xt^mt^mujiM Wp £. $L $m pbarg portly Carolina j§iafc> (ffolbgg 5FI05 554 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES S00765246 U \A-> 7an26'3j kwU'Sl Mov28;3j I Date Due MAY 2 bj 1963 MQV20i96i -*-->-f-1973 fliv'W- 7*P''5f) r , llMov'Rg 24Novgfi3 8Jan'62^ ■JtU- nr" U i./ -oe^T^n 1Mff * ^SbW APR 2 ^ 1995 ^m s-^m JSt 13J ^9 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/studyofbreedsinaOOshaw pq T3 C 34 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44. 45- 46. 47- 48. 49- 50. 51- PAGE. Typical Shropshire Ewe 224 Cheviot Ewe 232 " Suffolk Down Ewe 238 Hampshire Down Ewe .... 244 Oxford Down Ewe 250 Leicester Ewe 256 * Lincoln Ewe 264 " Cots wold Ram 270 SWINE. Typical Chester White Sow 288 Large Improved Yorkshire Sow . . . 294 Tamworth Sow 302 Berkshire Sow 308 Poland-China Sow 314 Victoria Sow 322 Duroc-Jersey Sow 326 Cheshire Sow 334 Suffolk Sow 338 Essex Sow 344 Small Yorkshire Sow 350 APPENDIX A. 52. Illustrating Points of Animal Form 53. Illustrating Points of Animal Form 356 357 PART I BREEDS OF CATTLE LECTURE NO. I. ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLR I. Reliable information regarding- the differ- ent races of cattle is very meager until we reach tht seventeenth century, owing (i) To the very partial references made to them by his torians before that time, and (2) To the imperfect nature of the sketches made by artists, so far as these have been handed down to us. II. It is noteworthy that the first shepherd and the first farmer were cotemporaneous. (1) Likewise the keeping of live stock and grain growing have gone hand in hand through all the centuries wherever agriculture has been distinctively progressive. (2) The exceptions are mountainous and infertile dis- tricts, and those with a great abundance of fertility. (3) The comparatively unimproved condition of the live stock interest is to-day the weakest point in American agriculture III. The term cattle is applied to the various races of domesticated animals belonging to the genus 'Bos — the ox. (1) It belongs to the class Mammalia, the order Ruminan- tia, and the family Bovidae and comprises two primary groups, viz: The Bos indicus and Bos taurus. (2) The sub-genus, Bos indicus, includes the zebus or humped cattle numerously found in some parts of Asia an^ \ f rica. I . 2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (3) The other sub-genus. Bos taunts, includes all cattle in which the hump is absent, whether domesticated or otherwise. IV. From the testimony of the rocks, we know that the ox existed in northern Europe prior to the glacial period. (1) Whether the species then existing were the ancestors of the breeds of the present time can never certainly be known, but (2) It is more probable that the present types are the descendants of cattle brought by the various migrations of the human family as they journeyed westward. V. Cattle did not exist in America prior to its discoveiy by Europeans. (i) The bovine races in America are all descended from the cattle of Europe. (2) With but few exceptions they have been furnished by Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain. VI. It is generally supposed that the domes- ticated cattle of Europe, including those of Great Britain, have been derived from at least two distinct species, namely the Bos primigenius or Bos urns, and the Bos longifrons. (1) The Bos urus were of extraordinary size, strength and swiftness, and were withal very fierce. (2) The Bos longifrons were small in size, short in body and had fine, deer-like limbs. (3) Other fossil specirrlens, formerly classified as Bos frontosus and Bos trochocerus, have more recently been identified as belonging to one or the other of the afore- mentioned species. VII. There is much difference of opinion as to whether the domesticated cattle of Europe and America are descended from the Bos urus, or the Bos longifrons, or from a blending of the two species. (1) Some regard them as the degenerate offspring of the former. ( ?> Others regard them as the improved offspring of the latter, and DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLE. 3 (3) Yet others regard them as the result from crossing these. (4) The second theory is more likely to he correct, since improved environment is followed by improved development. VIII. Nearly all the improved breeds of cat- tle found in Anglo-Saxon speaking countries have been derived from Great Britain, because (1) Of the great variety and superior excellence of the breeds found there, and (2) Of the natural genius of her people for stock keeping — a characteristic which the colonists have carried along with them. IX. In many of the older countries of the Eastern world the cattle are probably descended from an ancestry going far back beyond the Chris- tian era. (1) They have not improved because agriculture has not materially improved, and (2) This is more particularly true of pastoral countries. X. Nature unaided can in suitable localities maintain a certain standard of excellence through the laws that govern natural selection, but she can- not improve upon ther-e, hence (1) Domestication is necessary to effect improvement, but (2) It does not follow, of necessity, that domestication always improves upon nature. LECTURE NO. 2. ORIGIN OF THE BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE. I. The precise origin of the British breeds of cattle will probably never be fully known. (1) Fossiliferous remains prove that at least some of the present types of cattle have been long in the land. (2) Some are of the opinion that they came originally from the continent, when the bed of the English Channel was dry. (3) Some regard them as the conglomerate produce of two or more distinctly different species of the genus Bos. (4) Others regard them as the differentiated offshoots of one great parent stem. II. It is not impossible, nor can it be said to be improbable, that the many and varied breeds of cattle now found in Great Britain came from the one parent stem, the aboriginal cattle of the country. (1) Great variations would be induced by locality, and conditions belonging to the same. (2) These variations would relate to such properties as production, size, color, form, flesh, milk and maturity. (3) They would be increased by fusion with other races of cattle brought into the country through the successive invasions of the Saxons, the Danes and the Normans. (4) They would be further intensified by some public and private importations from the continent, in the later centuries. III. The principal agencies in producing evo- lution or variation of race and type in cattle are inter-breeding or crossing, climate, food, habit and treatment. (1) Inter-breeding or crossing is one of the most potent agents in producing variation, especially as to form. (2) Climate affects color, the nature of the coat, develop- ment and maturity. 4 BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE. 5 (3) Food affects development both of the frame and flesh, and also the milking qualities. (4) Habit affects constitution and transmission. (5) Treatment affects constitution and performance, and qualifies all the influences indicated above. IV. The great improvement in the many breeds of cattle found in Great Britain has been brought about through the molding influences of man, operating in the line of natural laws. (1) These influences are: Careful selection in breeding, judicious mating, inter-crossing of the progeny for a time, liberal sustenance and wise management generally. (2) They have been aided by a favorable and varied soil and climate and by the fusion of different breeds and types, each possessing intensified peculiarities. (3) The tastes of the British people, arising in part out of their necessities, have conduced to the same end. V. The aboriginal cattle of Great Britain are probably represented in the Kyloes of Scotland and the Black cattle of Wales, with little or no admix- ture of other blood, and in purest form in the wild white cattle still found in certain parks. (1) The differences which characterize these arise from some of the influences named as concerned in variation, more especially climate and food. (2) All or nearly all of the other races have probably been influenced to a greater or less extent by the fusion of the blood of other breeds. VI. The chief of the herds of wild white cat- tle still existing in Great Britain are found in Chil- ling-ham park, Lyme park, Chartley and Chadzow forest. (1) The prevailing color is white with a few of the bulls cream, but the whole of the ear inside and one-third outside from tip down is red or brown. (2) The horns are rather fine and white, with black tips. (3) The color of the muzzle is black. (4) The bulls have coarse hair on the neck from one and one-haif to two inches long. (5) They mature at six years, when the males weigh, dressed, about "550 pounds." 