-
tailed instruction, but after a mare has left the
stallion it is of the utmost importance that she
be kept free from all excitement. With mares
that have never had foals more attention is re-
quired than with those which have foals at their
sides. Similar caution is also necessary with
mares that have missed a year.

It is usually the practice to present mares to
the horse nine days after they have foaled. They
are generally in a proper condition at that time,
and there is no doubt as to its being the period
most likely to ensure a renewal of that state so

48 THE STUD FARM.

earnestly desired. At the expiration of a fort-
night the trial is repeated, and again at the con-
clusion of another similar period, when if she
refuses, the event is generally considered to be
conclusive, providing she has not during any
interval evinced unfavourable symptoms. The
custom of constantly harassing mares with the
amorous dalliance of the stallion cannot be too
strongly deprecated. Many are of such a tem-
perament, that if so treated, they are almost
certain not to prove in foal.

When a mare foals early in January, she can-
not, as a matter of course, be permitted to receive
the addresses of the stallion till the succeeding
month, or there will be some danger of her pre-
senting her owner with " an addition to the estab-
lishment " at the conclusion of the old year, by no
means so acceptable an offering as a " New
Year's gift." Neither is it advisable, under any
circumstances, to run the time too near by sending
mares to the horse early in February ; as it some-
times happens mares do not go their full period,
and thus by spinning the calculation too fine much
disappointment may ensue.

If a mare slips her foal, it is sometimes the result
of want of precaution, at others of an inherent
propensity, which no attention seems capable of
averting. When once it has occurred, it is very
likely to happen again. The stench from carrion

TREES OBJECTIOXABLE. 49

is peculiarly offensive to mares during the period
of crestation, and should therefore be most scru-
pulously kept away from them, as well as every
other bad smell, not omitting the disagreeable
odour of gas tar, a production sometimes used to
preserve gates, posts and rails, palings, and other
kinds of wood w^ork ; hence it should never be
employed about any premises where mares are
kept. The fumes which arise from putrid vege-
table matters are also exceedingly objectionable.

The leaves of the savin tree being known to
occasion abortion should be carefully excluded
from the precincts of a stud farm. The willow,
if consumed in large quantities, ^vill produce a
similar effect. Such trees, therefore, should never
be permitted to flourish within reach of brood
mares ; when in foal they have sometimes a
morbid appetite for all descriptions of rubbish, for
which reason it is better not to allow any trees to
grow within their reach. All exciting events
should be carefully avoided, especially the neigh-
ing of stallions ; and those mares which may
possess a habit of galloping about will be most
safe in small enclosures by themselves ; few, how-
ever, have this propensity when in foal, and it
may be deemed an evidence against their being in
that state ; but, under any circumstances, the rest-
lessness of an individual should not be permitted
to disturb the tranquillity of others.
£

50 THE STUD FARM.

It may appear that I have been adducing
precautions as to casualties which very seldom
happen. But it is to be remembered that they
relate to subjects over which the proprietor of a
stud can exercise his control and discretion. On
all occasions " prevention is better than cure," and
in nothing is that axiom more applicable than in
the management of a stud of horses. I remember
some years since visiting a friend who was an ex-
tensive breeder. He exclaimed loudly against his
ill luck, complaining that his stock was frequently
subject to injuries, being lamed from kicking each
other, and all sorts of disasters. Upon inspecting
the premises, most of these mishaps were readily ac-
counted for. The palings which were intended to
divide the paddocks were in a very dilapidated con-
dition, absolutely down in places, with pieces of
wood lying on the ground, wherein were rusty nails
sticking upwards. The entire colts were running
about without restraint, and, consequently, inflict-
ing injuries on each other, — one of them was then
suffering from a blow or bite on the eye ; and my
friend ran through a long list of unfortunate
events, most of which were traceable to want of
precaution. Such cases must not be attributed to
bad luck.

Horses are social animals, and with the ex-
ception of entire colts, may in general be per-
mitted to enjoy each other's company during

EXERCISE ESSENTIAL. '51

certain portions of the day in the paddocks or
yards appropriated to their use. There may be,
however, some exceptions among brood mares,
which are very soon recognised, and in that case
the malicious animal must be sentenced to a life
of solitude. To assign, however, separate depart-
ments to barren mares, mares in foal, and mares
with foal, will generally be advisable ; where there
are conveniences, it is certainly safer to allow
separate paddocks, or yards, for the accommodation
of such mares as have foals by their sides.

During the winter season, three hours' enlarge-
ment in the paddocks, or yards, is quite sufficient
for barren mares, or any others ; in the summer,
there is no objection to their remaining out the
greater portion of the day, being, of course, sup-
pHed with food during that period; nevertheless, if
the weather be very hot, and flies troublesome,
they will be better in some sheltered building,
except early in the morning, or in the afternoon
when the atmosphere is cooler. In fact, if the
weather be very hot, it is a plan far preferable to
keep them in during the day, and enlarge them
at m<i\it.

1

52

CHAP. IV.

STALLIONS.

Demand for Thoroughbred Stock. — Descendants of Penelope.

— Changing Sires. — The Quagga and Arab Mare. — Colour.

— Choice of Stallions for particular Mares. — Improvements
must be acquired by Degrees. — Superiority of the English
Horse. — Their Size. — Anatomical Proportions. — Incon-
sistency of Breeding from very Large Sires and Small Mares,
and vice versa. — True Symmetry most frequent in Animals
of moderate Size. — Standard of Excellence. — Effects of
Food. — Comparative Texture of Bone in the Thoroughbred
and Cart-Horse. — Effects of Training and Racing. — Hero
and his Pedigree. — Hereditary Properties. — Curious Inci-
dents connected with celebrated Stallions. — General Opinions
of Breeders. — Extremes deprecated. — The most likely
Means of breeding Valuable Stock. — Hereditary Defects. —
The Opinion of a Veterinary Surgeon thereon. — Exercise
for Stallions. — Hocks. — Shape and Make. — Bay Middleton.

— Sir Hercules. — Touchstone. — Their Pedigrees com-
pared. — Breeding In and In. — Arabian Blood not advis-
able for racing, but admissible for Hacks. — Horses are
acclimatised. — Breeding Hunters and Road-horses especially
considered. — The Distinction of the Term Thoroughbred.

— Erroneous Data. — Apartments for Stallions. — General
Characteristics.

So great has been the desire manifested by
foreigners to become possessed of our best thorough-
bred stock, that whenever a horse has evinced
^reat superiority either on the course or in the

SUPERIORITY OF PENELOPE. b6

stud, he has generally been sought after, and
often obtained at a very great price. This, whilst
it offers an inducement to Englishmen to breed
race horses, is a temptation which has frequently
deprived them of the services of very superior
animals in the stud, and cannot be regarded
otherwise than as a loss. Nevertheless, there are
so many horses bred annually in this kingdom,
that it would be a marvellous event, indeed, if
there were not a sufficient number left to enable
the most fastidious to make an election suitable to
their taste and the blood of their mares.

It is a remarkable fact, and somewhat worthy
the attention of breeders, that the most successful
stallions of late years are descended in a direct
line from one mare, the Duke of Grafton's Pene-
lope ; the most celebrated of which are Defence
(dead), Bay Middleton, Sir Hercules, and Touch-
stone. The first seven of her produce were all by
one sire. Waxy. Including a filly, which was not
named and put to the stud, she produced Whale-
bone, Web, Woful, Wilful, Wire, and Whisker ;
all first-rate animals. Whalebone and Whisker not
only being winners of the Derby in their respec-
tive years, but likewise the sires of many very
superior horses. After having bred Whisker,
Penelope was put to Walton, the produce being
Waterloo, an animal of moderate pretensions.
Wildfire and Windfall followed, and were the oiF-

E 3

54 THE STUD FARM.

spring of her first partner Waxy ; she then gave
birth to Whizzgig by Rubens, Waltz by Election,
and Wamba by Merlin, the last three of which
were very moderate indeed compared with the
first seven of Waxy's progeny. Can this manifest
inferiority have arisen in consequence of changing
the sire ? if so, how much more desirable it would
be to continue the same stallion on all practicable
occasions, rather than seek a fresh one every suc-
ceeding year, a practice adopted by many breeders.
There are many secrets in Nature which we can-
not comprehend, and this may be one of them.

An old and valued friend, a few years since
" gathered to his fathers," who was an extensive
breeder, and moreover a very keen observer, was
wont to be very earnest in his declaration, that
mares should never be sent but to the same stallion
during the whole course of their career in the
stud, unless it could not possibly be avoided. I
certainly am not prepared with any argument to
oppose his opinion, although it was undoubtedly
founded upon very subtle notions of the works of
Nature. He maintained that a mare having bred
foals by different horses entertained a greater
predilection for one partner than another, and that
on subsequent occasions, having reminiscences of
past events, the produce was afiected thereby.
Horses certainly possess the faculty of remem-
brance to a much greater extent than casual ob-
servers are apt to give them credit for, and this

DEKIVATION OF COLOUR. 55

may be an event capable of creating a more lasting
impression than any other.

My friend has often related to me the circum-
stance of an Arabian mare which was barren
several seasons, and in order to cause her to breed,
the experiment was tried of putting her to a
quagga : this was so far successful, and she brought
forth a mule. On subsequent occasions the best
bred horses were put to her, by whom she had
foals, but they were all marked with a stripe down
the back similar to quaggas and mules, each foal
having it more faintly delineated than its pre-
decessor. This circumstance certainly bears evi-
dence that there is some affinity between the
produce of different sires more than can be sub-
stantially accounted for. Horses are sometimes
seen with this stripe, but I have never had an
opportunity of ascertaining if they, or their ances-
tors, had ever had communication with a quagga.

The fastidious in colour may be anxious to
attempt to regulate that phenomenon ; to what
extent they may be able to do it, is not easily de-
fined. Some horses are notorious for getting
foals of particular colours, not always identical
with their own ; but it generally happens in such
cases, if the circumstance be investigated, that the
colour which predominates in the stock is trace-
able to some ancestor of the sire or dam, such is the
predisposition of Nature to go back to the original.

E 4

56 THE STUD FARM.

It may consequently be received as an hereditary
quality, and with thoroughbred horses is readily
traced in the stud-book. The old adage " that a
good horse is never of a bad coloui'," does not in-
variably apply; it depends upon the purpose for
which the animal is required. If to race only, the
maxim is in force ; but in the event of the produce
being intended for sale, it becomes quite another
affair, especially in the esteem of foreigners, who
have an incorrigible antipathy to white legs and
white faces, why — it is difficult to explain ; but as
no argument will induce them to change their
opinion, it would be futile to attempt it. Greys
are much out of fashion ; there has not been one
possessing a first-rate reputation on the turf for
many years ; and although it is a prevailing colour
wath Arabs, those foreign horses which were the
first progenitors of our most celebrated blood-
stock were principally bays and chesnuts. The
Godolphin Arabian is described as a brown bay.
The Curwen Barb was also a bay. Eclipse, a
grandson of the first-named horse, was a chesnut.
In the early records of breeding studs many greys
and chesnuts prevail, but at the present period
bays and browns predominate — in all probability
the effect of climate, inasmuch as few if any racing
men have ever observed any preference as to
colour, — a subject more interesting to those who
breed for sale.

Where only one or two stallions are kept for

EXTREMES TO BE AVOIDED. 57

the service of the establishment, it not unfre-
quently happens that a great error is fallen into
by putting mares to one which, from a variety of
circumstances, may not be suitable. It may be
done under the impression of saving expense, but
there are many instances in which it is the worst
economy. The choice of a stallion for each mare,
instead of being left to chance, requires to be
guided by the greatest experience, judgment, and
study. With the hope of correcting in the pro-
geny whatever defects or imperfections prevail in
the mare, the most judicious course to pursue is
obviously that of seeking the remedy in a stallion
most perfect in those points in which the female
is defective. There is, however, one circumstance
connected with this practice, which demands
especial notice in these pages. It is that of en-
deavouring to compensate, by the great size of
the horse, the deficiency in that respect of a mare ;
one of the greatest fallacies, both in theory and
practice, that can possibly be entertained. When
dealing with the handiwork of Nature, man must
be content to obtain the objects of his wishes or
improvements by degrees ; a limit is opposed to
the progress of human ambition, and the man,
who, in the hope of ascending to the summit, on
which his ambitious dream of perfection hovers,
by one gigantic step, most frequently finds himself
hurled to an immeasurable distance from the
attainment of his wishes; whereas, had he been

58 THE STUD FARM.

contented to woo Nature more diffidently, he
might in due time have attained his object.

The superiority which the English race horses
possess over Arabians, or horses of any other
nations, is manifestly derived from their greater
size, increased length of stride, and the just pro-
portion of their limbs. The animals from whence
they were derived some two centuries ago, and
subsequently for many years, were not larger than
the ordinary Arabs or foreign horses of the pre-
sent day. The increase of size has evidently been
the result of food, climate, and the selection of
large and muscular animals for the procreation of
the species. Marske, the sire of Eclipse, was only
fifteen hands high, and it appears very evident
the horses of those days did not in general exceed
that height. Unless the anatomical proportions
of a horse are uniform, superiority cannot exist.
Action must be obtained by a combination
of powers and conformity in those limbs from
which motion proceeds, in order to attain speed,
and the faculty of endurance. Many of these
parts are so completely hidden from the eye, that
it is quite impossible to judge of a horse's merits
till he is tried. It is generally expected, and
usually realised, that the offspring partakes some
of the features of the sire and some of the dam ;
therefore, if a very large horse be put to a small
mare in the expectation of their producing a large
foal, and that foal takes after its sire in the fore-

OBJECTIONS TO OVERSIZED STALLIONS. 59

quarters, and its dam in the hinder ones, the exact-
ness of anatomical proportions and symmetry must
be lost, and the offspring will be comparatively
worthless. Another very striking consideration
presents itself, in the danger to which the mare is
exposed at the period of giving birth to the foal.
In case of mares being under-sized, but otherwise
combining the important faculties of blood, sound-
ness of constitution, symmetry, and temper, to
justify their admission into the stud, — and there
are many that come under this description, — it is
far more advisable to endeavour to seek a remedy in
good keep, and a medium-sized stallion, than by any
attempt of forcing nature, by the presentation of
an over-sized partner. For racing purposes I can-
not advocate over-sized horses. Immensely large
ones have, on all occasions, disappointed the hopes
of their owners ; they have neither realised great
superiority on the turf or in the stud. It is evi-
dently much more difficult to obtain true sym-
metry in over-sized than moderately-sized animals.

If a man could succeed in breeding an enor-
mously large horse with very exact proportions,
he would no doubt obtain a prize ; but the chances
against his doing that are enormous, and too great
to justify the attempt.

There is a standard of excellence which regu-
lates the stature of all animals : that exceeded or
not attained, the acme of perfection must be want-
ing. It is to a certain extent under the dominion

60 THE STUD FARM.

of food and climate. The usual standard of the
Arab is from fourteen to fifteen hands ; that of
the English race horse of the present day is from
fifteen to sixteen hands. The cart or dray horse
acquires a growth exceeding seventeen hands, but
he rejoices in a very different kind of food to that
which is destined to produce the firm texture of
bone and muscle, the essential attributes of blood
stock.

" Certain causes produce certain effects," and
it would be just as reasonable to suppose a man
could breed race horses on the luxuriant herbage
of the fenny districts and marshes, as that he could
breed cart horses in the deserts of Arabia. The
former would become loaded with flesh, the latter
would melt away from the effects of the atmo-
sphere, and starve from the scantiness of pasture.
The difference in the texture of the bone of the
thoroughbred horse and the cart horse is most
extraordinary. Any one who will take the
trouble to examine the cannon bone of the two
varieties, will instantly detect the difference.
That of the former is much harder, and more com-
pact, and although smaller in circumference, when
weighed against an equivalent length of the
latter, will be found to be the heavier of the two.
The bone of the cart horse is by far more porous,
confirming the assertion, that a greater amount of
power is concentrated in a given bulk of the

DESCRIPTION AND PEDIGREE OF HERO. 61

blood horse, than in a similar proportion of the
cart horse.

A Ions continuance of a horse's services in
training and racing, has on many occasions en-
tailed a prejudicial effect when he has been con-
signed to the stud ; indeed, few horses so treated
have ever become very celebrated in the latter
department. A horse or mare that has run a few
races, only just sufficient to ascertain the respective
goodness of each, their temper and soundness, are
by far the most desirable for the purpose of pro-
creating their species. We sometimes, though
rarely, have instances where a horse of no repute,
and a mare of mean pretensions, produce a won-
derful animal. In modern days we have an
example in Hero, worthy of minute investigation,
to show how blood may come to the rescue. His
appearance may be thus described, — his head is
lean but by no means handsome, shoulders good,
legs sufficiently so to pass muster, feet middling,
body good, back ribs short, wide hips with plain
quarters, by no means improved in appearance by
a low set tail. The length from his hip to his
hock fully corresponds with his shoulders, which
may be considered a very essential point. His
pedigree is as follows : — By Chesterfield, out of
Grace Darling by Defence, her dam by Don
Cossack out of Mistake by Waxy. By way of
example it will be desirable to analyse this blood
more minutelv.

62

THE STUD FARM.

The Female Line.

Defence was by Whalebone,
out of Defiance by Rubens;
dam, Little Folly by Highland
Fling — Harriet by Volunteer.

Don Cossack by Haphazard
out of Alderney by Skyscraper ;
her dam, Celia, by Volunteer
out of Sister to Phararaond by
Highflyer.

The Male Line.

Chesterfield was by Priam
out of Octaviana (the dam of
Crucifix), by Octavian ; her
dam by Shuttle out of Zara,
by Delpini — Flora by King
Fergus.

Priam by Emilius out of
Cressida, by Whiskey ; her
dam. Young Giantess, by Dio-
med — Giantess by Matchem
— Emilius by Orville, out of
Emily by Stamford ; her dam
by Whiskey out of Grey Dori-
mant, by Dorimant.

Orville by Beningborough, Mistake by Waxy out of

out of Evelina by Highflyer. Woodcot by Mentor — Rubens

by Buzzard, dam by Alex-
ander, grandam by Highflyer.

Thus it will be seen he is descended from
Penelope on both sides, — that is, through Whiskey
and Whalebone, and in like manner from High-
flyer. There are two strains of Whiskey in the
male line, one in the female. One strain of High-
flyer in the male line, and two in the female.

Octaviana was nineteen years old when she
produced Chesterfield, and twenty-one when she
produced Crucifix. She bred thirteen foals pre-
viously, none of which were first-rate either on the
turf or in the stud.

Cressida produced nothing good except Priam.

PERFORMANCES OF HERO's ANCESTORS. 63

Emily bred nothing worthy of notice except
Emilius. He was a good race horse and a good
stallion ; and so was his sire Orville.

Asa racer, the performances of Defiance were
very moderate, but she produced some good colts.
Dauntless, Dangerous (winner of the Derby), and
Defence. It may be inferred from this, that the
superiority of Hero is derived from the male pro-
genitors, both in his paternal and maternal line ;
but more conspicuously in the former, where we
find Priam, Emilius, Orville, and Beningborough ;
in the latter. Defence, Whalebone, and Rubens.

Of Chesterfield's performances, nothing can be
said in his praise ; he received a forfeit in a pro-
duce stake at Newmarket, when in the possession
of the noble Lord who bred him, and whose name
he bore, after which he retired into South Wales,
where he ran but once, and was beaten at Aber-
ystwith by a very inferior filly, the property of
Mr. Pryse Pryse.

In the stud he was even more obscure, never
having the honour of an ofispring to enrol his
name as a sire in the Racing Calendar, till Hero
made his appearance; but Chesterfield dying before
the colt came into notoriety, he alone remains to
perpetuate his race. The pretensions of Grace
Darling to racing fame are very moderate ; she ran
many times, but only won four races, beating in-
ferior animals.

64 THE STUD FARM.

It is a matter of opinion whether the oiFspring
partakes most of the faculties and properties of
the sire or dam. They no doubt participate in
both, though from which they shall derive the
greater amount of perfections it is difficult to
determine.

In some instances it may be observed that all
the produce of certain mares partake of her pecu-
liarities, while, on the other hand, some mares
will throw foals whose characteristics follow their
sire. And on some occasions peculiarities are
traceable to grandsires, grandams, or even more
remote kindred. These are subjects which de-
mand attention. The breeder who devotes most
skill in the selection of suitable animals to breed
from, will assuredly be more successful than one
who leaves all to chance.

There are some curious incidents connected
with the history of other celebrated sires, which
bear some analogy with that of Chesterfield. The
Godolphin Arabian is said to have been purchased
in Paris, where he had been drawing a cart. He
was brought to England, and placed in the stud of
Lord Godolphin, where he became the sire of
Lath, a superior horse of his day ; this brought
the Arabian into repute, and he bears the honour
of being the founder of the best strain of blood we
possess. Squirt, the sire of Marske, was con-
demned to be shot, and when on the road to the

CELEBRATED STALLIONS. 65

kennel to meet his fate, a reprieve was granted at
the intercession of the groom. He subsequently
became the sire of Marske. The last-named
horse was sold at Tattersall's, after the death of
His Eoyal Highness the Duke of Cumberland,
for a mere trifle to a farmer, who sold him
again for twenty guineas. The Earl of Abingdon
eventually became a purchaser at one thousand
guineas, the horse's renown being established by
the performances of Eclipse, of whom jNIarske was
the sire. Had Chesterfield survived the glories of
his son, there is every reason to suppose he would
have risen from his obscurity, and become one of
the most fashionable horses of the day.

