7, <K' r..^^-

FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

STUDIES IN BIRD MIGRATION

THE EDDYSTONE LANTERN
I2TH October 1901

From a painting by Marian Eagle Clarke

. . . The beacon's blaze allures
The bird of passage, till he madly strikes
Against it, and beats out his weary life. — Tennyson.

{To face Frontispiece.

STUDIES

IN

Bird Migration

BV

WILLIAM EAGLE CLARKE

Kttpfr uj the h'atitial //istorv Departntent, thf Royal Scottish Museum

WITH MAPS, WEATHER CHARTS, AND O'lHER
ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME \.

LONDON

GURNEY AND JACKSON

EDINBURGH: OLIVER AND BOYD

1912

TO HER GRACE

THE DUCHESS OF BEDFORD

Hoiwruri/ Member uf the Britiih Oinilliulogisis' Union

IN RECOGNITION OF VALUED ASSISTANCE WHICH MAS CONTRIHUTED

MATERIALLY TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF A SUliJECT OF MUTUAL

INTEREST, THESE STUDIES ARE GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED

BY THE AUTHOR

a 2

PREFACE

These Studies are offered as contributions to what
has ever been an attractive branch of the science of
Ornithology. They are the result of many years' per-
sonal observations and researches, during" which excep-
tional opportunities have been afforded me for acquiring
special knowledge of the subject.

In the year 1880 it was my good fortune to become
the intimate friend of the late John Cordeaux, who first
inspired me with an interest in bird-migration that has
never waned. In 1883 I was elected a member of the
British Association Committee on the Migration of
Birds as observed on the British and Irish Coasts. On
the completion of the investigations it was my privilege
to be entrusted with the preparation of the Reports,
five in number, embodying the results of that great
enquiry — a task which was finally accomplished in 1903.

The preparation of these Digests revealed the fact
that, vast though the data were, much desirable informa-
tion was still lacking. This led me to undertake a series
of special investigations with a view of contributing to
our knowledge on these moot points, and in the hope of
adding to the lore of the subject of Bird-Migration
generally. A residence of forty - seven weeks in light-
houses and in a lightship, and fourteen weeks spent

viii PREFACE

on the remote islands of St Kilda and Ushant, enabled
me to accomplish these objects.

In addition to other aspects of the subject, attention
was devoted to the relations between migrational and
meteorological phenomena. In carrying out these par-
ticular investigations I was singularly fortunate in enlist-
incr the aid of Dr W. N. Shaw, the Director of the
Meteorological Office, who has kindly revised the study
devoted to Migration-Weather. The series of Charts
which so usefully illustrate that study have also been
specially prepared by Dr Shaw.

Several of the studies have appeared in the pages of
The Ibis and Reports of the B^Htish Association ; but in
each case they have either been largely supplemented by
subsequent researches, or carefully revised in the light
of further knowledge.

A number of the stations visited had either never
before been explored ornithologically, or only partially
so, and as their bird - life is of considerable interest,
a complete concise account of their feathered natives is
afforded.

During the many years devoted to this work I was
the recipient of many acts of kindness, and have been
laid under numerous obligations. For these, gratitude
compels me to express my deep sense of the value of the
services rendered and my high appreciation of them.

To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford, the Elder
Brethren of the Trinity House, the Commissioners for
Northern Lighthouses, to the late Mr John Bruce
of Sumburgh, and Mrs Bruce, Mr Robert Bruce, and
the MacLeod of MacLeod, my indebtedness is due
for special facilities afforded for carrying out the
investigations.

PREFACE ix

For valued assistance of a varied nature my obliga-
tions are also due to the Hon. Gladys Graham Murray,
the Misses Baxter and Rintoul, Mr Henry Johnstone,
Mr Coventry Dick Peddie, Mr William Evans, Dr
Harvie-Brovvn, and Mr John Mackenzie. Nor should
the various lighthouse keepers among whom my lot
has been so frequently cast be forgotten, especially Mr
and Mrs Wallace of Fair Isle.

In conclusion, I must express my thanks to the
Publishers for the great care they have bestowed upon
the production of the work.

Wm. Eagle Clarke.
Edinburgh, May 19 12.

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

CHAPTER I

Some Ancient and Antiquated Views

PAOE

I

CHAPTER II

Some Modern Views .

14

CHAPTER III

The British Isles and their iMigratorv Birds
Appendix I. — List of Summer Visitors
„ II.— List of Partial Migrants
„ III. — List of Winter Visitors
„ IV.— List of Birds of Passage

30
46
49
50

CHAPTER IV
The Geographical .\spects of British Bird-Migration

70

CHAPTER V

Round the Year among the British Migratory Birds :

Spring ........ 103

Appendix I. — Dates of the Arrival of Summer Visitors 126
„ II. — Dates of the Movements of the Birds of

Passage in Spring and Autumn . .129

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

PAGE

Round the Year in the British Isles: Autumn . . 141

Appendix. — Dates of the Arrival of Winter Visitors 157

CHAPTER VII
Round the Year in the British Isles : Winter . . 163

CHAPTER VIII
Weather Influences: the Meteorology of Bird-Migration 171

CHAPTER IX

The Migrations of the Swallow, Himndo rustica . . 1S8

CHAPTER X

The Migrations of the Fieldfare, Ticrdiis pilaris . . 199

CHAPTER XI

The Migrations of the White Wagtail, Motacilla alba . 207

CHAPTER XII
The Migrations of the Song-Thrush, Turdus musicus . 212

CHAPTER XIII

The Migrations of the Skylark, Alauda arvensis . . 221

CHAPTER XIV

The Migrations of the Lapwing, Vanellus vanellui . . 238

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XV

PAQK

The Migrations of the Starling, Sturnus vulgaris . . 252

CHAPTER XVI
The Migrations of the Rook, Corvus frugilegux . 268

CHAPTER XVH

A Month on the Eddystone : a Study in Emigration, and
OF the Cross-Channf.l Movements during Autumn
and Spring ....... 280

VOLUME II

CHAPTER XVH I

A Month on Board the Kentish Knock. LightS'Hip: a
Study chiefly devoted to the Easi-to-West Autumn
Movements across the North Sea . . . i

CHAPTER XIX
Fair Isle, the British Heligoland . . . .41

CHAPTER XX
A Year with the Migratory Birds at Fair Isle . . 56

CHAPTER XXI

The Birds of Fair Isle, with special reference to the

Seasonal Movements of the Birds of Passage . 102

xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXII

PAl

Bird-Migration at St Kilda, Britain's Outermost Isle in

THE Western Ocean . . . . . . i{

CHAPTER XXIII

The Birds of St Kilda, with special reference to the

Migratory Visitors . . • . . .202

CHAPTER XXIV

The Flannan Isles and their Bird-Visitors: Another

Study of the Far-Western Passage Movements . 250

CHAPTER XXV

Sule Skerry, West of Orkney, and its Bird-Visitors . 286

CHAPTER XXVI

(i) The Isle of Ushant as a Station for Observing Bird-
Migration : Bird - Watchers Watched ! (2) On
Migratory Birds Observed at Alderney, Channel
Islands ........ 3°5

Index ......... 329

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME I

PLATE

I. The Eddystone Lantern, i2TH Octoher 1901.

From a painfini^ by Marian Eagle Clarke . Frontispiece

II. Map of European Migration Routes . To face page 72

III. Chart showing the Advance of Spring . „ 106

IV. Chart showing the Advance of Autumn . „ 144

V. Chart of North-Western Europe show-
ing Typical Weather Conditions, with
South-Easterly Winds, over the British
Isles . . . . . , „ 172

VI. Chart of North-Western Europe show-
ing Typical Weather Conditions, with
North-WesterlvWinds,over the British
Isles ...... ,,176

VII. Chart of North-Western Europe show-
ing Typical Weather Conditions, with
THE Wind North - Easterly, over the
British Isles . . . . . „ 178

VIII. Chart of North-Western Europe show-
ing Typical Weather Conditions, with
South-Westerly Winds, over the British
Isles ...... „ 180

IX. The Eddystone Lighthouse and Stump of

Smeaton's Tower at Low Tide . . „ 280

xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME II

I'LATB

X. The Kentish Knock Ligh'^^hip. From a

drawing by Marian Eagle Clarke . . Frojitispiece

XI. Fair Isle from the South-West . . To face pai^e 40

XII. Fair Isle: The North-West Cliffs . „ 42

XIII. Fair Isle: A Rift in the Western Cliffs „ 44

XIV. -,

rFAiR ISLE: The Sheep Craig from the

South-West ..... „ 46

Fair Isle: The South-West Corner and

Skadan Lighthouse . . . „ 46

XV. Fair Isle : Part of the Crofted area . „ 48

XVI. St Kilda : The Village and Bay from the

Island of Dun .... ,,182

XVII. St Kilda: The Head of the Bay, the Vil-
lage, and Connacher . . . „ 184

rST Kilda: The Manse, and looking West „ 186

[st Kilda: The Village Street . . „ 186

XIX. St Kilda : The Village and Crofts . „ 188

XX. Flannan Islands : Eilean Mor from the

East ...... „ 250

XXI. Flannan Islands : Eilean Mor from the

South ...... „ 252

XXII. Flannan Islands: The East Landing-
place ...... „ 254

XXII I. Flannan Islands: The South Landing-

place ...... „ 256

XXIV. SuLE Skerry from the South-East . „ 286

XXV. Ushant: the South-West Coast and
Phare de Creach ....

304

STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

CHAPTER I

SOME ANCIENT AND ANTIQUATED VIEWS

They try their fluttering wings, and thrust themselves in air,
But whether upward to the moon they go,
Or dream the winter out in caves below,
Or hawk for flies elsewhere, concerns not us to know.

— Drvden (1631-1700),

The seasonal movements of birds have attracted the
attention and excited the curiosity of mankind for
countless ages, and the allusions to them in ancient
literature are of a singularly interesting nature. Not
only are these references amongst the very earliest con-
tributions to the study of natural history, but some of
them must rank as the most remarkable to be found
in the literature devoted to that or any other subject.
It is to be hoped that some day a historian will arise
who will gather together the threads and yarns spun
by the old writers, and weave them into the engaging
narrative which remains to be unfolded to us. Here it
is only possible briefly to allude to the vast antiquity of
the records, and to the extraordinary views held by
some of those who have ventured to wTite on the subject.
Long before the Christian era, we find in the Book
of Job (xxxix. 26) the words : " Doth the hawk fly by

I. A

2 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south ? "
This is an undoubted reference to the well-known
autumnal emigration of certain birds of prey, so much
in evidence in the East, and is probably the earliest
allusion to the subject of bird-migration.

In the opening of the Third Book of the Iliad —
attributed to Homer, who probably lived in the twelfth
century i5.c. — we find the Trojan hosts described as
coming on with noise and shouting, "like the Cranes
which flee from the coming winter and sudden rain, and
fly with clamour towards the streams of the ocean," or,
as Pope has it : —

So when the inclement winters vex the plain
With piercing frosts, or thick-descending rain,
To warmer seas the Cranes embodied fly,
With noise and order through the midway sky.

Homer also alludes to the gathering, in autumn, of
vast numbers of water birds by the Asiatic rivers.

In the fifth century B.C., the Greek poet Anacreon
welcomed, in inimitable verse, the return of the Swallow
in spring ; and it is noteworthy that he assigned Egypt
as among this bird's winter retreats. His lines (Carmen
2,1) are thus beautifully rendered by Moore : — "

Once in each revolving year,
Gentle bird ! we find thee here ;
When nature weirs her summer vest,
Thou com'st to weave thy simple nest ;
But when the chilling winter lowers.
Again thou seek'st the genial bowers
Of Memphis, or the shores of Nile,
Where sunny hours for ever smile.

A century after Anacreon, the prophet Jeremiah
(viii. 7) thus refers to the advent in spring of several
species of migratory birds: "Yea, the Stork in the
heavens knoweth her appointed time ; and the Turtle

SOME ANCIENT AND ANTIQUATED VIEWS 3

[dove], and the Crane, and the Swallow observe the
time of their coming."

The above are, however, mere allusions to the
subject, and it was not until a century or two later,
when the works of the illustrious Greek philosopher
and naturalist, Aristotle (b.c. 384-322), 'were given to
the world, that we find the migrations of birds and other
animals discussed for the first time.

These remarkable contributions are to be found in
the eighth book of his Historia Animaiiuui, of which,
fortunately, we have recently been furnished with a
masterly edition in English by Prof. D'Arcy Thompson.
This notable book forms one of the volumes of The
Woj'ks of Aristotle, and was published at Oxford in
1 9 10. From this most valuable natural history, the
following interesting information has been culled : but
it is not all sound, for some highly ridiculous theories
are also advanced, which are, however, pardonable, as
they are at the outset of the study of any great subject.

Aristotle tells us that "Some creatures can make
provision against change [of season] without stirring
from their ordinary haunts ; others migrate, quitting
Pontus and the cold countries after the autumnal
equinox to avoid approaching winter, and after the
spring equinox migrating from warm lands to cool lands
to avoid the coming heat. In some cases they migrate
from places near at hand ; in others they may be said to
come from the ends of the world, as in the case of the
Crane, for these birds migrate from the steppes of
Scythia to the marshlands south of Egypt, where the
Nile has its source. . . . Pelicans also migrate, and fly
from the Strymon to the Ister, and breed on the banks
of this river. They depart in flocks, and the birds in

4 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

front wait for those in the rear, owing to the fact that
when the flock is passing over the intervening mountain
range, the birds in the rear lose sight of their com-
panions in the van. . . . All creatures are fatter in
migrating from cold to heat than in migrating from heat
to cold ; thus the Quail is fatter when he emigrates
in autumn than when he arrives in spring. The
migration from cold countries is contemporaneous with
the close of the hot season.

" The Cushat and the Rock-Dove migrate, and never
winter in our country, as is the case also with the
Turtle-Dove. . . . The Quail also migrates — only, by
the way, a few Quails and Turtle- Doves may stay
behind here and there in sunny districts. Cushats and
Turtle-Doves flock together, both when they arrive
and when the season for migration comes round
again. . . . When the Quails come from abroad
they have no leaders, but when they migrate hence,
the Glottis flits along with them, as does also the
Landrail and the Eared Owl. The Swan and the
Lesser Goose are also migratory.

" A great number of birds also go into hiding ; they
do not all migrate, as is generally supposed, to warmer
countries. Thus, certain birds (as the Kite and the
Swallow), when they are not far ofi" from places of this
kind, in which they have their permanent abode, betake
themselves thither ; others that are at a distance from
such places, decline the trouble of migration, and simply
hide themselves where they are. Swallows, for instance,
have been often found in holes, quite denuded of their
feathers, and the Kite on its first emergence from
torpidity has been seen to fly from out some such
hiding-place. And with regard to this phenomenon

SOME ANCIENT AND ANTIQUATED VIEWS 5

of periodic torpor there is no distinction observed,
whether the talons of a bird be crooked or straight ;
for instance, the Stork, the Ouzel, the Turtle-Dove
and the Lark, all go into hiding. The case of the
Turtle- Dove is the most notorious of all, for we would
defy any one to assert that he has anywhere seen a
Turtle-Dove in winter time ; at the beginning of hiding
time it is exceedingly plump, and during this period
moults, but retains its plumpness. Some Cushats hide ;
others, instead of hiding, migrate at the same time as
the Swallow. The Thrush and the Starling hide, and
the birds with crooked talons, the Kite and Owl, hide
for a few days."

Thus Aristotle was the propounder of the theory
known as "hibernation" — a theory which survived
and held sway for two thousand years, and possibly
still has a place in the belief of certain credulous
persons.

Aristotle was also responsible for the theory of
" transmutation "; being led to this belief by the seasonal
emigration of particular species and the simultaneous
appearance of others. He tells us that the Erithacus
(or Redbreast) and the Redstart change into one
another ; the former is a winter bird, the latter a summer
one, and the difference between them is practically
limited to the coloration of their plumage. In the
same way with the Beccafico [? Garden Warbler] and
the Blackcap ; these change the one into the other. The
Beccafico appears about autumn, and the Blackcap as
soon as autumn has ended. These birds, also, differ
from one another only in colour and note ; that these
birds, two in name, are one in reality is proved by the
fact that at the period when the change is in progress

I. A 2

6 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

each one has been seen with the change as yet
incomplete.

Passing now to the earliest years of Christian era, we
find that the Roman naturalist Pliny (a.d. 20-79), in his
Historia Natnralis (lib. x. cap. 24), has something to
say on the subject of bird-migration. His views, how-
ever, are mainly those of Aristotle. He informs us that
the CEnanthe (Wheatear) has its stated days for retire-
ment ; at the rising of Sirius it conceals itself, and at the
setting of that star comes forth from its retreat : this it
does, most singular to relate, exactly on both these days.
As to the Chlorion (Golden Oriole), it is not seen in
winter, but comes forth about the summer solstice.
Pliny states that Blackbirds, Thrushes, and Starlings
take their departure to neighbouring countries, but do
not lose their feathers, nor yet conceal themselves, as
they are often seen in winter. The Ring Dove also
takes its departure, but whither it goes is a matter of
doubt. Writing on the movements of the Stork and
Crane, he remarks that up to his time it has not been
ascertained from what place the Storks come, or whither
they go when they leave. There can be no doubt, he
tells us, that like the Cranes they come from a great
distance. Pliny repeats Aristotle's statements regarding
the transmutation of the birds already alluded to.

There can be little doubt that the hibernation theory
owes its origin, to some extent, to the fact of Swallows,
Martins, and other migratory birds having been found
dead in holes in banks, etc., into which they had crept
for shelter from an outburst of inclement weather dur-
ing their sojourn in their native lands, which is not an
uncommon event. These were supposed to be the
remains of individuals which had died from natural

SOME ANCIENT AND ANTIQUATED VIEAVS 7

causes while concealed in their winter retreats, and
some of them may have been found in a more or less
featherless condition.

With the writings of Pliny the ancient views on
miofration come to an end. The middle a^es in this, as
in many other cases, appear to have been a period of
intellectual stagnation, and it was not until the latter
half of the sixteenth century that interest in the subject
seems to have revived.

In 1555, Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala, in
Sweden, published a work entitled Historia de Gcntibus
Septentrionalibus et Natura, wherein he alludes (lib. xix.
cap. 29, p. 673) to the seasonal disappearance of
Swallows as follows : —

" Although memorable writers on many subjects
of natural history have related that Swallows change
their abode, that is, seek warmer countries on being
greatly pressed by winter, yet in Northern waters,
by the chance of a fisherman, Swallows are often
drawn out in a kind of rolled-up lump, which, when
about to descend into the reeds after the beginning of
autumn, have bound themselves together — mouth to
mouth, wing to wing, foot to foot. Moreover, it has
been remarked that they at that season, their very sweet
song being finished, descend, and peacefully, after the
beginning of spring, fly out thence and reseek their old
nests or make new ones with their natural diligence.
But if that lump be drawn out by ignorant young men
(for old and expert fishermen put it back) and carried to
a warm place, the Swallows, loosened by the access of
heat, begin to fly about, but live only a short time,
giving proof that premature birth is to be guarded
against. It happens also in spring-time that the birds

8 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

returning to freedom, and occupying- their old nests or
building new ones, being overtaken by rough weather
and a heavy fall of snow, all alike die, so that none are
seen the whole summer about the houses or river banks,
except a very few which have risen from the deeper
waters, or journeying from elsewhere, are seen, when
winter is wholly dispelled in May, to arrive, about to
reproduce offspring for the good of nature."

The picture here given is from a photograph taken

direct from Glaus Magnus's work, for the loan of which
I was indebted to the late Professor Newton, It
represents two fishermen standing on the edge of the
ice and drawing towards them a net containing a
mixed "catch" of Swallows and fishes.

This ridiculous story was accepted by a number
of distinguished naturalists, including Linnaeus : and
John Reinhold Forster, in his edition of Kalm's Travels
into North America (p. 140), informs us that he can
reckon himself among the eye-witnesses of this " para-

SOME ANCIF.NT AND ANTIQUATED VIEWS 9

doxon " of natural history ; he proceeds to relate how, in
1735, he saw Swallows taken from the Vistula in winter.
Cuvier (1769- 1832) was also a believer in the theory of
submergence, for he says, " the Martin becomes torpid
during winter ; and that it passes the cold season under
water at the bottom of marshes appears to be certain."
Learned bodies such as the Royal Society of London and
the French Academy have discussed this theory and
published the results in their Transactions. John Hunter
(1728- 1 793), the celebrated anatomist, made several ex-
periments to test this theory, all of which, needless to
remark, confirmed him in the opinion of the impossibility
of Swallows submerging themselves or sustaining life
under water. He even caught several Swallows in
October and confined them in a green-house, with
large tubs of water containing reeds ; but found, of
course, that none of the birds attempted to enter them.
The Hon. Daines Barrington quotes^ an instance of
three or four Swallows (or Martins) having been found
caked together in the mud at the bottom of a pond in
Berkshire in February. They were carried into the
kitchen, and afterwards Hew about. The Rev. Dr Pye
and others testify to these facts !

Swallows just ere they emigrate in the autumn have
a predilection for roosting in reed beds standing in water,
and this, coupled with the fact that the birds were not
seen afterwards, may have led those who witnessed the
act to suppose that they crept down the reeds and sub-
merged themselves. It does not, however, justify the
mythical accounts invented to bolster up the theory.

Perhaps the most extraordinary theory ever pro-
pounded regarding the migration of birds is contained

' Pliil. Trans., Ixii., p. 289.

10 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

in a pamphlet published in the year 1703 by "A Person
of Learning and Piety." The title of this rare and
curious little tract is " An Essay Towards the Probable
Solution of this Question — Whence Come the Crane
and the Swallow, when they Know and Observe the
Appointed Time of their Coming?" and the "probable
solution " is that migratory birds retreat to the moon
to spend the cold season !

The author allows sixty days for the journey, and
remarks that as the moon is not a stationary body in
the heavens, "it cannot be supposed" that the birds on
embarking upon their journey "direct their course to
the moon, but rather offended by the steams of earth
do tend directly from it, and that straight line 'tis
probable they pursue, till they come so near the moon,
that she is their fairest object to draw their inclination ;
for if the moon hath a motion in a month about the
earth, then at the two months' end they [the birds] find
it in the same line of direction where it was when they
began their journey ; . . . therefore if they proceed in the
same straight line, they will be sure to meet the moon on
the way." The question of food and sleep on the journey
is dealt with in the same nonsensical fashion. He
says : — " As to eating, it may possibly be [i.e., exist]
without in that temper of the ^ther where it passeth,
which may not be apt to prey upon its spirits as our
lower nitreous air ; and yet even here Bears are said to
live upon their summer fat all the winter long in
Greenland, without any new supply of food. Now we
noted before that some of those birds (and perhaps it
may be true of the rest) are very succulent and sanguine,
and so may have their provisions laid up in their very
bodies for the voyage.

SOME ANCIENT AND ANTIQUATED VIEWS 11

"As to sleep, 'tis very probable that they are in a
sleep or sweeven if not all the way between the
attraction of the earth and that of the moon, to which
sleep the swift acquired motion may very much con-
tribute. . . . Now it is likely these birds being there,
where they have no objects to divert them, may shut
their eyes, and so swing on fast asleep, till they come
where some change of air (as a middle region about the
moon or earth) may by its cold awaken them. Add to
this, that this sleep spares their provisions, for if (as
some would have it) Cuckoos and Swallows can lie
asleep half the year without eating, why cannot these in
as deep a sleep as well for two months forbear it." A
rdsumd of this paper, giving fuller details, appeared in
the Zoologist for 1909, pp. 71-73.

Among the older writers on birds, Francis Willughby ^
is to be commended for his caution. Speaking of
the Swallow, he remarks (p. 212): "What becomes
of the Swallows in winter time, whether they fly into
other countries, or lie torpid in hollow trees and the
like places, neither are natural historians agreed, nor
indeed can we certainly determine. To us it seems
more probable that they fly away into hot countries,
viz., Egypt, Ethiopia, etc., than that they lurk in hollow
trees, or holes in rocks and ancient buildings, or lie in
water under ice in northern countries." Willughby
expresses the same views when treating of the Cuckoo

(p. 98).

Later, the hibernation theory of Aristotle was
resuscitated and advocated with renewed energy. Its
great exponent was the Hon. Daines Barrington,
whose views were expounded in extenso in a com-

^ The Ornithology of Ffancis Willughby, published in the year 1678.

12 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

munication made to the Royal Society in 1772,
and entitled, "An Essay on the Periodical Appear-
ing and Disappearing of certain birds at Different
Times of the Year."^ Harrington's views, and his
persistent advocacy of them, do not call for special
notice, since they are well known indirectly through
the celebrated correspondence which passed between
him and Gilbert White. All ornithologists know
and regret the baneful influence they exercised over
that most excellent naturalist, whose classical work,
Whites Selborne, has done more than any other
book in this country to foster the study of bird-
miorration. That Gilbert White at first held orthodox

o

views on the subject of the migration of Swallows, etc.,
is made manifest by his letter of 4th August, 1767,
addressed to Thomas Pennant ; but later he seems
to have fallen almost entirely under the influence of
Barrington, and to have become a believer in the latter's
absurd views regarding the winter torpidity of the
Swallow-kind, as did most other naturalists of that
period. Indeed, the only writer of any distinction in
the eighteenth century who adhered to sound common-
sense views on the subject was George Edwards,^
whose remarks are, to this day, well worthy of perusal.
Speaking of the immersion theory, "it is enough,"
writes this author, "to raise one's indignation, to see
so many vouchers from so many assertors of this
foolish and erroneous conjecture, which is not only
repugnant to reason, but to all the known laws of
nature."

' Phil. Trans. ^ Ixii., pp. 265-326.

2 Natural History of Birds and Gleanings of Natural History., published
between 1743 and 1760.

SOME ANCI1<:NT and ANTK^ITATED VIEWS 13

Probably nothing" more remarkable can be found in
the romance of natural history than some of these
explanations advanced to account for the disappearance of
birds in the autumn. No doubt the fact, then unknown,
that most birds embark upon their emigrations at night-
fall, and that hence their departure is unwitnessed, may
be in some measure responsible for the astounding
theories propounded to account for what was, not
unnaturally, a complete mystery to men who had
neither ascertained this habit by observation, nor
even surmised it as a possibility ; though it may well
be thought strange that, among their many bold
guesses, the true solution never emerged as a possible
conjecture.

In looking back over the history of early opinion
in relation to the appearance and disappearance of
certain birds at certain seasons, it is both interesting
and instructive to note that in very early times men's
knowledge of the matter seems to have been scanty, but
sound as far as it went, and that in later times careless
observation, fancifully interpreted, brought forth "a
lively principle of error," which led mankind astray for
many generations, and induced even Linnaeus and
White — two naturalists of the first rank, and living
within the period in which the scientific spirit had
become powerfully operative — to lend their authority to
theories now quite untenable.

CHAPTER II

SOME MODERN VIEWS ^

We have seen that one hundred years ago our naturalist
great-grandfathers M^ere gravely discussing whether
Swallows and other migratory birds hibernated, or
whether they passed the winter submerged at the
bottom of lakes and rivers. To-day it is possible to
give reasonable explanations for much that was formerly
regarded as mysterious ; but there remain problems
associated with these remarkable pilgrimages which
perplex the modern man of science as they did the
prophet and philosopher of old.

What Birds are Migratory, and Why. — Although
the vast majority of birds possess unsurpassed means of
locomotion through their remarkable powers of flight,
yet by no means all, nor even the majority of the known
species (some 13,000 in number), are migratory. Hence
the question arises : What Birds are Migrants, and
Why ? Those who have studied the ways of bird-life
the world over, are aware that the feathered denizens of
the tropics are a stay-at-home throng ; while the birds

' This chapter is not offered as a contribution to the student's knowledge
of the subject. It is written in the interests of readers who may not be
familiar with the various phases of the phenomenon, as an introduction
to the special studies which follow.

14

SOME MODERN VIEWS 15

which are natives of the northern and temperate regions
are mostly migratory ; they are

Intelligent of seasons, and set forth
Their aery caravan ; high over seas
Flying, and over lands. — MiLTON.

Indeed, with comparatively few exceptions, all those
inhabiting the northern and far southern areas are
migrants. Almost every boy and girl in our own
country knows that certain birds — the Swallow, Cuckoo,
and Fieldfare, for instance — come to us and leave us at
particular times of the year ; while those who have paid
closer attention to the bird-life of our islands are aware
that the great majority of their feathered population is
more or less migratory, coming and going with the
change of the seasons.

Why do these birds migrate ? Why do they leave
their native lands and set out on long, arduous, and
dangerous pilgrimages to other climes.'* Is the habit of
benefit to those that practise it ? These questions may
be best answered by asking yet another — namely, " What
would become of those myriads of birds which in the
summer delight in and breed amidst the solitudes of the
arctic countries, when those vast wastes which form
their feeding-grounds lie under a pall of snow or are
transformed into solid ice .-* What, too, would become
of certain birds which similarly make our islands their
summer home if they attempted to remain the winter
with us ? How could the Swallow and the Cuckoo, and
hosts of other birds, whose food consists of insects, and
other lowly creatures, support life during the drear
months of winter, when such food is scarce or not to be
found ? The answer is an obvious one ; they would
perish from want of food, and not, as is popularly

16 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

supposed, directly from cold. They must migrate or
starve, and ages of experience have taught them that
they must quit their summer homes after their broods
are reared, and wing their way to more genial winter
quarters, mainly in the south, where food abounds.

. . . birds that migrate from a freezing shore,

In search of milder climes come skimming o'er:

Instinctive tribes ! their failing food they dread.

And beg, with timely change, their future bread. — Crabbe.

It must not be supposed, however, that the inigrants
of to-day wait until their food supplies fail ; such is not
the case, for the migratory habit has become part and
parcel of their lives, through countless ages of practice,
and they usually depart from the northern lands as soon
as their offspring are able to take care of themselves.
The Swifts leave our islands, and also southern Europe,
some weeks before any failure of their food takes place- —
indeed at a period when it is specially abundant.
There are imperative reasons, then, why these birds
should migrate to winter quarters more or less distant
from their summer homes. But what induces them to
quit these genial retreats and return northwards in
spring ? There are several excellent reasons. Fore-
most among these is the well-known passionate attach-
ment shown by birds for their native land — their true
home — in which the most fascinating period of their
lives is spent. This in itself affords the stimulus to
seek, at the appointed time, the hallowed scenes where
the all-engrossing domestic duties of the year await
them, and have for ages been performed.

Why homeward turned thy joyful wing ?

In a far ofif land I heard the voice of Spring ;

I found myself that moment on the way ;

My wings, my wings, they had not power to stay. — MONTGOMERY.

SOME MODERN VIEWS 17

In this respect their patriotism, if we may so term it, is
pronouncedly parochial, for the returning migrants seek
the very neighbourhood (even the very field, wood, etc.)
in which the old home is situated, and return to it
regularly, year after year. There are many instances
on record of this remarkable constancy on the part of
migratory birds.

The periodic physiological changes in progress at the
approach of spring in the shape of the development of the
reproductive organs, with their corollary, the reviving
instinct of procreation, must prove an overpowering
incentive to seek the accustomed breeding haunts.
These physiological developments, too, no doubt regu-
late the date at which the departure to the breeding
grounds should take place for particular races, and will
account for the late emigration from the winter home of
those species which breed in the far north, where the
land does not assume its summer aspect until com-
paratively late in the season.^ Another important factor
is that the southern and tropical regions (the main
winter resorts) are not suited for a nursery for the young
of the hardy northern species, and if they attempted to
nest there the result would be disastrous — their race
would become extinct. On the approach of the southern
winter — our spring — the question of food might become
an important incentive to emigration, though, personally,
I do not attach much importance to it.

Thus the necessity for different summer and winter
quarters, through breeding and feeding requirements, has
resulted in the migratory habit becoming an integral
part of the lives of a vast number of birds inhabiting the
arctic and north temperate regions : while, on the other

1 See Plate III.
I. B

18 STUDIES IN lURD-MIGRATION

hand, the teeming natives of the tropics are almost
entirely sedentary, for the simple reason that in their
fatherland — thanks to climatic conditions — food is more
or less abundant all the year round. The migrants are
Tennyson's

. . . happy birds that change their sky
To build and brood, that hve their lives
From land to land.

Migration in the Southern Regions. — The birds
of the south temperate and antarctic regions are also
mainly migratory, and move northwards towards and
beyond the equator on the approach of the southern
winter. Some of them, such as Wilson's Petrel and the
Great and Sooty Shearwaters- — penetrate far into the
realms of the northern hemisphere, and the two former
sometimes reach the fringe of the arctic circle.

The Origin of the Migratory Habit. — Dr A. R.
Wallace has offered {Naittre, vol. x., p. 459) the
following as a likely explanation of the manner in
which the migratory habit had its origin. He says :
"It appears to me probable that here, as in many
other cases, * survival of the fittest ' will be found to
have had a powerful influence. Let us suppose that in
any species of migratory bird, breeding can, as a rule,
be only safely accomplished in a given area ; and
further, that during a great part of the rest of the year
sufficient food cannot be obtained in that area. It will
follow that those birds which do not leave the breeding
area at the proper season will suffer, and ultimately
become extinct ; which will also be the fate of those
which do not leave the feeding area at the proper time.
Now, if we suppose that the two areas were (for some
remote ancestor of the existing species) coincident, but

SOME MODERN VIEWS 19

by geological and climatic changes gradually divero'ed
from each other, we can easily understand how the habit
of incipient and partial migration at the proper seasons
would at last become hereditary, and so fixed as to be
what we term an instinct. It will probably be found
that every gradation still exists in various parts of the
world, from a complete coincidence to a complete separa-
tion of the breeding and subsistence areas ; and when
the natural history of a sufficient number of species in all
parts of the world is thoroughly worked out, we may find
every link between species which never leave a restricted
area in which they breed and live the whole year round,
to those other cases in which the two areas are absolutely
separated. The actual causes that determine the exact
time, year by year, at which certain species migrate will
of course be difficult to determine."

The advances made in our knowledge on this subject
since Dr Wallace published this illuminating explanation
in 1874, all go to strengthen his views, so much so that
a good deal which was then regarded as hypothetical is
now generally accepted, while the rest may be considered
as distinctly probable.

Dr Weismann ^ has also expressed some interesting
and helpful views as to how the present distribution
of migrants in Europe came about. He is of opinion
that many of the birds which now inhabit the central
and northern regions of Europe were during the glacial
period wanting, because the climate was too severe.
They must, therefore, he considers, have come sub-
sequently from the south, and with the gradual rising
of the temperature there must have been a corresponding
steady but very gradual influx of birds into the north.

I Co7ttemporary Revinu^ Feb. 1 879.

20 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Just in proportion as the ice retreated, would the birds
push forward the bounds of their habitat. He is careful
to tell us, however, that the first migrations of birds date
from an earlier period than the glacial epoch, for many
species were already birds of passage before its advent.

Migration Routes. — It is quite reasonable for -the
uninitiated to suppose that when journeying between
these more or less widely separated seasonal homes, the
migrants move indiscriminately southwards in the
autumn, and, in like manner, northwards in the spring.
Such is not the case. Each individual migrant of
mature age has its accustomed summer and winter
quarters, and follows particular and more or less devious
routes to reach them. As the ways of many are identical,
great and much-used fly-lines are followed. As long ago
as 1846, the celebrated German ornithologist, J. F.
Naumann, expressed himself thus [Rhea, 1846, p. 18) on
this important subject: "There must," he says, "even
be highway roads through the air, which are annually
taken by migrants, certain spots on the earth beneath
these tracts serving the travellers as stations for rest
and recovery. In other tracts again migrants are
either strikingly scanty or altogether absent." These
"migration routes," as they are termed, have been
carefully studied for Europe and northern Asia by
Professor Palmen in particular, and are shown on the
accompanying map (Plate II.). It will be observed
that coast lines and the courses of great rivers are
followed, lofty mountain ranges and wide belts of desert
are traversed, and lesser or vaster expanses of sea are
crossed. Hosts of migrants, even delicate Warblers and
other birds of feeble wing, thread the snowy passes of
the Himalayas when seeking and retreating from the

SOME MODERN VIEWS 21

Siberian forests or the desolate tundras that border the
shores of the Arctic Ocean. The waters of the North
Sea are crossed, among others, by many fairy-like forms,
including such frail voyagers as the diminutive Gold-
crest. These are trunk routes, and the lines by which
they are indicated on the maps may be regarded as
their central portions ; there are, however, innumerable
minor ways associated with them, which it is impossible
to indicate. There are also others, of a purely local
nature, which are only known to observers who have
been long resident in their vicinity.

In traversing these routes, Weismann Ms of opinion
that the migrants are simply following the old ways by
which their ancestors originally travelled to spread
themselves out towards the north. He points out,
among other instances, that their present fly-lines over
the Mediterranean (see map of routes) are the sites of
the old land bridges (which formerly divided that great
sea into a series of lesser inland seas) over which the
birds used to pass on their journeys to and from the
south in the earlier days of their migrations.

The journeys of many of the migrants, when travel-
ling to their seasonal haunts, are marvellous perform-
ances, since they extend from the arctic regions to New
Zealand, Tasmania, the Cape of Good Hope and Cape
Horn. Some of them entail flights across wide stretches
of open ocean, as in the case of the beautiful little
Cuckoo {Chalcococcyx lucidus), which summers in New
Zealand and Norfolk Island and winters in eastern
Australia. The distance between New Zealand and
Australia direct is about 1 200 miles, and there are no
resting places en roiUe. The journey may be accom-

' Loc. cit.
I. B 2

22 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

plished via Norfolk and Lord Howe's Islands by three
flights, two of 550 miles and one of 600 miles. Another
remarkable feat is that performed by Warblers, Pipits,
Shrikes, and Sandpipers, across the Himalayas, when
travelling to and from Siberian and Central Asiatic
summer quarters to In.dian winter retreats. These
birds traverse a belt of absolute desert of more than one
hundred miles in width, having an elevation of over
15,000 feet, and intersected by numerous snow-capped
ridges, the lowest passes of which are 18,000 feet
above sea-level. These, Hume tells us,^ present no
invincible obstacles to even the tiniest and most
feeble-winged migrants, such as the Warblers of the
genus Phylloscopus.

Migration by Night. — These journeys are wonderful
in many ways, but how very much more wonderful do
they become, when it is remembered that they are chiefly
performed during the hours of darknesS' — indeed, almost
invariably so, when a considerable expanse of sea has to
be traversed ! Why night travelling should be resorted
to is one of the most puzzling of the many problems that
are associated with the phenomena of bird-migration ;
yet I think it admits of reasonable explanation. Here
again, food seems to me probably to play an important
part. It is well known that most of the daytime has to
be devoted by birds to the search for food. Let us
suppose that the traveller sets out to cross the North Sea
in the daytime. What would this imply ? It would mean :
(i) that the voyager must undergo a fast of many hours
during its passage across the sea ; (2) it would reach
our shores at night or during the early hours of the
morning, and many hours must again elapse ere food

' Henderson and Hume, Lahore to Yarkand, pp. 160-1.

SOME MODERN MEWS 23

could be obtained. Few birds, I think, could accomplish
the journey under such conditions. By crossing at
night, all these difficulties are obviated. That the birds
have evidently fasted for some time ere they reach our
shores is manifest from an examination of their stomachs.
I have examined the stomachs of many birds captured
at the lantern of the Fair Isle lighthouse, and in not one
of them have I found even a trace of food.

It has been suggested that birds migrate by night to
escape the attacks of gulls, which often pounce down upon
and destroy migrants, especially solitary ones, when they
come across them at sea during the daytime. This theory
is scarcely worthy of serious consideration, because
such powerful birds as Cranes and Storks, among
others, migrate during the hours of darkness, though
surely not to escape the attention of Gulls. Then great
overland passages also take place at night, in regions
where there are certainly no Gulls awaiting the voyagers.

We see comparatively little of night - migration,
because during clear weather it passes entirely unnoticed,
even at the most favourably situated stations. Now
and then the weather comes to our aid during a great
migration, and we get a glimpse of how vast these move-
ments are, and we learn something about the weather
conditions which make their observation possible, some
of which are noticed in the chapter on the author's
experiences at the Eddystone.

Dangers encountered en Route. — It must not be
supposed that these journeys are free from dangers. Far
from it ; the perils are many and varied. The following
are a few of them. To begin with, many migrants perish
at sea. Favourable weather may prevail at the point of
embarkation, say in southern Norway, and induce the

24 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

birds to set out to cross the sea for Britain ; for birds,
like ourselves, prefer fine weather for their voyages.
These favourable conditions may not extend entirely
across the North Sea, and should the migrants pass
into a gale before reaching our shores, which they some-
times do. many perish, and their remains are washed up
in great numbers on our beaches. One of the greatest
of all dangers, perhaps, is the numerous lighthouses and
light-vessels on and off our own and other coasts.
These, under certain conditions of weather, which will
afterwards be fully described, are veritable shambles.
Those who have not witnessed a " bird-night " at a light-
station cannot form any conception of the appalling
loss of life that takes place. I have stood on the gallery
of the Eddystone lighthouse and watched the emigrants
striking the great lantern and falling into the surf
beneath for ten and a half hours without a break. I
have stood on the deck of the Kentish Knock lightship
from dusk to dawn, and seen birds falling thickly the
whole time, to perish miserably, many of them being
merely stunned, in the calmest of seas. On each of
these occasions thousands of the migrants perished.
What must the combined slaughter have been at these
and neighbouring stations, or, perhaps, at many British
stations, for the conditions and the movements are often
wide spread? What for a whole season? Hundreds
of thousands : I am convinced of this. Another danger
may be alluded to, namely, the havoc wrought among
the travellers by Birds of Prey. These destroyers take
a heavy toll, for many follow their migrating prey and
play havoc in their ranks, both during the daytime and
in the dark. Owls frequently (and sometimes even
the "noble" Peregrine Falcon and the "brave" little

SOME MODERN VIEWS 25

Merlin) have been detected snatching the weary voyagers
as they i\y distracted round the lanterns at night.

Speed of Migrants. — The speed at which birds
travel when on their migratory journeys has been much
discussed. I shall give my own experiences and
estimates when relating what I witnessed when in the
Kentish Knock lightship, where I had many oppor-
tunities of observing birds crossing the North Sea. I
do not believe that any species exceeds loo miles per
hour, and I doubt if such a speed is maintained by birds
on their migrations. Gatke,^ however, would endow
them with amazing powers in this respect (as much as
207 miles — " 180 geographical miles " — per hour). The
data, however, upon which his estimates are based are
of the very flimsiest nature, and will not stand the tests
very properly imposed by modern scientific investigators.

How ARE THE MIGRANTS GuiDED? — There still remains
for consideration another question, perhaps the most
interesting, certainly the most puzzling, of all. We have
seen that when on their journeys, the migrants not only
travel vast distances overland, but also cross pathless
seas and oceans. The question is — How do they find
their way? How are they guided .-^ Here we are face
to face with what is rightly regarded as one of the
greatest mysteries to be found in the animal kingdom.

Many explanations have been offered. Among others
it has been suggested that birds are endowed with some
organ which makes them sensitive to the magnetism of
the earth, and thus enables them to steer their course as
a sailor steers his ship. Others look to sight and
memory, both of which birds possess to a remarkable
degree. It is possible that these faculties would suffice

1 Die Vogchvarte Helgoland, 190I5 P- 68.

26 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

as a guide to those that have already made the passage,
when coast lines and rivers, mountains and plains lay
before them. But of what avail would they be when a
vast expanse of sea has to be traversed ? Here we
are told that during their voyages the migrants fly at
a great height/ sometimes at 20,000 feet, and from
such elevations the sea and land would be spread below
them like a map. To this explanation is added the
experience gained through parental guidance.

Such hypotheses, however, are quite insufficient to
explain the mystery. In the first place, we know that
most birds travel by night, and thus one fails to realise
how siofht would enable them to steer a correct course
over hundreds of miles of ocean. Secondly, many
young birds migrate apart from their parents, and hence
parental guidance is not an essential factor. In support
of this latter contention, we have the remarkable evidence
afforded by the migrations performed by the young of
the Cuckoo. It is well known to naturalists that the
young Cuckoo does not leave our islands and its summer-
haunts elsewhere in the autumn, until some weeks after
the adult birds have left for their winter home ; hence
parental guidance in their case is not conceivable.
Almost everyone is aware that the parent Cuckoo
deposits its eggs in the nests of other birds, and that the
young are reared by foster parents at the expense of
their own offspring, which the infant Cuckoo soon ejects
from the nest. Now, these foster parents mainly belong
to species which do not quit our islands, or, if so, do

1 It is possible, however, that a limit is imposed by temperature to the
height at which birds can travel during their migrations. We must
remember, too, that they wing their way through the air at a high rate of
speed, whereby the effect of cold is considerably intensified. (See Nature^
vol. xix., p. 481.)

SOMK MODERN VIEWS 27

not journey f;ir ; others certainly do perform considerable
migrations. It matters not, however, whether these
foster parents are eminently migratory, for they do not
accompany the emigrant Cuckoos on the journey to their
winter retreats, which lie in the equatorial regions, or to
the south of them. It is highly probable that the
young of many birds go off on their own account as
soon as they are able to shift for themselves, especially
those which compose the first families of species which
are double-brooded. Not only do these in many instances
migrate apart from their parents, but no doubt they often
migrate in advance of them.

The case of the young of the Cuckoo and other
birds, and the fact that birds travel during the hours of
darkness, convince me that migratory birds are endowed
with " inherited but unconscious experience " (the phrase
is Professor Newton's). This special sense of direction
guides them, though they know it not, and enables them
to reach the seasonal homes of their respective forebears,
wherever these may be. I was convinced of this
unconscious guidance by my singular experiences on
board the lightship, to which allusion will be made anon.

Further important evidence in support of the con-
clusion that birds possess a special sense of direction, is
afforded by the extensive migrations performed by the
flightless Penguins. Sir J. C. Ross^ informs us that he
observed, in lat. 49' 17' S., long. 172'' 28' W., penguins in
great abundance going eastwards, which, he tells us,
were no doubt proceeding to their breeding quarters,
perhaps the Nimrod Islands. "It is a wonderful
instinct," he remarks, " far beyond the powers of un-

^ A Voyage of Discovery ami Research in tlie Southern and Antarctic
Regions^ during the years 1S39-1843, vol. ii., p. 138.

28 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

tutored reason, that enables these creatures to find
their way, chiefly under water, several hundred miles,
to their place of usual resort, as each succeeding
spring season of the year arrives." On another occasion,
Ross observed two penguins when more than a thousand
miles from the nearest land i^loc. ciL, vol. i. p. 227-8).

The erratic wanderings of migratory birds, resulting
in their appearance in countries far removed from their
accustomed haunts, and off the routes followed to reach
them, are in many cases to be attributed to their failure,
from some cause or other, to inherit unimpaired this
all-important faculty of unconscious orientation. The
incentive to migrate, it must be admitted, is strong
within them, or they would never occur in places so
remote from the domains of their respective species.

Such facts as these most effectually dispose of the
contentions advanced in favour of sight, individual
memory, knowledge of landmarks, the aid derived from
flying at a great height, and of experience imparted to
the young by parental guidance. All these would be
of no avail to a party of Penguins seeking their accus-
tomed summer quarters when surrounded on all sides
by hundreds of miles of the pathless, featureless ocean.
They compel us to fall back upon a special sense of
direction unconsciously exercised : no other explanation
seems possible.

Some very remarkable experiments have recently
been carried out by American ornithologists, which also
go far to prove that birds are endowed with a
"mysterious sense of direction." The following is
quoted from Mr Chapman's article in Bird Lore (1908,
p. 134) on experiments carried out by the Department
of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution. From

SOME MODERN VIEWS 29

these it appears that fifteen marked Noddy and Sooty
Terns were taken from their nesting haunts at Bird
Key, Tortugas, and released at distances varying from
20 to 850 statute miles, and that thirteen of them
returned to the Key. Among the thirteen were several
birds which had been taken by steamer as far north as
Cape Hatteras, before being freed. "This experiment,"
Mr Chapman proceeds to say, "is by far the most
important in its bearing on bird-migration of any with
which we are familiar. It was made under ideal con-
ditions ; neither the Noddy nor the Sooty Tern range,
as a rule, north of the Florida Keys. There is no
probability, therefore, that the individuals released had
ever been over the route before, and, for the same reason,
they could not have availed themselves of the experience
or example of migratory individuals of their own species ;
nor, since the birds were doubtless released in June or
July, was there any marked southward movement in the
line of which they might follow. Even had there been such
a movement, it is not probable that it would have taken
the birds south-west to the Florida Keys, and thence
west to the Tortugas. This marked change of direction,
occasioned by the water course, which the birds' feeding
habits forced them to take, removes the direction of the
wind as a guiding agency, while the absence of landmarks
over the greater portion of the journey makes it impro-
bable that sight was of service in finding the way. . . .
We cannot but feel that the experiments with these birds
constitute the strong^est aro-ument for the existence of a
sense of direction as yet derived from the study of birds.
With this established, the so-called mystery becomes no
more a mystery than any other instinctive functional
activity."

CHAPTER III

THE BRITISH ISLES AND THEIR MIGRATORY BIRDS

It may be asserted without fear of contradiction, that no
country in the world is more favourably situated than
our own for witnessing the movements of migratory
birds ; that there is none in which the many phases of
the phenomenon are of a more varied nature ; and none in
which the subject has received greater attention.

The reason for this pre-eminence is not difficult
to discover. The geographical position of our isles
is favourable for the visits of migratory birds to a
remarkable degree. They are interposed between the
great south-western extension of Europe (the Iberian
peninsula) and Scandinavia on the one hand, and the
main mass of Continental Europe and the great islands
of Iceland and Greenland on the other. Thus they
are situated between the winter retreats and the summer
quarters of hosts of birds, and lie in the direct course
of vast multitudes of migrants which for weeks during
each season of migration rush — northwards in spring
and southwards in autumn — along our shores. Indeed,
so central is our position, that it may be likened unto
a great junction — one where many travellers meet and
change their course to reach accustomed haunts in
widely different lands beyond our shores,

30

liKITISH ISLES AM) TIIHIR MIGRATORY BIRDS 31

In addition to affording a half-way house, as it were,
for this wonderful concourse of transitory visitors, the
British Isles have a great bird-population of their
own, and the majority of their feathered citizens are
migratory. This again is due to their central geographi-
cal position, which renders them eminently suitable both
as a summer residence and a winter home.

Our remarkable climate, too, plays an important part.
Its mild winter temperatures approaching, as they do,
those prevailing in southern Europe, induce a number
of species from the north to pass the winter with us
which would not remain if our climatic conditions at that
season were of the continental type in similar latitudes.
Mac Kinder i^Britain and the British Isles, p. 170)
tells us that we are "placed not far from the centre
of the area of abnormal warmth in winter, and the
British winters are, in consequence, milder than those
of any other region under the same northern latitudes."

Drayton in his Polyolbion (161 3) thus quaintly sums
up these peculiarities : —

"Of Albion's glorious isle, the wonders whilst I write,
The sundry varying soyles, the pleasures infinite ;
Where heat kills not the cold, nor cold expels the heat,
No calmes too mildly small, nor winds too roughly great ;
Nor night doth hinder day, nor day the night doth wrong,
The summer not too short, the winter not too long."

Further evidence of the singular wealth of migratory
bird-life in the British Isles is afforded by the fact that
more than one-half of the species which form the ornis of
Europe are either regular or not infrequent visitors to
our shores.

Small wonder, then, that with so many and varied
migratory birds around them, the naturalists of our
islands have found the subject of their movements such

32 studip:s in bird-migration

an attraction, and that since the days of Gilbert White
so much attention has been bestowed on this singularly
fascinating branch of ornithology.

Now let us consider the various classes of migratory
birds to be observed in our islands, which include repre-
sentatives of all the known phases of the migratory habit.

Summer Visitors.^ — In spring we welcome the
appearance of a number of birds, many of them of
delicate and graceful form and not a few of delightful
song, which arrive to spend the summer with us.
These visitors add immeasurably to the joyousness of
spring, and play an important part in its pageant. They
come to us from the south, in whose genial climes they
have passed the months of the drear northern winter,
having travelled far, some of them very far, to reach
our isles : not a few have winged their way from
Southern Africa ; many from the equatorial regions of
the same continent ; and many, again, from the countries
bordering upon the western shores of the Mediterranean
Sea. These birds rear their broods in our midst, and
during the autumn take their departure (as do their
offspring) to seek again their far-off winter retreats.
These summer visitors number over fifty different
species. They are a varied set of guests, and frequent
all manner of haunts. The Ring Ouzel seeks the
moorlands, the Wheatear the waste lands and downs,
the Willow Warbler, Blackcap, and Nightingale the
woodlands and copses, the Sedge Warbler the river
and brookside, the Swallow, Martin, and Swift the
haunts of man, the Flycatcher our gardens, the White-
throat the hedgerows, the Nightjar the heath, the

' P^or a list of the British Suinmer Visitors, with an indication of their
winter quarters, see page 46.

BlilTISII ISLES AND THEIR MIGRATORY BIRDS 33

Cuckoo almost everywhere, the Corn-Crake the orass-
lands, the Sandpiper the river and the loch, the
Dotterel the summits of fells and mountains, the Terns
the sea shore and the off-lying islets. Some are widely
distributed, others more or less local. Such are a few
typical summer birds.

It is a noteworthy fact that all these summer
visitors to our islands, and also the birds of passage
from the north which traverse our shores in the autumn,
have winter retreats in countries to the south of the
British area, either in Southern Europe, or in Northern,
Tropical, and Southern Africa.

None of the birds which breed in the British Isles, or
indeed in the Northern Hemisphere, it should be remarked,
nest during their sojourn in their southern winter quarters,
though some of them were once thought to do so.

Partial Migrants.^ — In addition to the summer
visitors, the members of which depart from the British
Islands at their wonted times, there are other birds
usually regarded as resident species (such as the
familiar Skylark, Song Thrush, Pied-Wagtail, Meadow
Pipit, Lapwing, and others), but among which many
individuals are migratory- — ^especially those inhabiting
the more northern and elevated districts. In reality
these are summer visitors to the British Isles, as are
all, or nearly all, the members of the same species in
corresponding latitudes on the Continent. These partial
migrants, as they are termed, do not, as a rule, travel
far beyond the British area to winter ; and are the
earliest among our migratory birds to leave us in the
autumn and to return to their native haunts in spring.

It may be here remarked that in some cases where

1 For list of British Partial Migrants, see page 49.
I. C

34 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

certain birds are observed throughout the year they are
not necessarily represented in summer and winter by the
same individuals, for the place of those which have
passed the summer here is often taken in winter by immi-
grants from other areas, mainly from continental Europe.

The ordinary observer, until lately at least, never
thought birds usually considered residents were repre-
sented in our islands by a sedentary and a migratory
race.

Local British Movements.- — In addition to the
important migrations between the British Isles and
the more or less far-off lands to the north, south,
and east of them, much migration takes place in
spring, autumn, and winter between various portions of
the British area. These local movements are under-
taken in spring to reach nesting haunts from winter
quarters near at hand or somewhat far removed. In
autumn the summer homes are quitted and a return
made to winter retreats. In some cases these move-
ments are from Great Britain to Ireland — the Sister Isle
beinor the winter home. There are also smaller local
winter movements, but these will be alluded to in another
section. Thus there are innumerable minor migrations
between all the parts of the British area, and hosts of
Sea-Fowl on quitting the rocky fastnesses, in which
the summer has been passed, spend the winter in the
neigfhbourino^ seas.

Winter Visitors.^ — In the autumn a great change
takes place in the bird-life of our islands. The summer
guests gradually slip away, and another set of birds, also
seeking winter quarters, arrives from Northern and

' For a list of the British Winter Visitors, with an indication of their
summer haunts, see page 50.