6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. VII. The many breeds of cattle in Great Britain have been classified as Long-horned, Middle- horned, Short-horned and Polled. (i) The Long-horned varieties represented in the Long- horns, prominent in the closing half of the last century, are probably waning in popularity. (2) The Middle-horned breeds include the Herefords, the Sussex, the Devons, the West Highland and the Ayrshires. (3) The Short-horned breeds include the Durham, more frequently called Shorthorn, the Jersey, the Guernsey and the Kerry. (4) The Polled, or hornless breeds, which are an artificial variety, include the Aberdeen-Angus Polls, the Galloways and the Red Polls. VIII. All the breeds named under Note VII are more or less represented in the United States and Canada, and in addition the following: (1) The Holsteins and Dutch Belted breeds from the Netherlands, the Brown Swiss from Switzerland, the Cana- dian cow of French origin and the Texans of Spanish ancestry. (2) The Texans, numerous on southern ranges, are small in size and long of horn, and they are kept pure as are the other breeds, but are not registered. LECTURE NO. 3. CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE. I. The formal classification of cattle on the basis of utility does not appear to have been attempted by those who have written on bovine hus- bandry, owing probably (1) To the difficulties attending such classification, arising from (2) Variations in performance growing out of variations in environment and treatment, and from the different ends for which cattle of the same breed are kept, hence (3) No classification can be adopted at the present time that is likely wholly to escape criticism. II. The classification of cattle, and indeed of all domestic animals, cannot longer be deferred, owing (1) To the necessity for such classification. (a) In the systematic teaching of live stock husbandry in our public institutions, and (b) In preventing unfair competition in public showrings. (2) The general adoption of suitably prepared standards of excellence will more and more simplify the work of classi- fication, but (3) No classification can be submitted that may not require modification sometime in the future. III. Cattle in the United States and Canada may be classified as pure bred, common and "scrub" or unimproved. (1) Pure breds are those which have been bred without admixture of alien blood and whose lineage is kept in suitable public records. (a) They possess marked adaptation to certain conditions of environment, and (b) The males are capable of effecting a marked improve- ment in the offspring of common and unimproved cattle when crossed upon these. 7 8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) Common cattle are those of mixed breeding, and of what may be termed average development. (a) Their blood elements may and do vary exceedingly, but they are usually possessed of some pure blood. (b) For various reasons their numbers are likely to con- tinue to predominate. (3) Scrub cattle are those of inferior individuality. (a) They have not been improved by up-grading or cross- ing, and (b) They are usually inferior in form and low in performance. IV. The pure breeds of cattle in the United States and Canada may be classified as beef, dairy and dual-purpose. (1) Beef cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for producing beef. (2) Dairy cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for producing milk. (3) Dual-purpose cattle are those which are capable in a fair degree of producing both meat and milk. V. Adaptation in the beef breeds. (1) They should usually be kept on the ranges and on large arable farms where it is not practicable to milk them. (2) They suckle their calves up to the weaning period and then go dry. VI. Adaptation in the dairy breeds. (1) They should be kept by dairymen who are chiefly concerned in dairy production. (2) The calves not wanted for breeding should be sent to the block at a comparatively early age, as (3) The dairy form becomes more pronounced with advancing maturity, and the relative meat value correspond- ingly declines. VII. Adaptation in the dual-purpose breeds. (l)_ They_ should be kept on the arable farm where the farmer is seeking a return in both meat and dairy products, and (2) They should invariably be milked and the progeny reared by hand. VIII. The following enumeration of the breeds in America which belong- to these respective classes is submitted as being approximately correct : CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE. Cj (i) Beef breeds: Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus Poll, Galloway, Sussex and West Highland. (2) Dairy breeds : Holstein, Dutch Belted, Ayrshire, Guernsey. Jersey. French Canadian and Kerry. (3) Dual-purpose breeds: Shorthorn, Polled Durham, Brown Swiss, Red Poll and Devon. IX. Observations. (1) It has been the aim to place all the breeds enumerated under VIII in the order of relative size, beginning with the largest, but the average of size in some of the breeds is not far different. (2) The classification of Shorthorns as beef and also as dual purpose is based on the large use that has been made of them as beef and dual-purpose cattle. (3) The Polled Durhams are very similar, but more attention probably has been given to the development of their milking qualities. (4) Milking properties are somewhat more pronounced in the Red Poll breeds than beefing properties, while these would seem to be about equal in the Devons. (5) Classes for dual-purpose cattle were first created at the World's Fair, held in Chicago, 1803. (6) Dual-purpose cattle are numerously found among grades of various blood elements, but more especially among those distinctively of Shorthorn lineage. LECTURE NO. 4. INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM COMMON TO THE BEEF BREEDS. I. All the beef breeds have certain features of form which they possess more or less in common. (1) These may be considered essential to good beef production. (2) The differences between them relate more to size and to breed peculiarities than to essential features of form. II. The more essential indications, important perhaps in the order named, are: (1) A compact form, that is, one wide and deep throughout and but moderately long in the coupling. (2) A good back, that is, one wide from neck to tail, well fleshed and straight. (3) A good front quarter, that is, one wide, deep and full. (4) A good hind quarter, that is, one long, wide and deep. (5) Good handling qualities, as indicated in soft and elastic flesh and pliant skin. III. Indications of correct form given in detail. (1) Size — The size should be medium to large for the breed and the bone medium. (2) General Outline — The body should resemble a par- allelogram in shape and should be equally and smoothly developed throughout. (3) Head — The head should be medium in size, inclining to short rather than to long, clean cut, broad between the eyes, only moderately dished, and level across the top, save in the polled breeds. (a) Nose, moderately fine, neither dished nor Roman and of medium length. (b) Muzzle, broad, full, distinct and dewy. (c) Nostrils, large. (d) Eyes, large, full, clear and calm. (e) Horns, absent or varying according to breed, not coarse and set on a level with the withers, back and tailhead. IO BEEF BREEDS. II (/) Ears, medium in size, broad rather than long, not over sensitive nor yet sluggish, and well covered with hair, but varying somewhat in the different breeds. (4) Neck — Medium to short, longer in the female and also finer. (a) It should not be coarse at the junction with the head, and (b) It should gradually deepen and widen toward the neck vein so as to blend insensibly into the shoulder. (5) Back — Wide from the base of the neck to the tail- head, well covered with flesh, especially on the loin, straight and level. (6) Forequartcrs — Wide, deep and full and about equally developed with the hindquarters. (a) Withers, wide and level. (b) Shoulders, well developed, laid well back toward the ribs and forward toward the neck vein, sloping but gradually and neither prominent nor bare. (c) Chest, Capacious. (d) Breast, broad, deep and full. (e) Brisket, broad and well rounded. (/) Arm, broad, full and tapering nicely toward the knee. (7) Barrel or Coupling — Only moderately long, but wide and deep, and more roomy in the female. (a) Ribs, well sprung, that is, rounding out nicely from the spinal column, long, close spaced, not readily apparent to the eye. and coming well forward and backward. (&) Crops, well filled throughout. (c) Fore flank, full and deep. (d) Hind flank, deep, full and thick. (e) Underline, straight, or nearly so. (f) Girth, good around the heart and about equally good at the hind flank. (8) Hindquarters — Long from hook point to tail head, deep from hook point to hind flank and hock, and thick from side to side. (a) Hips, full in every part. (b) Thigh, broad and full and tapering gradually toward the hock. ) (c) Buttock, square and upright, but in some breeds a little rounded. (d) Twist, full and commencing far down. (e) Tail, broad at the tailhead. but fine rather than coarse and hanging at right angles with the line of the back. (9) Legs — Medium to short, straight, fine below the knee, standing firmly under the body, and yet a fair distance apart. (10) Skin — Of medium thickness, but varying with the breed, mellow and elastic, and well covered with hair mossy to the touch. 12 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (il) General Appearance —There should be a nicely balanced development and an easy and active carriage, but not sprightly or sluggish. (a) There should be an absence of all undue prominences, as at the shoulder points, the hook points and the pin bones, also (b) An absence of patchiness when in high flesh, as at the shoulders, hook points and rumps. LECTURE NO. 5. INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION COMMON TO THE DAIRY BREEDS. I. All the dairy breeds have certain features of form and function which they possess more or less in common. (1) These may be considered essential to good perform- ance in the dairy. (2) The differences between them relate more to size and breed peculiarities than to essential features of form and function. II. The more important indications, impor- tant perhaps in the order given, are : (1) Much length and depth in the barrel or coupling, indicating a large consumption and utilization of food. (2) Refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly in the head, neck, withers, thighs and limbs. (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. (4) Constitution, as indicated by a capacious chest, much width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an active carriage. (See Note VIII below.) (5) Downward and yet outward sprung and open spaced ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin. III. Indications of correct form and function given in detail. (1) Size — The size should be medium to large for the breed. (2) General Outline — The triple wedge shaped formation has long been considered essential, although it is not very explicit. It implies (a) Increasing width from the withers downward. (b) Increasing width toward the rear parts. (c) Some increase in distance between the top and bottom lines as they go backward. (3) Head — The head should be medium to fine, clean cut and relatively longer, lighter and more dished than in the beef breeds. 