Many breeders are of opinion that the principle
to be adopted, in order to obtain a first-rate colt,
is that of sending a mare whose running has been
characterised by stoutness, to a horse famed for
speed : whether it can be laid down as an esta-
blished rule is, perhaps, questionable; but it is
certainly desirable to breed from mares enjoying
stout and healthy constitutions. If the relative
symmetry of the sire and dam were more generally
observed, it would no doubt be attended with
success. It has already been suggested, that the
most judicious course to pursue is that of seeking
the remedy in a stallion for the defects which
exist in the female. It is again necessary to refer
to that subject as one which must be qualified in

F

66 THE STUD FARM.

its extent, for all extremes are bad. I am not
aware of a single example of a very lengthy mare
producing a good foal by a very short compact
horse. Spectre was in some respects of that de-
scription, and none of his stock could race. Here
let me remark, I am confining my observations to
blood stock only; for racing purposes a short
animal is by no means desirable. The defects
which may be obviated in one sex by the converse
in the other, are legs and feet, shoulders, backs,
loins, and hocks, but a great disparity of propor-
tions cannot reasonably be expected as conducive
to symmetry in the progeny. There can be no
doubt but the most likely means of breeding colts
that will command a high price when offered for
sale is accomplished by putting mares to stallions
of high repute as stud horses ; for, as wdth mares,
it does not follow that an untried stud-horse must
become the progenitor of a succession of first-rate
foals, because he happens to have been a good
runner himself ; and again, instances are not want-
ing of horses that never evinced even moderate
pretensions as racers, that have been very suc-
cessful in the stud. This is a matter which
no man can foretell; it must be determined by
experiments.

To expatiate largely upon the question of here-
ditary defects in stallions may be, in some degree,
a loss of time ; not that they should be thought

HEREDITARY DEFECTS. 67

lightly of — quite the reverse ; but there are so
many persons who entertain different opinions
respecting them, and who appear to be provided
with " ready made " excuses on the instant any
defect is mentioned to them of a pet stallion — one
they may have set their minds upon, and who, in
the warmth of their imagination, must be their
lucky star, that it seems almost a hojjeless endea-
vour to convince them. One horse is objected to
because he is a roarer, when his partisan will
apologise for the malady, under the supposition
that it was the effect ot a severe attack of influ-
enza. Another horse has curby hocks ; for whicli
an excuse is urged, that his fore legs and feet are
so very good. In a conversation lately with a
veterinary surgeon, whose experience in such
matters is certainly not surpassed by any of the
profession, I was in some measure startled by his
declaration, that all stallions, when put to the
stud, became roarers. He enumerated a great
many, several of which, I am bound to admit,
were to all appearance so afflicted ; and I am not
in a position to gainsay the truth of his assertion
as regards others, for many horses so employed
might be roarers without the knowledge even of
their owners, their exertions not being of a nature
calculated to exhibit the symptoms, unless a very
careful examination were made. At the same
time it must be observed, that a horse not having
F 2

68 TUE STUD FARM.

any exercise, and very fat, Avill frequently mani-
fest symptoms of roaring, and so palpably, that
good judges would possibly pronounce him so
affected, while, in fact, it is nothing but the re-
sult of plethora, which, being removed, the sup-
posed malady will disappear. I have known
several instances of this kind in hunters ; hence,
I am induced to suppose that many stallions when
loaded with fat may give indications of being
roarers without actually being so. Admitting
that it may be the case, it certainly, in such in-
stances, proceeds from want of exercise and over-
abundance of fat. I had two horses which I rode
with hounds, one four seasons, the other two.
They were used in the stud during that time, and
their pipes w^ere as clear as possible. This much
must be held in remembrance, — that certain
horses are very apt to entail the malady on their
progeny.

When once consigned to the stud, stallions
very seldom enjoy any exercise beyond that which
they can obtain in the box and the yard adjoining;
thus they become an accumulation of fat, and so
unruly that it is scarcely possible to manage them.
That it would be more conducive to their health
if they were led out every day, there can be no
question. On this account, travelling stallions
have greatly the advantage over those attached tu
a stud, the aristocracy of which forbids their

FORE LEGS. 69

rambling, and, as It would appear also, the indul-
gence of salutary exercise.

We now come to a very perplexing theorem,
and a most important consideration — the fore
legs. Unless they will bear work, the animal is
doubtless of no value, either on the turf or for
any other purpose ; but yet many of the very best
race horses have had dreadfully bad fore legs, a
failing which has, in many cases, been entailed on
them by their ancestors. In very clever hands,
horses with bad fore legs are often able to get
over some great event ; and their services on the
turf being expended, they still continue to be pro-
fitable investments when consigned to the stud.
As there are some few horses nearly, if not quite,
free from infirmities likely to be entailed on their
progeny, it would surely be most prudent to se-
lect them rather than encounter the great proba-
bility of disappointment. Hocks evincing any
predisposition to curbs and spavins, must on all
occasions be looked upon with the greatest sus-
picion.

To describe precisely the shape and make of a
horse calculated to become the progenitor of first-
rate racing stock is not readily done on paper;
those of the most opposite character having been
pre-eminently successful — Bay Middleton and
Sir Hercules, for example. The former, a very
lengthy horse, especially about his shoulders and
r 3

70 THE STUD FARM.

hind quarters ; high on his legs, with vast pro-
pelling powers in his thighs ; wide, if not rather
inclined to be ragged, about his hips, with droop-
ing quarters. Sir Hercules, much lower in sta-
ture, on short and good legs, with the most sym-
metrically beautiful quarters, with as well-turned
hips placed forward as I can remember on any
horse ; his hind legs in the exact position calcu-
lated when in action to enable him to get them
well under his body. Touchstone may be de-
scribed as a medium between the two, and I can
scarcely imagine a more perfectly proportioned
animal. There is a vast deal of the same blood
flowing through the veins of each of these stal-
lions, which will be found on perusal of their re-
spective pedigrees: —

Bay Middleton is by Sultan, his dam, Cobweb, by Phan-
tom out of Fillagree, by Soothsayer, her dam, Web (sister
to Whalebone) by Waxy. — Penelope. Sultan by Selim out
of Bacchante by Williamson's Ditto, by Walton. Selim
was by Buzzard out of an Alexander mare. Walton, sire
of Williamson's Ditto by Sir Peter. Phantom was also
by Walton. Soothsayer by Sorcerer, out of Golden Locks
by Delpini.

Sir Hercules is by Whalebone out of Peri, by Wanderer,
her dam, Thalestris, by Alexander out of Rival by Sir
Peter ; and Wanderer by Gohanna out of Catherine by
Woodpecker, the sire of Buzzard. Alexander was by

Eclipse.

Touchstone is by Camel out of Banter by Master Henry,
her dam, Boadicea, by Alexander out of Brunette, by Ama-

COXSAXGUINITY, 71

ranthus. Camel was by "Whalebone, dam by Sellm, out of
Maiden by Sir Peter. Whalebone by Waxy out of Pene-
lope.

Thus it will be seen that each of the three are
lineally descended from Penelope; that the Sir
Peter and Alexander blood flows in each of their
veins, and the Buzzard blood in both Bay Mid-
dleton and Touchstone, while Catherine, the great
grand dam of Sir Hercules, being by Wood-
pecker, the sire of Buzzard, the same strain is
distinguishable through several generations.

Consanguinity, or as it is technically expressed,
breeding " in and in," has its advocates ; but near
relationships cannot be reconciled with propriety.
After an interval of two or three generations it
does not appear to be objectionable ; but a more
close alliance cannot be recommended. In the
early ages of racing it Avas resorted to in many
instances, but there was not the diversity of blood
which we now possess, and the argument then
used, that it was better to breed from those nearly
related, provided the blood was good, than resort
to that which was inferior, for the purpose of
avoiding consanguinity, is not applicable at the
present period. In illustration of this it may be
observed, that Bach el, the dam of the celebrated
High-Flyer, was bred incestuously. She was by
Blank, her dam by Regulus, both of which horses
were by the Godolphin Arabian. This example,
r 4

72 THE STUD FAPwM.

although it serves to show how far it succeeded
under peculiar circumstances, is not introduced as
a recommendation to be followed up even as an
experiment when there is so much excellent blood
available which is not so closely related.

The idea of introducing Arabian blood into the
stud for racing purposes would, I feel assured, be
treated by every practical and experienced breeder
with contempt ; and I only venture to mention
the subject in order to point out some of the most
ostensible reasons why the attempt would be fol-
lowed with disappointment. In the first place,
the breed of race horses in this kingdom is far
superior to the Arabians or other foreign horses
brought to England at the present period. The
casuist may remark, that our blood was originally
derived from those sources. The reply to which
is obvious. They have taken kindly to the soil,
the climate, and the treatment ; hence the present
breed of horses is superior. For riding horses,
however, it is quite another affair, as the Arabian
will give that style of action so universally sought
after, and the produce of an Arabian with a really
good shaped mare possessing sufficient bone, not
too large, with moderate length and width, is as
likely to realise a remunerative price in London
as almost any other kind of horse. The only ob-
jection that I am aware of is, the fact of these
foreign horses not being naturalised to this cli-

QUALIFICATIOX OF STALLIONS. 73

mate; for prnctical and observant breeders are
aware, with cattle and sheep, that those thrive
best which have been for a series of generations
located in the same district. This is, no doubt,
applicable to the equine tribe, and hence another
reason why a cross with the Arabian is unsuc-
cessful for racins;.

In breedins; hunters or carriasre horses the se-
lection of stallions may be less important than for
the turf; at all events, different qualities are re-
quired. Symmetry is of far greater consequence
than blood, good sound legs and feet, than speed,
lofty action more to be coveted than length of
stride ; colour and temper also comes under the
category of desiderata. When the fashion pre-
vailed of running half-bred horses, it was dis-
covered that those were most superior which had
the stain on the mare's side, — in other words, that
the sire should be thoroughbred ; the same prin-
ciple holds good with hunters, for at the pace
they are now required to go, every event calcu-
lated to furnish them with endurance must be re-
sorted to in order to render them valuable ; and
as the worth of a horse is enhanced if he shows
properties adapted for steeple-chasing, that must
be another motive for attention to such qualifi-
cations.

The question what constitutes the title to the
term thoroughbred, as applied to the horse, can

/4 THE STUD FARM.

only be answered to this effect. He is one whose
genealogy can be traced in the Stud Book, or
whose sire or dam is an accredited Arabian or
horse of Eastern origin, represented as being of
the pure blood of the country from whence he
was imported. Any attempt to dive into the
mysteries in which the origin of the thorough-
bred horse is enveloped would be superfluous.
The errors as to data or periods when certain
horses are stated by some ancient authors to have
existed, are so numerous as to leave the reader in
much perplexity. Writers of a later date have
endeavoured to explain these discrepancies, in
doing which they have fallen into mistakes cal-
culated to increase the confusion. One example,
which I lately saw in print, may suffice as an
illustration. " Vixen, by the Helmesley Turk, out
of Dodsworth's dam, a barb imported in the time
of Charles II.," some time between the years 1660
and 1685, is stated, in the publication alluded to,
to be the dam of the celebrated Careless. The
Stud Book informs us that Careless was foaled in
1751, a period comprising from ninety-one to
sixty-six years after the above date. Careless
was by Regulus, who was foaled in 1739, out of
Silvertail by Whitenose, her dam by Rattle, out
of the Old Child mare. The Old Child mare by
Sir T. Gresley's Arabian, out of Vixen. Therefore
Vixen was the ^reat great grand dam of Careless.

stallions' apartment. 75

As lord of his species, the stallion has generally
assigned to his use a most capacious dwelling — a
hox of large dimensions ; but provided he has a
strongly fenced paddock of ample size, there ap-
pears no absolute necessity for his box being
much if any larger than those occupied by mares.
Brick and mortar is unquestionably the most se-
cure fence. The doors, mangers, and all such
like fittino-s, should be of the most substantial
form and material, every part of which available
to his teeth should be well secured with iron.
Idleness, the parent of mischief with the horse as
with the human species, is almost certain to en-
gender a habit of some kind ; and to while away
the time, nibbling the manger will very probably
terminate in crib-biting, unless the propensity is
met by a salutary opposition. The domicile of
the stallions should, on many accounts, be so
situated as to be at a distance from the buildings
and paddocks occupied by the mares, otherwise
the excitement may occasion inconvenience to
both sexes.

Whether for racing, or for other purposes, a stal-
lion should possess a faultless pedigree, and his
good looks should bear the stamp of " title" in his
ancestors and in himself; power and action are
qualifications which should never be overlooked,
and, as a test of soundness and constitution, a
horse that has finished his racing career without
failing in his limbs is undoubtedly to be preferred.

76

CHAP. V.

TREATMENT OF MARES IN FOAL AND WITH FOAL.

Period of Foaling. — Beneficial EflFects of Warm Weather —
Spring Grass, — Evil Effects of Catarrhal Affections. — I.ate
Foals. — Preparations for Mares about to Foal. — Litter. —
Water. — Anecdote. — Term of Gestation. — Attentions at the
Time of Foaling, — Indications. — Assistance. — The Foal. —
Treatment of Mare and Foal. — Precaution against Wet. —
The State of the Bowels. — Lard, as a Laxative. — Relaxation
of the Bowels — Cause thereof. — Corn to Foals. — Worms,
Remedies against. — Foals' Feet — require Moisture during Dry
Seasons, — Handling the Feet of Foals. — Tar Ointment, —
Weaning, and preparatory Management. — Secure Apartments
imperative,— Objection to putting two Foals in one Place, —
Examination of Mares.

The period when mares are to foal, and the
manao^ement calculated to reo;ulate that event at
the most seasonable time of the year, demand con-
siderable attention. Very important objections
present themselves against foals being brought
forth too early in the year, powerfully counter-
acting the advantages which may be anticipated
from a few weeks' superiority in point of age, with
such as are destined for the turf; with those of
any other class, I presume there can be but one
opinion on the subject, and that the months of
March, April, and May, would be considered the
most favourable periods. In this cold and vari-
able climate, a foal that comes into life in January

BEST TIME FOR MAFwES TO FOAL. ^ t

lias usually an inclement temperature to contend
against, in all probability during several weeks,
■which no artificial means can obviate, during that
month and the succeeding one. Very frequently
also in March there is not one day when the
atmosphere is sufficiently warm to sanction a mare
and her delicate foal being released from their box ;
they must, therefore, be housed till the weather is
propitious. For the purpose of supplying a copious
flow of milk, no other kind of food is comparable
with the green herbage of spring ; not that I am
about to propose the indiscriminate use of it to
excess, unaccompanied with corn and, on many
occasions, a portion of hay ; but a certain quantity
is almost essential to the secretion of milk in ample
quantities. The fine warm genial weather con-
ducive to the production of food calculated to pro-
mote the growth and strength of foals seldom
visits this country till the month of April : there
are no artificial substances that we can select
equivalent to the bounteous herbage which Nature
provides at this season. All, therefore, that can
be offered previously to the appearance of the
spring grass, for the support of a mare and her
precocious offspring, must be regarded only as a
succedaneum, capable of sustaining life, but not of
a quality adapted by its suitable properties to
give the young animal that start on its first intro-
duction to this world most essential to its future
welfare. When these delicate creatures sustain a

78 THE STUD FARM.

check to their growth at so early an age, much
time and care is required to overcome the evil ;
and sometimes the effect is so great on the consti-
tution, that they never attain vigorous health and
powerful development. ^ It frequently happens
that a yearling evinces debility, weakness, un-
thriftiness, weediness, and various ailments, nl-
though the sire and dam, and their other family
in general, may be robust and promising. No
apparent cause may indicate the reason why the
yearling should not prosper ; yet, in all probability,
a careful investigation of past events would trace
the infirmity to some ostensible cause, such as a
cold or a check to the young animal's growth,
resulting from want of appropriate food. To
obviate these misadventures, much circumspection
is requisite in the management of a stud.

Under all circumstances, the months of March
and April, extending the term from the last week
in February to the first week in May, is the most
favourable period for mares to drop their foals;
they will also bring forth in the ensuing season
during a desirable time, and the young creatures
will enjoy, when it is most acceptable to them, the
invigorating influence of the sun's genial rays, of
no slight importance to their health. No one can
have watched the progress which a weakly foal
makes during a few days of sunshine, in April or
May, without admitting this fact.

There are, nevertheless, still greater objections

PREPARATIOXS FOR FOALIXG. 79

to foals being produced very late in the summer,
as they have not time to gain strength ere winter
sets in. The autumn is also an unfavourable
season for the equine tribe, for they then change
their coats, during which event good nourishing
keep and warmth are of vast importance. Besides
all this, a thoroughbred foal intended to run at
two years old, if foaled late has manifestly a dis-
advantage to contend against when opposed to
others having some months' superiority of age.
The intermediate period is unquestionably to be
preferred; the beneficial results that might be
anticipated from two months' additional growth
are more than counterbalanced by the effects of
an inclement atmosphere, and the want of suitable
food for the dam.

AVhere convenient places are provided for mares
to foal in, no preparations are necessary beyond
having them in readiness ; but if such buildings
are not at command, the box or hovel which the
mare occupies, if suflSciently spacious, may suffice ;
otherwise a bay in a spare barn is on all occasions
a suitable lying-in hospital, providing it is made
secure from currents of air or draughts, which, in
most cases, may be readily done. A place so
sheltered, roomy, and well ventilated, is generally
available in country places for the short time it
can be required for this purpose ; and when the
ceremony is over, the mare and her produce, if
the place is wanted for the accommodation of

80 THE STUD FARM.

others, may be removed to her usual habitation,
should that have been considered not sufficiently
roomy for the occasion. Whatever place may be
selected for a mare to foal in, it should be pro-
perly protected with dry litter, so as to present a
nice level and soft surface, not too thick ; but,
just at the time a mare is expected to drop her
foal, it should never, on any account, be replen-
ished with new straw, which mares are very apt
to devour greedily, and thereby distend themselves
to a dangerous extent. A sort of morbid appetite
for food and water frequently prevails at this
crisis, which dictates that caution should be ob-
served in keeping those things away from them
whicb are calculated to do them harm. Should
it be necessary to replenish the litter, it is better
to take a portion of some that is sufficiently dry
and clean from other horses, to whom new straw,
with which their complement is made up, cannot
be productive of injury. The circumstance above
mentioned points out the propriety of giving food
as well as water in small quantities to mares when
they are expected to foal. Water should be sup-
plied in moderation three times a day. Having
fresh on my memory a fatal event which occurred
in a breeding stud in consequence of this over-
sio'ht, I cannot do better than state the circum-
stance : — It was the custom to allow the mares
to run out of their boxes nisrht and morning to

INDICATIONS OF FOALING. 81

water at a pond, to drink ad libitum, A mare
drank to excess ; in a short time afterwards she
was taken in labour, and to all appearance gave
birth to her foal very favourably ; but immediately
after it was evident she was in great pain ; and in
less than an hour she was dead. On opening her,
it was discovered she had ruptured one of the
intestines, which were much distended with food.
The time when a mare ought to foal being
punctually registered, will afford some indication
when the event may take place ; but that must not
be relied upon as an infallible criterion — some
maa*es will foal before, others will go beyond their
time. The same mares will vary in the term of
gestation in different years. It is a prevailing
opinion that mares go longer with colt than filly
foals, but that does not always prove correct. I
had a mare that invariably went from twelve to
sixteen days after her time; she bred eight foals,
all of which were fillies. At least a fortnight
before a mare is expected to foal preparations
should be made, and every requisite kept in readi-
ness. She should undergo frequent examinations ;
and as the time approaches, a visit every second
hour ought to be made, not omitting such atten-
tion two or three times during the night. Mares
may not require any immediate assistance — nine
times out of ten they will not — but yet it may
G

82 THE STUD FARM.

happen that timely attention will save the life of
a valuable mare and her produce.

The appearance of a waxy substance on the
teats is one of the indications by which the ap-
proaching time for foaling is generally recognised.
Many mares will evince that symptom a fortnight
or more beforehand, and others will scarcely afford
any such notice ; sometimes it will appear profuse
and nearly disappear again. The most unequi-
vocal criterion is the sinking or dilation of the
muscles on each side of the root of the tail, occa-
sioned by the expansion of the joints, an effort of
Nature to render more easy the act of parturition.

Want of attention and watchfulness at this
particular crisis has been the cause of many a
valuable foal being lost or injured in its birth.
When a foal presents itself in an unfavourable
position, assistance should be promptly obtained
from some person who has had experience in such
cases. It seldom happens that grooms or attend-
ants are engaged to take charge of large and
valuable studs who have not acquired some know-
ledge of this portion of their duty ; but in small
establishments, which may not be so provided for,
recourse must be immediately had to the assist-
ance of a competent person — more especially of
a veterinary surgeon, who possesses a knowledge
of anatomy. In the event of such assistance
not being procurable, recourse may be had to

OBSERVANCES AFTER FOALING. 83

the services of an experienced shepherd or cow-
man, many of whom are, from extensive practice,
well versed in the treatment of animals in such
cases.

Soon after a mare is delivered of her foal, she
usually commences cleaning it, by licking it all
over with her tongue, in which operation she must
not be disturbed or interfered with. During this
process it is advisable to watch the progress of the
after-birth, which will sometimes return — an event
creating much trouble ; and, when it does happen,
frequently occasioning the loss of the mare.
It may in most cases be prevented, if, as soon as
it is perceived to be in the act of receding, an
attempt be made gently to oppose that action.
With the most exquisite tenderness and the ut-
most patience, the operator may thus in time draw
it away ; or rather, when, by that means, the half
of it has come away, he may leave it to the course
of Nature, which will generally be sufficient, still
carefully watching that it does not again recede,
in which case gentle manual assistance must be
continued. There is, however, seldom any occa-
sion to interfere in this part of the ceremony
(though it is always advisable to watch the
progress) till after the mare has cleaned her foal,
when she should have a bucket of warm linseed
gruel and a bran mash offered to her. As soon as
the after-birth has fallen from her, it must be

G 2

84 THE STUD FARM.

carried away ; and she should be suffered to re-
main as quiet as possible.