BRITISH ISLES AND THEIR MIGRATORY RIRDS 35

Central Europe, Iceland, Greenland, and other islands
in the Arctic Ocean. These hardy northern races find
the climatic conditions of the British Islands sufficiently
genial to afford cold-weather retreats, and remain with
us through the winter months. On the return of
spring they leave us, to repair to their native haunts
to nest. These winter visitors number over one hundred
species, and include such northern forms as the Field-
fare, Brambling, Short-eared Owl, various species of
Duck, Geese, and Swans, some Gulls, and many
Waders ; while from Central Europe, as well as from
the north, come numerous Rooks, Starlings, Tree
Sparrows, Skylarks, Lapwings, etc.

Birds of Passage.^ — Though they are far and away
the most numerous class of migrants that visit our
shores, the birds of passage are less familiar than either
the summer or the winter visitors. This is due to the
fact that they do not remain long with us, and are
chiefly confined to the coast and its vicinity during their
sojourn, and consequently they do not come under the
notice of those who are not specially interested in bird-
movements. They are birds which have their nesting
haunts chiefly in the vast regions lying to the north of
the British area, and their winter quarters to the south
of us ; while a number are natives of Central Europe.
They appear on and traverse our shores in spring, when
en route for their summer homes, and again in the
autumn, when returning to winter retreats. During
these visits they do not, as a rule, tarry long with us,
especially in the spring, but make our shores a sort of
half-way house, where they rest and refresh themselves

* For a list of the British Birds of Passage, with an indication of their
summer and winter quarters, see page 55.

36 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

ere they resume what are in many cases their long and
intricate journeys. In the ranks of these birds of
passage are to be found the greatest of all bird-travellers,
some of which— as the Arctic Tern — all but extend
their journeys from pole to pole ; others from Siberia to
the utmost limits of Africa — -as the Curlew Sandpiper ;
others again, from Northern Europe to Equatorial and
Southern Africa — as the Swift, etc. The Curlew Sand-
piper is, perhaps, the greatest of all feathered voyagers.
This species has its summer haunts in western Siberia,
where it nests on the tundras fringing the Arctic Ocean ;
yet its winter range extends to Cape Colony, Madagascar,
Patagonia, Tasmania, and the Malay Archipelago. To
reach these far-off cold-weather retreats, it crosses the
lofty Himalayas ; traverses the course of the great rivers
of Northern Asia, and of the Volga, Rhone, and Nile,
and skirts the coasts of Norway, Britain, Western
Europe and Africa, and China. Thus during each
year certain Curlew Sandpipers perform journeys equal
to a voyage round the world ! Not all travel thus far,
for this bird has winter haunts on both sides of the
Mediterranean, in Central Africa, on the coasts of
India, and in the Philippines. Indeed, in this and
not a few other cases, it would seem as if these bird-
travellers said (with Wordsworth) : —

Wings have we, and as far as we can go
We may find pleasure.

The fact that this and other migratory birds cover
such extensive areas during the winter indicates that
they, and perhaps all migrants, have a much wider
range at that season than in summer : they may be
more nomadic in winter than at other times.

The birds of passage are in most cases the latest to

BlUTISII ISLES AND THEIR MIGRATORY RIRDS 37

appear on our shores in spring and the last to depart
from them in the autumn. That this should be so is
readily explained by the fact that the summer homes of
most of them lie in the northern lands, where the nesting
period is naturally much later than in our own country.

The White and Grey-headed Wagtails, Blue-
throated Warbler, Honey Buzzard, Little Stint, and
Curlew Sandpiper are examples of these transitory
migrants.

Before dismissing the birds of passage, it must be
made clear that in addition to the species which occur
with us only as such, vast numbers of individuals belong-
ing to almost all the species which are summer^ and
winter visitors to our islands occur also on passage on
our shores. Thus many Swallows summer up to a high
latitude in Scandinavia, and many Fieldfares winter in
Southern Europe, and both these species traverse the
British coastlines to get to their respective destinations.

The various migrations performed by these summer
visitors, winter visitors, birds of passage, and partial
migrants are phases of two seasonal movements only —
all the birds are proceeding to summer haunts in spring,
all to winter retreats in autumn.

In the Local Movements we see migration in its
simplest aspect, in the Birds of Passage in the highest
stage of its development.

Winter Movements. — In addition to the regtilar
migrations above described, there are cold-weather
movements due to, and dependent upon, the climatic

' The following summer visitors to the British Isles do Jtot occur with us
as birds of passage to and from the north : — Nightingale, Marsh Warbler,
Stone-Curlew, and Kentish Plover. The Red-backed Shrike, Lesser
Whitethroat, Wryneck, and Ruff, which occur on passage in Scotland, are
not summer visitors to Northern Britain.

I. C 2

38 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

conditions of the season. Usually during each winter
there are outbreaks of cold of a more or less severe
nature and of longer or shorter duration. Such out-
breaks compel certain resident species, and also some
of our winter guests, to shift from the areas affected
to others where more favourable conditions prevail,
and where food, the main incentive for the movements,
can be obtained. Some of these evicted birds find refuges
in milder districts, if such there be, within the British
Isles, especially in the western districts and Ireland, while
others proceed to Southern Europe. During winters of
exceptional severity, and particularly when the entire
British area is affected and food therefore almost un-
obtainable, many birds which have endeavoured to brave
the storm with us perish in great numbers, even those
which have sought what are usually the mildest portions
of our islands — namely, the south-western portions of
England and Ireland. The species which are most
affected by these cold snaps include, among others,
the Mistle Thrush, Song Thrush, Redwing, Fieldfare,
Blackbird, Greenfinch, Starling, Skylark, Water Rail,
Lapwing, Curlew, Snipe, and Woodcock.

These winter movements do not occur in the con-
tinental areas to a like extent. There the climatic
conditions of the season are more stable, and are not
subject to the ups and downs to be found with us.
Consequently such emigrations are more or less ex-
ceptional, and it is only in winters of remarkable severity
that the birds accustomed to winter in Scandinavia
and in Central Europe are compelled to quit their
retreats. When this does occur there is a renewal
on our shores of movements similar to the autumnal
influx of winter visitors from the north-east and east,

liUITISH ISLES AM) TMEIR MIGRATORY BIRDS 39

but on the part of very much smaller numbers both ot
species and of individuals.

Casual Visitors. — Another class of bird-visitors to
our islands now claims attention — namely, the Irregular
or Casual visitors. Each year a number of Continental,
Asiatic, African, and American species appear on our
shores as stragglers, many of them after having per-
formed remarkable peregrinations. Though rich in
the number of forms, these waifs are comparatively
poor in individuals, and mostly belong to species which
annually perform extensive migratory journeys. In the
great majority of cases they arrive in the autumn and are
juveniles ; and their appearance among us is, probably, in
most instances due to the errors or indiscretions of youth :
they have failed to follow the right course leading to the
usual winter retreats resorted to by their race. They
inherited the migratory impulse in its undiminished
force, but the unconscious experience has for some
unknown reason been denied them, and they mostly
share the fate which nature rigorously imposes on
the ''unfit." In some cases, possibly often, they
may have been overtaken by adverse weather when
making for their accustomed seasonal haunts, and
thus have been driven out of their course, to be
stranded in localities where they would not otherwise
have occurred.

In spring much smaller numbers of these waifs appear
on our shores. Their appearance at that season far
beyond the bounds of their usual summer quarters may, in
some instances, be accounted for, perhaps, by an excess of
zeal having led them to overshoot, as it were, the ordinary
limits of their range ; while in others, strong winds may, as
in the case of some of the autumn stragglers, have carried

40 STUDIES IN BIRD-IMIGRATION

them more or less out of their ordinary course when on
passage.

These casuals form a very numerous section of the
British avifauna, for no less than two hundred different
kinds have from time to time occurred in our isles.

The American species which find their way to our
shores unaided, are birds which have a high northern
summer range, and they doubtless reach us after having
travelled by way of Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroes,
not by an impossible passage across the open Atlantic.
In this way their voyages are not more wonderful than
those annually performed by the Wheatear, Redwing,
Whimbrel, and others along similar lines of flight.

It is not necessary to give a complete list of the
species forming the imposing array of Irregular Visitors.
The following selection has been prepared with the view
of affording some indication of the wide range of the
orders to which these gypsy-migrants belong, and
whence they have wandered to reach our isles.

The following are the more important — i.e., most

frequent — visitors from Continental Europe, whence,

naturally, most of these casuals come : —

Nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes.
Rose-coloured Starling, Pastor roseus.
Little Bunting, Emberiza piisilla.
Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica.
Black-headed Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala.
Pine-Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator.
Serin Finch, Sertnus serinus.
Short-toed Lark, Calatidrella brachydadyla.
Crested Lark, Gakrida cristata.
Rkd-throated Pipit, Anthus ccrvinu.s.
Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris.
Richard's Pipit, Antlms richardi.
Water-Pipit, Anthus spinoktta.

imiTISH ISLKS AM) TUKIll MIGRATORY BIRDS 41

Lesser Grey Shrike, Lunii/s viinor.

WooDCHAT Shrike. Lanius senator.

Great Reei>-\\'arbler, Acroccphalus turdoidcs.

Melodious Warbler, Hypolais polyglotta.

Siberian Chifk-Chaff, Phylloscopus tristis.

Alpine Accentor, Accentor collaris.

White-spotted Bluethroat, Cyanccuki cyanecula.

Desert Wheatear, Saxicola deserti.

Black-bellied Dipper, Cincliis cincliis.

Red-breasted Flycatcher, Mi/scicapa parva.

Alpine Swift, Cypselus nielba.

Roller, Coracias garruhis.

Tengmalm's Owl, Nyctala tcngniahni.

Scop's Owl, Scops scops.

Spotted Eagle, Aqiiila viaculata.

Iceland Falcon, Falco islandus (from Iceland).

Harlequin Duck, Cosvionetta histrionica (Iceland)

Red-crested Pochard, Netta rufina.

Ferruginous Duck, Nyroca nyroca.

Ruddy Sheld-Duck, Tadorna casarca.

Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcifiellus.

Black Stork, Ciconia nigra.

Purple Heron, Ardca purpurea.

Great White Heron, Herodias alba.

Little Egret, Garzetta garzetta.

Squacco Heron, Ardeola ralloides.

Night-Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax.

Little Bittern, Ardetta niinuta.

Baillon's Crake, Porzana iiiterincdia.

Little Crake, Porzana parva.

Common Crane, Grus grus.

Little Bustard, Otis tetrax.

Pratincole, Glareola pratincola.

Little Ringed Plover, ^gialiiis dubia.

Stilt, Himantopus hiinantopus.

Broad-billed Sandpiper, Litnicola platyrhyncha.

Whiskered Tern, Hydrochelidoft hybrida.

White-winged Black Tern, H. leucoptera.

Gull-billed Tern, Sterna anglica.

Caspian Tern, S. caspia.

42 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

The Asiatic Birds which have visited our isles
include : —

Yellow-browed Bunting, Eviberiza chrysophrys.
Siberian Meadow-Bunting, E. cioides.
Large-billed Reed-Bunting, E. palustris.
Sykes' Wagtail, Motacilla beema.
Pallas' Grasshopper Warbler, Loaistella certhiola.
Radde's Bush-Warbler, Lusciniola schwarzi.
Pallas' Willow- Warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus.
Dusky Thrush, Turdus dubius.
Black-throated Thrush, Turdus atrigularis.
White's Thrush, Geocichla varia.
Eastern Pied Wheatear, Saxicola p/eschanka.
Brown Flycatcher, Muscicapa latirostris.
Spine-tailed Swift, Chtetura caiidaciita.
Red-breasted Goose, Branta ruficollis.
Pallas' Sand-Grouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus.
Macqueen's Bustard, Houbara inacqueeni.
Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper, Tringa acuminata.

The majority of these species have appeared on one or two
occasions only.

The essentially African Visitors are very few, but

include : —

Masked Shrike, Lanius fiubicus.
Cream-coloured Courser, Cursorius gallicus.

North America has contributed numerous species,
most of which are extremely irregular in their visits,
while a few, such as the Pectoral Sandpiper, are of
almost annual occurrence. They are : —

American Pipit, Anthus pennsylvanicus.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Coccyzus aviericanus.
Black-billed Cuckoo, C. erythrophthabnus.
Hawk-Owl, Surnia caparoch.
Snow-Goose, Chen hyperboreus.
Greater Snow-Goose, C. nivalis.
American ^\'^IGEON, Mareca aniericana.

liUniSII ISLES AND THEIR MIGRATORY BIRDS 43

American Tf.al, Nettion carolinoise.
Blue-winged Teal, Querquedula discors.
BUFFLE-HEADED DucK, CIangi//a albeola.
Hooded Merganser, Mergus cucullatiis.
Surf-Scoter, CEdemia perspicillata.
American Bittern, Botaurus lentigi/iosus.
Carolina Rail, Porzana Carolina.
American Golden Plover, Charadrius donii/n'n/s.
Kildeer Plover, ^gialitis vocifera.
Pectoral Sandpiper, Tringa 7naculata.
Bonaparte's Sandpiper, T. fuscicollis.
Baird's Sandpiper, T. bairdi.
American Stint, T. mi nii til/a.
Semipalmated Sandpiper, Ereunetes pusillus.
Bartram's Sandpiper, Bartraniia longicaiida.
Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Tringites rufesce/is.
Spotted Sandpiper, Totanus macu/arius.
Solitary Sandpiper, T. solitarius.
Yellowshanks, T. melatioleucus and T. flavipes.
Red-breasted Sandpiper, Macrorhamphus griseii^.
Eskimo Curlew, Numenius borealis.
Bonaparte's Gull, Larus Philadelphia.

From the Arctic Regions we have received : —

Greenland Redpoll, Acajithis horuevianni.
Greenland Falcon, Palco candicans.
Snowy Owl, Nyctea nyctea.
Ross' Gull, Rhodostethia rosea.
Sabine's Gull, Xenia sabini.
King-Eider, So?nateria spectabilis.
Steller's Eider, Soviateria stelleri.
Adam's Diver, Colymbus adamsi.
Brunnich's Gullemot, Uria lomvia.

Among the Ocean Wanderers which have appeared

on our shores are : —

Black-browed Albatros, Diomedea mela7tophrys.
Madeiran Storm-Petrel, Oceanodro?iia castro.
Wilson's Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus.
Frigate-Petrel, Pelagodropia niaritia.

44 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Levantine Shearwater, Puffijins yelkoumuis.
Little Dusky Shearwater, P. hnilloni.
Capped Petrel, CEstrelata /uesitata.
Collared Petrel, CE. hrevipes.
Schlegel's Petrel, ffi. neglecta.
Bulwer's Petrel, Buhveria buhve?-i.

Ireland. — All these phases of migration are observed
in the Sister Isle. Ireland, too, has a great bird-
population, of which a considerable section is migratory,
and much migration is witnessed on her shores. She
is not favoured to the same extent as Great Britain so
far as the numbers of her Summer Visitors are con-
cerned ; nor do her shores lie as directly in the course of
so many Birds of Passage ; nor, again, thanks to her
milder climate, are there so many migratory individuals
(Partial Migrants) to be found in the ranks of her
resident species. On the other hand, in addition to a
considerable number of Winter Visitors from Northern
Europe she receives in autumn, thanks again to her
more genial climate, a great number of winter guests
from less favoured portions of the British Area — such as
Song Thrushes, Blackbirds, Chaffinches, Starlings, Sky-
larks, Lapwings and others ; while in seasons of severe
cold or much snow, her hospitable shores, especially
those of the west, afford the safest retreats in our area.

The movements of these several groups of migrants
may be thus summarised under their seasons : —

Spring.

1 . Local movements from British winter retreats to British summer haunts.

2. The return from their continental winter quarters of the Partial

Migrants.

3. The arrival in our islands from their southern winter retreats of

Summer Visitors.

liUITISH ISLES AM) THEIR MIGRATORY RIRDS 45

4. The departure from our islands of the Winter Visitors for their

summer haunts.

5. The appearance on and journeys along our shores of Birds of Passage

from the south, bound for summer haunts beyond our isles.

6. The return of the birds evicted by the severe weather of the

previous winter.

7. The appearances of Casual Visitors.

AUTUM.V.

1. Local movements from British summer haunts to British winter

retreats.

2. The departure from our islands of the Summer Visitors for their

winter retreats.

3. The departure for the winter of the Partial Migrants.

4. The arrival from the north and east of Winter Visitors.

5. The appearance on our shores of liirds of Passage en route from

northern and eastern summer haunts to southern winter quarters.

6. The appearances of Casual Visitors.

Winter.

1. The emigration of would-be Resident and ^\'inter Visitors, through

pressure of severe climatic conditions.

2. The arrival from the Continent of Liimigrants similarly evicted by

the weather.

3. The appearances of Casual Visitors.

Most of the species play many of these roles as British
migrants, as will be learned from the histories of the
movements of the several species which will be treated
of as typical migrants. Thus, for example, the Song
Thrush figures as a summer visitor, a partial migrant, a
bird of passage, a winter visitor, and a winter emigrant
through eviction. Needless to remark, it is also a
permanent resident in our islands, even in Scotland.

Not only do we witness much migration in the
British Islands of a very varied nature, but often through

46 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

a combination of influences, in which meteorological
conditions play an important part, more than one move-
ment, as we shall see, may be in progress simultaneously,
— a circumstance which adds much to the already compli-
cated series of phenomena, and to the bewilderment of
the observer.

Appendix I. — List of Summer Visitors

The following is an enumeration of the various
species of birds which are Summer Visitors to the
British Islands. Many of them are very widely
diffused over our area, such as the Swallow, while
on the other hand a few are extremely circumscribed
in their distribution, and of these the Marsh Warbler
affords a good example.

An indication of the general Winter Retreats in
the western regions of the Old World is given for each
species. In some portion of these the cold season
is passed ; but at present we have no definite
knowledge where the British members of any species
spend the winter. It is highly probable, however, that
as each has its particular summer home, so has it also
a predilection for definite winter haunts : —

Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriohis. — Tropical and South Africa.

White Wagtail, Motacilla alba. — Southern Europe, North and North-
tropical Africa.

Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla n?>7.— North-tropical, Equatorial, and
Southern Africa.

Blue-headed Wagtail, Motacilla fiava. — Tropical, Equatorial, and
South Africa.

Tree-Pipit, Anthus trivialis. — South Europe, Northern and Tropical
Africa to Transvaal.

Red-backed Shrike, La/iii/s collnrio. — Tropical, Equatorial, and
South Africa to Cape Colony.

APPENDIX.— SUMMER VISITORS 47

Whitethroat, Sylvia sy/via. — Tropical and Equatorial Africa to

Uamara Land.
Lesser Whitethroat, Sy/via ciimica. — Northern and North-tropical

Africa.
Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla. — Southern Europe, Northern and

Tropical Africa.
Gardex-Warbler, Sylvia horin. — Tropical, Equatorial, and South

Africa to Damara Land and Natal.
Wood-\V^arbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix. — North-tropical and Equa-
torial Africa to Abyssinia and Congo, Madeira and Canaries.
Willow- Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus. — North-western tropical,

Equatorial, and South Africa to Cape Colony.
Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita. — Southern Europe, Northern

and North-tropical Africa (Sudan).
Sedge-AVarbler, Acrocephalus scIuvhoOlChus. — Tropical and Equatorial

Africa, as far south as Damara Land and Transvaal.
Reed-Warbler, Acrocephalus streperus. — South I'.urope, Northern

Africa, Equatorial Africa to (iambia.
Marsh-Warbler, Acroaphalus palustris. — Tropical and Equatorial

Africa, Southern Africa.
Grasshopper- Warbler, Locustella ?icevia. — South-western Europe,

North-western Africa.
Ring -Ouzel, Turdus torquatus. — Southern Europe, Northern

Africa.
Nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchus. — Tropical Africa.
Redstart, Rutidlla phxnicurus. — Oases of the Sahara, Northern

Tropical Africa.
Wheatear, Saxicola xuanthe. — Tropical and Equatorial Africa

(Senegal, Gambia, Sudan to Zambesi).
Whinchat, Pratincola rubetra. — Oases of the Sahara, North-tropical

Africa.
Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola. — South - tropical and

Southern Africa.
Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa atricapilla. — Northern Tropical and

Equatorial Africa.
Swallow, Hirutido rustica. — Tropical, Central, and South Africa.
House-Martin, Chelidon urbica. — Equatorial, South-tropical, and

Southern Africa.
Sand-Martin, Cotile riparia. — North- and South - tropical, and

Equatorial Africa.

48 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Wryneck, lynx torquilla. — Northern and North-tropical Africa.
Swift, Cypsehis apiis. — North- and South-tropical, Equatorial, and

S(Mith Africa.
Nightjar, Capri />ii//i;i/s curopicus. — Equatorial, South-tropical, and

Southern Africa.
Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus.- — Equatorial, South-tropical, and Southern

Africa.
Montagu's Harrier, Circus cineracejis. — Tropical, Equatorial, and

South Africa to Cape Colony.
Hobby, Falco sublmteo. — Northern, Tropical, and Equatorial Africa to

Rhodesia and Damara Land.
Honey-Buzzard, Pernis apivorus. — Tropical and Southern Africa.
OspREY, Pandion haliaetus. — Southern Europe ; Northern, Tropical,

Equatorial, and South Africa.
Garganey, Querquedula circia. — Southern Europe, North and North-
tropical Africa.
Turtle-Dove, Tiirtur turtur. — Equatorial Africa.
Quail, Coturnix coturnix. — Southern Europe, Northern and Tropical

Africa.
Corn-Crake, Crex crex. — Tropical and South Africa to Cape Colony.
Stone-Curlew, CEdicnemus o^dicnemus. — Southern Europe and

Northern Africa.
Dotterel, Eudromias morinellus. — Southern Europe and Northern

Africa.
Kentish Plover, Algiaiitis ca?itia/ia. — Southern Europe; Northern,

Central, and South-tropical Africa.
Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropits hyperboreus. — Seas of South-
western Europe.
Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypokucus. — Southern Europe, Northern,

Tropical, Equatorial, and Southern Africa.
Whim BR EL, JVii»ie>iius phceopus. — Southern Europe, Africa to Cape

Colony.
Sandwich Tern, Sterna r^/z^/m^rt.— Mediterranean, West African

Seas to Cape and Natal.
Common Tern, Sterna Jluviatilis. — Tropical Atlantic to Seas of Cape

Colony.
Arctic Tern, Sterna ?nacriira. — Tropical Atlantic and Antarctic

Ocean (Weddell Sea).
Roseate Tern, Sterna doitgalli. — Tropical African Seas.
Little Tern, Sterna minuta, — Seas of ^Vest-tropical Africa.

A ITENDIX— PARTIAL MIGRANTS 49

ArrEN'Dix II. — List of Partial Migrants

The following are also Summer Visitors to the
British Isles, being the migratory representatives of
species which are residents in our islands at all seasons.

The precise Winter Retreats of these Partial Migrants
have not been ascertained, but where known are in
countries not far to the south of the British area.^
Some of these belong to races which are peculiar to
the British Isles and are indicated by trinomial scientific
names in the list.

Rook, Corviis frugikgus.

Starling, Stiernus vu/garis.

Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis britanniais.

Greenfinch, Chloris chloris.

Linnet, Acanthis cannabina.

Twite, Acanthis flavirostris.

Skylark, Alauda arvensis.

Pied Wagtail, Motacilla lugubris.

Grey Wagtail, Motacilla boanila.

Meadow-Pipit, Anthus pratensis.

Goldcrest, Regulus regulus anglorum.

Song-Thrush, Turdus mnsicus clarkei.

Mistle-Thrush, Turdus viscivorus.

Blackbird, Turdus merula.

Redbreast, Erithacus rubeciila melophilus.

Stonechat, Pratincola ruhicola hibernans.

Hedge-Accentor, Accentor modularis occidentalis.

Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus.

Heron, Ardea citierea.

Mallard, Anas bo seas.

Teal, Nettion crecca.

' Starlings marked in Britain have been recovered in France, Greenfinch
I'n France, Linnet in France, Pied Wagtail in Portugal, Meadow-Pipit in
Portugal, Song-Thrushes in France and Portugal, Mallard and Teal in
Germany, Wigeon in Holland, Lapwings in France and Portugal, Woodcock
in Portugal, Black-headed Gull in France, and Lesser Black-backed Gulls
on the coasts of France and Portugal.

I. D

50 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

\ViGEON, Mareca penelope.
Ringed Plover, ^gialitis hiaficola.
Golden Plover, Charadrius phtvialis.
Lapwing, Vaiielhis vaneUus.
Oyster-catcher, Hcematopus ostrakgus.
Woodcock, Scolopax rusticula.
Common Snipe, Galiinago gallinogo.
Dunlin, Tringa alpina.
Redshank, Tot amis calidris.
Curlew, Numemus arqiiata.
Black-headed Gull, Lari/s ridibundus.
Lesser Black-backed Gull, Lams fusciis.

Probably a number of other species which are always
with us have also a migratory race, the members of which
leave us in the autumn and return to our islands in spring.

Appendix III. — List of Winter Visitors

The following are Winter Visitors to the British
Islands, with an indication of their Summer Haunts in
the western regions of the Old World, whence they may
have come to pass the cold season with us.^ Those
marked* are also Resident species in the British Isles. .

*RooK, Corviis fi-iigilegus. — Scandinavia, Central Europe.
*Carrion-Crow, Corvus corone. — Central Europe.
*Grey Crow, Corvus comix. — Scandinavia, Russia, Central Europe.
^Jackdaw, Corvus monediila. — -Northern Continental and Central

Europe.
*Starling, Sturnus vulgaris. — Norway, Central Europe.
*Chaffinch, Fringilla ca'kbs. — Northern Continental Europe.
Brambling, Fringilla inontifringilla. — Norway, Lapland, Northern

Russia.

^ A number of the species also spend the summer in Siberia. These
Eastern representatives usually seek winter retreats in Southern Asia, the
Malay Islands, and even in Australia. Fewer have representatives also in
North America, which move southwards to winter quarters in the New World.
Some of the Western Siberian birds may find their way to our islands.

APPENDIX— WINTER VISITOKS 51

*SisKiN, Spinus ^//V///^. — Norway, \^id Sweden, Russia.

Mealy Redpoll, Acanthi s Hnaria. — Iceland, Scandinavia, North

Russia, Finland, Baltic Provinces (also North Asia and America).
*T\viTK, Acanthis flavirostris. — Scandinavia.
*Tree-Spakko\v, Passer inontanus. — Scandinavia, Russia, Central

Europe.
*Green1''INCM, Chloris chloris. — Scandinavia, North Russia.
Continental Crossbill, Loxia ainnrostra. — Scandinavia and Russia,

where it is also resident.
*Yellow BuNTiNt;, Emberiza a'tri/u'//a. — Northern Continental

Europe.
*Reei)-Bunting, Emberiza scJuvnicItts. — Northern Continental Europe.
Lapland Bunting, Calcarius lappoiiicus. — Northern Europe, Green-
land, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya (also North Asia and America).
*Snow-Bunting, Pkctrophenax nivalis. — Arctic and Sub-Arctic

Continental Europe, Greenland, Iceland, Faroes, Spitzbergen,

Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, etc. (also Arctic Asia and

America).
*Skvlark, Alaiida arvensis. — Northern Continental and Central

Europe.
Shore-Lark, Otocorys alpestris. — Northern Europe, including Kolguev,

Novaya Zemlya, Siberia.
*Meadow-Pipit, Anthus pratensis. — Iceland, Northern Continental

Europe.
*Rock-Pipit, Anthus obscurus. — Western Scandinavia to the White Sea.
Continental Goldcrest, Regulus reguhts. — Norway, Sweden,

Finmark, Lapland, North Russia.
Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor. — Scandinavia, North Russia;

elsewhere more or less resident.
Waxwing, Anipelis garrubis. — North Finland and North Russia (also

Siberia and Arctic America).
*Mistle-Thrush, Turdus viscivorus. — Northern Continental and

Central Europe.
Continental Song-Thrush, Turdus musicus. — Northern and

Temperate Continental Europe and Siberia (Scandinavia to Lake

Baikal).
Redwing, Turdus iliacus. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe and

West Siberia (Norway to the Yenesei).
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris. — Northern Continental Europe and West

Siberia (Norway to the Yenesei).

52 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

*Blackbird, Turdus merula. — Scandinavia to 67° N., Central Russia.
Continental Redbreast, Erithacus ruhecula. — Northern Continental

Europe.
Black Redstart, Ruticilla titys. — Central Europe, resident in

Southern Europe.
Continental Hedge-Accentor, Accentor modulo.ris. — Scandinavia,

Russia to 60° N.
*Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes. — Northern Continental Europe.
Continental Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopus major. —

Scandinavia to 70° N. ; Russia to 64° N.
*LoNG-EARED QwL, Asio ^///j". — Scandinavia and North Russia.
*Short-eared Owl, Asio accipitriuiis. — Scandinavia, Russia, etc.

(Siberia.)
Rough-legged Buzzard, Archibuteo lagopus. — Scandinavia, Northern

Russia, Waigatsch. (Siberia.)
^Peregrine Falcon, Fako peregrinus. — Northern Continental Europe.
*Merlin, Fako asalon. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
*Kestrel, Fako tinnmiculus. — Scandinavia.
*Heron, Ardea cinerea. — Scandinavia.

Bittern, JSotauriis steUaris. — Central Europe, Southern Sweden.
*Grey Lag-Goose, Anser anser. — Iceland, Scandinavia, Russia, etc.
White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons. — Greenland, Iceland,

Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya. (Siberia.)
Bean-Goose, Anser segetuni. — Greenland, Northern Scandinavia,

Russia, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya. (Siberia.)
Pink-footed Goose, Anser brachyrhynchus. — Iceland, Spitzbergen.
Bernacle-Goose, Branta leiicopsis. — Greenland, Spitzbergen.
Brent Goose, Branta bernicla. — Greenland, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef

Land, Kolguev. (Siberia.)
AVhooper, Cygnus niusicus. — Iceland, Northern Scandinavia and

Russia. (Siberia.)
Bewick's Swan, Cygnus beivicki. —North-east Russia, Kolguev,

Novaya Zemlya, Waigatsch. (Siberia.)
*Sheld-Uuck, Tadorna tadorna. — Scandinavia.
*Mallard, Anas boscas. — Southern Greenland, Iceland, Northern

Europe.
*Gadwall, Anas strepera. — Iceland, North Russia, Central Europe.
*Shoveler, Spatula clypeata. — Northern and Central Europe.
*Pintail, Dafila acuta. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern and Central

Europe.

APPENDIX— WINTER VISITORS 53

*Tkat,, A\-ttio)i <vr(<v/.— Iceland, Northern Continental llurope.
*\ViGEON, Mareca penelopc. — Iceland, Kolguev, Waigatsch, Northern

Continental Europe.
*PocHARD, Fuligulaferina. — Central Europe.
*TuFTKi) Duck, Fuligu/a fii/i\^ii/a. — Scandinavia, Russia.
*ScAUP-l)ucK, Fit/ii^ii/a inarila. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Europe.

(Siberia.)
GoLDENEYE, C/a>igu/a g/aucion. — Iceland, Northern Scandinavia,

Russia, and Central Europe.
Long-tailed Duck, Harclda .i^-^Azr/V/Z/V. — Greenland, Iceland, Faroes,

Spitzbergen, Novaya Zemlya, Northern Continental liurope.

(Siberia.)
*EinER-DucK, Somateria jnoUissima. — Greenland, Iceland, Faroes,

Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Coasts of

Northern Europe.
*Co.M.MON Scoter, (Edcmia nigra. — Iceland, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya,

Waigatsch, Northern Continental Europe. (Western Siberia.)
Velvet-Scoter, (Edemia fiisca. — Northern Continental Europe.

(Western Siberia.)
*GoosANDER, Mergus 7nerganser. — Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Northern

Continental Europe. (Siberia.)
*Red-breasted Merganser, Mergus serrator. — Southern Cireenland,

Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe. (Siberia.)
Smew, Mergus alhellus. — Lapland, Northern Russia. (Siberia.)
*RiNG-DovE, Columha palumbus. — Northern Continental Europe.
*Water-Rail, Ralhis a(/uafia/s.—lce\s.\Ml, Southern and Central

Scandinavia.
*CooT, Fulica atra. — Southern Scandinavia.
*GoLDEN Plover, Charadrius pluvialis. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern

Continental Europe.
Grey Plover, Squatarola helvetica. — North-east Russia, Kolguev,

Novaya Zemlya. (Siberia.)
*Lapwing, Vanelhis vauellus. — Northern Continental and Central

Europe.
*Ringed Plover, ALgialitis hiaticola. — Greenland, Iceland, Spitz-
bergen, Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, Northern Europe.
Turnstone, Strepsilas interpres. — Greenland, Iceland, Kolguev,

Novaya Zemlya, Coasts of Norway, Northern Europe, and Asia.
*Oyster-catcher, Hcematopus ostralegus. — North-western Europe,

Iceland.

I. D 2

54 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Grev Phalarope, Phalaropiis fnlicarius. — Greenland, Iceland, Spitz-

bergen, Novaya Zenilya. (Siberia.)
*WooDCOCK, Scolopax riisticiila. — Northern Continental Europe.
Jack Snipe, Gallinago galliniila. — Northern Scandinavia, North-
western Russia. (Siberia.)
*CoiMMON Snipe, Gallinago gallinago. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern

Continental Europe.
*DuNLiN, Tringa alpina. — Eastern Greenland, Iceland, Faroes,

Kolguev, Waigatsch, Northern Continental Europe.
Purple Sandpiper, Tringa maritivia. — Greenland, Iceland, Faroes,

Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zenilya, Coasts of Northern

Europe and Asia.
Knot, Tringa cam/ Ins. — Arctic America, Greenland, Tundras of

Siberia.
Sanderling, Calidris arenaria. — Greenland, Spitzbergen, Tundras of

Siberia.
*Redshank, Totanus calidris. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Bar-tailed Godwit, Liniosa lapponica. — Russian Lapland, ^Vestern

Siberia.
*CuRLEW, Nufneniiis arquata. — Northern Continental and Central

Europe.
^Common Gull, Lari/s caiiiis. — Scandinavia, Northern Russia.
*Herring-Gull, Larus argentatus. — Coast of Scandinavia.
^Greater Black-backed Gull, Lams viarimis. — Iceland, Scandi-
navia, North Russia.
Glaucous Gull, Larus glaucies. — Coasts and Islands of Arctic Europe

(Arctic Asia and America).
Iceland Gull, Larus leucopterus. — Greenland and Jan Mayen.
*KiTTiWAKE, Rissa tridactyla. — Greenland, Arctic and Northern

Europe.
Great Northern Diver, Colynihus glacialis. — Greenland, Iceland,

Eastern North America.
*Black-throated Diver, Colymbus arcticus. — Northern Europe,

Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, Waigatsch. (Siberia.)
*Red-throatei) Diver, Colymbus sepfentrionalis.—Gxe:ev\\M-\d, Iceland,

Northern Europe, Spitzbergen, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya. (Siberia.)
Red-necked Grebe, Podicipes griseigena. — Southern Scandinavia,

Russia.
Slavonian Grebe, Podicipes auritus. — Iceland, Scandinavia, Russia.

(Siberia.)

APPENDIX.— BIRDS OF PASSAGE 55

Black-neckeu CiRKHK, Podicipes nigricollis. — North Central to

Southern Europe.
*Razori!Ill, Aka torda. — Coasts of Iceland and Scandinavia.
*GuiLLEMOT, Uria troile. — Coasts of Iceland, Bear Island, and Norway.
*PuFFiN, Fraterciila arctica. — Coasts of Iceland and Norway.
Little Auk, Alle alle. — Greenland, Grimsey (Iceland), Spitzbcrgen,

Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya.

In addition, the following are also to be reckoned as
Winter Visitors in small numbers from the North : —

* Wood-Lark, Aiauda arbor ca.

Continental Goldfinch, Cardiielis carduelis.

Snowy Owl, Nyctea fvctea.

Greenland Falcon, Fako candicans.
*H en-Harrier, Circus cyaneus.
*Water-Hen, GalHniila chloropus.

Ruff, Machetes piignax.
*Greenshank, Totanus iiebularius.
*Black-headed Guli^ Larus ridibundus.
*Great Skua, Me}^alestris catarrhactes.

Po.MATORHlNE Skua, Stercorarius ponialorhinus.
*Arctic Sku.v, Stercorarius crepidatus.
*LiTTLE Grebe, Podicipes fluviati lis.

Appendlx IV. — List of Birds of Passage

The following species occur annually in spring and
autumn as birds of passage in the British Isles. The

Seasonal Distribution given indicates whence they
may have come, and whither they may be going when
traversing our shores : —

Grey Crow, Corvus comix.
Sumuier.— Northern Continental and Central Europe.
Winter. — South-west Europe, North-west Africa.

Rook, Corvus frugikgus.
Summer. — Northern and Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

56 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.
Suniiiier. — Northern Continental and Central Europe.
Winter. — Southern Europe.

Chaffinch, Fringilla ca'lehs.

Su/iuner. — Northern Continental and Central Europe.
Wiiiter. — South-western Europe, North-western Africa.

Brambling, Fringilla vwntifringilla.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Siskin, Spinus spinus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Twite, Acanthis flaviroslris.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — France and South Central Europe.

Mealy Redpoll, Acanthis linaria.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and South Central Europe.

Tree-Sparrow, Passer nwnianus.

Summer.— Northern and Central Europe.
Winter. — Western Europe.

Reed-Bunting, Emberiza sclLceniclus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Southern and Western Europe, Northern Africa.

Yellow Bunting, Emberiza citrinella.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Ortolan Bunting, Emberiza liortulana.

Summer. — Scandinavia to Arctic circle.
Winter. — ? Northern Tropical Africa.

APPENDIX— BIRDS OF PASSAGE 57

Snow-Bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis.
Summer. — Northern and Arctic Europe, Iceland.
Winter. — AVestern and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Lapland Bunting, Cakarius hipponicus.
Summer. — Northern and Arctic Europe.
Winter. — ^\'estern and South Central Europe.

Shore-Lark, Otocorys alpestris.

Summer. — Northern and Arctic Europe.
Winter. — Western and South Central Europe.

Skylark, Alauda arvensis.

Summer. — Northern Continental and Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Pied Wagtail, Motacilla hr:;ubris.

Summer. — South-western Norway.

Winter. — South-western Europe, North-western Africa.

White Wagtail, Motacilla alba.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Southern Europe to North Tropical Africa.

Grey-headed Wagtail, Motacilla thunbergi {M.flava thu/ibergi).

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Northern and Tropical Africa.

Tree-Pipit, AntJius trivialis.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Southern Europe to North Tropical Africa.

Meadow-Pipit, Anthus pratensis.

Summer. — Northern Continental and Central Europe, Iceland.
Winter. — ^Vestern and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Goldcrest (Continental race), Regulus regulus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

58 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor,

Suiniiier. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. —Western Europe.

Red-backed Shrike, Lanius colhirio.

Smnmer. — Southern Scandinavia.

Winter. — Tropical, Equatorial, and Southern Africa.

Whitethroat, Sylvia sylvia.

Summer. — Southern Scandinavia.
Winter. — Tropical and Equatorial Africa.

Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Northern and North Tropical Africa.

Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.

Sumnwr. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Southern Europe to Tropical Africa.

Garden-Warbler, Sylvia borin.

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Tropical and South Africa.

Willow-Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus and P. t. eversmanni.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — North-western to South Africa.

Northern Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus abietana {P. collyhila abietimi).

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Southern Europe, Northern Africa

Yellow-browed Warbler, Phylloscopus superciliosus.
Sumnwr — Siberia.

IcTERiNE Warbler, Hypolais hypolais.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Tropical and Southern Africa.

APPENDIX— BIRDS OF PASSAGE 59

SEDGE-^^^■\RRLKK, Acroccphalits schccHobcenus.

Summer. — Scandinavia, Northern Russia.
IVifitcr. — Tropical and Southern Africa.

Mistlp>Thrush, Turdiis visa'vorus.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
lVt?iter. — Southern luirope, Northern Africa.

Sonc;-Thrush (Continental race), Tardus iiiusicus.

Sutumer. — Southern and (Central Norway.
IViufer. — Southern I^urope, Northern Africa.

Rkdwino, Turdus iliacus.
Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern ICurope, Northern Africa.

Fieldfare. — Turdus pilaris.

Summer. — Northern Continental Iiluropc.

Winter. — ^^'estern and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Blackhird, Tu?-dus nwrula.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

RiN'G-OuzEL, Turdus to7-quntus.

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Redbreast (Continental race), Ei'ithacus ruhecula.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Red-spotted Bluethroat, Cyauecula suecica.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — North Tropical and Equatorial Africa.

Redstart, Ruticilla phanicurus.

Sufumer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Northern Tropical Africa.

60 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Wheatear, Saxicola (PJianthe.

Si/viiiicr. — Northern Continental Europe.
IVifiter. — Tropical and Equatorial Africa.

Greater Wheatear, Saxicola leucor?-hoa {S. a-nauthe kvcorrhoa).

Summer. — Labrador, Greenland, Iceland.
Winter. — 'Western Africa.

Whinchat, Pratincola ruhetra.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter.— '^ox\\-\ Tropical Africa.

Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicnpa grisola.

Summer. — Scandinavia, North Russia.
Winter. — South Tropical and Southern Africa.

Pied Flycatcher, Afuscicapa atricapilla.

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Northern Tropical and Equatorial Africa.

Swallow, Hirundo rustica.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
JFinter. — Tropical, Equatorial, and South Africa.

Martin, CheUdon urhica.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Equatorial and South Africa.

Sand-Martin, Cotile riparia.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Tropical and Equatorial Africa.

Swift, Cypselus apus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
JVinter. — Tropical, Equatorial, and South Africa.

Nightjar, Caprimu/gus europeeus.

Summer. — Southern Scandinavia.
Winter. — Equatorial and South Africa.

APPENDIX— IJIUDS OF PASSAGE 61

Wryneck, lynx torquilla.

Summer. — Southern and Central Scandinavia.
Winter. — Northern and North-tropical Africa.

HooPOK, Upupa epops.

Summer. — North Central and Central Europe.
Winter. — Northern Tropical Africa.

Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Equatorial and South Africa.

Short-eared Owl, Asio accipitrinus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Southern Africa.

HoNEY-BuzzARD, Pemis apivorus.

Summer. — Southern Norway, Sweden, North Russia.
Winter. — Tropical and Southern Africa.

Merlin, Falco cesalon.

.S// ;/////(?/-.— Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, North Africa.

Kestrel, Falco tiufiuncu/us.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

OsPREY, Pandion haliactus.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Southern Europe, Africa.

Heron, Ardea cinerea.

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

Grey Lag-Goose, Anser anser.

Summer. — Iceland, Scandinavia, Russia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

62 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons.
Summer. — Iceland, Novaya Zemlya.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Bean-Goose, A?iser segetum.

Summer. — Northern Scandinavia and Russia, Kolguev, Novaya

Zemlya.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

PiNK-FOOTED GoosE, Anscr brachyrhynchus.
Summer. — Iceland, Spitzbergen.
Winter. — Western Europe.

Bernacle Goose, Branta kucopsis.
Summer. — Greenland, Spitzbergen.
Winter. — Western Europe.

Brent Goose, Branta bernida.

Summer. — Greenland, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, Kolguev.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Whooper, Cygnus musicus.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Bewick's Swan, Cygnus beivicki.

Summer. — North-east Russia, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya.
Winter. — Western Europe.

Mallard, Anas boscas.

.SV<'w;//cr.— Greenland, Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Gadwall, Anas strepera.

Summer. — Iceland, Russia, Central Europe.

Wifiter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Shoveler, Spatula clypeata.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter, — •Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

APrENDIX.— BIRDS OF PASSAGE 63

Pintail, Dafila acuta.

Suiniiicr. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Nortlicrn Africa.

Tkal, Nettion crecca.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

WiGKON, Mareca penelope.

Summer. — Iceland, Kolguev, Waigatsch, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Pochard, Fuligula ferina.

Summer. — Russia, North Central Europe.

Winter. — Western and Southern I'Airope, Northern Africa.

TuFTEU Duck, Fuligula fuligula.

Su mmer.~^ox\\\Qxx\ Continental Europe.

Winter. — W'estern and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

ScAUP-DucK, Fuligula marila.

Summer. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe.
IFinter. — Western and Southern Europe.

CiOLDENEYE, Chinguhx glaucion.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

CoMiMON Scoter, CEdemia nigra.

Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Western and South-western Europe, Northern Africa.

\"elvet-Scoter, (Edemia fusca.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — ^Vestern and South-eastern Europe.

Goosander, Mergus merganser.

Summer. — Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

64 STUDIES IN lilRD-MIGRATION

Red-breasted Merganser, Mergiis sert-afor.

Si/iii/ner. — Greenland, Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

RiNG-DovE, Cohtmba pahimbus.

Sit?ii»ier. — Northern Continental Europe.

IVi /I ft'f.— W tsiQxn and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Corn-Crake, Crex crex.

Summer. — Scandinavia.

Winter. — Tropical and South Africa.

Spotted Crake, Porzana porzana.

Summer. — Southern Scandinavia.

Winter. - Western and Southern Europe, Northern Tropical Africa.

Water-Rail, Rallus aquaticus.

Summer. — Iceland, Scandinavia.

/F/V/Z^r.— Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Water-Hen, Gallinula chloropus.

Summer. — Southern Scandinavia.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Coot, Fulica at?'a.
Summer.— 'Nor\w!Ly.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

■ Dotterel, Eudromias morinellus.

Summer. — Scandinavia, Novaya Zemlya, Waigatsch.
Winter. — Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Ringed Plover, yEgialitis hiaticola.
Summer. — Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya,

Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

Golden Plover, Charadrius pluvialis.

Summer. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

APPENDIX.— lURDS OF PASSAGE 65

Grkn- Plo\kr, Squataroln helvetica.
Summer. — North-east Russia, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

LAinviNC, Vanellus va/iel/iis.
Summer. — Faroes, Southern and Central Scandinavia, Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Central Europe, Northern Africa.

Turnstone, Strepsilas interpres.
Summer. — Greenland, Iceland, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya, Coasts of

Scandinavia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

OvsTER-CATCHER, HtBmatopus ostrakgus.
Summer. — Iceland, Coasts of Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Africa to Sencgamhia and
Mozambique.

Grev Phai.arope, Phalaropus fulicorius.
Summer. — Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Novaya Zemlya.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropus hyperboreus.
Sumffier. — Greenland, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Scandinavia.
Winter. — Seas of South-western Europe.

Woodcock, Scolopax rustiaila.
Sununer. — Scandinavia, Russia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

Great Snipe, Gallinago major.
Summer. — Scandinavia, North Russia.
Winter. — Africa to Cape Colony.

Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago.
Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe, Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to North Tropical Africa.

Jack Snipe. — Gallinago gallitiula.
Summer. — Northern Scandinavia, North Russia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa.

I. E

66 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Dunlin, Tringa alpina.

Summer. — Greenland, Iceland, Kolguev, Waigatsch, Northern Con-
tinental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Southern Africa.

Little Stint, Tringa mimita.

Summer.— Tnndra.s of Northern Continental Europe, Kolguev,

Novaya Zemlya, Waigatsch.
Winter. — Southern Europe, Africa to Cape Colony.

Curlew-Sandpiper, Tringa subarquata.

Summer. — Tundras of Siberia.

Winter. — Mediterranean, Africa to Cape Colony (Patagonia, Tasmania).

Purple Sandpiper, Tringa maritima.

Summer. — Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya

Zemlya, Norwegian Coasts.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, North-west Africa.

Knot, Tringa canutus.
Summer. — North Greenland, Tundras of Northern Siberia, Arctic

America.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Equatorial Africa, etc.

Sanderling, Calidris arenaria.

^i^ww^r.— Greenland, Spitzbergen, Tundras of Siberia.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Coast of Cape Colony.

Ruff, Machetes pugn ax.

►Sz/ww^r.— Southern Continental Europe, Waigatsch, Central Europe.
Winter. — From Northern Africa to Cape Colony.

Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypoleucns.

Sununer. — North Europe to Arctic Circle.
Winter. — Southern Europe to Southern Africa.

Wood-Sandpiper, Totanus glareola.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Tropical and Southern Africa.

APPENDIX.— ]iIHl)S OF PASSAGE 67

Green Sandpiper, Toianus ochropus.

Suiniiur. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — From Northern to Tropical Africa.

Redshank, Totanus calidris.

Summer. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Southern Tropical Africa.

Spotted Redshank, Totanus fuscus.

Summer. — Northern Scandinavia and Russia. (Siberia.)
Winter. — Southern Europe to South Africa.

Greenshank, Totanus nebularius.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa to Cape
Colony.

Bar-tailed CiODWiT, Limosa lapponica.

Summer. — Arctic Continental Europe, Western Siberia.

^F/V//t'/-.— Western and Southern Europe to Northern Tropical Africa.

Black-tailed Godw it, Linu)sa limosa.
Summer. — South-east Iceland, Southern and Central Scandinavia,

North Russia, Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to Southern Africa.

Curlew, Numenius ar(juata.

Summer. — Northern Continental and Central Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to South Africa.

Whimbrel, Numenius phc^opus.

Summer. — Iceland, Faroes, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Southern Europe to South Africa.

Arctic Tern, Sterna macrura.
Summer. — Coasts and Islands of Northern and Arctic Europe,

Greenland.
Winter.- — Tropical Atlantic to Antarctic Ocean.

68 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Common Gull, Lariis camis.
Suiiuner. — Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, North Africa.

Herring-Gull, Larus argentatus.
Summer. — Coasts of Norway.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Lesser Black-backed Gull, Larus fiisciis.
Summer. — Faroes, Coast of Norway.

Winter. — Western and Southern Europe to West Coast of Tropical
Africa.

Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus.
Summer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe, Western Siberia.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Northern Africa, Canaries.

Glaucous Gull, Larus glaucus.
Sumtner. — Coasts and Islands of Arctic Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

Kittiwake, Rissa tridadyla.
Summer. — Coasts and Islands of Northern and Arctic Europe.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe, Canaries.

Great Skua, Megalestris catarrhactes.
Summer. — Iceland, Faroes.
Winter. — Western and Southern Europe.

PoMATORHiNE Skua, Stercorarius pomntorMnus.
Summer. — Novaya Zemlya, Tundras of Siberia.
Winter. — South-western Europe to South-west coast of Africa.

Arctic Skua, Stercorarius crepidatus.
Summer. — Coasts and Islands of Arctic and Northern Europe,

Greenland.
Winter. — Western and South-western European and African Seas.

Buffon's or Long-tailed Skua, Stercorarius parasiticus.
Summer. — Islands of Arctic Europe, Scandinavia, Greenland.
Winter. — South-western European Seas.

APPENDIX —KIRD6 OF PASSAGE 69

Great Northrrn Divf.r, Co/y//iluts i^/adalis.

Summer. — Greenland, Iceland (Eastern North America).
Wifittr. -\Vest Coasts of Europe, Mediterranean.

Black-throated Divkr, Colymluis n/rtici/s.

Summer. — Northern Continental Europe, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya,

\V'^aigatsch.
Wi)iter.—\^ Q.^X.axw and Central Europe, Mediterranean.

Red-throatkd Diver, Colymbus septentrionalis.

Summer. — Islands of Arctic Europe, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — \\'estern Europe, Mediterranean.

Red-necked (]rebe, Fodidpcs i:;riscigefin.
Summer. — Southern Scandinavia, Russia.
Wi/ifcr. — Western and Southern T^urope, North-west Africa.

Slavonian Grebe, Podicipes auritus.

Stimmer. — Iceland, Northern Continental Europe.
Winter. — Western, Central, and Southern Europe.

E 2

CHAPTER IV

THE GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS OF BRITISH
BIRD-MIGRATION

The geographical distribution of migratory birds in
the British Islands, at any season, obviously depends
upon the nature of the particular movement or move-
ments then occurring, or, in other words, upon whence
the migrants come and whither they are bound.

In connection with the geographical aspect of
migration, it is impossible to over-estimate the value of
observations made at islands and rock stations, and
other places removed from the usual haunts resorted to
by the various species. At such stations to see certain
birds is to know at once that they are on migration,
for under no other conditions would these particular
species be observed there.

The most unsatisfactory of all observations are
those made inland. Here individuals of many species
moving to other quarters in our islands are most
difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish from the native
representatives of the same species. In addition, the
area and, in many cases, the cover is so extensive that
few, very few, of the birds passing through any district
come under notice. One never knows what is in the
next field or the next bit of cover ; while woods are

70

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 71

hopeless, it being impossible to ascertain the smaller
migrants which are resting in them. Woods in the
vicinity of the coast must harbour countless migrants
which never come under notice.

The South Coast of England. — The south coast
of England is the scene, for a prolonged period in both
spring and autumn, of the arrival and departure of the
great majority of the migratory birds which visit our
islands, namely, the Summer Visitors and Birds of
Passage.

In spring it receives the vast array of migrants
on their arrival from their winter retreats in Southern
Europe, or in Northern, Tropical, and Southern Africa.
Many of these are the summer visitors which spread
themselves far and wide over all parts of our islands ;
while many more — the majority — are travellers which
journey along our shores to contribute largely to the
summer bird-life of vast areas of Continental Europe,
Iceland, Greenland, and the Arctic shores, tundras,
and islands of the Old World, as far east as Western
Siberia.

In autumn the south coast becomes the rendezvous
for the retiring summer birds, their ranks now largely
augmented by their numerous offspring, which gather
there from wide areas, British, Continental, and Arctic,
ere they quit our shores to seek their southern and
tropical winter homes.

Thus the wide - extending southern coast - line of
England is important beyond all others in the British
Islands for the visits of migratory birds.

Channel Routes. — During these great arrival and
departure movements, the English Channel is crossed
by many routes, but there are certain favoured ones, for

72 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

much migration is observed at both seasons at the Scilly
Isles, the Land's End, the Lizard, the Eddystone,^ Start
Point, St Catherine's Point (Isle of Wight ^), the Nab
light-vessel (east of the Isle of Wight), and Beachy
Head ; and great numbers avail themselves of the
shortest passage across the Straits of Dover. These
routes have their sources,^ in spring, at the great stream
which rushes along the coast-line of Western Europe,
and along the northern coast of France.

The migrants which reach the extreme western
section of the south coast and the Scilly Isles and
south-west coast of Ireland, do so by quitting the
Continental stream flowing northwards along the west
coast of France, in the neighbourhood of Ushant.
Those which arrive on other sections of our southern
coast are derived from the stream which flows east-
wards and traverses the French shores of the Channel,
giving off branches at various points which pass north-
wards to the English coast. Other migrants may find
their way to England from the opposite shores of the
Channel, after an overland flight from various parts of
France, in which country their winter has been passed.

Ushant, from its situation, is one of the most
important stations for observing bird-migration in
Western Europe, and one of these "Studies" is de-
voted to my experiences during a singularly unfortunate
visit paid to the island in the autumn of 1898.

1 For particulars of the species observed at this important station, see
Chapter XVII.

'^ Captain Hadfield {Zoologist, 1884, p. 30) says that the main line
of flight is witnessed at P'resh water (east of "The Needles"), where more
rare species have been obtained than in any other part of the island.

•' In connection with this and other routes to be mentioned, consult map
which forms Plate II.

? -J^

The EdinbuptfL &eoA>aii1

ROUTES TRAVERSED BY MIGRATORY BIRDS

After Ppof. Palmen, Dr Menzbler and w. Eagle Clapke

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^

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 73

Another favourably situated place for witnessing
bird-movements on the opposite shores of the Channel
are the Casquets, off Alderney, which lie in the direct
course of the stream of migration which traverses the
northern coast-line of France, and are visited by great
numbers of migrants.

In the autumn the birds retrace their flight, and cross
the Channel by the same lines as in the spring. On the
eastern section of the south coast at that season there is
a decided movement of emigrants eastwards towards
Newhaven and Dover, whence they cross the Channel
for the shores of the Continent, and probably join the
stream moving westwards at that season along the north
coast of France.

The south coast is traversed in the autumn in a
westerly direction by considerable numbers of migrants
from the northern and eastern districts of Britain, and
also by many migrants from the Continent en route for
winter quarters in the southern counties and Ireland.
These great western movements along our southern
coast-line and its immediate vicinity are renewed in
winter, when that season is characterised by periods of
unusual severity, the birds fleeing en masse before these
storms likewise including both British and Continental
emigrants, but chiefly the former. There are return
movements in spring in an easterly direction, but at
that season they are gradually performed, and hence
are much less in evidence.