13 14 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (a) Forehead, broad and dishing. (b) Nose, fine. (c) Muzzle, medium to broad and moist (d) Nostrils, large and open. (e) Cheeks, clean and spare. (f) Eyes, prominent and lively. (g) Poll, medium to wide, according to breed. (h) Horns, fine. (i) Ears, medium, with ample secretions, thinner than in the beef breeds and somewhat livelier. (4) Neck — Inclining to long and light, almost slim. (a) It should be fine at the junction of the head and should widen and deepen only gradually. (b) The junction with the body should be well defined, almost abrupt in character. (5) Back — Narrow at the withers, wide at the loin, and at least moderately so at the pin bones, and straight or swayed according to breed and individuality. (a) A straight back is to be preferred, other things being equal. (b) The spinal column should be large, well defined and open spaced. (c) There should be more or less of a downward slope from the crupper to the outer edge of the hip. (6) Forequarters — Lighter than the hindquarters, and spare. (a) Withers, narrow. (b) Shoulders, not heavy, pronounced in their upward 'lope toward one another, and more or less abrupt in front. (c) Chest, wide through the heart and capacious. (d) Breast, wide below, but not prominent. V) Brisket, wedge-shaped. ,/) Arm, inclining to light. (7) Barrel or Coupling — Long, deep, capacious, in a bw«de, paunchy. (z.) Ribs, broad, wide spaced, with a deep downward and outward spring, and much space between the last rib and hook point. (b) Crops, steep, but not necessarily depressed. (c) Fore flanks, fairly well filled. (d) Hind flanks, thin but not sunken. (e) Underline, more or less sagged. (f) Girth, at least fairly good around the heart, and increasingly so at the hind flank. (8) Hindquarters — Long, but varying somewhat in the breeds, wide at top of the hips and coming well down, but without fullness. (a) Hips, not heavy, but more heavy in some breeds. (b) Thighs, inclining to light, thin and more or less incurved. DAIRY BREEDS. 15 (c) Buttock, upright or receding somewhat toward the thigh. (d) Pin bones, prominent and wide spaced. (e) Twist, open, placed high, and roomy. (f) Tail, not coarse, tapering, of good length, and hanging at right angles to the back. (9) Escutcheon — Well defined and well developed from the perineum to the udder and extending well outward on the thighs. (a) Breadth below the perineum is said to denote pro- longed milking qualities. (b) Width at the thighs is said to indicate deep milking qualities. (10) Udder — Long, broad and deep, extending well for- ward and well up behind, and evenly quartered. (a) It should be well let down, but not pendulous, and the skin should hang in loose folds behind when the udder is empty. (b) In quality, it should be fine and elastic, glandular, not fleshy. (c) The hair on the udder should be soft and not plentiful. (d) The veins on the same well defined. (e) The teats of medium size and squarely placed or pointing slightly outward. (11) Milk Veins — Large, tortuous, preferably branched and entering the abdominal wall well forward and through large orifices, usually called milk wells. (a) More commonly there are but two milk wells, but more are much prized. (b) The veins increase in size with' advancing age in the animal. (12) Legs — Medium in length, fine in bone and straight, at least fairly wide apart and yet well under the body. (13) Skin — Medium to fine, finer than in the beef breeds, easily movable, and covered plentifully with fine, soft hair. (14) General Appearance — The carriage should be active, the prominences at the angles and also the ribs dis- tinctly apparent, and there should be evidences of a tendency to spareness in form when in milk. IV. The males as distinguished from the females. (1) They should be stronger in bone and more masculine throughout, especially in the head and neck, and not so rangy in body or limb. (2) The first requisite is constitution as indicated by a capacious chest, much width through the heart and an active carriage. l6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (3) Prominent among the evidences of milk transmitting power are (a) Easily traceable milk veins in the underline. (b) Embryo teats, large and placed well forward and wide apart. (c) Amplitude of skin on the rear parts of the underline. V. Nerve-power, or temperament, the out- come of form, is supposed to influence favorably milk elaboration and the following are prominent among its indications : (1) A broad and dished forehead with a lively eye and active ear. (2) Good width at the junction of the spine and skull, and large development of the spinal column. (3) A forceful disposition the outcome of energy, not of bad temper, and an active carriage. VI. Prominent indications of abundant milk production : (i) A roomy, capacious, open-ribbed barrel. (2) Good development of udder and milk veins. (3) General refinement and spareness of form, and (4) Marked indications of nerve-power, as given in Note V. VII. Prominent indications of quality in milk. (1) Good handling qualities, as evidenced in a nice, pliant skin. (2) Skin, creamy to a rich yellow in color, more especially inside the ears, at the flanks and around and over the udder. VIII. Leading indications of good constitu- tion and vitality given in detail. (1) Absence of extreme refinement in head, neck and limbs. (2) A full, clear and restful eye. (3) Much width of chest cavity and much of roominess in the same. (4) Large development of the spinal column. (5) Much width at the loin, with distinctness in the pelvic arch and roominess in the pelvic cavity. (6) Activity in the secretions of the skin, and (7) Active and easy movement. o U 3 a. >> LECTURE NO. 6. INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION IN DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. I. Dual-purpose cattle of pure and likewise of mixed breeding have certain features of form which they possess more or less in common. (i) These may be considered essential to good perform- ance in the production of milk and meat. (2) The differences between them are such as relate chiefly to size, to breed peculiarities in pure breds, and to mixed blood elements in grades. II. The more important indications, impor- tant, perhaps, in the order named, are : (1) Medium to large size for the breed or grade. (2) Good length and depth in the coupling, especially in the females. (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. (4) Good constitution as indicated by good width through the heart. (5) Head and neck inclining to long and fine, and (6) Ribs of medium spring, open spaced and covered with a good handling skin. III. Lineage — The best specimens are found in the pure dual-purpose breeds, or in high grades of these, but (1) Mixed blood elements are not seriously objectionable in foundation animals of correct type, and (2) In breeding, well chosen pure bred dual-purpose sires should be used. IV. Indications of correct form and function given in detail : (i) Size — The dual-purpose cow is large in form and capacious in body, not massive like the high type beef animal, neither coarse nor unduly refined, and possessed of what may be termed a happy equilibrium in development. 19 2C THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) General Outline — The form should be parallelogram- mic rather than wedge-shaped, and nearly evenly developed in front and rear. (3) Head — Only moderately large and inclining to long, clean cut and free from throatiness. (a) Forehead, wide. (b) Nose, inclining to long and fine. (c) Muzzle, medium to strong and moist. (d) Nostril, large and open. (e) Cheeks, lean. (f) Eyes, large, prominent and neither restless nor sleepy. (g) Poll, varying with the breed or grade. (h) Horns, inclining to fine when present. (i) Ears, of medium size, thickness and action, but vary- ing with the breed or grade. (4) Neck — Inclining to long and fine, but not slim. (a) Not coarse at the junction with the head. (b) Of medium increasing width and depth toward the shoulder, and joining the latter neither abruptly nor so smoothly as in the beef breeds. (5) Back — Moderately wide at the withers, wide at the loin and pin bones, and straight. (6) Forcquartcrs — Nearly equal in development with the hindquarters. (a) Withers, moderately wide. (b) Shoulders, large, but not prominent, and possessed of medium upward and forward slope. (c) Chest, wide through the heart, capacious. (d) Breast, wide, moderately deep and full. (e) Brisket, wide and but moderately full. (f) Forearm, broad and but moderately full. (7) Barrel or Coupling — Long, deep, roomy, capacious. (a) Ribs, at least fairly well sprung and deep, well spaced, easily discernible