A little attention may be on some occasions
necessary, especially with a weakly foal, to get it
to suck ; and though it should not be disregarded,
it seems scarcely necessary to direct how this
instinctive act of the young animal is to be fos-
tered. The first impulse of the foal is an endea-
vour to stand upon its legs, in which attempt it
meets with frequent disappointments. If weakly,
it may scarcely be able to succeed without assist-
ance, when the invigorating effects of the first
drops of milk which it receives are wonderful.
Although much watchfulness and attention is
necessary from the time a mare is expected to foal,
during the whole of this crisis, imnecessary intru-
sion should be avoided. Many mares are exceed-
ingly annoyed by it ; and being flurried, will
sometimes accidentally injure their foals by tread-
ing on them.

The time of year, and the state of the weather,
must determine the propriety of turning the mare
and her foal into a paddock, or open court, where
they can enjoy the invigorating influence of fresh
air and the rays of the sun. Under favourable
circumstances the sooner this can be done the
better, — that is, when the foal can stand well on its
legs, and the dam is not an invalid from cold, or
any accidental cause. An hour or two, during an
interval when the genial gleams of sunshine per-

PROTECTION OF FOALS FROM WET. 85

mit, will produce an effect upon the young animal
truly surprising. I have often seen a weakly foal
so wonderfully restored by this bountiful influence
of Kature, that it would scarcely be supposed that
some magical power had not been exerted. Here
it is necessary to urge the importance of adopt-
ing the utmost caution not to allow them to be
exposed to wet, not even a shower of rain, on
any account whatever. At any future period
likewise the utmost attention is necessary to guard
young stock from getting wet across the back and
loins.

The woolly texture of the coat of a foal is of
such a nature, that when once it becomes wet
through, it is some time ere it gets dry again.
There may be some persons who conceive this to
be a species of unnecessary caution, and that
under the impression of bringing up their stock
more hardy they should be exposed to the casual
vicissitudes of weather. A greater error cannot
be committed. I can only remark that a state
bordering on disease is not calculated to promote
a robust constitution. A catarrhal affection, or
cold, let it affect what part it may, is a disorder
that should never be thought lightly of; fre-
quently repeated, it becomes constitutional : thus,
if the head, the glands, and the throat are attacked,
they fall into an unhealthy state, and, when the
strangles makes its appearance, it in all pro-
G 3

86 THE STUD FARM.

bability issues In a decided case of roaring. To
rear stock that shall be hardy and robust, every
event likely to produce disease, however trifling
it may be in itself, should be carefully avoided.

The state of the bowels of foals demands par-
ticular attention. Cjaostipation sometimes inter-
venes a day or two after they are foaled, and, if
neglected, may assume such an obstinate character
as to defy all remedies. A little care, and the
administration of a clyster in due time, will
almost always prove effectual. As foals increase
in age, similar caution is necessary. A kind of
constitutional constipation will sometimes show
itself, which may generally be relieved by regu-
lating the diet of the mother, giving her a plentiful
supply of bran mashes, with linseed, and such suc-
culent food as the season affords. More benefit is
to be derived from the judicious change of food
than is generally supposed, or, at all events, acted
upon.

As the most safe, effectual, and convenient
laxative that can possibly be given to horses of all
ages, and of all classes, lard bears the preference
when a remedy more active than a change of food
is required ; it should therefore always be kept
in readiness in every establishment of horses, and
although that is very good which is preserved in
the ordinary way for household purposes, where
there are a number of horses kept, it is desirable

CONSTIPATION. — DIARKHCEA. 87

to have a quantity prepared for the exclusive use
of the stable department, according to the follow-
ing directions.

Take any quantity from the leaf of a pig ; cut it into
small pieces ; put it into a vessel over the fire, and, as
it melts, pour it off. To every pound of the lard add,
while in a liquid state, camphor, in powder, two drachms.
Stir it well, and run it into bladders or jars to preserve
it from the air : keep it in a cool place. Thus prepared
it will be good for two years.

I

From half a pound to a pound may be given to
a full grown horse, whenever such a remedy may
be necessary ; and it may also be given to foals
with safety at any age, regulating the quantity
according to circumstances, and the strength of
the animal. Being kept in a cool place it may be
cut out in the form and size of a ball, and wrapped
in paper in the usual way.

Diarrhoea, or relaxation of the bowels, is more
frequently a source of trouble with foals than
constipation. It seems scarcely necessary to re-
mark that food of an opposite nature to that
recommended for constipation is to be resorted to
as the remedy. A quartern to two quarterns of i
bruised barley given to the mare daily will fre-
quently set the matter to rights in a very short
time. It generally proceeds from the food with
which the mare is supplied ; a change, therefore, is
advisable. Sometimes the green food being cut
G 4

88 THE STUD FARM.

when wet, will produce it ; for which reason I have
suggested the propriety, when rainy weather pre-
vails, of having it cut the day before it is used,
and spread in a dry place. The first consideration
in these cases is to endeavour to trace the origin
of the evil ; with a little attention it may gene-
rally be accomplished : if that cannot be accounted
for, the purging in all probability proceeds from
acidity in the stomach of the foal, which will
require some of the medicines usually had recourse
to in such cases; the most simple and efficacious
of which is carbonate of soda, in doses of half a
drachm, to be given in a small quantity of mash
twice a day.

Foals will begin to eat corn at a very early age ;
they will learn it from their mothers ; but the
latter are sometimes so greedy and selfish as to
drive their offspring from the manger, more espe-
cially as the foals grow up. The inclination
which the young animal evinces for corn should be
fostered by every practicable means, especially
when it has attained the age of two or three
months. If the dam is resolutely opposed to this
measure, it will be desirable that she should be
tied up, or secured at a distance from the manger,
till her foal has partaken of as much corn as he
may be inclined to eat.

Worms will be sometimes found to annoy foals
exceedingly when they have attained the age of
three or four months, or even earlier. To enter

WOEMS IN FOALS. 89

into an inquiry concerning the generation and
means whereby these parasites enter the stomach
of the horse, would occupy much time probably
without affording equivalent satisfaction, as there
are doubtless a variety of circumstances under
which they are engendered. Observation would
lead to the conviction that the grass from some
particular fields is predisposed to the production of
these insects, and that the stock, when partaking
of such grass, are more subject to be troubled with
the intruders than when fed with the produce of
other land. It must therefore be inferred that the
larvce of certain species of worms are deposited on
the grass. Horses are much more likely to be
troubled with these insects when turned out to eat
the grass, than when it is cut and brought to
them. AYhen it is decided that the herbage from
any particular field has this prejudicial efiect, it
will be advisable to top dress it with lime or agri-
cultural salt; either of which applications may
be used with good effect on land from which food
is raised for the consumption of horses. The lime
should be spread alone in the spring, or at all
events when the grass is short, and it should be
recently procured from the kiln. Salt requires
to be mixed with earth, and in either case the
spreading must be performed at a period when
the immediate use of the food can be dispensed
with for a term of at least five or six weeks.
The indications of the existence of worms in

90 THE STUD FARM.

the stomacli of foals, and the treatment best cal-
culated to destroy them will be found under a
distinct section, at page 150.

The feet of foals very seldom receive the care
and the frequent inspection so essentially neces-
sary to their future perfection of form and sound-
ness, and from want of which so many imperfectly
formed, defective, unhealthy feet perplex the
trainer of the race horse, and the proprietor of
those of other classes, — often rendering the value
of an otherwise good animal very trifling. With
attentive care, and judicious management from
infancy, the foot may be induced to assume almost
any form that is desired.

When foals are turned out in very dry paddocks,
more especially in dry seasons, the feet, unless
properly attended to, will not grow with sufficient
luxuriance ; for this there is an effective remedy.
On the other hand, during very wet weather, on
wet soils, they may be induced to grow too fast, and
assume a bad formation — becoming thin and flat.
Here it must be observed that very much of the
foot, that is, the texture of the horn or crust, frog,
and sole, depends upon the soil on which the foal is
reared.

It is very easy to introduce artificial means of
presenting a sufficiency of moisture to promote
their healthy growth and development. A couple
of barrowfuls of clay or soil retentive of moisture
may be deposited in a part of the yard or paddock

91

where the manger or receptacle for food is placed,
60 that the inmates will stand in it during the
time of feeding; this must be kept soft with
water, when moisture is required ; a little common
salt may be occasionally sprinkled on it with good
effect. In many cases the clay may be dispensed
with merely by throwing water on the spot where
the horses stand to feed — that is, unless the soil
is very sandy and dry.

Proper attention to the appearance of the feet
will dictate the treatment they require. Many
defects of those parts, which are observable in the
parents, and which may, in some degree, be de-
nominated as hereditary, can doubtless be im-
proved to a certain extent in the offspring. It is
very desirable that a foal should, at an early age,
be accustomed to have his legs handled ; and, by
degrees, he will, without being alarmed, suffer his
feet to be taken up ; when, if any little ragged or
uneven portions present themselves, they may be
removed with a drawing knife. Many sandcracks
in embryo may thus be avoided, which, if once
permitted to establish themselves, are accompanied
with considerable trouble and inconvenience,
AVhen a brittle condition of the hoof prevails,
the foot should be dressed two or three times a
week with tar ointment ; and the subject induced
frequently to stand in w^et clay. The following
will be found an effectual composition : —

92 THE STUD FARM.

Tar Ointment.

Lard or Tallow - - -

- 2 lbs.

Tar

- lib.

Treacle ilb.

To be melted together, well stirred^ and applied warm on
the soles and hoofs.

Inequalities in the growtli of the foot often
require attention. If neglected, it will sometimes
happen that the foot of a foal is broken on one side ;
consequently a greater portion of the weight of
the animal is thrown on that side ; and if it con-
tinues to be worn down, or is again broken, the
uneven bearing causes the leg to grow crooked ;
this will often occasion a horse to turn the toe
of one foot in or out, more than the other, ac-
cording as it is the inside or outside of the foot
which has been reduced or broken away. In
fact, the form of the leg is capable of much
alteration by attention to that part of the animal
while in a growing state ; but as this treatment
is seldom found necessary till the young animal
comes under the denomination of a Yearling, the
subject will be found more copiously discussed
under that head.

The period at which foals may be most advan-
tageously weaned is determined by a variety of
circumstances ; as, for example, the quantity and
quality of milk which the mare affords, her consti-
tution and condition, and the question of her

WEANING. 93

being again in foal. When a deficiency of milk
is apparent the young animal cannot gain much
benefit from a lengthened companionship with its
mother, while the latter may be considerably
reduced in her condition ; and, when the milk is
abundant, the postponement of the weaning-time
may be advantageous to both. Mares whose con-
stitutions are weakly and delicate, and those which
have experienced illness, will not impart much
that is desirable to their progeny ; with such, an
early separation may be advocated. If they be
low in condition, they will, of course, be relieved
by having their foals taken away at an early
season. Also, if a mare is early in foal, it is
obviously not desirable to permit her last-bom to
remain late at her foot. The age of a foal will
likewise be a most important criterion to regulate
the determination. Under ordinary circumstances
the most favourable time for weaning foals is
during the month of September, making the dis-
tinction between those which are dropped early in
the season, and those which are late, assigning to
them relative periods in the month, and being
guided also by circumstances already mentioned.
A few weeks before the time for weaning has
arrived a small head-collar should be put on each
foal, and it should be made with a strap about
eighteen inches long, by which the young animal
may be held and occasionally led about, as a sort

94 THE STUD FARM.

of preliminary exercise of education. This will
occupy some little time and occasion some trouble;
but it will be fully compensated for in case of any
illness or accident ; hence, it cannot prudently be
dispensed with.

Secure and convenient boxes are imperatively
necessary for the accommodation of foals when
they are weaned ; if situated at such a distance
from similar places assigned to the mares, that
they cannot hear each other, the quietude of both
will be the better provided for. No half-doors or
windows can be tolerated through which they
might be tempted to endeavour to force their
way, and care is always necessary to avoid their
rushing through doorways when opened for the
purpose of egress and ingress.

The practice is very common of assigning one
box to the accommodation of two foals, of course,
of the same sex, under the impression that by such
an arrangement they are better reconciled to the
estrangement from their dam, which is no doubt
correct ; but there is an ol)jection to this custom,
by no means compensated for by any advantage
of that nature. It is this ; one foal is certain to
obtain the mastery over the other, and, being
constantly harassed and driven about, the under-
ling never thrives equally with its bolder com-
panion; moreover, and which is of still greater
importance, being driven from the manger at

AERANGEMENT OF YOUNG STOCK. 95

feeding-time, the weakly animal does not obtain
the intended allowance of corn, though its feeble-
ness should plead for an additional portion. The
only circumstance that can reconcile us to this
custom is want of sufficient accommodation, in
which case two mangers should be provided, as
far apart as possible, so that each foal may be
more regularly and equally fed ; nevertheless, the
master foal, having consumed its corn first, will
be very likely to exhibit its tyranny, by driving
away its companion, and picking up all the
crumbs that may be left; in which case the
former should be racked up.

Mares should be examined after their foals
have been taken from them, to ascertain the con-
dition of those vessels in which their milk is
secreted ; when there is an abundant supply,
means must be adopted to diminish the secretion,
and absorb that which may be deposited. Blood
mares, however, are seldom inconvenienced with
a superabundance of milk at any time, especially
at this crisis, more particularly if they have been
judiciously restricted in the kind of their food for
a few days previously to their foals being taken
from them, at which season old hay is the most
proper aliuient. It may be necessary to draw off
a small quantity of the milk once a day in the
event of the vessels appearing to be distended,
but that should only be done to an extent suf-

96 THE STUD FARM.

ficient to relieve the animal from inconvenience.
Goose-grease and brandy, or any other spirit, in
equal portions, may be rubbed on the part with
good effect, provided the milk exhibits symptoms
of depositing itself, and the udder is thereby in a
state of tension. Kecourse may also be had to
bleeding, if the condition of the mare and
attendant symptoms indicate the necessity. Till
the secretion of milk has thoroughly subsided, dry
food, that is hay and corn, in restricted quantities,
is most proper.

97

CHAP. VI.

FOALS AFTER WEANING.

Foals deprived of Milk require Good Keep. — Linseed Gruel.

— Carrots. — A Trainer's Opinion of them. — Swede Turnips.

— Food suitable to the Constitution Change indicated by

the State of the Bowels. — Caution to be observed with
newly weaned Foals. — Confinement deprecated. — Wet to be
avoided. — Necessity of Exercise. — Habits of the Horse in
a State of Nature. — Consequences of Colds. — The Approach
of Winter, — Frost. — Shelter sanctioned by Reason. — De-
grees of Exercise.

Although a mare may not yield much milk at
the time of her foal being taken from her, yet
that which she do^s give is of a very nutritious
quality, provided she is in good health ; the
loss must, consequently, take effect upon her oif-
spring ; hence good keep is essential at this
crisis. Kobust foals w.iU consume nearly, if not
quite, two quarterns of oats daily, up to which
quantity they should not be restricted. The hay
they will require is but trifling in amount. Bran
mashes are of course to be included in their
dietary, twice or three times a week, according to
the state of their bowels ; and I would earnestly
recommend that linseed gruel should be given as

H

98 THE STUD FARM.

their ordinary drink, at all events, through the
first winter, whether it be given afterwards or
not : I have seen the most marked advantages
from the use of it. So small a quantity of linseed
is sufficient for the purpose, that the trifling
addition of expense incurred is not worthy of
consideration, compared with the benefit the
young stock will experience ; in fact, the trouble
occasioned by the preparation of it, is a point
more to be considered than the intrinsic cost of
the seed.

Carrots for horses of all ages are used in some
establishments without discrimination ; but from
the effects which I have witnessed from these
esculents I cannot sanction them. My attention
was first drawn to the mischief produced from
carrots, by a very celebrated trainer, who showed
me some yearlings which had been sent to him by
one of his employers : they had been well kept, but
there were slight symptoms of eruptive blotches
or spots on their skins, which increased as they
were put forward in their work, requiring much
care to eradicate. He told me he invariably
found this to be the case with all horses which
had been supplied with them to any extent.
This led me to investigate the matter ; and sub-
sequent observation has convinced me that the
trainer's opinion is quite correct. Swede turnips
or parsnips are far superior, and may be given to

CONSTITUTIONAL INDICATIONS. 99

foals In small quantities for the sake of change of
diet. There are, however, some weakly animals
to whom nothing of the kind is suitable. It is
therefore highly important to ascertain the con-
stitution of each individual as early as possible.
A foal that has exhibited habitual or consti-
tutional relaxation while with its mother, could
scarcely be expected to thrive afterwards upon
food of a succulent nature. The indications of
unthriftiness, by the appearance of the coat, de-
ficiency of appetite, want of muscle, and the
absence of that gaiety and spirit which healthy
young creatures are wont to evince, particularly
when at liberty in a paddock, will readily operate
as a warning to an attentive observer that some-
thing must be wrong; he will, therefore, en-
deavour to discover the cause of the evil ; and
will generally find that a judicious change of
diet will effect every thing that is necessary.

The state of the bowels, that is to say, the in-
formation which may be obtained from the ap-
pearance of the evacuations, will frequently suo--
gest the most suitable change of food for the
establishment of health ; for at any rate, an altera-
tion should be made. In some cases a small
quantity of split beans may be given to young
stock, especially such as are of a weakly washy
character, with good effect; though, I must confess,
I cannot recommend them as a general diet

H 2

100 THE STUD FARM.

for any horses, unless they are in strong work, or
a tonic is required. Their effects should be care-
fully watched.

A few days must be suffered to elapse after the
foals are taken from the mares before they are let
out into their respective paddocks, in order that
they may become reconciled to the separation.
Their enlargement, at first, need not exceed an
hour or two, during which period it will be de-
sirable to keep a watch over them that they do
not get into mischief. Foals that have been ac-
customed to kind and familiar treatment from the
time of their birth, will on this occasion give far
less trouble than those which have been allowed
to run in a comparatively wild state. The former
will be readily recalled to the house when re-
quired, the latter will often cause much diffi-
culty.

The custom adopted by some few persons of at-
tempting to rear racing stock constantly confined
in hovels or loose boxes from the period of their
being weaned, is too preposterous to admit of an
argument. When the weather is favourable, foals
should at this age be permitted to enjoy the range
of their paddock or yard from ten or eleven
o'clock in the morning till four in the afternoon,
that is to say, from October till April or May,
when fine weather and length of days will permit
a more extensive term for exercise in the open

CONFINEMENT DEPRECATED. 101

air ; an indulgence which they hail with delight,
and which is essential to their health as well as to
the full development of their bodies.

I have already noticed the danger to be appre-
hended from a foal getting his back wet ; but the
subject is so important as to call for a few ad-
ditional remarks.

The first question to be determined, is this : —
Is robust health, or a state bordering upon in-
disposition, the most likely to constitute an animal
which, having arrived at maturity, may be ex-
pected to be in possession of its physical powers in,
their utmost development ?

With the full assurance that the former alter-
native will be approved, the next inquiry arises,
"What course of treatment is best calculated to
obtain robust health, and what is likely to cause
indisposition ?

Upon the practice of rearing foals in confine-
ment, a few words only will suffice. Unaccus-
tomed to the free exercise of their limbs, no animal
can generate in its growth that volume of muscle
provided by nature for the purpose of giving
them energetic motion. Deprived of the means
of exercise, neither muscles, sinews, nor joints
acquire that texture so important in race horses,
and, in fact, those of every other class ; a certain
portion of exercise and pure air is also essential
to the promotion of digestion. The consequence

H 3

102 THE STUD FARM.

isj that animals that have been reared in a posi-
tive state of confinement give way in their
joints or sinews very soon after they are put into
training, unless a great length of time be allowed
to prepare them for the ordeal, and even then,
they very rarely stand their Avork satisfactorily.
The hothouse treatment to which they have been
accustomed renders their frames and constitutions
incapable of enduring any kind of labour. To
establish vigorous health, every animal requires
exercise in proportion to its age ; this we find
nature renders imperative with those which are
not kept in a state of domestication, in the
necessity which exists of their roaming about in
search of food. It is in those cases regulated by
age, and increases as the animals arrive at matu-
rity. Take, for example, the horse, which is
reared in the wild mountainous districts of Wales,
approaching, in the nearest degree we have in
this country, to a state of nature, where stallions,
with mares and foals, are turned out to provide
for themselves, and where the young ones are
selected at the age of two or three years, and
then brought to subjection for common purposes.
These animals of course never attain the power
and symmetry of those which are more carefully
treated ; and it is merely as an illustration of the
provisions of nature that the subject is intro-
duced. In this case, the foal, experiencing a

ANIMALS IN A STATE OF NATURE. 103

deficiency of support from the milk of its dam,
soon begins to cull the scanty herbage within
its reach ; when, at length, the milk entirely fails,
it has no other alternative but to seek its
own food, at which period an estrangement takes
place between the mother and her offspring ; and
as the latter grows older, and requires a greater
supply of food, it is obliged to go over a greater
space to procure it. The fox may likewise be
introduced as another example. The cub when
first produced is sustained by the milk of its
mother, who, as it becomes older, provides it with
rabbits, rats, mice, frogs, and perchance a disabled
pheasant ; but w^hen the young animal is capable
of partially providing for itself, the vixen is less
assiduous in her attentions, wdien hunger prompts
the young cub to make an essay for its own sup-
port, and at length it is left to its own devices
and resources for procuring food. Every fox-
hunter is aware of the difference in point of stout-
ness, stamina, and vigour, between foxes which
are bred in districts where their food is scanty,
and where they have consequently a great dis-
tance to travel in search of it, and those which
are bred in preserves abounding with rabbits
which they can secure without exertion.

But to return to the consideration of exposing
foals to the vicissitudes of the elements. If they
are frequently subjected to the effects of wet,

H 4

J 04 THE STUD FARM.

catarrhal affections are superinduced ; they may be
glight, scarcely even perceptible, or they may rage
with intensity ; but even under slight influence,
if frequently repeated, such disorders are calcu-
lated to affect the system of young and delicate
creatures most seriously. As this subject is of
so much importance, a somewhat minute inquiry
into the manner in which catarrh or cold is pro-
duced, together with its consequences, appears to
be indispensable.