The great majority of the migrants appearing in
spring (and departing in the autumn) consists of members
of two groups — the Summer Visitors and the Birds of
Passage. In addition to these, there are similar
movements of the Partial Migrants, and of the birds

74 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

evicted by severe climatic conditions (Winter Emi-
grants). These four groups of migrants have already-
been defined (see Chapter III.). The members of the
two last-named groups are usually the first to reappear
in the spring.

Movements of British Summer Visitors.^ — On
arriving on the south coast, those birds which intend to
pass the summer in the British Islands at once proceed to
their accustomed nesting haunts. To reach these widely
distributed areas, many pass inland at various points on
the south coast, while others move along the east and
west coast-lines, the courses of rivers being largely
used as highways to the interior. Ireland receives its
summer birds either direct from the south, or from
the south-west of England, after passage across St
George's Channel. The great majority enter Ireland in
spring, and depart from it in autumn, at or about the
south-eastern angle, where stands the Tuskar Rock,
one of the most famous of the Irish stations as an
ornithological observatory.

In seeking and returning from the inland seasonal
haunts, the migrants follow a multiplicity of routes.
The majority of these are mere by-paths which can
only be known in any district to naturalists who
have long resided in it, and who have paid close
attention to the comings and goings of these feathered
visitors.

Spring Routes to the North of Birds of Passage.
• — The Birds of Passage are the most numerous of all
the migrants which visit the south coast. We have
learned (p. 35) that they are en route in spring to

^ Here are included the Partial Migrants which are also Summer
Visitors (see pages 49-50).

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 75

wide-reaching areas in the north and east. These far-off
northern destinations are reached by following two great
routes, one of which, the main one, traverses the east
coast of Britain ; the other, with several branches,
traverses the west coast and the Irish shores. After
arriving on our southern coast-line, the birds skirt the
Channel shores until they reach its eastern or western
limit, whence they strike a northerly course.

East Coast of Britain. — On the shores of Kent the
south coast migrants about to proceed northwards
receive a great many recruits from the opposite side of
the narrow waters of the Straits of Dover.^ The east
coast is then followed and the waters of the North Sea
are crossed in a north-easterly direction at many points
between the Humber and the Island of Unst, the
northernmost of the Shetland group, to reach the
Norwegian coast. A number of birds, belonging to
comparatively few species, on reaching the Orkneys and
Shetlands, proceed in a north-westerly direction to the
Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland (see p. 82).

Though vast numbers of the migrants journeying to
northern Continental Europe regularly visit Orkney and
Shetland, yet there is a considerable falling off in the
numbers of a few species, especially among the Hirun-
dinidae (Swallows, Martins, and Sand-Martins), the main
body of which evidently fly across the North Sea ere
these northern archipelagos are reached. On the other
hand, the ranks of the travellers along our eastern
shores are reinforced at these northern archipelagos by a

* At the Varne lightship, situated in the mid waters of the Straits of
Dover, migrants are observed proceeding from the French coast to that of
Kent by a flight from S.E. to NAV. in spring, and in a reverse direction in
autumn.

76 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

contingent which has reached the islands by way of the
west coast routes, to be presently treated of.

There are a number of famous stations for witness-
ing these interesting passage movements along the east
coast of Britain. Among others, Breydon, Wells, and
other places on the Norfolk coast ; the shores of the
Wash and Humber ; Spurn Head, the southern limit of
the Yorkshire coast ; the Fame Islands ; the Isle of
May, and the Firths of Forth and Tay ; the Montrose
Basin, and the numerous isles of the Orkney and
Shetland groups.

The points at which the birds depart in the
spring and arrive in the autumn, on our eastern shores,
are well worth attention, and are best ascertained by a
study of the movements in autumn, when the migrants
are most in evidence. It has already been stated that
these points lie north of the Humber, and between that
estuary and the Island of Unst, the northernmost limit
of the British area. We are able to determine, with
some degree of precision, the southern limit — the one
which alone presents difficulties — of these passages
across the North Sea. No section of the British coast
is so abundantly equipped with light-stations as that
which lies between the Humber and the Straits of
Dover. Here, in addition to our average number of
lighthouses, there is a fleet of lightships, stationed at
varying distances off the coast, and most favour-
ably situated for recording these movements between
Northern Europe and the eastern shores of Britain.
These lightships furnished the British Association
Committee on Bird-Migration with carefully kept records
for a number of years. These clearly indicate that the
great autumn movements of northern species are not

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 77

observed at these floating observatories, and that the
migrants traversing the southern half of the east coast
of England, do so after arrival on its northern section.
In this connection evidence of a particularly important
nature is afforded by the records kept at Outer Dowsing
lightship, which is anchored some 38 miles off the
mouth of the Humber. Here these great move-
ments ace not observed : a fact which indicates that the
migrants pass to the northward and westward of this
vessel in their journeys across the North Sea. As
regards northern limits for their arrival from and
departure to Scandinavia, our knowledge has been
greatly added to by recent investigations, which clearly
demonstrate that the great majority of the species travel
in considerable numbers via the Shetland Isles. All
the movements do not cover the extensive stretch
of coast-line indicated, but not unfrequently this is
the case. Nor must it be supposed that all of the
individuals of the species observed in Orkney and
Shetland visit these islands on their journeys to and
from the Continent ; though many do so, the majority
of them cross and recross the North Sea at points
further south on our eastern sea-board.

Fair Isle, lying midway between the Orkney and
Shetland groups, has proved to be the most remarkable
station for the visits of birds of passage at both seasons,
and its record is not surpassed by any other locality
in the British Isles, and is only equalled by that of
Heligoland. The results of several years' investigations,
carried out by myself at this small and remote isle, will
form the subject of one of the subsequent studies.

West Coast of Britain and the Irish Coasts. — These
sections of our coast-line are also traversed by great

78 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

streams of birds on their passage northwards ; but the
travellers are composed of fewer species, and in most
cases of fewer individuals, than those proceeding via
the east coast route. The migrants travelling between
the British Islands and the Faroes, Iceland, and
Greenland, are, however, probably more numerously
represented on the western shores.

The western passage movements are far more
complicated in their geographical aspects, and hence
more difficult to trace than those witnessed on the
eastern side of Great Britain. The migrants proceeding
northwards along this route, or series of routes, are part
of the great hosts which appear on the westernmost
section of the south coast of England and the Scilly
Isles in the spring. After arrival on our shores they
continue their journey northwards ; some skirting the
west coast of England and Wales, others traversing
the east coast of Ireland, and a number taking a middle
course, and visiting the Isle of Man.

When the northern limit of the Irish Sea is reached,
the migratory streams which have flowed along its eastern
and western shores meet in the narrow waters between
the Mulls of Galloway and Cantyre on the one side, and
the coast of Antrim on the other. The Scottish coast
having been reached, complications await the would-be
investigator wishful to follow the further courses
pursued. Much migration is observed in the numerous
bays of the Solway Firth and on the Galloway coast ; but
on departing from the latter, the main stream travels via
the Mull of Cantyre, Islay, Dhu Hearteach Rock, Tiree,
and other inner islands. On reaching the importantly
situated rock of Skerryvore, a number of the migrants
which have not proceeded northwards by way of the

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 79

Inner Hebrides, fly towards Barra Head and traverse
the outer group to their northern h'mit at the Butt of
Lewis.

This deflection of the two streams of migration to
the west is probably due to the extreme irregularity,
ruggedness, and barren nature of the coast of the
western mainland of Scotland, with its numerous firths
ending in ciil de sacs — characteristics which render it
unsuitable as a migration route, inhospitable and unin-
viting for migrants, and almost impossible for the
observer.

There is yet another western route, the westernmost of
all. This lies along the Atlantic coast of Ireland, which
is possibly reached direct from the north-west coast of
France, and not by way of the south-west coast of
England. The regular travellers by this Irish fly-line do
not, so far as is yet ascertained, belong to many species,
but they include the Whimbrel, White Wagtail, Snow
Bunting, Wheatear, White-fronted Goose, Barnacle
Goose, Golden Plover, Grey Phalarope, Great Northern
Diver.^ On quitting the Donegal coast, the migrants
proceed northwards by way of the Outer Hebrides,
including their outermost island, St Kilda. Having
reached the northern limit of the mainland and the Inner
and Outer Hebridean Islands, the majority of the

^ The probability is that the west coast of Ireland is much more
resorted to as a migration route than is generally supposed. Certain islands
off the coast, Tearaght in particular, have produced some of the most
interesting migratory birds that have been obtained in Ireland, such as the
Yellow-browed Warbler, Red-breasted Flycatcher, Short-toed Lark, Golden
Oriole, Lapland Bunting, Greater Redpoll {A. rostrata), and others. In all, no
less than fifty-one species of migrants have, from time to time, been observed
there. If a trained observer were to spend a few weeks on one of these
islands during the autumn or spring, much light would be thrown on this
interesting far-western stream of migration.

80 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

migrants proceed towards the Orkney and Shetland
groups, whence they depart for the shores of Norway.
Others fly direct to the north for the Faroes, and thence
north-west to Iceland and Greenland, to reach which,
however, many of the birds also travel by the Orkneys
and Shetlands.

These western routes boast of several most favour-
ably situated stations for observing these interesting
movements to and from the northern regions. These
include Skerryvore, situated out in the Atlantic, con-
siderably to the south of the Hebridean groups, being
II miles W.S.W. of the island of Tiree, and ^^ miles
S.S.E. of Barra Head, the southern extremity of
the outer islands. Many migrants pass this lonely
rock, and fortunately one of the head light-keepers,
the late Mr James Tomison, was a deeply interested
and most capable observer. As the result of nearly
four years' bird- watching there, he tells us ^ that
the birds (he is speaking of the autumn movements)
come direct from Barra Head, and that on reaching
Skerryvore they slightly alter their course to proceed
due south — a course which would carry them to the
north coast of Donegal. From Mr Tomison's experi-
ence it would seem, as we should expect, that the birds
travelling by the inner islands pass to the east of this
station, for, with the exception of Skylarks seen on
several occasions coming from Tiree, no migrants from
that direction came under his notice.

The outermost fringe of the western stream passes,
as we have seen, along the Atlantic coast of Ireland,
and in its more northerly course touches St Kilda,
where the number of species occurring is quite remarkable

' ?)tt. Afinals of Scottish Natural History^ icjo'] ;ip. 20-31.

GEOGRAPHIC AT. ASPECTS 81

for such an out-lvinor station. Considerino- their far
west position and their insignificant size, the Flannan
Islands, a small uninhabited group almost within sight
of St Kilda, are also visited in both spring and autumn
by many migratory birds. I have spent autumn bird-
watching holidays in both these remote groups, and my
experiences will be related in the following studies,
where a complete account of their migratory birds will
be given.

Sule Skerry, an islet situated in the Atlantic 35
miles west of the Orkney island of Hoy, and Foula,
the most westerly of the Shetland Isles, are also visited
by many birds during the seasons of passage. An
account of the former as a bird-station forms the subject
of a subsequent chapter.

Other instances of the far west course followed are
afforded by the fact that a {ew Swallows and Fieldfares
annually visit the Faroes, presumably on passage to
Scandinavia, since they are not summer visitors to
Iceland ^ or Greenland.

Migration between the British Isles, Faroe,
AND Iceland. — Though the great majority of the
birds of passage travelling by the east and west
coasts are en route for Northern Europe, yet a con-
siderable number of those which traverse both these
great highways are proceeding to and from Iceland.
This island is the summer home of a number of
birds which belong to essentially Old World species,
such as the White Wagtail, Wheatear, and Whimbrel ; ^

^ See the special chapters devoted to the histories of these species as
British migratory birds.

^ Also Meadow- Pipit, Redwing, Grey Lag-Goose, Pink-footed Goose,
Teal, Common Scoter, Goosander, Water-Rail, Golden Plover, Snipe,
Redshank, etc.

I. F

82 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

and our islands lie in the course of their migrations,
when they are proceeding from, and returning to, their
European or African winter quarters. It is probable
that the majority of them make their passages along our
western shores, for important movements of Red-
wings, Wheatears, White Wagtails, and Whimbrels are
observed on the west coast of Great Britain and the
Irish coasts (both east and west) when they are not
observed elsewhere with us. That many of them visit
the Orkneys and Shetlands, and some of them the east
coast of Britain on their journeys is manifest from the
abundance of the large form of Wheatear (S. leucoi'rhoa),
which in summer is confined to Greenland and Iceland.
This bird occurs at Fair Isle, and in a lesser degree
on the mainland shores of the North Sea, in both
spring and autumn. No doubt many other migrants
to and from the north-west also proceed along our
eastern sea-board, but being of the same species as the
travellers from the northern portions of the Continent, it
is impossible to distinguish them.

In instituting a comparison between the east and
west coast routes, we find that the birds of passage
travelling to and from Northern Europe are more
numerous in kinds, and very much more so in individuals,
on the east side than on the west. Many species that
traverse our eastern coast-line in vast numbers, and
others that do so less abundantly, but yet regularly,
occur on the western coasts, either in much smaller
numbers or only as occasional or rare visitors. The
following are among the migrants which are less frequent
or actually rare on the west coast : — the Redstart, Tree-
Pipit, Hedge Accentor, Red-backed Shrike, Pied Fly-

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 83

catcher, Wryneck, Grey Crow, Pink-footed Goose,
Dotterel, Great Snipe, Ruff, Green Sandpiper, and
Dusky Redshank ; while such species as the Blue-
throat, Barred Warbler, Great Grey Shrike, Shore
Lark, and Honey - Buzzard, are almost unknown in
Ireland. The Goldcrest, Swallow, Martin, Sand- Martin,
Ring-Ouzel, and Red-backed Shrike are rarcc aves as
Hebridean migrants. On the other hand, the west
coast route is probably more used than the east by
such species as the White Wagtail, Greater Wheatear
{Saxicola leucorrhoa), Black-tailed Godwit, the Red-
necked and Grey Phalaropes, and Buffon's Skua ; and
by the regular migrants proceeding to and from
Iceland and Greenland.

The lines of migration of several species which
summer in Scandinavia lie to the eastward of our
islands, and some of them are doubtless overland routes
to and from the south and east. These remarks refer to
such birds as the Red-throated Pipit, Icterine Warbler,
Broad-billed Sandpiper, Temminck's Stint, Crane, and
others.

Migration between the South-East Coast of
England and the Coast of Western Central
Europe : The East and West Routes. — The southern
section of the east coast of England is the scene of the
arrival in the autumn, and departure in the spring, of a
very considerable number of bird-travellers. These
form a group of migrants of a particularly interesting
description, consisting of certain species which cross the
southern waters of the North Sea by a more or less
direct east-to-west flight in the autumn, and by move-
ments in a reverse direction in the spring. They
are Central European birds, and in the autumn are

84 STUDIES IN BIRD-]MIGRATION

either on passage to lands beyond our shores, or are
bent on passing the winter with us. Day after day in
late September, and throughout October, this stream of
migration, which is often of great volume, is observed
sweeping past the numerous lightships stationed off the
coast between the Straits of Dover and the Wash,
towards the coasts of Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and
Norfolk. It has its centre on the Essex coast and
at the mouth of the Thames, and towards these the
migrants proceed by a direct westerly course. Off the
Suffolk and Norfolk shores the stream is observed
moving in a north-westerly or north-north-westerly
direction ; . while off the Kentish coast the course is
south-westerly or south-south-westerly.

These lines of flight across the North Sea seem to
be rigidly adhered to. The voluminous observations
made at the lightships clearly indicate that the birds are
not making for the nearest land, but are steadily
pursuing definite courses. This is an important and
significant fact, and it is fair to draw the conclusion that
the courses have been steadily maintained across the
North Sea. If this be so, and I see no reason to doubt
it, then this vast stream of migration flows from the
mouths of the rivers Maas, Schelde, and Rhine. These
great rivers, too, are probably the highways along
which this feathered stream passes to reach the Dutch
coast in the autumn (and up which it proceeds in the
spring) from wide areas in Western Central Europe.
The species travelling along this route also lend coun-
tenance to this view, for there do not appear to be
any essentially northern birds among them : all are
typical natives of Central Europe — Grey Crows, Rooks,
Jackdaws, Starlings, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Tree

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 85

Sparrows, Skylarks, Meadow Pipits, Mistle-Thrushes,
Wheatears, Goldcrests, Swallows, Martins, Lapwings,
Ringed Plovers, Blue-headed Wagtails, Black Redstarts,
Golden Orioles, Hoopoes, Common Buzzards, Black
Terns, Avocets, Spoonbills, and, in winter, the Bittern
also pass, though in smaller numbers ; and more rarely
still the Firecrest, Richard's Pipit, Little and Baillon's
Crakes, Little Bustard, and Stilt. The most numerous
of the migrants travelling along this route are Rooks,
Grey Crows, Starlings, Skylarks, Tree - Sparrows,
Chaffinches, and Lapwings.

On reaching our shores many of these immigrants
move up the Thames valley to reach particular winter
quarters in south central England. Others, on the
same errand bent, skirt the coast northwards (which
they^ — the Skylarks and Grey Crows in particular —
sometimes do as far as the Tees), proceeding inland at
various points as they go. Those forming the left wing,
and they are a considerable contingent, pass westward
along our channel shores to reach winter quarters in
southern and south-western England and in Ireland,
while others doubtless cross towards the shores of
France, en route for more southern lands.

These movements from the east set in about the
middle of September, reach their maximum in October,
and continue at intervals until mid November. They
are renewed on the part of Skylarks, Starlings, Thrushes,
Lapwings, etc., during the winter, but only when ex-
ceptionally severe weather prevails in Central Europe,
and the birds then chiefly pass westwards along our
southern shores in search of retreats in the west, in-
cluding the Scilly Isles and Ireland. Many wild-fowl
seek eastern England by an east to west flight, when

I. F 2

86 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

their haunts on the opposite side of the North Sea are
sealed by ice.

There are some remarkable features associated with
these east to west autumn passages: — (i.) They are
frequently observed for several, and sometimes many,
consecutive days.^ (2.) They take place chiefly during
the daytime. {3.) Not a few, probably most, of these
migrants are proceeding to winter quarters in our
islands, which are situated in latitudes north of their
summer haunts — a most singular circumstance, but one
which is to be explained by the remarkably mild
temperature of our winters, the winter isotherm for
Enofland beingf the same as that for western and
southern France. (4.) On some occasions those birds
which are proceeding westwards or northwards actually
cross the course of the coasting migrants moving south-
wards along our eastern sea-board at the same time.

The return movements in spring towards the east
are witnessed, along the same lines of flight, from the
middle of February to the middle of April.

In the autumn of 1903, I spent nearly five weeks in
the Kentish Knock light-vessel, which lies 'XtZ miles off
the coast of Essex and about the centre of this
interesting stream of migration, in order to investigate
the various conditions under which these east to west
movements were performed, and with a view to ascertain-
ing the species participating in them. The results were
highly satisfactory, and these, along with my singular
experiences, are related in Chapter XVIII. (Vol. 11.).
Other information will be found in the studies devoted
to migrations performed by the Rook, Starling, and
Lapwing.

' See the history of the migrations performed by the Skylark.

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 87

There are other lines of flight between the south-
east coast of England and the Continent, especially
at its extreme limit. This complication of routes and
cross routes at the neck of the Channel is, no doubt, to
be accounted for by the contiguity of the British and
Continental areas at the Straits of Dover. While on
board the Kentish Knock lightship, I observed, in the
month of September, and during the daytime, Wheat-
ears, Martins, Starlings, Skylarks, Pied Wagtails, and
Meadow Pipits passing in a south-eastern direction — ■
i.e., from the north coast of Essex towards the French
coast about Dunkirk ; while a little further south, off
the east coast of Kent, there are cross movements in
progress in an opposite direction at the same period, from
the S.E. to N.W. — i.e., from the northernmost shores
of the French coast to the coast of Kent — the birds
observed being Rooks, Starlings, Skylarks, Chaffinches,
Tree Sparrows, and Swallows.

At the Varne lightship, which is stationed in the
mid-waters of the Straits of Dover, Rooks and Starlings
are sometimes recorded in spring as moving from
S.S.W. to N.N.E., and Swallows from S.E. to N.W. ;
and in autumn, Swallows and Meadow Pipits leaving
England pass to the S.E., and Starlings, Larks, and
other "small birds," to the W. and N.N.W. Mr West,
the Master of the North Goodwin lightship, remarks
that when a great number of birds pass from E. to W.
or N.E. to S.W. in the autumn, bad weather generally
follows.

Movements of British Emigrants. — The autumnal
movements of the departing summer birds are simple in
their geographical aspects, so far as the eastern portion
of Britain is concerned ; but, as in the spring, it is not

88 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

so as regards the western coasts. The first movements
from the summer haunts are towards the coasts, which
are reached by many local routes, especially along the
courses of rivers and their tributary streams.

When the east coast is reached, the emigrants skirt
its shores and their vicinity, proceeding southwards
usually by easy stages, and gathering strength as they
advance, particularly at estuaries and river-mouths, such
as the Tay, Forth, H umber, Wash, Thames, etc. They
finally leave our southern shores by the same routes
along which they travelled to reach them in the spring.

The western emigratory movements are not so
simple in their geographical aspects. Here we have the
Hebridean and other isles, Ireland, and the Isle of
Man, and the numerous firths, sounds, and estuaries
of the mainland exercising varied influences. The routes
followed by these departing summer birds are the same
as those already indicated for the spring movements of
the birds of passage, but the direction is the reverse,
— i.e.^ to the southwards. The Outer Hebridean summer
birds move towards the north-west coast of Ireland,
some of them by way of Skerryvore, while others even
traverse St Kilda. Those leaving the inner isles
proceed by Dhu Hearteach and I slay, towards the
mainland at Can tyre, whence they probably travel along
both sides of the Irish Sea. The eastern section of
this migratory stream skirts the west coast of Britain,
and receives in its course considerable tributaries from
the Clyde basin, Galloway, the Solway, the Isle of
Man, Wales, and the Bristol Channel. From the
Pembroke coast southwards very important additions
are received from Ireland. Finally the south-west
coast of England is reached, between the Scilly Isles

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 89

and Start Point (partly by an overland llight across
Devonshire), whence the travellers cross the Channel to
reach their various winter retreats.

The main body of the birds which are summer
guests in Ireland, and those which have traversed her
eastern shores on leaving the Scottish coasts and isles,
take their departure from the Wexford coast, and cross
St George's Channel, for the south-west of England,
as has just been mentioned. A more western stream,
on quitting the sister isle, probably flows direct towards
the coast of Brittany, though it may lap the shores of
Scilly and the Land's End.

While traversing our coasts, the migrations of these
departing summer birds are much in evidence, for many
of them are performed leisurely and during the day-
time, the birds feeding and resting as they go. Many,
too, pass along them in the night-time, and it is then
that the great majority of the travellers quit our shores
for their southern winter-homes. These remarks apply
equally to the migrations of the birds of passage which
have arrived from the north and east, and are likewise
moving along our shores at this season to reach their
more southern retreats. These two sets of migrants
undoubtedly often join forces in September and October,
and journey southwards in company.

Some account of these autumn emigratory flights
across the Channel will be found in the chapter wherein
I relate my experiences as a bird-watcher on the
Eddystone.

In addition to the emigratory movements of our
summer visitors for their southern winter retreats, there
are autumnal migrations from Britain to Ireland on the
part of Starlings, Skylarks, Chaffinches, Greenfinches,

90 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

and sometimes Thrushes, by an east to west flight
across the Irish Sea. Anglesey and Rockabill (off the
north coast of co. Dublin) are the main points at which
these departures and arrivals have been recorded.
There are also migrations at the same season from the
Rhinns of Islay and Mull of Galloway to the north-east
coast of Ireland, on the part of Starlings, Skylarks, and
Thrushes. The object of these movements to the west
is, no doubt, to reach accustomed winter quarters in
Ireland.

Autumn Arrival and Passage Movements. — The
winter visitors and autumn birds of passage often come
to us from the same areas at identical periods, and are
composed, with few exceptions, of the same species ;
in fact they are, in most cases, travelling companions
until the British Isles are reached.

These numerous migrants reach our shores from
Northern Europe, Western Siberia, Iceland, Greenland,
and Central Europe, by the same routes as those
followed in the spring, but in the reverse direction ; the
southern portion of the east coast, south of the H umber,
being reached after the birds have arrived on the
northern section ; and the west coast and the Irish shores
by way of the Shetland, Orkney and Hebridean Islands.

On their arrival on our coasts, those of the migrants
which are winter visitors move inland at many points to
spread themselves over our islands, many reaching the
west coast districts after overland passages across the
mainland of Britain, while those which are birds of
passage, proceeding to winter retreats beyond our
shores, traverse the east and west coasts, following the
same routes southwards as they traversed when on
their way northwards in spring.

GEOGRAPHICAT. ASPECTS 91

The autumn movements of the winter visitors
and birds of passage which arrive on the south-east
coast of England from Central Europe have already
been fully described.

It is desirable that some allusion should here be
made to the supposed intermigration between Britain
and Heligoland. Much prominence was given in the
annual reports issued by the Committee appointed by the
British Association, and in Herr Gatke's book, Die Vogel-
warte Helgoland, to an intermigration between the famous
island off the mouth of the Elbe, and the Yorkshire and
Lincolnshire coasts, by direct east to west autumn
movements. Herr Giitke most obligingly communicated
the details of the bird-movements observed at Heligo-
land for four of the years (1883- 1886) during which the
inquiry was being prosecuted over the British area.
The two sets of data were carefully examined and
compared by me, with the result that I was not able
to find any indications whatever that would warrant
such a conclusion ; nor have any observations been
forthcoming since that date in support of such a
contention. It is not impossible nor improbable that
birds may occasionally cross the North Sea in the
latitude of Heligoland, but our present knowledge
compels us to believe that such flights must be re-
garded as exceptions, and not as the rule. This subject
was discussed by me in the Report of the British Asso-
ciation for 1896, p. 457.

British Inland Routes.' — Thous^h much remains
to be ascertained regarding the inland routes used by
birds within the British area, yet we know more than
enough to enable us to aver that there are no import-
ant overland fly-lines for birds of passage such as

92 STUDIES IN BIRD-MI&RATION

traverse the Continental land-masses. That this should
be so is not at all surprising-. Our area is longitudinally
too circumscribed to render them necessary, for our coast-
lines are near at hand, and these birds keep to them
and their immediate neighbourhood with remarkable
pertinacity. As an indication of the coasting pro-
clivities of these migrants, it may be remarked that all
the species which are essentially birds of passage (such
as the Bluethroat, Curlew Sandpiper, etc., etc.), are of
rare or exceptional occurrence at inland localities in our
islands. The Scottish birds of passage include a
number of species which are breeding birds in England
and in Scandinavia, but not in Northern Britain (such
as the Lesser Whitethroat, Red-backed Shrike, Wry-
neck, Ruff, and others), and these are practically con-
fined to the Scottish coast-line and its neighbourhood
when passing northwards in the spring and southwards
in the autumn. The occurrence, inland, of any of the
species which visit us on passage only is more or less
rare, and certainly exceptional.

There are, however, many highways of minor import-
ance which deserve some consideration, though our
knowledge of most of them is of a very imperfect
nature. These are the overland courses followed by the
summer and winter visitors when proceeding to and retir-
ing from their seasonal haunts on the mainland of Great
Britain and Ireland.

After arrival on our shores in spring and autumn
many of these immigrants proceed to their accustomed
haunts along natural and convenient highways, and, the
summer or winter o'er, again seek the coast-line. In the
case of some species, to which reference will presently
be made, the routes followed are determined by the

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 93

nature of the food- requirements of the travellers. To
others, however, influences of a topographical nature
appear to be the most important. Many of the birds
after arrival seek estuaries and the mouths of rivers,
and from these trace up the course of the main stream
and its tributaries, and thus spread themselves over
wide areas ; some proceeding to their very sources to
reach the higher ground, the moorlands, and the fells.

These highways and byeways can only be known to
those local naturalists who have for some years given
close attention to the subject, and, as yet, comparatively
little has been placed on record regarding them.

The Huniber Basin and Yorkshire, etc. — My personal
experiences of such routes are confined to Yorkshire, in
which county one series of inland highways is known to
me, namely, that which leads from the estuary of the
H umber, by way of its river systems, to the west and
north-west of the county. From this source a vast
area receives many of its summer birds in spring, and
to the Humber they return in the autumn, their numbers
then greatly increased by their offspring, to take their
departure southwards.

A notable example is the Yellow Wagtail (Alotacil/a
rayi). This conspicuous species is extremely abundant
in spring and summer, amid the grasslands and
fields bordering the upper valleys of the Wharfe,
Swale, Ure, Aire, and their tributaries, and forms quite
a feature in their bird-life. So far inland are some of
these haunts resorted to by this handsome bird, that
they are very much nearer the western sea-board than
the east coast, and yet the Pennine chain is not crossed,
though some J?iay reach Ribblesdale, where the species is
common, from the east by way of the "Aire gap,"

94 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

which is below 500 feet in elevation. Towards the end
of August, and during the first half of September, the
return takes place, and the migrants on reaching the
Humber move eastwards along the shores of the estuary
to reach the coast of the North Sea, whence they take
their departure for their winter quarters. These retiring
movements are sometimes performed simultaneously from
considerable areas, and may then be said to take the form
of a "rush." Thus, on the 23rd of August 1885, I saw
literally thousands on the north shore of the estuary and
its immediate vicinity, all working their way towards
Spurn Head. Most of these, perhaps all, took their
departure the same night, for on the following day
comparatively few were seen, and these may have been
fresh arrivals. These emigratory movements, as a rule,
extend over many days, and are most interesting to
witness.

The southern shore of the Humber is also traversed
by large numbers of these Wagtails, many of them
proceeding to and from the Trent valley, where they are
also very abundant during the nesting season. Similar
movements also proceeding to and from the Yorkshire
dales by way of the Humber are observed on the part of
such species as the Wheatear, Redstart, Whitethroat,
Ring-Ouzel, Pied Flycatcher, Sandpiper, etc.

In the autumn considerable numbers of Starlings,
Skylarks, and Lapwings, from the south-east enter the
Humber at its mouth, and pass along its southern
shores, proceeding westwards. These immigrants appear
with great regularity, and have come much under the
notice of Mr Caton Haigh.

The Trent Valley, already alluded to, is a much-
used highway, according to Mr Whitlock {^Zoologist,

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 95

1 89 1, pp. J 78-9), who describes the effect of its use as
very apparent in Nottinghamshire. He remarks that
its most interesting- feature is the fact of its beincr
traversed in spring, when amongst the other birds
using this route are the Dunlin, Common Sandpiper,
Redshank, Sand-Martin, and Yellow Wagtail. In his
Birds of Derbyshire, this same author (pp. 15^/5^^.)
states that the Trent valley is "extensively used as a
fly-line of birds travelling to and from their breedino-
grounds in the north, and naturally causes this portion
of the county {i.e., that which borders the Trent) to
be richest in bird-life, both as regards numbers and
species."

The Wash. — The late Lord Lilford {Zoologist, 1891,
p. 52) states his opinion that the valley of the Nene,
from the Wash as far up as Thrapston, is certainly a
much-used route of migration, but he believed that the
majority of the autumn migrants left the valley some-
where above that town, and struck across the country
for the eastern affluents of the Severn. Unfortunately,
his lordship did not name any of the species using this
route.

Mr O. V. Aplin informs me that he is of opinion
that certain winter visitors reach Oxfordshire from the
Wash via the Northamptonshire valleys. Also, that
there is an important fly-line crossing Oxfordshire from
north-east to south-west between the Wash and the
Bristol Channel. This is much used by Gulls in the
autumn, and in a lesser degree by some Waders.

Thames Valley. — This is another much-used route
to and from the interior of southern England. On
1 8th October 1903, I traced great numbers of Starlings
and Skylarks (which were then crossing the North

96 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Sea) from the Kentish Knock lightship, ;^^ miles off
the coast of Essex, as far as Southend, at which place
I disembarked. The birds, however, were still trooping
up the Thames valley in considerable numbers when I
left the ship.

Numbers of Rooks, Starlings, Skylarks, Fieldfares,
and other species have been noticed in October at
Bermondsey, making their way in a north-westerly
direction. On some occasions, as on the 22nd October
1896, vast numbers came under notice, phalanx succeed-
ing phalanx in regular military order, without any
intermingling. This great flight lasted for half-an-hour,
during which, over thirty flocks were counted, each
numbering thousands of birds of the above-mentioned
species. Regarding the spring, Mr O. V. Aplin tells
me that the summer migrants reach Oxfordshire by this
route.

Devonshire. — There is an interesting cross-country
route from Barnstaple Bay, on the north coast, by way
of the Torridge and the Teign valleys to the south
coast of the county. This " short cut " is much followed
in the autumn by migrants seeking winter quarters
across the Channel. For this information I am indebted
to Mr A. S. Elliot.

North Wales. — Mr H. E. Forrest, in his Fmma of
North Wales (p. 65), indicates an overland route up the
Wye valley, followed by birds to reach their summer
quarters, some of which are in the southern portion of
Montgomeryshire. He also mentions that in Shrop-
shire the Severn valley is much traversed by migrants.

Lakeland. — The late Rev. H. A. Macpherson in-
formed me in the year 1 900 that he saw no reason to
depart from the views he had expressed regarding cross-

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 97

country migration in the Bi7'ds of Cumberland (p. 12).
In that work three Hnes were indicated by which
migrants arrived in the county in the autumn, and which
appeared to be reverted to by many species on their
spring emigration. These are : (i) a Hne starting from
Berwick, and, passing from north-east to south-west,
so as to culminate on the Solway Basin ; (2) a line from
Tynemouth, which, following the rivers Tyne and Irthing,
would meet the first line on the Solway ; (3) a line from
the Durham coast, which, passing through Weardale or
Teesdale, would enter Cumberland, near Alston, thence
trending south-west to the Ravenglass and Duddon
estuaries.

Solway. — The late Mr Service favoured me with the
following interesting information, the result of particu-
larly ripe experience, relating to overland migration
in the Scottish section of the Solway area. There is,
he stated, an extremely well-marked line of migration to
and from the Solway in the direction of the Clyde — a
short cut from the Ayrshire coast, and the most important
route to and from the Solway for waders and swimmers,
which follow it in great numbers. The route north-
wards is up the Nith, across the hills near Cumnock, and
then straight to the shore north of Ayr. There is also
a direct east-to-west route, and vice versa, according to the
season, taken by Fieldfares, Redwings, Skylarks, Snipe,
Woodcocks, etc. To be quite correct, it is a little north
of east in the autumn, and a little to the south of west
in the spring.

Forth, Clyde, and Solway. — Mr William Evans has

supplied me with the following statement relative to the

passage of certain species between these areas : — Many

birds undoubtedly cross Scotland every autumn by way

I. G

98 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

of the broad stretch of (for the most part) low country-
separating the upper estuaries of the Forth and the
Clyde (of this there is ample evidence), and also by a
longer southerly route from mid-Forth to the Solway.
Leaving Forth either by the wide gap between the
Moorfoot and the Pentland Hills, or by one of the
western Pentland passes, the travellers taking the
southerly passage soon reach the head-waters of Tweed
and Clyde, and thence by way, it is inferred, of the
valley of the Nith or the Annan Water down to the
Solway. Oyster-catchers, Curlews, Whimbrels, Ringed
Plovers, Dunlins, and Common Terns are to be seen
every year between the end of July and the end of
September, but chiefly perhaps in August, proceeding
on the Forth to Solway flight. The reservoirs along
the north-western base of the Pentlands, at which the
birds often halt, are good points for observation.
At Crosswood reservoir, for example, Mr Evans has
watched all the above-named species depart, their course
being almost due south, which would take them through
the hills by the sources of the Medwyn to the head of
Clyde. At Elvanfoot, which is only a short distance
from the Clyde and Solway watershed, he observed
Oyster-catchers, etc., passing in a southerly direction in
September 1900. They have also been noted near
West Linton, and (Terns included) at Stobo on Tweed.
Besides the Waders and Terns, which are no doubt
chiefly our native birds. Fieldfares, Redwings, Wild
Geese, etc., have also been noticed passing by these
routes to their winter quarters west and south of Forth,
but at a somewhat later date. The return movement
in spring, though doubtless likewise of annual occurrence,
has been less observed. It is not known that any of the

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 99

true birds of passage traverse these routes, but Mr
Evans considers it highly probable that a number of
summer visitors — Wheatears, Ring-Ouzels, Redstarts,
Pied Flycatchers, for instance — reach their breeding
grounds in the central parts of the southern section of
Scotland by way of them.

Forth and Clyde. — Mr Harvie- Brown has indicated
that there is a much-used overland route between Forth
and Clyde. Me often hears migrants passing during
the night over Dunipace, and proceeding from east to
west during the autumn, and towards the east and
north-east in spring.

Ireland. — Mr Allan Fllison {Zoologist, 1885, p. 18)
mentions a north-east to south-west overland route
from Co. Wicklow, via Shillelagh, to the south-west of
Ireland, used by Starlings, Fieldfares, Redwings, Sky-
larks, and Golden Plovers.

The Shannon and its lakes, Mr Ussher (Irish
Naturalist, 1905, p. 125) tells us, afford a north-to-
south route, while another very easy route for wild-fowl
passing from Killala Bay to Gal way Bay, is by way of
lakes Corrib, Mask, and Conn.

Other Routes. — The overland highways of some
species are determined by the special nature of their food
or by a predilection for certain peculiar haunts — con-
siderations which exert not a little influence on the
courses followed by some migrants when passing to and
from their British nesting haunts — the Greenshank,
Dotterel, Whimbrel, among others.

Some Greenshanks [Totanus nebularitis), probably
on quitting their nesting grounds in the Scottish High-
lands, move southwards overland, proceeding from
one sheet of water to another, or from river to river.

100 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

In the autumn a few annually visit suitable localities in
central England, where they may be observed, chiefly
in September. When I resided in Yorkshire, I used to
see several each year on the margins of a series of moor-
land reservoirs in the heart of the county, where they
lingered for some weeks, apparently being attracted by
the suitable feeding grounds afforded. South of the
H umber, this bird appears to be somewhat irregular
in its inland visits, and probably travels further south
by way of the coast-line, which it may reach by way
of the Yorkshire rivers which debouch into that great
estuary. Other species which follow similar routes are
the Dunlin, Common Sandpiper, Snipe, Common Tern,
and certain Ducks.

The Dotterel iyEudroniias morinellus), when en route
to and from its British summer quarters amid the moun-
tains of north-west England and of Scotland, traverses
the more elevated inland districts, and is observed on
the Chiltern Hills, and the fells of the Pennine chain.
Here it was formerly observed in flocks, especially in the
spring, but unhappily a very marked diminution in their
numbers has taken place in recent years. This diminu-
tion corresponds with the decrease of this bird in its
British nesting haunts, and is an interesting though
melancholy fact, since it clearly indicates that the
migrants traversing the high ground of central England
were (and are) the birds which breed in our islands.
The Dotterel is one of the comparatively few British
migratory birds which is more in evidence during the
spring movements than in those of the autumn — a
somewhat remarkable fact, for the bird is naturally more
abundant during the latter season. Other species which
affect the moorlands or similar elevated districts in the

GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 101

summer, also traverse similar tracts of country when
passing to and fro — among them are the Golden Plover,
Curlew, etc.

The VVhimbrel {Numenms phcropus) is another
species which passes overland in spring and autumn,
though it apparently does not follow very definite inland
routes — a circumstance which is no doubt accounted for
by the fact that it seldom alights to feed. It is
generally observed passing north or south, accord-
ing to the season, at a considerable elevation, attention
being drawn to it by the well-known and peculiar call-
note which is continually uttered. In my experience,
gained in central Yorkshire, these birds pass over during
the daytime, and usually singly or in pairs.

Racial Forms of Migratory Birds.^ — In connec-
tion with the geographical aspect of bird migration, it is
of importance to allude to the racial forms to be found
among a number of the species which occur as visitors
to our islands and their shores. Much attention has,
fortunately, been paid to the study of these geo-
graphical forms during recent years, especially by Dr
Hartert, who has made many of them known to us, and
is treating of them in his excellent work. Die Vogel der
paliiarktischen Fauna.

A knowledge of these geographical races is of the
utmost value to those interested in bird-migration, for it
enables the student in a number of cases to determine
whence certain migrants set out on their journeys to reach
our shores — a gain the importance of which it is impos-
sible to over-estimate. A number of these racial forms
regularly appear in our islands, either as seasonal visitors
or as occasional guests. Among these are Continental

I. G 2

102 STUDIES IN lURD-MIGRATION

or Arctic races of the following species : — Mealy Redpoll
(several forms), Bullfinch, Crossbill, Creeper, Goldcrest,
Willow - Warbler, Chiff- Chaff, Redbreast, Wheatear,
Song - Thrush, Dipper, Great Spotted Woodpecker,
Barn-Owl, etc.

Such is a broad general outline, based on many-
years devoted to their investigation, of the geographical
distribution of birds during their various migratory
movements in the British area. It must be left to local
observers to fill in the detJiils — they alone have the
opportunities for acquiring the necessary special know-
ledge.

CHAPTER V

ROUND THE YEAR AMONG THE BRITISH MIGRATORY
BIRDS : SPRING

The Swallow knows her time,

And, on the vernal breezes, wings her way

O'er mountain, plain, and far-extending seas,

From Afric's torrid sands to Britain's shore. — Graham.

That migratory birds observe with remarkable regu-
larity the times of their coming and going, has been
known since the days of the prophets ; and this fact
so much impressed the untutored redskin of the fur-
countries, that, in framing his primitive calendar, he
named the recurring moons after the migrants whose
appearance was synchronous with their advent. In our
own country the arrival of certain well-known species
has long been associated with the advent of the
seasons, or noted as an indication of their meteoro-
logical peculiarities.

The seasonal movements relate to the spring,
autumn, and winter. Summer proper has no place
in the calendar of bird-migration, but it is closely
eipproached by the late spring movements, and is actually
trenched upon by migrations which from their nature can
only be classified with those of the autumn.

The migrations undertaken during each of the
seasons have characteristics and peculiarities of their

103

104 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

own, for they are performed under different influences
and for different purposes.

Spring.

At no other season do migratory birds attract so
much attention, or arouse the same widespread degree
of interest as in the spring. This is not surprising, for
time out of mind their appearance among us has been
regarded as the harbinger of a glad season, and an
omen of the passing of one which has become drear.
They are most welcome visitors, too, for in their ranks
are to be found some of the most famous songsters,
such as the Nightingale, Blackcap, and a host of others,
which contribute with much acceptance to the joyousness
of the season, and without which the pageant of spring
would indeed be a spiritless show, for it has been well
said by Cowper^ —

Nor country sights alone, but country sounds,
Exhilarate the spirit.

All the spring movements in the British Isles and
elsewhere north of the equator, varied though they may
seem to be, are undertaken for the same object, namely,
to return to summer haunts, whether those haunts be
close at hand or in lands far removed from where the
winter was spent.

At no other period are the migrations performed
under such all-engrossing conditions. It is the season
which brings in its train the revival of the sexual
activities, with their irresistible incentives to repair to
the nesting retreats : it is the season of love-making,
nest-building, and the rearing of families. Need one be
surprised that the migrants proceed on hurried wing to
reach these hallowed scenes ? This race for breeding

MIGRATORY lilRDS : SPRING 105

haunts is one of the main characteristics of the spring
movements, and is especially in evidence on the British
shores, for our isles form one of the last stages in the
journey of a vast number of birds on passage to their
native lands.

The birds of passage transmigrating come,

Unnumbered colonies of foreign wing,

At Nature's summons. — Mallet.

The great majority of these voyagers do not tarry
with us : indeed, it is a case of " here to-day, off to-
morrow." On this account, their visits afford com-
paratively few facilities for observation, and hence
some species and vast numbers of individuals entirely
or largely escape notice — a fact which accounts for the
supposed non-appearance of certain birds in the spring
which are regularly observed in the autumn.

Another characteristic of the spring is that the males,
the more ardent suitors, of most species, travel in advance
of the females and arrive at the nesting quarters some
days, it is said in some cases even weeks, before their
consorts — a circumstance which affords additional
evidence of the enthralling nature of the season.

The times of the coming of birds of identical species
to our shores, depends upon whether the individuals
are bent on spending the summer with us, or are
birds en route for distant countries. The first to
arrive are, undoubtedly, birds seeking their nesting
haunts within the British Islands ; the latest are those on
their way to summer homes far to the north of us. There
are usually many intermediate haunts between southern
England and the Arctic countries, and hence birds of
the same species arrive on our shores in a series of
flights, and at intervals covering in many cases some

106 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

weeks. To take a few instances culled from the records
in my possession for the spring of 1908: I find that
movements of the Common Wheatear, from the date of
its first appearance on the south coast to the passing away
of the last of the passage birds from our islands, covered
61 days; those of the Ring-Ouzel, 49 days; of the
Willow- Warbler, 65 days ; of the Blackcap, 76 days ;
of the Common Sandpiper, 83 days ; and of the
Whimbrel, 54 days. If we knew all, the periods would
be longer. On the other hand, the period covered by
the Nightingale, a bird which is a summer visitor to
England only, was but 24 days, perhaps less.

As regards the dates of arrival of summer birds, it
should be remarked that observations made at inland
localities are in a great many instances of little value,
since an incomer may remain for a number of days
undetected. Another fact, of the accuracy of which I
am convinced, is that not one migrant in several thou-
sands comes under notice immediately on its arrival in
the British Isles.

In not a few cases, as we shall see, the birds which
traverse our coasts on their way to the northern breeding
grounds in May and June do so at a time when their
British representatives are either engaged in the duties
of incubation or in tending their young. Song-Thrushes,
for instance, pass northwards when the young of our
native birds have left the nest, and Golden Plovers when
the chicks of their British cousins are well grown.

We may now proceed to consider the various move-
ments performed during the months which constitute
spring from the bird-watcher's point of view.

February.^ — It requires some stretch of the imagina-

PLATE III.

The Advance of Spring
After H. Hildebrandsson

The map illustrates the march of isotherm 48° F., "the climatic beginning
of spring," across Europe.

The lines show the fortnightly advance of this spring temperature from
the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean, and indicate approximately the
dates on which the various regions of the Continent became climatologically
suitable for the reception of their bird summer visitors.

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MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 107

tion to include in the category of spring the wintry
month of February. Yet within its allotted days
movements take place which from their very nature,
namely, the seeking of nesting haunts, are strictly in
consonance with those of spring. This month, however,
belongs to both spring and winter in its migration
aspects ; here we are only concerned with those of
the former season.

Local Movements. — The earliest of the February
movements relate to visits to summer quarters of birds
which have passed the winter in British retreats not very
far removed from the nesting area. Should the month
prove a genial one, from its second week onwards it
may witness the return to the upland woodlands of the
Song-Thrushes which quitted them during the previous
autumn; of the Redshanks, Curlews, Snipe, and Meadow-
Pipits to the moorlands ; and of the Skylarks and Lap-
wings to the higher pastures, etc. During the month, too,
there are return movements of Pied Wagtails, Meadow-
Pipits, Skylarks, Lapwings, Oyster-catchers, etc., to the
Orkneys and to northern localities on the mainland ; and
the Gannets, Kittiwakes, Black Guillemots, Common
Guillemots, Razorbills, and other maritime species pay
visits to their breeding places.

The experiences of some of these earliest visitors to
their summer quarters are generally of an unfortunate
nature, especially for the ground-loving species, inas-
much as a return of winter conditions, with their pall
of snow or frost-bound lands, is almost certain to follow
and to drive them ruthlessly away. Later, in March,
and even in April, such a renewal of winter ends in
disaster, for then they are loth to quit their haunts, and
perhaps their nests, and many perish.

108 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Some Skylarks and Lapwings which have sought
Ireland in the autumn, to pass the winter in its milder
climate, return across the Irish Sea to their quarters in
Great Britain.

Arrival of Earliest Migrants. — Should spring-like
periods occur during the latter half of February, the
southern coasts of England and Ireland receive, after a
passage across the Channel, the first birds to return from
their Continental winter retreats.^ These belong to that
section of our summer birds known as Partial Migrants ;
the species seeking again their native land at this
period are Song - Thrushes, Mistle - Thrushes, Red-
breasts, Starlings, Goldcrests, Skylarks, Pied and Grey
Wagtails, Meadow-Pipits, and Lapwings. These earliest
immigrations of the year come chiefly under notice at
the light-stations, and I have been furnished with many
valuable data regarding them from the advantageously
situated watch-tower on the Eddystone. At ordinary
points on the coast they are liable to be overlooked,
for the arrivals chiefly take place during the hours of
darkness, being timed between 7 p.m. and 6.30 a.m.
Starlings, however, have been observed making for the
Cornish coast during the forenoon. In most seasons
the return is a gradual one, but occasionally a rush is
recorded, as, for instance, at the Eddystone on the night of
I9th-20th February, 1903. On this occasion, from 7 p.m.
to 5 A.M., Starlings, Song-Thrushes, Mistle-Thrushes,
Skylarks, and Lapwings were passing northwards in
numbers, and many came to grief by dashing against
the lantern. This is only one of many similar move-
ments recorded in the returns from this important station.

1 The earliest date known to me for such immigrations is nth February,
and the birds chronicled were Skylarks.

MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 109

Late in the month numbers of Rooks, StarHngs, and
Skylarks occasionally arrive from the Continent during
the daytime on the south-east coast between Kent
and Norfolk, but as these immigrations more properly
belong to March, they will be treated of when dealing
with the movements observed during that month.

Associated with the return of these British native
birds from the south are the similar movements of those
birds (Fieldfares, Redwings, Blackbirds, etc.) which had
fled our country in the winter owing to the severity of
the weather.

Exceptional Arrival of Summer Visitors} — In
February, strange to relate, a few species which are
essentially summer visitors to our islands, have been
known to be so very indiscreet as to appear upon our,
as yet, inhospitable shores, it is to be feared in most
cases with disastrous results. The visits of these
deluded birds must be regarded as phenomenal, and are
perhaps to be accounted for by an outburst of exception-
ally fine weather in the regions in which they have spent
the preceding part of the winter. The following are
the species which have been recorded : — Ring-Ouzel,
Wheatear, Blackcap, Chiff-Chaff, Tree-Pipit, Swallow,
Sand-Martin, Nightjar, Hobby, Garganey, and Stone-
Curlew. In some instances, however, it is possible that
certain of the species named may have passed the winter
in our islands, especially in the southern counties ;
indeed a few or single individuals of the Ring-Ouzel,
Blackcap, Chiff-Chaff, Garganey, and Stone-Curlew have
been known to do so in seasons of unusual mildness.

Emigration of Winter Visitors. — In genial seasons.
Skylarks and Blackbirds which have been winter guests

' For particulars of dates of arrival of Summer Visitors, see pp. 126-128.

110 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

in our islands are sometimes observed from the third
week of February at the Hghthouses, and other suitably
situated watching stations, under circumstances which
leave little doubt that they were departing for their
northern native lands. " Grey Geese," Brent Geese, and
Iceland Gulls have also been observed moving north-
wards at the same period.

The chief emigratory movements of the month, how-
ever, are those of Rooks and Skylarks departing across
the southern waters of the North Sea en route for
Western Central Europe, whence they came in the
autumn to pass the winter with us. These emigrations
are embarked upon on the south-east coast of England,
and the movements are much in evidence at the lightships
stationed off the coasts from Norfolk to Kent, where the
birds are observed, during the daytime, proceeding
towards the east and south-east, i.e., in the direction of
Holland, Belgium, and north-eastern France.

March. — In its climatic aspects March is a variable
month. The advance in temperature over that of
February is comparatively small in the British Isles,
though on the Continent the increase is rapidly proceed-
ing. With us the average amount of sunshine is 7 per
cent, of the annual, as against 5 per cent, for the previous
month. Though March witnesses a conflict between
expiring winter and the advance of spring, yet much
migration of a varied nature is performed, and hence
it is an important month in the calendar of the bird-
watcher.

Local Movements. — ^The local migrations from British
winter to summer haunts are much in evidence, and
relate (in addition to the birds already mentioned for

MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 111

February) to the return to their nesting quarters of the
Pied and Grey Wagtails, Twite, MerHn, Mallard, Teal,
Woodcock, Black-headed Gull, and others ; while many
Ring-Plovers, Richardson's Skuas, and Fulmar Petrels
appear for the summer in the northern archipelagos of
Orkney and Shetland, and other boreal localities. The
local movements also include the departure from the
islands off the west coasts of Scotland and Ireland of a
number of species which, having passed the winter in
the milder climes of the Far West, are returning to
their summer quarters in Great Britain or the Sister
Isle. Such migrants consist chiefly of Greenfinches,
Chaffinches, Twites, Song-Thrushes, Blackbirds, and
Starlings.

Arrival of Partial Migrants. — The return journeys
from their southern Continental winter retreats of the
Partial Migrants are continued, and reach their maximum
during March, all the species recorded as arriving on the
south coast of England for P^ebruary being observed, and,
in addition, the Woodcock and Curlew. Considerable
numbers of Rooks (occasionally accompanied by Jack-
daws) and of Starlings and Skylarks arrive during the
daytime on the south-east coast between Kent and
Norfolk throughout the month, and their immigrations
are sometimes prolonged into the first week of April.
These arrivals sometimes occur for several successive
days, and the birds returning are doubtless those which
were observed leaving these same shores for those of the
Continent during the previous autumn.

Arrival of Stiuimer Visitors} — The Summer Visitors
which have been known to appear in our islands during
March are thirty-eight in number. Of these, however,

^ For particulars of dates of arrival of Summer Visitors, see pp. 126-128.

112 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

only about ten can be regarded as being regular in
their appearance, chiefly in the southern counties of
England, and most of them during the latter half of the
month. These regular March summer birds are the
Ring-Ouzel, Wheatear, Chiff-Chaff, Willow- Warbler,
Swallow, Sand-Martin, Wryneck, Garganey, and Sand-
wich Tern. Others less constant, but not infrequent in
their visits, are the Redstart, Blackcap, White Wagtail
(for passage). Yellow Wagtail, House - Martin, and
Common Sandpiper : ^ while the recorded appearance of
the Whinchat, Nightingale, Common and Lesser White-
throats, Garden- Warbler, Sedge- Warbler, Tree-Pipit,
Spotted and Pied Flycatchers, Red-backed Shrike, Swift,
Cuckoo, Hoopoe, Hobby, Corn - Crake, Dotterel, Ruff
and Reeve, Whimbrel, and Lesser Tern, must be
regarded as quite exceptional.

The following summer birds reach Scotland during
the month, with more or less regularity : — The Ring-
Ouzel, Wheatear, Chiff-Chaff, Sand-Martin, and
Swallow ; rarely the House - Martin ; very rarely the
Willow- Warbler and the Redstart. The Lesser Black-
backed Gull, which is chiefly a summer visitor in
Scotland, also appears during the month.

The Ring-Ouzel, Wheatear, Chiff-Chaff, and Sand-
Martin are regular March visitors to Ireland. The
Swallow is seldom observed before April, but appeared
over a wide area during the latter half of March in 1903.

The meteorological character of the month has a
marked effect on the date of appearance of these first
arrivals among the summer birds. Thus during the
prolonged spell of genial weather which rendered March

^ For the date of first appearance, and usual dates of arrival of the
Summer Visitors, see pp. 126-128.

MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 113

in 1884 remarkable for a warmth exceeding that experi-
enced during this month for many years, no less than
sixteen species of spring migrants were recorded as
having appeared in our islands. The March of 1886
was another month of exceptional geniality, and it, too,
had a goodly show of spring birds. On the other hand,
the March of 1883 was cold in the extreme, and only
the Ring-Ouzel, Wheatear, Chiff-Chaff, and Swallow
were noted. In 1885 the month was also remarkable
for its ungeniality, and likewise for the fewness of its
spring birds.

Alongf with the British summer fjuests there arrive
on the south coast numerous Redwings and Fieldfares
from the south. These birds are returning to their
summer homes in Northern Europe, but it is doubtful if
they proceed beyond our shores during the month.