when the animal is giving milk, and pos- sessed of good snace between the last rib and hook point. (b) Crops, filled up level, or nearly so, with the shoulder. (c) Fore flanks, low and full. (d) Hind flanks, low, moderately full and of medium thickness. (e) Girth, good at the heart and at least good at the hind flank. (f) Underline, straight or slightly rounded downward. (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep and but slightly dropping away from the sacrum and crupper. (a) Hips, straight on the sides. (b) Thighs, broad and in a line externally with the hips, and possessed of but little or no incurvature behind. (c) Buttocks, straight, or nearly so. (d ) Pin bones, wide, but not prominent. (e) Twist, open and placed moderately low. DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 21 (f) Tail, inclining to fine and long, smoothly set on and hanging at right angles vvith the body. (9) Udder — Capacious, evenly quartered, coming well forward and backward and not too high or too low. (a) When empty it should be pliant, not fleshy, and with much loose skin hanging in folds at the rear. (b) The teats should be of good size and pointing slightly outward. (10) Milk J 'ciiis — Large, long, tortuous, all the better if branched, and they should enter the body through large orifices or milk wells. (11) Legs — Medium in length and bone, straight and widely placed. (12) Skin — Medium, inclining to fine, easily movable, particularly on the ribs, and plentifully covered with soft hair devoid of coarseness or harshness. (13) General Appearance — The large, refined and fairly smooth form of the dual-purpose animal carries along with it evidences of producing capacity. (a) In movement it is neither sprightly nor sluggish, but easy. (b) When in milk it is not high fleshed, but puts on flesh quickly when dry. V. The more important points of contrast between the males and females : (1) The former are heavier and stronger and shorter in head, horn, neck and limbs. (2) They have relatively more of breast development and are relatively a little shorter in the coupling. VI. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with beef cattle. (1) In general outline the former are less massive, not so even in their proportions and not so smooth. (2) In size they are about the same, but do not weigh so well. (3) They are a little longer in the head, neck, limbs and barrel. (4) They are not so wide at the withers, are a little less full in the breast, shoulders, hips and twist, and are not quite so rounded or close spaced in the ribs, and (5) The development of udder and milk veins is much more marked. VII. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with dairy cattle. 22 THE STUDY OF EREEDS. (i) In general outline the former are usually much larger and heavier, the fore and hindquarters are more evenly bal- anced, the angular points are not so prominent and the form is not so spare. (2) The withers are wider, the spinal column less promi- nent and the hack straighten (3) The breast is more strongly developed, the spring of rib rounder, the hips and thighs heavier and the bone some- what larger. (4) In general development of head, neck, body, udder and milk veins, the difference is not greatly marked. THE BEEF BREEDS LECTURE NO. 7. SHORTHORN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. This breed of cattle is so named from the shortness of the horns which characterize it. (1) It is also known as the Durham, from the county in which it originated. (2) These terms are now regarded as synonymous and interchangeable. II. The precise origin of the Shorthorn, like that of nearly all the other British breeds of cattle, is involved in much obscurity. (1) The Romans, Saxons, Danes and Normans, who conquered England, in turn brought cattle with them that were successively crossed on the native breeds, and this in part accounts for the variety of these. (2) The lack of interchange in live stock for centuries after the Norman conquest favored the development of dis- tinctive types, through the modifying influences of climate, soil, shelter and treatment. (3) Thus it was, that in the rich pasture lands of the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, and especially in the valley of the River Tees, a comparatively large type of cattle existed several centuries ago, the ancestors of our modern Shorthorns. (4) For a long time there were two independent strains of ancestry, vis: The Teeswater and the Holderness ; but these have long since been blended through the almost indiscriminate crossing of their descendants. III. Those Teeswater and Holderness pro- genitors of the modern Shorthorn possessed high and broad carcasses, good milking qualities and an aptitude to fatten ; but their flesh was coarse and accompanied by a large amount of offal. 23 3 CO o *0 SHORTHORNS. 2$ IV. It is alleged and as stoutly denied that improvements were effected on the Teeswater and Holderness cattle by the use of Dutch bulls and on the improved Shorthorn by the introduction of a Galloway cross. (i) It is pretty certain, however, that a Dutch cross was introduced about the year 1640, and also at a subsequent period or periods. (2) The Colling Bros, introduced a Galloway cross known as "the Alloy" about the end of the eighteenth century. V. Several good herds of Shorthorns existed in England, in the northern counties, as early as the middle of the eighteenth century. (1) Notable among these were the herds of the Earl of Northumberland, Sir Wm. St. Quinton, Millbank, Croft, Stevenson, Maynard and Wetherell. (2) The average size of the cattle in those days was larger than it is now, but they were not equal to the cattle of to-day in quality, symmetry and early maturing properties. VI. The following include the more noted of the early. improvers of Shorthorns: — (1) The Colling Bros, of Ketton, who commenced their work of improvement about 1780, or somewhat earlier. (a) They selected their foundation stocks wherever they could get good animals. (b) They aimed at reducing the frame and improving the general symmetry and fleshing properties of their favorites. (c) They bred many famous bulls, and also the "Dur- ham Ox" and the "White Heifer that Traveled." (d) The purchases made at the dispersion sale of the Colling Bros., in 1810, did much to improve the Shorthorn herds in England. (2) Thomas Bates, a faithful disciple of the Colling Bros., who commenced breeding Shorthorns at Kirklevington late in the eighteenth century. (a) The Princess, Duchess and Oxford families, were among the most famous of the tribes which he founded. (b) Mr. Bates died in 1849, and his herd was dispersed in 1850. (3) Richard Booth, who founded the famous herd at Studley about 1790, a work well sustained at a later period by his sons, Thomas and John, at Warlaby and Killerby, respectively. 26 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (a) The special aim of R. Booth was to lengthen the hind quarter, to fill up the fore flank, to secure greater depth of flesh and a strength of constitution that would stand forcing well. (b) The Booth bulls have been found great improvers of herds into which they have been introduced. (4) Amos Cruikshank of Sittyton, Aberdeenshire, Scot- land, who may be regarded as the originator of Scotch Shorthorns. (a) The many tribes of this famous herd were built upon a mixed Bates and Booth foundation. (b) It was founded in 1837 and dispersed in 1889. VII. The Bates, Booth and Cruikshank cattle contrasted. (1) The Bates Shorthorns were distinguished by their size, good milking qualities, cleanness of head, neck and limbs, and elegant style. (2) The Booth Shorthorns were equally large, possessed greater heart girth and length of hind quarter, and more depth and mellowness of flesh, but in instances not a few they were plain in the head, strong in the horn and deficient in style. (3) The Cruikshank cattle, or Scotch Shorthorns, were less in size than either the Bates or Booth cattle, but they were more compact and blocky in build, took on flesh more readily, and were superior when placed on the block. (4) Scotch Shorthorns have been great prize winners during recent years. 3 c 1— o LECTURE NO. 8. SHORTHORNS THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. I. First importations to America. (i) Between 1783 and 1795 Messrs. Goff and Miller of Virginia imported Shorthorn cattle of both sexes into Balti- more, Md. (2) Some of their descendants were taken to Kentucky, where they effected much improvement upon the native stocks of that State. (3) But little is known of the exact genealogy of these cattle, although it has been a fruitful subject of discussion. IT. Importations to other States. (1) The first direct importation of Shorthorns into New York State was made by Samuel M. Hopkins of Moscow in 1815. (2) The first direct importation was made into Kentucky in 1817, by Col. L. Sanders of Grass Hill. (3) The first direct importation was made into Massa- chusetts in 1817 by Steven Williams of Northboro. III. Other importations to the United States. (1) From 1817 onward, importations of Shorthorns from England have been made almost every year until the present time. (2) Notable among those in point of time were the importations made by the Ohio Company for Importing Eng- lish Cattle, of Chillicothe, O., in 1834 to 1836. (3) Kentucky, New York and Ohio early became n^ted centers of the breed. TV. Prominent Shorthorn hreeders. (1) They are so many that their names even cannot be given here, much less can the grand, good work they did be noticed. (2) Lewis F. Allen of New York and William Warfield of Kentucky stand foremost among their advocates. 28 SHORTHORNS. 