Cold may be simply accounted for and ex-
plained as arising from a sudden chill, either in
consequence of the animal being exposed to a
current of air when the body is in a state of
perspiration, or from the effect of wet ; either of
which, by creating a great amount of evaporation,
is productive of similar results. It arrests or
stops the flow of perspiration, which, to a certain
extent, during health, is constantly escaping ; but
that, being returned into the circulation, charges
it with exhalations destined by nature to make
their escape. What therefore becomes of these
morbid exhalations ? They must lurk in the con-
stitution, or rather the circulation of the animal,
not only till after a reaction has taken place, but
likewise till absorption and evacuants have had
time to effect their removal ; during which period
this morbific matter will act very injuriously
upon those parts most susceptible of irritation,

RESULTS OF COLDS. 105

the trachea and the lungs, essential portions of the
animal economy — the mediums through which the
vital principle of the atmosphere is conveyed to
the blood. By repeated colds, an unhealthy state
of the lungs is produced, and a vitiated condition
of the blood is occasioned, the origin frequently
of cutaneous disorders, swelled legs, blindness,
and other catastrophes.

A disordered state of the lungs produced by a
severe cold, or slight ones frequently repeated, is
one of the most serious evils that can happen to
an animal required "to undergo the severe labours
of the horse ; inasmuch as whatever derangement
is produced in that organ, the powers of respira-
tion and expiration must be impeded in an equal
ratio to that in which the disorder prevails. It is
a circumstance likewise worthy of remark, that
chronic congestion of the lungs is generally dis-
covered, more or less, on a post mortem examina-
tion of horses that have been called upon to
undergo any quick and distressing performances.
Very few horses perfectly recover from the effects
of serious attacks of inflammation of that organ.
Colds must therefore be regarded with the greatest
apprehension. Habitual or chronic coughs, so
prevalent among horses, may generally be attri-
buted, and often traced, to colds caught when
young, but which, being slight, have not been
attended to at the time. Nor is it the lungs only

106 THE STUD FARM.

that Will in all cases be injured by colds ; the
trachea or windpipe is often the seat where their
baneful consequences will be established ; by ex-
citing the membrane to a state of inflammation, a
deposit is formed, ossification follows, and roaring
is occasioned more or less violently. It is not
perhaps the slight cold that may do this mischief,
but the slight cold frequently repeated establishes
an inflammatory condition of the trachea, which
in course of time becomes chronic. The strangles
or a severe cold supervenes ; sometimes the epi-
demic called influenza, a similar disorder ; either
of which being attended with considerable in-
flammation, roaring ensues in its worst form, and
the animal is of little value.

The most dangerous condition to which any
horse under such circumstances can be exposed,
whether young or old, is that of being allowed to
gallop and gambol about during a gleam of sun-
shine in showery weather, till the circulation of
the blood becomes excited, and profuse perspiration
ensues ; and if the animal is permitted to remain
out of doors till the rain descends, an immense
amount of evaporation, as already described, is
produced under the most unfavourable circum-
stances.

When the winter months have set in, foals
must of necessity be more constantly shut up,
not only on account of rain or snow, but also

ARTIFICIAL RESOURCES JUSTIFIED. 107

during frost, in consequence of the danger to be
api^rehended from their slipping down and in-
juring their limbs. It is very evident that by
nature they were not intended to inhabit frozen
regions, for their feet are peculiarly ill-adapted to
sustain them with security on ice-bound surfaces.
They must, therefore, under these circumstances,
be kept from harm by artificial contrivances.
The whole system of breeding and managing
horses in this country may at the first glance
appear to be artificial ; upon mature investigation,
however, it will be found to be so only to a
certain extent: there are many laws of nature
which must be obeyed. If housing them is looked
upon as an artificial resource, it is justifiable in
reference to the difference of climate which pre-
vails in England to that which characterises the
eastern hemisphere, w^ience the thoroughbred
horse was originally transplanted. The exercise,
which they as well as all other animals require,
was ordained for their welfare, and in their
management, man regulates that exercise simply
in regard to its extent, the amount of which is
determined by the immediate purpose for which
the horse is required. Is it not, therefore, totally
inconsistent with reason to suppose, that the
object of a horse's services can be obtained by
keeping him for a length of time in a state of
inactive confinement, and then all at once calling

108 THE STUD FARM.

forth, and expecting to gain, the most powerful
energies which an animal of that class is ca|)able
of affording? There are two degrees of exercise
which may also be subdivided; the one for the
purpose of maintaining health, and promoting the
development of the frames of young animals;
the other to render them capable of performing
quick and laborious exertions. The former only
appertains to animals of the tender age at present
under discussion.

During the prevalence of inclement bad wea-
ther, all the favourable intervals that can be em-
braced will, perhaps, be scarcely sufficient for foals
to enjoy a proper amount of exercise ; but as it
is impossible to influence the elements, the only
alternative is to allow them as much as circum-
stances will permit.

109

CHAP. VII.

TEABLINGS, TWO TEARS OLD, AND OTHERS.

Rules of the Jockey Club concerning Age. — A Late Foal. —
Leading Yearlings to Exercise. — Enlargement in the Paddock.

— Wisping over. — Appropriate Places for Exercise. —
Attention to the Feet. — Thrushes. — Foot Lameness com-
monly attributed to the Shoe. — Frequent Cause of Thrushes.

— The Frog and its Properties. — The Structure of the Foot
influenced by Thrushes. — Incipient Lameness the Result of
Inattention. — Cure of Thrushes. — Tar recommended. —
The Legs. — Frequent Cause of Crooked Legs. — Upright
Pasterns. — Oblique Pasterns. — In some Degree may be

remedied by Attention to the Feet Spontaneous Growth

of Horn. — Brittle Feet. — Allowance of Corn. — Healthy
Condition preferable to Fat. — Castrating. — Its Effects on
the Coat.— Half-bred Stock.

According to the rules and regulations of the
Jockey Club, by which all racing men are guided,
a foal dropped at any time during the preceding
year is denominated a yearling on the 1st of
January ; thus, one that happens to be foaled on
the 31st of December would be called a yearling
on the following day, and have to carry weight
equal w^ith those having nearly a year's advantage.
Whether on such unfortuitous occasions they are
not sometimes kept out of sight for a day or two,
it is not necessary for me to inquire. In treating

110 THE STUD FARM.

on the management of yearlings, it would be pre-,
posterous to adhere to this distinction. It must,
therefore, be understood, that such as come under
the denomination of yearlings are foaled some
time between the 1st of January and the month
of June, later than which a foal ought not to be
desired. I once possessed a mare called Vigornia,
bred by the late E. L. Charlton, Esq., of Lud-
ford, that was foaled in October ; but she was of
very little value as a race horse, having to give
generally six months, and sometimes more, of her
year to her competitors in weight for age races ;
and handicaps were not, in those days, prevalent
at provincial meetings.

As the spring advances, it will become advisable
to lead those foals about which are intended for
racing purposes ; those of any other class require
no alteration in their treatment from what they
have hitherto received, unless it be that they
should be allowed a greater portion of time for
exercise in their paddocks or yards. It is, how-
ever, at this time, necessary to render thorough-
bred stock, especially such as are intended to run
at two years old, familiar and tractable by de-
grees: they should at first be led about with a
cavesson and lounging rein, after which a bit
must be put into their mouths without any reins
to it ; and they may be suffered to play with it
themselves two or three hours daily, being at the

PRELIMINARY TUITION. Ill

time shut up ; after this, it will be proper to put
a roller on their bodies, and by degrees all the
paraphernalia of breaking-tackle introduced to
their notice. When time and the weather per-
mit, besides being led about, they should be
allowed the freedom of exercise in a paddock, as
essentially beneficial to their health and growth.
Unrestrained privilege at this age is of the utmost
service in promoting the development of the
whole frame and the suppleness of their limbs.
The ceremony of wisping over may commence
when they are first led about ; it contributes to
their cleanly appearance, and accustoms them to
the operation. Thus, by almost imperceptible
degrees, the ordeal of breaking, as it is technically
expressed, will be accomplished under the most
favourable circumstances, and sliould, in fact,
commence before the time of weaning by means
of the head-collar and short strap attached, as
already mentioned.

The selection of appropriate places for this kind
of preliminary exercise, demands some notice. A
turnpike road is not the most suitable place, inas-
much as a young horse, in his frolic and play, may
fall down and cut his knees; neither is a perfectly
level surface the only one to be chosen. Turf,
possessing some inequalities or unevenness, for
occasional visits, will have the good effect of teach-
ing them the use of their limbs. Ploughed fields.

112 THE STUD FARM.

when not too deep, or, on the other hand, too hard,
will have a similar effect ; besides which, walking
about on that kind of soil has a very beneficial
effect on the feet. Stony places, it is almost
unnecessary to add, should be carefully avoided,
or uneven surfaces, when the ground is hard.
When it is found necessary to take them out in
frosty weather, some artificial arrangement may
be required, such as tan or straw. When there
is snow on the ground of a suflScient depth to
prevent their slipping, providing it does not clog
or ball in the feet, it forms an excellent covering
to the earth for the purpose of exercise to animals
of a more mature age, and those which are more
than a year old will derive benefit from the
practice, if judiciously conducted. Every device
or contrivance whereby exercise can be safely
obtained during inauspicious weather, should be
eagerly embraced. It must be remembered that
the circulation is considerably less active in cold
than in warm weather ; no other argument, there-
fore, can be necessary to enforce the advantages
arising from exercise in order to promote health.

Attention to the feet is a subject of great im-
portance. An able writer on the treatment of
horses' feet has asserted, that thrushes arise from
bad shoeing ; overlooking, however, one very im-
portant fact, that they arise also from other causes.
While it is not to be denied that bad shoeing may

EARLY CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 113

produce them, it is somewhat remarkable, that any
person intimately acquainted with the manage-
ment of horses, can have overlooked the causes
which produce them in feet on which the iron
appendage in question has never had an oppor-
tunity of exercising this baneful influence. Many
more of the ills which the foot of the horse "is
heir to" are ascribed to the shoe and the unlucky
disciple of Vulcan than they deserve. When, from
causes totally unconnected with the shoe or its
application, any disorder of the foot or lameness
is apparent, the blacksmith and the shoe are
often condemned without further inquiry. Some
foals may not give evidence of lameness, the
moment it is established ; but as soon as they are
put to work, the infirmity is discovered, and
consequently people fancy it must proceed from
bad shoeing. Thrushes in the feet of foals and
young horses, often lay the seed of future lameness.
They frequently arise from exposure to wet, aided
by the corroding properties of dung and filth.
It may be alleged that blood stock, under ordi-
nary good management, could never be in such a
disgraceful state. I can only declare, that I
have not unfrequently noticed it in establishments
generally considered well regulated, and there
are many such, where the feet are never attended
to till the time for backing the animals approaches,

I

114 THE STUD FARM.

when the absolute necessity for shoeing renders
the inspection indispensable.

When the nature of the frog is considered,
its office, and its susceptibility to eariousness,
.with its effects, in that state, upon nearly the
whole of the internal structure of the foot, our
reasons for directing attention to its preserva-
tion will be evident. In a healthy state it is an
elastic substance, and acts as a kind of cushion to
assist in protecting the foot from concussion.
Some persons are of opinion that it is a medium
by which expansion of the heels is effected ; but
to that view I cannot subscribe. It is too elastic
for that purpose, and being much more so than
either the crust or sole, it would be futile to
suppose it can possess a greater power in that
respect than a less yielding substance. But that it
is a medium by which the faculty of expansion is
permitted, I will readily admit. The impression
that the frog possesses the power of expanding
the heels has no doubt arisen from the fact that
when that part is in a state of disease, they
generally contract. If disordered with thrushes
which cause pain, the animal, in order to relieve
itself from suffering, ceases to bear the accus-
tomed weight on the heels, which, in the absence
of pressure so produced, become contracted ; and
thus the diseased frog is a party to the disor-

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FKOGS. 115

ganisation. In young animals this becomes a
Source of considerable mischief; instead of the
heels and quarters participating in proportionate
growth with the other parts of the foot, they
continue, so long as thrushes prevail, in a normal
condition ; thus, when the animal has attained its
full age, the heels are narrow in proportion to the
other parts of the foot. The inconvenience thus
established being internal, is not always detected
until it is too late. The outer frog not bein^
supplied with nerves, does not possess the attribute
of feeling; but underneath that is the sensible
frog, formed of what appears to combine the
qualities of tendinous fat, and endowed with the
faculty of elasticity to a much greater extent
than the outer frog. When thrushes exist for
any length of time, and acquire a degree of in-
veteracy, they not only suspend the ordinary de-
velopment of the sensible frog, but by their dis-
charge, inducing absorption, cause the latter to
assume an unhealthy degree of hardness, or con-
sistency, incompatible with its utmost power of
elasticity. Hence, when the animal is required
to work, sufficient protection from concussion
is wanting, and this being augmented pro-
bably by soreness in the feet, produced from
other causes, inflammation commences, which
eventually increases till the animal becomes in-

I 2

116 THE STUD FARM.

capable of being trained or otherwise worked.
I do not, however, mean to assert that horses who
never had thrushes in their lives will not some-
times become similarly affected in their feet by-
absorption of the fatty frog ; but I have no hesi-
tation in stating that horses who have been trou-
bled with bad thrushes, are very susceptible of
foot lameness, even when they are cured ; and as
they are easily prevented by ordinary care, and
readily cured on their first appearance by proper
treatment, there is not the slightest excuse for
their prevalence.

Should the least indication of thrush present
itself, let the foot be fomented in warm water ;
or, if the subject has not been sufficiently domes-
ticated and rendered so tractable as to permit that
ceremony being performed, let the foot be care-
fully washed, the ragged parts of the frog cut
away, and the part dressed with tar ointment ; or
should the thrush have attained any degree of in-
veteracy, a small quantity of compound tincture
of myrrh may be poured into the cavity pre-
viously to the application of the tar, Avhich will not
fail to promote the cure. It will correct the foetid
character of the discharge, and stimulate the secre-
tion of new frog ; and although many persons use
without reserve strong styptics, such as the sesqui-
chloride of antimony, sulphate of copper, or other
powerful caustics, as there is no necessity for

FORM OF THE LEGS. 117

such powerful agents except in bad cases, a
milder remedy is surely more rational, especially
when young animals are to be dealt with. Tar
should be frequently applied to all frogs which
evince a disposition to generate thrushes; and
with such horses as have had shoes put on their
feet, it is advisable to stop them frequently with
dry tow, which affords a most salutary support to
the foot.

The legs of young horses may be very aptly
compared to willow twigs, which you may bend
to any form you please. By careful attention
many imperfections may be remedied, relieved, or
reduced in extent. The form and proportion of
the shoulders in a great measure regulate the
position of the legs, and have most essential
influence over their action ; and although we can-
not alter the symmetry and adjustment of the
body, there are many little attentions which, if
judiciously directed, will materially improve the
legs as well as the feet.

By observation it will be found that many of
the imperfections in the form of horses' legs may
be traced to a portion of the hoof having, at an
early age, been broken away or chipped off; thus
the other side of the foot grows more redundantly,
and the lower portion sustaining more wear, an
uneven bearins; both for the foot and leo; is
created ; and, unless by chance the opposite side

I 3

lis. THE STUD FARM.

of the hoof meets with a similar accident, or is
removed by the rasp or drawing knife, the leg
assumes a bad, most probably a crooked shape.
This malformation may frequently be observed in
one leg, while the other is perfectly straight and
well formed. The same principle, which, by ac-
cident, causes the limb to assume a peculiarity of
growth or shape, may be beneficially resorted to
for the purpose of remedying a defect, or making
good the consequences of an accident. If the
pastern joints show a disposition to grow too up-
right, they may be improved, if taken in time, by
lowering the heels. That must, however, be done
by degrees, when it may be eventually considered
necessary to increase the effect by putting tips or
half shoes on the feet ; on the other hand, should
the pasterns assume a form of too much obliquity,
shortening the toe will afford some assistance*
These operations of course require to be performed
with discretion ; nor can they in general be
attempted until the subject has attained some
growth; most probably they will not show any
necessity for so doing till they are more than
twelve months old ; yet they should be carefully
watched in their progress.

Another favourable result attendant upon
these suggestions is this: — that the same prac-
tice which is calculated to improve the form of
the legs, will, in most cases, be equally bene-

REMEDIES FOR DEFECTIVE FEET. 119

ficlal to the feet ; because it generally happens
that horses whose pasterns are upright have high
heels, and those whose pasterns have too great a
degree of obliquity, are low and weak in the heels.
I have seen the toes of foals which have been ne-
glected grow to an extraordinary length, amount-
ing almost to a deformity, by which nearly all the
weight of their fore-quarters has been thrown upon
their heels. In such cases, unless timely relief is
afforded, it is scarcely necessary to intimate what
the result would be.

Spontaneous growth of horn on one side of the
foot will have the effect of causing the leg to grow*
crooked, and possibly occasion the animal to turn
his toe in or out, as the growth of hoof on either
side predominates. But attention in reducing the
foot to a proper level, will naturally assist in
averting the evil.

If the crust or wall of the foot becomes hard
and brittle, when unprotected by a shoe, it is very
apt to be broken off at the edges ; to prevent
which, they should be rounded a little with the
rasp, otherwise they will sometimes shell off; and
when in that hard state the hoof has the effect of
conOning the natural growth and development of
the internal structure, which requires relief by
the application of the tar ointment and moisture.

Yearlings in good health will no doubt consume

I 4

120 THE STUD FARM.

as much as three quarterns of corn daily ; perhaps
many would eat a greater quantity ; but it is
more than doubtful whether the extra allowance
"would be beneficial to them. Racing stock, es-
pecially such as are intended to be trained at two
years old, will require it ; for those of other
classes, two quarterns per diem will suffice. Good
sound healthy condition is the object to be sought
for, not the accumulation of fat to an extent that
would excite the envy of a candidate for honours at
the periodical exhibition of the Smithfield Cattle
Club. Before an animal is put to that kind of
.work which produces a considerable amount of
perspiration calculated to carry off the superfluous
humours and fat engendered by high keep, it is
not only injurious, but dangerous to overcharge
the system with such an abundance ; indeed it
tends to retard rather than augment the develop-
ment of muscle, the increase of sinew, and the de-
posit of bone.

Linseed gruel may be given with good effect
to all young stock, especially during the winter
months, not with a view of making them fat, be-
cause it should not be made sufficiently strong to \
do so, but it is admirably calculated to soften
the water, and its balsamic effects on the
stomach and urinary passages are followed by the
most favourable results.

CASTE ATION. 121

Those yearlings which are not intended for
racing will, in all probability, be doomed to the
operation devised for preventing them from pro-
pagating their species, and the more significant
motive of keeping unruly tempers in subjection.
It may be in many instances inconvenient to
postpone it longer, because that entails a necessity
for providing them with separate apartments.
There is a certain phenomenon attendant upon
this operation, of which I never could obtain any
satisfactory explanation. Colts w^hich have been
emasculated when their coats are long and rough,
are never fine during the winter season, whereas
those which have been operated upon when their
coats are off, most invariably look well; and as I
entertain no doubt whatever of the fact, although
I cannot give any reason why it is so, I would
certainly suggest the propriety of selecting a time
when the animal is in a suitable condition. The
months of May or June are certainly to be pre-
ferred to any other period : if performed earlier
they will not have shed their coats ; and if delayed
longer, hot weather may be prejudicial. As it is
the province of the operator to give his own- direc-
tions relative to treatment, it is quite unnecessary
for me here to intrude upon his practice.

Very little need be added respecting the general
management from the time of weaning to that of

122 THE STUD FAEM.

breakiog such stock as may not be calculated for the
turf. They require precisely the same attentions m
as those already recommended for thoroughbred
yearlings. The same remarks will apply with
regard to their feet and legs, their constitutions,
condition, food, and exercise.

123

CHAP. VIII.

BREAKING.

Maturity promoted. — Breaking Tackle introduced. — Bitting.
— Lounging. — Boots or Bandages. — Action improved by

Uneven Surfaces Anecdote of a Hunter. — Lessons in

Leaping. — The Dumb Jockey The Palate, or Slabbering

Bit. — Grouper. — Straps, and Divers Objects. — Putting a
Rider up. — Importance of a Good Mouth. — Reins, and
Application of Bridles. — Efficiency of the Bit used by the
late Lord George Bentinck. — Nose Bands. — Pelhams. —
Gagsnaffles.

It is from judicious management wlien young that
much of the horse's superiority may be expected,
and it is by preparing him by degrees for what-
ever work he may be required to perform, that
facilitates his maturity, and brings him eventually
to the utmost state of perfection to which he is
capable of being brought. Many horses are in-
jured by being put to work too early, or, having
been reared in a state of inactivity, are put to work
without a gradual and systematic routine of exer-
cise, between which and work there is a vast dis-
tinction. It is the degree of exertion which they
are capable of enduring at certain ages, and under
certain circumstances judiciously directed, that

124 THE STUD FARM.

renders horses capable of performing great achieve-
ments, but which, in point of fact, are only so by
comparison, and should never be suffered to oc-
casion unnecessary distress.