Eviigratioii of Winter Visitors. — March witnesses
the beginning of the great departure movements, for
their summer haunts, of the birds which have been
winter cruests in our islands. The migrations north-
wards are much in evidence at suitably situated stations
on and near the more boreal sections of our coast-line ;
and much information concerning the species partici-
pating in them, and the dates at which they are
performed, will be afforded in the special study devoted
to Fair Isle. The departing visitors quit the mainland
during the night, and many make this, and other favour-
ably situated isles of the Orkney and Shetland group, a
resting place.

The species quitting the British Isles and moving
northwards during March include Song - Thrushes,
Blackbirds, Redbreasts, Goldcrests, Chaffinches, Bram-
blings. Mealy Redpolls, Yellow Buntings, Reed Bunt-

I. H

114 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

ings, Lapland Buntings, Starlings, Rooks, Skylarks,
Shore Larks, Short-eared Owls, "Grey Geese," Brent
Geese, Whooper and Bewick's Swans, Mallards, Gad-
walls, Wigeons, Golden-eyes, Scaup, Long-tailed Ducks,
Red-breasted Mergansers, Golden Plovers, Lapwings,
Woodcocks, Dunlins, Curlews, Little Auks, and Red-
throated Divers.

The emigratory movements from the south-east
coast of England in an easterly direction towards the
coasts of Holland, Belgium, and north-eastern France,
which commenced during February, become more pro-
nounced, and the travellers include Black Redstarts,
Tree- Sparrows, Chaffinches, Starlings, Hooded Crows,
Rooks, Jackdaws, and Skylarks. Numbers of some of
these species, the Grey Crows in particular, move south-
wards along the shores of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire
in order to reach the scene of embarkation on the coasts
of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex.

April. — This is the first month of the year in which
the increase of temperature usually makes itself pro-
nouncedly felt over both our insular and the continental
areas. In the British Isles the isotherms then make
the nearest approach to straight lines, though with
a slant from W.N.W. to E.S.E. It is a month of
much sunshine, the amount rising to 13 per cent,
of the annual. The winter type of distribution of
temperature, in which the inland values are lower than
those on the coast, disappears, and the summer type,
with its high inland values and low coast values, takes
its place, and prevails until October.

Throughout the month the movements of migrants
are of a pronounced nature.

MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 115

Local Movef)ie7tis. — The following species, which
have wintered on our shores or their neighbourhood,
return to their nesting haunts during the month : —
The Dunlin, Fork-tailed Petrel, Shelduck, Eider Duck,
Great Skua, Arctic Skua, Puffin, and Razorbill ; in
addition to others which commenced their return in
March.

Arrival of Swnnier Visitors} — All the species which
are summer visitors to our islands (see page 46), with
the exception of the Marsh- Warbler and the Red-
necked Phalarope, arrive on our shores. The inflowing
stream is a continuous one during the prevalence of
meteorological conditions suited for their journeys ; but
it is not until the second week of the month that the
main body of these summer guests appears, and the
flowing tide is maintained to and beyond the close of
the month. Some species, however, are decidedly irre-
gular in their appearance thus early in the season,
among them the Nightjar; while others, such as the
Whinchat, Common and Lesser Whitethroats, Garden-
Warbler, Wood- Warbler, Reed- Warbler, Sedge- Warbler,
Red-backed Shrike, Pied and Spotted Flycatchers, Swift,
Turtle Dove, Land-Rail, Dotterel, Arctic, Roseate, and
Little Terns arrive more abundantly in May.

Immediately after arrival on the southern shores
of England, our summer birds proceed north, east, and
west to reach their accustomed nesting haunts in
various parts of the British area.

Some of these April immigrations not only comprise
a great multitude of individuals, but include many
species moving in company. Thus at the Eddystone

1 For particulars of dates of earliest appearance, and usual dates of
arrival of the Summer Visitors, see pp. 126-128.

116 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

lighthouse, on the night of iith April and the early-
morning of the 1 2th, 1902, a vast movement was
witnessed, the weather at the time being suitable for
bringing the birds under notice of the observers — namely,
a moderate breeze accompanied by thick rain, which pre-
vailed the whole of the night. The migration first became
apparent at 8.45 p.m., with the arrival of Wheatears,
which passed continuously to the north-west in great
numbers until 11 p.m. These were closely followed by
numerous Song-Thrushes ; and at midnight hundreds of
Ring-Ouzels and Redwings came upon the scene, accom-
panied by Starlings, Swallows, and "a perfect cloud of
small birds," composed of Redstarts, Nightingales, Black-
caps, Tree-Pipits, and many other species, examples of
which were either not killed at the lantern, or, being
injured, were lost in the sea below. Great numbers of
Wheatears again appeared at 1.30 a.m., and continued,
with the other species, to pass northwards until 5 a.m.
From midnight until 4 a.m. "the air seemed to be thick
with birds, but they melted away, as it were, on the
appearance of dawn." Examples of all the species named
were submitted to me for identification. At the Owers
liofht-vessel, stationed off the east side of the Isle of
Wight, many Cuckoos, Redwings, and a great number of
"warblers," occurred at the same time, and many were
killed by striking against the lantern.

These records from the Eddystone and the Owers
are of further interest, since they clearly indicate that in
addition to the summer guests making for our islands,
such as the Nightingale, Tree-Pipit, Cuckoo, etc., etc.,
there were also simultaneously seeking our shores a
number of birds on passage to countries beyond our
area — namely. Redwings, Song-Thrushes, and Starlings.

AIICRATOUY lURDS: SPRING 117

The Redwings were obviously on their way to their
northern breeding grounds, and there can be Httle
doubt that the Song-Thrushes and StarHngs arriving at
that date were on a similar errand. The mixture of
migrants indicated is not the exception, but the rule, at
this period of the season ; and later it becomes quite
impossible to discriminate, in the case of identical
species, between indi\^iduals which are bent upon spend-
inof the summer in our isles, and those which are en route
to nesting haunts beyond our shores. These remarks do
not apply to the Nightingale, Reed- Warbler, Marsh-
Warbler, Grasshopper Warbler, Thicknee or Stone
Curlew, Kentish Plover, etc., which are summer visitors
only, and do not occur as birds of passage on our shores.

Passage Movements} — The arrivals on our shores
during April include a fresh set of migrants for the
season — namely, the Birds of Passage which are en
route from their southern winter quarters to their
summer homes to the north and east of us.

The first of these arrivals appear in company with
our summer visitors, as has just been related, and they
often leave us in company with birds of the same species
which have spent the winter in our midst, such as the
Redwing, Fieldfare, and many others, which are likewise
proceeding to their northern summer quarters. When
this is the case, it is impossible to distinguish between
the individuals on passage and emigrating British winter
visitors ; the birds of passage, however, seldom make
their way inland, but traverse the coast-lines and their
vicinity, though they be Thrushes, Warblers, or other
land-birds.

^ For a list of the Birds of Passage, with the dates between which their
movements are performed, see page 129.

I. H 2

118 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

The Birds of Passage which are observed in our
islands during the month number about seventy species,
and include (apart from species which are also British
emigrants) the Ring-Ouzel, Blackcap, Willow- Warbler,
Redstart, White Wagtail, Whinchat, Ortolan Bunting,
Pied Flycatcher, Swallow, Sand-Martin, Wryneck, Green
Sandpiper, Wood Sandpiper, Little Stint and Whimbrel.
The majority of these occur during the latter half of the
month, and are on their way to northern lands, but some
of them are not observed every year as passing April
mig-rants.

Emigration of Winter Visitors. — The departure of
those birds which have spent the winter in our islands
sets in in earnest during April. Among the emigrants
proceeding to their northern homes are the Gold-
crest, Hedge Accentor, Great Grey Shrike, Siskin,
Mealy Redpoll, Short-eared Owl, Kestrel, Grey Lag,
White- fronted, Pink-footed, Barnacle, and Brent Geese,
Whooper and Bewick's Swans ; among ducks the
Tufted, Golden-eye, and Long-tailed species ; the Water-
Rail, Woodcock, Jack Snipe, Greenshank, and Glaucous
Gull ; and among rarer species the Little and Lapland
Buntings, Snowy Owl, Rough-legged Buzzard, Green-
land Falcon, and Smew.

The departure movements of the Central European
birds among these winter guests, which commenced in
February, are still in progress from the south-east coast
of England, but terminate with the month. These
emigrants to the eastwards are of the same species as
those recorded for the previous month, but it is probable
that the Hoopoes which traverse the south coast at
this season may also find their way to their Continental
summer homes by this North Sea route.

MIGRATORY BIRDS: SPRING 119

May. — In May the tide of spring migration rises to
its maximum height. The arrivals in and departures
from our islands are many, and the numbers of the
migrants great, but the most important, so far as
volume is concerned, are the movements of birds on
their passage from the south to the north, which are in
progress along our shores throughout the month.

Arrival of Sunivier Visitors} — Our summer guests
still pour into Great Britain and Ireland, especially
during the first half of the month. This is particularly
the case with those species whose average date of first
arrival is in the latter half of April, such as the Lesser
Whitethroat, Garden-Warbler, Grasshopper Warbler,
Reed- Warbler, Red-backed Shrike, Spotted Flycatcher,
Pied Flycatcher, Nightjar, Swift, Honey-Buzzard, Turtle
Dove, Corn-Crake, Quail, Dotterel, Common Tern, Arctic
Tern, Lesser Tern, and Red-necked Phalarope,all of which
are characteristic of May in most parts of the British area.
On the other hand, certain species which are among the
earliest summer birds to arrive, such as the Ring-Ouzel,
Wheatcar, Chiff-Chaff, Swallow, Sand- Martin, Yellow
Wagtail, Willow- Warbler, Blackcap, Wryneck, and
Sandpiper, do not appear as summer residents beyond
the earliest days of the month, though they arrive on
and traverse our shores as birds of passage throughout
its days.

Sometimes we have a sharp and melancholy reminder
that

" Winter, lingering, chills the lap of May."

This was the case in 1886, when in the second week of
May, after several very cold days for the time of the

^ For particulars of dates of arrival of the Summer Visitors, see p.
126.

120 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

year, a severe north-east gale set in, accompanied by
heavy rain and sleet In the valleys, and several inches
of snow on the fells. During this period the insect-
feeding birds perished in thousands, Swallows, House-
Martins, Sand- Martins, and Swifts being the greatest
sufferers.

Passage Movements} — May, as we have said, is pre-
eminently the month for the passage northwards along
our shores of the vast numbers of birds which, having
passed the winter in southern regions, are on their way
to spend the summer in the sub-arctic and arctic lands
from Greenland to Western Siberia. An important
climatic feature of the month, and one that has con-
siderable bearings upon these movements, is the rise
of temperature that takes place in the inland portions of
Scandinavia, rendering this great peninsula suitable for
the return of its vast array of summer birds.

These birds arrive on our southern shores and pro-
ceed northwards with little or no delay, travelling along
both the east and west coast routes. On the advent
of suitable weather-conditions following decidedly adverse
periods, the movements take the form of impetuous rushes,
which are participated in by species representing
widely different orders, from delicate Warblers, Wag-
tails, Finches, Swallows, etc., to Birds of Prey,
Plovers, Sandpipers, Geese, Skuas, etc. Pronounced
movements are, indeed, not uncommon during May,
and the migrations of the great majority of the species
cover the entire month.

The May birds of passage, not including those species
which are also emigrating British winter visitors, to be
mentioned immediately, are the Ring-Ouzel, Wheatear,

' For particulars of the dates of Passage Movements, see p. 129.

:MIGRAT0RY birds : SPRING 121

Greater Wheatear, Whinchat, Redstart, Whitethroat,
Lesser Whitethroat, Blackcap, Garden-Warbler, Willow-
Warbler, Chiff-Chaff, Sedge- Warbler, White Wagtail,
Grey-headed Wagtail, Tree- Pipit, Red-backed Shrike,
Pied and Common Flycatchers, Swallow, Martin,
Ortolan Bunting, Swift, Nightjar, Wryneck, Cuckoo,
Honey-Buzzard, Osprey, Corn-Crake, Dotterel, Red-
necked Phalarope, Great Snipe, Little Stint, Curlew
Sandpiper, Common Sandpiper, Wood Sandpiper, Green
Sandpiper, Spotted Redshank, Black - tailed Godwit,
Whimbrel, and Buffon's Skua.

Much information on these movements will be
afforded in the studies devoted to Fair Isle.

Emigration of Winter Visitors. — May, especially its
first half, is also a month for much emigration on the
part of those northern birds which have wintered in our
islands. These departure movements, as already stated,
are much mixed with those of the birds of passage also
proceeding northwards at the same time ; and when the
species are identical, it is impossible to discriminate
between them. These birds flit away from us during
the night, taking their departure from the eastern and
northern coasts.

These May emigrants (those marked thus * being
also birds of passage) are the *Mistle-Thrush, *Field-
fare, *Redwing, ^Blackbird, *Song-Thrush, ^Redbreast,
*Hedge-Accentor, *Meadow-Pipit, ^Chaffinch, *Bram-
bling, ^Siskin, Mealy Redpoll, Yellow Bunting,
Reed-Bunting, ^^Snow Bunting, *Short-eared Owl,
*Long-eared Owl, *Ring Dove, *White-fronted Goose,
Pink-footed Goose, Barnacle Goose, *Wigeon, ^Pintail,
Scaup, Golden-eye, Long-tailed Duck, ^Merganser,
Ringed Plover, Lapwing, *Golden Plover, ^-'Grey Plover,

122 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

*Woodcock, ^Turnstone, *Grey Phalarope, *Snipe,
*Jack Snipe, ^Dunlin, Purple Sandpiper, *Knot, *Red-
shank, *Sanderling, *Bar-tailed Godwit, '^'Curlew,
Little Grebe, *Great Northern Diver, and * Black-
throated Diver.

June. — June witnesses the close of the spring
migratory movements. Few birds arrive as summer
visitors during the month, but the Marsh-Warbler is one
of them, being the latest of all to appear.

Several species of Birds of Passage whose summer
homes lie within the arctic circle, or amid the polar
regions, continue to traverse our shores, some of them
in considerable numbers, during the earlier days of the
month, and even beyond that period.

Among these latest spring travellers are the Mealy
Redpoll, Snow- Bunting, Greater Wheatear, Osprey,
"Swans," "Wild Geese," Golden-eye, Scaup, Golden
Plover, Grey Plover, Knot, Turnstone, Red-necked
Phalarope, Purple Sandpiper, Dunlin, Little Stint,
Sanderling, Bar-tailed Godwit, Black-tailed Godwit,
Whimbrel, Pomatorhine Skua, Buffon's Skua, Great
Northern Diver, and Red-throated Diver. Others there
are which have only occasionally been recorded for the
month, but whose appearance may not, perhaps, be so
unusual as the scanty data would lead us to suppose.
These are the Honey - Buzzard, Barnacle Goose,
Wigeon, Long-tailed Duck, Jack Snipe, Ruff, Green
Sandpiper, Wood Sandpiper, Spotted Redshank, and
Greenshank ; while Black Terns and Spoonbills have
been noted as visitors to the south-east coast of
England.

In addition to these, individuals of a number of

MIGRATORY RIRDS : SPRING 123

species appear at stations where there is no mistaking
the nature of their visits. These are the remnants of
the rear-guard of the feathered army which has already
passed to its summer quarters, and in its ranks are to
be found Swallows, Martins, Red-backed Shrikes, Tree-
Pipits, Spotted Flycatchers, Willow-Warblers, Garden-
Warblers, Blackcaps, Common Whitethroats, Lesser
Whitethroats, Redstarts, Arctic Bluethroats, Swifts,
Nightjars, Cuckoos, Wrynecks, Corn-Crakes, and
Common Sandpipers.

In connection with the arrival of the Summer Visitors,
an interesting fact remains to be related — one that was
first made known through the " Digest of Observations "
submitted to the British Association in 1896. When
studying the vast data amassed by the Migration
Committee, I found that the great majority of our
summer birds appeared on the west coast of England
some days in advance of their arrival in their eastern
haunts. More recent investigations have confirmed this,
and have made known to us that the same rule applies
to Scotland, where the Solway and Clyde areas receive
their first spring migrants some days earlier than the
areas of Tweed and Forth. Thus the Swallow arrives
on the south-west coast of Scotland several days
earlier than in the south-east. It is not unnatural that
the British summer birds should seek first those portions
of our islands which are the most genial at this early
period of the season. A reference to a map giving the
spring isotherms, shows us that in March the Solway
has an average temperature equal to that of the Thames,
the Clyde to that of the Tyne ; and that in April it is as
warm in Cantyre as it is about the Wash and H umber.

124 STCTDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Another feature of the spring migration, already briefly
alluded to, is worthy of consideration. We have seen
that the Birds of Passage are the latest of all the spring
migrants to appear on our shores. At the time that
many of them are traversing our islands on their way
to the north, the British residents and summer visitors
of the same species are already either deeply occupied
in the incubation of their eggs or actually tending their
broods — among others the Song-Thrush, Blackbird,
Ring - Ouzel, Wheatear, Golden Plover, Woodcock,
Dunlin, Snipe, Redshank, Common Sandpiper, and
Curlew.

In most cases it would be utter folly for the migrants
bound for the Far North to seek their summer haunts
there at earlier periods, since the climatic conditions
then prevailing render them totally unsuited for their
reception.^

Spring Castial Visitors. — A considerable number of
rare visitors of various species appear annually in the
British Islands as waifs during the period covered by
the spring migratory movements. Each year produces
a more or less abundant crop. Most of them belong to
species whose breeding haunts are in Southern and
Central Europe, and some may have reached our shores
by accident, when journeying from their African winter
quarters to their native land, having for some reason
overshot their customary northern or western limit.
These visits may be, and no doubt often are, accounted
for by the voyagers having encountered strong southerly
or easterly winds when en route for their Continental
summer haunts, and thus having been swept out of their

' See Plate III., showing the advance of spring.

MIGRATORY BIRDS . SPRING 125

course reach our shores. Good examples of 'migrants
hopelessly lost at this season are furnished by the
occurrence of such species as the Desert Wheatear at
the Pentland Skerries, Savi's Warbler at Fair Isle, the
Subalpine Warbler at St Kilda and Fair Isle, the
Red-rumped Swallow at Fair Isle, and many other
instances equally astonishing of the appearance in our
islands of waifs and wanderers from far-off lands.

Other casual visitors at this season belong to species
in which the nomadic habit is strongly developed, such
as the Rose-coloured Pastor or Starling, and Pallas'
Sand-Grouse. The visits of such species are, of
course, more or less erratic, and the birds appear at
irregular intervals and in varying numbers.

[Appendix I.

126

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APPENDIX : DATES OF PASSAGE 129

Appendix II. — Dates of the Movements of the
Birds of Passage in Spring and Autumn

The following data have been mainly derived from
observations made at stations where the various species
are visitors on passage only.

Much remains to be ascertained regarding the times
of the migrations of certain of the Ducks, Geese, Gulls,
Divers, and other swimming birds, whose passages
are performed at sea, and hence largely escape notice.
The periods of the passage movements of some
of these, and of several other species, are not given,
as the data available are too fragmentary to be of
value. The latest dates quoted often, no doubt, relate
to the appearance of stragglers : —

Grey Crow.

Spring. — 9th March to 12th May.

Autumn. — 3rd August to 2nd November. Chiefly October.

Starling.

Spring. — 22nd March to 17th April.

Autumn. — 9th September to 22nd November. Chiefly October.

Chaffinch.

Spring. — 22 nd March to 12 th May. Chiefly April.
Autumn. — 3rd September to 20th November. Chiefly October to
mid-November.

Brambling.

Spring. — 8th April to 20th May.

Autumn. — 17th September to 15th November. Chiefly late September
and in October.

I. I

130 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Siskin.

Spring. — 19th April to 13th May.

Autumn. — 22nd September to 25th November.

Mealy Redpoll.

Spring. — 14th March to 29th May.

Autumn. — 21st September to 28th November. Chiefly latter half of
October.

Reed-Bunting.

Spring. — 26th March to 28th May. Chiefly second week of April to

mid-May.
Autumn.— 20th September to nth November.

Yellow Bunting.

Spring. — 22nd March to 23rd May.
Autttmn. — 17th September to 19th November.

Ortolan Bunting.

Spri?ig. — 30th April to 6th June. Chiefly mid-May.
Autumn. — 29th August to i6th October. Chiefly September.

Snow-Bunting.

Spring. — 1 2th March to 8th June. Chiefly latter half of March and

early April.
Autumn. — 8th September to loth November. Chiefly October.

Lapland Bunting.

Spring. — 25th March to 2nd May,

Autujnn. — 25th August to 29th October. Chiefly September and early
October.

Shore-Lark.

Spring. — 1 8th March to 22nd April.
Autu?nn. — nth September to 17th November.

Skylark.

Spring. — March to 7th May to north. Mid-February to end of IVIarch

to east.
Autumn. —17th September to 15th November. Chiefly October.

APPENDIX: DATES OF PASSAGE 131

Pied Wagtail.
Spring. — 9th March to 8th May. Chiefly late March to mid-April.
Autumn. — 22nd July to 4th November. Chiefly August.

White W.\gtail.
Spring. — 7th April to 31st May. Chiefly ist to 21st May.
Autumn. — gth August to 1 7th November. Chiefly September.

(iREV-HEADED WaGTAIL.

spring.— 5th May to 3rd June. Chiefly latter half of May.
Autumn. — 26th September to 4th November.

Tree-Pipit.
Spring. — 5th May to lolh June. Chiefly latter half of May.
Autumn. — 26th August to 9th November. Chiefly latter half of
September.

Meadow-Pipit.
Spring. — 20th March to 22nd May. Chiefly late April to mid-May.
Autumn. — 29th August to iSth November. Chiefly September to mid-
October.

Goldcrest (Continental race).
Spring. — 25th March to 8th May. Chiefly April.
Autumn. — 8th September to 25th November. Chiefly late September
and during October.

Great Grev Shrike.
Spring. — 6th April to 27th April.
Autumn. — 1st September to 30th November.

Red-backed Shrike.
Spring. — 5th May to 4th June.
Autumn. — 5th August to 3rd October. Chiefly September.

Whitethroat.
Spring. — 4th May to 8th June.
Autumn. — 27th August to 9th November. Chiefly September.

Lesser 'Whitethroat.
Spring. — 23rd April to 9th June. Chiefly last three weeks of May.
Autumn. — 20th August to 6th November. Chiefly September.

132 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Blackcap.
Spring. — 28th April to 3rd and 15th June. Chiefly latter half of May.
Autumn. — 24th August to 22nd November. Chiefly September.

Garden-Warbler.
Spring. — 9th May to loth June. Chiefly mid-May.
Autumn. — 17th August to 25th November. Chiefly September.

Barred Warbler.
Autumn. — 3rd August to 13th November. Chiefly September.

Willow-Warbler.
Spring. — \^i\\ April to 6th June. Chiefly first three weeks of May.
Autumn. — 7th August to 13th November. Chiefly September.

Chiffchaff, p. collybita abietina.
Spring. — 7th May to ist June. Chiefly middle weeks of May.
Autumn. — 26th September to i8th November. Chiefly late September
and early October.

Yellow-browed Warbler.
Spring. — nth April, 1909.

Autumn. — ^i6th September to 29th October. Chiefly late September
to mid-October.

IcTERiNE Warbler.
Spring.— i,\h May to ist June.
Autumn. — 4th to 29th September.

Sedge-Warbler.
Spring. — 7th May to 3rd June. Chiefly middle weeks of May.
Autumn. — loth August to 29th November. Chiefly September.

Mistle-Thrush.
Spring. — 6th March to 6th May.
Autumn. — ist October to 20th November. Chiefly late October.

Song-Thrush.
Spring. — 22nd March 1909, and 8th April to 22nd May. Chiefly late

April to early May.
Autumn. — 4th September to 25th November. Chiefly latter half of

October to third week of November.

APPENDIX : DATES OF PASSAGE 133

Redwing.

Spring. — 22nd March 1909, and 8th April to 12th May. Chiefly April.
Autumn. — 19th September to 22nd November. Chiefly October and
November.

Fieldfare.

Spring. — 22nd March 1909, and 8th April to 28th May. Chiefly

second week of April to mid-May.
Autumn. — 22nd September to 25th November. Chiefly latter half of

October to end of third week of November.

Blackbird.

Spring. — 24th March to r2th May. Chiefly April.
Autumn. — 14th September to 29th November. Chiefly after mid-
October.

Ring Ouzel.

Spring. — i8th March 1906, and 8th April to 21st May. Chiefly last

week April to mid-May.
Autumn. — 24th August, and 23rd September to 2 7th November. Chiefly

latter half of October.

Redbreast (Continental race).

Spring. — 8th April to 23rd May. Chiefly April and first week of May.
Autumn. — 20th September to 24th November. Chiefly latter half of
October and first week of November.

Red-spotted Bluethroat.

Spring. — 24th April to 2nd June. Chiefly mid-May.
Autumn. — 3rd September to nth October. Chiefly latter half of
September.

Redstart.

Spring. — 22nd March 1909, and 4th April to 6th June. Chiefly second

and third weeks of May.
Autumn. — 29th August to 7th November. Chiefly latter half of

September.

Wheatear.

Spring. — 5th April to 12th May. Chiefly late April.
Autumn. — 15th August to 14th November. Chiefly September.
I. I 2

134 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Greater Wheatear.

Spring. — 27th April to ist June.

Autumn. — 5th September to 20th November. Chiefly September.

Whinchat.

Spring. — 30th April to 6th June. Chiefly second and third weeks of

May,
Autuinn. — 24th August to 9th November. Chiefly September.

Spotted Flycatcher.

Spring. — 12th May to 14th June.

Autumn. — i6th August to 30th November. Chiefly September.

Pied Flycatcher.

Spring. — 15th and 30th April to 24th May. Chiefly middle weeks of

May.
Autumn. — 24th August to 5th November. Chiefly September.

Swallow.

Spring. — 17th and 30th April to 8th June. Chiefly second week to

end of May.
Autumn. — 9th September to 13th November. Chiefly mid-September

to mid-October.

Martin.

Spring. — 7th May to 8th June. Chiefly late May and early June.
Autumn. — September to i6th November. Chiefly mid-September to
mid-October.

Sand-Martin.

Spring. — 28th April to ist June.
Autumn. — September to 12th November.

Swift.

Spring. — 8th May to 23rd June. Chiefly late May.
Autumn. — July to i6th November. Chiefly August.

Nightjar.

Spring. — 20th May to loth June.
Autumn. — 17th August to iSth October.

APPENDIX: DATES OF PASSAGE 135

Wryneck.
Spring. — 30th April to 4th June. Chiefly second and third weeks of

May.
Autumn. — 19th August to i6th November. Chiefly September.

Hoopoe.

Spring. — 30II1 March to 20th May.
Autumn. — 8th August to 21st November.

Cuckoo.

Spring. — 8th May to Sth June. Chiefly second and third weeks of

May,
.lutu/nn. — i6\.h. August to 26th November. Chiefly latter half of

August.

Long-eared Owl.

Spring. — 14th March to 23rd May.
Autumn. — 13th October to i6th November.

Short-eared Owl.

Spring. — 25th March to 12th May. Chiefly April and early May.
Autumn. — 28th September to 13th November. Chiefly latter half of
October.

Honey- Buzzard.

Spring. — 2 1 St May to nth June.

Autumn. — ^2 9th July to 22nd October. Chiefly September.

Merlin.
Autumn. — 30th August to 12th November.

Kestrel.

Spring. — 1 6th March to i8th May.

Autumn. — 25th August to i2lh November. Chiefly September.

Osprey'.

Spring. — May and early June.

Autumn. — September and October to 17th November. Chiefly
September and October.

136 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Mallard.

Spring. — 25th March to 14th May.

Autumn. — 12th September to 28th November.

Teal.

Spring. — 25th March to nth May.
Autumn.- — 30th August to 29th November.

WiGEON.

Spring. — 25th March to nth May and 12th June.

Autumn. — 30th August to 23rd November. Chiefly October.

Tufted Uuck.

Spring. — 24th April to loth May.
Autumn. — 29th October to 27th November.

SCAUP-DuCK.

Spring. — 24th March to 12th June.
Autumn. — 22nd September to 9th November.

GOLDENEYE.

spring. — 23rd March to 12th June.
Autumn. — 14th September to 21st November.

Common Scoter.

Spring. — 29th April to 7th June.
Autumn. — ^5th September to late October.

Velvet-Scoter.
Sprifig. — 31st April and during May.
Autumn. — 17th September to 20th October.

Red-breasted Merganser.

Spring. — 1 6th March to 14th May. Chiefly early May.
Autumn.~yd September to 31st October. Chiefly September and
early October.

RiNG-DoVE.

Spring. — 23rd March to 31st May. Chiefly April and May.
Autumn. — 25th September to loth November. Chiefly mid-October.

APPENDIX: DATES OF PASSAGE 137

Corn-Crake.
Spring. — 30th April to 2nd June.
Autumn. — 20th August to 19th November.

Water-Rail.

Spring. — 29th March to 4th May.

Autumn. — 21st September to 17th November.

Dotterel.

Spring. — 5th May to 15th June.
Autumn. — i6th August to 26th October.

Ringed Plover.

Spring. — 23rd March to i6th May.

Autumn. — 2nd September to 14th November.

Golden Plover.

Spring. — 22nd March to 30th May. Chiefly mid-April to mid-May.
Autumn. — 2nd September to 30th November. Chiefly latter half of
September.

Grey Plover.

Spring. — 30th March to 7th June. Chiefly May.

Autumn. — 7th August to 9th November. Chiefly September.

Lapwing.
Spring. — 22nd March to 21st May. Chiefly April.
Autumn. — 7th September to i8th November. Chiefly October.

Turnstone.

Spring. — 30th March to 4th June. Chiefly May.

Autumn. — 14th August to 21st November. Chiefly September.

Oyster-catcher.
Spring. — 1 6th March to 2nd May.
Autumn. — September to 14th November.

138 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Red-necked Phalarope.

Spring. — r6th May to 19th June.
Autumn. — September to nth November.

Woodcock.

Spring. — 23rd March to 7 th May.

Autumn. — 23rd September to 22nd November. Chiefly fourth week
of October and first week of November.

Great Snipe.

Spring. — 5 th to 15 th May.

Autumn. — 26th July to 16th November. Chiefly September and
October.

Common Snipe.

Spring. — 9th April to 9th May.

Autumn. — 4th September to 26th November.

Jack Snipe.

Spring. — 24th March 1909, and i6th April to 20th May.
Autumn. — nth September (20th August 1893) to 24th November.
Chiefly latter half of September and early October.

Dunlin.

Spring. — •22 nd March to 9th June. Chiefly May.
Autumn. — 9th August to 4th November. Chiefly late August and
during September.

Little Stint.

Spring. — 20th April to i8th June.

Autumn. — 27th July to 9th November. Chiefly September.

Curlew Sandpiper.

Spring. — 2 7lh April to 31st May.

Autumn.— 2o\.\\ July to iSth November. Chiefly late August and early
September.

APPENDIX : DATES OF PASSAGE 139

PuRPLF. Sandpiper.
Spri?!g. — I St April to 5th June.
Autu»in. — 4th August to 17th October.

Knot.
Spring. — 6th April to 2Sth May.

Autumn. — 13th August to 30th November. Chiefly latter half of
August and during September.

Sanderling.
Spring. — 6tli April to 12th June.
Autumn. — iijlh July to 14th November. Chiefly August.

Ruff.

Spring. — 5th \[ay to 4th June.

Autumn. — 17th July to 2nd November. Chiefly first half of September.

Common S.\ndpiper.

Spring. — 23rd April to 8th June. Chiefly late May.
Autumn. — 14th July to 2nd November. Chiefly September.

\\'ooi>Sandpiper.
Spring. — 22nd April to 26th May.
Autumn. — nth July to 17th November.

Green Sandpiper.
Spring. — 9th April to 21st May. Chiefly first half of May.
Autumn. — 27th July to 3rd November. Chiefly late August and early
September.

Redshank.
Spring. — loth April to 3TSt May.

Autumn. — 20th July to 15th November. Chiefly August and
September.

Spotted Redshank.
Spring. — 23rd April to 29th May.

Autumn. — 9th July to 27th November. Chiefly September and
October.

140 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Greenshank.

spring. — loth April to 7th May and 8th June.
Autumn. — loth July to 23rd November,

Bar-tailed Godwit.

Spring. — 1 6th April to 19th June.

Autumn. — 14th July to 11th November. Chiefly mid-August and
during September.

Black-tailed Godwit.

Spring. — loth April to 19th June.
Autu7nn.— 6\.\\ August to 22nd October.

Curlew.

Spring. — 3rd March to 3rd June.

Autumn. — 15th August to 23rd November. Chiefly August and
September.

Whimbrel.

Spring. — 15th April to 8th June. Chiefly May.

Autumn. — i6th July to 29th November. Chiefly mid-August and
during September.

Arctic Tern.
Aututnn. — nth September to 29th October.

POMATORHINE SkUA.

Spritig. — ist March to nth June.
Autumn. — iSth August to 27th November.

Buffon's Skua.

Spring. — 1 2th May to 14th June.
Autumn. — nth August to 29th October.

Slavonian Grehk.

Spring. — 5th May to i8th June.

Autumn. — 9th September to 28th November.

CHAPTER VI

ROUND THE YEAR IN THE BRITISH ISLES : AUTUMN

The autumn migrations observed in the British Islands
are all of them return-movements from summer nesting
haunts to winter retreats within our areas or to warmer
climes beyond their limits. They comprise local move-
ments between various British seasonal haunts, the
departure of our summer visitors, the arrival of winter
visitors, and a prolonged procession of birds of passage
bound southwards.

When in a thousand swarms, the summer o'er,
The birds of passage quit the Enghsh shore.
By various routes the feathered myriad moves.

— Charlotte Smith,

The various migrants usually follow the same lines
of flight, but in a reverse direction, as in the spring ;
they depart from the same shores which witnessed their
arrival a few months before ; and they arrive on those
from which they took their departure to proceed to
their summer quarters.

The span between the last of the spring movements
to northern nesting haunts and the setting in of the
autumn emigrations of the British summer guests is but
a short one. As early as July, while the summer is in
the zenith of her glory, certain of our birds which have
accomplished the duties and cares associated with the

142 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

rearing of their families (or have perhaps been unfortu-
nate in their efforts to do so), begin to leave their nesting
areas and to appear in other localities more or less
removed. Some of them find their way to the coast and
take leave of our shores. In addition, there are the
wanderings and migrations of young birds only a few
weeks old. It seems to me highly probable that the
broods of many of our birds leave the place of their
birth and go off on their own account as soon as they
are fit to take care of themselves ; while in the case of
species which are double-brooded, the first families are
often driven away by their parents. Numbers of these
roving youngsters are the offspring of migratory parents,
and they form a considerable portion of the early
emigrants ; hence it is that a number of young birds
migrate in advance of their parents.

The British migratory birds are earliest of all to
leave their summer haunts. This is to be accounted for
by the fact that nesting in our areas takes place at an
earlier period than in corresponding latitudes on the
Continent, and much earlier, of course, than in those
further north. The late nesting season in Northern
Europe explains the appearance of many birds of
passage and winter visitors on our shores at dates
considerably after the British summer visitors of the
same species have quitted our islands.

The autumn retreat towards winter quarters is a
leisurely performance in marked contrast to the
feverish rush to nesting haunts in the spring. In the
early autumn there is no necessity for the migrants
to hurry southwards, for food is still abundant in many
places along the routes of flight. Consequently, many
migratory visitors tarry for a considerable time, some of

THE BRITISH ISLES: AUTUMN 143

them lingering" iiniil the falling temperature acts as a
sharp reminder that it is time to seek more genial
climes ; then great rushes southwards and westwards
set in.

Speaking generally, the insectivorous species are the
earliest emigrants among the smaller birds to quit the
neighbourhood of their nesting areas, and the latest to
leave are the frugivorous and granivorous groups, such as
the various thrushes and finches ; for these the abundant
crop of wild berries which carpets the northern forests
and moors offer attractions which are irresistible to the
majority, and induce them to remain until the season is
far advanced. The latest of all the miijrants to leave
their summer quarters are to be found among the arctic
and sub-arctic sea-birds, such as the Glaucous and
Iceland Gulls, the Little Auk, etc. The date of the
first arrival of the Winter Visitors and Birds of Passasfe
depends upon the nature of the breeding season on the
Continent, especially in the north — whether it be an early
or late nesting season there.

At this season the numbers of the migrants are
much greater than during the spring, as their ranks
are swelled by numerous young recruits, most of them
only a few weeks old. This circumstance, and the
leisurely manner in which the fall migrations are per-
formed, combine to make the autumn movements much
in evidence and comparatively easy to observe.

To the autumn really belong those erratic appear-
ances of the Common Crossbill on our shores, which
sometimes take place ere the summer has fairly set in,
as in 1909. Late in June and early in July of this
year, both young and old of this species arrived in great
numbers on our shores, and remained for several weeks

144 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

even on the remotest of our pelagic islands, where
numbers perished for want .of suitable food. These
remarkable movements, despite the date of their per-
formance, must be classified among those of the autumn,
for they are embarked upon after the breeding season
is over, and the young birds accompany the old in these
enigmatical summer wanderings.

July. — The comments 'just made on the shortness
of the interval between the flow of the migratory
stream towards summer quarters for nesting and
the setting in of the ebb towards winter retreats,
especially concern this month. The remarks on the
early return-movements of the British migrants and
their probable causes also belong chiefly to July.

Local Movements. — Among the most regular of the
July movements are those which relate to the departure
of a number of our native birds from the localities in
which the summer has been spent, to seek the autumn
feeding grounds, which in some cases may not be far away.
Some of the earliest birds to quit their summer quarters
are certain plovers and sandpipers which, accompanied
by their young, return to the coast ; and the fledglings
of a number of " sea-fowl " leave their rocky nurseries
and take to the neighbouring sea. The following species
participate in these July local migrations : Grey Lag-
Goose, Mallard, Shoveler, Redshank, Golden Plover,
Lapwing, Ring-Plover, Oyster-catcher, Greenshank,
Dunlin, Snipe, Whimbrel, Curlew, Arctic and Common
Terns, Black-headed Gull, Common Gull, Kittiwake,
Great Skua, Arctic Skua, Guillemot, Razorbill, Pufiin,
and doubtless others which have not come under my
observation, for these retirements are very gradually and

PLATE IV.

The Advance of Autumn
After A. G. Hogbom

The advent of autumn is proclaimed by the same degree of temperature
as that which ushered in the spring. The map shows the dates of the
return of isotherm 48° F., and its march southwards over the various regions
of Europe.

The appearance of autumnal climatic conditions has an important bearing
upon the dates on which the different kinds of summer birds quit the more
northern portions of the Continent to proceed to winter retreats in warmer
climes.

Plate IV

THE BRITISH ISLES: AUTUMN 145

almost imperceptibly performed. I have noticed, how-
ever, for several years, that the invasion of their haunts
by sportsmen on the 12th of August causes certain
species to quit the moorlands, and on that day numbers
of Curlews and Golden Plovers pass over the environs of
Edinburgh, making for the shores of the Firth of Forth.

These local movements continue throughout the
early autumn, and there is no further necessity to allude
to them, since they relate to the return of the same
species which have been mentioned as seeking their
summer haunts during the spring.

Departure of Summer Visitors. — During July, especi-
ally towards the end of the month, there are records
from the light-stations which unmistakably indicate that
the departure of certain species from our islands has
already commenced. These early Sittings, with a few
exceptions, must be regarded as somewhat unusual, and
possibly due to the disturbing influence of local meteoro-
logical conditions, with which, indeed, they are in many
cases correlated. Durino- the month the followinsf
species have been observed under circumstances which
leave little or no doubt that they were emigrating, those
marked thus * having been detected at lighthouses or
light-vessels, en route for countries beyond our shores : —
*Song- Thrush, ^Blackbird, ^Redbreast, Redstart,
*Wheatear, Nightingale, Willow- Warbler, Chiffchaff,
*Sedge- Warbler, ^Goldcrest, *Pied Wagtail, *Meadow-
Pipit, *Swallow, Chaffinch, ^Starling, ^Skylark, *Swift,
^Nightjar, *Cuckoo, Corn-Crake, Common Sandpiper,
^Lapwing, "^'Curlew, Sandwich Tern, and Roseate Tern.
The most constant of these July emigrants are the
adult Cuckoos ; and the Swift, which is one of the
latest of our summer guests to arrive, is also one of

I. K

146 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

the first to take leave of us. It is a single-brooded
bird, and does not linger anywhere in Europe, not
even in its nesting haunts in countries bordering the
Mediterranean, after its young are able to undertake
the long journey to the southern winter homes of the
species. On the 29th of July, 1887, hundreds of Swifts
were observed passing southwards at Yarmouth.

Some of the birds enumerated, such as the Song-
Thrush, Pied Wagtail, Meadow- Pipit, Skylark, Starling,
Lapwing, and Curlew, belong to species which have
been defined as partial migrants — that is to say, a
proportion of the individuals composing them are migra-
tory and essentially summer visitors, whilst the rest are
sedentary, remaining in our islands all the year round.

Passage Movements} — As the summer, more especi-
ally the northern summer, is yet young, it would scarcely
be expected that immigrants from the north or from
the Continent would arrive on our shores thus early
on their return to their winter quarters. Yet a number
do arrive, and the appearance of others may, perhaps,
be accounted for in the following ways : — They are
either (i) birds which have not proceeded so far on
their spring journeys as to reach the breeding grounds,
being either immature or barren birds ; or (2) if they
have done so, they have either failed to obtain mates,
or for some other reason have not reared families. Some
of them, indeed, may not have passed much beyond
British limits on their spring journeys north or east.^
Most of the July immigrants occur late in the month,

1 For particulars of the dates of Passage Movements, see p. 129.

2 A number of Common and Velvet Scoters, Turnstones, Purple Sand-
pipers, Bar-tailed Godwits, and other northern breeding species, are known
to pass the summer with us as non-nesting birds.

THE BRITISH ISLES: AUTUMN 147

and are seen singly or in small parties, rarely in con-
siderable numbers or in flocks. The majority of these
earliest immiorants belong to the great Limicoline group
(plovers and sandpipers), and are chiefly adult birds.
Among them we find the following species : — Honey-
Buzzard, Spoonbill, Grey Plover, Turnstone, Great Snipe,
Knot, Little Stint, Curlew Sandpiper, Sanderling, Ruff,
Dusky Redshank, Green Sandpiper, Wood- Sandpiper,
Bar-tailed Godwit, and Black Tern. There are also
July records of the occurrence of the Brent-Goose,
Little Gull, etc., and of a number of rare casual visitors.
A singularly interesting visitor, which makes its
appearance in British waters during this month, is the
Great Shearwater. Many of these pelagic rovers, on
quitting their breeding haunts in the South Atlantic
Ocean, cross the equator, and move northwards to spend
the southern winter months in the temperate regions
of our hemisphere.

August. — Departure of Siumner Visitors. — The
chief movements in August are those of departure, and
relate to the emigration of summer guests, including
those belonging to species which are partially migratory.
These now commence in earnest, and during the latter
days of the month a number of species, and very many
individuals, quit our shores. No great movements or
"rushes" are observed, for there are, as yet, no climatic
incentives to cause them, but the exodus is much in
evidence on the coast and its immediate vicinity.

The summer visitors of species which are partially
migratory and are recorded as leaving us during this
month are : — Mistle-Thrush, Song-Thrush, Stonechat,
Redbreast, Goldcrest, Hedge-Accentor, Pied Wagtail,

148 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Grey Wagtail, Meadow-Pipit, Starling, Skylark, Kestrel,
Woodcock, and Curlew. Other individuals belonging
to this group of migrants are noted as being on the
move, though they are not necessarily passing at once
beyond the British apea ; indeed, some of them from
the more northern districts are content to remain the
entire winter in the more genial portions of our isles,
should the nature of the season permit them to do so.

Arrival Movements} — Immigrants from the northern
regions in which the summer has been passed are much
in evidence on our shores during August, and are the
advance guard of the hosts of Birds of Passage and
Winter Visitors which are soon to follow. The former
group includes northern representatives of a number of
species which are summer visitors to Britain, such as
the Lesser Whitethroat, Common Whitethroat, Willow-
Warbler, Tree - Pipit, Pied Flycatcher, Swift, and
Nightjar, all of which occur regularly but in small
numbers during this month at stations north of their
British breeding limit — a fact which clearly indicates
that they are arrivals from countries beyond our area.

In addition to the return movements of the birds
named, about thirty species, whose summer haunts
lie entirely beyond the British isles (to the north or east
of them), are chronicled as arriving on and traversing our
shores during the month. These are : the ''^Greater
Wheatear [Saxicola leticorrhoa), Barred- Warbler, Black
Redstart, ^White Wagtail, Blue - headed Wagtail,
Hoopoe, Barnacle-Goose, Brent-Goose, Spotted Crake,
*Grey Plover, ^Turnstone, Ruff, Great Snipe, Jack
Snipe, '^Little Stint, *Curlew Sandpiper, Knot, *Purple

' For particulars of the dates of Passage Movements, see p. 129. For
dates of arrival of Winter Visitors, see p. 157.

TiTK imrrisii isr.ES: autumn ho

Sandpiper, •Sa^derlin<^^ Green Sandpiper, Wood Sand-
piper, Dusky Redshank, *Bar-tailed Godwit, Black-
tailed Godvvit, Black Tern, Little Gull, Sabine's Gull,
Pomatorhine Skua, Great Northern Diver, and Red-
necked Grebe. Some of these also remain the winter,
among them the Barnacle and Brent Geese, Grey
Plover, Turnstone, Jack Snipe, *Knot, Purple Sand-
piper, Sanderling, Bar-tailed Godwit, Redshank, Great
Northern Diver, and Red-necked Grebe. Those marked
with an asterisk occur regularly during August, while
the rest have only occasionally been recorded for the
month.

September. — This is an important month for the
departure of a great variety of migratory birds from
their summer homes in far northern and north-temperate
regions. The temperature has then fallen in the
northern hemisphere, and values below freezing point
are to be found over wide areas of the arctic regions

Departure of Suvwier Visitors. — In our islands,
September witnesses the height, and almost the close,
of the emigrations for winter quarters of all the numerous
species which have spent the summer with us. Our
native Swifts and adult Cuckoos are the exceptions,
for they have usually departed by the end of August.
It is true, as has already been indicated, that other birds
of nearly all the species occur later, but these are chiefly
on passage from more northern countries, where the
nesting season is much later than in our own.

There are often considerable movements of these

emigrating British birds southwards, and finally across

the Channel, synchronous with the prevalence of

ungenial weather, which acts as a reminder to those

I. K 2

150 STUDIES IN BIRD MIGRATION

which no longer have ties (the tending of their young),
that the time has arrived when they should bid adieu to
our shores for the year.

These departures from our islands are the most
difficult of all migratory movements to observe, since the
birds as a rule slip away unnoticed during the hours of
darkness. In order to obtain reliable information con-
cerning them, and the various conditions under which
they are performed, the author spent a month in the
Eddystone lighthouse during the autumn of 1901, and
his experiences there will be related in a subsequent
chapter.

Passage Movements from the North} — As the result
of the climatic incentives to emigration already alluded
to, great numbers of birds from Northern Europe arrive
on our shores during the month, the majority of them
en route for countries further south. One of the main
features of these movements is the passage along our
shores of hosts of insectivorous Passerines — Warblers,
Chats, Fly-catchers, Wagtails, Pipits, Swallows, Martins,
etc. The appearance of these little travellers may be
said to commence in September, and practically, though
not entirely, to cease with its close. When the weather
conditions especially favour their passage across the
northern seas, they arrive in great force, particularly
during the latter half of the month, and the observer at
favourably situated points has a very busy and intensely
interesting time recording their kinds and noting the
changed habits of many of them under the influences
exerted by the exigencies of travel.

Later in the month, the members of the frugivorous

' For particulars of the dates of Passage Movements, see p. 129. For
dates of arrival of Winter Visitors, see p. 157.

THE BRITISH ISLES: AUTUMN 151

and granivorous sections of the order Passeres — Song-
Thrushes, Blackbirds, Ring-Ouzels, Redwings, Fieldfares
(a few), Chaffinches, Bramblings, Siskins, Mealy Red-
polls, and Skylarks — begin to appear on our shores,
usually in small numbers, but sometimes in flocks con-
taining many individuals. All the species named, except
the Ring-Ouzel, comprise winter guests with us, as well
as visitors bound for more southern retreats.

The arrivals of northern migrants belonging to the
great group of birds popularly known as "waders,'' and
including the plovers, sandpipers, and snipes, continue
throughout the month, and the movements of many of the
species — the Grey Plover, Little Stint, Curlew Sandpiper,
Sanderling, Ruff, Bar-tailed Godwit, and Whimbrel —
reach their maximum importance. On the other hand,
some, such as the Woodcock, only occasionally appear
among us as stragglers, or as scouts in advance of the
vanguard. Many species of ducks and several of geese
also make their appearance from the north ; among
them the White-fronted Goose, Bean-Goose, Pink-footed
Goose, Barnacle-Goose, Brent-Goose, Mallard, Teal,
Wigeon, Scaup, Golden-eye, Long-tailed Duck, and
Common and Velvet Scoters.

Among the more interesting of the September
passage-migrants are the Greater Wheatear, Red-spotted
Bluethroat, Barred- Warbler, Yellow-browed Warbler,
Icterine Warbler, Pied Flycatcher, Grey-headed Wag-
tail, Lapland Bunting, Ortolan Bunting, Honey-Buzzard,
Osprey, Wood- Sandpiper, Dotterel, Great Snipe, and
Dusky Redshank.

Much information regarding the passage move-
ments of these migrrants from the north will be found
in the studies devoted to Fair Isle, St Kilda, and

152 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

the Flannan Islands, the former of which occupies
a singularly favourable geographical position for their
observation.

The steady flow of migrants southwards, towards
and along our shores, is accelerated during the latter
half of the month, when a series of "rushes," the result
of weather influences in the north, usually take place.

Arrivals from the East. — The autumn immigrations
hitherto considered are those of birds which come to us
from Northern Europe, Iceland, and Greenland ; and
from North-western Siberia in the case of the Curlew
Sandpiper, Yellow-browed Warbler, and others. There
now remain for consideration those migrants (birds of
passage and winter visitants) which reach us by an east-
to-west flight across the southern waters of the North
Sea, and arrive on the south-eastern coast of England
between the Wash and the Channel.^

These movements commence about the middle of
September, when Skylarks, Starlings, Tree- Sparrows,
Chaffinches, etc., are observed at the light-vessels off the
coast streaming day after day towards the English
shores, chiefly during the daytime. Later, Grey Crows,
Rooks, Jackdaws, and Lapwings figure largely among
the throng moving westwards.

This important and singularly interesting stream of
migration received my personal attention in September
and October 1903, when I spent a month on board the
Kentish Knock lightship, for its special investigation.
The results of these observations will be given in
Chapter XVIII., Vol. 11., which renders it unnecessary
to treat of them further in this place.

1 For the geographical aspects of this migration route, sec p. 83, and
map (Plate II.).

THE BRITISH ISLES. AUTUMN 153

October. — During October, the autumn migrations
reach their greatest magnitude, but chiefly consist of
arrival and passage movements from the north and cast.

Passage Movements and Arrival of Winter Visitors}
—The rapid lowering of the temperature in Northern
Europe, which is one of the climatic features of
October, causes vast numbers of summer residents
in those wide-extending regions to move southwards,
with the result that our own and other countries
are flooded by successive rushes of migrants, the
magnitude of which is unequalled during any other
month of the year. The arrivals on the south-east
coast of England, from the opposite shores of the
Continent, also reach their maximum volume in October,
and add considerably to the extent and variety of the
movements on that exceedingly busy section of our
coast-line.

Day after day during the month, and especially in its
latter half, when the weather conditions are favourable,
winter visitors pour into the British Islands from both
the north and east ; while more, very many more,
migrants, mostly of the same species, rush along our
coasts as birds of passage en route for more southern
winter quarters.

The typical October migrants from the north are
mainly composed of fruit- and seed-eaters among the
Passeres — the various species of thrushes and finches —
of Hedge-Accentors, Grey Crows, Starlings, Skylarks,
Short-eared Owls, Swans, various species of Geese,
Ducks, Plovers (including the Woodcock) and Sand-
pipers, Snipe, Divers, and Grebes. Less abundant, but

* For particulars of the dates of Passage Movements, see p. 129. For
dates of arrival of Winter Visitors, see p. 157.

154 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

not less interesting, are the Mealy Redpoll, Great
Grey Shrike, Shore- Lark, and Rough-legged Buzzard.

From the east prodigious numbers of Rooks, Jack-
daws, Starlings, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Tree-
Sparrows, and some Mistle-Thrushes rush across the
North Sea from the Dutch coast to the shores of East
Anglia, the mouth of the Thames, and the eastern littoral
of Kent.

During the early days of the month, the rearguard
units of the great army of the insect-eating birds —
the warblers, flycatchers, wagtails, pipits, swallows, etc.
— and also of the waders — Little Stints, Curlew-Sand-
pipers, Common Sandpipers, Green Sandpipers, and
Ruffs — pass southwards. While among the rarer visitors
are the Little Bunting, Siberian Chiffchaff, Yellow-
browed Warbler, Red-spotted Bluethroat, Black Red-
start, Red-breasted Flycatcher, Dusky Redshank, and
Wood Sandpiper.

It would be wearisome to enter into further particulars
regarding various species of regular migrants (no less
than 140 in number) on the move during the month ; but
those who wish to have further details will find much
information on referring to pages 129-140, and to the
chapters devoted to Fair Isle, the Flannans, and the
Kentish Knock.

Emigration of Sttmuier Visitors. — The departure of
those birds which have spent the summer with us has
already practically ceased, though some of them which
rear more broods than one during the season, such as the
House- Martin and others, are often detained by late
families sometimes well into the month.

Many birds of species which are summer visitors to
our isles do indeed occur, chiefly on the coasts and in

THE BRITISH ISLES: AUTUMN 155

their vicinity, during the month. These are not usually
emigrating British birds, but travellers from other
countries (chieHy northern ones), visiting our shores as
birds of passage on their way to distant winter retreats,
and as such their movements have already been noticed.

November. — The normal conditions of the northern
winter now prevail on the Continent.

The migratory movements of the month are a
continuation of the arrival from the north and east of
winter visitors to our isles, and of birds of passage on
their way further south. These birds are of the same
species as those described as being typical October
migrants, and they appear in considerable numbers
down to the third week of the month, after which
stragglers only are usually observed.

The Whooper and Bewick's Swans, various species
of Duck, Slavonian and Red-necked Grebes, and the
Little Auk, appear in force ; and it is the month for
the occurrence of the Waxwing, when that beautiful
" Bohemian" appears among us.

Certain other species have been known to occur in
November, but their appearance so very late in the
season must be regarded, in most cases, as somewhat
exceptional ; these are the Wheatear, Redstart, Black-
cap, Willow- Warbler, Chiffchaff, White Wagtail, Tree-
Pipit, Swallow, House-Martin, Sand-Martin, Hoopoe,
and Common Sandpiper.

AMhtmn Casual Visitors. — The autumn occurrences
of casual visitors are far in excess, both in numbers and
kinds, of those recorded for spring. This is readily
accounted for by the number of young birds which are

156 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

now undertaking their first migratory journeys, and are
prone to stray from the accustomed routes to winter
quarters followed by their kind. These erring youngsters
form the great majority of the waifs visiting us at this
season. Casuals of no less than 120 species have from
time to time occurred in the British Islands.

During the great autumn movements, the emigratory
ones in particular, migrants are frequently observed
simultaneously on all our shores ; and under certain
peculiar weather conditions, to be explained in the
chapter devoted to migration-meteorology, there are
immigratory and emigratory movements simultaneously
in progress.

The autumn migrants (including the birds of
passage) as a rule arrive on and leave our shores
during the hours of darkness (excepting those which
come direct from the east) ; but some emigrant
Swallows, Wagtails, Starlings, etc., cross the Channel
during the morning, commencing soon after daybreak,
and ceasing to do so about mid-day.