20, V. The New York Mills sale. (i) The most notable sale of Shorthorns ever held was that of Messrs. Campbell and Walcott of New York Mills, N. Y., in 1873. (2) Thfc 108 animals sold of all ages aggregated $382,000. (3) One Duchess cow was sold for $40,600, the highest price ever bid for a cattle beast. VI. Importations into Canada. (1) The first importation of Shorthorns was made into Canada by the New Brunswick Board of Agriculture in 1825, or the year following. (2) The first importation was made into Ontario by Robert Arnold of St. Catharines in 1832. (3) The first direct importation of English Shorthorns from Britain into Ontario was made by Roland Wingfield of Guelph in 1833. (4) Since that time Canada has become famous as an importing center and also as a breeding center of Shorthorns. (5) Prominent among the Canadian breeders and im- porters stand out the names of Simon Beattie, Hon. M. H. Cochrane and James I Davidson. VII. The Hillhurst herd. (1) This herd was established by the Hon. M. H. Coch- rane in 1865. (2) In 1877, thirty-two animals were exported from it to England and sold by public auction at Millbeckstock, Bowness, Windermere, at an average of about $2,500 each. (3) The tenth Duchess of Airdrie and fifteen of her progeny, bred at Hillhurst and sold at different times, aggre- gated more than $175,000. VIII. Dissemination in countries other than the United States and Canada. (1) Shorthorns have been exported to nearly every country colonized by Anglo-Saxons and also to many lands where other languages prevail. (2) Outside of the United States, Great Britain and Canada, they are most numerously found in Buenos Ayres, Australia and New Zealand. IX. The English herd book. (1) The first volume of the English Shorthorn Herd Book was published in 1822, by George Coates of Carlton, Pontefract, Yorkshire, England. (2) Its proprietorship was transferred to Henry Stafford in 1846, after five volumes had been published. 30 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. X. The American herd books. (i) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Herd Book was published by Lewis F. Allen of Black Rock, Buffalo, N. Y., in 1846. (2) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Record was published by A. J. Alexander of Woodburn, Ky., in 1869. (3) The first volume of the Ohio Southern Shorthorn Record was published by the Shorthorn breeders of Ohio in 1878. (4) The American Shorthorn Association purchased the interest in all these American records in 1882, and since that date Shorthorn pedigrees have been published in the American Shorthorn Herd Book. XL Canadian herd books. (1) The first volume of the Canadian Shorthorn Herd Book was published in 1867, of the British-American Short- horn Herd Book in 1881, of the Dominion Shorthorn Herd Book in 1887. (2) The last named record has absorbed the records previously published. XII. Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) Shorthorns are now found in almost every state of the Union and in every province of Canada. (2) Ontario stands first in the number of its recorded Shorthorns. (3) In the United States they are probably most numer- ous in Illinois and Iowa in the order named, but they are also quite numerous in nearly all the Central States, especially Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky. XIII. Registration in the United States and Canada. (1) Forty-five volumes of the American Shorthorn Herd Book have been issued and fifteen volumes of the Dominion Shorthorn Herd Book. (2) In the American Shorthorn Herd Book, 367,950 animals have been recorded, of which 134,566 are males and 233,384 females. (3) In the Canadian Herd Books, 62,071 animals have been recorded, making a total in these two countries of 430,021. LECTURE NO. 9. SHORTHORNS — THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) Shorthorns have unquestionably been the most popular breed of cattle in the worlH during the whole of the present century. (2) Of this we have abundant evidence in the fact that they are cosmopolitan to an extent far in advance of any other breed. (3) As enduring popularity is always the result of merit, we find in the favor shown to Shorthorns a proof of their great utility. II. Adaptability. (i) They possess much power of adaptation to the vary- ing conditions of life, as changes of soil and food products and climatic conditions, but they flourish best in temperate zones. (2) They are best adapted, however, to arable countries, level or gently undulating, rich in agricultural production, and where much meat and milk are desired on the same farm. (3) In point of hardihood they are at least medium. III. Relative size. (1) In size and weight they have something of a lead over all breeds as yet introduced into this country. (2) This is owing to their greater scale, combined with good all-round development. IV. Early maturing- qualities. (1) In early maturing properties they stand second to no breed, and are superior to many. (2) With suitable food and good care they may be made Quite ripe for the block at the age of two and a half years. (3) Under average conditions they attain a maximum of growth at about four years. 31 32 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Grazing qualities. (i) These are only average, since the heavy frames possessed by Shorthorns render them less active a» foragers, hence (2) When being grazed, the pastures should furnish them with plentiful supplies. VI. Feeding qualities. \i) These are of the first order. (2) They make a good use of the food given them, arc contented under confinement, will feed well for a long period stand forcing well and lay on flesh evenly and deeply. VII. Quality of meat. (i) Shorthorns furnish meat tender, juicy and nutri- tious, and (2) They kill well, as the proportion of bone and offal is relatively small, but (3) The fat and lean are not quite so well intermixed as with some breeds, the grain of the flesh is not so fine nor is the meat so highly flavored. VIII. Milking qualities. (1) In the last century and during much of the present, Shorthorns generally were possessed of good milking qualities. (2) Several families still retain these, more especially in England, where, as a breed, they still rank high for dairy uses, but (3) These qualities have been much impaired not only in Britain, but more especially in America, through the lines of breeding and management adopted. (4) However, during recent years much more attention is being given to the restoration of good milking qualities. (5) The milk is excellent for calf rearing, and may be used with advantage in making butter and cheese. IX. Value in crossing and grading. (1) No breed has been equally useful for purposes of crossing, either upon grade cattle or upon pure breds of other breeds. (2) They have wrought a wonderful improvement upon the common cattle of Ireland, North and South America. Australia. New Zealand and some other countries. (3) Nearly all the cattle exported to Britain from these countries are Shorthorn grades. SHORTHORNS. 33 (4) They impart to other breeds, and especially to grades, size, form, quality, rapid growth, early maturity, marked fattening properties, and in many instances good milk produc- tion, hence (5) When properly bred they are particularly adapted to the production of grades of the dual-purpose type. X. Weak points. (1) In some instances they are possessed of an impaired constitution, resulting from in-and-in breeding and the highly artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, and (2) In other instances they inherit a tendency to sterility more especially where they have been forced in their feeding 3 LECTURE NO. 10. SHORTHORNS THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS. In the absence of an authorized scale of points, the following is submitted : — I. Size — The size should be relatively large, but medium for the breed. (i) The fore and hind quarters should be equally well developed. (2) Compactness of form is more important in the male, but it is essential in the female as well. II. Head — Small in proportion to the size of the animal, clean cut, handsome and well set on, longer and narrower in the female, but stronger in the male. (1) Forehead, broad between the eyes. (2) Face, slightly dished in the female, and tapering gracefully below the eyes to the nostril. (3) Nose, medium in size and straight. (4) Muzzle, medium to broad, full and moist and flesh colored. (5) Nostrils, large and fairly expansive. (6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed, the lower jaw in the female thin. (7) Eyes, large, full, bright, intelligent, calm. (8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well covered with soft hair, somewhat erect and possessed of an average amount of play. (9) Poll, fairly broad and level. (10) Horns, short but longer and finer in the female, flat rather than round at the base, spreading and curving grace- fully forward, with a slightly downward <>r upward tendency, and of a creamy white or yellowish color. III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and arched in the male, but finer in the female, and grad- 34 SHORTHORNS. 