Presuming the young animal has already been
accustomed to be led about by means of a cavesson
and lounging rein, the next ordeal he has to sub-
mit to is that of having a roller put on his body,
which should not at first be buckled tighter than
is necessary to prevent it from slipping back and
getting into his flanks. After this, he has a bit
put into his mouth, a plain thick snaffle with a
ring in the centre, on which some droppers or
pieces of metal are fixed in order to induce him to
play with them, which occupy his attention and
also prevent the mouth from becoming dry and
insensible. On these occasions a very great error
is frequently perpetrated by fastening the reins
tight upon the roller: during the first few days
it is better not to use any reins at all, or, if
they are used, they should be so slack as not to
cause any restraint whatever on the bit : by this
means the colt is induced to move his lips and
tongue, and play with or champ the bit, which he
will continue to do after this introduction when
the reins are properly adjusted, and will then in
due time have a good mouth ; whereas, if the reins
are drawn tight at first, he will contract a habit of
hanging on his bit, in all probability getting it on

APPLICATION OF THE BIT. 125

one side of his mouth, a bad pro2)ensity5 which, when
once acquired, requires some time and patience to
correct. He will also, perhaps, take a position in
one corner of his box, there stand and sulk, but if
the bit in the first instance be put in his mouth
without any reins, properly adjusted by means of
the head piece in the centre, he cannot by any con-
trivance either hang upon the bit or displace it
from its uniform position. With the bit on, it
w^ill also be advisable to lead him out for an hour
or two daily, and when he has become reconciled
to it, the reins may be introduced and fastened to
the roller, but only strained sufficiently tight that
he may just feel them.

The next ceremony is that of lounging : it is an
exercise very frequently carried on to a most un-
conscionable extent. Introduced, originally, for
the purpose of subduing animals that had been
neglected till they arrived at an age when their
tempers became resolute, the custom of severe
lounging has become one which many persons
concerned in the management of young horses
look upon as of paramount necessity, without any
regard to the consequences which follow, or the
motives which originally led to its adoption. One
of these was evidently with a view of saving
time. A resolute, uncultivated creature, four or
five years old, that would neither lead nor drive
until brought to subjection by fatigue, probably

126 THE STUD FARM.

might appear to require such usage as the only
alternative, unless an unreasonably lengthened
period could be appropriated to render the animal
tractable. " Lounge him till he is tired " is the
usual exclamation and practice of the provincial
colt breaker, whenever he meets with a colt who is
a little difficult to manage ; but by such men more
horses' tempers have been spoiled than improved.
Harassed and overcome, the poor brute submits
sullenly to the coercion of the individual whose
duty it should be to obtain by kind treatment and
patient attention, that which he vainly attempts
by ruffianism. Thus a temper, characterised by
gloomy cowardice is formed, instead of cheerful-
ness and courage. Such ought never to be the
treatment of any stock, much less that which is
thoroughbred, and intended for the purpose of
racing. Their young and delicate limbs will not
sustain the rough exercise of severe lounging,
neither is it at all necessary for any beneficial pur-
pose. A little now and then is all very proper :
it teaches them the use of their limbs, renders
them supple and active, and as an exercise, dis-
creetly regulated, is very desirable ; but judging
from the effect it produces when practised upon
horses of mature age and in hard condition, I have
no hesitation in stating that it is the most severe
work a horse can be subjected to, that is, when it
is continued for any length of time, and the poor

SEVEKE LOUNGING CONDEMNED. 127

animal is made to go at a fast pace on heavy
ground. I have seen old hunters put through this
manoeuvre ; under the impression, that in conse-
quence of there not being any weight on their
backs, their legs sustain no injury. But it is a
most mistaken idea. Constantly working on a
circle, horses are extremely liable to hit their
lesfs, and for this reason boots or bandas^es
should be invariably used whenever horses are
lounged.

The action of some horses is such, that they
scarcely move in certain paces without striking
or hitting their legs, yet there are many who
scarcely ever do so, and others who never touch
their legs except by accident : — for our present
purpose, therefore, they may be divided into
three classes. With those of the first there is but
one alternative, — their legs must be protected, or
inflammation will speedily be established, and
eventually lameness. The second class will be
very likely to labour under the same infirmity unless
means are adopted for their security ; and the third
class wdll scarcely require protection to their legs
unless some particular exercise, such as lounging,
entails the probability of an accidental blow.

After these premises it may naturally be in-
quired, what objection can be stated to the use of
boots ? Simply this ; that they are productive of

128 THE STUD FARM.

some heat in the leg by the friction which they
occasion. Much, it is true, depends upon their
fitting, and the way in ^vhich they are put on ;
but, however well they may be made, softly lined,
and properly adjusted, they will, to a certain
extent, produce heat in the legs. When very
nicely put on, I believe bandages to be prefer-
able, but it is so seldom that they are so, that
I feel some hesitation in recommending them ;
if they are bound on too tight, of course much
mischief and inconvenience arises ; and if not
sufficiently tight, they will of course come un-
done. When I require bandages for exercise,
I have them made from the blanketing used
for clothing, as it wears much longer than the
common serge, is softer, and affords more protec-
tion.

When the exercise of lounging is about to com-
mence, the colt should always be at first set off
to work to the right hand, so that, in case he
breaks out of the trot, he may lead with the off
leg, and although it is necessary that he be
changed and lounged both ways, it is desirable,
if either prevails, that it should be that of work-
ing him to the right ; this, however, is very often
reversed.

The pace at which colts are lounged is usually
too fast; they are often not only hurried into a

APPROPRIATE PLACES FOR LOUNGING. 129

canter, but absolutely into a gallop, although a trot
is the proper pace, and should never be exceeded.
It is a very general practice never to take colts
on any but the most level surfaces ; thus they
never attain the fair use of their limbs, unless, at
a future period, they are ridden as hunters or
hacks, when they have a vast deal to learn. Hence,
too, so much time and patience is required to
make riding horses of those which have been in
training. This was more conspicuous some five-
and"twenty years ago, when a horse in training
was never accustomed to more than three paces,
— a walk, canter, and gallop, — than at the present
period. The very idea of his trotting was then
quite out of the question ; now, however, many
trainers adopt that pace from which two most
important results arise ; in the first place, it
brings muscles into action which are not employed
by any other motion, and in the second, it ren-
ders him more serviceable if, in thee vent of his
powers not being adapted for racing, he is con-
signed to other purposes. I can speak from prac-
tical experience of the trouble required in making
hunters of some horses that had been two or
three years in training. I remember one in par-
ticular, which, before I purchased him, had been
a season in Leicestersliire, in the hands of a very
superior performer, but never having been accus-
K

130 THE STUD FARM.

tomed to anything of the kind, had no idea of
crossing ridge and furrow, and as to jumping,
with a determined man on his back, he certainly
did get over or through " somehow." Soon after
he came into my possession I discovered his
failings ; he was a horse with very lengthy ac-
tion, and never having been required "to break
his stride," had no idea of doing so, or, in other
words, reducing its extent to accommodate himself
to the lands he was passing over, or of collecting
himself to jump fences. As he was endowed with
an excellent temper, I set about teaching him a
better style of galloping and fencing ; and for this
trouble I was amply repaid. The improvement was
accomplished by lounging him on uneven ground,
over little open drains in meadows, and over small
fences. I rode him till after Christmas in a pro-
vincial country, when I went to Melton. The
first day I was out upon him, he was recognised
by a gentleman who had seen him previously,
and who mentioned the circumstance, at the same
time observing, " He cannot go here, he has not got
the step to get over ridge and furrow." My reply
was, " When I purchased him he certainly had
not, but I think you will find he has acquired
it ; watch him going over two or three of these
fields," which happened to be admirably adapted
for the purpose, one of them being a watered
meadow intersected with small furrows. My

THE DUMB JOCKEY. 131

friend admitted that the horse's performance and
activity were perfect.

All horses calculated to make hunters or steeple-
chasers, should be taught while under the surveil-
lance of the breaking tackle, to leap small fences ;
there is no necessity for practising them over dan-
gerous places, or where the ground is hard ; but
low hedges or stiles, open ditches, and narrow
water courses, may always be selected for their
tuition. It appears almost unnecessary to observe,
that the reins attached to the bit should be
lengthened to an extent capable of affording the
colt sufficient liberty.

The dumb jockey is an apparatus which finds
favour in the opinion of most persons having the
direction and management of young horses, and
is no doubt a very useful agent, especially before
the living rider is put up ; but great caution must
be used that the animal is not alarmed on
the first introduction of what must appear to the
astonished creature a wonderful production, if not
an unwelcome companion. These inventions are
usually made with soft pads at the lower branches
to protect the back of the colt from injury ; if,
however, they are not so provided, a saddle becomes
necessary ; and that appendage must likewise be
placed on the back in due course of time, whether
it be intended as a seat for the dumb jockey or not;
at any rate, the young animal should be perfectly

K 2

132 THE STUD FARM.

accustomed to it before any attempt is made to
put a rider up.

The dumb jockey is provided with two adjust-
ments on each side for the reins, designed for
the purpose of regulating the position of the head:
thus, if the horse carries his head too high, the
lower reins are to be brought into action, and if
the reverse, the upper ones ; the carriage of the
colt may be very materially altered by this means.
When sufficiently accustomed to it, the dumb
jockey may be left on two or three hours while
the colt is by himself, either in a large loose box
or in a small paddock. This will very materially
improve his mouth, and as an auxiliary, a palate
or slabbering bit may be introduced instead of the
snaffle already mentioned. It is made with a
straight mouth- piece, having three moveable ports
or arches, aU of which may be adjusted so as to
hang down, or two may be allowed to hang in
that position, and one placed upwards, in case the
horse does not play upon them sufficiently without.
This bit possesses one very great recommendation,
that of creating an even mouth, and is the best
remedy for correcting that defect sometimes oc-
casioned by the common breaking-snaffle. A
crouper may be attached to the dumb jockey with
good effect, and eventually some loose straps run-
ing through it, to fall over the loins and down the
sides, especially with such horses as are intended

MOUNTING COLTS. 133

for harness ; in fact, they should be accustomed
by degrees to all sorts of appendages. Pocket-
handkerchiefs may be tied to the upper branches
of the dumb jockey, a hat placed upon it, and
other similar devices patiently and gently intro-
duced : by these practices much future trouble and
many accidents will be avoided. The greatest
caution must, however, be observed not to alarm
the animal, or the object will be defeated.

What must be the amazement of young ani-
mals when they are for the first time mounted ?
If they had but the power of expressing their
wonder, their story would no doubt be entertain-
ing. Fear would, I apprehend, form a consider-
able Dortion of it. Hence this ceremony should
therefore be performed with the utmost caution,
patience, and quietude ; and a boy should be put up
and taken down again several times before any at-
tempt is made for the animal to be ridden. This is
a new era in his life ; at first he may be disposed
to free himself from the familiar intrusion of his
companion, failing in which, he finds his actions
more than ever controlled and restrained ; and if
inclined to be of a sullen temper, he will show it.
This is a crisis most peculiarly calculated to call
forth the skill, patience, and firmness of the
colt-breaker, or if I may be allowed the expression,
the colt's tutor. Much of the disposition wliich

K 3

134 THE STUD FARM.

characterises the horse in after-life may be es-
tablished at an early age. The seeds of rebellion,
obstinacy, and vice are as readily sown, and like
noxious weeds, more likely to thrive than those
of obedience, docility, and faithfulness. When
the colt has been accustomed to having a boy
put on his back, and taken down again, and sub-
mits to it quietly, it becomes necessary to teach
him to move forward with the rider on his back.
The latter, although he has the reins in his hands,
should leave the guidance of the animal entirely
to the assistant, by means of the lounging rein.
I prefer a boy who can ride well to a man for
the first probation, because he is lighter ; and the
man of experience is of more use on these
occasions on foot, to lead the colt about, and
lounge him with the rider up. When sufficiently
reconciled, the rider endeavours to guide the colt
by the reins, turning him at first slightly from right
to left, and eventually turning him round. When
these preliminary exercises have been acquired, it
may be necessary to put up a horseman of greater
experience, and possessing that rare attribute,
hands ; because it may now be supposed that the
colt is sufficiently taught to be ridden about with-
out the attendance of a person on foot, while the
rider has the lounge rein coiled up in his left
hand, which, in the event of being dislodged from
his saddle, enables him to prevent his charge from

ABSURD PRACTICES OF COLT-BREAKERS. 135

getting loose. The bridle best adapted for use at
this period is the plain snaffle, with two reins, one
of which passes through a martingale.

So much of the horse's appearance and carriage
depends upon the way in which his mouth is
formed, and the manner in which he is first ridden ;
and the future comfort and safety of those who
may have the riding of him eventually, being so
intimately blended therewith, it would be a great
omission to neglect any observations calculated to
perfect this part of his tuition. As a preliminary,
many of the ordinary colt-breakers make a practice
of rendering a colt's mouth sore, in order to effect
its sensibility. But this is a most mistaken as well
as cruel custom. There can be no doubt that
during the time it is sore it is very sensitive, but
when the healing process is completed, a more cal-
lous condition ensues. In the sore state the animal
is afraid to face the bit, and in consequence fre-
quently contracts a habit of rearing, the most dan-
gerous vice in a horse. If the treatment which has
been suggested be patiently and carefully carried
out, there will seldom, if ever, be any occasion to
complain of the want of sensibility in the mouth, or
tractability in the animal. When, from neglect or
want of attention on the first occasion of the colt
being bitted and the reins put on, especially if
they are drawn too tight, he contracts a habit of

K 4

136 THE STUD FARM,

hanging on the bit without champing, and playing
with it so as to produce moisture or saliva; then
it is that the foundation of a dead, insensible
mouth is established, which requires much trouble
to correct.

The reins usually used with a snaffle-bit, inde-
pendently of those already mentioned, namely,
the spare reins and martingale, are running reins,
in which case the martingale is dispensed with. If
properly handled, these, which I am about to de-
scribe, are very effective. They are arranged in two
ways ; the one, having a strap fixed to the girth like
a martingale, is divided at about two feet eight
inches from the lower end, so as to form two reins;
these pass through the rings of the snaffle, and
come up to the hand, using a buckle to connect
them, like any other reins ; with this tackle, if a
horse is disposed to carry his head too high, it may
be brought to the required position. Some persons
buckle the martingale to the rino;s of the bit, but
it is a practice that cannot be too strongly repro-
bated. The other plan is that of fastening the
reins to the girth-strap, and passing them through
the rings of the snaffle. They come up to the hand
in a similar manner to what I have already
described. They will not bring a horse's head
down so effectually as the first named, but they
have an excellent effect in causing a horse that
carries his head in a tolerably good place, to bend

CUEB BITS. 137

himself, and they afford great power to the rider ;
but they require nice handling.

I am a decided advocate for all young horses,
especially those which are intended for hunters,
hacks, or carriage work, being occasionally ridden
with curb-bits, that is, after their education has
been sufficiently matured with the snaffle. It
renders them handy and improves their action,
presuming, of course, that the bridle is properly
made use of. There is an excellent kind of curb
with which the late Lord George Bentinck was in
the habit of riding his hacks, and every one will
acknowledge there never was a better judge of
such matters. I know not whether his lordship
invented it, but it goes by his name among those
who are acquainted with it. Many saddlers are
quite ignorant of its existence, but it may be
obtained from Mr. Heavens, 28, South Molton
Street, Oxford Street. It has a moveable arch or
high port, with a smaller port to act as a stop
when the former is put up ; the cheeks or sides are
moveable on the mouth-piece. When the arch or
port is turned up, it has a powerful effect on the
roof of the mouth, especially with the auxiliary
of a nose-band, an appendage which should always
accompany its use when so disposed, though not
essentially necessary when the arch is turned
down. In the latter case it has a most excellent
effect in keeping a horse's mouth from becoming

138 THE STUD FARM.

dead. John Day told me that the young horses at
Danebury were all occasionally ridden with one ;
and that any colt, however dead and insensible
his mouth might be, was soon brought into a state
of subjection by the use of it. I can also mention
a particular instance of the efficacy of this bit. I
met a gentleman very recently who was riding
a horse with the hounds ; the animaLhad a mouth
as insensible as a piece of iron, and my friend
was not only in a most uncomfortable, but even in
a dangerous predicament. I offered to lend him
one of these bridles, which I was led to believe
would answer his purpose ; he expressed himself
incredulous, nevertheless he sent for it and tried
it, when to his great astonishment, and still
greater satisfaction, he found his horse went ad-
mirably in it, and lost no time in procuring the
facsimile. He has since informed me he had
tried all sorts of bits and devices, but none had
any good effect but this. From its peculiar con-
struction it may be rendered severe or the reverse ;
but in neither case has it the effect of deadening
the mouth ; the great imperfection of many other
bits. The acme of perfection of a horse's mouth
is to go pleasantly in a snaffle-bridle. To accom-
plish this he should be occasionally ridden, when
young, in a bit such as I have described in
order to make him handy. There are four dis-
tinct circumstances upon which it depends,

CAUSE OF A SNAFFLE BEING CONDEMNED. 139

whether a horse will ride pleasantly in a snaffle-
bridle, — his temper, the sensibility of his mouth,
the way in which his head is put on, and the
hands of the rider. So much depends upon the
latter, that a horse which will go pleasantly with
one man using one kind of bridle will not go at
all with some others unless they change the
tackle. One reason why many persons condemn
snaffle-bridles, especially for hunters, is, because
they have the head-piece buckled too short, by
which the bit is drawn up to the angle of the lips
causing the mouth to become dead, instead of
allowing it to rest on the bars. I must confess I
have no objection to a martingale for a hunter,
providing there are spare reins to it, but not
without, and the neck strap should be fastened to
the D's of the saddle like a breast-plate, to pre-
vent it from getting on the horse's head, in case of
a fall. For anxious horses that have a trick of
opening their mouths and hanging on the bit, a
nose-band is an admirable contrivance. It is
usually applied with a curb-bridle, but it has
often a good effect with a snaffle: of course it
must be buckled sufficiently tight, otherwise it is
of no use.

The Pelham is a bit which I never much fancied :
it is a species of hybrid between a curb and a
snaffle, and most horses that will ride well in one
will go equally well in a snaffle, but having two

140 THE STUD FARM.

reins gives some persons rather more confidence.
Pelhams are very liable to make horses lean upon
the arms of their riders. They are, however,
very seldom used in the process of breaking,
hence it is not on this occasion necessary to enter
more fully on their merits or defects.

There is also a bridle occasionally used which I
never could appreciate, — it is the gag. I never rode
with one but once, and that was in a race. I inquired
from the trainer why he put it on ; his reply was,
" You will find he will get his head down and
break away with you unless you make use of it."
I tied the reins up, but never touched them ;
he did not get his head down, neither did he
attempt to run away ; but he won his maiden
race ; and, with ordinary handling, I am quite
certain no such apparatus was at all necessary
with him. As the gag has the effect of drawing
the, snaffle up to the angle of the lips, a position
in which it never ought to be placed if the
rider desires to maintain power and control over
the animal's mouth, I cannot conceive upon what
principle such an apparatus can be advocated.
It is generally supposed to be an antidote for
a horse having learnt the trick of getting his
head down, and then running away or attempting
to do so. The remedy for this is, to raise the
hands moderately, and slightly draw the bit
across his mouth ; but, with the gag, that cannot

i

INSTINCTIVE FACULTIES IN HORSES. 141

be done, because drawing the reins in a manner
which would have that effect with the common
snaffle, will only draw the gag tighter into the
angle of the lips, in which position, as I have
already remarked, it is useless.

The kind of instinct — the reason, it may almost
be termed, with which horses are gifted — wiU guide
any contemplative mind in the management of
particular animals under every variety of circum-
stances. If a horse, by rearing, kicking, or plung-
ing, contrives to dislodge his rider, he dispossesses
himself of a companion who may alarm or annoy
him, and gives himself temporary liberty, which
pleases him ; and having done so once, he attempts
it again, and success may very probably render
him dangerous. From this cause it is impor-
tant to employ skilful persons in the tuition
of young animals. When horses are refractory,
the state of things may be compared to the in-
stinct of the brute opposed to the reasoning of the
man, and the winner will be he who is most
talented. A horse becoming alarmed, and in bad
hands, is often beaten for it; fear is thus suc-
ceeded by punishment, and on the next occasion
when any thing occurs to frighten him, he pro-
bably becomes refractory. In that case the in-
stinct of the horse predominates over the reason
of the man.

142

I

CHAP. IX.

PHYSIC.

Physic after Weaning. — Strong Doses deprecated. — Physic to
Yearlings. — Symptoms which indicate the Necessity for

Physic. — Preparation. — Time of giving Physic Water

an Auxiliary. — Administering Balls. — Worms. — How

they are nourished How they are detected. — Remedies

for their Expulsion. — Table of the Proportions of Medicines
to be given to Horses. — Formula for Aloetic Purgatives. —
Time of giving Physic. — Formula for Alteratives. — Re-
marks.

After being deprived of its mother's milk, the
liver of the foal is very liable to assume an in-
active, torpid condition ; hence the great advantage
of aloetic purgatives, which are supposed to act
primarily on that organ. By the exhibition of a
purgative the stomach is relieved, whereby the
progress of chymification is assisted, an event of
importance, considering that the young animal
now becomes entirely dependent on a more stimu-
lating food, calling into action more energy and
vigour from the digestive faculties; the bowels
are also stimulated to action by mild doses of
physic, and chylification, another process most es-

STMPTOMS REQUIEING PHYSIC. 143

sential to the vigorous health of the animal, is more
perfectly accomplished. The nourishment of the
body being finally supplied by the agency of these
two fluids, it is of vast importance that the reser-
voirs in which they are secreted and from which
they are conveyed, should be in a healthy and
powerful condition.