It is chiefly during the great movements of the late
autumn that we hear migratory birds passing overhead
on dark nights, when proceeding to their inland
winter quarters. The object of their calls is probably
to enable them to keep in touch with each other. On
these occasions they are evidently much alarmed or
excited by the lights of our cities and towns, and hence
a babel of tongues which disturbs the quietness of the
night, recalling to mind Longfellow's beautiful lines —

I hear the cry

Of their voices high,

Falling dreamily through the sky,

But their forms I cannot see.

APPENDIX: AUTUMN

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CHAPTER VII

ROUND THE YEAR IN THE BRITISH ISLES : WINTER

The migrations observed in the British Isles during the
winter consist of: (i) movements between various
parts of our area ; (2) emigrations from our shores ;
and (3) some immigration from the Continent. All
these are due to the effect of meteorological conditions
of an adverse nature upon the food supplies, either
within the British area, or on the Continent.

Not very long after the last of the summer guests
have bidden us a2i revoir until another spring, and while
the autumn visitors have scarcely ceased to arrive to
spend the winter, another set of bird-movements may,
sooner or later, be ushered in — forced migrations to
escape the rigors imposed by the season.

The date on which such disturbances and their
consequent evictions take place, depends upon the
climatic aspect of the season. They may commence in
November, and are not unknown to March ; but
December and January are the main months for their
occurrence.

Few winters are entirely free from cold spells, and
some are notable for their severity. When the land
becomes icebound, or a pall of snow covers its surface, it
is impossible for many birds to obtain food, especially

164 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

for those which seek it on the ground or in the marshes.
A bountiful supply of food is more than ever a necessity
when great cold prevails, and an exodus from the area
affected becomes imperative when it fails. During these
severe periods the inland waters are sealed with ice, and
many kinds of Duck, Water-Rails, Coot, and other
aquatic species move to the coast and its estuaries.

The remarkable distribution of temperature in our
islands during the winter has an effect on the retreats
sought, within their limits, when these stressful periods
set in. The diminution of our winter temperature is
from west to east rather than from south to north — a fact
which is considered to be one of the most singular
among the climatic phenomena in the world. If a map
showing the December isotherms be consulted, it will be
found that the Shetlands, the Hebrides, Skye, Cantyre,
Galloway, the western angle of England from Holyhead
to Brighton, have a mean temperature of above 40° F.
Milder still are the south-western angles of England,
Wales, and Ireland. Experience seems to have taught
the birds that these western and south-western portions
of Great Britain and Ireland are likely to offer the most
genial retreats when the distressful outbursts of cold and
snow set in, for they are the main areas sought by the
feathered refugees.

Should the winter be uniformly mild, as that of
1881-82, the birds resident or sojourning with us remain
practically stationary — that is to say, their wanderings
in search of food do not assume the form of migrations.

British Local and Eviigraiory Movements. — As soon
as frost sets in, particularly if it be accompanied by
snow, Mistle- Thrushes, Song- Thrushes, Redwings,
Fieldfares, Blackbirds, Greenfinches, Linnets, Starlings,

THE BRITISH ISLES: WINTER 165

Skylarks, Meadow - Pipits, Ring - Doves, Lapwings,
Golden Plover, Woodcock, Snipe, Dunlin, Curlew, etc.
(and in some seasons even Rooks, Magpies, and Snow
Buntings), remove themselves from its baneful influence,
numbers of them Hitting during the hours of darkness,
when, as Longfellow has observed, we

Hear the beat

Of their pinions fleet,

As from the land of snow and sleet

They seek a southern lea.

Sometimes suitable retreats may be found near at hand,
and then the movement is but of a local nature. When
this is the case, and the period of stress is short, the
evicted birds, or some of them, soon return to their
usual haunts. Should, however, these adverse condi-
tions prove severe and the area affected widespread,
the movements assume like proportions, and the refugees
are many. On such occasions the milder conditions
usually afforded by the coast are sought, especially our
western sea-board and its off-lying islands, including
even the far-off Flannans, and some of the emi^rrants
seek asylums in Ireland. If the cold be exceptionally
severe and general over the British area, and its pre-
valence seriously prolonged, and should it be accom-
panied by heavy falls of snow, then a great exodus
follows, and the numbers of the fugitives become vast
and surprising. The movements are again chiefly
towards the coast : along the east and west shores
the fleeing birds rush southwards to reach south-
western England and Ireland, where more genial condi-
tions usually, but not always, prevail ; while many cross
the English Channel for Southern Europe. Many also
pursue an overland course in a southerly direction, and

I. L 2

166 STUDIES LN BIRD-IVIIGRATION

congregate on the south coast of England. Numbers
are known to quit Ireland when the Sister Isle is included
in the sphere of an arctic winter. One of the features of
such great retreats before the storm — before heavy
snow in particular — is the rush westwards, along the
south coast of England and its vicinity, of hordes of
Skylarks and Starlings, accompanied by numbers of
Song - Thrushes, Redwings, Fieldfares, Blackbirds,
Linnets, Lapwings, and doubtless other species. Some-
times these rushes last for several days, and the number
of Skylarks observed is simply astounding, and pro-
bably includes immigrants of this, and of the other
species named, from Western Central Europe, which
have arrived on the south-east coast of England after
an east-to-west passage across the North Sea.

The birds evicted from Great Britain enter Ireland
at various points. Those leaving Scotland arrive on
the north-east coast ; those from Wales on the east
coast ; while those arriving from south-western England
(some of them after traversing the south coast) enter the
country at its south-east angle, after a passage across
St George's Channel — the route chiefly used by the
spring, and many of the autumn, visitors to the Sister
Isle.

In Ireland there are many local winter movements
due to the pressure of weather, and then the west coast
is much visited, the south-western counties of Cork and
Kerry especially being resorted to. Winter emigration
must, however, be regarded as an exceptional phenomenon
in Ireland, for some section or another of its area usually
affords an asylum in all save the severest of seasons.

During the severe weather of January 1881, when
as many as 25 of frost were registered in the west of

TITK RUrriSH ISLES: AVINTER 167

Ireland, Mr Warren noted that the snow and low
temperature drove Rooks, Magpies, Blackbirds,
Thrushes, Fieldfares, Redwings, Skylarks, Meadow-
Pipits, Starlings, Hedge - Accentors, Redbreasts,
Stonechats, Chaffinches, and Yellow Buntings to the
shore to search for food amongst the stones and
seaweeds.

In the terrible December of 1882, and the winters
of 1890-91 and 1894-95, vast numbers of refugees
perished in such usually sure retreats as the Scilly Isles
and Valentia, among others Snow- Buntings, the hardiest
of all the small birds. Reo'ardino- the effects of the
great frost of 1895, the lighthouse keeper at Samphire
Island, off the west coast of Kerry, observes^ that on
7th February vast numbers of Starlings, Skylarks,
Thrushes, and Redwings were going south all day in
heavy snow, and that "the island was literally covered
with them as they rested upon it, and at times they
would darken the sky." Next day they were still going
south in "one continuous flight; they were all very
exhausted, and numbers of Starlings fell. I never saw
such a constant rush of birds." On the 9th, great
numbers were again noted resting; on the nth and
1 2th, numbers dead ; on the 13th, he tells us : "I never
saw such a rush of birds as there has been for the past
week . . . they were composed of Lapwings, Golden
Plover, Starlings, Redwings, Thrushes, Skylarks, Rooks,
and Fieldfares, and some Grey Linnets. ... It is pitiful
to see the hundreds of birds dead and dying all about
the island, particularly Starlings ; the sea is covered with
them and Gulls feeding on them, although vast numbers
of Gulls have died."

' Report on the Migration of Birds on the Irish Coast in 1895, P- 477-

168 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Later in the season, the weather-evicted birds are
those which have ventured an early return to summer
quarters, especially such as have sought the higher and
more exposed situations. The birds chiefly affected are
ground-loving species, such as Lapwings, many of which
perished in Scotland during the storm of 26th to 30th
March 1901 ; and snow is the main cause of their dis-
content. As a rule, the unfavourable conditions do not
then prevail for long, and the fugitives soon seek again
their nesting grounds ; some of the birds, however,
are loth to quit their chosen haunts, and remain to brave
the storm, particularly if it be a late one, and then
many perish. With few exceptions these compulsory
retirements cease during the first half of March.

The fact that these winter migrants largely seek the
coast and its neighbourhood, when evicted from their
British inland haunts, has often caused them to be re-
garded as arrivals from the Continent. Some immigrants
from abroad do appear on particular sections of our
coasts, and to these allusion will presently be made.

The cold-weather movements are observed in progress
both at night and during the daytime ; but the emigrants
crossing the English Channel for South-western Europe
make the passage chiefly during the hours of darkness.

Immigration from the Continent, etc. — During very
severe winters on the Continent and in the northern seas,
a number of refugees visit us, some of them to remain,
others on their way, perhaps, to more southern retreats.

Not many land birds are derived from the north in
such seasons, for those that are not winter residents
leave in the autumn. A few Fieldfares, Thrushes,
Woodcock, Snipe, and Plovers have during exceptionally
severe winters made their appearance in Fair Isle and

THE BRITISH ISLES: WINTER 1G9

Orkney under circumstances which lead one to suppose
that they were arrivals from more northern localities,
perhaps from the Shetland Isles, where in ordinary
seasons they would have spent the winter.

Land birds certainly do appear on the south-eastern
coast of England, after a westerly passage across the
North Sea, during periods of exceptional severity in
Western Central Europe, the birds which then arrive in-
cluding Starlings, Skylarks, Song-Thrushes, Lapwings,
and Bitterns. Some of these immigrants may remain in
eastern England, while others certainly pass westwards
to seek the more genial retreats usually to be found there.
Crowds of wild-fowl (various ducks and geese) also
migrate from the Dutch coasts when their shallow
waters are frozen, and seek the opposite shores of
England.

The winter of 1894-95 was memorable for its arctic
severity in the British Isles, and in the north of Europe
the cold was phenomenal. This resulted in our seas being
thronged with such an assemblage of northern sea-fowl
as had not been witnessed within the memory of living
naturalists. This cold period (which has already been
alluded to in connection with British local movements)
set in on 30th December, and prevailed, with a week's
respite, until 5th March. The weather was very severe
from 26th January to 19th February, when even in the
south-west of England and Ireland the temperature was
10° below normal values, and in the east of Scotland
17° below them. A series of severe gales from the
north drove vast numbers of Little Auks before them,
and wrecked them in thousands from the Shetlands
southwards along the entire east coast of Britain, and
many were blown quite across Scotland and far inland

170 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

in England. Other northern species were also driven
south by the extraordinary severity of the season ;
among them Briinnich's Guillemot, a resident in the
arctic seas which had once previously — and then a
single example only — been recorded as having visited
our shores. Several specimens of this interesting visitor
were obtained as far south as the Yorkshire coast, and
one was captured inland in Cambridgeshire. Waxwings,
Smews, Little and Glaucous Gulls, Red-necked Grebes,
and Great Northern Divers were also exceptionally
abundant.

Among the rarer species which make, or have made,
their appearance chiefly in winter, are White's Thrush,
Tengmalm's Owl, the Snowy Owl, Hawk-Owl, Green-
land Falcon, Iceland Falcon, Red-breasted Goose, Snow-
Goose, Buffel-headed Duck, Harlequin Duck, Hooded
Merganser, and Ivory Gull.

CHAPTER VIII

WEATHER INFLUENCES : THE METEOROLOGY OF
BIRD-MIGRATION ^

It has lonq;' been realised that birds are extremely sensi-
tive to atmospheric conditions, and that they discern
approaching meteorological changes. It is on this
account that in popular weather-lore, the sayings and
proverbs based upon the actions of these feathered baro-
meters are so exceedingly numerous ; and probably
many of them date from Roman times.

Migratory birds are specially influenced, since their
movements are undoubtedly correlated at all seasons
with the weather, which has a controlling effect over
their performance, either as an incentive to embark upon
their aerial voyages, or as the greatest of barriers to
their performance.

A knowledge of the meteoroloQ['ical conditions associ-
ated with bird-movements is extremely important, and
I have often found it to contribute in a remarkable way
to an interpretation of their precise nature.

When studying the meteorological aspects of bird-

1 It has been my good fortune to have the meteorological statements
made in this chapter verified by W. N. Shaw, Esq., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
etc., the Director of the Meteorological Office, in accordance with whose
criticism and advice it has been amended. I desire to acknowledge fully
Dr Shaw's most valued assistance.
171

172 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

migration, it is essential that the weather conditions
prevailing in the area in which the movement had its
origin should be taken into consideration. Here alone,
as a rule, has the weather any bearing upon the move-
ment under investigation ; the weather prevailing in
places reached after a more or less extended flight is
nothing to the purpose. Thus we must look to Con-
tinental conditions for an explanation of the arrival of
immigrants on our shores, in both spring and autumn ;
and to our home weather for the key to the cause of the
departure of emigrants from the British area at all
seasons.

As the result of much careful study of a vast amount
of material, migrational and meteorological, some very
important facts have been made abundantly manifest,
foremost among which are the following : —

(i) That the type of weather which prevails when
the winds range from south to east, and especially when
they are south-east, is the most favoitrable for migratory
movements between the British Islands and Continental
Europe, in both spring and autumn. (2) That the
weather conditions prevailing when the winds vary from
west to north are the most unfavourable, both for immi-
gration to and emio^ration from the British Isles.

Year after year, the accuracy of these findings has
been repeatedly impressed upon me during my practical
work at widely separated observing-stations both at
home and abroad ; and they have also become known
to a number of observers (lighthouse-keepers and others)
who have assisted me in the investigations.

With these well-ascertained facts as a basis to work
upon, let us proceed to inquire what the types of weather
are which have such remarkable influences over the

PLATE V.

Chart of North-Western Europe showing Typical Weather
Conditions, with South-Easterlv Winds, over the British
Isles

A large Continental anticyclone lies to the east of the British Isles, and
extends to our shores. To the west the pressure decreases, especially off
the Atlantic Coast of Ireland and over Iceland. Wind, a south-easterly
current over the United Kingdom.

The south-easterly type of weather is the most favourable of all for inter-
migration between Great Britain and the Continent of Europe in both spring
and autumn. During its prevalence the great migratory movements, termed
"rushes," are performed.

Fine weather is then in the ascendant over the countries whence the
great majority of our bird-visitors come to us in the autumn, and to which
they return on leaving us in the spring. The North Sea is spanned, at both
seasons, by weather which is most promising for the voyagers.

On the other hand, the western low-pressure area, with its unsettled
conditions, extends to Iceland, and is against intermigration between the
British Isles and that great north-western island. (See also p. 173.)

PLATE V.

Reduced from Special Chart prepared at the Meteorological Office.]

South-Easterly Type of Weather.

Isobars are shown by black lines, with indications of the height of the baiometer.
Wind. — Arrows flying with the wind, show direction and force, thus : —

^ = forces 5 to 7 (velocity, 28 to 40' miles per hour).

iw -- forces I to 4 (velocity, 8 to 23 miles per hour).

Vol. I.] [To face p. 172.

WEATHER INFLUENCES 173

migrants or would-be migrants. It must first be re-
marked, however, that the direction of the wind has
in itself nothing to do with the results described. The
winds and the performance, or non-performance, of the
migratory movements are the effects of a common
cause — namely, the particular type of weather prevailing
at the time, which may be favourable or unfavourable
for the (light of birds to or from our islands.

Favourable Weather Conditions. — The favourable
conditions prevail when a large anticyclone has its
centre in North - Western Europe, covers the North
Sea, and extends to the British Isles. This would
give light gradients (isobars far apart), gentle winds,
and, generally speaking, fine weather between the British
Isles and Scandinavia. Such a weather period would
be eminently favourable for the passage of birds along
one of the most important lines of flight for migrants
between the Continent and our islands. On these
occasions, too, the barometric pressure being highest to
the east of our islands, the wind, according to general
rule, would be between south and east over the western
shores of the North Sea (see Plate V.).

When such weather conditions prevail in the autumn,
much emigration takes place from North- Western Europe
towards the British coasts, where the migrants make
their appearance in great numbers. When the same
type of weather obtains in the spring, great emigrations
from our shores set in towards the north and east, of de-
parting winter guests, and birds of passage, returning to
their summer quarters. The pulse, if one may be
allowed the term, of the movements is quickened from
time to time through the stimulating influence of
temperature — a fall in autumn, a rise in spring.

174 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

The greatest movements, or "rushes," as they have
not inappropriately been designated, in both spring and
autumn, are those which follow the advent of favourable
weather on the passing away of a more or less prolonged
spell of adverse conditions. These unfavourable periods
in the autumn are not unfrequently characterised by
great ungeniality, and this, no doubt, gives the summer
visitors warning that the time has arrived for seeking
milder climes in which to pass the winter. Upon the
duration and severity of the unfavourable conditions for
migration depends the magnitude of the exodus which
follows when the anticyclone removes the barrier,
releases the flood of pent-up migrants, and furnishes
ideal conditions for fliofht over the North Sea. When
such a sequence of weather changes takes place, it is not
surprising that vast rushes southwards follow, and that
our shores receive great waves of migrants, sometimes
for several successiv-e nights.

The gentle barometric gradients for east to south
winds, with their fine weather, do not always, however,
entirely bridge, as it were, the North Sea between
the Continent and Britain. In the autumn, the favour-
able conditions which induced the birds to quit North-
Western Europe may not extend to the British shores
(nor to those of Scandinavia in the spring). Indeed,
it not unfrequently happens that the bird-voyagers pass
into more or less adverse conditions — high winds or
heavy rain, or both^ — ere our shores are reached, and
arrive in a correspondingly exhausted state. Occasion-
ally many perish during the latter stages of the passage,
and their bodies are cast upon our eastern coasts in
considerable numbers. In connection with these unfor-
tunate autumn flights across the North Sea, an examina-

WEATHER INELUENCES 175

tion of the weather charts affords a simple explanation
— namely, that though the weather in Scandinavia was
entirely favourable for emigration, the conditions prevail-
ing on the British coasts were adverse, owing to the too
close proximity of a western low-pressure centre. On
the location and character of this cyclonic centre depends
the nature of the weather in the immediate neighbour-
hood of our shores. If it be too close to Britain, or if the
depression be exceptionally deep, then strong winds are
experienced on our eastern shores, with the unfortunate
results to the bird-travellers just described. It must be
remembered, too, that the winds are not necessarily light
except in the central region of an anticyclone. On the
rims we sometimes get strong winds. If the south-
western rims were off the east coast of Britain similar
disasters would befall the approaching migrants.

It has already been mentioned (p. 156) that under
certain weather conditions in the autumn, both arrival
and departure movements are in progress simultaneously
on our shores. On these occasions, it has been ascer-
tained that the anticyclone in North-Western Europe
covers a wide area and extends beyond the limits of the
British Isles, and hence weather is favourable for
departure movements from our islands. When such is
the case, there occurs, simultaneously, an inpouring of
birds on to our shores from Northern Europe, and an
outpouring from Britain of emigrants of many species.

The duration of favourable spells for bird-migration,
in any area, is sooner or later broken by the setting in
of a cyclonic period, with more or less unfavourable
conditions, which may curb, or make impossible, the
progress of the seasonal movements.

The following experience (one of many) at Fair Isle

176 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

well illustrates the influence of such favourable condi-
tions. On nth May 1 910, after a prolonged period of
northerly and westerly winds, during which few or no
migratory movements were observed, the wind changed
to south and gradually to east, and varied between these
points until the 22nd. The effect of this change was
marvellous ; the long-held-up Birds of Passage, on their
way northwards, arrived during the night of the nth
or the early hours of the 12th in extraordinary numbers,
and afforded the Duchess of Bedford and myself a
most interesting as well as a busy time. During this
period numbers of species came under our notice, but
doubtless many others escaped our most assiduous
attentions by resorting to the face of the great cliffs,
where it was impossible to detect them ; those observed
were Mistle-Thrushes, Song-Thrushes, Fieldfares, Ring-
Ouzels, Wheatears, Greater Wheatears, Whinchats,
Redstarts, Black Redstarts (two), Red-spotted Blue-
throats (a number), White-spotted Bluethroat (male),
Redbreasts, Whitethroats, Lesser Whitethroats, Black-
caps, Chiffchaffs, Willow - Warblers, Wood - Warblers,
Sedge - Warblers, Hedge - Accentors, White Wagtails,
Blue-headed Wagtails, Grey-headed Wagtails, Tree-
Pipits, Meadow - Pipits, Red - backed Shrikes, Pied
Flycatchers, Spotted Flycatchers, Swallows, House-
Martins, Sand - Martins, Siskins, Chaffinches, Bram-
blings. Ortolan Buntings, Reed- Buntings, Goatsucker,
Wrynecks, Hoopoe, Cuckoos, Long-eared Owl, Merlins,
Kestrels, Ring Doves, Corn-Crakes, Golden Plovers,
Lapwings, Great Snipe, Common Snipe, Dunlins,
Common Sandpipers, Green Sandpiper, Redshanks, and
Whimbrel.

The movements from east to west, and vice versa,

PLATE VI.

Chart of North-Western Europe showing Typical Weather
Conditions, with North-Westerly Winds, over the British
Isles

A depression lies to the eastward of and extends to our Isles ; while
pressure is highest to the north-west and south-west. Wind, circulating
cyclonically round the pressure minimum, being north-westerly and
northerly over the British area and the North Sea region generally.

This type of weather is the most unfavourable of all for bird-movements
between the British Isles and the Continent. During its prevalence the area
from which we derive the great majority of the migrants in the autumn,
and often our own shores from which they return in spring, are under
unsettled weather-conditions, and hence adverse for these movements.

On the other hand, the conditions prevailing over Iceland and the
countries to the south-west of us are not unfavourable for migration from
those areas to the British Isles. (See also p. 177.)

PLATE VI.

Reduced from Special Chart prepared at the Meteorological Office.]

North-Westerly Type of Weather.

Isobars are shown by black lines, with indications of the height of the barometer.
Wind. — Arrows flying with the wind, show direction and force, thus : —

y = forces 5 to 7 (velocity, 28 to 40 miles per hour).

^ = forces I to 4 (velocity, 8 to 23 miles per hour).

Vol. I.] [To face p. 176.

WEATIIKR INFIXTP:NCES 177

across the southern waters of the North Sea are
undertaken under the favourable meteorological condi-
tions which have just been explained — namely, the pre-
valence of fine weather at the area of embarkation, and
extending to the cast in spring and to the west in
autumn (see Plate V.). Some observations on the
autumn weather-intluences favourable and unfavourable
to passages along this interesting line of flight will
be found in Chapter XV'III., which is devoted to an
account of my bird - watchings on board the Kentish
Knock Lightship.

Unfavourable Weather Conditions. — When we come
to inquire into the weather which prevails when the
winds range from west to north, which is the most
unfavourable type of all for the passage of migratory
birds to and from the British Isles, the reason becomes
at once apparent. It results from the presence of a
cyclonic or low-pressure area to the north-east or east
of the British Isles — a type of weather which is fatal
to intermigration between North - Western Europe
and Britain, because unfavourable meteorological con-
ditions then prevail over the area whence we derive
the majority of our migrants in the autumn, and
over our isles. It is also against the return move-
ments from the British shores in spring. On the
other hand, this type of weather may not be un-
favourable for migration from Iceland to Northern
Britain in autumn ; nor for arrivals in England
from countries to the south - west of us in spring (see
Plate VI.).

During the prevalence of these westerly winds, if the
weather be not severely unsettled, some migration from
the Continent takes place, but no general movements

I. M

178 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

are recorded — the birds arrive in small numbers and
come little under notice.

There are other types of weather which, in like
manner, favour particular migratory movements, but are
unfavourable for others. Thus the North-Easterly Type
is the most favourable for migration between Iceland
and the British Isles, but is not suited for movements
between our shores and those of countries lying to the
south and south-east of them (see Plate VII.). The
South- Westerly Type is conducive to intermigration
between England and Central and Southern Europe,
but presents barriers to passages between our Isles and
Northern Europe and Iceland (see Plate VIII.).

Winds. — The importance of winds in connection with
bird-migration has been much over-estimated, and their
bearing upon the phenomenon, such as it is, greatly
misunderstood. Their direction, apart from the weather
conditions to which they are due, has no influence
whatever on the movements. Thus, if a migrant were
crossing the North Sea from Norway to Britain, one
fails to see why a north-west wind should not be as
suitable for the passage as a south-east, for both would
be beam-winds, and yet during the prevalence of the
former, such migration is practically at a standstill, and
during the latter at its climax.

High winds, from any quarter, are naturally
unfavourable, inasmuch as their very force may render
migration impossible or disastrous, or force the birds
out of their course when they encounter them. Strong-
flying species, such as Swans and Geese, do, indeed,
migrate under stress of weather that would be fatal to
most of the smaller species, and appear in our islands
during very unsettled periods. It is extraordinary.

PLATE VII.

Chart of North-Western Europe showing Typical Weather
Conditions, with the Wind North-Easterly, over the British
Isles

The region of highest pressure lies between the Hebrides and Iceland,
with gentle gradients extending to and over the northern half of the British
area and the southern and central portions of Scandinavia. The area of
depression is centred to the south-east with a considerable gradient reaching
across the southern half of the North Sea.

This type of weather is the most favourable of all for intermigration, in
both spring and autumn, between the British area and Iceland ; while it
is also propitious for movements between our shores and those of
Scandinavia at both seasons.

Such conditions are, however, unfavourable for movements to and from
the British Isles and the countries lying to the south and south-east of them.

PLATE VII.

O S- 10 15 20- .251

jg

^■Vy'^

1/^

Be

;/

-^^1

^

^9-

55

P1»

5C

KedvLCcd from. Special Chart prepared at the Meteorological Office.]

North-Easterly Type of Weather.

Isobars are shown by black lines, with indications of the height of the barometer.
Wind.— Arrows flying with the wind, show direction and force, thus :

y = forces 5 to 7 (velocity, 28 to 40 miles per hour).

i^ = forces I to 4 (velocity, 8 to 23 miles per hour). ^^^

Vol. 7.]

WEATHER INFLUENCES 179

however, what even small birds can brave, in the shape
of high winds, for a time, but a long flight against such
heavy odds is disastrous. Blackbirds have appeared at
the Eddystone when the wind registered a velocity of
40 miles an hour. Gales during the autumn drive
marine species, such as Phalaropes, Skuas, Petrels, etc.,
and even Gannets, on to our shores (some of them
occasionally in great numbers) and sometimes far
inland. Later in the season, in winter. Guillemots,
Razorbills, Puffins, and Little Auks, are, in like manner,
blown ashore from their pelagic winter haunts, and
are not unfrequently carried far into the interior of the
country.

Temperattu^e. — Temperature plays an important part
in both the spring and autumn movements. In the
spring, a decided increase in warmth in the more
temperate winter retreats is an incentive to move
towards summer haunts ; and it has almost invariably
been found that the earlier arrivals of such migrants on
our shores are to be correlated with a rise of temperature
in countries to the south of the British Islands. It is
worthy of note that, in not a few instances, such move-
ments have been recorded for dates on which the
temperature of our islands was lower than immediately
before the birds appeared— a fact which clearly indicates
that the increase of warmth at the seat of emieration
was the incentive for the movements northwards. This
rise in temperature in South-Western Europe sometimes
extends to the British area, prevailing over it to a greater
or lesser extent.

In the autumn, a decided fall in temperature warns
the summer guests that the time to seek the southern
winter retreats is at hand, and later compels the laggards

180 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

to migrate, through its effect upon their food suppHes.
Should the weather be unfavourable for a prolonged
flio-ht, the would-be emigrants have to await the
advent of propitious conditions, and then a rush to the
south or west, as the case may be, follows. Cold
spells, however, are not unfrequently associated with
anticyclonic periods, during which, too, the weather is
calm, and hence suitable for departure movements from
the area over which they prevail.

Fog. — It often happens that during an important
migratory movement in the autumn fog prevails. On
such occasions more birds than usual approach the
lanterns of the light-stations, where they are sometimes
killed in considerable numbers. This phenomenon is
another effect of those anticyclonic conditions which
have been alluded to as favourable for migration, and it
is thus not surprising that the birds should encounter
foggy weather during their great movements. There is
also some direct evidence that birds lose themselves in
foggy weather, since practically non-migratory species
appear during its prevalence at unusual seasons at
stations just off the coast.

Dr Shaw informs me that in the past few years he
has had a large correspondence, chiefly through Dr
Tressider, with various pigeon-flying associations in
connection with pigeon-matches. This has led him
to conclude that a successful pigeon-race requires anti-
cyclonic conditions, so much so that the custodian of
many thousands of pigeons sometimes waits in France
until we signify the absence of cyclonic conditions.
It appears to be cloud which is the obstacle to a
pigeon's finding its way home, and possibly the same
conditions may be operative in natural migration.

PLATE VIII.

Chart of North-Western Europe showing Typical Weather
Conditions, with South- Westerly Winds, over the British
Isles

A depression lies to the north-west of our area, and embraces Iceland and
the Faroes ; while an anticyclone to the south of us covers the greater part
of France. Wind south-westerly over the British Isles and North-Western
Europe.

South-westerly weather is favourable for intermigration between England
and Southern and Central Europe, i.e.^ tor the arrival of summer visitors on
our southern shores in spring, and for the departure of emigrants from them
in autumn. It is also suitable for the passage movements (to the east in
spring and west in autumn) across the southern waters of the North Sea,
between the south-eastern shores of England and those of the Continent
lying in the same latitude. They present, however, weather barriers to the
performance of migration between Northern Europe and Iceland_and the
British Isles.

PLATE VIII.

SO

Sd

45

IQ- 15-

20-

293

29 5

y^

^^

m

u>

K

A

/:

/

T

VA

\

2Si9\

6$

^_

% \

se?..

\A

/

\

y.

55

Red need from Special Chart prepared at the Meteorological Office.]

South-Westerly Type of Weather.

Isobars are shown by black lines, with indications of the height of the barometer.
Wind. — Arrows flying with the wind, show direction and force, thus : —

>- = forces 5 to 7 (velocity, 28 to 40 miles per hour).

^ = forces I to 4 (velocity, 8 to 23 miles per hour).

T^ol. I.] [To face p. 180.

WEATHER INFLUENCES 181

Hence it is worth while to consider the cloudiness of the
various barometric distributions. x'Xnticyclonic skies
are not necessarily free from cloud, and in the winter
there is a state of the sky which goes by the name of
"anticyclonic gloom " among certain experts; but as a
working rule in spring and autumn anticyclonic weather
is generally fine.

Every migratory movement has its own particular
and peculiar meteorological associations, for the condi-
tions controlling them are often of a more or less
complex nature. IVIost of them admit of explanation,
when the official weather reports, which afford the key
for their solution, are consulted.

The Weather and the Spring Ininiigratory Move-
ments.— The meteorological phenomena which are associ-
ated with and influence these, must be sought in the
weather conditions prevailing in those southern countries
whence the migrants set out to reach the British Islands,

Birds often arrive in our islands at this season
when the meteorological conditions with us are dis-
tinctly unpropitious, but a reference to the charts of the
weather prevailing in the countries to the south of us
invariably indicates that favourable weather prevailed
there, and induced the birds to move northwards. The
chief factor in these favourable conditions is an increase
in warmth, the influence of which has already been
treated of under the heading of Temperature. The
southerly types of weather (see Plates V. and VIII.)
are the most favourable for these spring movements
across the Channel from the south.

The first arrivals of the summer birds appear, as a

I. M 2

182 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

rule, in March, and it may be remarked that the
thermal pecuHarities of the British area play an
important part in determining their geographical dis-
tribution. The remarkable fact that the great majority
of the summer visitors to our islands are first observed
on the shores of the south-west of England and
Ireland, has already been mentioned. This holds
good even in genial seasons, but in cold ones it is
almost entirely the case. Thus in March 1887, with
its monotonously low temperatures, the arrival of six
species, on twelve occasions, was recorded in the returns
made to the British Association's Committee, all for
the south-west. Again, in the cold March of 1885,
every record but one of the fourteen chronicled was
made in this same mild region of the British area.
During the exceptionally cold and stormy March of
1883, "^"^y one species — the Wheatear — was observed
on two occasions, both at stations on the west coast
of Ireland, where the temperature was highest.

The Spring Emigratory Movements of birds which
have spent the winter in our islands and are returning
to their northern native homes, are influenced by the
weather conditions which prevail in the British area.
Here, it is found, other conditions being suitable for
the sea passages to the north or east, that increase in
temperature is again the main influencing factor, so
that upon it depends, to a considerable degree, the
extent of the departure movements. Thus it is not until
April, and especially May, that the decided departures
are recorded. In April the fine weather (anticyclonic)
periods have varying emigrational values which depend
entirely on their temperature. They are favourable if
characterised by high, or moderately high, temperatures ;

WEATHER INFLITENCES 183

or they may be distinctly unfavourable through being
decidedly cold. Some emigration, of a straggling nature,
it is true, is recorded during anticyclonic periods when
moderately cold but calm weather prevails.

In spring, cyclonic periods, too, vary in their
influences on emigration. They are, as a rule, un-
favourable owing to their high winds and ungeniality.
On the other hand, when they are of a mild type, and
characterised by warm rain and soft breezes, following a
cold anticyclonic spell in April, they favour to a north-
ward movement from our islands.

The spring emigrations are embarked upon under
precisely the same type of pressure distribution as that
described as being favourable for the autumnal passage
of birds across the North Sea to our islands — namely,
when an anticyclonic area extends from north-western
Europe to the shores of Britain. Under such meteoro-
logical conditions, the North Sea is spanned by fine
weather, and moderate easterly to southerly breezes
prevail. Some of these spring movements to the north
are occasionally undertaken during somewhat unfavour-
able weather. Even in May there are records of
emigration during sleet, cold rain, and north-east
breezes, but it has to be explained that these conditions
followed prolonged spells of inclement weather, and
were genial in comparison with them.

Autumn Immigration. — The arrival movements of
birds in the British Isles during the early autumn are
undertaken under weather conditions which were favour-
able for their performance.

It is not until the latter half of September, and
during October and early November, that the move-
ments into our islands from the north-east are to be

184 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

associated with the great weather changes of the
autumn.

It has been ascertained then that all these great
movements are due to weather conditions which have
been already described as being favourable — namely,
the prevalence of fine weather between Scandinavia and
Britain. These conditions often follow the passing
away from North- Western Europe of a cyclonic spell of
a more or less pronounced nature, during the prevalence
of which the ordinary course of the emigratory move-
ments is either interrupted or rendered impossible.
The anticyclone removes the cyclonic weather barrier,
releases the pent-up migrants, and provides condi-
tions favourable for migration, sometimes adding
also an incentive in the form of a decided fall in
temperature.

Autumn Emigration. — The chief feature in migration
during the earlier autumn days is the departure of
British summer birds, including those which have been
described as partial migrants. July, in some seasons,
has its ungenial spells, and these make themselves
felt by our feathered guests, resulting in movements
of a partial or a more decided nature. The influences
inciting these incipient movements are a complete
break-up of normal summer weather and the prevalence
of unsettled conditions, not unfrequently accompanied
by thunder and heavy rains and a decided fall in
temperature. The result upon our summer visitants,
or upon their young, on such occasions, is that many
of them move from their accustomed haunts, and appear
on the coast — sometimes at the lanterns — where the
occurrence of those departing from our shores is duly
chronicled. The species chiefly affected arc the Thrush,

WEATHER IXFEUENCES 185

Redbreast, Wheatear, Whitethroat, Willow - Warbler,
Swallow, Martin, Swift, and Cuckoo.

During August the regular departure movements
of the autumn set in, and are usually performed under
ordinary conditions — namely, fine weather. The influ-
ences, other than normal, are the same ungenial spells,
especially if accompanied by cold, alluded to for July.
These, however, are not frequent in most seasons, and
yet few seasons are entirely free from them.

In September there are usually recorded some
very decided movements, which may be fairly termed
emigratory "rushes." These occur simultaneously with
the advent of weather spells which, among other
characters, are remarkable for a decided fall in
temperature, sometimes amounting to many degrees.
In one instance, on 15th September 1886, the difference
in temperature amounted to as much as 20" in twenty-
four hours, and naturally produced a marked effect on
the emigration returns. The conditions causing such
decided falls in the thermometer are chiefly northerly
winds. Sometimes, however, these cold spells pre-
vail with a light southerly wind, as was the case on
5th September 1885, when a cold, showery period
caused much emigration. That low temperatures are
the prime factors, is clearly demonstrated by the Sep-
tember records, inasmuch as there are unsettled periods
which are not characterised by cold, whose influence
on migration is comparatively insignificant.

The British autumnal emigratory movements of
late September, October, and early November, are,
in their meteorological aspects, identical with those
which are associated with similar movements from
Northern Europe, except that it is essential the

186 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

conditions favourable for them prevail over the British
area and to the southwards (see Weather Charts).
Indeed, the movements are sometimes kept quite dis-
tinct from immigrations by the interposition of weather
barriers to the north, which cut off migratory com-
rpunication between our shores and those of Northern
Europe. These barriers most frequently take the form
of a subsidiary low-pressure area lying over the North
Sea between Great Britain and Scandinavia.

The great emigrations from Britain and Ireland, like
those from Northern Europe at the same season, set in
on the passing away of cyclonic conditions. The un-
favourable conditions which have passed away have
probably acted as a warning to many laggard migratory
birds, while the cold adds an additional spur and swells
the ranks of the departing birds.

During October local movements are observed,
which are directly traceable to the influence exerted on
emigration by a considerable lowering of the tempera-
ture over a particular area. Thus, for example, on
20th October 1883, there was a remarkable movement
of Swallows to the south-east coast of Ireland. On this
day there was a decided fall in temperature, the lowest
readings being recorded for Ireland, where these laggard
summer-birds had until then found congenial quarters.
Ao-ain, on loth October 1885, a movement to the
southward of Thrushes and Blackbirds was recorded
at stations in the north of Scotland, and in this
instance, too, the meteorological data afford the infor-
mation that a fall in temperature had occurred within
that area.

The emigratory movements of winter are, as has
been already stated (p. t^j), attributable to the direct

AVEATHEU INFLUENCES 187

influence of severe weather conditions, in the shape of
frost or heavy snow, and nothing more need be said
regarding these simple weather influences on British
bird-emigration.

Other references bearing directly upon the relations
between meteorological and migrational phenomena
will be found in the chapters dealing with Spring,
Autumn, and Winter ; and also in those devoted to Bird-
watching on the Eddystone and at the Kentish Knock
Lightship : while the weather and its association with
the movements observed for a whole year will be related
in the study which treats of Fair Isle.

CHAPTER IX

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW, HIRUNDO RUSTICA ^

The various seasonal movements of the familiar Swallow
afford an excellent type of those performed by the great
majority of the smaller birds, which are Summer Visitors
to Great Britain and Ireland, and whose breeding range
also extends to higher latitudes on the continent of
Europe, though not reaching to the extreme north, nor
to Iceland.

In our islands the Swallow is, however, not merely
a summer visitant, but also a bird of passage
traversing our shores in spring and autumn on its way
to or from its summer quarters in Northern and
Western Europe. Its winter quarters are in Africa,
chiefly to the south of the Great Desert.

Spring Immigration of Summer Visitants. — The
records relating to the Swallow's return in spring are so
numerous and complete as to enable one to speak with
authority as to the date of the bird's successive arrivals
on our shores, and also to trace with some degree of
accuracy its gradual spreading over the country.

* The preparation of these complete and particular accounts has proved
to be a most difificult undertaking. This arises from the fact that a number
of the movements treated of are so intricately interwoven with, or so insen-
sibly merge into one another, or are performed under such obscure con-
ditions, as to render their discrimination and interpretation matters
demanding most careful consideration.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW 189

There are several instances (which can only be
regarded as phenomenal) of the appearances of Swallows
in February. During March, however, a few annually
appear on the south-west coast of England, in Ireland,
the south-east of England, sometimes very early in the
month, though these latter must be regarded as some-
what erratic visitors. There are also a few March
records of their appearance in the south-eastern and
south-western districts of Scotland.

It is not till April, however, that the vanguard of
the spring hosts reaches our shores, and a careful analysis
of dates shows that the average time of its appearance in
different parts of our islands is as follows : — For south-
western England, the beginning of the first week ; for
Ireland, the end of that week; for south-eastern England,
early in the second week ; for south-western Scotland,
the end of the same ; for south-eastern Scotland, the
middle of the third week ; for northern Scotland, the
fourth week ; and, lastly, it is not till the second week of
May that the few swallows which are natives of Orkney
reach their destination. These early immigrants are
usually either single birds or pairs. Some ten or twelve
days later than the arrival of this advanced guard, the
appearance of Swallows in considerable numbers takes
place, and they become gradually abundant throughout
the kingdom. These initial hosts are followed by others,
and so the influx proceeds during the rest of April
and the first half of May, and beyond that date in
the case of birds of passage en route for northern
haunts beyond our shores. In backward seasons, such
as that of 1887, when cold and unsettled weather with
snow and sleet prevails, the vanguard may be delayed for
about a week, but in that season its appearance was

190 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

immediately followed by a "rush," and the birds became
numerous and general only a little in arrear of their
accustomed time.

In the Hebrides and north-western Scotland, the
Swallow is not common, and is mostly observed on
passage in small numbers. Occasionally it visits St
Kilda in spring. It appears annually in Shetland on
migration, chiefly about the middle of May and
during June, but is somewhat irregular, both as to the
date of its appearance and its numbers. In Ireland the
immigrants continue to arrive in considerable numbers
until about the middle of May, and in some seasons
(1883, 1884, and 1886) as late as the third week of that
month, but it is possible that some of these later birds
are on passage on their way northwards.

It is evident from the statistics that the arrival
of Swallows on the western sea-board is well in
advance of their appearance further to the east. Not
only is this so in the south of England, but even in
Scotland the districts of "Solway" and "Clyde" almost
invariably receive their swallows several days before the
"Tweed "and "Forth."

The spring swallows are recorded as arriving on
our southern shores chiefly during the daytime, mainly
in pairs, but sometimes as many as six or seven together,
and as flying low over the sea, the immigration lasting
most of the day. They are also noted as coming in
small parties, flock after flock, for several hours in
succession, and are usually unaccompanied by any other
kinds of birds. At the Eddystone, however, they have
on several occasions been observed passing towards the
Cornish coast during the hours of darkness, and with
other migrants. Thus from midnight to 3 a,m, on 3rd

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW 191

and 4th May 1887, hundreds of birds, Swallows, and
Wheatears, in company (as testified by the wings of the
victims) with Reed-Warblers, Whitethroats, Wood- and
Willow- Warblers, and Redstarts, were killed at the
lighthouse. They also appeared at this same station
during the early hours of 12th April 1902, along with
many other species, and some were again killed against
the lantern. Generally, however, few Swallows meet
with disaster during their spring journeys, a very small
number strikino- the lanterns, while fewer still seem to
suffer from exhaustion.

Spring Passage to Northern Europe. — This move-
ment of Swallows along our coast-line for their boreal
homes, does not set in till the last days of April or early
May, reaches its maximum about the middle of May,
and may be prolonged till near mid June. Many of the
earlier of these transient migrants reach our south coast
in company with the Swallows that come to summer
with us, but those which pour in during the latter half
of May or in June are mostly travellers on their way
to Scandinavia.^ The main stream is confined to our
eastern coast, and the North Sea is crossed by the
main body of the migrants ere the northern limit of
the mainland is reached, for only a comparatively small
number seem to take Orkney or Shetland on their way
to Northern Europe. A few Swallows yearly visit the
Hebrides, including the remote Flannan Islands and St
Kilda, during the last three weeks of May and early
June, and it is possibly these birds, or some of them,

1 According to the information of Professor Collett, the Swallow is
seldom observed in Norway in April. In the first week of May examples
appear singly, about the middle of that month more arrive, and between the
20th and 25th all, perhaps, have come.

192 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

and those which visit Sule Skerry and Foula, that find
their way to the Faroes/ and finally reach Northern
Europe by this far-western route. A few are also
observed about the same time on the north-west coast
of Scotland, probably en route for the north.

Autumn Emigration of British Summer Visitors. —
During the latter half of July, parties of Swallows are
recorded as visiting the island stations and lightships off
the east coast of Great Britain and the south-east of
Ireland. It may be doubted, however, if such appear-
ances are of much significance, though it may be other-
wise with some recorded during spells of cold weather.
But even if these were cases of real migration, it
may have been but partial, the birds merely seeking
better quarters within our area. On 19th July 1902,
however, a small party passed the Varne lightship, which
is stationed in the middle of the Channel and about
midway between Folkstone and Boulogne, at 11 a.m.,
flying from north-west to south-east.

It is not until the last week of August that Swallows
ordinarily begin to gather together prior to leaving
Scotland and the north of England. Then there is
a decided movement southward, and, along with Wheat-
ears, Redstarts, Sedge- Warblers, Willow- Warblers, and
Tree-Pipits, they are observed at various stations, both
on the coast and inland, and some even quit our islands.
There is no evidence, however, that these birds leave the
country in any but very small numbers, and most of them
probably tarry for some time in the south of England
before crossing the Channel. The Irish movements in
August are less pronounced, but the returns show a

* Herr Knud Andersen informs me that the Swallow appears not
uncommonly, as a straggler, in the Faroes in May.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW 193

decided increase of visitors to the coast stations, and in-
dicate the setting in of autumn emigration.

In September the southern movement becomes
general throughout the whole country, and reaches its
maximum between the middle and end of the month.
During its early days there is the first evidence
of pronounced departure from our shores, and the
cross - Channel emigration then proceeds throughout
the autumn. At the Eddystone during the latter
half of September and first half of October 1901, I
observed considerable numbers passing southwards.
They were usually in parties of a dozen or more, which
comprised old and young birds. All the movements
were timed between 7 and 1 1.30 a.m.

The beginning of October shows a decided falling
off in the numbers departing from the northern districts,
especially in the west ; but the southward movement is
well maintained during the first half of the month from
the east and south-west of England and the south-east
of Ireland. By the middle of the month the emigration
from Scotland and the north of England is over, and
Swallows observed after that time on the east coast
of Britain are migrants from Scandinavia, which
since September have been passing along that coast,
mingling with our own departing birds, so that in many
cases the two movements are indistinguishable. After
the middle of October a considerable diminution is
observable, except on the coast of the Channel, where
the efflux is maintained throughout the month.

During the first half of November stragglers are still

to be seen on the east coast of Great Britain and the

south-east of Ireland, but there are very few records of

observations in the west of Scotland, and not many

I. N

194 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

from the north-west of England. From the south of
England many departures occur annually till the middle
of the month, while stragglers are to be seen later,
especially in the south-west. December Swallows are
rarce. aves, and were only observed in one year of the
British Association inquiry. The autumn of 1880 was
remarkable for the protracted stay of the Hirundinidse,
and a few belated Swallows were recorded on the south
coast of England in the last week of November, while in
December one was observed at Bournemouth on the 7th,
and two at Eastbourne, and one at Woolmer on the
nth, the weather until that time having been mild.^
Others were observed in the Decembers of 1891, 1894
(a number), and 1896.

Autumn Passage along the British Coast from
Northern Europe. — The return of the Swallows which
have summered in Scandinavia (accompanied by their
young), and their passage along our coasts usually takes
place from the middle of September^ onwards, the 9th
(in 1884) being the earliest day on which their move-
ment is recorded. The passage is well maintained
during the rest of the month, and is prolonged on
the part of small numbers to the first or even second
week of October. Some of these travellers from the
north are, perhaps, induced by our milder climate to tarry,
and it is possibly such laggards that occur on or near our
east coast in November, and account for the late-

1 Mr Joseph Agnew, light-keeper, states that a Swallow was caught on
the Monach Isles (with the exception of St Kilda, the outermost of the
Hebrides) in January 1887, but he unfortunately furnished no further
particulars of the occurrence.

2 Professor Collet states that Swallows begin to leave southern Norway
the first week of September, and that he has known individuals to remain
there so late as the middle of October.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW 195

ness of migration there as compared with that on the
west coast.

In Shetland and Orkney there are only slight and
irregular appearances of these returning Swallows of
passage, and but feeble evidence of their taking the
Hebrides on their return journey, though the records
indicate such a transit during September and the first
days of October. There are passage movements on the
part of Irish birds discernible in the south-west of
England to the third week of October, with occasional
stragglers to the middle of November.

It has been already remarked that after their arrival
on our shores, Swallows on autumn passage mix with
our native birds then emigrating, and it is no longer
possible to trace the former, though they doubtless form
the bulk of the rearguard movements of the autumn.

Auhiinn Passage from Western Europe by East-to-
West Route. — During my sojourn in the Kentish
Knock lightship in the autumn of 1903, I was much
interested to observe Swallows coming from the east
and flying towards the coasts* of Essex and east Kent.
Such flights were witnessed on seven occasions between
26th September and i6th October. These migrants
from the opposite shores of the North Sea passed the
ship in parties composed of young and old, and were
timed between 8 a.m. and 2 p.m. Spring passages, in
the reverse direction, do not appear to have come
under notice.

In September Swallows are recorded at the light-
ships off the mouth of the Thames and the Kentish
coast as coming from the south-east, occasionally in
considerable numbers. This would seem to imply that
they were leaving the French or Belgian coasts, perhaps

19G STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

to sojourn in England before finally departing for their
southern winter-retreats.

Further Observations on the Aut2imn Movements. —
At the best stations for observing the emigration of the
Swallows from our shores, it usually takes the form of
the continuous passage of small parties not exceeding a
score, and as this may last for hours, vast numbers thus
depart. They have, however, been observed to assemble
on the south coast in thousands and fly away en masse,
but it is only occasionally such departures are re-
corded. The earliest troops to cross the Channel are
composed of old and young birds. It has, however,
been noticed that the large congregations at various
points on the south coast, whether preparing to emigrate,
or in actual movement, consist in some instances chiefly
or entirely of young birds, and in others wholly of adults.
More frequently, however, the number of old birds is in
normal proportion to that of the young. Swallows are
frequently seen emigrating in company with House-
Martins and occasionally with Sand-Martins.

The flittings-away of the Swallows which have
summered in the British Isles, and of those which visit
our shores as birds of passage proceeding southwards,
are mainly undertaken during the daytime. On the
south coast some of the great movements are recorded
as in progress from early morning until noon, others
proceeding until night sets in.^ There are records,
however, of night movements. Thus, at the Casquets,
west of Alderney, on ist October 1880, Swallows, with

^ At the Nab lightship, ist October 1886, Swallows were recorded as pass-
ing south at intervals, twenty at a time, from dawn to dark. The returns
from Hanois lighthouse, on the west coast of Guernsey, show that Swallows
pass southward from 6 a.m. to 8 P.M.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SWALLOW 197

other birds (Song-Thrushes, Ring-Ouzels, Land- and
Water- Rails, and a Woodcock), occurred from ii p.m. to
3 A.M. Two hundred Swallows struck the lantern.

During the autumn (and also spring) migration, the
English Channel is probably crossed by many routes,
but there are certain much-used points of departure, to
reach which the birds shape their course. Beginning
in the west, we find among them the Land's End,
the Lizard, the Eddystone, Start Point, Portland
Bill, Isle of Wight (St Catherine's Point and Nab
light-vessel), Beachy Head, and Dungeness. On the
Dorset and Hampshire coasts. Swallows are recorded
as proceeding to the eastward in the autumn. In
Sussex, too, the flight is easterly, towards Beachy Head,
just before arriving at which many birds cross the
Channel.^ Others still pursue their easterly flight, and
finally cross the Straits of Dover. There may be other
routes taken, but the points of departure just named are
those which result from the investigations with which I
have been associated. There are, however, some records
of Swallows occasionally moving westward along the
south coast, perhaps a continuation of the movements
from the east across the southern waters of the North
Sea. Thus a cross-movement of departing birds then
occurs. The coast-line is closely followed by many of
the Swallows moving south, more especially by the birds
of passage.

Among the birds performing similar migrations as
summer visitors to the British Isles and North- Western
Europe (due allowance being made for differences in the

* When crossing the Channel between Newhaven and Dieppe, during
the daytime, in September, I have seen Swallows passing in a south-
easterly direction towards the French coast.

I. N 2

198 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

dates on which they are performed) are : the Ring-
Ouzel, Wheatear, Whinchat, Redstart, Common and
Lesser Whitethroats, Blackcap, Garden- Warbler, Chiff-
chaff, Willow - Warbler, Sedge - Warbler, Tree - Pipit,
Red - backed Shrike, Pied and Spotted Flycatchers,
House- and Sand- Martins, Swift, Nightjar, Wryneck,
Cuckoo, Corn-Crake, Common Sandpiper, Whimbrel,
etc. The Wheatear and the Whimbrel proceed to
Iceland and the Faroes, as well as to North- Western
Europe.

CHAPTER X

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE FIELDFARE, TURDCS PILARIS

The migrations of the Fieldfare have been mainly
selected as beinsf well suited to illustrate the various
movements observed in the British Islands of an
important and numerous class of migrants — namely, the
Winter Visitors,

The British migrations of this species are those of
(i) a winter visitor to our islands from North- Western
Europe, and (2) of a bird of passage in autumn and
spring, when en route between its northern summer-
home and winter - quarters in Southern Europe and
Northern Africa. In addition, British winter movements
(due to the pressure of climatic conditions), including
emigration beyond our shores, are annually performed.

The home of the Fieldfares which visit the British
Islands is in Northern Europe, presumably Norway for
the most part. The species does not breed in Iceland,
as the Redwing does, and there is no evidence to show
that any of the small colonies established in various
parts of Central Europe (Pomerania, Thuringia, and
Bavaria) ever contribute to the throng that arrives on
our shores in the autumn.

Autimin Arrival in British Isles. — The Fieldfare
seldom quits its boreal summer haunts until October,

199

200 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

There are, however, many records of the appearance in
Great Britain of odd birds, and, more rarely, small
parties in September, but such occurrences must be
reofarded as somewhat unusual.^

There are annual arrivals of comparatively small
numbers in the first half of October ; but at Fair Isle
in 1907, a number arrived on 2nd October, and very
many on the loth. It is not, in most years, however,
until after the middle of the month that the first of the
great autumnal immigrations is to be expected ; for the
date of the northern exodus is dependent upon the
nature of the season, and especially on the luxuriance of
the crop of berries, in Scandinavia, and, as a rule, the
birds do not move southwards until the third or fourth
week of October. They continue to arrive on our
coasts in considerable numbers until mid-November, the
19th being the latest date for the years covered by the
inquiry instituted by the British Association, and the
24th for Fair Isle.

The following are the dates of the chief immigrations
recorded during the years 1880-87, ^^d at Fair Isle
for 1906, 1907, 1908, 1 9 10, and 191 1 : —

1880. October 21-28. November 18.

1 88 1. October 19.

1882. October 15-16, 18-19.

1883. October 19, 28-30, November 1-2, 8.

1884. October 24, 29. November 2, 4, 12.

1885. October 14, 31. November 8, 10-12.

1886. October 28, 29.

1887. October 26.

* The most remarkable of these early immigrations was the occurrence of
a large flock near Norwich on 9th September 1880 (T. Southwell).

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE FIEEDFARE 201

1906. October 22, 23, 26. November 3, 22.

1907. October 10, 12, 18.

1 90S. October 24, 31. November 24.

1910. October 21, 24-29.

1911. October 14, 21, 22.

It will be observed that in most seasons the birds
arrived in a series of pronounced movements, while in
others a single "rush" only is chronicled. When the
latter is the case, it must be remarked that it was pre-
ceded or followed (or both) by a steady influx cover-
ing the ordinary period of the autumnal incoming (7th
October to 22nd November). On many occasions
these ofreat immig-rations cover much of the eastern
sea-board, which is chiefly affected from Unst, in the
Shetland Isles, to, or perhaps beyond, the H umber.

After arrival the immigrants quickly find their way
to accustomed winter quarters in the British area, includ-
ing those in the western districts, which are largely, but
not entirely, reached by an overland flight from the
north-east and east.