35 ually widening and deepening and slightly rounding as it approaches the shoulder. (i) It should spring straight from the back, should set well into the shoulder and brisket and should carry the head gracefully. (2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap. IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, only mod- erately long in the coupling and rectangular, almost a parallelogram, and evenly covered with firm flesh. (1) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail- head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed throughout. (2) Withers, broad. (3) Shoulders, well developed and lying well within the body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops behind and well covered. (4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body and tapering gracefully to the knee. (5) Breast, full, wide and deep, and the chest capacious. (6) Brisket, broad and well rounded. (7) Crops, full. (8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone, coming well down, and so filling the space behind the shoul- der and in front of the hooks, that the animal will appear straight and level from the shoulder to the buttock. (9) Heart girth and flank girth, good, and about equal. (10) Hind quarters, long and full from the hooks to the pin bones, deep throughout and broad in every part. (11) Hips, broad and on a level with the back and loin. (12) Hind flank, full, deep and thick. (13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and without. (14) Rumps, broad but not prominent. (15) Buttock, broad and square. (16) Twist, deep and full, and placed low. (17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, but level, set perpendicularly on a level with the back and not too much covered with hair. A'. Udder — Broad and full, extending well forward along the belly and well up behind and evenly quartered. (1) Teats of good size and squarely placed, well apart, and having a slight oblique pointing outward. (2) Milk veins, large, tortuous and swelling, and with fairly large orifices leading into the body. 36 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. VI. Legs — Short, and well placed under the animal, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean and flat below the hock. (1) Hocks, somewhat straight and short, and turning neither outward nor inward. (2) Foot, flat, and in shape an oblong semicircle. VII. Skin — Of medium thickness, finer in the female, mellow and elastic to the touch, of a cream or orange color, and well covered with an abundance of fine, soft hair. VIII. Color — The standard colors are red, white and roan. (1) Red is most in favor, white is now considered objec- tionable, and red and white spots alternating are not in favor. (2) All shades of roan are admissible, but red roan is preferred. (3) The skin around the eye and bald of the nose should be a rich cream color. IX. General Appearance — Shorthorns should have large, rectangular and yet compact develop- ment of body, smoothness of outline, symmetry of form and gracefulness of carriage. LECTURE NO. n. HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. But little is known regarding the origin and history of Hereford cattle prior to the last half of the eighteenth century. (i) John Speed in a book published in 1627, speaks well of the cattle of Herefordshire. (2) The next reference is made by Marshall in 1788. (3) His description of a Hereford ox would answer well for one of the present day. II. A careful analysis of the somewhat con- flicting statements of the principal writers on Here- fords pretty certainly establishes the following: — (1) That Hereford cattle are descended from one or more of the aboriginal breeds of Great Britain, and that in this respect they share a common ancestry with the Devon and Sussex breeds. (2) That the original color as in the case of the Devon and Sussex was probably a whole red. (3) That at an early period the white cattle of Wales were crossed upon the native stocks, thus enlarging their frames and imparting a tendency to white markings. (4) That the white markings thus originated were further enstamped by a cross of white-faced Flemish cattle imported by Lord Scudamore from Flanders prior to 1671, and by using certain other white-faced bulls obtained in various parts of England. (5) That the white face, though generally recognized as indicating purity of breeding for some time prior to the close of the last century, was not universal, as some of the animals had mottled faces and some were possessed of but little white of any kind. (6) That the greater size of the Herefords as compared with the Devon and Sussex breeds is owing to the abundance of the food products in Herefordshire, and to the effect of crossing them by animals of large size. 37 CO -a a. HEREFORD CATTLE. 39 (7) That the Hereford cattle were noted for their good grazing and beef making properties in the eighteenth cen- tury, and (8) That the oxen were extensively used for purposes of labor prior to the nineteenth century. III. The most noted of the early improvers of Hereford cattle were Benjamin Tompkins, father and son, but the latter was the more noted of the two. (1) The elder Benjamin Tompkins, born at New House, Kings Pyon, in 1714, died in 1789. (2) The younger Benjamin Tompkins was born at the Court House, Canon Pyon, in 1745, and died at Wellington Court in 1S15. (3) Many of the best herds afterward built up in England rested upon foundation stocks purchased from the younger Tompkins. (4) Like Bakewell, he improved his cattle through the most careful selection in mating and through in-and-in breeding. (5) At the dispersion sale of his stock in 1819, the breed- ing animals sold for an average of more than $700 each. IV. Prominent among the early improvers of Herefords are the names of Galliers, Tully, Skyrme and Haywood, and somewhat later the names of John Price and John Hewer. (1) At the four sales held by John Price it is said that he realized not less than $100,000 for Herefords. (2) Some of the animals bred by John Hewer were of extraordinary size. V. Progress of Herefords early in the century. (1) Prior to 1835 herds had been established in fifteen English and Welsh counties. (2) During the first half of the century Herefords won more prizes at the Smithfield London Show than the animals of any other breed. VI. Some influences which hindered the dis- semination of Herefords. (1) Their milking powers were not equal to those of some other breeds, notably the Shorthorn. 4<3 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) The unfortunate controversy carried on toward the middle of the century between the breeders of the mottle- faced and white-faced varieties respectively. (3) They were not advertised in the same way or to the same extent as the Shorthorns, and (4) The want of organized effort on the part of the breeders until a comparatively recent period greatly hindered the dissemination of the breed. VII. Distribution of Herefords. (1) They have been reared to some extent in Scotland. Ireland, Jamaica, Canada and Australia, and (2) They have become numerous and popular in many of the prairie sections of both North and South America. VIII. Importations to the United States and Canada. (1) The first accredited importation was made into the United States by the Kentucky statesman. Henry Clay, in 1817. (2) Several sundry importations were made to various states between 1817 and 1839, but during that interval Here- fords do not seem to have made much progress. (3) Between 1839 and 1843, William H. Sotham. who has probably done more than any one person to advance the Here- ford interest in the United States, made three successive importations into the state of New York. (4) In i860 and subsequently, F. \V. Stone of Guelph. Ont, imported and bred many excellent animals, and from these many of the herds of the United States have either been built up or greatly enriched. (5) Thomas Aston of Elyria, O., was the third of the leading importers prior to 1880. since when the distribution of Herefords has been phenomenal. (6) Among the leading importers and breeders of the last two decades the names of C. Culbertson, Newman, 111., T. L. Miller, Beecher, 111., and Thomas F. B. Sotham, Chilli- cothe, Mo., stand out pre-eminent. IX. Associations formed. (1) The American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association was organized in 1881. (2) The Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association of Eng- land was formed in 1884. X. . Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) Nearly every state in the Union and nearly every province of Canada has its quota of Herefords, but i u "2 ,2 •oh 42 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) They are most numerous in the Central Mississippi basin, and in the range states west of the Mississippi and south of the Missouri. (3) The most important breeding centers are Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois and Indiana. XL Registration in the United States. (1) The first volume of the American Hereford Record was published in 1880 and of the English Hereford Herd Book in 1884. (2) Twenty volumes of the American Record have been issued and 95,000 animals have been recorded therein, of which about one-half are males. LECTURE NO. 12. HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- ISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) In the last century and during the early part of the present one, Herefords were equally popular with Short- horns, but (2) Since that time Shorthorns have been more in favor with the average farmer, unless in rich pastoral districts. II. Adaptability. (1) Herefords, like Shorthorns, readily adapt themselves to the changed conditions of soil and climate, and their marked docility is eminently favorable to such adaptation. (2) They are well adapted to arable countries, level or gently undulating, and capable of rich production in grain and pastures. (3) They have proved themselves eminently fitted for range conditions, such as prevail in the western and south- western states. (4) Although they have proved hardy in northern lati- tudes, they would seem better adapted relatively than the Shorthorns to warm temperatures. III. Relative size. (1) In average size and weight, as a breed, they are almost equal to the Shorthorns, while (2) In many instances individual animals outweigh Shorthorns. IV. Early maturing qualities. (1) In early maturing qualities they are fully equal to the Shorthorns. (2) Like the latter, with good feeding, they may be made quite ripe for the block at two and one-half years. V. Grazing- qualities. (1) Their grazing properties are decidedly superior, since they take on flesh rapidly on good pastures, and (2) Their grades have shown much capacity for well doing on the dry and not overabundant pastures of the open range. 