As a general practice it may be laid down,
that foals should have a mild dose of physic, the
quantity to be regulated by circumstances, about
a fortnight or three weeks after they are weaned,
to be succeeded by a second after an interval of
ten or twelve days. The first dose, unless for a
very early, hardy, and pow^erful foal, should not
exceed one drachm of aloes, with corresponding
portions of the other ingredients, for which a
formula is here given : an extra scruple may be
administered on the second occasion, if found
necessary, but it should be remarked that violent
purging is not to be desired, on the contrary, it is
very injurious. How the horses in former days
endured the violent doses which were given to them
it is difficult to understand, unless the aloes were
adulterated, or, from some cause in their prepara-
tion, were less powerful. From old formulae it
may be discovered that eight and ten drachms of
Barbadoes aloes, was the usual dose to a horse of
mature age. That they were a long time in re-

144 THE STUD FARM.

covering from tlie effects there is no doubt, and
that they were occasionally destroyed by such
treatment is pretty certain. If the dose is suffi-
ciently powerful to purge the animal, that is all
that ought to be effected. It must also be observed
that it is not always the most gross feeder that re-
quires the largest proportion of aloes ; such animals
are often characterised by relaxation of the bowels,
which are, in consequence, readily acted upon;
while light feeders will often be troubled with
costiveness and constipation, and, being generally
less disposed to consume any considerable quan-
tity of bran-mash, their bowels are less suscep-
tible of the influence of aperients. Yearlings
likewise require two doses of physic during the
month of April, to prepare them for the change
of atmosphere and diet ; and, in fact, all horses of
a more mature age, that are kept upon good and
nourishing food, require physic in the spring and
autumn. It may be observed, why not give them
their food in more sparing quantities, and of a
less nutritive quality, and so dispense with the
physic ? The reply is obvious ; because when
kept upon a poor diet, the vigorous growth of
their bodies, and the development of their muscles,
cannot be acquired by that means, as is daily
proved by those which are so treated.

The necessity for physic between the periods

SYMPTOMS REQUIRING PHYSIC. 145

already mentioned, must be dictated by circum-
stances. The symptoms which indicate that neces-
sity, it is presumed, ought to be familiar to most
persons conversant with the management of
horses. Any accident, for example, such as a blow
or wound, which interdicts the propriety or prac-
ticability of exercise, and by which local inflam-
mation is excited, is an occasion for resorting to
physic. Here, however, it may be desirable to
direct attention to a distinction between some
symptoms which are apt to mislead, originating,
as they do in extreme cases of debility and ple-
thora, respectively. In a state of debility, for
instance, the legs will often swell from want of
energy in the circulation, the vessels with which
the extremities are supplied being surcharged.
This is the result, usually, of some previous indis-
position, such as influenza, strangles, bad or re-
peated colds; and in this state the absorbent
vessels become so languid as not to be able to per-
form their offices. Strong doses of purgative me-
dicines are then extremely prejudicial, by increas-
ing the debility ; and tonics, with mild diuretics,
are to be preferred. Discretion, it will therefore
be seen, is necessary, when swelled legs are dis-
covered, to distinguish between the two opposite
causes from which they have arisen; and I intro-
duce these remarks simply for the purpose of

146 THE STDD FARM.

pointing out the fact that swelled legs are not
invariably to be attributed to a plethoric habit.

The effect of purgative medicine depends so
much upon the preparation which the animal has
undergone, that a few hints on that important
subject may not be out of place. I have on all
occasions witnessed exceedingly favourable results
from mild doses of physic, when the animals to
which they have been administered have previ-
ously been subjected to a proper preparation ;
while I can bear strong testimony to the bad ef-
fects which strong doses, supposed to be necessary
to obtain the purgative result, have frequently
produced. Horses, when they are partaking of
grass or succulent food of that nature, are more
readily purged than when living entirely upon hay
and com; the quantity of aloes, therefore, requires
to be regulated accordingly. There is no danger
whatever to be apprehended from giving them
physic when eating green herbage, the usual pre-
cautions against their taking cold being of course
adopted. In preparing horses for physic, no food
of any kind should be given except bran-mashes,
to which a portion of corn may be added during
the twenty-four hours prior to the ball being
given. It is a prevailing custom to give physic
in the morning, but from four to five in the
afternoon is a more convenient time, as in tliat
case it will, or ought to, act upon the bowels on

TREATMENT UNDER PHYSIC. 147

the following morning between nine and ten
o'clock, at which period the subject should be led
or ridden out, to assist the operation of the
medicine ; chilled water is to be presented in fur-
therance of the same object. It is also advisable
to offer the animal water immediately before the
ball is given, although this regulation is very
commonly reversed. Attention to the habits and
propensities of the equine tribe will explain the
motives for this direction. If the water be pre-
sented subsequently to the ball having been
given, the animal will very probably refuse to
drink any, especially after having had a few doses
of physic. On the following morning a degree of
nausea will exist, and the aversion to water will
still continue : thus, the very great assistance
which the medicine would receive in its operation
from that fluid, properly managed, is lost ; or what
is worse, just as the physic has nearly done its
duty, thirst prevails, at which crisis it would be
injurious to give water unless in a very small
quantity, otherwise, a second action of the bowels
may be excited, very incompatible with the salu-
tary effects intended to be produced.

The rude manner too often resorted to in giving
balls to horses cannot be too strongly condemned ;
the cruelty exercised, and the natural dread thereby
occasioned, frequently creating a difficulty in
future. The violent manner in which some men

L 2

148 THE STUD FARM.

will foolishly grasp the tongue, and the severity
used in attempting to hold the animal, cause
pain which the poor creature assuredly resists.
The use of the balling-iron should be on all occa-
sions positively interdicted. The assistant should
place his right hand on the nose of the horse in
such a manner as not to press on the soft portion
or cartilage, and thereby interrupt the breathing ;
lie then inserts his thumb on the bars, and, with
two fingers placed on the lower jaw, opens the
mouth, which being performed with tenderness,
will not create alarm or confusion. The operator
having his right hand defended by a glove, the
two forefingers of which have been cut off, places
the ball between those fingers, keeping his hand
as flat as possible, not with his knuckles arched,
a foolish, bad custom; then, by taking hold of
the tongue very gently with his left hand, he
draws it out of the mouth as far as he conveniently
can without causing pain, when, by inserting the
ball on the root of the tongue, he quickly with-
draws his hand, and immediately shutting the
horse's mouth, the ball will be swallowed without
trouble. Old horses that have been frequently
tortured by ruffianly treatment, are naturally
much averse to the operation, but this arises en-
tirely from previous ill usage.

Whenever any of the young stock, or in fact,
any other horse, evinces symptoms of indisposition,

WORMS. 149

by loss of appetite, dulness of spirits, or swelling
of the legs (unless debility is indicated, as the
cause of the last named), a mild dose of physic is
generally the most successful remedy, unless it
appears that some specific complaint exists, in
which the advice of an experienced professor of the
veterinary art will most probably be required.
With that science I will not presume to interfere,
contenting myself by only offering suggestions by
way of prophylactics in such ordinary and every-
day occurrences as every person who undertakes
the management of a stud of horses must neces-
sarily be required to be competent in directing.

Those offensive parasites, worms, are apt to be
troublesome to horses at all ages ; not unfrequently
to foals, but more especially to yearlings. They
often exist to an extensive degree for a considerable
period before their presence is detected; but at
length, the ravages they have committed on the
constitution speak too plainly to admit of a doubt :
and on this account, very frequent examinations
of the evacuations should be made, not merely
superficially, but by dividing the heaps with the
stable-fork, or some similar implement. Without
entering into the unprofitable inquiry how these
insects come to life in the stomach and bowels of
the equine tribe, it will be sufficient for our pre-
sent purpose to show how they are fed. The very
essence of the nourishment intended for the support

L 3

150 THE STUD FARM.

of the horse, after it has been extracted from the
food, and while it remains in the stomach and
bowels ready to be taken into the circulation by-
means of the vessels arranged for that purpose, is
seized upon by these relentless vermin. Can it
be a matter of surprise, therefore, that when they
prevail in considerable numbers, a variety of bad
symptoms should appear? It is well understood
that sympathy exists between the stomach, and
bowels, and the skin. The presence of worms
may be detected by the appearance of the coat,
which assumes a staring, harsh, and unthrifty
character, and grows longer than natural, espe-
cially about the flank, where hairs of uncommon
length often afford a peculiar indication. A light
cream coloured powder is to be seen on the fun-
dament. A dry harsh cough is frequently another
symptom. Constipation of the bowels, succeeded
by copious and sometimes uncontrollable purging,
is at times produced by worms. The animal
frequently consumes an immoderate quantity of
food, becomes big-bellied, but loses flesh. With
only a portion of these ailments, it is not to be
wondered that a wasting of the muscle, or falling
off in condition, as it is commonly termed, should
be one of the most positive criterion s, attended
likewise with the most profuse perspiration from
every trifling exertion. Not only do worms
deprive young animals of a great portion of the

REMEDIES FOR WORMS. 151

sustenance required to promote their growth and
vigour, and thus produce temporary inconveniences,
but, if suiFered to continue, they establish a de-
bilitated constitution, which no care or treatment
hereafter can restore. Horses of a more mature
age are rendered incapable of performing even a
moderate share of work, in common cases re-
quired from them.

Various are the remedies prescribed for the
removal of these intruders, some of which are
more calculated to amuse the mind than to prove
satisfactory ; and if the worms possessed the
faculty of knowing what extraordinary contri-
vances were contemplated for their destruction,
they would no doubt join exultingly in the
delusive jest. Savine, rue, and many productions
of a vegetable kind, have been selected, none of
which are to be relied upon. It has been re-
marked by a very able veterinary surgeon that,
although we can force a poison down a horse's
throat, we cannot compel the worms to receive it.
This may, under certain circumstances, be true.
If nauseous antidotes from either the vegetable or
mineral kingdom be presented in the form of baUs,
instinct may direct the worms to repudiate the
offer ; but let us consider if, by a little tact and
management, we cannot enchant the appetite, and
entice these greedy gentry with a taste of some
delicious potion, not unsavoury to their palates,

L 4

152 THE STUD FARM.

but provided for their especial ruin. There is no
bird, beast, or insect within the reach of man,
whose destruction he cannot compass if he sets his
mind on accomplishing it.

The most satisfactory results will be obtained
from the use of calomel or tartarized antimony. I
should certainly award the preference to the former,
if it were only from the circumstance of its pos-
sessing less taste than the latter ; and, therefore,
more certain to inveigle the worms into its power.
With calomel, properly administered, there need
be no apprehension that it will not succeed. The
improper combination of it with other drugs may
have caused it to fail, and led those who have
been, from that circumstance, disappointed, to the
belief that the medicine was not possessed of the
power ascribed to it. It must be remarked that
alkalies are incompatible with both calomel and
tartarized antimony ; neither of these drugs ought,
therefore, to be given in balls mixed up with soap ;
nor should soap be a component part of any balls
given with the intention of working off either of
these medicines.

Before the time arrives when it is proposed to
effect a dislodgment of worms, the patient should
be subjected to abstinence from any kind of
food during the term of six or eight hours
at the least, by which means the appetites
^f the insects will become somewhat keen. A

MEDICINE FOR WORMS. 153

small quantity of bran-mash is then to be given,
with the portion of calomel or tartarized anti-
mony well mixed therein, the relative propor-
tions of which are hereafter specified, to be re-
2:ulated accordinsj to the ao;e of the animal.
This dose being given at night or morning, is to
be repeated either on the following morning or
evening, so as to allow an interval of ten or
twelve hours between each ; and during which
time no other kind of food is to be offered than
the bran-mashes, in which one or other of the
drugs has been mixed. Six hours after the last
mash, so prepared, has been given, it must be
worked off with linseed oil or aloes. If the sub-
ject be a foal, some trouble is occasioned and skill
is required in giving a ball ; but I must confess a
preference to that mode of presenting the purgative.
I have always effected the administration of that
compound by placing it on the end of a piece of
whalebone or cane ; care, tenderness, and dexterity
are, however, required for the performance of the
operation. It will be seen by this course of
treatment, that the worms havino^ no other kind of
food to partake of but that which is impregnated
with the calomel or tartarized antimony, have no
alternative but to seize upon it when it comes
within their reach; and the former drug being
tasteless and very diffusible, there is little doubt
but they will have a taste sufficient either to

154 THE STUD FARM.

destroy them, or cause them to lose their hold,
when the purgative medicine clears them away.

The following tables will show the relative
proportions of medicines which may be given to
horses at different ages ; preference to be awarded
to the smaller quantities, unless under peculiar
circumstances.

Calomel or tartarized Antimony. Linseed Oil. Aloes.

grs.

) foals - - - - 10

ozs.

4 to 6

drachms.

|to|

Yearlings- - - 15 to 20

6 to 8

1 to li

Two year olds - 20 to 25
Three year olds - 25 to 30
Four year olds ^

and upwards) 30 t°««

8 to 12
12 to 15

1 to 2 pts.

2to2|
2i to 3|

4 to 6

Formula for aloetic purgative.

Aloes, finely powdered - - 4 drachms.

Hard soap - - - - 2 drachms.

Ginger, in powder - - - 2 drachms.

Mix and form a ball, varying the proportions according to

circumstances.

Formula for an aloetic purgative when soap is an
incompatible ingredient, as with calomel or tar"
tarized antimony.

Aloes, broken in pieces - - 4 drachms.

Olive oil or lard - - - 1 drachm.

Ginger, in powder - - - 2 drachms.

Treacle 1a drachm.

I

PREPARATION OF PHYSIC. 155

The aloes and oil, or lard, are to^be melted to-
gether, which is most readily accomplished by
putting them in ajar, and placing it in a saucepan
containing a small portion of water over the fire ;
when melted, the treacle must be added, and also
the ginger, stirring it well together, and beating
it into a mass. Care should be taken not to boil
the aloes longer than to effect the solution, other-
Avise much of their purgative property will escape.
When sufficiently cool, form a ball, varying the
proportions according to the strength required.
Many persons use the latter as the ordinary
purgative for the horse ; I must, however, ob-
serve that I prefer the first in all cases where
soap is not objectionable, because it works
more readily. If the horse is properly prepared,
and the ball be given about four in the after-
noon, the operation may be expected to com-
mence about nine or ten o'clock on the following
morning, when, the stable door being opened, the
effects can be watched, and the necessary walking
exercise given. It must be observed that the only
periods when any inconvenience is at all likely to
result from physic, is at the times when the
medicine first begins to operate on the intestines ;
and at the crisis when those effects are terminat-
ing, or, in stable language, when it is about to
set ; but as these symptoms arise from the cir-
cumstance of the bowels beino; distended with

156 THE STUD FARM.

hay, or from exposure to cold, they never need be
anticipated if proper treatment has been observed.
I have given many hundreds of doses of physic
according to the first formula, and never ex-
perienced a case of gripes or colic in my life.
Should such an event happen, a drench composed
of warm ale, with a tea-spoonful of ginger or
from two to four drachms, half that quantity of
allspice, or black pepper, and a wine-glassful of
gin, may reasonably be expected to afford relief.
On this account, hay should only be offered in
sparing quantities when the physic has nearly per-
formed its operations.

As an alterative, when a strong purgative is
not required, very beneficial effects are produced
from aloes and nitre in combination. The sub-
joined is a formula for a horse that has arrived at
maturity ; it must of course be modified for
younger animals. It is to be given daily until
relaxation of the bowels is produced, which will
generally take place after the second or third
dose.

Formula for aloetic alteratives.

Aloes, in fine powder - - 2 drachms.

Nitre - - - - - 2 drachms.

Soap 2 drachms.

To make one ball.

ALTERATIVES. 157

Not being an advocate for what are generally
denominated alteratives, inmost cases, compounded
with antimonials, I do not by any means recom-
mend them to be used unless there are circum-
stances which positively require them, — such as
eruptions on the skin, — for which purpose the
following is the most simple. It should be made
into a ball, rather than given in the corn, the
great objection to which is, that many horses
refuse to eat it. Nitre should, at the same
time, be given in the water, to the amount of two
drachms daily. It is here necessary to remark
that when nitre is intended to act as a diuretic,
it should be given in solution; when given as a
febrifuge, in a ball, in which case the solution
taking place in the stomach, its refrigerant pro-
perties are brought into effect.

Antimonial alterative.
Sulphur,

Sesqui-sulphuret of antimony, each - 2 to 3 drachms.
Treacle, sufficient to form a mass.

In order to derive any benefit from these alter-
atives, they are to be given daily, four, five, or
six days in succession. These proportions are
adapted for three years old or upwards, before
which time they can scarcely, if ever, be required.

Judiciously dispensed, physic is of the greatest
importance to the horse. The abuse of the best

158 THE STUD FARM.

remedies may bring them into disrepute ; but in
those cases it is not the remedy which deserves
the condemnation, but the person who uses it in-
discreetly. The improper use of diuretics more
generally prevails in stables than that of any other
kind of medicine. Nothing can be more per-
nicious to the constitution than a constant repe-
tition of those drugs which excite the kidneys and
other parts of the urinary system. From two to
four drachms of nitre occasionally dissolved in the
water may be given with good effect ; but not re-
peated daily unless there is some indisposition that
requires it.

159

CHAP. X.

Diversity of Opinions — Accounted for. — DiflFerence of Shoes
and Treatment to be regulated by the Nature of the Feet and
the Country or Purpose for which the Animal is used. — * Im-
portance of stopping the Feet — A Shoe -with a -wide Web
necessary in Stony and Flinty Districts, but not recom-
mended otherwise. — Removing. — One-side Nailing — Ex-
pansion of the Foot. — Position of the Navicular Bone and
other Parts of the Foot. — Altered Structure occasioned
sometimes by Accident. — Kind of Shoe best adapted for
Young Stock. — Time when Shoes become necessary. —
Stopping the Feet of Great Importance.

Such a diversity of opinions are held on this
subject by different persons, that it is extremely
difficult to offer any satisfactory suggestions in
regard to it. We have only to deal with it in
reference to young stock ; but as there have been
so many treatises written concerning the best
methods of adapting shoes to the feet of horses,
most of which differ from one other, I will
endeavour to show how such discrepancies have
arisen, and prove that, in most cases, each is correct
from his own deductions and personal experience.
A man living in a rough, stony, or flinty district

160 THE STUD FARM.

declares that it is essentially necessary to afford
protection to the foot by means of shoes with con-
siderable width of web, or, as it is technically
termed, plenty of cover. Another, living in a
grass country, where stones and flints are never
seen, except upon the roads, which are so good
and level that no angular or dangerous projections
exist, deprecates the width of web, because, as he
justly states, it deprives the feet in a great measure
of the support and pressure obtainable from the
yielding surface upon which the horse moves.
Now, both these opinions are correct; but they
are only correct under local influences. Nature has
endowed the foot of the horse with every faculty
which it requires in a wild state ; but it is not of
a texture sufficiently durable to withstand the
effects of artificial roads, or of galloping over fields
and leaping fences, with some ten or fifteen stone
weight upon the back of the animal. Man has,
therefore, resorted to the alternative of affording
protection to the feet by means of shoes, from
which advantages are gained in some respects,
and evils introduced in others. In a state of
nature, unless the soil on which the horse treads
is very dry and hard, the feet make an impression
on the surface, and the weight of the body is ap-
portioned between the wall, the sole, and the frog ;
when shod, and travelling upon a hard surface
such as a turnpike road, or dry, unyielding turf.

THE USE OF SHOES CONSIDERED. 161

the whole of the weight is sustained by the wall or
crust resting on the shoe. It is to obviate this
that, having adopted the artificial iron appendage,
we should likewise provide an artificial succeda-
neum for that of which the shoe deprives the
animal, namely, the uniform bearing of the foot
upon the ground ; and this is of the greater im-
portance in those cases where it is absolutely
necessary to use shoes with a wide web. It is not
only when passing over hard and unyielding
surfaces that this condition is apparent, but also,
to a very considerable extent, when the horse is in
the stable. In that situation likewise, the wider
the web of the shoe, the more will the evil pre-
dominate. I do not mean to assert that, in a stony
or flinty district, especially on rough roads, a shoe
with a considerable portion of cover can be dis-
pensed with ; but I certainly should never adopt
that practice unless under those circumstances, or
for peculiarly thin, flat feet, which must be pro-
tected. There are some feet whose ^soles are so
very thin and soft, and whose growth is so slug-
gish, that, unless they are shod with plenty of
cover, the horses cannot travel at all ; when fresh
shod, such feet scarcely admit of any paring.

The feet of some horses secrete sole and hoof so
very fast as to require their shoes to be removed
every fortnight or three weeks, at the farthest,
when the soles require to be considerably reduced,

M

162 THE STUD FARM.

and the quarters rasped, especially during the-
summer, at which season they become dry and
hard. If this precaution be neglected, the in-
elastic state of the external portions of the foot,
affording too much resistance, and causing con-
cussion, inflammation of the internal parts ensues,
and lameness is the result. Such feet are kept
in the most healthy condition by the least pro-
portion of cover, unless the nature of the country
in which they are located peremptorily demands
it. If they have to travel on roads abounding
with loose materials, such as broken granite, flints,
or rough gravel, they will be apt to bruise their
feet whenever a stone happens to lie in their
track, if not protected by their shoes.

The system of one side nailing has its advocates,
in whose ranks, however, I must beg to decline
enrolling myself. For road work, either under the
saddle or in harness, I have no doubt the shoes
may be kept on ; but for race-horses in their work,
or hunters in a deep country, where at every step
they take there is a power of suction to contend
against, I am quite of opinion that w^hen only
the inner branch of the shoe is secured to the foot
with nails, from the great power of leverage
afforded, the loss of a shoe will be a frequent
result.

Neither can I believe that the expansion of the
foot extends anteriorly beyond the widest part

CONSTRUCTION OF THE FOOT. 163

of its circumference, behind which the heel nails
ought not to be placed. An examination of its
internal structure certainly leads to this con-
viction. The coffin bone, for example, does not
expand in itself, and being wider at its base than
it is upwards, cannot produce lateral expansion of
the hoof; behind, but somewhat above that, is
placed the navicular bone, passing which, the
lower extremity of the flexor tendon comes to its
position at the hinder part of the coffin bone, just
under the navicular bone. Partly behind and
partly underneath the tendon is the internal frog,
a substance previously mentioned, when alluding
to thrushes, as partaking of a nature between fat
and tendon, which, in a healthy condition, is high-
ly elastic, and about the region of which expan-
sion is undoubtedly required. The hoof offers
another proof: the front part and sides, as far
as the widest portion extends, is very strong,
and nearly, if not quite, unyielding ; but the
quarters are much thinner, and more capable of
expansion. Thus, finding there is no power of
expansion extending throughout from the toe
to the heel, but only from the centre of the
foot, or widest part, to the heel, the one-sided
nailing system can only afford greater power of
expansion to the inside quarter where there are
no nails, still acting on the outside quarter in

M 2

164 THE STUD FARM.

precisely the same way that the ordinary arrange-
ment of the nails does; with possibly this disad-
vantage, that the outside heel nail is often placed
rather farther back than on ordinary occasions,
for the purpose of affording greater security to
the shoe.