A migratory stream of Fieldfares, though one of
much less extent, reaches the west coast of Scotland,
where it is chiefly observed at the inner isles, but extends
as far to the west as St Kilda, the Flannan and the
Monach groups, and comes much under observation at
the rock stations of Skerryvore and Dhu Hearteach.
The Outer Hebridean branch of this stream reaches
the north coast of Ireland, whence numbers of the birds
proceed inland to winter quarters. Regarding these
western movements, it must be observed that it seems
likely that a small proportion of the Fieldfares regularly
travelling southwards via the Outer Hebrides may

202 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

reach that far - western route by way of the Faroes,
which islands are visited annually in the autumn' — an
interesting fact, since the bird does not summer in
Iceland, and, moreover, one which indicates an astonish-
ing extension westwards of the right wing of the hosts
moving southwards on the approach of winter.

AiUiimn Passage and Einigration. — The autumn
passage from the northern summer haunts to winter
quarters beyond the British Isles is chiefly observed on
our east coast during the latter half of October and the
first half of November — the two sets of migratory Field-
fares (the British and South- Western European winter
visitors) doubtless arriving in company. Thus many
Fieldfares quit our southern shores very shortly after
their arrival, and consequently the dates of immigration
and emigration closely correspond. A number of the
migrants observed on the west coast also proceed south-
wards ; some of them along the east coast of Ireland,
and thence across St George's Channel ; others by
way of the west coast of England and Wales. These
birds finally quit our shores at points on the western
section of the south coast of England, particularly
between the Eddystone and the Scilly Isles.

Winter Movements and Ei)iigratio7i.— On the advent
of snow and cold, the Fieldfares quit the higher grounds,
which form their usual winter quarters in our islands, and
seek the lowlands, the coast, ^ and the islands lying off it.

* Mr Knud Andersen informs me that some Fieldfares occur on migra-
tion in both spring and autumn at the Faroes.

" The appearance of this bird in numbers on the coast in winter has led
some observers to suppose that a renewal of the immigratory movements
from Northern Europe has occurred, whereas it is directly associated with
and is the result of the weather conditions prevailing in our islands, which
have driven the wintering Fieldfares from the inland districts.

THE MIGRATIONS 01 THE I'lELDFARE 203

In seasons of exceptional cold and heavy snow, vast
numbers pass southwards along our coast-lines and over-
land, en route for the southern counties, while many
cross the Channel for South-West PLurope. Many, too,
especially after or during snow, are observed passing
westwards along the south coast of England and its
vicinity, in company with Thrushes, Redwings, Black-
birds, Starlings, Larks, Linnets, Lapwings, etc., in
search of the milder conditions usually to be found in
Devon, Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles. Emigrants
from the mainland of northern Britain then visit the
Hebrides ; and numbers enter Ireland from Scotland
and north Wales ; but none of the numerous Fieldfares
which sweep along the south coast of England appear
to seek the Sister Isle from the south-east by a passage
across St George's Channel, as do Song-Thrushes,
Starlings, Larks, and other refugee British species. In
Ireland, during severe periods, many leave their ordinary
winter haunts and pass southwards and westwards for
the milder areas to be found in the vicinity of the
Atlantic or to quit the country.

The time at which these winter movements take
place varies according to the nature of the season. In
1886 great cold set in as early as 22nd November, and
was the cause of much migration, and an exodus from
the southern shores of Britain, which continued until the
26th. The movements may be local or general, and if
a series of cold snaps occurs, a corresponding series of
spasmodic migrations results ; but should the storm be
widespread, general emigrations follow.

A small number of Fieldfares winter in southern
Scandinavia, and in exceptionally severe seasons some
of these are driven southwards and westwards, and this,

204 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

no doubt, accounts for the occasional appearance of
small numbers in the depth of winter in Shetland and
Orkney and at the Faroes (Andersen).

Spinng I inrnig ration from the South. — Towards the
end of March, the Fieldfares which have wintered in
countries south of the British Islands (including, no
doubt, the birds driven from Britain by the severities
of the past winter) make their appearance on our southern
shores, which form an important stage in their spring
journey northwards. These return passages across the
Channel are continued at intervals throughout April, and
are sometimes observed down to the early days of May.
During these movements the birds are recorded as
arriving at night or in the earliest hours of the morning,
and are usually accompanied by Redwings, Thrushes,
Blackbirds, Starlings, Wheatears, and other species.

The immigrants which arrive in England during
March do not appear to move northwards at once, but
sojourn with us for a little time before departing for
their summer quarters in Northern Europe.

Spring Passage and Emigration. — The departure
from our isles of the Fieldfares which have wintered
with us, and of the birds of passage also on their way
to the northern breeding haunts, does not commence
until the latter days of March (22nd earliest) or the
early days of April, and ordinarily lasts until the second
week in May, but in some seasons is prolonged until
about the middle of that month, while stragglers are
annually observed as late as its last week.

Some of the great spring emigrations cover con-
siderable sections of the eastern sea-board, having been
observed from the Fame Islands to Orkney and Shet-
land, and from the Wash to the Firth of Forth.

THE MIGRATIONS OF TIIK FIKLDFARE 205

Departure movements are also witnessed on the
west coast of Britain. These are somewhat feebly
marked at the English, Welsh, and Manx stations,
but become more pronounced on the Scottish coast
(including the Hebrides), which receives the Irish emi-
grants en route for the north. There is also much
overland migration from the western districts to the
east coast, for embarkation, performed throughout
Great Britain.

Before proceeding to the coast for departure. Field-
fares assemble and form flocks in the various districts
in which they have wintered, and are then very noisy
and restless for several days before they finally take
leave of their winter haunts.

The earliest emigrants quit our shores chiefly in
small parties, either alone or at the same time as
Rooks, Starlings, Bramblings, Mealy Redpolls, Yellow
Buntings, Skylarks, Meadow-Pipits, Song-Thrushes,
Redwings, Ring-Ouzels, Wheatears, Redbreasts, Hedge-
Accentors, and Woodcocks. Those that follow in the
latter half of April and in May are observed mainly on
the east coast and at the northern islands of Orkney
and Shetland, in great flocks, and in company with
many other migrants — Blackbirds, Whinchats, Red-
starts, Blackcaps, Common and Lesser Whitethroats,
Willow- Warblers, Pied Flycatchers, Swallows, Corn-
Crakes, Whimbrels, and other species, including most
of those already named as observed during the earlier
movements.

General Remarks. — This species is extremely wary,
and is less frequently killed or captured at the lanterns
of the light-stations than any of its congeners.

206 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Among the winter visitors to the British Isles per-
forming migrations similar to those of the Fieldfare (due
allowance being made for the variation in the dates of
their comings and goings, which in most cases are not
material) are : the ^' Redwing, Brambling, * Mealy
Redpoll, Grey Plover, ^^Turnstone, Great Snipe, Jack
Snipe, *Knot, '^Sanderling, Bar-tailed Godwit, and a
number of aquatic species (Ducks, Geese, Grebes).
Those marked thus ''^" also come to us from Iceland,
as well as from the north-east.

Many individuals of species which are resident in
the British Isles, such as the Song-Thrush, Blackbird,
Redbreast, Hedge-Accentor, Chaffinch, Siskin, Short-
eared Owl, Merlin, Water-Rail, Golden Plover, Wood-
cock, Common Snipe, etc., are summer visitors to
northern countries, and perform identical migrations as
winter visitors to, and birds of passage on our shores.

CHAPTER XI

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE WHITE WAGTAIL,
MOT AC ILL A ALBA

The migrations of the White Wagtail are those of
a Bird of Passage traversingr our shores when en route
between its summer quarters in North-Western Europe,
the Faroes, and Iceland, and its winter retreats to the
south of us, which extend to Northern Africa.

Its movements present several points of interest — •
among others, the fact that it is one of the species,
not many in number, whose main lines of migration in
the British Isles lie along our western sea-board and
its islands, and not on the east coast.

There are records of the birds' nesting occasionally
in various parts of Great Britain.

Spring Immigi'ation and Passage Northivards. —
The first White Wagtails to arrive from the southern
countries in which the winter has been passed, have
been detected on the south coast of England as early as
the latter half of March.^ It is not, however, until the
early days of April that their appearance may be
generally expected, and the scene of their arrival is
chiefly on the western section of our southern coast-line.

1 In 1872 it is said to have occurred at Plymouth on 3rd March, which
is the earliest date known to me for its appearance.

207

208 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Their in-comings in small numbers continue until the
middle of the month, after which there is an increase,
which is maintained until mid- May, after which date
the immigration practically ceases.

After their arrival on our southern sea-board, some
of the immigrants tarry for a while before resuming
their journey. Others soon move northwards, the great
majority proceeding by the western routes, where there
are instances of the bird's appearance, even in the
Clyde area, soon after mid- March. With April the
general advance northwards sets in, and proceeds until
about the middle of May ; but the rearguard is observed
on its march northwards at the Shetland Isles, down to
the latter days of the month.

On the west coast, we are able to trace the passage
from the Scilly Isles and Cornwall to the Welsh coast,
the Isle of Man, the Sol way and Clyde areas, and hence
coastwise to Cape Wrath, the north-western limit of
the mainland of Great Britain. In Scotland two more
western routes are also followed, the outermost of
which traverses the Hebrides from Barra Head, their
southern extremity, to the Butt of Lewis, at their northern
apex, while a number of the migrants visit the still more
outlying Monach, St Kilda, and Flannan groups of
islands, and North Rona. Another line of flight is via
Dhu Hearteach, Skerryvore, and the inner islands, and
comes especially under notice at Tiree and Coll.

To turn now to the Irish coasts, we find that there
are only a few records for the spring passage for the
east coast of Ireland, but it will indeed be a very
surprising fact if the bird is not on regular passage
along that coast-line. The west coast of Ireland is,
however, regularly visited, and probably the birds

THi: MKJKATIONS OF THF, WIIITK WAGTAIL 209

traverse the Outer Hebrides on quitting the Irish
coast.

As compared with the migrants proceeding north-
wards by the western routes named, those which move
along the eastern sea-board are but a feeble troop.
This contrast with the west coast may, perhaps, be
accounted for by the fact that the bird is an abundant
summer visitor to the Faroes and Iceland, and that
those seeking Scandinavia also chiefly follow the western
route. Be this as it may, it seems to be well established
by observation that only a small number arrive on the
eastern section of the south coast for passage along
the British shores of the North Sea, where a few are
observed up to the north-eastern limit of the mainland.

The great numbers of these birds on passage mov-
ing along our coast-lines in spring finally reach the
Shetlands. There the White Wao^tail is one of the
commonest birds of passage, and these northern isles
seem to be the main scene of its departure from the
British area in spring, as it is of its arrival in autumn.
It occurs annually in the Orkneys in spring, and is
regularly observed in the most western and southern
isles of the group — namely, at Sule Skerry and at the
Pentland Skerries. The Orkneys and Shetlands too,
no doubt, mark the parting of the ways, some of the
migrants proceeding to the north-west for Faroe and
Iceland, others to the north-east for Scandinavia. Some
of the birds travelling along the westernmost route may,
after traversing the Hebridean islands, proceed direct to
the Faroes, and thence to Iceland.

As to the dates at which these spring movements
are performed, the records from Fair Isle, where the
bird is very common, furnish much reliable information,
I. o

210 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

the result of careful observations made during six
successive seasons (1906-1911). The earliest date for
its appearance is 5th April, and the period during
which it is most abundant is the fortnisfht which covers
the last week of April and the first week of May.
After this, stragglers only appear In small parties, and
the latest date on which its passage is recorded is
9th June.

Autumn Passage South and Emigration. — The
autumn movements from the summer homes towards
the winter retreats follow the same lines of flight along
our shores as those already indicated for the spring,
save, of course, that they are in a reverse direction.
The birds are then more abundant than in the spring,
since the ranks of the migrants are recruited by the
young birds a few weeks old. It is usually seen in
parties of from ten to twenty individuals, but I have
seen as many as fifty together at Fair Isle and thirty
at St Kilda. These migrants are generally actively
engaged in the capture of flies, which are very numerous
among the rotting seaweed which fringes the beaches
at high-water mark ; they are numerous, too, in the
neighbourhood of stations at which fish is exposed for
drying, where also dipterous insects abound.

The etirliest date for the bird's appearance at this
season at Fair Isle is 9th August 1909. It becomes
more numerous as the month advances, and the move-
ments continue in full swing until mid-September.
After this the passage, though still in progress, is
participated in by fewer individuals, but small numbers
are observed annually until mid-October. Odd birds,
however, occur in November, and One obtained on the
9th of that month, in 1908, was forwarded to me for

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE WHITE WAGTAIE 211

my satisfaction. There appear to be few records of the
White Wagtail's departure from the southern shores
of England, but during my residence in the Eddystone
lighthouse in the autumn of 1901, I observed it crossing
the Channel towards the coast of France on several
occasions between 31st September and 14th October.
I only detected one of these travellers amongst the
Wagtails that migrated during the daytime ; but birds
of this species took part in some of the great night
movements, and were captured at the lantern from 2
to 4.30 A.M., among crowds of other emigrants leaving
the English shores. At both the Flannan and Fair
Isle lighthouses, I have on several occasions seen them
at the lanterns during the small hours of the morning,
chiefly in company with Wheatears.

On the south-eastern and eastern sections of our
coastline the White Wagtail is, I believe, overlooked,
and we have yet much to learn concerning the details of
its distribution there during migration at both seasons.
Recent investigations, however, especially those of the
Misses Baxter and Rintoul, have added considerably
to our knowledge, and we are able to trace the move-
ments from the east coast of Ross-shire to the southern
shores of the Firth of Forth.

CHAPTER XII

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SONG-THRUSH, TURDUS MUSICUS

The migrations of the Song-Thrush, though of a very
varied nature as a whole, have been selected as being in
the main typical of those performed by the group of
British migratory birds which have been defined as
Partial Migrants — species some of the individuals of
which remain throughout the year in our islands, while
others only spend the summer with us.

In addition to being a resident and a summer visitor,
this favourite songster is also a winter visitor to the
British area, a bird of passage along our shores in the
spring and autumn, and lastly, a winter migrant — a
fugitive evicted from its usual haunts by severe weather.
Indeed, the Song-Thrush furnishes us with a most
excellent example of the complex nature of the phenomena
of bird-migration as observed in Great Britain and
Ireland ; and its various movements cover nearly the
whole year.

Autumn Emigration of British Sumfuer Visitors. —
Though this Thrush is a permanent resident in certain
districts, more especially in the gardens and immediate
neighbourhood of cities and towns, where even in Scot-
land a considerable number remain throughout the
year, such residents form only a moiety of our native
birds of this species. At the end of summer and in

Tin: :\IIGRATI0NS of TFIE song-thrush 213

the early autumn, a considerable number of the Thrushes
which have reared their broods with us, especially those
which inhabit the elevated and northern districts, emi-
grate towards the south. ^ There are a few records for
July which undoubtedly relate to migration of a
partial nature. These, however, must be regarded as
exceptional and due to pressure of very unsettled
weather, especially thunderstorms. -

During the second week in August, but chiefly
towards the end of the month, there are clear indications
that emigration is taking place. The birds then come
under notice on the coast ; while the light-stations
afford positive evidence that Thrushes are quietly
slipping away from Britain.^ Though there are no
marked movements recorded for this month, yet there is
unmistakable evidence that a gradual and steady emi-
gration is in progress on all the coasts of Britain.

These flittings-away become more general and pro-
nounced in September, and are witnessed throughout
October ; but the movements then are often of a very
complex nature, and are difficult to interpret, since they

' Mr T. G. Laidlaw, whose home in Peeblesshire lies 900 feet above the
sea, informs me that the thrushes leave that district "to a bird" in the
autumn, and return during the early months of the year. A young bird
ringed in a nest in Aberdeenshire on 4th June 19 10, was shot in Portugal
on 6th November.

2 On 8th July 1882, five Thrushes struck the lantern at Slyne Head
lighthouse (west coast of Ireland), one of which was killed. In 1885, on
3rd and nth July, several thrushes are recorded at the inner Fame. On
loth July 1905, one visited the lantern of the Bell Rock lighthouse.
A few were observed at the Eddystone lighthouse on 26th July 1909.

^ As early as ist August 1884, six Thrushes struck the lantern of Dhu-
hearteach Rock lighthouse, two being killed ; while at the Eddystone, on
8th August 1902, Thrushes were crossing the Channel along with Wheat-
ears, " Warblers," and Curlews, and visited the lantern from 10.30 p.m. to
I A.M. (9th). Ringed British birds have been recovered in France and
Portugal.

I. 02

214 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

become inextricably mixed with those of the birds of
passage from Northern Europe.

During these months, especially in September, the
Thrush departs in company with various species which
have spent the summer in our islands, and its emigra-
tions are recorded from all sections of the British coast
and from the east and south coasts of Ireland, always
during the hours of darkness. The Thrush is, however,
emigratory to a lesser degree in the Sister Isle, owing
to its havinor a milder climate than that of Great Britain.

Late in the year, the emigratory movements, which
doubtless include many of the recently arrived winter
visitors from Northern, and perhaps Central Europe, are
dependent on and synchronous with more or less severe
weather conditions, and these will be duly treated of
under Winter Movements.

Autumn Immigration and Passage. — There is no
evidence whatever of the arrival of the Thrush upon our
shores as winter visitor and bird of passage from North-
Western Europe until the third or fourth week of
September, when it appears with great regularity, in
company with the early Redwings, Bramblings, Siskins,
Redbreasts, Goldcrests, and sometimes Woodcock, Jack
Snipe, and Short-eared Owls.^

The immigrations continue during October and to
the end of the third week of November, or a few days
beyond. During this period there are "rushes" of a more
or less pronounced nature to our shores, when for several
successive nights Thrushes pour in upon our northern
and eastern sea-boards in vast numbers.

' Prof. Collett, Oversigt af Chrisiiania Omegns ornifhoJogiske Fauna,
p. 27, says that the Thrush departs from the Christiania district during
September, and continues to do so until the first days of November.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SONG-THRUSH 215

These immigratory movements are observed on the
east coast of Britain, from the Shetlands to Norfolk.
The Thrush is also abundant on the west coast, includ-
ing Ireland, and visits such outlying stations as Sule
Skerry, the Flannans, the Monach Isles, St Kilda, and
the isolated rocks of Skerryvore and Dhu Hearteach.

The Thrush's travelling companions, in addition to
the species already mentioned, are chiefly the Fieldfare,
Ring-Ouzel, and Blackbird. Along with these species,
many Thrushes perish at the lanterns of the light-
houses and light-vessels, especially when the night is
hazy or there is light rain.

The majority of the winter visitors enter Ireland, how-
ever, at the south-east corner, where immense numbers
arrive during- October and November from south-western
England, many of them after passage along the south
coast.

Many of the immigrants upon arrival, or soon after,
proceed as Birds of Passage along our eastern, western,
and southern coasts, and finally quit Britain, the
majority to seek more southern lands, others to cut
across St George's Channel in order to winter in Ireland.
Others, again, remain as Winter Visitors, and work their
way to inland quarters by overland journeys. Numbers
of these birds, however, quit our islands, after a longer
or shorter sojourn, under the pressure of severe weather
conditions.

Auhcmn Immigration from Westei'ii Europe. —
Investigations at the Kentish Knock lightship, in the
autumn of 1903, lead me to conclude that Song-Thrushes
cross the southern waters of the North Sea by an east-
to-west route from the coast of Holland to that of
south-eastern England. During my sojourn on that

216 STUDIES IN lilRD-MIGRATION

favourably situated station in the North Sea, I, on
several occasions between i8th September and 19th
October, observed and captured Song-Thrushes at the
lantern between the hours of midnight and 4 a.m. On
each of these occasions they occurred with such species
as Redstarts, Pied Flycatchers, Mistle - Thrushes,
Blackbirds, Meadow- Pipits, Wheatears, Starlings, Sky-
larks, Chaffinches, Rooks, and Jackdaws. All these
may have been of Central European origin, and it
is most significant that I never saw this bird in
company with any of the species with which the
northern Thrushes invariably arrive on our shores — a
fact which has led me to conclude that the visitors
at the Kentish Knock arrived there from the east. As
yet, I have no information relating to the return spring
passage of the Song-Thrush, nor of some other species
which certainly traverse this line of flight in the autumn,
and doubtless do so in the spring also.

Winter Movements. — The great emigratory move-
ments of the winter sometimes commence in November,^
and are continued during December, January, and
February." They are synchronous with outbursts of
cold, of snow, or of extremely unsettled weather. Such
untoward conditions may prevail generally over our
islands, or they may be circumscribed ; and their in-
fluence on the emigrations of the Thrush is in direct
consonance with the distribution of the disturbing
elements.

1 In 1886, as early as 4th and 6th October, there were great emigratory
movements on all our coasts, due to extremely unsettled weather, with
thunder in the north and north-west, accompanied on the 5th by a great
change of temperature — a fall of fifteen degrees below that of the previous day.

- There are also movements during March in some years ; but they are
of a local nature, and are not to be regarded as emigratory.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THi: SONG-THRUSH 217

During the period in which ordinary climatic con-
ditions prevail, little or nothing is recorded. In others
the few local movements are traceable to topical weather
conditions. But sooner or later during each season
great outpourings take place, often extending over
several successive days and nights and affecting all our
coasts. The Thrushes affected are not merely our would-
be resident birds, but a very large proportion of them
are, no doubt, the immigrants lately arrived from the
north, which, as winter visitors to our islands, remain
until compelled to move further south or west.

The first move on these occasions is to the coast,
especially the west coast and its off-lying islands, where
some tarry, and even remain to perish. Others pass
along both the east and west coasts of Great Britain ;
many of those following the former route sweeping
along the south coast westward, and crossing the
channels for the Continent and Ireland. Many, too,
seek Ireland from the north and east. Emigrations
from the Sister Isle are also recorded during winters of
exceptional cold.

Should the cold spell be of great severity, or be
seriously prolonged and widespread, many perish even
in such usually safe retreats as the Scilly Isles, and at
Valentia, or other isles off the west coast of Ireland, which
are largely sought on such occasions. No doubt, too,
many of the emigrants perish in their Continental
asylums, for after winters of almost arctic severity, such
as that of 1880-8 1,^ the Thrush was conspicuous by its
absence, or by its scarcity, in most districts in our islands.

' During this winter twenty days of hard frost and sixteen days of deep
snow prevailed on the west coast of Ireland. It was much more severe
elsewhere. See Chapter VII. for further instances of severe seasons.

218 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Spring Iminigration of Summer Visitors. — Among
the records relating to the movements of this species
ckiring February, there are many which clearly indicate
that the Thrushes which left us in the autumn to
winter in countries to the south of us are now commence-
ing their return to our islands for the spring and summer.
Thus on 19th February 1903, at the Eddystone, several
Song-Thrushes, with Mistle-Thrushes, many Starlings,
and other small birds appeared at 9.30 p.m. On the
following night, at the same station, Song-Thrushes
again appeared with Mistle-Thrushes, Starlings, and
Lapwings. These immigrations are performed by small
parties during mild periods of the month, and are
chiefly observed on the southern coasts of England
and Ireland.

Such return movements are continued during the
first half of March, when arriving Thrushes, in com-
pany with Blackbirds, Larks, Meadow-Pipits, Starlings,
Lapwings, and Curlews, are recorded from the south
coast of England northwards to the western isles of
Scotland, and from the south and south-east coasts
of Ireland.

The arrivals on the south coast of England take
place during the night or early morning. In Ireland
they are recorded both for the hours of darkness and
during the daytime, and the birds are noted as pro-
ceeding in a north-westerly direction at the south-east
stations, where the movements come chiefly under
notice.

In most instances the return is a gradual one, per-
formed by small companies and at intervals, but
occasionally in March in "rushes" with the other
species already mentioned.

TIIK MIGltATIONS OF THP] SONG-THRUSH 219

There are also migrations from various British
haunts, where the winter has been spent, to summer
quarters in our isles. These usually commence in
February, but March is the main month during which
these local movements of home-bred Thrushes are
undertaken.

Spring Eviioration of Winter Visitors. — About the
middle of March the Thrushes which have wintered in
Tiree and other islands off the western coasts of Scotland
and in Ireland are recorded as taking their departure
for the mainland.

It is not, however, until the latter days of March ^
and the early part of April that the birds which have
wintered in our islands leave our shores to return to
their summer haunts in Northern and perhaps Central
Europe.-^ The emigrations proceed throughout April,
when large numbers are observed ; a few are seen
during the early days of May ; and stragglers have
been detected in rushes of miofrants at the becrinninsf
of June.^

These emigratory movements come most under
notice on the north-east coast of England, the east
coast of Scotland, and at the Orkney and Shetland
Islands. They are also in evidence on the west coast
of Britain, in Ireland, and at the Hebridean Islands.

' On 22nd March 1909, a few appeared in a rush of migrants at Fair
Isle. The other species observed were : Fieldfares, Redwings, Blackbirds,
Chaffinches, Yellow Buntings, Pied Wagtails, Skylarks, Starlings, Rooks,
Golden Plovers, and Lapwings.

- Professor CoUett, Oversigt af Chrisiiania Oinei^ns urnithologiske Fauna,
p. 26, gives from the early to the last days of April as the period for the
Thrush's arrival in spring in the Christiania district.

■^ At Fair Isle, on 8th June 1907, Thrushes occurred in company with
Wheatears, Blackcaps, Garden-Warblers, Whitethroats, Swallows, House-
and Sand-Martins, and a Snow Bunting.

220 STUDIES IN IJIRU-MIGRATION

With April, perhaps earlier, the British emigratory
movements doubtless become merged with those, to be
dealt with next, of the Thrushes which are on passage
along our coastline, proceeding from their more southern
winter to their more northern summer quarters.

Spring Passage to Northern Europe. — The first
appearance of the Thrush as a bird of passage takes
place during the latter half of March, ^ when the birds
which have wintered in South- Western Europe, and are
en route for breeding quarters to the north of our isles,
arrive on the south coast of England in company
with Blackbirds, Fieldfares, Redwings, Wheatears,
Warblers, Skylarks, Starlings, and occasionally Wood-
cocks.

The passage continues throughout April, and down
to mid-May, the voyagers, in company with Mistle-
Thrushes, Ring-Ouzels, Redstarts, Blackcaps, Sedge-
Warblers, and Corn-Crakes, in addition to the species
already mentioned, pass northwards, chiefly along our
eastern seaboard, and are joined, while en route, by
many of our British emigrant Thrushes.

Such is the history of the Song-Thrush as a British
migratory bird, when the tangled skein of its various
movements has been unravelled and reduced to order.
It is one that is only excelled in its complexity by a few
species of British migrants, such as the Starling and the
Skylark.

^ From igth to 26th March 1898, the Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge,
F.R.S., records an increasing number of thrushes around his rectory at
Wareham on the coast of Dorset. On the 25th the land was fairly covered
with them, and there must have been 200 or more in one field. On the 26th
there were even more. On the 27th there were fewer, and by the evening
of the 28th all had departed. — Zool.^ 1898, p. 264.

CHAPTER XIII

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SKYLARK, ALAUDA ARVEA'SIS

In the British Islands the Skylark is not only one of the
best known species, but also one which can be almost
always met with, so that comparatively few people
suspect the extent to which it is migratory, and fewer
still are aware that the complexity of its migrations
presents problems more difficult to solve than those of
any other British bird, the Starling alone excepted ; yet
this is undoubtedly the case.

As a migrant, no species makes so great a show in
the returns from the light-stations, and the account
which follows is based upon upwards of Jive thousand
individual records. Yet within the British area the
Skylark is for the most part resident as a species, though
shifting its quarters when affected by frost or snow, as
is obvious to almost any observer. The degree to
which our native Skylarks are migratory depends on the
varying conditions of climate and food. In the lowlands
of Great Britain, especially in the south-west of England,
and throughout Ireland generally, the migratory habit is
less exercised, presumably because it is less necessary
there than elsewhere. On the other hand, there are
considerable tracts which, from their elevated, exposed,
or northerly situation, are not suited for winter residence,
and to these the Skylark is merely a summer visitor, as

222 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

it is to nearly the whole of Northern and a great part of
Central Europe, departing after the breeding season to
its accustomed winter quarters. During its journeyings
to the south and west in the fall of the year, and again
on its return in spring, the Skylark appears in vast
numbers on our coasts as a bird of passage, while, owing
to their intermediate geographical position and their
milder climate, the British Islands are much resorted to
by the Continental Skylark as a winter visitant, one
which largely replaces the native birds which have in
the autumn fled our country.

The various migrations of the species may be
conveniently separated and arranged as follows, begin-
ning with the autumnal movements ; and when it is
considered that several of these movements are often
simultaneously in progress, some idea of their complexity
and the extreme difficulty of their interpretation may be
realised : —

1. Local movements at the end of summer to winter
retreats in the British Isles.

2. Autumn emigration of summer visitors (the
members of the British migratory race), with their
offspring — i.e., home-breeding and home-bred birds.

3. Autumn immigration of winter visitors to England
from Central Europe.

4. Autumn immigration of winter visitors to the
British Isles from Northern Europe.

5. Autumn passage from Central to Southern Europe
along the south-east and south coasts of England.

6. Autumn passage from Northern to Southern
Europe along the British coasts.

7. Winter emigration from, and local migration within,
the British Islands, due to severe weather conditions.

Till-: iMI(;kati()Ns or tiik skylark 223

8. Spring immigration of summer visitors, and
return of winter emigrants.

9. Spring emigration to Central Europe from south-
eastern England.

10. Spring emigration to Northern Europe from the
British Isles.

11. Spring passage frcjm Southern to Central and
Northern Europe along the British coasts.

12. Local movements in s[)rlng between British
winter quarters and British summer (nesting) haunts.

But even this is not all, for the movements which
take place between Great Britain and Ireland have
also to be considered.

Autiuim Emioration of Ilouic-brcd Birds. — Towards
the close of the nesting season an increased number of
Skylarks is observable in the lowlands, particularly near
the coast ; a fact due, no doubt, to migration from the
higher grounds, t(j which the species is only a summer
visitor. So early as July in some years there are a few
records from the light-stations showing that departure
has already commenced, but these early llittings must
be regarded as exceptional.' During August there are
usually a few signs of emigration, and towards the end
of that month there is evidence that it has fully set in.

' A remarkable instance of this kind occurred on the night of 25lh July
1881, when a great nunil)er of Skylarks appeared at the Leman and Ower
lightship, off the Norfolk coast, and sixty were killed by striking the lantern,
and at the same time fifty were killed at the Dudgeon, a neighbouring
lightship. The weather was wet, changeable, and cold for the time of
year. At the Kddystonc, on the night of 31st July and through the earliest
hours of 1st August 1902, Skylarks, Starlings, Wheatears, Sedge- Warblers,
Curlews, and other species undetermined were crossing the Channel in
some numbers. The wings of the species named, except those of the Curlew,
were sent to me for identification, as they had been killed at the lantern
of the lighthouse.

224 STUDIES IN BIRD-IMIG RATION

These late August movements include departures from
the Hebrides and other western isles, as witnessed by
birds observed at or killed against the lanterns of
Skerryvore and Dhu Hearteach ; but there is no appear-
ance of any emigration from Ireland in this month,
which is a significant fact.

Throughout September the emigration is much more
evident on both eastern and western coasts, the Hebrides
contributing freely to the latter. A marked migration
is also recorded from Shetland,^ where the species is
chiefly a summer visitant. In Ireland, too, there is
evidence from the south-eastern stations that the exodus
has besfun. Towards the end of the month the move-
ment is more marked, especially in unsettled weather,
when Skylarks are recorded as emigrating by night in
company with Thrushes, Blackbirds, Ring - Ouzels,
Wheatears, Chiffchaffs, Whitethroats, Wagtails,
Meadow - Pipits, Turtle - Doves, and other birds. As
the season advances, emigration is naturally quickened,
but it is impossible to fix the exact period at which
the departures of our native Skylarks cease. After
September these migrations become merged with the
passage movements of the Continental Larks, also on
their way southwards to winter retreats beyond our area.
Our British Skylarks doubtless continue to quit our
islands during October, along with the foreign birds.
In some years a foretaste of cold, in others periods
of exceptionally unsettled weather, cause pronounced
" rushes " southward.

' The emigrations from Shetland, where the nesting season is late,
commence during the third week of September, and they afterwards blend
with the passage movements of the Larks proceeding southwards from
Northern Europe.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SKYLARK 225

During the autumn, Skylarks gradually draw towards
the coast, on reaching which they pass southwards in
straggling parties. On some days a succession of bands
may be seen following each other throughout the whole
day, and in September and October, if the weather be
fine, with light winds, such congeries may be observed
for days together without a break. This coasting move-
ment is chiefly, if not entirely, performed by day ; but it
is otherwise when a considerable expanse of sea is to be
crossed, as from Shetland, the Hebrides, or Ireland, for
then the migration, as. a rule, is undertaken by night.
The journey is continued along both coasts of Great
Britain until the southern and particularly the south-
western counties are reached, many of the east-coast
migrants passing along the south coast westward.
Probably only a portion of the Skylarks, which move
during the early autumn, quit our shores, many, no
doubt, tarrying on the south or south-western coast.
Others, however, certainly depart for the Continent,
crossing the Channel at many points, chiefly at night,
in company with birds of many other species ; but I
myself, in passing between Newhaven and Dieppe in
September, have observed small parties of Skylarks in
mid-channel making for the French coast during the
daytime. And at the Eddystone I saw parties pro-
ceeding towards France soon after sunrise. At Fair
Isle, also in September, I have known them to depart
in flocks during the early hours of daylight, flying
towards the northern islands of the Orkney group.

Autumn Immigration from Central Europe. — This
movement is the most interesting and remarkable per-
formance of the Skylark, or perhaps of any British
species, as it affords a striking instance of the pheno-
I. p

226 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

menon of birds proceeding westward and northward
from their breeding grounds to reach their winter
quarters, and this in vast numbers for several successive
weeks, with scarcely a break, except those imposed by
unfavourable weather. In some seasons this immigra-
tion— along what may be called especially the Skylarks'
route, since they greatly outnumber the birds of any
other species using it ■ — sets in as early as the
middle of September, but more commonly about the
fourth week of that month. It is in October, however,
that this stream of immigration becomes phenomenal.
Some idea of the magnitude of this influx may be
gathered from this table, showing the number of days
during October on which it was observed in each of the
years : —

1880.

22 days

1883.

9 days

1886. 23 days

i88r.

12 „

1884.

19 »

1887.' 26 „

1882.

14 „

1885.

21 „

1903- (17th Sept. to
l8th Oct.) 17 days

This stream has the coast of Essex and the mouth of
the Thames for its centre, with its right wing extending
to the Humber, or even beyond ; while the left sweeps
south-west towards the Kentish littoral, and then along
the south coast to Devon and Cornwall, some of the
migrants crossing the Channel at various points to the
French shores, while others continue westward and north-
ward to Ireland, and appear on the coast of co. Wex-
ford. The winter visitants to England, which are very
many, among these immigrants, pass inland by several
routes (numbers by way of the Thames and Humber
estuaries), and disperse themselves over the eastern,

' Many recorded on 9th, 20th, 21st, 23rd, and 27th October ; vast numbers
on i6th to i8th, again on 22nd, 25tli, and 26th October.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SKYLARK 227

southern, and midland counties.^ After October this
immigration falls off. The November movements vary-
according to the weather, but are never of great moment
after the first few days of the month, when in most
years they practically cease.

It is characteristic of this immigration that the
passage across the North Sea is chieHy witnessed during
the daytime, usually from dawn to noon, but not
infrequently onwards till 4 p.m., and that the birds con-
cerned in it are actually crossing the line of flight taken
by the home-bred birds which are then emigrating — a
very remarkable occurrence, but not in October very
uncommon. Other species which cross the North Sea
at the same time as the Skylarks are Starlings, Meadow-
Pipits, Tree - Sparrows, Redstarts, Willow - Warblers,
Chaffinches, and Rooks.

My investigations at the Kentish Knock light-
vessel in the autumn of 1903 lead me to believe that
Skylarks in numbers also reach our shores along this
route by night passages. My reasons for this conviction
have already been stated when treating of the migra-
tions of the Song-Thrush (p. 215). During my sojourn
in the lightship, many Skylarks appeared at the lantern,
along with Wheatears, Redstarts, Spotted Flycatchers,
Tree-Pipits, Whitethroats, Willow- Warblers, Blackbirds,
Pied Flycatchers, Goldcrests, Chaffinches, Jackdaws,
Rooks, Mistle-Thrushes, Song-Thrushes, and Starlings.^
In addition to these movements from east to west.
Skylarks are observed at the North Goodwin lightship,

^ It is a most remarkable fact that many of these Skylarks from Central
Europe, which winter in England, pass the cold season in latitudes north of
their summer homes.

^ For the author's personal observations on these movements, see
Chapter XVIII., Vol. II.

228 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

off the east coast of Kent, flying from the south-east
to north-west — i.e., from the northernmost part of
France across the Straits of Dover to Kent.

Autumn Immigration fro7n NoiHhern Europe. —
Great numbers of Skylarks, which summer in Scandi-
navia,^ seek our shores in autumn for the purpose of
passing the winter with us. The date of the arrival of
these northern birds is remarkably constant — namely, in
the first week of October — when the birds appear in
Shetland, Orkney, on the east coast of Scotland and
north-east coast of England, during the night or early
in the morning, in company with Thrushes, Redwings,
Blackbirds, Ring-Ouzels, Goldcrests, Chaffinches, Bramb-
lings, Redbreasts, Starlings, and other species. These
arrivals continue at intervals during the month, and
the Skylark participates largely in those remarkable
movements which characterize October's latter days.
These vast outpourings seem to exhaust the emigra-
tion from Northern Europe, for it is doubtful if any
considerable arrival takes place in November even in
its earliest days. Thus the autumnal immigration
from the north, vast as it is, is compressed, as it were,
into the period of some four weeks. The majority
of the northern Skylarks disperse themselves over our
islands (including the Hebrides, the Shetlands and
Orkneys), and replace those home-bred birds which
have quitted their summer haunts. A great many
seek Ireland by direct passage from south-west Scot-
land ; others, perhaps, by way of the Isle of Man,
or from the Welsh coast to the shores of co. Dublin

^ Professor CoUett says {Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske
Fauna, p. 128) that Alauda arvensis is seldom seen in the Christiania
district after the middle of October.

'nil-: mk; RATIONS oi- tiik skvlauk 229

and CO. Wicklow. Not unfrequently in October and
early November llocks are observed passing Scilly
in a north-westerly direction, i.e., towards the Irish
coast.

AutiLmn Passage from Central and Northern Eui'ope
to Sonthcrn Europe. — These movements are much
involved with the immigratory movements from the
East and North, and to a lesser degree, with the
British emigratory movements. The Skylarks par-
ticipating in these great passage flights from the
North arrive in October and early November at our
northern islands and on our north-eastern coast, in
company with those which winter with us, whose
migrations have just been considered. After a short
rest, these travellers proceed along the coasts, chiefly by
ni(£ht, southward and westward to cross the Channel at
various points. Though they are mainly observed on
our eastern and southern seaboards, yet a considerable
number pass along the west coast, visiting annually
such outlying islets as Sule Skerry, St Kilda, the
Flannan and the Monach Isles, and traversing the
Outer Hebrides from end to end. Others reach Ireland,
and continue their southerly journey along its eastern
and western shores. The passage movements from
Central Europe by an east-to-west flight across the
North Sea to the south-east of England need no further
notice now, since they have been treated of already
under Autumn Immigration from Central Europe.
Probably a number of these transient visitors tarry
for a time with us ere they proceed southwards,
for Skylarks departing from southern England are
observed at the Eddystone down to the middle of
November.

I. p 2

230 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

General Remarks on Autumn Emigration and Immi-
gration.— Having treated of the autumn movements,
both of emigration and immigration, it may be desirable
before proceeding further to consider their effects on
the Skylark population of Britain, and its position at the
end of that season. Though vast numbers of home-
bred birds have at that time quitted our shores, their
departure has not materially affected the great abun-
dance of the species, partly owing to the fact that the
Skylark is double-brooded,^ and hence its annual increase
is enormous, while prodigious numbers have poured into
England from Central Europe during part of September
and throughout October, to say nothing of the immense
number of immigrants from North- Western Europe to
the British Isles generally, which have arrived during
the latter month. The result is, that from November
to the setting in of cold weather, the Skylark population
of the British Isles is at its maximum, and vastly in
excess of what it is at any other period of the year.

During these great and varied autumn movements,
immense numbers of Skylarks perish at the lanterns of
the numerous light-stations both on and off our shores.
Indeed, no other bird is so great a martyr to the allure-
ments of the beacon light. My experiences of some
of these terrible immolations are related on pp. 291
and 344.

Winter Emigration from, and Partial Migration
zvitkin, the British Islands. — These movements depend
wholly on the state of the weather, and vary in degree
according to its severity. The Skylark, obtaining the
whole of its food on the ground, is at once driven to

' In many parts of England most pairs of skylarks have three nests in
the year.

Tin-: ^riG RATIONS nv tuf. skvt.ark 2ni

change its quarters when that is covered with snow, and
only somcwliat less quickly when it is merely frost-
bound without snow. Should the late autumn and
winter be uniformly mild, the Skylarks sojourning with
us remain practically stationary. Few if any winters
are, however, entirely free from snow or frost, and with
the first outbreak of cold the birds must remove them-
selves from its untoward influence. Sometimes suit-
able lodging may be found not far off, and then the
movement is but local or partial in character. When
this occurs, and the stress is but short, the birds soon
return to their former haunts ; but if the adverse con-
ditions continue and become general, the movement also
becomes widespread and more or less universal. This
effect is especially produced by great snowstorms,
when the number of fugitives is so vast that people
wonder where such prodigious multitudes can come
from, as they throng towards the coast, and sweep
along the seaboard and its neighbourhood to reach the
milder south-west coast of England — Devon, Cornwall,
and the Scilly Isles — though many undoubtedly cross
the Channel for the Continent, and others proceed to
Ireland. On the other hand, a few — and these are,
perhaps, of our native stock — attempt to brave the
unfavourable conditions, partly by resorting to unwonted
places of shelter, especially the sea-shore, but many, if
not most of these, succumb to famine. In Ireland, too,
there are many winter movements, due to the pressure
of climatic conditions, and Cork and Kerry are especially
resorted to during hard weather ; but winter emigration
must be regarded as exceptional in Ireland, for one
portion or another of its shores generally affords an
asylum in the severest seasons, though many birds

232 STUDIES IN lilRD-MIGRATION

perish, even in its most favourable areas, during an
abnormally protracted winter. It has already been
stated that Ireland ordinarily receives numbers of
Skylarks in autumn, and as it is again sought by
multitudes of refugees from the snows and frosts of
Great Britain, it follows that the Skylark population of
Ireland is at its maximum at a period when that of
Great Britain is at its lowest.

When the winters are exceptionally severe on the
Continent, there is a renewal of the movements of
Skylarks (together with Starlings and Lapwings)
across the southern waters of the North Sea to the
south-east coast of England.

During these cold-weather movements, many of the
emigrants perish at the lanterns of the light-stations.
Thus, on 2nd December 1882, the Bell Rock light-
house was visited by what is described as being the
greatest multitude of Skylarks ever known. It was
impossible to estimate the number, but they were
" striking hard for a couple of hours like a shower of
hail."

If the statement that the winter emigration depends
wholly on the state of the weather needs any confirmation,
it may be furnished by the fact that in the mild seasons
1881-82 and 1885-86 very little was recorded. There
are, however, usually spasmodic and partial movements
in November ; but it is not until cold weather sets in
that any general exodus takes place. If there has been
much snow in December, as in 1879 and 1882, there is
little or no movement later in the season, because the
birds have already departed. On the other hand, after
the uneventful December of 1880, there were pronounced
emigrations in January 1881, when a cold period set in.

Tin: Aiir;H,\'rTo\s nv ttti: skvt.ark 23h

In February there are, as a rule, movements more or
less local, and due to snow, and in that month of 1886,
which was cold and snowy, movement followed move-
ment throughout its course. The March migrations are
not of much account, since they are local in their nature,
but in unusually inclement seasons, like 18S3 and 1887,
there were "rushes" to the coast as late as the 20th of
that month. ^ For further instances of the effects of severe
seasons on this and other species, see the chapter which
is devoted to Winter Movements.

Spring Immigration of Shimmer J'isiiants and Rc-
tj(.7'7i of Winter Emigrants. — The return of the Skylarks
which have left us during the autumn and winter is
observed on the southern coasts of both Great Britain and
Ireland early in the year, their arrival beginning, as a
rule, during the latter half of February, and occasionally
as early as the second week (in 1886 on the iith), the
immigration continuing throughout March. The precise
time seems to be influenced by the character of the
season. If the early spring be mild and genial, they
begin to return early ; but if the contrary, their
appearance is delayed. On arrival on the south coast
of England many pass northward along the east and
west coasts, the latter being the route chiefly followed
by the earlier immigrants. The return to Ireland corre-
sponds closely with the arrival in southern England, the
earliest observation for the period 1882-87 being on loth
February 1886, and from that time the movements
occur at intervals. The other species of birds which

^ At the Nash hghthouse, on the Glamorgan coast, on 15th March 1887,
Skylarks, Starlings, Snipes, Woodcocks, Lapwings, Golden Plovers, Wild
Ducks, and others were seen flying before heavy snow from 8.30 A.M. to
3 P.M. 3 two or three hundred being seen at a time.

234 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

reappear along with the Skylarks are mostly those
which have before been mentioned in association with
them — Thrushes, Blackbirds, Mistle-Thrushes, Red-
breasts, Meadow- Pipits, Starlings, Lapwings, and so
forth. During March the movements of the immigrants
become merged into those of the birds of passage strictly
so called ; and arrivals on the south coast usually cease
in the first week of April. In Ireland, during the
first days of the month (April) and occasionally to
its third week. Skylarks continue to arrive in company
with Wheatears and other early summer birds. The
return movement to the Hebrides corresponds with
that to the mainland, but, as in Ireland, the immi-
gration is prolonged into April. In Shetland the
spring arrival of the native birds begins in the early
days of March, in some seasons in the last days of
February.

The immigrants reach the south coast of England,
sometimes in vast numbers, during the earliest hours of
the morning; but in the south-east of Ireland, the chief
point of arrival in that country, they are usually
observed later in the day — in the Hebrides mainly at
night.

Spring Emigration from the British Isles to Centi'al
Europe. — The return (west to east) movement from
south-eastern England across the North Sea comes
very little under observation compared with the in-
flowing streams of the preceding autumn, and that this
should be so is easily explained. In the first place, the
numbers of travellers, owing to the waste of winter,
have been much thinned ; and secondly, like most other
important emigratory movements, this one takes place
chiefly at night, and so for the most part escapes notice,

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE SKYLARK 235

for it is reasonable to suppose that the first hour of
flight carries the birds beyond the limit of observation
at the light-stations off our eastern coast. Some return
emigration is nevertheless observed by day from the
lightships, the direction of the birds being eastward from
the mouth of the Thames, and south-eastward from the
more northerly stations. There are also enough observa-
tions to show that the movement begins in F'cbruary (in
the mild season of 1882 on the 6th, but usually not till
the middle of the month), and is continued until the end
of March, the 28th being the latest day recorded. As
with the reverse movement in autumn, this is chiefly
noticed from the lightships between the Thames and the
Humber. The other species of birds accompanying the
emigrant Skylarks are Starlings, Rooks, Grey Crows,
and Lapwings.

Spring Migration from the British Isles to Northern
Europe. — In mild seasons, during the third week of
February there are indications at our north-eastern
stations that the Skylarks which have wintered with us
are beginning to depart for their northern homes
(including the Orkney and Shetland Islands), and
throughout March, especially after the middle of the
month, and during the first week of April, there is usually
much evidence to the same effect, the concomitant
species being Blackbirds, Goldcrests, Starlings, Wood-
cocks, and "Wild Geese."

The spring emigration from Ireland deserves separate
consideration. Beginning about the middle of February,
it becomes more pronounced in March, and ceases with
the close of that month. The birds return by the routes
taken in autumn and winter, chief of which is that
between the south-eastern counties, with Wexford as a

236 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

centre, and the southern province of Wales and shores
of the Bristol Channel ; while during March there are
return flights across the Irish Sea to north Wales and
south-western Scotland. Generally, the birds set out
after dark, but Skylarks are occasionally recorded as
migrating during the day, those from the southern
portion of Ireland making for the south-east, while
those from the Wicklow coast proceed due east. The
night movements are often performed in company
with Thrushes, Blackbirds, and Starlings. The winter
visitants to the Hebrides leave for the mainland of
Scotland about the same time, and call for no special
remark.

Spring Passage from Southern to Northern and
Central Europe along the British Coasts. — These move-
ments take place during March and early April, but
there are Eddystone records dating as late as the
third week of the latter month, when the last of
the Skylarks appear at that station in company with
Wheatears, Ring - Ouzels, Willow - Warblers, Field-
fares, and Redwings. It is probable, however, that
the bulk of the Skylarks arriving at this time on
the southern coast of England are en route for North-
Western Europe. After reaching our shores, they
move northward along the coasts, and finally quit
the country in company with those which have
been wintering in Great Britain and Ireland, as
well as with emigrants and transient visitors of other
species.

Local Spring Movements of Native Birds. — Those
home-bred Skylarks which left certain districts in the
autumn in search of more suitable retreats in our
islands in which to pass the winter, return to their

THE MIGRATIONS Ol- Till': SKVLARK 237

nesting haunts as early as February in genial seasons,
but March is the main month for such return move-
ments. Such immigrants are, however, subject to
eviction on a recurrence of winter conditions, but return
at once when the storm is over.

CHAPTER XIV

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LArWING,

VANELLUS VA NELL US

The migrations of the Lapwing in the British Islands
are especially interesting, and possess features which
are not shared by any of the species previously
treated of.

When we come to investigate the various movements
performed by this well-known bird, it is surprising to
find how largely some of them escape notice. This may
to some extent be accounted for by the fact that the
Lapwing is partially nocturnal in habit, and hence less
prone than most species to approach the light-stations
or otherwise come under notice, when performing some
of its most important movements ; but this does not,
I think, afford complete explanation, for other Limicolcs,
of even more pronounced nocturnal proclivities, such
as the Woodcock, do not pass unobserved to a like
degree.

In addition to being a resident during the major
portion of the year in extensive areas of our islands, the
Lapwing is chiefly, indeed almost entirely, a summer
visitor to Shetland, Orkney, the Hebrides, the more
elevated districts throughout the mainland of Great

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LAPWING 239

Britain and Ireland, and to other inland areas, especially
in the north — facts which result in much migration
taking place within the British Islands, and of emigra-
tion to countries south of us.

As winter visitors and birds of passage, some numbers
arrive on our shores in the autumn from Scandinavia
and from Western Central Europe.

The great majority of our home-bred birds, and
perhaps also of the continental immigrants, pass the
cold season in Great Britain and Ireland ; but extensive
winter movements are performed under the pressure of
severe climatic conditions, which affect the food supply.
At that season many emigrate southwards and west-
wards, and others cross the Channel to the shores
of France. A number of minor or local movements,
due to varying weather influences, are also performed
in both autumn and winter in all parts of our islands
resorted to by this bird. Indeed, almost every decided
change in the weather results in some shifting of
quarters at these seasons.

Our native Lapwings are widely distributed and
extremely numerous, and there can be little doubt
that they form the great majority of the individuals
which participate in the many and various migratory
movements undertaken by this species at different
seasons.

Except the winter movements, when forced and
sometimes general retreats have to be undertaken,
the migrations of the Lapwing are very gradually
performed and cover an extended period in each
season ; but no general flights simultaneously per-
formed over any large section of our coasts have been
recorded.

240 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Summer and Autumn Movements within the British
Islands. — At the close of the nesting season, Lapwings
old and young gather together and form flocks. As
early as mid- June, or during July, small parties, even
flocks, sometimes leave their nesting grounds to appear
in the vicinity of the coast, and occasionally a few are
recorded as visiting the islands, or as occurring at the
rock-stations and lightships off the east and west coasts
of Britain. Such local movements are not without
interest ; but as a rule it can scarcely be claimed for them
that they possess any direct bearing upon the ordinary
migrations of the bird. During the second week in
July, Lapwings from Shetland appear in small parties
at Fair Isle, and movements southward have been
recorded ; ^ but these must be regarded as exceptional,
and in some cases are possibly due to the disturbing
influence of local meteorological conditions.

In August emigration from Shetland continues,
and many leave during the month. The records of
Lapwings at the coast stations and at the off-lying light-
houses and lightships ^ are numerous, though as yet
irregular and uncertain, but they indicate that move-
ments or wanderings are in progress.

In September the migration southwards sets in in
earnest. Early in the month, those which have summered
in Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, continue or

' The chief of these was observed at the Leman and Ower lightship
(twenty-five miles north-east of Cromer) on 30th July 1887, when, during un-
settled weather, a great flock passed southwards at 3 p.m. On 2nd July 1901,
after a strong north-east wind and dirty weather, Mr T. Southwell saw on
board a Lowestoft trawler two which had been captured out of a large
flock about forty miles north-east of that port.

■" At the vSeven Stones lightship (seven miles off the Land's End), on
26th August 1880, about fifty lapwings were observed flying south-west in
the direction of the Scilly Isles at 10 a.m.

riii: MKiUATioNs oi rin: lapwing 241

begin to emigrate, and by the middle of the month, or
before, all save a few stragglers have departed from the
northern group. Many, too, quit the higher ground on
the mainland, especially in Scotland. These decided
emigrations result in movements southwards or to-
wards the shore, which are chiefly in evidence on
both the coasts of Scotland and those of the north of
England.^

During October the autumnal movements reach
their maximum, while a number of foreigners arrive
whose movements will be treated of immediately. The
higher breeding grounds are then entirely deserted for
the cold season, and much emigration is also in
progress from the northern and inland districts and
from the Hebrides to accustomed winter quarters,
such as lowlands in the vicinity of the coast — especially
near estuaries — and the southern counties generally,
including the Scilly Isles, which are annually resorted
to from October onwards. Many, however, remain
during mild winters in suitable haunts in northern
Scotland, as in the neighbourhood of the Beauly and
Moray Firths, where the climatic conditions are ex-
ceptionally favourable. The British October migrants
are observed on all sections of the coast, and the
movements southwards are no doubt augmented by
the presence of immigrants from Northern Europe.

The movements during the first half of November
are a continuation of those of October. By about the
middle of the month, the birds have usually settled down
for the winter, or until they are compelled to move by

' At the Inner Fame Island, on 26th September 1882, "thousands" are
recorded as having appeared, along with a few Golden Plovers and many
Curlews.

I. Q

242 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

the pressure of adverse weather and its effect on their
food supplies. A small number remain in the Hebrides
until the first onset of frost, the species being resident
there in mild seasons.

Although a few records, both Scottish and Irish, point
to some immigration into Ireland from northern Britain
in September, it is not until October and November
that such movements are regularly observed. The main
lines of intermigration lie between the Mull of Cantyre
and the Solway and the coasts of Antrim and Down ;
while birds quitting or traversing the Hebrides reach the
shores of Donegal, some of them by way of Tory Island.
During October and November, too, there is some
evidence of the arrival of Lapwings in Ireland from the
south-east by a passage, chiefly observed during the day-
time, across St George's Channel to the Wexford and
adjacent coasts. Certain of the later November Irish
immigrations are associated with the setting in of more
or less severe weather in Scotland.

Aiitiunn Emigration froui Britain.— h. number of
our native Lapwings quit the southern shores of England
late in September, departing at night in company with
other summer visitors, such as Ring-Ouzels, Wheatears,
Whitethroats, Grasshopper- Warblers, Sedge- Warblers,
Pied and Spotted Flycatchers, Pied and Yellow Wag-
tails, Turtle-Doves, etc., etc.^ These departure move-
ments continue during October, when the British
Lapwings are joined by the autumnal visitors which
have arrived from the Continent.