43 44 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. VI. Feeding qualities. (i) In feeding qualities they stand much on the same plane as Shorthorns. (2) They make a good use of the food given them, and lay on flesh most heavily on the parts of the frame from which the best meat is cut, as the back and loin, but (3) Under heavy forcing they are somewhat inclined to patchiness. VII. Quality of meat. (1) The quality of the meat is very good, and finds much favor with butchers and consumers. (2) It is juicy and tender, the fat and lean are nicely blended, and the proportion of the lean to the fat is large, and (3) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight is relatively large. VIII. Milking qualities. (1) The milking properties of Herefords were at one time fairly good, but they have been much impaired through the system of breeding and management adopted. (2) The quality of the milk is good, but it is oftentimes deficient in quantity. IX. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Herefords cross well with some breeds, as Short- horns and Galloways, but not so well with others, as Devons and West Highland cattle. (2) In crossing with Shorthorns the best results have been obtained when the male was Hereford. (3) Herefords answer well for crossing upon grades and common stocks when meat-making is the object sought. (4) Hereford grades are probably more numerous on southwestern ranges than those of any other breed. X. Breeding qualities. (1) The breeding qualities of Herefords are good. (2) When submitted to high pressure feeding, they still usually breed with regularity and oftentimes they breed to an advanced age. (3) They are said to be less subject to abortion and to milk fever than some other breeds. XL Weak points. (1) The chief of these as to properties is scant milk production. HEREFORD CATTLE. 45 (2) As to form, unnecessary dewlap sometimes, and fre- quently lightness of thigh. XII. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are probably something ahead in grazing and breeding qualities and in quality of meat. (2) In size, adaptability, maturing and feeding Qualities and utility in crossing, they are not greatly different. (3) In all-round popularity and in milking properties they are scarcely equal to Shorthorns. LECTURE NO. 13. HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS. In the absence of an authorized scale of points the following is submitted : — I. Size — Relatively large, but medium for the breed. (1) The fore and hind quarters should he equally well developed, but (2) In many instances the hind quarter is relatively light. (3) Compactness of form is desired in both sexes, but is more sought for in the male. II. Head — The head should be small in pro- portion to the substance of the body, clean cut and well set on, not coming out too low from the neck. In the bull it should be masculine, but finer in the female and not too long in either sex. (1) Forehead, broad between and above the eyes. (2) Face, slightly dished in the female and gently tapering below the eyes. (3) Nose, medium in size and straight, not too fine. (4) Muzzle, broad, dewy and cream colored. (5) Nostrils, large and open. (6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed nor coarse. (7) Eyes, large, full, calm, mild, and surrounded by a cream-colored circle. (8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well fringed, fairly erect and active. (9) Poll, broad and level. (10) Horns, springing out straightly from the poll, more than medium in length, flat at the base and of a yellow or white waxy appearance. (a) In the male the curve is in the form of a semi-circle. (b) In the female it is in the form of a graceful wave, with a slightly spreading upward tendency. III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and arched in the male, but finer in the female and grad- 46 HEREFORD CATTLE. 47 ually widening and deepening and slightly rounding as it approaches the shoulder. (i) It should spring straight from the back, should set well into the shoulder and brisket, and should carry the head gracefully. (2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap, but frequently there is more or less of dewlap. IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, not too long in the barrel, rectangular, almost a parallelogram and evenly covered with firm flesh. (1) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail- head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed throughout. (2) Withers, broad. (3) Shoulders fully developed and lying well within the body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops behind, and well covered. (4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body and tapering gracefully to the knee. (5) Breast, full, wide and deep. (6) Brisket, broad and plump, and often lower than in the Shorthorn. (7) Crops, full. (8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone, increasingly so toward the back rib, coming well down, and extending well forward and backward, as in the Shorthorn. (9) Heart girth and flank girth, good and about even. (10) Hind quarters, long and broad and deep, as in the Shorthorn. (11) Hips, broad and full and on a level with the back and loin. (12) Hind flank, full, thick and deep. (13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and with- out, but in many instances it is light. (14) Rump, broad, but not prominent, and on a line with the back. (15) Buttock, broad and square. (16) Twist, deep and full and placed low. (17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, set on a level with the back and falling in a plumb line to the hocks. V. Udder — Broad, full and long and evenly quartered, but oftentimes it is not possessed of much capacity. (1) Teats of good size and well placed, as with the Shorthorn. 48 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) Milk veins, same as in the Shorthorn, but frequently they are lacking in large development. VI. Legs — Short and well placed under the body, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean and flat below the hock. (1) Hocks fairly straight and short, and turning neither outward nor inward. (2) Feet, flat and in shape like a semi-circle. YII. Skin — Of medium thickness, but some- what thicker than in the Shorthorn, mellow and elastic to the touch, and well covered with an abun- dance of fine, soft hair, in many instances more or less curled. VIII. Color — In color, the face, throat, chest, legs, lower part of the body, crest and tip of tail are a beautiful white, and all other parts are red. (1) The red should be neither very dark nor light. (2) A small red spot above the eye and a round red spot on the throat have many admirers. IX. General Appearance — Herefords are characterized by large, rectangular and yet compact development of body, smoothness of outline, mild- ness of mien, and easy carriage. X. Compared with Shorthorns — They have longer and more spreading horns, more dewlap, lower briskets, rather thicker hides, lighter thighs, more curly coats, and the differences in color mentioned. LECTURE NO. 14. ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN' <4ND HISTORY. I. Fossiliferons remains that have been dis- covered in Britain render it highly probable that the aboriginal cattle from which existing races have been derived were all horned originally, yet (1) Several varieties of hornless cattle have existed in Britain from time immemorial, some of which have disap- peared, hence (2) The only existing polled breeds at present are the Polled Aberdeen, the Galloway and the Red Polls. II. The precise causes that have led to the loss of horns have never been exactly understood. (1) It may have arisen from sudden organic changes, spontaneous, accidental or proper, and was then perpetuated by selection in breeding, as, (2) It is more than probable that these variations occurred within the period of domestication. III. Of the four principal breeds of Scotch cattle, the Ayrshires only have an admixture of for- eign blood. (1) The other three, vis., the Aberdeen- Angus, frequently called Polled Aberdeen and Angus, the Galloway and the West Highland are all supposed to be descended from the aboriginal wild horned cattle of Caledonia. (2) The minor differences which they present are doubt- less due to climatic and other influences. IV. It is highly probable that the Aberdeen- Angus cattle are indigenous to the northeastern counties of Scotland, with Forfar and Aberdeen as their chief centers, as d) There is much evidence to show that late in the last century and early in the present, polled cattle were numerous in these counties, and 4 49 3 02 c < .