Some persons are of opinion that the structure
of the foot is completely altered by a repetition of
shoeing. When such an event takes place, it is
evidence incontrovertible, that the principle of
shoeing which they adopt, and the treatment
which they observe, is erroneous; because the
structure is not changed if the system of shoeing
be good, and the treatment correct. Indications
of altered structure may also arise from a predis-
position to disease having been established by
accident, and not counteracted by observation and
appropriate remedies.

As the feet of young horses ought not to be
subjected to the injurious effects of rough and
stony roads, it is unnecessary, and quite unadvis-
able, to put on shoes wdde in the web, — at all
events, at first. The only consideration necessary
is the protection of the crust from breaking off or
wearing away. The less cover to the foot the
better, unless, as I have previously remarked,
there are some peculiar circumstances which re-
quire it. The best description of shoes adapted
for young stock, that ever came to my notice.

STOPPING FOR THE FEET. 165

are those formed by steam machinery, by Mr. Rod-
way, of Birmingham.

The time when a young horse is to be shod
must depend upon the progress that has been
made in his breaking, and the nature or condition
of his feet : if they be in any Avay delicate, it will
be necessary to protect them somewhat earlier,
otherwise it may be deferred nearly to the time
of his being backed. If the suggestions which
I have already made have been carried into exe-
cution, no difficulty will arise in putting on a set
of shoes.

For the purpose of affording to the centre of the
foot a degree of support and pressure similar to
that which it obtains before the shoes are put on,
a pad of tow should be placed within the fore-shoes,
and secured there with splints of wood. This may
be saturated with water or not, as circumstances
and the nature of the feet require. It is by far
the best kind of stopping that can be used, and
may be applied in any degree of thickness requisite
for expansion and other special purposes. Cow-
dung and clay, or cowdung alone, is the usual
offensive compound employed to keep the feet
moist ; but the corrosive properties will often oc-
casion thrushes, and no support can be derived
from it, as it is far too soft for that purpose ; and
there is no period when that artificial support is
of more importance than to the newly shod colt.
M 3

166

CHAP. XL

CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND.

The Elements of Nutriment derived from the Earth. — The
Effect of Soil, Situation, and Culture. — Draining in most

. Cases essential. — An Example on light Land. — Draining
Tiles. — Cultivation of Lucerne: Manure best calculated to
promote its Growth. — Tares. — Clover. — Saintfoin. — Liquid
Manure and its Application. — Value of Manure made by
Horses. — Caution respecting Artificial Manures Guano.

— Supply of Green Food in Summer. — Haymaking — Salt.

— The Produce of Meadows. — Capabilities of Land for the
Production of Hay. — Improvement of Grass on Downs and
Commons — Swedes preferable to Carrots.

As a living animal derives the elements of
nourishment from the food which he eats, and is
consequently dependent for his state upon the
qualities of that food, so vegetation partakes of
properties which it obtains from the soil on which
it is produced. The fine sweet herbage which
grows spontaneously on downs and elevated tracts
of land, if transplanted to wet and boggy marshes,
would soon become harsh, coarse, and sour, like
other grasses indigenous to the soil. There are
some situations and some descriptions of land
which are not adapted at all for the cultivation of

DRAINING LAND. 167

food to be consumed by horses ; many others which
are naturally so ; and some which are capable of
being made so by artificial means and proper
management, the basis of which is draining.
There is very little land, indeed, which is not im-
proved by this process, — even that w^iich is dry.
It is a mistake to suppose that draining will be
the means of causing dry lands to burn up in the
hot weather of summer, when there is no water to
pass through the drains. On the contrary, drain-
ing a very porous soil improves it by taking the
water oiF laterally, underneath the surface, which
otherwise descends perpendicularly, and by so
doing conveys the vegetative powers of the
manures which may be applied below the range
of the roots of whatever grain or grasses may
be sown. I remember, twenty years ago, a most
striking instance of this kind on a farm in Shrop-
shire, on which, previously to its being drained,
manuring it was waste of money. It is light sandy
land, and many farmers were of opinion at the time
that draining it would render it even less pro-
ductive. The result was most satisfactory. That
all lands of a wet nature require draining, no one
with the least knowledge of agricultural affairs
ever entertains the slightest doubt. It is the
fundamental principle of good farming ; and, for
lands upon which food for horses is to be raised,
it is indispensable. Here it is necessary to intro-

M 4

168 THE STUD FARM.

duce a caution against the adoption of the small
pipe tiles, now so often used for this purpose, the
diameter of which is in many cases insufficient
to conduct the water; and if in laying them
down the least irregularity arises, which cannot
always be detected, or prevented, so that the ends
of the tiles do not meet precisely, the space for
the water is still more contracted, and several
instances have occurred where it has been found
necessary to take up a whole length of drain
to rectify the mischief, at a cost nearly equivalent
to the price of the tiles. As draining should be
considered a permanent improvement, great atten-
tion should be bestowed upon it, so that it be
done effectually and well in the first instance.

The cultivation of lucerne demands the first at-
tention, not only because of its being the best
description of summer food for brood mares, but
when once established it will endure for several
years. It requires a dry and somewhat deep soil,
as the roots penetrate to a considerable extent ; on
wet or clay lands it will not succeed. The spot
on which it is to be sown should be made most
scrupulously clean; and here I would advise
all farmers to weed and clean their hedge-rows
every year, if they desire to have their fields and
crops free from the seeds which too frequently
appear to be cultivated in the fences for the
purpose of causing future trouble. A good

CULTIVATION OF LUCERNE. 169

dressing of thoroughly reduced manure should be
worked into the land previously to sowing it ; for
it may be taken as an established rule that the
soil cannot be too rich for lucerne. From the latter
end of March up to the last week of April is the
best period for consigning the seeds to the ground.
Lucerne may be sown broadcast, or in drills nine
inches apart ; the latter is by far the most success-
ful plan, as it admits of the use of the hoe between
the rows during the first year or two, after which,
if well attended to, it will become strong enough
to overpower all weeds that could prove injurious.
On some occasions the drills are set much wider
apart, that is, from fifteen to eighteen inches, with
a view to constant cultivation between the rows.
But I am not prepared to recommend this prac-
tice, because, when cutting the crop in rainy
weather, it is impossible to avoid collecting some of
the loose earth with it, which is offensive and un-
wholesome. It requires a good dressing of manure
every year, not with partially decomposed litter, but
with that which is thoroughly reduced and worked
into compost with earth, road scrapings, parings
•from banks, if free from weeds ; vegetable refuse
may also be added, provided it does not contain the
germs of any extraneous rubbish which may
vegetate. It is labour lost to clean land and after-
wards introduce pernicious seeds in manures or
dressings. When lucerne is sown, it is a common

170 THE STUD FARM.

practice to sow a crop of barley along with it ; but
in a stud farm the green crop is of far greater im-
portance ; in case a crop of barley is very strong
and luxuriant, by becoming lodged it will infallibly
destroy the young lucerne, which, if sown by it-
self, will admit of being cut the first year by the
month of August.

If there be a sufficient quantity of lucerne cul-
tivated, and a fair portion of grass land available,
little else will be required for use as green food ;
otherwise, tares, clover, or saintfoin must be pro-
vided; but those artificial grasses do not require
any particular system of cultivation.

The application of liquid manure to all artificial
and permanent grasses claims particular attention ;
and that which is obtained from the dung-heap
where horses are kept, is the most powerful of
any. Tanks or reservoirs of ample size, for its
reception, will therefore form an important feature
in the management and economy of a stud farm.
They should be so arranged as to be on the
outside, and at some distance from the buildings,
80 that the effluvia may not affect the stock. By
the aid of a water-cart constructed for the pur-
pose, the crops may be saturated soon after they
have been cut, selecting, if possible, showery
weather to perform the operation, otherwise it
may be necessary to dilute the liquid with water,
especially if much evaporation has taken place,

MANURING GREEN CROPS. 171

as it is not desirable to present it to the plants in
too concentrated a form. AYhen dry weather
prevails, and it is found necessary to use the
liquid manure, an early hour in the morning,
while the dew still remains, or even during the
night season, are the most favourable times. By
no means is the watering to be performed while
the sun is shining powerfully on the earth. The
benefit which the crops of green clover derive
from this practice is extraordinary.

In the management of land connected with a
stud farm, or indeed any other farm, it is an
object of great importance to be able to obtain
two or three cuttings of green croj^s during the
summer, which can only be accomplished by the
aid of manure and high cultivation. In the
autumn, when all these crops have been mown
for the last time, the land should be dressed with
manure. It is far preferable at that time than to
defer it till the winter ; the crops will come up
earlier — a great object — and stronger. If any
be left till winter, let it be the old turf intended
for hay.

There is no animal that produces such valuable
manure as the horse, therefore there can be no
excuse for not having the land in the best pos-
sible condition, and that without having recourse
to artificial manures, unless at the first com
mencement, to establish flourishing crops.

172 THE STUD FARM.

With respect to artificial manures, however
valuable some of them are for particular purposes,
the indiscriminate use of them on all occasions,
without ascertaining the properties of which they
are composed, is a great evil ; and no doubt can be
entertained that the prevalence of various diseases
in grain crops may be ascribed to the injudicious
application of them. Mildew, redgum, and other
disorders in wheat, proceed from an unwholesome
condition of the pabulum, which it obtains from
the earth, in some instances from the manure, or
from an unfavourable state of the air, in a similar
way that surfeits or epidemic diseases are pro-
duced in cattle by the food which they consume,
or some peculiar influence of the atmosphere. It
is therefore of the utmost importance that the
food to be given to animals of value should be
free, if possible, from any unwholesome pro-
perties.

Guano is so often mixed and adulterated, and
therefore so varied in its effects, that no person can
use it with confidence and satisfaction, without
having it previously analysed to ascertain what
elements it consists of, and in what proportions
they exist. I should never think of using it on
any land, the produce of which was to be con-
sumed by horses.

The green crops intended for summer food
should be mown early in the morning if the

ON THE USE OF SALT IN HAYKICKS. 173

weather be dry, and carted away to the paddocks,
yards, boxes, &c., and there should not be more
cut than will be consumed in the course of the
day ; but in rainy weather it is better kept till
the day after it is cut, in which case it should be
spread on the surface of a spare barn floor, loose
box, or shed, so that it may not heat, which it
will do if suffered to remain in a large heap, in
which state it is unwholesome; neither is it
desirable to give it when very wet, as it will then
endanger flatulence, gripes, and purging.

Very great care and attention should be de-
voted to the process of hay making. I have
already noticed the bad consequences which may
be anticipated from the use of imperfectly or
of overmade hay. A practice prevails in some
countries of strewing salt on the rick as it is
being formed, especially if rain has fallen during
the time the hay is in the field : it may be very
well for horned cattle, but for horses it cannot be
too strongly deprecated. It is a very diflerent
afiair to giving them fresh salt with their food,
which is an excellent tonic if used with discretion.
Salted meats are not the most wholesome kind of
food for man, and salted hay for the horse is
analogous.

If there be meadows by the side of a river, the
produce of which is to be consumed by the stud,
it will be preferable to give that in a green state

174 THE STUD FARM.

if possible, and reserve the upland turf for hay ;
the cultivation of which cannot be too sedulously-
attended to. Many agriculturists are sadly in
error respecting the capabilities of land for
growing hay ; they fancy that many fields will not
produce grass for a permanency, and consequently
will not try the experiment. When grass grows
spontaneously, it is a certain proof that abundant
crops may be raised if the proper kinds of seeds
be sown, and a sufficient quantity of top dressing
applied. But their fault is, that they appropriate
all their manure to their arable land, leaving the
grass, which is the most profitable, without any.
The short pastures found on downs and commons,
constantly fed close by sheep, might soon be
brought into a flourishing state by a plentiful
application of manure.

As I cannot recommend the use of carrots for
horses, it is unnecessary to offer any remarks
respecting their cultivation. A few Swedes may
be useful, and likewise parsnips, the culture of
which requires no particular directions.

175
CHAP. XII.

rOOD, ITS PROPERTIES AND EFFECTS.

Effects of Food on the Growth of Animals. — M. Liebig's
Researches. — Testimony to the Practical Truth of M.
Liebig's Remarks, — The Nature of Food. — Muscular De-
velopment and other Animal Substance promoted by the
Quality of Food. — Oxygen : its Effects. — The Practice of
wetting Oats objectionable. — The Powers of Digestion. —
The Gastric Juice. — Reasons for varying the Nature of
Food in Winter and Summer. — Habits of the Natives of
hot and cold Climates compared. — The Re-supply of Blood
by Food necessary to Life. — Effects of over-stimulating
Food. — The Growth of the Horse promoted by the Quality
of the Food. — Boussingault's Analysis. — Criterion for Selec-
tion of Food for specific Purposes. — Comparative Nourish-
ment derived from Grass and Hay. — Grass distends the
Bowels and substitutes Fat for Muscle. — The unborn Foal
partakes greatly the Condition of the Dam. — Suitable Food
of the utmost Importance. — Sugar and Starch the Elements

of Nutrition in Hay and Oats The Amount varies in

different Samples. ■ — The Kind of Hay best calculated for
Horses. — Clover Hay. — Saintfoln Hay. — Old Hay. —
Oats, their Qualities ; dried on Kilns condemned. — Bruising
Oats recommended. — Prejudice — Schemes adopted to in-
duce Mastication. — Mastication. — Saliva. — Anecdote from.
Dr. Paris on Diet. — Deglutition. — Economy. — Beans. —
Mashes. — Mucilage obtained therefrom. — Linseed. — To be
boiled. — Effects produced by Carrots. — Grasses. — Eco-
nomy and Advantages of mowing the Grasses and giving to
the Stock in preference to grazing. — Kinds of Grasses
determined by the Nature of the Soil Deductions.

The best means of acquiring a knowledge of the
properties which certain kinds of food possess, and

176 THE STUD FARM.

the effects which they produce on the system and
development of growth in animals, is to consult
those authors who have made such researches
their particular study, compare the results of daily
experience with the instruction they afford, and
by that means readily decide what change or
variety of food is required at certain seasons of
the year, or by particular animals under peculiar
influences. One of the prevailing causes of suc-
cess or disappointment in the management of a
horse depends upon the judicious or injudicious
selection of his food, which we may say en pas-
sant frequently requires to be changed.

The lucid manner in which M. Liebig has
treated this interesting subject, induces me to
introduce a few of his observations, to enable
the reader the more easily to understand the ap-
plication we purpose to give them. After ex-
plaining the manner in which the growth of
animal bodies is carried on, and the supply of
nourishment necessary to sustain life, M. Liebig
goes on to say, " If we hold that the increase
of mass in the animal body, the development
of its organs, and' the supply of waste, that all
is dependent on the blood, that is, the ingre-
dients of the blood, then, only those substances
can properly be called nutritious, or considered
as food, which are capable of conversion into
blood. To determine, therefore, what substances

INGREDIENTS OF BLOOD. 177

are capable of affording nourishment, it is only
necessary to ascertain the composition of the food,
and to compare it with the ingredients of the
blood."

" Two substances require especial consideration
as the chief ingredients of the blood ; one of these
separates [immediately from the blood when with-
drawn from the circulation. It is well known
that in this case blood coagulates and separates
into a yellowish liquid the serum of the blood
and gelatinous mass, which adheres to a rod or
stick in soft elastic fibres when coagulating blood
is briskly stirred. This is the fibrine of the blood,
which is identical in all its properties with mus-
cular fibre, when the latter is purified from all
foreign matters."

" The second principal ingredient of the blood
is contained in the serum, and gives to this liquid
all the properties of the white of eggs, with which
it is identical. When heated, it coagulates into
a white elastic mass, and the coagulating substance
is called albumen."

" Chemical analysis has led to the remarkable
result, that fibrine and albumen contain the same
organic elements united in the same proportion,
so that two analyses, the one of fibrine, and the
other of albumen, do not differ more than two
analyses of fibrine, or two of albumen respectively
do, in the composition of one hundred parts."

N

178 THE STUD FARM.

" Both albumen and fibrine in the process of
nutrition are capable of being converted into
muscular fibre, and muscular fibre is capable of
being reconverted into blood. These facts have
long been established by physiologists, and che-
mistry has merely proved that these metamor-
phoses can be accomplished under the influence of
a certain force without the aid of a third substance,
or of its elements, and without the addition of
any foreign elements, or the separation of any
element previously present in these substances."

" Those vegetable principles which in animals
are used to form blood, contain the chief con-
stituents of blood, fibrine and albumen, ready
formed as regards their composition. All plants,
besides, contain a certain quantity of iron, which
reappears in the colouring matter of the blood.
Vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable
albumen and animal albumen, hardly differ even
in form. If these principles be wanting in the
food, the nutrition of the animal is arrested ; and
when they are present, the graminivorous animal
obtains in its food the very same principles, on
the presence of which the nutrition of the car-
nivora entirely depends."

" From what has been said it follows that the
development of the animal organism, and its
growth, are dependent on the reception of certain

CONVERSION OF FOOD. 179

principles identical with the chief constituents of
the blood."

M. Liebig also makes some observations on the
quantity of food consumed by the horse; but, with
due submission, I cannot concur in his view of
the relative proportions of hay and oats which
that animal usually consumes. It is nearly
double the quantity of hay that any horse ought
to consume, and not much more than half the
quantity of corn that a full-grown horse requires
for the purpose of sustaining condition in moderate
work. M. Liebig states " A horse, for example,
can be kept in perfectly good condition if he
obtains as food fifteen pounds of hay, and four and
a half pounds of oats daily. If we now calculate
the whole amount of nitrogen in these matters as
ascertained by analysis (1-5 per cent, in the hay,
2-2 per cent, in the oats), in the form of blood, that
is, fibrine and albumen, with the due proportion of
water in blood (80 per cent.), the horse receives
daily no more than four and a half ounces of nitro-
gen, corresponding to about eight ounces of blood.
But along with nitrogen, that is, combined with it
in the form of fibrine or albumen, the animal
receives only about fourteen and a half ounces of
carbon. Only about eight ounces of this can be
employed to support respiration, for with tlie
nitrogen expelled in the urine there are com-
bined in the form of urea three ounces, and in
N 2

180 THE STUD FARM.

the form of hippuric acid, three and a half ounces
of carbon."

" Without going further into the calculation,
it will readily be admitted, that the volume of air
inspired and expired by a horse, the quantity of
oxygen consumed, and, as a necessary consequence,
the amount of carbonic acid given out by the
animal, is much greater than in the respiratory
process in man. But an adult man consumes
daily about fourteen ounces of carbon ; and the
determination of Boussingault, according to which
a horse expires seventy-nine ounces daily, cannot
be very far from the truth.

" It is obvious that in the system of the
graminivora, whose food contains so small a pro-
portion relatively of the constituents of blood,
the process of metamorphosis in existing tissues,
and, consequently, their restoration or reproduc-
tion, go on far less rapidly than in the carnivora."

This last sentence deserves particular attention,
as it explains the reason why time is so positively
necessary for the production of muscle in the
horse.

Taking into consideration the effect which
certain kinds of food produce on living animals, it
may be turned to advantageous account by a strict
observance of the state or condition of each horse.
Their constitutions vary ; and circumstances will
also at times produce great changes. Various

EFFECTS OF FOOD. 181

kinds and degrees of illness will occasion loss of
muscle and fat. Under such circumstances, those
kinds of food ought to be presented which will
restore the animal to its proper state ; that, how-
ever, can scarcely be accomplished till the origin
of the evil be eradicated. If a horse at any age
exhibits too great an abundance of fat, accom-
panied with plethoric indications, it is evident
that the food with which he is supplied abounds
too copiously in particles contributing to form
that substance. When this prevails to a great
extent, it is done at the sacrifice of muscle, and
those fibrous textures which render the horse
valuable. This is clearly proved by experience ;
and I am sure every trainer will bear me out
when I state, that when a horse, especially a
young one, has been made very fat, as soon as he
is put to work, he " falls off," as it is termed,
loses his muscle, and, unless great care be ob-
served, his soft flaccid sinews and joints give way.
A great length of time must be expended on
animals so treated before they can be brought
into a proper state to be trained. Fat may be
produced, if the animal be healthy, in a com-
paratively short period with some kinds of food,
such as clover, vetches, and luxuriant grasses in
the summer months ; but it is a proceeding that
never can be recommended. In this manner
horses are usually made up for sale, when the

182 THE STUD FARM.

purchaser is under the necessity of resorting to
physic and long-continued exercise, before the
animals are available for the purposes of work.

On the other hand, there are some horses which
do not generate a sufficient quantity of fat to be
conducive to their health, and with young stock
to the vigorous development of their bodies. It
is attention to the just medium that indicates the
skill exercised in the management of the animals,
and which consequently promotes the success of
an establishment. All huntsmen know the im-
portance of having every hound brought to an
equal standard of condition. It is accomplished
by a judicious distribution of food. The consti-
tutions of hounds vary as much as the constitu-
tions of horses. If it is necessary to observe these
minutise in kennel management, to develope the
utmost powers of the hounds, how much more
essential is it in the stud farm, to bring forth the
greatest amount of power and value in the horse, in
order to render the undertaking profitable. One
of the great errors which farmers too frequently
fall into, is that of turning their young horses into
luxuriant pastures during the summer, where
they become overloaded with fat; and, in the
winter months, not giving them a sufficient quan-
tity of nutritious food: thus not only are the
constitutions of animals so treated impaired, but

PROPORTIONS AND QUALITIES OF FOOD. 183

their symmetry and proportions are sadly dete-
riorated.