^ A Lapwing-, "ringed" as a nestling at Glenorchard, Stirlingshire, on
17th June 1909, was shot on 17th November about twenty miles west of
Pau in south-west France. Another "ringed" British Lapwing was re-
covered in Portugal.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE EAPWING 243

These cross - Channel migrations are not much
in evidence in the records, however, until November,
when no doubt the approach of winter, with its low
temperatures, constrains some of them to seek more
genial climes. During this month they have been
observed leaving our southern shores, especially at
the Eddystone and the Isle of Wight stations, in
considerable numbers at night, in company with
Mistle - Thrushes, Song- Thrushes, Fieldfares, Red-
wings, Blackbirds, Starlings, Larks, Golden Plovers,
and others

Autumn Immigration from North- Western Europe.
— The autumn arrival of Lapwings on our shores from
Scandinavia^ sets in during the first week of October
and lasts a little over a month. It is observed at
stations extending from Shetland to the northern section
of the east coast of England. No great arrivals, cover-
ing extensive portions of the coast-line, have been
recorded, as in the case of other species, but only
scattered instances of moderate numbers (a hundred or
so) appearing at intervals. At the northern islands,
where the birds arrive some time after the summer
visitors have departed, their appearance is irregular ;
in some seasons they occur in fair numbers, while
in others they are very scarce. In Shetland, after
the early days of November, stragglers only are
observed. It is doubtful if we derive any very
great numbers from Northern Europe, as that
portion of Norway from which the British Isles
presumably receives immigrant Lapwings affords only

^ The Lapwing is only a rare straggler to Iceland, but has been observed
on passage in small numbers during both spring and autumn, in most years,
at the Faroes (Andersen).

244 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

somewhat limited haunts for this bird as a summer
visitor.

The northern immigrants arrive on our shores during
the night and the earliest hours of the morning, and fre-
quently appear simultaneously, if not in company, with
Song-Thrushes, Fieldfares, Redwings, Blackbirds, Ring-
Ouzels, Redbreasts, Goldcrests, Bramblings, Skylarks,
Starlings, Snipes, Woodcocks, etc.

Many, perhaps the great majority, of these
northern birds are bent on passing the winter in
our islands, and proceed along the coastlines and move
inland to reach suitable haunts. Whether they remain
the entire season depends upon the nature of the
winter — i.e., whether it is sufficiently mild to allow them
to do so.

Autumn Immigration from Western Central Europe.
— During the last days of September, throughout
October, and in early November^ there are records of
parties of Lapwings being observed at the lightships off
the south-east coast of England. These migrants are
proceeding in a westerly direction towards the coast of
Essex and the mouth of the Thames as a centre, but
with their right wing extending to the Norfolk, Lincoln-
shire, and even Yorkshire coasts, and their left to the
east coast of Kent. These Lapwings from the opposite
coast of the Continent, reach our shores by a direct
passage across the southern waters of the North Sea.
The arrivals take place during the daytime and at night ;
but there are no general movements recorded, and the
observations chronicled are few and scattered during any

1 In 1885 at the Hasbro lightship, off the Norfolk coast, many were passing
west and west-north-west on the nights of 22nd and 23rd November —
perhaps a cold-weather movement from the Continent.

THE MIGRATIONS 01' THE LAPWING 245

season, though the numbers recorded are occasionally
considerable.

On arriving on the south-east coast of England, the
majority of the birds pass inland at various points along
the eastern and southern seaboard, and many pass up
the Thames and Humber estuaries to reach the interior ;
the object in all cases being to find congenial winter
quarters.

Autumn Passage of Immigrants Southwards beyond
the British Isles. — On reaching the British Isles from
the north or east, those immigrants which do not intend
to winter here pass on to the southern coast, whence
they cross the Channel, bound further south.

During these passage movements, some of the birds
from the north which travel by the west coast visit such
remote stations as Sule Skerry and the Flannan and
Monach Islands.

Winter Movements and Emigration. — The winter
movements of the Lapwing consist of emigrations from
Britain for more southern lands, and of partial or extensive
migrations performed within our area. They are con-
trolled by, and vary with, the climatic conditions of the
season, and their extent is proportional to its severity.
Should the late autumn and the winter prove mild, the
Lapwings remain unmolested, so to speak, in their
accustomed retreats. Sooner or later, however, cold
weather of a more or less severe type, and of either local
or general prevalence, sets in, and then the birds, owing
to their inability to obtain food, are compelled to change
their quarters for others free from its blighting influence :
these havens may be near at hand or far removed, in
accordance with the area adversely affected. Heavy
snow and severe frost cause great movements south-
I. Q 2

246 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

wards along the coasts and overland. Should such
conditions extend to the south of England, much
emigration for the shores of France ^ follows, great
numbers of Lapwings crossing the Channel both by
day and night. Occasionally during these periods of
exceptional severity many of these birds, along with
other species affected ("Thrushes," Larks, Starlings,
etc.), are observed moving westwards during the daytime
along the south coast of England and its vicinity en
route for Devon, Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles,^ and
not a few then cross St George's Channel to Ireland,^
where milder conditions usually prevail. In the Sister
Isle the counties of Cork and Kerry are largely resorted
to by the Irish birds when in distress. There appear to
be no winter movements westward to the Hebrides, as
there are in the case of several other species affected by
severe weather on the mainland.

The time when the winter emigrations from Britain
may be enforced varies greatly. Thus, during the
season 1 901 -1902, the weather in the south of England
remained mild until February, when it became excep-

^ On the 6th of December 1902, several hundreds arrived at the Eddy-
stone at 7.15 P.M. and were flying in the rays from the lantern until 5.45 a.m.
On the following night they appeared again at 7.30 in still larger numbers,
and were striking the copper dome of the lantern so continuously that "it
was more like a maxim gun at work, and they were falling overboard by the
score. The thermometer stood at freezing-point, a very rare occurrence
here."

2 On 13th February igoo, a great flock passed over these islands coming
from the north-west. The next day the islands were alive with an extraordin-
ary assortment of Lapwings, Golden Plovers, Starlings, Song-Thrushes,
Mistle-Thrushes, Redwings, Fieldfares, and Blackbirds. They passed on,
but left many dead.

^ Occasionally during severe winters numbers of Lapwings have been
observed passing westwards at stations off and on the east coast of Ireland,
which points to a passage of emigrants from north Wales.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LAPWING 247

tionally severe, and so continued for long. At the
Eddystone and elsewhere on the south coast, no Lap-
wings had been observed crossing the Channel previously
during the winter, but on 2nd February, and again on
the 13th and 15th, great numbers passed southwards
both by day and by night. Winter movements within
our isles have been recorded as late as mid- March ; on
the 15th, in 1881, many Lapwings, along with Skylarks,
Starlings, Golden Plovers, Woodcocks, and Snipes, were
observed flying southwards before snow at the Nash
lighthouse, on the north shore of the Bristol Channel.

It is when retreating before these adverse conditions
that the movements of the Lapwing become pronounced
and widespread, and in this respect contrast markedly
with the other migrations of this species. It is on such
occasions, too, that the bird chiefly approaches the
lanterns and is killed or captured — a fate which does not
commonly befall it.^ On the night of 17th December
1885, twenty-one were captured at the Eddystone out
of several hundreds which appeared at the light — the
record for the period 1880- 1887.

Winter Immigration from Western Central Eiirope.
— During severe winters on the Continent, the east-to-
west passage of Lapwings across the southern waters of
the North Sea is renewed. The immigrants, as in the
autumn, arrive on the south-east coast of England, and
pass westward in search of the milder areas within our
isles, or proceed further south beyond our shores.^

' In sixteen years eight only were obtained at the Irish light-stations ;
and Mr Herluf Winge informs me that twenty-one were killed at the Danish
stations during a like period.

- At Great Yarmouth, on 22nd December 1894, hundreds of Lapwings
were observed "coming over" against a strong north-west gale, and many
were drowned. — Zoologist^ 1900, p. 163.

248 STUDIES IN IJIRD-MIGRATION

Spring Movements from British Winter to British
Summer Haunts. — Lapwings may be induced by the
prevalence of mild weather to return in small parties
to their breeding-grounds in England and the south of
Scotland as early as the end of January and beginning of
February, but are usually compelled to retreat again by
the recurrence of severe climatic conditions. The usual
period for their appearance in their summer haunts is
about the last week in February and early in March ;
and should severe weather follow in the last-named
month, many then perish in the more exposed areas.
The Scilly Isles, where many winter, are quitted by the
middle of February in ordinary seasons.

Immigrants occasionally appear in Orkney at the end
of February ; but this is exceptional, for the summer
visitors to these islands do not usually arrive before
March. The return to Shetland is timed with great
regularity for the first week of March, and, as in Orkney,
the arrivals are in progress throughout the month. The
Hebrides are sought during late February and early
March. The spring movement is a gradual one, as a
rule, but on 7th March 1908 over six hundred arrived
in a flock at Fair Isle, doubtless en route for the Shetland
Islands.

Spring Immigration from Southern Europe. — The
return movements of the Lapwings which departed from
our islands in the autumn and winter are observed at
the light-stations and elsewhere on the south coast of
England. Like the movements of the autumn, they do
not come much under notice. Fortunately, however, we
possess some important records for the latter half of
March and during the first half of April, when the
Lapwings have been observed returning in company

THE MIC4 RATIONS (W TUV T^APWING 249

with Wheatears, Mistle-Thrushes, Fieldfares, Black-
birds, Chiffchaffs, Willow-Warblers, Redstarts, Skylarks,
Starlings, and other species. The chief of these cross-
Channel return movements were witnessed during the
earliest hours of the morning, and the Eddystone is one
of the main stations for their observation.

Spring Rctn7'n to h'eland. — Late in February,
during March, and sometimes early in April, Lapwings
are observed during the daytime arriving from the
south-east and passing north-west at the light-stations
off the Wexford coast. There is no special reason for
regarding these as passage movements, and, taken to-
gether with the facts (i) that they are not observed
proceeding along the eastern coastline northwards, and
(2) that during winter Lapwings are recorded as passing
southwards on the extreme southern sections of both
coastlines, it is not improbable that some of these birds
quit Ireland under the pressure of climatic conditions
and return in the spring.

Spring Eniigration and Passage Northward to
Northern Europe. — The spring movement northward
to Continental breeding - haunts is one of the best-
observed phases in the ordinary seasonal migrations
of the Lapwing. It is witnessed on both the east
and west coasts and at the northern islands.

The spring emigratory movements from the mainland
begin with the departures from their winter quarters
of Lapwings returning to their nesting-haunts in the
Orkneys and Shetlands. In some years many have
been observed during March, but these early migrations
are dependent upon the genial nature of the season. In
March the local British migrations, if we may so term
them (for the birds are returning to a remote part of the

250 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

British area), become merged with the migrations of
birds departing from our islands for Northern Europe,
and with the passage of birds along our coasts proceed-
ing thither from winter quarters south of our area.
These movements are regularly observed, and are much
in evidence during April, after which stragglers are
observed throughout May and even during the first
week of June. " Rushes" are recorded, when Lapwings,
in company with Fieldfares, Redwings, Ring-Ouzels,
Blackbirds, Pipits, Redbreasts, Whinchats, Redstarts,
Pied Flycatchers, and Ortolan Buntings are observed
at the Shetlands en route for the north.

These movements take place during the night, and
the resting migrants are observed during the daytime at
various points on the coast and the off-lying islands — the
Fames, the Isle of May, and the Pentland Skerries on
the east, and the Isle of Man, Dhu Heartach, Skerry-
vore, Sule Skerry, the Flannans, and occasionally even
the remote St Kilda on the west — and at the various
Isles of the Orkney and Shetland groups. Our depart-
ing winter guests, which form the bulk of these birds,
proceed overland in various directions to reach the
coast of the mainland, whence they proceed north-
wards ; many of those travelling along the east coast
cross the North Sea ere the Orkneys and Shetlands
are reached, though considerable numbers visit these
islands regularly on passage to their Scandinavian
summer quarters.

The Lapwings which have wintered in Ireland begin
to move northward in mild seasons, about the middle
of February ; but the chief emigrations take place
during March, after which month they fall off, though
some have been observed in the end of April. The

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LAPWING 251

latter, however, are exceptional occurrences. The emi-
grants mainly depart from the north-east coast and
proceed in various directions towards Scotland, and
are chiefly recorded for the daytime. There is also
an emigration to the south-east from the Wexford and
adjacent coasts late in February ; but this, like most
emigratory movements, largely escapes notice, and our
data regarding it are only slight.

Spring Emigration to Central Europe. — This
movement has not come much under observation, a
circumstance which is not surprising. Such departures
from our shores are embarked upon under favourable
weather conditions and after nightfall, and the birds are
not likely to come under notice at the fleet of lightships
off the south-east coast of England — the only observa-
tories— immediately after departure. There are, how-
ever, a few important records which clearly indicate
that Lapwings pass eastwards during the latter half
of March, and at night-time.

CHAPTER XV

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING, 'SrUA;A'US VULGARIS

The Starlinor is a summer visitor to Northern and much
of Central Europe, and a winter visitor to Southern
Europe and Northern Africa. In the British Isles it
is a resident, a local migrant, a summer visitor, a winter
visitor, and a bird of passage.

The migrations of the Starling observed in Great
Britain and Ireland are of a singularly varied nature,
being performed with great frequency and at all seasons.
These remarkable characteristics in the movements of
a well-known and familiar bird are due to a number of
causes — among others, to its gregarious and capricious
nature, the varying degree of its migratory instincts in
different parts of the British area, its dependence upon
supplies of food which change not only with the season
but from year to year, and to the fact that it is largely
double-brooded — peculiarities which result in innumer-
able movements, many of them of a partial or wholly
irregular nature.

In addition to these, there are the regular migrations
performed by the Starling — (i) as a migratory species
within the British area ; (2) as a summer visitor from
the south ; (3) as a winter visitor to our isles from
Northern and Central Europe ; (4) as a bird of double

252

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 253

passage, traversing our shores when en route between
Continental summer and winter quarters ; and, finally, (5)
there are winter movements — partial migrations within the
British area and emigration to the Continent — depen-
dent upon and varying with the severity of the season.

The data amassed relating to these numerous
irregular and regular movements are extraordinarily
voluminous, and their study has presented problems for
solution of an exceptionally complex nature — more so
than those appertaining to any other British bird.

As a resident species the Starling is widely distributed
over our islands, its range extending from the Shetland
and other northern isles ^ southward to the English
Channel. It is also a permanent resident at St Kilda.
In many of the northern and of the more elevated
portions of the mainland of Britain the bird is migratory,
being entirely or partially absent during the autumn
and winter months.^

This variability in the migratory habit is also
manifest in many districts of England. It may in most
cases depend upon the distribution of food-supplies ;
but this does not explain all, for there are counties
in south-western England, such as Cornwall and Devon,
in which the Starling has only recently become a
breeding species, and is still chiefly a winter visitor.

In Ireland the peculiarities in seasonal distribution
of native Starlings are very similar, and the species is
mainly a winter visitor to the south and west. An

^ At Fair Isle there appears to be no diminution in the numbers of
native birds in winter ; but in north Ronaldshay, one of the outermost and
most exposed of the Orkneys, only a few remain for the winter.

" At Halmyre, a moderately elevated district in Peeblesshire, about
75 per cent, leave (Laidlaw). At Pitlochry, in Perthshire, which is flanked
by high ground, all depart (Macpherson).

254 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

interesting and important fact is that in Ireland winter
visitors from Great Britain and the Continent far out-
number the Irish birds.

Summer and Atthunn Movements of British Star-
lings.— These take the form of (i) local migrations within
the British area, and (2) of emigrations of native birds
to winter quarters beyond our shores.

I. Local Migi'-ations. — These begin in the early-
summer ; indeed, as soon as the young, especially those
of the broods first cast off, are able to shift for them-
selves. Sometimes as early as the first week in June
parties composed mainly of youngsters commence their
wanderings ; but it is usually about the middle of the
month that such flocks are commonly observed. Even
thus early the maritime districts, the light-stations, and
islands lying off the coast are sometimes visited. Later
in the summer both old and young gather together and
form large flocks. Movements of a more definite
nature are then undertaken, at first probably in search
of fresh feeding-grounds, and finally directed towards
winter homes.

The coast and its vicinity is largely visited, especially
the southern and western seaboards ; and when summer
is past the Hebrides and other islands (including Scilly)
and Ireland are also sought for the winter. These
movements commence in some seasons as early as the
end of July,^ and are in progress throughout the autumn.
Ireland receives considerable numbers of immigrants
from England, Scotland, and Wales, towards the end of
August and onwards.

^ At the Tuskar Rock, off the south-east coast of Ireland, on 27th July
1894, several Starlings were observed proceeding in a north-westerly direction
— />., making for the Wexford coast.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 255

Later in autumn these movements merge into
those of the Continental hosts also seeking winter
retreats in various parts of our islands.

2. Stujimer and Antiinin Emigration. — Not only are
winter quarters sought by our native Starlings within
the British area, but many travel much further to find
retreats in South-Western Europe.^ Thus a number of
our 'British-breeding Starlings are summer visitors to
our islands.

Late in July, during August, and up to the middle
of September (before the Continental birds appear on
our shores) emigrant Starlings depart from the south
coast of England, and are observed crossing the Channel
towards France, sometimes in company with Wheatears,
Sedge- Warblers, Song-Thrushes, Meadow-Pipits, Sky-
larks, Curlews, and other species. These movements of
departure are performed during the night or the earliest
hours of the morning, and hence for the most part escape
notice ; but I have received during the past few years
much valuable information regarding them from the
Eddystone lighthouse, the situation of which is singu-
larly favourable for the making of such observations.
Nearly all the Starlings (and other species) which meet
with an untimely end at the lanterns at this season are
birds of the year — a circumstance, however, to which
no great significance should be attached ; for we must
remember that the majority of the emigrants are young,
indeed only a few weeks old, and it seems natural that
they should fall easier victims to the attractions of the
lanterns than older travellers with more experience.
The later British emigrants doubtless depart with the

1 Marked native British Starlings have been recovered in winter in
France.

256 STUDIES IN HIRD-MIGllATION

Continental birds which have traversed our shores on
their way southwards.

Some of these native emigrants are probably of Irish
origin, but their departure is likewise difficult to detect.
There are, however, nocturnal movements (and emigra-
tory movements are eminently performed by night) of
Starlings and other birds during the latter part of July
and in August, which seem to indicate that this species
quits Ireland in the late summer and early autumn for
more southern winter quarters.

It is possible that some Starlings may cross the
English Channel in the daytime. There is, however, but
one record of such a movement in the returns ; ^ and during
a five-weeks' residence at the Eddystone in September
and October 1901, I never saw any diurnal migration
on the part of this species, though many thousands
crossed in the night and earliest hours of the morning.

Autumn Immigration from Central Europe? — The
first Starlinofs to arrive from the Continent on our coasts
in the autumn come from the east, and are doubt-
less emigrant summer visitors from Western Central
Europe. These visitors cross the southern waters of the
North Sea by a more or less direct east-to-west passage,
and appear on the coast of England from the H umber
southwards to the Channel.

These immigrations set in with great regularity
during the last week of September,^ reach their maximum

' At the Varne lightship (Straits of Dover), on i8th September 1887,
twenty passed from north to south-south-east at 7 a.m.

^ For further information regarding the migrations of the Starling along this
route, as observed at the Kentish Knock lightship, see Chapter XVI 1 1., Vol. II.

•' The earliest date chronicled is 21st September 1880, but the initial
date for other years follows closely thereon. 1 oljserved the first at the
Kentibh Knock lightship on the 24th in 1903.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 257

volume in the last three weeks of October, and usually
cease with the early days of November ; but in some
seasons there are arrivals until the middle of the month.^

As an illustration of the magnitude of these inpourings,
it may be stated that they have been recorded for as
many as twenty-one days during October, and that the
chief "rushes" often cover several successive days, and
affect the eastern coastline from the H umber southwards.
The passage is chiefly performed during the daytime,
and not unfrequently lasts from early morning until dusk,
sometimes under most trying weather conditions;"" but
there are records which doubtless refer to night passages.

As in other immigrations along this route, the direc-
tion of flight varies, being from direct east to west at
its centre about the mouth of the Thames, to the south-
west off the coast of Kent, to the north-west on the
Norfolk coast, and to the north-north-west at the mouth
of the Humber.

The species which have been observed migrating
from east to west on the same dates as the Starling are
Rooks, Jackdaws, Skylarks, Tree- Sparrows, Chaffinches,
Meadow- Pipits, and Lapwings.

Many of these immigrant Starlings from Central
Europe winter in various parts of England :^ many, too,
pass along our southern shores ; some to cross the
English Channel at various points on their way to
retreats in South-Western Europe, while others proceed
to Ireland, where they arrive on the coast of Wexford

^ Latest at the Gorton lightship on 17th November 1880.

2 At the Leman and Ower lightship, on 24th October 1884, a flight
estimated at five thousand passed landwards at 5 p.m., and of these fifty
struck the lantern and were killed. (See also Vol. II., p. 11.)

^ There can be little doubt that some of these Central European birds
winter in latitudes north of their suviiner homes.

I. R

258 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

as a centre after passage across St George's Channel.
Vast numbers of Starlings pour into Ireland by this
route between the latter half of October and the middle
of November, the passage on some occasions lasting for
several successive days/ Occasionally at the stations at
the mouth of the Channel and at the Varne lightship,
in the Straits of Dover, Starlings and Rooks are recorded
as proceeding north-north-west, and as coming from
the coast of France.

Aiitumn Immigration from North- Western Etirope.
— The arrival on our shores in the autumn of the
Starlings which make their summer homes in Scandinavia
does not begin until about two weeks after the first
appearance on the coast of England of the emigrants
from Central Europe.

The earliest immigrants from the north appear on
the coast of Great Britain during the last days of
September or the first half of October,^ and the main
body arrives late in the latter month. There are also
important inpourings during the early part of November,
and in some seasons laggards have made their appear-
ance as late as the 21st of the month. ^ A pro-
nounced feature of these movements is that the birds
arrive in a series of "rushes," there being usually little
immigration of a straggling nature chronicled.

During these movements Starlings are recorded as
arriving on the east coast from Shetland to and some-

^ In 1884 it was observed for eight consecutive days (15th to 22nd October)
at light-stations off" the coasts of Waterford, Wexford, and Wicklow.

- The earliest dates recorded are as follows : — 28th September 1908
(Fair Isle), 1st October 1886 and 1907, 3rd October 1884, 6th October 1883,
9th October 1882.

^ Professor Collett informs me that most of the Starlings leave southern
Norway in the course of October, and are common at the lighthouses during
that month and the early part of November.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STAREING 259

times perhaps beyond the H umber, A number, too,
reach the Atlantic seaboard and the Hebrides, occurring
not unfrequently as far west as Sule Skerry and the
Flannan and Monach Isles.

Like other visitors from the north, these immigrant
Starlings appear on our shores during the late hours of
the night and early hours of the morning ; the other
species arriving simultaneously being Redwings, Field-
fares, Song-Thrushes, Blackbirds, Ring-Ouzels, Wheat-
ears, Hedge-Sparrows, Redbreasts, Wrens, Goldcrests,
Redstarts, Bramblings, Siskins, Chaffinches, Skylarks,
Short-eared Owls, Snipe, and Woodcock.

These autumnal immigrations from the north-east
are followed by overland movements westwards and
southwards in search of winter quarters within the
British area : the western, southern, and south-western
districts of England, the Hebrides and other western
isles, and Ireland affording specially favoured haunts.
Ireland is entered from the north and north-east, the
birds travelling by way of the Hebrides and the west
coast of Scotland, or from the Galloway coast, some of
them after an overland flight across northern Britain.

Autumn Passage from Northern and Central to
Southern Eicrope. — Vast numbers of the Starlings which
arrive on our shores in the autumn from both Northern
and Central Europe do not remain to winter with us, but
proceed on passage to retreats in South- Western Europe.

These passage movements follow (probably at once
in the case of the majority of the migrants) the arrival
from the Continent, and are in progress from the latter
half of September (on the part of the Central European
birds) until the third week of November. The course
of the birds from the east (Central Europe) has already

260 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

been traced along the south coast of England and across
the Channel. The birds of passage of northern origin
proceed southwards by both the east and west coast-
lines (including the Hebrides), but more especially the
former, and finally depart as emigrants, crossing the
Channel at various points between Kent and Scilly. As
already stated, it is possible that some of our British
Starlings may also participate in these emigrations by
joining the ranks of the Continental birds and departing
with them for the south.

Some idea of the magnitude of these movements
may be gathered from the fact that on the night of
1 2th and the early morning of 13th October 1901, vast
numbers of Starlings, evidently of Continental origin,
passed the Eddystone, going southwards, for ten hours
and a half without a break. Sixty-seven perished at
the lantern, and great numbers, after striking, fell
over into the sea and were drowned. Some of these
autumnal visitors belong to a race which is characterised
by having a purple head and throat and green ear-
coverts. This form occurs on our south-eastern and
southern coasts, and, as I have failed to match them with
British and Scandinavian specimens obtained at the
same season, I think it is probable that these birds come
to us from the east.^

During the autumnal migratory movements Starlings
sometimes considerably overshoot our western limits,
and are observed far out in the Atlantic. At the end of
October 1870 a large flock was encountered 300 miles
west of Scilly,^ and on 23rd October 1876 one alighted

' I captured a bird of this race on the Kentish Knock lightship. It
came on board from the east in an exhausted state.
2 Rodd, Bh-ds of Cornwall, p. 292.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 261

on H.M.S. Alert between capes Farewell and Clear,
when 517 miles from the latter.^ At Eagle Island, off
Mayo, on 31st October and ist November 1886, several
thousands are said to have passed westwards over the
Atlantic.

Winter Movements. — The winter movements of the
Starling are attributable to the same cause, and are per-
formed under the same conditions as those undertaken
by the Song-Thrush, Skylark, and Lapwing. These have
been fully treated in the summaries on these species,
and the subject generally in the chapter (VII.) on Winter
Movements. It is therefore only necessary to touch
somewhat briefly on these forced migrations of this bird.

Although belonging to a species which is much
affected by severe weather, and especially snow, inasmuch
as its ordinary food then becomes difficult and some-
times impossible to procure, yet many of our resident
Starlings remain in their accustomed haunts throughout
periods of such extreme severity that great numbers
perish from hunger. Others, along with species similarly
affected, move to the coast, especially the west and
south-west coasts of England and Ireland. Ireland is
also sought by considerable numbers of emigrants,
which arrive from the north-east and east on the
occasion of each great outburst of cold in Great Britain.
But even on the south-west coast of Ireland, where the
climatic conditions are more favourable than elsewhere
within our area, great numbers perish in severe seasons,
such as those of 1881 (January), 1882 (December),
and 1895 (January to March). Many, too, cross the
English Channel and proceed southwards in search of
more genial haunts on the Continent.

1 Feilden, Zoologist, 1877, p. 469-
I. R 2

262 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

I am of opinion that these migrants are chiefly
composed of our winter guests from the Continent, for
careful observations made during seasons of exceptional
severity, lead me to believe that most of our resident
stock do not leave their usual haunts, but may be seen
daily on the approach of dusk proceeding in numbers to
their usual winter roosts.

Spring Movements of British Starlings. — These are
return migrations of the Starlings which have wintered in
our isles to their British nesting-homes. These take
place in February and the early days of March, and do
not call for further notice.

Spring Immigration from Southern Europe and
Passage to Northern and Central Europe. — The spring
immigrations of the Starling include the return of (i)
British summer visitors, of (2) the birds of passage on
their way north and east from their accustomed winter
quarters in South-Western Europe, and of (3) the refugees
which have been forced to flee our country through the
pressure of winter conditions.

The first Starlings to appear on the southern coast-
Hne of England are probably those birds which quitted
our shores earliest in the autumn — namely, the British
summer visitors, which return to their breeding-
haunts about the time that the first of the spring
immigrants arrive on the south coast — i.e., usually during
the last week in February.^ These return movements

1 The earliest record is for 19th February 1903, when great numbers
passed the Eddystone in flocks, coming from the south and south-south-
east. They began to arrive at 7 P.M., and the passage lasted, with breaks,
until 5 A.M. Many were killed at the lantern, and great numbers struck
and fell over into the sea. The other species participating in this great
return movement were Mistle-Thrushes, Song-Thrushes, Skylarks, Lapwings,
and others not identified.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 263

from winter retreats continue at intervals during March
and the early part of April, the 12th being the latest
date on which they have been chronicled. The later
migrants are, without doubt, birds of passage, which
after arrival proceed along both the east and west
coasts (mainly the former), en route for summer
quarters in Northern and Central Europe. They
appear on the south coast during the night and early
morning, and travel in company with Redwings, Ring-
Ouzels, Wheatears, Redstarts, Blackcaps, Chiffchaffs,
Willow- Warblers, and Swallows.^

Starlings have been noted as spring immigrants on
the south-east coast of Ireland at dates ranofin^ from
the third week of February to mid-April. This indicates
a return either of Starlings which have quitted Ireland
for the winter, or of birds of passage on their way north ;
or, again, most probably of both, for the period is wide-
ranging — sufficiently so to cover both the return of native
birds and the movements of birds of passage. During
the later dates, these Irish immigrants are sometimes
accompanied by various summer visitors and birds
proceeding further north — Wheatears, Ring - Ouzels,
Redwings, etc. Similar movements in the Hebrides are
recorded as late as 14th April.

^ On some occasions Starlings and other species (Skylarks, " Black Crows,"
Rooks, Goldcrests, and Wild Ducks) have been recorded as arriving on the
south-east coast of England in the spring. Thus at the Leman and Ower
lightship, forty-eight miles east-north-east of Cromer, from nth Feb-
ruary to 8th May 1883, the birds named are scheduled as proceeding
in a westerly direction. In the Zoologist for 1870 (p. 2 140) it is recorded from
Aldeburgh that during the second week of March immense numbers of
Rooks and Starlings were almost constantly arriving " from over the sea."
In the same journal for 1902 (p. 87) Mr Gurney states that on 23rd March
1901 some were picked up dead on the beach at Yarmouth, along with
Rooks "which had lost their lives in crossing." Similar but more regularly
recorded movements are performed by the Rook.

264 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Spring Emigration to Central Eni'ope. — The spring
emigration from the coast of south-eastern England
eastwards across the North Sea of the StarHngs which
are returning to summer quarters in Central Europe, after
wintering in the British Isles and in South- Western
Europe (the latter being birds of passage), is very little
in evidence as compared with the great immigratory
movements on the part of these same birds during the
autumn.

It comes under observation, however, in passing
over the great fleet of lightships stationed between the
Wash and the mouth of the Thames, and takes place
between the middle of February and the end of March.
There are no April movements chronicled, nor have
other species been recorded as emigrating along with
the Starlings, The observations on these return move-
ments relate to the daytime only, though many doubt-
less pass unnoticed during the night.

Spring Emigration to North- Western Europe. — The
return movements to their summer haunts in Scandi-
navia of those Starlings which have wintered in the
British Isles, or have traversed our shores on their way
from winter quarters in South-Western Europe, like all
emigratory movements, come but little under notice.
They are performed at night, and under favourable
weather conditions, during March and April,^ and are
observed chiefly at stations on the north-east coast of
Great Britain, and in the Orkneys and Shetlands where
many break their journey ; the other birds noted as
emigrating at the same time being Skylarks, Fieldfares,

' Professor Collet informs me that Starlings arrive singly in southern
Norway about the middle of March, and in flocks at the beginning of
April.

'I'HE :\riGUATIONS OF THE STARLING 265

Blackbirds, Goldcrests, and Lapwings. The latest record
was chronicled at the Isle of May on 28th April 1886,
when at 10 p.m. Starlings appeared during a "rush"
of migrants (Wheatears, Redstarts, Whitethroats, etc.).

The Starlings which winter in Ireland begin to
emigrate about the middle of February, and in some
seasons the movements are in progress until the middle
or end of March. Those that winter in western Britain
and certain of the Hebridean Islands (such as Tiree),
leave at dates ranging from the middle of February to
the end of March.

Summary of the Migrations of the Starling. — The
various movements of the Starling may be conveniently
summarised as follows : —

1. In June, sometimes early in the month, the young
of our native Starlings gather together and lead a roving
life, during which they visit the coast and other districts.

2. Later in summer both old and young form flocks
and wander afield in search of food, and in the autumn
many of these wanderers, notably those inhabiting the
more northern and elevated districts of the mainland,
seek winter quarters in the west and south of Great
Britain and Ireland, some numbers of the British birds
emigrating to Ireland for that purpose.

3. A portion of our native Starlings, namely,
those which belong to the migratory race passing the
summer with us, quit our shores in the late summer
and early autumn, to winter in South-Western Europe,
etc. They are essentially summer visitors to the British
Isles.

4. During the autumn (late September to early
November) vast numbers of Starlings arrive on the
south-east coast of England from Central Europe, many

266 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

to winter in England and Ireland, others to proceed, as
birds of passage, to South-Western Europe for the cold
season.

5. Later in the autumn (October and November)
considerable numbers of immigrants from Scandinavia
arrive on our northern and north-eastern shores, many
of which winter in Great Britain and Ireland, while
others proceed on passage to winter in Southern Europe.

6. Durino- these autumnal movements Starling's some-
times overshoot our western limits, and are observed far
out in the Atlantic.

7. On the advent of severe cold the would-be winter
residents (chiefly our Continental guests) fly to the
southern and western districts (especially the coasts) of
Great Britain and Ireland, and in winters or shorter
periods of exceptional severity many quit our isles for
more southern asylums on the Continent.

8. In February the birds which have wintered in
other portions of the British area begin to return to
their summer quarters.

9. The earliest days of spring, and even the latest
of winter (February and March), witness the return
from their winter quarters in Southern Europe of the
Starlings which are summer visitors to the British
Isles.

10. About the same time the refugees which were
forced to quit our isles during the winter also return to
our shores.

11. Early in spring, too (during mid-February and
March), the Central European birds which have wintered
with us depart eastwards for their summer homes on the
Continent.

12. Later (in March and during April), the Scandi-

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING 267

navian birds which have passed the winter in our islands
take their departure for their northern summer haunts.

13. Finally (in March and April), the birds of
passage, which also wintered in Southern Europe,
arrive on the south coast, to travel by way of our
shores to their breedinsf-haunts in Central and North-
Western Europe.

CHAPTER XVI

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK, CORVUS FRUGILEGUS

The Rook is a summer visitor to North - Western
Europe, and is migratory to a considerable extent in
the Central portions of the Continent. From both these
areas the bird seeks Great Britain in the autumn as
a winter retreat, departing again in the spring. Some
Rooks — the members of a migratory British race —
leave England, departing from the southern shores in
the autumn, and though such emigrations or passages
are somewhat scantily recorded, yet the corresponding
return migrations in the spring are regularly chronicled.
A similar spring immigration is also observed on the
south-east coast of Ireland. The above-mentioned
movements constitute the regular migrations of the
Rook as observed in Great Britain and Ireland.

In addition, some irregular migrations and inter-
mio'rations come under notice, for the bird is much
CTiven to wandering, especially after the close of the
breeding season and during the summer, when flocks
consisting of old and young visit the vicinity of the
coast and some of the neighbouring islands, food of a
particular nature being, presumably, the main incentive
to these roving movements. In the autumn and winter
there are daily movements between feeding-areas and

268

THE MIGRATIONS Ol' THE ROOK 269

roosting-places, these in a number of cases being
situated some miles apart.

In Ireland, with the exception of the spring immigra-
tion already mentioned, the movements are, according
to our present knowledge, to be regarded as being only
of a partial or irregular nature.

In severe winters. Rooks, in small numbers, have been
recorded as seekinof certain of the Outer Hebrides in
search of more genial quarters than those afforded by
the mainland. To others of these islands it is a regular
winter visitor, and has been known to appear at this
season at remote St Kilda.

Although one of our most familiar birds — a species
known to all observers — yet there is a lack of informa-
tion regarding its movements that is not a little surpris-
ing— further and striking proof of the great difficulties
which enshroud the whole subject of bird-migration.

Autumn Immigration froin Central Europe. — This
is by far the most important of the autumn migrations of
the Rook witnessed on our shores, for it is from Central
Europe that we receive the great majority of the foreign
birds of this species which winter in Britain.

The immigrants arrive on the south-east coast of
England, from the Humber to the coast of Kent, at
dates ranging from the latter half of September to mid-
November,^ the greatest numbers appearing during late
October, when these movements are often in progress
for several successive days, during which vast numbers
pour in upon our shores."

The direction of the flight varies, being as a rule
directly from east to west at or about the mouth of the

1 The first recorded appearance is i6th September, in 1880.

2 In October 1884 the migrations covered twenty-two days.

270 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Thames (and sometimes on the coasts of Norfolk and
Kent) to north-west and north-north-west on the coast
of Suffolk and northwards. On reaching our shores the
immigrants proceed inland in search of winter quarters.

The movements are observed during the daytime
(usually between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m.) and at night; and
the birds pass the lightships in straggling flocks
or sometimes in small parties (even of two or three
individuals), and frequently immense numbers pass
in a single day. I observed a number at the lantern of
the Kentish Knock lightship on the night of 17th
October 1903. They were anything but sprightly in
their actions, and flapped about the light in a most
ungainly manner.

Mr Arthur Patterson informs me that at the Outer
Dowsing lightship, off the Norfolk coast, for two or
three days early in November 1902, Rooks, Jackdaws,
and Grey Crows simply swarmed. One of the crew
was confident that there were over a thousand birds
on board at once. They were crowded on every avail-
able perchhold, bulwarks, cabin tops, every rope and
fitting that was not quite vertical, nor refused ever so
precarious a foothold. The weather was foggy. For
two whole nights the ship swarmed with sleeping birds,
and the deck in the morning was in a filthy condition.

The most frequent companion of the Rook on these
occasions is the Daw, though always in smaller numbers
than its congener, the other species also migrating at
the same time being Grey Crows, Starlings, Skylarks,
Chaffinches, and Tree-Sparrows.

Mr Caton Haigh, who is favourably situated on the
north coast of Lincolnshire for observing the incoming
of the right wing of these immigrants, remarks that the

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK 271

parties sometimes consist entirely of old birds, some-
times of old and young, and sometimes, so far as he has
been able to determine, wholly of young birds.

In addition numbers are occasionally observed off
the mouth of the Thames and the east coast of Kent
crossing the Straits of Dover, as if coming from the
south-east coast of France.

Autumn Inimigi'atioufroin North- Western Europe. —
The arrivals on our shores from Northern Europe are far
from being extensive, which is not surprising, since
Professor Collett informs me that the Rook is not an
abundant species in Norway : it appears in the Shetlands
and at some of the Orkneys (including the far-outlying
islet of Sule Skerry) during October and onwards to mid-
November, The birds arrive during the night, some-
times in fairly large Hocks, and often remain for a short
period before proceeding southwards.^

On the east coast of the mainland of Great Britain
the arrival of these northern immigrants does not seem
to have been observed ; but passage movements south-
wards, performed during the daytime, are recorded as far
south as Flamborough Head. Similar migrations are
witnessed on the west coast of Scotland, chiefly at the
Hebridean stations. These diurnal migrations are pro-
bably passage movements to British winter quarters,
and they sometimes extend as far westward as the
Flannan and Monach Isles and St Kilda. The Rook
is a winter visitor to Barra, and probably to some
other of the Hebrides.

' Mr Thomas Henderson, junior, of Dunrossness, tells me that during

long-continued southerly gales he has often seen the immigrant Rooks rise

■ in a flock to a considerable height, as if anxious to be off, and then settle

down again. They leave Shetland for the south as soon as favourable

conditions set in.

272 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

The autumn immigrants from both East and North
settle down for the winter in Great Britain — chiefly,
I believe, in eastern England — and a few may proceed
south of the British area after arrival on our shores.

AiUumn Emigration from Britain.— P^X. the Goodwin
lightships, on several occasions during September and
October,^ Rooks, sometimes in considerable numbers, have
been recorded as crossing the Straits of Dover in the
daytime, in an easterly and south-easterly direction, as if
proceeding to the coasts of Belgium and France, These
records are of considerable interest when considered in
connection with the more regularly observed return
movement, which occurs in the spring. The early date
at which some of these migrations are chronicled would
seem to indicate that the emigrants are British birds,
for they set in prior to the arrival of the earliest autumn
visitors from the Continent ; hence the Rook is possibly
a Summer Visitor to Britain.

Spring Immigration to Britain.- — During late Feb-
ruary, throughout March, and sometimes in the first half
of April, ^ considerable numbers of Rooks, occasionally
accompanied by Daws, Starlings, and Skylarks, arrive
during the daytime on the south-east coast of England
between Kent and Norfolk, the immigrations on some
occasions lasting for several successive days.

The late Sir Edward Newton made a number of
interesting observations on these movements as
witnessed by him at Lowestoft. He writes thus of one
of them, which occurred on 31st March 1889: — "This
morning, while sitting in the house, I heard Rooks and

1 The earliest of these autumn departures is dated 9th September, and
the latest 30th October.

- The earliest record is for 23rd February, and the latest for 18th April.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK 273

Jackdaws. On looking out I saw flocks of about one
hundred coming in very high from the south-east. A
few minutes later I again heard Rooks and Jackdaws,
and again saw another flock, also very high, flying
northwards ; they were occasionally toying and circling,
as one sees them in summer and autumn."

These, or perhaps we should say some of them, are,
no doubt, the return movements to British haunts of
the emigrants mentioned as leaving our shores in the
autumn. Other individuals, especially the late arrivals,
may be on passage to Scandinavia ; the corresponding
autumn passage southwards of such foreign immigrants
is not obviously recorded in our data, though it probably
occurs.

Spring Eviigration to Central Etirope. — As the
movements in the reverse direction were the main ones
of the autumn, so are these the most important ones of
the spring.

As the Rooks from Central" Europe were the first to
arrive in the autumn, these same birds are the first in
the spring to quit our shores, after wintering with us.
As early as the second week of February (the loth
being the earliest record) these great emigrations from
south-eastern England, eastwards across the North Sea
set in, reach their maximum during March, and are much
in evidence until the middle of April, the 23rd of that
month marking their extreme limit in recorded observa-
tions. During this prolonged period, vast numbers of
emigrants are observed at the lightships between the
Humber and the mouth of the Thames (occasionally at
the Straits of Dover), passing to the south-east and
east during the daytime, from 6 a.m. onwards, and
sometimes flying very high, Grey Crows, Daws, Sky-
I. s

274 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

larks, Tree-Sparrows, and Chaffinches not unfrequently
departing at the same time.

Prior to their departure, numbers of these emigrants
have been observed passing southwards, occasionally
accompanied by Grey Crows, on both the Yorkshire and
Norfolk coasts, en route for particular points of embarka-
tion, whence the passage of the North Sea^ is made.

Spring Emigj^atioii to North- Western Etirope. — The
Rooks from Scandinavia which have wintered in our
islands return north in March, April, and the first half
of May ; and (as in the autumn) are mainly observed on
passage in the Orkneys and Shetlands, including Sule
Skerry and Fair Isle. Some appear in these northern
islands as early as the first days of March, but
the chief movements take place during its latter days
and the early days of April. Their movements in 1904
seem to have been an exception to the rule, for I am
informed by Dr Edmondston Saxby that a small flock
arrived in Unst on 14th February. Their numbers
were greatly increased on 23rd March, and on 20th
April enormous numbers were present over the whole
island, some of which remained until loth May.^ These
travellers arrive during the night occasionally in large
flocks, and are sometimes accompanied by Grey Crows
and Daws. The emigrants appear at stations widely
scattered over both Orkney and Shetland, and usually
tarry for a few days before proceeding northwards.

* At Somerton, on the Norfolk coast, on 20th March 1886, Rooks were
flying due south in a continuous stream from 10.30 a.m. to 6 p.m., never
fewer than 1000 being in sight at the same time.

^ Stragglers have been observed as late as i6th May, and some of a party
which arrived in Unst, the northernmost of the British Isles, on 4th March
1901, remained until 23rd July (Dr Saxby), and probably did not proceed
beyond the limits of the British Isles.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK 275

There are only a few records relating to these move-
ments northwards on the east coast of Britain, and it
would seem as if they but rarely came under notice
at any of the mainland stations. Rooks in small
numbers are, however, observed annually in the Hebrides,
including the Flannan Isles, on passage during March
and April. They occur at the Faroes on passage
about the same time (Andersen), and arrive in Norway
during the latter part of March or beginning of April
(Collett).

Irish Migrations. — The regular migrations of
the Rook witnessed in Ireland are of an extremely
limited nature, and consist of certain arrivals and
departures in the spring. Ireland does not appear
with certainty to be visited by Continental birds as
a winter resort, and the movements observed there
in the autumn must at present for the most part
be regarded as irregular in their character. There
are, however, occasional intermigrations with Great
Britain.

Irish Autumn Movements. — During October and
November in some years, Rooks have been recorded as
arriving on the south-east coast, but these immigrations
are so uncertain and unimportant as not to merit further
notice at present. Such passages on the part of other
species are among the best observed and most interest-
ing of the Irish movements, and the absence of the
Rook from the number of the regular immigrants
presents a remarkable negative feature, especially since
many species from Central Europe which winter in
England find their way to Ireland (after traversing
the south coast of England) by this route in con-
siderable numbers.

276 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Rooks have also been occasionally observed in
October at the islands (Rathlin and Maidens) off the
north-east coast, coming from the direction of the
mainland of Scotland, and sometimes "rushes" are
recorded there.

Irish Spring Movements. — The chief feature in the
migrations of the rook as observed in Ireland is the
regular spring immigration observed (during the day-
time) on the south-east coast, between the latter half
of March and the third week of April — the move-
ments indicating that a corresponding autumn emigra-
tion most likely takes place, though it seems as yet
to have entirely escaped notice. It is impossible to
determine the precise nature of these movements.
They may be those of native birds returning to their
homes in Ireland, or of birds of passage traversing
the Irish coast on their way northwards. We have,
however, no further information concerning them,
and the question of their nature must remain an open
one.

There are occasional records of spring departures.
These are witnessed at Copeland Island, Rathlin,
and the Maidens, off the north - east coast, where
occasionally Rooks have been observed moving
towards Scotland in April. These movements, from
the late date of their occurrence, would seem to
indicate that the migrants were birds on passage for
Northern Europe.

Apparently Erratic Movements to the West. — In the
late autumn large numbers of Rooks have occasionally
been observed moving westwards beyond the British
Isles and out over the broad waters of the Atlantic,
wherein many perish, and whence others, having retraced

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK 277

their flight, arrive in an exhausted condition on our
westernmost shores.

Quicsitisque diu terris, ubi sidere detur,
In mare lassatis volucris vaga decidit alis.

Ovid, Metant.^ I., 307-S.

Long seeking land where none is to be found.
The worn, wing-weary bird drops and is drown'd.

Perhaps the best instance on record ^ of such move-
ments occurred in October 1893, when late in the month
vast numbers (estimated at from 5000 to 6000) arrived
at Scilly from the south-east, accompanied by a few
Daws, and proceeded in a westerly direction. About the
same time a large flight of Rooks, presumably the same
birds, were met with by steamers out in the Atlantic
some 300 miles west of Ireland. These misguided
birds were in such an exhausted condition that some
fell into the sea and were drowned, being too weak to
retain their foothold on the vessel on which they had
alighted. It is said that these birds avoided the out-
ward-bound steamers, and sought only those which
were approaching the land. As there was nothing
unusual in the weather at the time of the birds' appear-
ance in Scilly, they were certainly not on this occasion
blown out to sea — a theory which has been advanced to
explain similar flights.

Return movements from the Atlantic of considerable
numbers of rooks have several times been recorded at
stations on the west coast of Ireland. In 1884, between
2nd and 25th November, large numbers were arriving,
either in flocks or at intervals, at Tearaght Island and
at the Skelligs, off the coast of Kerry, for several days.
. Again, in 1887, between 21st October and 23rd

' J. H. Jenkinson, The Field, 3rd March 1894.
I. S 2

278 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION '

November, they appeared at the same stations, also in
numbers and direct from the Atlantic. Similar move-
ments were witnessed in 1888 and 1890, chiefly in
November, at Tearaght and at Slyne Head, Galway.

In the middle of November 1893 (^oon after the
great movement observed at Scilly), some 4000 or
5000 appeared in the Island of Lewis, arriving in an
exhausted state, and great numbers were washed ashore
on the west side of the island.^ At this time many too
passed St Kilda, and great numbers perished. Some
of them remained on the island until the following
summer.

Sumviary of the Migrations of the Rook. — i. Partial
and irregular movements on the part of young and old
begin at the close of the nesting season and continue
throughout the autumn.

2. Vast numbers of Rooks from Central Europe arrive
on the south-east coast of England (coming from the
east and south-east) between the latter half of September
and the middle of November, to pass the winter in the
eastern counties of England. This is the main autumnal
movement.

3. During October and until the middle of November,
emigrants from Scandinavia arrive on our northern
shores and remain to winter in Great Britain. They
are chiefly observed as immigrants in Shetland and
Orkney, and on passage to their British retreats, on the
north-east and north-west coastlines.

4. In severe winters some emigrate from the m.ain-
land of North Britain and are observed in small numbers
in the western isles (Lewis, etc.).

5. Late in February, during March, and sometimes

' Annals pf Scot, Nat. Hist.,, pp. 149-150.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROOK 279

early in April, numbers of Rooks arrive on the south-east
coast of England from the Continent, moving in a
westerly and north-westerly direction during the day-
time. These are most probably returning British
emigrants, whose departure in the autumn is also duly
chronicled.

6. Early in February, and until mid-April, the
Central European Rooks which have wintered in England
depart from the south-east coast for their summer homes.
This is the most important movement of the spring.

7. Throughout March, April, and the first half of
May, the winter visitors to Britain from Scandinavia are
observed, chiefly in the Orkneys and Shetlands, return-
ing to their northern summer quarters.

8. The Irish Movements are mainly of an irregular
and unimportant nature, and Ireland is, possibly, not
resorted to by the Continental visitors for winter
quarters. In October and November in some years
arrivals have been recorded on the south-east coast
after passage across St George's Channel, and there
are occasional arrivals from Scotland at the islands off
the north-east coast. In spring there is a regular return
migration witnessed on the south-east coast between the
latter half of March and the third week of April, implying
an unobserved autumn emigration either of native Rooks
or of birds of passage, or of both. There are a few
records of the return of Rooks to Scotland in the spring.

9. In the autumn of some years apparently erratic
movements westwards over the Atlantic have taken
place. During these many of the wanderers have been
known to perish, while others have been observed
returning, in an exhausted condition, to the west coast
of Ireland, and to the Hebrides.

CHAPTER XVII

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE I A STUDY IN EMIGRATION,
AND OF THE CROSS - CHANNEL MOVEMENTS DURING
AUTUMN AND SPRING.

Why the Eddystone ? It is true that no other light-
house in any country, or of any time, has attained to
the same degree of celebrity as the series of beacons
which since the year 1699 have stood upon those lonely
Cornish rocks ; but the halo of these romantic associations
had nothing whatever to do with my selection of that
station for the purpose of my bird-watching. I went
there because it fulfilled beyond all others the conditions
required for the prosecution of the special investigations
I was wishful to carry out. During the preparation of
the Reports submitted by me to the British Association
on " Bird- Migration in Great Britain and Ireland," I
was much impressed with the singularly deficient state of
our knowledge relating to the conditions under which
one of the most important and interesting phases of the
phenomenon was performed — namely, that of emigra-
tion. That this should be the case is not difficult to
realise when it is remembered that emigration is the
movement of all others which is performed under
conditions of obscurity, since it is chiefly undertaken
during the hours of darkness, and consequently entirely

280

PLATE IX.

Vol. I.

ITo face p. 280.

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 281

escapes notice at the points of embarkation on the
mainland. It does, however, come under observation
at a few advantageously placed light-stations situated
off the coast, where a mere fraction of the movements
which take place are witnessed, for it is only under
certain conditions of the weather that the migrrants
approach the beacon's light and reveal themselves to
the watcher, if one there be.

I therefore determined, if possible, to spend a month
in such a station for the purpose of adding to my
personal experience in what has long been a favourite
study, and in the belief that a trained observer, prepared
to devote the whole of his time to the necessary vigils,
might, even in so short a period, during the height of
the migratory season, add considerably to our knowledge
of these important movements.

It required but little consideration to decide that
autumn was obviously the best season, that the south
coast of England was the best section of our littoral on
which to witness the departure movements from Britain,
and that an ideal watch-tower would be one situated
well out in the waters of the English Channel, for there
the birds could be observed actually en route from our
islands to their southern winter quarters. The famous
Eddystone lighthouse offered all these advantages.

On hearing from me of my project. Professor
Newton, with characteristic kindness, at once offered his
valuable assistance, with the result that, through his
instrumentality and that of Sir Michael Foster, my
application for permission to reside in the lighthouse
was forwarded to the Trinity House by, and with a
strong recommendation from, the Royal Society. The
request was most graciously granted by the Elder

282 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

Brethren, and I took up my residence on the Eddy-
stone on 1 8th September 1901, and remained there until
19th October.

The Eddystone rocks consist of three contiguous
reefs, which He 14 miles south-west of Plymouth, and
are 10 miles from the nearest point of the mainland.
The central reef is the most extensive, its exposed
length at low water being some 150 yards, while its
jagged crest then rises about 1 5 feet above the sea.
At high water all the rocks are either submerged or
have their highest points awash. The lighthouse stands
isolated at the northern extremity of the main reef, and
is a massive structure, 168 feet in height. On the
adjacent reef to the north, and about 40 yards distant,
stands the basal portion of Smeaton's historic tower,
completed in 1758 and in use down to 1882, a fitting
monument to the genius of the founder of the science
of modern lighthouse-engineering. The gallery, which
was the scene of my vigils, and my perambulations too, for
the base of the tower is submerged at all states of the
tide, is 130 feet above the sea. The illuminating
apparatus consists of a double series of dioptric lenses,
one placed above the other, each furnished with a six-
wick lamp, and develops the enormous power of 80,000
candles. In clear weather, however, only one lamp is
used. The lisjht is concentrated into twelve brilliant
beams, arranged in pairs, which revolve slowly, taking
three minutes to make a complete circuit.

Landing on the rock is somewhat exciting work for
a novice, and is effected from a surf-boat towed out by
the relief steamer for the purpose. This boat approaches
the rock at low water, and anchors as near the base of
the tower as the surf which eddies around it will permit.

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 283

Communication with the hghthouse is then estabhshed
by means of a rope. To this rope the person about to
land clings with his hands, and places one of his feet
in a loop formed for that purpose. In this dangling
fashion the intervening waters are crossed, the rope
being payed out from the boat, and hauled in by the
winch placed midway up the tower. The only real
difficulty about this unusual method of landing is to get
nicely clear of the bow of the boat, and to avoid
dropping into the water when the order "heave away"
is given to the men at the winch.

Life on a rock-station has, of course, its little trials.
He who would dwell there must, among other things,
be prepared to share in all respects the lot of the
keepers, their rations, and their dormitory. He must
also be content to be shut off from communication with
the outer world until the monthly "relief" comes round,
when, weather permitting, his incarceration ends and he
returns to the ordinary comforts of everyday life. There
was one feature in the life on the Eddystone which was
decidedly trying to an amateur, namely, the firing, every
three minutes during fog or haze, of a charge of tonite,
an explosive producing a terrific report which can be
heard some 15 miles or more. The keepers were
able to sleep peacefully during these operations — an
accomplishment I did not succeed in acquiring. I may
say at once, however, that the novelty of the situation,
the interesting nature of my self-imposed work, and last,
but not least, the great kindness of the keepers, far
outbalanced those trivial discomforts which are insepar-
able from such a life ; and I shall ever look back upon
my sojourn in that lonely observatory with extreme
pleasure and satisfaction.

284 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

As I anticipated, I found the Eddystone to be
favourably situated for observing emigration, and,
though it is probably only one among many points at
which the Channel is crossed by birds en route for their
southern winter retreats, yet its geographical position
must be regarded as somewhat exceptional, for, in addition
to many species which have sought the south coast of
Cornwall from inland localities on emigration bent,
hosts of migrants which have traversed the west coast
of Britain from the north doubtless cross the Channel
in its immediate proximity. The waters of the Channel
in the longitude of the Eddystone — i.e., between the
easternmost part of the south coast of Cornwall and
the westernmost part of Brittany — are 115 miles in
width.

The amount of success which it was possible to
achieve during my visit was dependent to an extra-
ordinary degree upon the weather. This was especially
the case as regards night movements ; for it must be
borne in mind that conditions which are eminently
favourable for migration may be, and indeed in most
cases are, quite unfavourable for its observation.
Successful night observation I found to be entirely
dependent upon certain meteorological conditions which,
while favourable for emigration, also rendered the
lantern attractive to the migrants — a combination which,
though not very uncommon, is yet one of comparative
infrequency, and this results in the great majority of
movements being unobserved. The lantern of a light-
station, I discovered, is simply a decoy. It is one that
I found would only "work" under peculiar conditions,
which are dependent upon the amount of moisture
(rain, haze, cloud) present in the atmosphere. When

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 285

moisture is disseminated through the air as a Hquid
in a state of minute subdivision, the mixture becomes
more or less opaque, and the powerful beams from the
lantern then become conspicuous to a very remarkable
degree, and exert extraordinary attractive powers over
the migrants that pass within the sphere of their
influence. On such occasions the twelve slowly re-
volving rays from the Eddystone lantern presented a
very singular and mystifying appearance, and small
wonder was it that the emigrants could not resist their
seductions.

My visit included a period when the nights were
brilliantly moonlit and cloudless, during which, no doubt,
great passage movements were performed. When such
conditions prevail the bird-watcher may rest at peace in
his bunk, for the migrants will speed onwards, heedless
of the light and probably far above it. The rays from
the lantern, brilliant though they be, are then quite
inconspicuous, and the feathered voyagers pass far
beyond the range of human observation. Gales were
not infrequent and arrested the emigratory movements.

The first emigratory movement performed during the
hours of darkness which I was to witness, set in at 3 a.m.
on 23rd September, and lasted until 5 a.m. I say "set
in," because just previously to its advent the weather
was of such a description as to be prejudicial to, if
not impossible for, migration, for a south-easterly gale
was blowing with a velocity of from 40 to 48 miles an
hour. Shortly before the time named, however, the
wind fell to a moderate breeze, but the heavy rain still
continued. Almost immediately after the wind moder-
ated the migrants appeared in numbers. It was the

286 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

first movement I had ever witnessed under such
advantageous conditions, and will ever remain in-
effaceably impressed on my memory. I was aroused
from my sleep by the keeper on duty with the words
" Birds, sir," and was on the gallery a few moments later,
when the scene which presented itself was very remark-
able. The birds were flying around on all sides, and
those illumined by the slowly revolving beams from the
lantern had the appearance of brilliant glittering objects,
while the rain shot past on either hand, as I stood on
the lee side, like streams of silver beads. I was not a
little surprised to discover how extremely difficult it was
to identify the birds seen under such novel and peculiar
conditions. Even the conspicuous spots on the breasts of
the Song- Thrushes were entirely effaced, as they fluttered
in the beams towards the lantern, by the dazzling
brilliancy of the light shining directly upon them ; the
smaller species had to be lifted from the lantern ere their
identity could be ascertained ; and the birds careering
around became mere apparitions on passing from the rays
into the semi-darkness beyond. A number of species
undoubtedly escaped detection ; but the following are
known to have participated in the movement, those
marked with an asterisk (on this and other occasions)
having been either killed or captured : — Song-Thrushes,
'^Redstarts, *Sedge-Warblers, *Pied Flycatchers, '"'Yellow
Wagtails, Turtle- Doves, Redshanks, and Curlews. The
Song-Thrushes, Yellow Wagtails, and Turtle- Doves were
most in evidence. The Turtle- Doves often approached
the lantern, yet they recovered themselves sufficiently to
avoid striking. The Yellow Wagtails killed included
both adults and young.

The birds which struck the lantern did so after

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 287

travelling directly up the beams of light ; but a number
of them flew high and passed over the dome. The
emigrants came from the north and continued to arrive
and pass on until 5 a.m., but before the appearance of
dawn all had passed southwards.

This rush was evidently composed of departing
British summer visitors, spurred to move southwards by
the very unsettled weather of the previous few days. I
witnessed no second movement of a precisely similar
nature, though, no doubt, other flittings away of our
summer birds followed ; but the nights were brilliantly
fine, and the migrants passed unobserved. On this
occasion the lantern was attractive to the birds by
reason of its rays being rendered unusually conspicuous
as they streamed out on the thick rain which prevailed.

This movement was followed by several minor
emigrations by night : that is to say, they were less
important so far as they came under observation.

On 30th September, at 9.30 p.m., following a
lifting of fog (wind E.S.E., moderate breeze, hazy),
*Song-Thrushes, *Meadow-Pipits, ^Chaffinches, and
other undetermined species appeared. The movement
ceased to be observed on the appearance of the moon
at 10.45 P-^i-

isl October. — Numbers of * Meadow- Pipits passing
from 2 A.M. to 5 A.M. (wind S., moderate breeze). At
night, on the rolling away of fog at 9.45 and during
intervals of light rain up to 11. 15, ^Starlings and
*Wheatears appeared at the lantern (wind S., moderate
breeze, cloudy).

loth October. — After a gale of three and a half days'
duration, the night of the 9th was clear and starlit, with
a gentle breeze from the N.N.W. ; at 2 a.m. the sky

288 STUDIES IN lilRD-IMIGRATION

became overcast, and *Song-Thrushes, Mistle-Thrushes,
Redwings, *Skylarks, ^Starlings, *Meadow-Pipits, and
some undetermined passerines appeared and were
observed until 3,30 a.m. This was the first movement
in which birds of passage were undoubtedly present —
that is to say, species (the Redwing, for instance)
which, having arrived in Britain from further north, had
traversed our shores and were seeking more southerly
winter quarters.

loth to nth October. — During passing showers,
from 7.15 P.M. to 9 P.M., Song-Thrushes and Skylarks
were present. At 4 a.m., under similar conditions,
several Starlings were flying round the lantern. (Wind
W.S.W., light breeze.)

12th October. — During slight showers, between
midnight and 2.30 a.m.. Pipits, Starlings, and Song-
Thrushes were flying in the rays. (Wind S.S.E., light
breeze ; dark ; clear).

Next followed the chief movement witnessed at
the Eddystone. This great southerly flight commenced
at 7.15 on the night of 12th October, and continued
without a break until 5.45 on the morning of the 13th.
The weather was favourable for both emigration and
observation. The wind was a gentle breeze from the
north-east, and the very slight haze which prevailed
made it necessary to burn full power in the lamps,
whose rays were thus doubly brilliant, and hence
extraordinarily attractive, as they streamed out upon
an atmosphere eminently suited for rendering them
exceptionally conspicuous.

The first migrants to appear were a few Starlings,
and from 7,30 these birds were present in numbers down
to almost the very close of the movement. They were

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 289

followed, in the order named, up to midnight, by
Blackbirds, Skylarks, Stonechats, Redwings, Fieldfares,
Wheatears, and Song-Thrushes. To this hour the birds
had continued to arrive and pass on in a steady stream,
while many struck the lantern. Soon after midnight a
great increase in the emigrants was observed, and the
movement assumed the character of a great rush south-
wards. Song- Thrushes, Redwings, Mistle - Thrushes,
Blackbirds, Starlings, and Skylarks then appeared in vast
numbers, and were followed by Chaffinches, Grey Wag-
tails, Goldcrests, Fieldfares, White Wagtails, Meadow-
Pipits, and Curlews. At 5 a.m. the movement was again
intensified by a fresh arrival of most of the species
named and of others, including a Grasshopper- Warbler,
which struck the lantern, while a small party of Herons
passed close over the dome, calling loudly as they flew by.

There were also many small passerines and a number
of larger birds — probably waders, from their notes-
present during the movement, but their identity was not
established. The Skylarks, Starlings, Song-Thrushes,
Redwings, and Blackbirds appeared to be the species
most numerously represented, and vast numbers of them
were observed ; but certain of the smaller birds were
almost equally plentiful. It would have been possible to
have captured some of them in great numbers ; and, as it
was, the killed or injured, which did not fall overboard,
included 76 Skylarks, 53 Starlings, 17 Blackbirds, 9 Song-
Thrushes, and examples of the Redwing, Mistle-Thrush,
Stonechat, Chaffinch, Meadow-Pipit, Grey Wagtail,
White Wagtail, Goldcrest, and Grasshopper- Warbler.

Most of the emigrants went steadily southwards, but
many, dazzled by the light, tarried, and the majority of
the species named were present in some numbers until
I. T

290 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

the first signs of dawn, when the movement waned. At
daybreak, all, save a few Starlings resting in a dazed con-
dition in the recesses of the windows, had passed away.

A notable and important feature of this movement
was the continual arrival, down to almost its very close,
of fresh emigrants, not only of the kinds early noted,
but of other species which had not previously partici-
pated in it ; for instance, the Meadow- Pipit did not
appear upon the scene until as late as 4,50 a.m. This
continuous succession of arrivals indicated, I think, that
some of the birds had come from localities comparatively
near at hand on the mainland, while others had travelled
from afar ere they reached the Eddystone on their flight
southwards. The presence of the Redwing and the
Fieldfare showed that the wayfarers were not all
natives of Britain ; and it is possible that others among
the migrants, perhaps the majority of them, may also
have been drawn from sources beyond the limits of the
British Isles. In this connection it may be stated that
all the Starlings captured at the lantern (on this and
other occasions) belonged to a race having a purple
head and green ear-coverts, which is said to be of Con-
tinental origin. Regarding these Starlings, it is a fact,
not perhaps without significance, that the only other
specimens I have seen of this form were obtained
at the Spurn Head lighthouse and at Brighton in the
autumn, and were doubtless immigrants.

Throughout the movement, and especially when it
was at its height in the earliest hours of the morning,
the scene presented was singular in the extreme and
beyond my powers of word-painting. Hosts of glitter-
ing objects, birds resplendent, as it were, in burnished
gold, were fluttering in, or crossing at all angles, the

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 291

brilliant revolving beams of light. Those which winged
their way up the beams towards the lantern were
innumerable, and resembled streaks of approaching light.
These either struck the glass, or, recovering themselves,
passed out of the ray ere the fatal focal point was reached.
Those which simply crossed the rays were illumined for
a moment only, and became mere spectres on passing
into the gloom beyond. Some of those that struck fell
like stones from their violent contact with the glass ;
while others glanced off more or less injured or stunned,
to perish miserably in the surf below. Others, again,
beat violently against the windows, in their wild efforts
to reach the source of the all-fascinating light. Many
of those that freed themselves from the dazzling streams
of light came in sharp contact with the copper dome of
the tower, making it resound like a drum, and then fell
like flashes into the water below, followed slowly by a
cloud of feathers, resembling a miniature shower of
golden flakes. Finally, above and below the madding
crowd in the illumined zone, great numbers of the
migrants flitted around in all directions in the semi-dark-
ness, and in almost weird contrast with the brilliant multi-
tudes gyrating in the adjacent vistas of light. The babel
of tongues, too, was a very striking feature. These were
by no means the cries of enchantment, but of surprise and
alarm ; and they varied from the loud rattling notes of the
Blackbird and the harsh angry "churr" of the Mistle-
Thrush to the faint and dainty twitter of the Goldcrest.
Some Skylarks every now and then, under the impulse of
excitement, no doubt, broke out into a few notes of song.
Not a few strange voices were heard, some probably
uttered by species with whose ordinary notes one was
quite familiar ; but migrants, especially waders, have a

292 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

travel-talk which is, as yet, an unknown tongue to most
of us. Nor was it an easy matter promptly to assign a
familiar utterance to its rightful throat, when heard under
such highly peculiar conditions, and to an accompaniment
supplied by the roar of the surf on the surrounding reefs.
It was interesting to note the varying degree in which
the mesmeric influence of the light was exercised over
the different species. The Starling was the most suscep-
tible subject present ; and this clever bird became, under
the sway of the lantern, not only a complete fool, but a
seemingly willing sacrifice. It was quite fearless and
indifferent to the presence of myself and the keepers on
the gallery, for it hustled past us in the most uncere-
monious fashion to reach the lantern, and, being baulked
on the threshold by the windows, made vigorous attempts
to reach the seductive lamp. After having exhausted
itself in these vain efforts, it sat on the sills and sashes,
drinking in, as it were, the light, until it became quite
stupefied, and when picked off would sit contentedly on
one's hand. Great numbers were removed from the
lantern and cast over into the darkness below ; but
many of them immediately returned. The Skylark was
nearly as frequent a victim. It came up in great
numbers to the light, but not being accustomed to perch
on such slio-ht coiorns of vantao;e as the metal framework
of the windows, it fluttered violently against the glass
for a time, and, becoming exhausted, sank prostrate on
the gallery.^ Tennyson has truly said : —

. . . the beacon's blaze allures
The bird of passage, till he madly strikes
Against it, and beats out his weary life.

' I may here remark that I took with me to the Eddystone a quantity of
netting, with which I completely surrounded the gallery by hanging it

A MONTH ON THE EDDVSTONE 293

It would have been quite possible to have captured a
thousand Starlings and as many Skylarks. It was other-
wise with the various species of Thrush. These, though
present in equal or even greater numbers than either of
the species just alluded to, were not affected to anything
like the same degree. The Blackbirds and Song-
Thrushes approached the lantern more freely than their
congeners, but they had a habit of coming up to some
extent "side on," so to speak, and consequently they
glanced off either a little stunned or quite uninjured.
These birds did not attempt to remain at the lantern,
and those which were captured showed extreme fear.
The Redwing, one of the most numerous species
present, was very shy, and still more so were the Mistle-
Thrushes and the Fieldfares ; the latter only approached
the lantern and did not strike.

That this was a great movement is evident from the
fact that the senior keeper had only once before during
his sixteen years' experience seen one of equal magnitude,
namely, at the Casquets, off Alderney. The other keepers
had not seen anything like it before. It appears to have
been a far-reaching movement, too ; for at the Bishop's
Rock lighthouse, south of the Scilly Isles, and loo
miles west of the Eddystone, a considerable migra-
tion was in progress at the same time, and Starlings,
Thrushes, and Fieldfares are recorded as having been
captured at the lantern. It was not, however, a great
night for victims apart from Starlings and Skylarks ; but
had a thick drizzling rain replaced the thin veil of haze,
the slaughter would, in the opinion of the keepers, have

perpendicularly from the railing. The object was to prevent any birds
that struck from falling over. It answered admirably, and was the means
of saving many birds which would otherwise have been drowned.
I. T 2

294 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

been appalling, so numerous were the emigrants and so
long-continued their passage.

The bodies of the various Thrushes and Skylarks
were served up at dinner for several days, and proved a
most welcome relief from the tedium of salt beef, which
had figured daily for some time past as the standing dish
in our bill of fare.

On the night of 13th to 14th October, between
6.50 P.M. and 2 A.M., a few ''^"Skylarks, ''^Starlings, *Song-
Thrushes, ^Chaffinches, several Turtle-Doves, and a
*White Wagtail were observed at or around the lantern.
The night was, on the whole, starlit and clear, but there
were periods during which it was overcast, and then it
was that the birds approached the lighthouse. (Wind
E.S.E., gentle breeze.)

The last of the night movements during my visit was
one of considerable magnitude and remarkable interest.
It set in on the night of 15th October, and was in pro-
gress until nearly daybreak of the following morning. The
meteorological conditions under which it was witnessed
were exceptional, and afforded a clear and unmistakable
demonstration of the effect of weather influences, and the
extent to which we are dependent thereon for rendering
the observation of migratory movements possible at such
stations. In this important respect it was one of the
most valuable experiences that I had. The night was
bright and starlit until 7.30 r.M. ; but from that hour until
daybreak the state of the atmosphere was ever oscillating
between intervals of brightness, and spells during which
the sky was overcast and tinged with haziness, rendering
full lantern power necessary. The wind was E.N.E.,
and varied in force from a moderate to a gentle breeze.
After a litllc experience it became possible to tell, by

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 295

watching the beams of light, what the atmospheric
conditions of the moment and the chances of observa-
tion were. The beams grew conspicuous when the sky
became overcast through the presence of moisture in the
atmosphere, and then the birds immediately approached
the beacon ; but as soon as this condition passed away,
the rays at once thinned down and became little more
than visible, the birds sheared off, and the movement in
progress ceased to be observed. During the duration
of the periods favourable for observation, between 7.35
P.M. and midnight, the following species were observed : —
Song-Thrushes, Mistle-Thrushes, Redwings, Skylarks,
Goldcrests, Starlings (first at 10.30), Blackbirds (i 1.30),
Wheatears (11.45), Grey Wagtails, and Stonechats
(midnight). At 9.40 a number of waders passed, but
their calls were in an unknown tongue. The period
between 11. 15 p.m. and midnight was the most pro-
ductive of results. At intervals between i a.m. and day-
break, Wagtails, Mistle-Thrushes, Goldcrests, Starlings,
Larks, Wheatears, Wrens (1.15 a.m.), Song-Thrushes,
Meadow- Pipits (2.30 a.m.). Redwings, Blackbirds, and
Storm-Petrels were observed — the chief periods being
from I a.m. to 1.45 a.m., and from 2.30 a.m. to 3 a.m. ;
but some of the species named were observed at
intervals until daylight appeared. There was practi-
cally no tarrying at the lantern, owing to the attractive
periods being of short duration, and the observations
afforded direct evidence that the movement was continu-
ous and that it was in progress for at least ten hours.

The Song-Thrush and the Skylark appeared to be the
most abundant species, and the latter was occasionally
quite a nuisance at the lantern. The extreme scarcity
of the Starling was remarkable, but, on the other hand,

296 STUDIES IN lilRD-MIGRATION

the abundance of the Mistle- Thrush was noticeable.
The emigrants were at times very numerous, and though
the atmospheric conditions were not greatly in favour of
many striking the lantern, yet those killed included 1 1
Song-Thrushes, 8 Larks, 3 Mistle-Thrushes, 4 Black-
birds, and examples of the Meadow- Pipit, Redwing, Gold-
crest, Wheatear, Grey Wagtail, Wren, and Storm-Petrel.

I will now treat of the migratory movements observed
during the daytime.

It will be well to preface the observations by remark-
ing how very difficult I found it to detect small birds at
sea. This is chiefly to be accounted for by the fact that
the surface of the water, being ever in motion, forms a most
unsatisfactory background on which to "pick up" such
birds on the wing. Dark or sober-coloured species are
especially difficult to detect ; but the few that showed
any white in their plumage during flight came under
notice almost at once.

The day migrations of land-birds observed, though
of considerable importance, were entirely confined to
passage movements across the Channel in a due southerly
direction. The species participating in these emigra-
tions were few, and consisted chiefly of Meadow-Pipits,
several kinds of Wagtails, and Swallows ; but the
number of individuals of the birds named was very
considerable. A few Willow- Warblers, Linnets, and
House-Martins were also observed, but their numbers
were so small, and the occasions on which they appeared
so rare, that they do not merit further consideration.

Daily throughout my visit, when the weather was
favourable — that is to say, when a light wind prevailed,
no matter from what quarter — the passage of Meadow-

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 297

Pipits and Wagtails was of regular occurrence. The
movements were performed during particular hours only,
commencing almost immediately after daybreak — i.e.,
from 6.15 A.M. to 7 A.M. — and were entirely over by or
before midday. So rigidly were these hours adhered to
by the emigrants, that I soon found the afternoons to
be quite unproductive, and consequently I regulated my
hours of rest accordingly.

The Meadow- Pipits often passed in small parties,
consisting of as many as a score, but frequently in twos
and threes, and sometimes even singly. The height of
their flight varied from 20 feet, or less, above the
water, to occasionally as much as 200 feet, and its
direction was due south. These birds were observed
on emigration, in greater or less numbers, on sixteen
days,^ during which vast numbers passed close to the
lighthouse, the passage being on some days continuous
between sunrise and midday. They invariably uttered
their familiar notes as they flitted by. The greatest
movements were chronicled on 30th September and ist,
2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 15th October.

On the same days, with hardly an exception, and
during the same hours of the morning and forenoon that
the Pipits were migrating. Wagtails, singly or in pairs
— but never more than three together, and that seldom
— were also observed moving southwards. The species
identified were the Pied, the White, and the Grey Wag-
tail ; but in what proportion I was unable to determine,
for it was only occasionally that the birds were seen
under conditions which permitted of their being identified
with certainty, as they generally flew at comparatively

' I was thirty-two days on the rock, and during that period fourteen days
were entirely unsuited for migration, owing to adverse weather-conditions.

298 STUDIES IN lUUD-MIGRATION

considerable elevation, seldom below that of the gallery
(130 feet), and most frequently over 200 feet. Some-
times, however, they broke their journey, and alighted
on the reefs at low water. Wasftails were noted as

o

emigrating on thirteen days, and, judging from the
continuous nature of their passage on these occasions,
great numbers crossed the Channel towards the coast of
France.

Swallows were observed passing southwards on seven
days ; possibly they did so on others, but they were
particularly difficult birds to "pick up," even when close
to the tower. On certain days (2nd and 15th October)
considerable numbers passed in small parties of a dozen
or so, consisting of both old and young. The move-
ments were all timed between 7 a.m. and 11.30 a.m.,
and the first emigrant was noted on 24th September.

Few waders came under notice, which is not surpris-
ing, for the pelagic nature of our surroundings offered
no attractions to such visitors. The most interesting
of the migrants among this group was the Red-necked
Phalarope, which appeared singly on two occasions,
namely, on 21st September and ist October, during
unsettled weather. The first of these visitors was a
bird of the year, and it remained for several hours in the
vicinity of the tower, often approaching quite close to
its base. The second was an adult in winter plumage,
and was also under notice for a considerable time,
frequently at close quarters. The ist of October was a
wild day, and the little bird was compelled to seek the
lee of the lighthouse to escape the frequent squalls of
wind and rain that swept past from the S.W. Both these
visitors were assiduously and unceasingly engaged in
the capture of some minute surface-swimming creatures.

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 299

probably crustaceans, which must have been very
abundant, judging from the lively actions of the Phala-
ropes in picking round in all directions with the greatest
rapidity. They were restless, too, and constantly
changed their quarters by a series of flights to try fresh
areas near at hand, often, however, to return in a few
moments to spots which they had just previously quitted.
While thus engaged they frequently approached the
edge of the reefs and did not seem to mind the buffeting
they encountered amid the broken water ; now and then
a shower of spray would cause them to rise on the wing,
but, nothing daunted, they alighted again on the water
as soon as the disturbance had passed.

On 29th September a small flock of Ringed Plovers
passed the lighthouse, flying rapidly due south, and
evidently bent on crossing the Channel.

The Purple Sandpiper visits the reefs in the late
autumn and winter, to search for food during low water,
returning to the mainland at high tide, when its haunts
are submerged. The first bird of the season was seen
on nth October, and as many as four were seen from
that date onwards. A single Turnstone visited the rocks
on 30th September — an immature specimen.

A number of migratory marine birds also came
under observation. Foremost among these in point of
rarity was an example of Sabine's Gull, seen near the
tower on the morning of 29th September. This bird
was in an interesting stage of plumage, being an adult
assuming winter dress. It was most accommodating in
its behaviour, since it frequently rose and displayed its
deeply forked and entirely white tail, and those conspicu-
ous bands of white which cross the pinions — features
which render this species both remarkable and unmistak-

300 STUDIES IN BIRD-]\IIGRATION

able when on the wing. It sat on the water more
buoyantly than the other gulls around it, and was
generally more elegant in form than any of them.

The next species deserving mention is the
Sooty Shearwater, a bird which has no place in
Rodd's Birds of Co7'nwall, and is described in the
Birds of Devonshi7^e as "a very rare and accidental
visitor" to that county. I saw single examples on 23rd
September, and on 12th (two at different times), 14th,
and 19th October, the last day being that of my
departure. It is possible that this bird was not very
uncommon just beyond the range of identification, where
the shoals of pilchards were frequent and proved a great
attraction to various other species.

Great Shearwaters were very common throughout
my visit, but were seen in varying numbers ; on some
days a few only skimming the waters around the light-
house, while on others they were extremely abundant.
When the immense shoals of pilchards were in the
vicinity, I witnessed some interesting scenes in which
a number of this species played a leading part, dashing
into the water in the most spirited style to secure their
prey ; as did also multitudes of less agile Gulls of various
kinds, upon whom, in turn, numerous Skuas were in
close and pressing attendance. The whole formed a
most animated scene— one whose interest was occasion-
ally further heightened by the presence of a school of
small cetaceans, which rolled and jumped about in all
directions among the much-persecuted fish. The
Manx Shearwater was frequently seen between 29th
September and 14th October, but was not at all
numerous.

To return to the migratory species among the

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 301

Laridae. The occurrence of the Great Skua was
chronicled on 23rd September, when three examples
were observed during a south-east-by-south gale, and
sinofle birds were seen on ist and i6th October. The
Pomatorhine Skua was very abundant during the period
covered by my visit, and was much in evidence when I
left. Adult examples and others in melanistic plumage
were not uncommon. The Arctic Skua was also
common, but not nearly so numerous as the last-named
species. The abundance of these piratical birds was no
doubt due to the presence of vast numbers of Gulls of
various kinds, and that of these last, in turn, to the
great shoals of pilchards present in the neighbouring
waters of the Channel.

Of the various species of Tern I saw but few
examples. This was, no doubt, due to the fact that
the rough water that surrounds the reefs did not
afford a suitable fishing- ground. Single examples of
the Sandwich Tern were seen on 25th and 27th
September. A few Common Terns passed on 22nd,
23rd, 27th, and 28th September. On the morning of
1 2th October two Arctic Terns, in the not very com-
monly observed second year's plumage — the 5". port-
landica of Ridgway — came close to the tower on their
way westwards.

Storm-Petrels visited us on five occasions during very
unsettled weather. On 22nd September they were very
abundant all around during a south-east-by-south gale,
when many were engaged on the lee side of the tower in
picking up food on the surface of the water, in the shape,
I am inclined to think, of small particles of fatty matter
from our refuse bucket. It was singular that except on
these "dirty" days, no birds of this species were observed

302 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

during the daytime ; but une came to the lantern at
2.30 A.M. on 1 6th October.

When migratory birds did not present themselves, I
found much to interest me in the habits of the Gulls,
Gannets, Shags, and Cormorants, some of which were
always present during the daytime. All the ordinary
Gulls were observed, save the Common and the Black-
headed species. I noted a fact regarding the food of
the Herring-Gull, the most abundant species, which I
do not remember to have seen mentioned, though it may
have been recorded — namely, that this bird feeds exten-
sively on seaweed, especially on the kind known as
*' sea - thongs " {^Himanthalia lo7xa). Almost daily,
masses of this and other weeds drifted past on the tide,
and each patch had one or more of these gulls floating
alongside it, busily engaged in detaching suitable pieces
from the long orange-brown strings, which were swallowed
with avidity. They often squabbled among themselves
for the possession of such food-supplies. I never saw
the Lesser Black-backs, which were present in consider-
able numbers, pay any attention whatever to these
flotsam patches of weed.

The Gannets afforded special opportunities for ob-
serving their habits. These birds fished round the
lighthouse in numbers, and with marked success, when
the sea was rough or its surface agitated ; but when the
sea was calm and its surface unruffled, they merely
passed on their way to other fishing-grounds, well know-
ing that it was useless to attempt to capture the wily
pollack, the object of their quest, when there was no
ripple on the face of the waters. The best fishing-
grounds lay at the very edge of the reefs, and hence
quite close to the tower ; and thus from my elevated and

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 303

fixed point of observation on the gallery I was enabled to
gauge the height from which these birds dived with a
degree of accuracy not usually attainable. I witnessed
many thousands of dives, but in no case did the drops
exceed a height of from 130 to 140 feet. About one-
fourth of the Gannets seen were in immature dress, all
stages being represented except that of birds of the
year.

The Eddystone was an excellent station for studying
the weather conditions and their bearing upon bird-
migration.

Birds when performing long flights not unfrequently
pass from the zone of favourable weather, which is
conducive to their departure, to an area in which the
conditions are more or less unfavourable ; and they are
consequently recorded as arriving on our coasts in the
autumn under adverse circumstances. Such inauspicious
instances of immigration as these are apt to mislead
those interested in the subject, for it is not always borne
in mind that it is the state of the weather at the point of
departure which affords the only true indication of the
actual conditions controlling the movements.

At the Eddystone, owing to its contiguity to the
mainland, one witnessed the movements and could
simultaneously ascertain the meteorological conditions
under which the birds elected to set out on their passage
southwards. If no movements took place, either by day
or by night (other conditions being favourable for the
observation of night movements), then it was possible,
it being the height of the emigratory season, to deter-
mine what in all probability the weather-barriers were
which deterred the travellers from setting forth. Thus

304 STUDIP:S in JilRD-MIGKATION

this station was very favourably situated — probably none
more so — for observinof the meteoroloorical conditions
which made for or against emigration.

No movements were witnessed, either by day or night,
on the part of land-birds, under weather conditions which
could be described as unfavourable for crossing the
Channel.

The force of the wind is the main factor which
determines what is favourable and what is unfavourable
for the movements. From observation, I am convinced
that the direction of the wind is, in itself, of no moment
to the emigrants, for they flitted across the Channel
southwards with winds from all quarters. It is quite
the reverse, however, when its force or velocity comes to
be considered, and I found that none of the movements,
not even the straggling flights during the daytime, were
performed when the velocity of the wind exceeded 28
miles an hour (or force 5, fresh breeze, of the Beaufort
scale). With the velocity of the wind at 34 miles an
hour (force 6), odd Pipits and one or two young Swallows
were indeed seen in distress, .and endeavoured to seek
shelter at the lighthouse. The movement witnessed on
the early morning of 23rd September afforded an
interesting instance of the effect of the force of the wind
on migration. On the wind falling from a velocity of
40 miles an hour (force 7) to 23 miles an hour (force 4),
the other meteorological conditions (direction of wind
and heavy rain) remaining the same, the great emigra-
tory movement already described was initiated.

Later observations made in spring, however, demon-
strated that Starlings, Thrushes, and other medium-sized
species cross the Channel when the wind attains to a
velocity of as much as 40 miles an hour. This, how-

A MONTH ON THE EDBYSTONE 305

ever, occurred when the birds were crossing from the
south to the north, and the wind may have increased
after their departure from the shores of France, or they
may have passed into an area of higher velocity on
approaching the English shores.

The prevalence of rain is evidently a matter of
indifference to the birds. It is otherwise to the would-be
observer, to whom it is most welcome, for the beams from
the lantern assume additional apparent luminosity during
rain, and the migrating birds are decoyed within the
range of observation. On clear nights one is' often
dependent upon the intervention of a passing shower to
learn whether migration is in progress or not, but on
such occasions at the Eddystone few birds actually
strike the lantern, though many fly around it.

When fog prevailed no birds were observed, though
the luminosity of the rays of light then becomes most
intensely conspicuous, while not penetrating beyond the
immediate vicinity of the tower. During fog, charges
of tonite are exploded every five minutes and produce a
terrific report, which must have a decidedly scaring effect
on any approaching migrants, if such there be.

The only emigratory birds observed during gales
were the single examples of the Red-necked Phalarope
observed on two occasions. Certain other species, such
as Skuas and Storm-Petrels, the latter especially, were
much in evidence when the weather was unsettled and
the wind high.

An important and interesting point in connection
with the'phenomenon of emigration is the hour at which
the departing birds set out upon their night movements.
This, however, is a very difficult and obscure subject to
investigate. No one, so far as I am aware, has ever
I. u

306 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

witnessed the act of birds rising on the wing to depart
on their nocturnal journeys ^ ; while the observations
made at land-stations, which may be considered to bear
upon the question, are surrounded by and associated
with elements of great uncertainty. At the Eddystone,
and other stations situated immediately off the south
coast, it seemed possible in the autumn to procure data
which might enable one to fix this time of embarkation
with some degree of accuracy. To this end I made a
series of careful observations on the time of first appear-
ance of emigrants at the lighthouse, and found that on
a number of occasions in October this ranged from
6.50 P.M. to 7.15 P.M. On the dates on which these
observations were made, the hour of sunset ranged from
5.30 P.M. to 6 P.M., but darkness did not ensue until about
6.15 P.M., or a little later. It is fair to assume that
these earliest birds to appear had only a short time
previously set out from localities contiguous to the shores
of the mainland, some 12 miles distant. Taking these
facts into account, I have come to the conclusion that
when the weather conditions are favourable, the initial
movement for crossing the Channel is embarked upon
almost immediately after darkness prevails. On no
occasion during each major movement witnessed did all
the individuals of a species appear simultaneously, though
sometimes several kinds arrived in company, and thus
the passages were a succession of arrivals of birds
previously observed. Here we have evidence, I think,
that certain of the individual emigrants had journeyed
from districts more or less distant ere the Channel was
reached on the voyage southwards.

* Since my visit to the Eddystone, I have observed it at Fair Isle (see
Vol. II., p. 91).

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 307

On each occasion when a number of birds of any
species was killed at the lantern, it was interesting to
note how considerably they varied in size, and some,
though to a less degree, in colour. The Skylarks, 76
in number, obtained during the great movement of 12th
to 13th October, showed the remarkable range in wing-
measurement of from 4.70 in. to 3.85 in. ; the Starlings,
obtained on the same date and 53 in number, ranged
from 5.38 in. to 4.85 in. ; and the Meadow-Pipits from
T^.-^j in. to 2.91 in. The Skylarks and Meadow-Pipits
exhibited some variation in colour, difficult to describe
in words, but quite manifest to the observer. It is
possible that more than one race of the two last-named
species was represented during the movement, or it may
be, in the case of all three species, that the variations
in size, etc., were due, in a greater or lesser degree, to
age or sex, or both in combination.

Wing-measurements are valuable as an indication of
the range of variation within species, but speculations
based upon ordinary material are apt to be extremely
misleading. Here, again, sex and age, singly or in
combination, may, and do, account for much of the
variation to be found, and yet how insignificant are the
data in our possession which afford these essential
particulars !

As bearing directly upon these remarks, I will
instance a few cases that came under my notice at the
Eddystone. In addition to those of the Skylarks and
the Meadow-Pipits (which showed a very considerable
variation in size and certain diversities of plumage
inte7^ se, though all were obtained during a single move-
ment), the Starlings killed on the night of 12th to 13th
October were all of one race, namely, the purple-headed

308 STUDIES IN BIRD-AIIG RATION

form, and yet the wings of the males varied from 5.38
in. to 5 in. (4 being over 5.25 in.), and those of the
females from 5.15 in. to 4.85 in. (13 being over 5 in.).
Some, probably most, of this remarkable variation
was due to age, or individualism, none to race. This
influence of age was well illustrated in the Blackbirds
obtained ; the wings of the young males measured from
.30 to .40 in. less than the adult. To be of any real use,
beyond, of course, the important one of identification,
all wings should be accompanied by the age and sex of
the specimen from which they were taken, and it is im-
portant, where possible, to obtain a number of examples
from the same movement. Until these essential data
are forthcoming, it is impossible to realise the true
significance of wing-measurements, and it is worse than
useless to draw deductions from them.

As regards the characters which may distinguish the
various Continental representatives of many of our
commonest species, much yet remains to be learned,
though, thanks to Dr Hartert, considerable progress in
this branch of ornithological knowledge has been made
during recent years. But the age of certain birds in
the late autumn is not an easy matter to determine, for
the histories of their plumages at that season do not
appear to be sufficiently well known to help us to
reliable conclusions on this point.

On the question of the young and old birds travel-
ling together or apart on their migrations, or of what
species follow the one practice or the other, my obser-
vations at the Eddystone throw some light. Swallows,
both adults and juveniles, were observed passing in
company during the daytime ; and young and old of the
Mistle-Thrush, Redwing, Blackbird, Wheatear, Stone-

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 309

chat, Yellow Wagtail, White Wagtail, and Skylark
were obtained together at the lantern at night.

Since my visit, the keepers have furnished me with
a series of carefully filled-in schedules, for I succeeded in
thoroughly interesting them in the work. These
records, together with the wings of a great number of
birds killed at the lantern, were sent to me for three
years, and along with those furnished to me, as a
member of the British Association Migration Committee,
for the years 1884-87 inclusive, and my own observations,
afford a body of information from which the following list
of the birds known to visit this station has been prepared.
In all, 75 species have been recorded. It is highly
important to know what birds cross the Channel in the
meridian of the Eddystone, the nature of their movements,
and the dates on which they are performed. It must be
borne in mind, however, that the Eddystone is a watch-
tower pure and simple, and not an island on which birds
can alight and rest for a time. Consequently, all are
visitors to the lighthouse, 90 per cent, of them during
the hours of darkness. This being the case, it must be
remembered that it is only under particular weather
conditions that the migrants approach the light, and
these being the exception and not the rule, the vast
majority of the migrants pass unnoticed. Consequently,
a number of years' observations are essential ere a correct
conception can be formed of what bird-migration actually
takes place at such a station.

Sturnus vulgaris. Starling. — Observed on passage
in spring, autumn, and winter ; chiefly at night.

In spring returns northwards from the third week in
February, throughout March and April, until sometimes

310 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGIiATION

as late as the first week in May. The earlier move-
ments are those of returning British birds, the later
ones of birds traversing- our shores on passage to the
north and east.

In autumn a few are observed in July, from the
second week onwards. It is frequent in its visits in
August, but the emigratory movements do not commence
in earnest until September, and, along with those of the
passage birds, last until the second week in November.

In winter it is noted moving south and west during
cold periods in November, January, and February.

Fringilla coiLEBS, Chaffiuck. — Has only been
observed as an autumn emigrant participating in the
orreat niofht rushes southwards. The dates of its
recorded appearances range from 30th September to
7th November.

Fringilla montifringilla, Brambling. — There are
several instances of its occurrence and occasional capture
during the spring and autumn passage movements.

In spring its appearances date from 19th April to
the end of the month ; and in autumn from 27th October
to mid- November.

Chloris chloris, Greenfinch. — Only recorded for
the autumn of 1904, when single specimens were
captured at the lantern on 2nd and 20th October.

Carduelis carduelis. Goldfinch. — A rare visitor
in autumn, when it has been captured at the light in
October and early November — wings sent.

AcANTHis CANNABiNA, Linnet. — Has been noted on
a few occasions in spring and autumn. The records are
for 5th April, :24th September, and 14th and 15th
October. On the last-named dates, I saw a few passing
south at 7 A.M,

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 311

Passer montanus, Tree-Sparrow. — Four were seen
during the night movement to the south on 8th
November 1881.

Alauda arvensis, Skylark. — One of the most
frequent and numerous visitors, often occurring in vast
numbers in the spring and autumn, and in some
numbers passing south during cold periods in winter.

The spring migrations northwards commence during
the latter half of February, continue during March and
April, an^ sometimes last until the first week of May,
the 9th being the latest record.

The autumn emigrations date from 30th July, but
are not much in evidence until mid-September, thence
onwards to the third week of November.

The winter emigrations may take place late in
November, during December and January, and the first
half of February, depending upon the severity of the
season.

The records, with few exceptions, relate to move-
ments during the night-time.

MoTACiLLA LUGUBRis, Pied Wagtail. — Chiefly an
autumn emigrant, passing southwards in considerable
numbers. There are scarcely any data for the spring
return movements, but one was captured at the lantern
on the morning of i8th March 1904, and sent.

The autumn departures are recorded from loth
September to 4th November. Many pass between
6 A.M. and noon, and a few visit the lantern during the
night movements.

MoTACiLLA ALBA, White Wagtail. — In spring it
has only been occasionally recorded on its passage
northwards during the latter half of April.

The autumn return towards winter quarters has been

312 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

observed between 30th September and 14th October. I
observed it in the morning from 6 a.m. to noon, and at
night captured old and young birds at the lantern during
the main movements southwards.

MoTACiLLA EOARULA, Grey Wagtail. — There are no
spring observations. In the autumn it has occurred from
17th September to 6th November. I captured one at the
lantern on the night of 14th October, and observed others
passing south on several occasions during the forenoon.

MoTAciLLA RAYi, Yclloiv Wagtail. — There are a
few records only, all for the autumn passage, and at
dates ranging from 23rd to 30th September. On the
former date I captured an adult and a young bird at
the lantern and saw many others flying around from
3 A.M. to 5 A.M.

Anthus tratensis, Meadoiv - Pipit. — Very abun-
dant during the spring and autumn passages. Noted in
spring from 25th February to i8th April, during the
night and earliest hours of the morning. The autumn
emigratory movements date from 4th August. Great
numbers pass southwards continually during September
and October, from 6 a.m. until noon ; and many also
visit the lantern during the night "rushes" across the
Channel. It has been observed as late as the last week
of November, but may then have been driven south by
an outbreak of cold weather on the mainland.

Antiius trivialis, Tree-Pipit. — Examples, killed at
the lantern on 29th August 1902 and 21st September
1887, were forwarded to me for identification.

Antiius obscurus, Rock-Pipit. — Has been recorded
as occurring during the great autumn movements,
but I have never received specimens or wings for
identification.

A MONTH ON THE EDDVSTONE 313

Regulus regulus, Goldcrest. — I have only a single
record for the spring — namely, for 2nd April 1902, when
one killed at the lantern was sent to me.

In autumn it has occurred from iith September,
throughout October, and as late as 25th November.
Like most of the other migrants, it has never been
observed during the hours of daylight.

Sylvia sylvia, Whitethroat. — As a summer visitor
to Britain, and later as a bird of passage, it has
occurred from the end of April (28th, earliest record)
until as late as 24th May, and is not unfrequent in its
appearances at the lantern.

The autumn return movements commence at the end
of August, are in progress throughout September, and
have occurred on 5th October, the latest date on which
specimens have been obtained and forwarded.

Sylvia atricapilla. Blackcap. — There is only a
single record for spring — namely, that of one killed
between 12 and 2 a.m. on 12th April 1902, which was
sent to me.

As an autumn emigrant and bird of passage, it has
been observed from mid-September down to the first
half of October. One captured on 22nd November
1886 was sent to me.

Sylvia borin, Garden- Warbler. — Has occurred in
spring from the 3rd to the 24th of May.

One killed at the lantern on loth October 1902, and
sent, is the only autumn record.

Phylloscopus sibilatrix, Wood-Warbler. — Has
only twice been detected — namely, on the 3rd and 17th
May : both birds were sent.

Phylloscopus trochilus, Willoiv- Warbler. — A
frequent visitor to the lantern in both spring and

I. X

314 STUDIES IN lilRD-MIGRATION

autumn. At the former season it has occurred as a
British summer migrant, and as a bird of passage, from
3rd April until the second week of May.

The autumn movements southwards are recorded
between 15th August and 30th September.

Phylloscopus collybita, CJiiff-chaff. — One killed
during a rush of migrants northwards, on the early
morning of loth April 1903, was sent to me.

There are records for September, but as no birds
were sent, their authenticity cannot be regarded as
established.

AcROCEPHALUS scHCENOB.ENUs, Sedge - Warbler. —
Common at the lantern, especially in the autumn.

In spring the earliest record (bird sent) is for 28th
April, and the movements continue until the third week
in May.

The autumn emigrations commence early, for it has
been killed (and sent) on ist August. The departures
are in evidence throughout September and down to 6th
October, when the latest capture was made.

AcROCEPHALUS STREPERUS, Reed- Warbler. — One
killed at the lantern between 12 and 3 a.m. on the 3rd
of May 1887, during a remarkable rush, and sent to me,
is the only known occurrence at the Eddystone.

LocusTELLA N/EviA, Gi'assJiopper-Warbler. — I cap-
tured one at the lantern at 3 a.m. on 13th October;
and specimens have since been sent to me on several
occasions for dates ranging from the last days of
September to 30th October.

LusciNiA MEGARiivNCiius, Nightingale. — One killed
during a rush of migrants, between 12 and 2 a.m. on
the I 2th April 1902, was sent to me.

Erithacus rubecula, Redbreast. — I have received

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 315

two specimens killed during the spring movements.
These occurred on 22nd and 23rd February.

In autumn the earliest visit noted is on 2nd Sep-
tember. It is not unfrequent at the lantern in October,
the 20th being the latest date scheduled.

RuTiciLLA nifENicuRUS, Redstart. — A frequent
visitor to the light during the spring and autumn move-
ments.

The earliest date for its appearance in spring is 21st
April, and the latest 3rd May.

In the autumn it has occurred from nth September
to 7th October.

RuTiciLLA TiTYS, Black Redstart.- — Two specimens
have been sent to me — a male captured on 5th
November 1902, and an adult male, in spring plumage,
killed at the lantern at 2.30 a.m. on 14th March 1904.

TuRDUS viscivoRUs, MistU - Thrush. — A frequent
night visitor in the spring and autumn, and less so
during the winter movements.

As a spring immigrant and bird of passage, it has
been observed from 19th February, throughout March,
to loth April. There is a record for loth May 1902.

The earliest dates for its appearances in autumn are
the 19th and 26th August, after which it has no place in
the chronicles until 3rd October, between which date
and 14th November it is common.

The winter cold-weather emigrations have been
recorded as early as 24th November, and occur in
December, January, and February, the latest on the
loth of the last-named month, during heavy snow.

TuRDUS Musicus, Song-Tlirush. — A regular spring,
autumn, and winter migrant, observed only during the
night-time.

I. X 2

316 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGllATION

The earliest spring immigrants from the south are
chronicled for 19th February, and the movements are in
progress until 13th May, the later migrants being on
passage for Northern Europe.

Southward-going emigrants have been killed late
in July. There are a few records for August, and
numerous ones for September, October, and down to
mid-November.

The forced winter movements have been known to
occur as early as 22nd November, and continue, depend-
ing on the severity of the season, until the early days of
February, the 8th being the latest noted in the returns.

TuRDUS iLiACUs, Redwiug. — Common during the
spring and autumn passages.

Recorded as moving northwards at intervals from
19th February until nth May, and southwards from
2nd October to 20th November.

Occurs only during the night-time, and many are
killed at the lantern — 200 on 21st October 1884.

TuRDUS PILARIS, Fieldfare. — Only chronicled for
the autumn passage southwards. Earliest appearance
1 2th October, latest 26th November. Not often
obtained at the lantern.

TuRDUS MERULA, Blackbird.- — A frequent visitor in
spring and autumn, and in winter during severe weather.

Occurs in spring from the latter half of February,
throughout March and April, and as late as loth May,
the earlier visitors being returning British birds, the
later ones en route for Northern Europe.

The autumn emigratory movements have been
recorded as early as 13th August, when birds were
killed at the lantern. A few appear in September, but
it is not until October and the first half of November

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 317

that the great movements south are witnessed. There
are a few notices of visits in late November and
December when severe weather prevailed on the main-
land.

TuRDUS TORQUATUS, Riug-Ouzel. — Of regular
appearance in spring and autumn. Noted as passing in
spring from 5th to 28th April, and in autumn as moving
southwards from 3rd August 1886 (the only record for
the month), throughout September and October, and
down to 1 2th November.

Saxicola cenanthe, Wheatear. — A visitor in
considerable numbers, and frequent during the spring
and autumn migrations. In spring it has occurred from
15th March to 30th May, many as late as 25th May.
In autumn it returns from ist August to 6th November,
but is not abundant after mid-October.

Saxicola leucorriioa,^ Greater Wheatear. — Of this
Greenland, Icelandic, and North - Eastern American
Wheatear, I captured an example at the lantern on the
night of 1 6th October, and I received others which had
been killed by striking on 24th September 1903, and
on 5th October 1902. The wing measurements of these
birds ranged from 103 mm. to 105.5 mm. I have had
no specimens of this form sent to me as captured during
the spring movements, though it doubtless occurs.

Pratincola rubicola, Stonechat. — I saw, and
captured, this species at the lantern on the nights of
1 2th to 13th and 14th to i6th October. Great move-
ments southwards were then in progress, and this species
was present in some numbers, and for some time, on
both occasions.

Pratincola rubetra, Whinchat. — Figures in the

^ Saxicola nmantJie leucorrhoa.

318 STUDIES IN BIRD-MIGRATION

schedules on several occasions for May, dating from the
first week to the middle of the month. I have never,
however, received a specimen or a wing of this bird.

Troglodytes troglodytes. Wren. — Recorded and
captured on a few occasions in the autumn, at dates
ranging from 6th October to 23rd November. I saw it
in small numbers during the great movement on the
night of 1 6th October 1901, and secured an example.

MusciCAPA GRisoLA, Spotted Flycatchei\ — There are
a few entries in the schedules for May and September, but
I have no record of having received specimens or wings.

MusciCAPA ATRiCAPiLLA, Pied FlycatcJiei". — Has not
been observed in spring. I captured one at the lantern
on the early morning of 23rd September during a rush
southwards of British summer birds. There are also a
few other records, all for late September.

HiRUNDO RUSTiCA, Swallow. ■ — Obscrvcd in spring,
moving northwards, from 12th April to 6th June.
Most of the records are for May, when the bird occurs
abundantly down to the end of that month. At this
season the visits are chiefly during the night-time.

A few appear during the latter half of July, many in
September, and in October as late as the 20th. In
autumn it is observed, with few exceptions, between the
hours of 6.30 A.M. and i p.m.

Ctielidon urbica, Martin. — Has rarely come under
notice. An adult was flying round the tower during the
afternoon of 29th September, and another at 4 p.m. on
1 2th October. One is recorded for the night of 29th
September.

Cotile riparia, Sand-Martin. — A bird, captured on
3rd August 1886, affords the only record of the
occurrence of this species.

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 319

CucuLUS CANORUS, Cuckoo. — There is only a single
record — namely, for 23rd May 1907, when several
occurred in a rush of migrants between 1.30 and 3 a.m.

Cypselus apus, Szvift. — Appears regularly in May
(earliest record, the 4th), sometimes in great numbers.
Many occur in June (24th latest).

Several appeared on 5th July 1902 ; and it passes at
intervals during August to loth September.

It is chronicled for the night-time (especially the
earliest hours of the morning) only.

Caprimulgus europ^us, Nightjar. — There are two
records only. One was killed at the lantern during a
rush on 4th May 1887, and another at 4.30 a.m. on
loth September 1902.

Ardea cinerea, Heron. — During the great move-
ment on the morning of 13th October 1901, I heard
several, at 5 a.m., croaking loudly as they passed. On
the 20th, I saw a party proceeding south at 5 p.m.

TuRTUR turtur. Turtle- Dove. — Regular on passage
in spring and autumn. Has occurred from the middle
to the end of May, and from 25th September to 13th
October. All the records are for night-time.

Crex crex, Corn-Crake. — Observed at both seasons.
In spring it has appeared at dates ranging from 26th
April to 1 2th May ; and in autumn from loth September
to the end of the month. It is a night visitor only.

Rallus aquaticus, Water-Rail. — There are several
records of the occurrence of this species for the autumn ;
but no specimens appear to have been captured.

Charadrius pluvialis {Golden Plover). — There are
only a few records, and these refer to birds passing
during May, October, and November. The dates range
from 9th May in spring to 7th November in autumn.

320 STUDIES IN IJUID-MIGRATION

i^GiALiTis iiiATicoLA, Ringed Plover. — I saw small
parties passing south on two occasions — namely, on
29th September at 11 a.m., and on i6th October at
1.45 A.M. On the latter date they were in rush with
other species.

Vanellus vanellus, Lapivmg. — Frequently ob-
served as a spring, autumn, and winter visitor.

Appears on its way north in spring from 20th
February, and continues to pass during March and
until mid-April.

It is recorded as recrossing the Channel during late
September and throughout October.

It occurs in rushes at both seasons along with other
species, and during the hours of darkness only.

The forced winter emigrations, under the stimulus of
severe weather, have taken place from 25th November to
13th February. On 6th December 1902, some hundreds
arrived at 7.15 p.m., and the movement lasted until
5.45 a.m. (7th). On the night of the 7th they appeared
again at 7.30 p.m., in still larger numbers, and were
striking and dropping into the surf in hundreds. The
temperature at the time was very low.

H^MATOPUS OSTRALEGUS, Oyster - Catcher. — There
are only two records for the visits of this well-known
species. On 27th August 1886 a flock was at the
lantern all night, and nine birds struck and were
captured; and on 14th November 1887 ^ number
were present in a rush from 6 to 9 p.m.

PiiALAROPUS HYPERBOREUS, Red - uccked Phalarope.
— As already mentioned (p. 298), I saw single birds,
during the daytime, on 21st September and 8th October
— the only records.

ScoLOPAX RUSTicuLA, Woodcock,- — This well - known

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 321

migrant is almost unknown at the Eddystone, which
would appear not to lie in the course of the numbers
crossing the Channel. I have only two records — namely,
one killed on the night of 21st September 1886, and two,
also killed, at 11 p.m. on ist November 1885.

Gallinago gallinago, Snipe. — Another infrequent
visitor. In November 1884, 1885, and 1887, there are
records of its appearing, or being killed, at the lantern :
all for loth November !

Gallinago gallinula, /r?^/^ Snipe.— T'\\&x^ are three
records only, all for 1887. On i ith November one was
caught, during a rush of birds, at 2 a.m. ; on the i6th
one was killed at 3 a.m.; and on 21st December one
was killed in the early morning.

Tringa alpina, Dnnlin. — ^There is a single record
only. One was sent to me which had been killed during
a rush on 21st September 1887.

Tringa maritima, Ptirple Sandpiper. — A few of these
birds visit the reefs at low water during the autumn
and winter. In 1901 they first appeared for the season
on I Ith October, and in 1902 on 12th October.

ToTANUs calidris. Redshank. — I heard the familiar
notes of this species during the considerable movement
which was in progress in the early hours of 23rd
September.

NuMENius arquata, Curlew. — Passes in spring,
autumn, and winter. At the former season it has been
noted between 14th March and 2nd May; and later in
the year from 30th July to 13th October.

On loth February 1902, it took part in a rush
southwards, during snow, from 2 to 3 a.m.

Observed (heard as a rule) chiefly at night.

Sterna cantiaca, Sandivich Tern. — I observed this

322 STUDIES IN lilllD-MIGRATION

species moving south during the mornings of 25th and
27th September.

Sterna macrura, Arctic Tern. — I saw two close to
the tower at 9.30 a.m. on 12th October; they were in
immature plumage, but were not birds of the year
(see p. 301).

Sterna fluviatilis, Common Tern. — A few appeared
and remained for some time off the reefs, on 22nd, 27th,
and 28th September. I saw one alight on a nasty cross
sea, amid which it washed and preened its feathers in
the most unconcerned fashion.

Xema sabini, Sabine s Gull. — As already related,
an adult assuming winter plumage appeared at 9 a.m. on
29th September, and remained some time in the vicinity
of the tower, affording ample opportunities of observing
it, both on the water and on the wing.

Megalestris catarrh actes, Great Skua. — I
observed this bird on three occasions during my
residence in the lighthouse. During a moderate gale
on 22nd September, three appeared in company and
came close to the tower on several occasions. On
I St October one flew past to the south-west, and on the
1 6th another single bird was seen.

Stercorarius roMATORiiiNUS, Pomatorhine Skua. —
From 19th September to the day of my departure, 19th
October, this species was constantly present, in great
numbers, in the vicinity of the Eddystone.

Stercorarius crepidatus, Arctic Skua. — Appeared
with the last-named species on 19th September, and was
present when I left. It was fairly common, but not so
numerous as S. pomatorhinus.

PuFFiNus gravis. Great Shearivater. — Seen almost
daily, sometimes in considerable numbers, from 19th

A MONTH ON THE EDDYSTONE 323

September to the date of my departure, 19th October
(see p. 300).

Puffin us griseus, Sooty Shearwater. — I saw single
examples on 23rd September and 14th and 19th October
(see p. 300).

PuFFiNus ANGLORUM, Manx Shearwater. — Seen
between 29th September and 14th October 1901, but
was not numerous.

Procellaria pelagica, Storm - Petrel. — A not un-
frequent daylight visitor to the neighbourhood of the
lighthouse in the autumn during unsettled weather. It
also visits the lantern during the night-time. The
records date from 21st September to 9th November,
when, in 1885, ten were killed at the light.

In addition to the migratory birds whose passage
movements are treated of in the foregoing list, a number
of other species are known to resort to, or visit, the
vicinity of the lighthouse in the autumn or winter, but
regarding their times of appearance and departure
we have no data. Of these I observed the following
during my visit in the autumn of 1901 — the Gannet,
Cormorant, Shag, Great Black - backed Gull, Lesser
Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull, Kittiwake, Razorbill,
and Guillemot.

END OF VOL. I.

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