There are certain laws indispensable to animal
life, certain functions which must be carried on ;
and that kind of food must be supplied which ex-
perience has shown to be best adapted for this pur-
pose, the proportions being determined by inves-
tigating the effects which they are calculated to
produce. It is incompatible with the laws of
nature to present food in too highly concentrated
a form. Thus in the human subject brandy and
other strong spirits taken undiluted are injurious,
as also the nutritive properties of meat highly
concentrated in the form of soups, without the
addition of bread. The vital power in a living
animal is sustained by the food consumed, and
causes the growth or development of muscle and
other members upon which exertion is dependent.
This development is augmented by a judicious
proportion of exercise or work ; but it must be
assisted by food of an appropriate character.
There is a constant expenditure of certain prin-
ciples, of which every living creature is composed;
and this is ordained for the purpose of allowing
the system to be replenished by food. These ex-
penditures or exhalations are increased by ex-
ercise. The first conditions of animal life are
nutritious matter and oxygen introduced into the
system ; the food, therefore, must be of that kind
V 4

184 THE STUD FARM.

which is compatible with the constitution, the
nature of the animal, and the climate which he
inhabits. The quantity of oxygen inspired is
affected by the atmosphere, which contains more
in winter than in summer.

Herbivorous animals swallow more air with theii*
food than carnivorous ones; they require more
saliva for the process of mastication; and that saliva
contains a great portion of air, which may be
understood by its frothy appearance. This is ob-
servable when a horse is eating his com. The froth
is composed of an infinity of little bubbles, each of
which is filled with air, and by that means a
quantity of oxygen is conveyed into the stomach
with the food. Hence it is a most improper
practice to wet the corn for a horse when it is put
into the manger. The nutritive portion of the food
which an animal takes into its stomach becomes
soluble, in which state it enters into the circula-
tion. The oxygen of the air, and the fluid
secreted by the coat of the stomach, produce this
result. Physiologists have decided this to be the
case, and that it is a chemical action, free and
independent of muscular power or vital force.
This is an important fact to be understood, as
many persons conceive that the process of diges-
tion is formed by a muscular action of the stomach.
The gastric juice seems to possess a most extra-
ordinary power in dissolving or digesting all kinds

WINTER AND SUMMER FOOD. 185

of food, a power which no other fluid possesses,
be it water, acid, or alkali. It appears that
these powers and quality are diminished by water
being presented immediately before or after feed-
ing,— a custom which, on that account, should
be most scrupulously avoided.

Animals expire more carbon in cold than in
warm weather; consequently they require food of
a different quality in winter to that which is
suitable to them in summer. The carbon protects
their organs from the action of oxygen, which, but
for that, would be fatal. The fruits upon which
the natives of the warm climates usually feed,
when fresh gathered, contain scarcely more than
twelve per cent, of carbon ; but the fat and train
oil consumed by the inhabitants of the arctic
regions contains more than five times that amount.
Thus, a distinction may be drawn between the
use of grass and hay in summer and in winter.
As muscular fibre, and certain other tissues
composing the animal frame, are exhausted by
carbon and hydrogen, in the form of perspiration
and the ordinary evacuations, increased by exercise
or labour, so they require to be continually re-
supplied by food. The blood, the muscles, and
other portions of the frame are by this process
being constantly renewed. The greater the pro-
portion of exercise and labour which the animal
undergoes, the greater quantity of nourishment is

186 THE STUD FARM.

required ; up to a certain point, the more fre-
quently that renovation is produced, the more
perfect will be the health and condition of the
horse. That food which contains the nutritive
properties in too great abundance, soon shows its
effects on the animal partaking thereof: the blood-
vessels become distended, and the other channels
are overcharged with an excess of their fluids.
Upon the appearance of this recourse must be
had to medicines calculated to relieve the system
from the accumulation, assisted by temporary
abstinence, otherwise the health of the animal
becomes deranged. The object, in this case, of
supplying blood capable of conversion into muscle,
and other requisite substances, is defeated.

From these facts it will be readily understood
that young animals, in order to increase their
growth, and the development of their muscles and
other portions of their frames, require a certain
quantity of food, and oxygen, which they derive
from the air they breathe; moreover, that the
extent of that development will in a great measure
depend upon the properties of the food with which
they are supplied. All the different kinds of food
with which the horse is supplied have a tendency
to produce fat; it is a substance which must exist
to a certain extent ; there is no kind of food that
will create blood of a quality convertible into
muscle, that will not, at the same time, deposit as
much or more fat than is generally desirable.

NITROGEN IN HAY AND OATS. 187

It has been ascertained that such vegetables as
afford nourishment to animals abound most with
nitrogen, and therefore they require the least
quantity of those which contain the largest pro-
portions. On reference to Boussingault's analysis
of the component elements of hay and oats, in one
hundred parts of the former, one and a half of ni-
trogen are found; in the same equivalent of the
latter, two and a half are detected : thus the excess
of nitrogen in oats, as compared with hay, is in
the ratio of five parts to three.

The relative properties of the different kinds of
aliment presented to the horse will afford the best
criterion in their selection, under any peculiarity
of circumstances, in order that certain eflPects may
be produced. In fresh grass, for example, there
is a vast difference compared with hay, although
the hay may have been made from grass which
grew on the same land. The grass, when fresh
cut, is full of sap or moisture ; and although it
contains nearly similar elements of nutrition to
hay, yet they do not abound in anything like a
proportionate degree : a much greater bulk of grass
than of hay must be consumed in a given time to
afford that nourishment which the animal requires ;
and as the digestion of grass is very quickly carried
on, the horse must be almost constantly eating to
enable him to consume a sufficient portion ; the
result of which is, that the stomach, and especially

188 THE STUD FARM.

the bowels, are distended to an inordinate degree.
On this account, grass never ought to be used as
the only sustenance of brood mares, inviting as it
may be in the summer season. An unrestricted
allowance of grass emaciates the muscular system
and substitutes a quantity of fat, which, to a
superficial observer, may not at first be regarded
as very objectionable ; but, as it is universally ad-
mitted that the embryo offspring of all living
creatures partakes to a great extent the nature of
the mother, is it not natural to conclude that the
unborn foal will participate greatly in those phy-
siological attributes, which are governed by the
quality of the food upon which she is sustained?
An unhealthy mare cannot be expected to produce
a robust foal ; therefore, the more perfect the
health and constitution of the dam, so much the
greater expectation there is that her produce wiU
derive those benefits during the entire period it
receives nourishment from that source.t All the
attention that can possibly be devoted to the
management of a stud, the comfort and convenience
of the buildings in which horses are kept, will be
of no avail unless they are supplied with food
suitable to their constitutions, and that food regu-
lated according to their condition and the season
of the year.

The main elements in hay and corn from which
the equine tribe derive their nourishment are sugar

CHOICE OF HAY. 189

and starch; the former principally contained in
the hay, the latter in the oats. Analyses have
been made of the relative proportions of saccharine
matter in hay ; but it differs materially in that
made from different land, and from the same land
in different seasons: it is therefore a fallacious
guide. Neither would it be practicable to ascertain
the proportion of nutriment contained in one rick
of hay compared with another, by the experiment
of analysis. The same observation holds good
with resfard to oats.

o

But it is necessary to remark, that hay which
abounds most in saccharine properties, is not the
kind to be selected for rearing blood stock with ;
such having too great a tendency to create fat.
When it must be given, it should be offered in
sparing quantities. Such hay is usually the
growth of meadows on the banks of rivers, often
objectionable from another cause, that of con-
taining sand — the deposit of floods. The hay
that is to be preferred is the produce of sound
upland turf, that has been laid down some years,
on a dry chalky soil, or light loam. The process
w^hich it undergoes in making and in the rick,
demands attention in the selection of this impor-
tant article. If it be overmade, that is, submitted
to a vast amount of evaporation, by which the
most valuable juices of the grass are expended
before it is formed into a rick, although it may

190 THE STUD FARM.

cut out of a very nice colour, the heating pro-
cess, which divests the grass of a great portion
of its hydrogen, is not satisfactorily accomplished.
On the other hand, if not made sufficiently, it will
become overheated in the rick, or mow-burnt, as
it is termed, in which state it is still more objec-
tionable. When hay is to be purchased, it is far
better to exceed a trifle of the market price for
that which is really good, than to take an ordinary
quality at a very considerable reduction.

Hay made from clover contains a considerable
amount of the saccharine principle ; it is likewise
liable to produce flatulence and colic, for which
reasons it is not to be chosen, unless under peculiar
circumstances, when the necessity of a change
is indicated, and it should then be presented only
in small quantities.

On the chalky soils of Sussex, Hampshire,
Dorsetshire and Wiltshire, great quantities of
saintfoin hay are cultivated. It is said that it
will not flourish unless chalk prevails. On that
point I cannot pronounce an opinion, and am
rather sceptical about it, for I am quite certain
that many acres are cultivated in the aforesaid
counties in which chalk does not constitute the
substratum. It is highly eulogised by those who
grow it, as food for horses, and certainly with
good reason; for, as a change, it is no doubt
superior to any other kind of artificial grass when

SELECTION OF OATS. 191

converted into hay; and I entertain an opinion
that there are many counties in which it is not
cultivated, where it might be introduced and
grown to advantage. No kind of hay should, on
any account, be given to horses till after January
ensuinsj the season in which it is made.

To select the sample of oats which contains the
greatest amount of nutriment requires nothing
more than ordinary experiencCc Upon the prin-
ciple that the nourishment is derived chiefly from
the starch which they contain, those which abound
most in farina or meal are of course the most
eligible. If sweet and clean, that is, thoroughly
freed from dust, which should be very carefully
attended to in the use of all descriptions of horse
corn, black oats are quite as good as the white ones ;
and there is no doubt, in samples of equivalent
weight and bulk, the meal of the black oats abound
equally, if not more abundantly, with starch than
the white oats. Like hay, they should be kept
by all means till after Christmas, or even longer
than that, in the rick, before they are thrashed.
For the purpose of rendering oats whiter, and also
of drying them, corndealers sometimes submit
them to a process on the kiln, when sulphur is
thrown on the burning coke beneath, as the agent
by which the bleaching process is carried on. A
vapour escapes from the burning sulphur, which
is, in fact, sulphurous acid gas; that, whilst it

192 THE STUD FARM.

renders the oats white, being absorbed, renders
them very unwholesome. Experienced persons
can detect them, when so prepared, by their pecu-
liar dryness, colour and ^smell. Irish oats gene-
rally undergo this process, and I suspect most
others that are shipped ; whilst another objection
arises from oats brought into the market through
such a medium, that of their lying together in a
great bulk, which causes them to heat, and after-
wards to smell disagreeably and musty. Under
all these circumstances, if the land occupied in
connection with a stud farm does not produce a
sufficient quantity of oats for the consumption, it
is far more desirable to purchase from farmers in
the neighbourhood, or from dealers who are known
to have procured them from those sources.

Many very important advantages arise from the
practice of bruising oats before they are given to
horses of any kind ; and I will not even exclude
those which are in training, although I am aware it
is not done by the first and most experienced prac-
titioners of the art, who cling to ancient usage.
As to the advantages of the system for young
stock, there is not the least doubt. Prejudice
has, unquestionably, operated materially against
its more general adoption, as it often does on
many other equally beneficial occasions. There
are persons who contend, that although many oats
pass through the horse in an undigested form,

BRUISING OATS. 193

the stomach of the animal has extracted the nu-
tritive properties. But two well-known facts will,
it may be imagined, upset this notion at once.
Oats which have been voided in that state will
grow, and poultry and birds of the air will thrive
upon them; they must therefore contain the
elements of vegetation and nourishment. More-
over, as it is the farina embodied in the oat which
contains the property of conversion into starch,
the principle from which nourishment is derived,
and that farina is found to be identically similar
in oats which have passed through a horse to that
in oats which have never undergone such an
ordeal, very little argument would appear to be
necessary for the conversion of the sceptical,
unless prejudice interfered.

It is almost unnecessary to remark that the
motive of this recommendation arises from the
fact of horses passing a number of oats which
have escaped the process of mastication and di-
gestion ; and that it is to render all the oats that are
taken into the stomach subservient to those powers.
By bruising the oats, two important advantages
may be gained ; the avoidance of any unnecesary
distention of the stomach and bowels by the pre-
sence of extraneous matter, and also that of waste
by the ejection of food which may not be pro-
fitably consumed, or turned to nutritious account.
o

194 THE STUD FARM.

Under an impression that only such oats as
may have escaped the process of mastication are
voided whole, many persons adopt schemes which
they consider calculated to ensure that operation,
but none of which have I ever found to be satis-
factory. The introduction of a handful of cut
hay or straw, in every feed of corn, is no security
whatever for the perfect mastication of the oats, as
daily observation will testify. Spreading the com
thinly over an expansive surface of a large manger
is equally fallacious ; because a horse disposed to
feed gluttonously will, with his nose, drive it up
into a heap, or he will collect with his lips as
much corn into his month as he thinks proper
before he commences the operation of mastication.

The opponents of bruising oats argue, that by
so doing, the powers of mastication are not so
energetically called forth as when they are given
whole ; and, therefore, that the saliva is not carried
with the food into the stomach in such quantities.
But it appears, from a circumstance related by
Dr. Paris, in his "Treatise on Diet," that the
process of mastication is not necessary to the flow
of saliva; for that, in the case of a felon who
cut his throat in prison in such a manner that
although it did not immediately destroy his life,
yet caused the food, when introduced into his
mouth, to escape by the external wound, it was
found that during each meal there was a dis-

SALIVA ESSENTIAL TO DEGLUTITION. 195

charge of saliva from his mouth, amounting to five
or six ounces, and sometimes more. The flow
of saliva in the mouth, created by the sight of, or
sometimes even by anticipation of any relishing
delicacy, is well-known. Yet, even if mastication
were essential to the promotion of a flow of saliva,
if the oats are only just cracked or bruised — not
ground to flour — the horse's masticatory powers
will be sufficiently brought into action, and each
mouthful of oats duly saturated with the fluid,
before they can pass into the stomach ; for it
seems to be one of the provisions of nature, by
which animal economy is governed, that food
shall not pass down the throat in a dry state. By
way of example, when the mouth is dry and
parched with thirst, take a piece of bread or
biscuit, and all the chewing and mastication in
the world will not enable you to swallow it until
it is moistened, either by a flow of saliva (which
sometimes cannot be obtained, and which proves
that mastication or the action of the jaws does
not on all occasions produce it), or until water or
some such fluid be taken to assist deglutition.

Independently of the advantages which the ani-
mals derive from having their oats bruised, there
is another very important circumstance attendant
upon this practice ; — that is, economy. At least
one fourth of the quantity will be saved by having
them bruised, and with that saving, more satia-
o 2

196 THE STUD FARM.

factory results will be produced. It may be
readily done on the premises, as the oats are
wanted for use, by a machine worked by hand or
horse power. The magnitude of the stud will of
course dictate which of the two will be most
desirable.

Among blood stock, beans are not very exten-
sively consumed at any age ; but there are circum-
stances under which they may be given with great
advantage. They possess more tonic properties
than any other kind of food ; and for an animal
whose muscle is flaccid, and exhibits a want of
tone and constitution, they may be given even to
yearlings with good effect. They must of course
be split, especially for young stock.

The balsamic properties contained in bran, when
properly prepared in the form of a mash, are
calculated to render this article one of considerable
consumption in the breeding department. During
the winter season, mares, foals, and yearlings
should be plenteously supplied, in order to regu^
late the condition of the bowels, and all the stock
will be benefited by one or two mashes in every
week, except when green food is being given. The
nutritive property of bran consists in a mucilage,
greatly enhanced, if not entirely produced, by the
action of water at a boiling temperature : mashes
should, therefore, be always prepared by water as
hot as possible, well stirred, and allowed to stand

PREPARATION OF BRAN MASHES. 1P7

till sufficiently cool for use. By this plan all the
good properties of the bran are obtained, but
not otherwise. Bran mashes have the power of
slightly relaxing the bowels ; therefore, for the
purpose of correcting the constipating tendency
of hay and oats, they are particularly valuable ;
and preparatory to physic, they are given as the
only food during the day previous to presentiug
cathartic medicine. It is necessary to observe,
that bran should never be given in a dry state ;
until it has undergone the influence of boiling
water, the mucilage is not formed, nor can the
functions of the horse concoct that material. When
given dry, the stomach can simply obtain the
element of the mucilage, without the formation of
the principle. There is yet another article which,
in conjunction with bran, deserves to be strongly
recommended ; — that is, linseed. It is used to a
certain extent in many establishments where horses
are kept, but by no means so extensively as it
ouo'ht to be. The mucilasje obtained from boilinor

o o o

the seeds in water affords the best fluid that can
be offered to the horse at any age : but especially
for brood mares, after they have dropped their
foals. In fact, for those which foal early in the
year, it is indispensable. The seeds, after the
mucilage has been obtained, may be introduced
with great advantage in mashes, especiallj^- to
horses of a costive habit. When the very trifling

198 THE STUD FARM.

expense incurred by using linseed is compared
with the great benefits which it produces to the
animals supplied with it, there is no reason why it
should not be used nearly all the year round,
especially for the young stock. One pint of
linseed will form gruel of a sufficient consistency
for a horse per diem, and the same quantity will
be enough for two yearlings. By boiling the
linseed, a small portion of the oil is obtained as
weU as the mucilage. In making this preparation
the water should be made to boil and the linseed
thrown in and stirred while over the fire, and it
should continue to boil from twenty minutes to
half an hour ; it is quite a mistake to imagine that
the qualities of the seeds are extracted by pouring
boiling water upon them.

Of the effects produced by the extensive use of
carrots, allusion has been made on a former occasion.
Their use can only be sanctioned in sparing quan-
tities, and better, perhaps, it would be, if they
were entirely excluded from the dietary of the
horse. Their nutritive properties must be attri-
buted to the saccharine matter which they contain ;
what constitutes the injurious portion which ex-
perience assigns to them, I am not prepared to
state, unless it be an acrid property, which dis-
orders the stomach. Swede turnips and parsnips
may be employed with advantage, as an occasional
variety of diet, when the propriety of a cooling

ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. 199

regimen is indicated, and a slight tendency to
diuretic and laxative evacuations is required.
The various descriptions of grasses come next
under review, as summer food for mares, and in
sparing quantities for yearlings, or those of more
advanced ages, which are not designed for training.
Presuming the paddocks to be merely devoted to
the purposes of exercise, artificial grasses must be
provided, a system which will be found conducive
to the health of the stud, and likewise to economy.
Two acres of land, so managed, will produce more
keep than five acres, over which stock of any kind
is permitted to roam at pleasure. It is by the ob-
servance of this system that a profit is to be gained,
and by which, also, many farms which are exclu-
sively arable, producing nothing but grain, may be
so managed as to carry a vast quantity of stock.

The nature of the soil must determine the class
or species of grass which will be most productive ;
always bearing in mind that wet lands are not
calculated to raise food upon for horses, except
those of the coarser kinds adapted for purposes of
draught. Lucerne will not flourish upon clay
soils, or, in fact, upon any which are retentive of
wet. Where it will grow, I have no hesitation in
pronouncing it the best description of green food
that can be given to any horses, especially to brood
mares. It appears to possess a bitter, in all pro-
bability, a tonic character suitable to the consti-

200 THE STUD FARM.

tution. Clover and vetches must be provided if
the land be not suitable for lucerne, or if there be
not a sufficient breadth of the latter, and likewise
as a change which is certainly desirable. In the
early part of the summer, from the succulent
nature of the two first named plants, flatulence
is often produced, and also considerable distention
of the bowels, in consequence of the large quantity
required to obtain a sufficiency of nourishment:
this is not so much the case as the season advances.
The properties of saintfoin appear to be more
nearly allied to those of lucerne : in the districts
where it is cultivated, the latter plant is scarcely
known ; and where lucerne flourishes saintfoin is
seldom seen. This is a circumstance rather diffi-
cult of explanation, because the land which appears
calculated for one, seems to be equally so for
the other.

Having so far attempted to investigate the
sources from which nourishment is derived, I wiU
conclude this section with the following remark.
As it is laid down that the nourishment of the
body is derived from the ingredients of the blood,
— that those substances alone can be estimated as
nutritious which are capable of conversion into
blood, and hence that the quality of the blood is
dependent upon the elements of which the food is
composed, — the knowledge of the descriptions of
food which contain the greatest relative proportions

CONCLUSION. 201

of those elements which are adapted to increase
the growth and development of certain portions
of the animal, which are best calculated to augment
his utility and value, becomes worthy of inquiry,
in order to make a judicious selection. A race
horse, a hunter, and a fox-hound, require food cal-
culated to form muscle, bone, and sinew ; yet it is
not proper at all times to supply them with food
abounding only with those principles, and thus a
change is necessary. Age and condition, and the
proximity to the time when their active services
will be required, must be permitted to exert an
influence, and the nature of the food should be
regulated accordingly.

Having thus far attempted to describe, to the
best of my ability, the most important subjects
connected with a breeding establishment, it only
remains for me to remark that much of the pro-
sperity attendant upon such an undertaking will
be derived from the care and skill devoted to the
cause. Whether a man keeps twenty brood-mares
or only one, they and their produce demand pre-
cisely similar attention : and success or failure
will depend upon the care bestowed upon them.
It is not for me to assert, that every detail or
suggestion which I have offered, if carried out,
p

202 CONCLUSION.

will be invariably attended with success; but I
have, in most instances, endeavoured, as concisely
as possible, to assign reasons for the recommenda-
tions which I have given ; and I sincerely trust,
that such of my readers who may adopt them,
either wholly or in part, may have the satisfaction
of obtaining favourable and profitable results.

THE END.

London :

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