£3 < Ou ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 5 1 (2) In the ancient horned domestic races of Scotland, there seems to have been a decided tendency to variation in the loss of horns. V. The Aberdeen-Angus of to-day is no doubt the result of the amalgamation of two sorts of polled cattle inhabiting the districts of Scot- land, where, even now, the breed abounds most numerously. (i) The former of these were puny and thin in flesh, pre-eminently the crofters' cow. (2) The latter were a larger variety, with better all-round development, but could not stand roughing it so well as the former. VI. Hugh Watson of Keillor, Meigle, For- farshire, was the most noted of the early improvers of Aberdeen Polls. (1) Both his father and grandfather owned good herds of the same kind of cattle, the latter as early as 1735. (2) He established the Keillor herd in 1808, and prose- cuted the work of breeding with much vigor and success until 1865, when it was dispersed. (3) He bred from those animals only which came nearest to his ideal, and did not seem to care whether they were closely related or not. (4) He was singularly successful in raising calves, fre- quently suckling five on one cow. (5) Nearly 500 prizes were awarded him in leading show- rings of England, Scotland and France. VII. After Hugh Watson, the most noted improver of Aberdeen Polls was William Mc- Combie of Tilly four, who was born in 1805 and died in 1880. (1) His herd was founded in 1830 and dispersed in 1880. (2) His success in the showyard has few parallels in the history of farm stock. (3) In 1878 he won highest honors in Paris, France, competing against all breeds. VIII. Early in the century Lord Panmure tried to improve the Aberdeen Polls by means of a Galloway cross, but the effort resulted in failure. 52 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. IX. Toward the middle of the century Short- horn bulls were extensively crossed on Aberdeen- Angus cows, the result being a very superior animal for the block. (i) To so great an extent did this practice prevail at one time that fears were entertained for the preservation of the purity of the hreed. (2) The after crosses, however, did not prove so satisfac- tory, and the practice was abandoned. X. Extension to other countries. (1) Aberdeen-Angus cattle reached Ireland prior to 1843, and England somewhat later, and several good herds have been established in both these countries. (2) They first reached the United States in 1873, where already there are probably more herds of this breed than in Scotland. (3) They were first introduced into Canada in 1876, and several herds have been established in various parts of that country. (4) They are also kept in considerable numbers in Canada, South America, New Zealand and several countries in Europe. XI. Organizations established. (1) The Polled Cattle Society was established in 1879, largely through the efforts of Sir George McPherson Grant. (2) The American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Associa- tion was organized in 1883. XII. The first volume of the "Polled Herd Book" was published in 1862. (1) In the first four volumes Galloway cattle are regis- tered along with the Aberdeen Polls. (2) The first volume of the American Aberdeen Angus Herd Book was published in 1886. XIII. Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) Aberdeen-Angus cattle are now being reared in twenty-seven states and provinces. (2) They are bred and owned by 728 persons. (3) The more important centers for the breed are Iowa Illinois, Missouri, Ohio and Indiana, and in the order named o •on c < < Li. K 54 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (4) About one-third of all the pure Aberdeen-Angus cattle in the United States are in Iowa and one-fourth in Illinois. XIV. Registration in the United States. (1) Nine volumes of the Aberdeen- Angus Herd Book have been issued. (2) A total of 32,500 animals have been recorded, of which 13.744 are males and 18,756 are females. LECTURE NO. 15. ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE — THEIR LEADING CHAR- ACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) The Polled Aberdeens were but little known outside of Scotland prior to the middle of the present century. (2) Now they occupy a place in the public mind as beef producers that is probably not second to that given to Herefords. (3) The rapid diffusion of the breed since its introduction into the United States augurs well for its future. II. Adaptability. (1) Aberdeen- Angus cattle are best adapted to temperate climates when shelter can be given them in winter. (2) Although reared in considerable numbers on the open ranges of the west, they are probably better adapted to what may be termed semi-range conditions. (3) They have highest adaptation for arable land, level or undulating, and rich in all kinds of food production, and where it is desired to produce meat of a high class. (4) The absence of horns is favorable to feeding while running loose in sheds and yards, and also to transporting long distances by rail. (5) In hardihood they are about medium. III. Relative size. (i) They follow closely upon the Shorthorns and Here- fords, although they do not possess quite the same average size, but (2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to their size. (3) With good feeding, cows at maturity will weigh from 1 100 to 1500 pounds, and bulls 2000 to 2400 pounds. IV. Early maturing qualities. (1) Formerly they were slow in maturing, but in this respect they have been greatly improved. 55 56 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) With good feeding they will mature for the block at the age of, say, thirty months. V. Grazing qualities. (1) In grazing qualities they are about average. (2) Like the large bodied Shorthorns and Hereford1; they do not graze well on broken and rugged lands where the pastures are scant. VI. Feeding qualities. (1) Their feeding qualities are of the first order, as they stand confinement well and make an excellent use of the food given them. (2) They are remarkable for their retention of symmetry of form while being fattened, as they rarely become patchy or disproportioned. (3) During recent years, pure and high grade Aberdeen- Polls have won more prizes at the leading fat stock shows for the number of animals shown than have been won by any other breed. VII. Quality of meat. (1) In quality of meat they are probably ahead of the Shorthorns and Herefords, and are equal or nearly equal with the Galloway and West Highland breeds. (2) As a rule the flesh is well mixed and contains a large proportion of compact, finely grained meat, and (3) No other breed produces a higher percentage of dead meat in proportion to the live weight. VIII. Milking qualities. (1) Formerly they were possessed of good milking qualities, more especially that branch of the parent tree known as the crofters' cow. (2) These qualities have been impaired, however, through the system of breeding and management adopted, save in some individuals and in a few families. (3) The quality of the milk is first-class. IX. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Polled Aberdeens cross particularly well with Short- horn grades. (2) They are also excellent for crossing upon common stocks in arable sections where quick feeding, absence of horns and a high quality of meat are desired in the progeny. (3) A large percentage of the progeny are hornless and black or gray in color. ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 57 X. Breeding qualities. (1) Their breeding qualities were formerly of a high order, as witnessed in "Auld Granny," owned by Hugh Wat- son, but (2) To some extent they have been impaired through the artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, so that now they cannot be placed higher than good average. XL "Weak points. (1) As to properties, they do not appear to have any weaknesses which stand out markedly prominent. (2) As to form, they are in some instances a little lacking in scale. XII. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are probably something ahead in quality of meat, and in suitability for shipping by rail. (2) In adaptability, early maturity, grazing and feeding properties, utility in crossing and in breeding properties, they are about equal. (3) In general popularity, size, and milking qualities they are as yet a little behind. LECTURE NO. 16. ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE — THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following is the scale of points adopted by the Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association in 1890: for cows. POINTS (1) Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on underline behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent 2 (2) Head — Forehead moderately broad, and slightly indented ; tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to nos- trils of moderate length ; eyes full, bright and ex- pressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair; poll, well defined and without any ap- pearance of horns or scars; jaws, clean . . 10 (3) Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh underneath ... . . • 3 (4) Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck vein ... 3 (5) Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on blades and top ; with vertebra cr backbone slightly above the scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad . . . .6 (6) Chest — Wide and deep; round and full just back of elbows ........ 10 (7) Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat ...... 4 (8) Ribs — Well sprung from backbone, arched and deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins . 8 (9) Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins strong; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered; rumps, long, full, level and rounded neatlv into hindquarters . 10 58 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE, 59 (io) Hindquarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and in proportion with hindquarters; twist filled out well in its "seam" so as to form an even, wide plain between thighs . ... 8 (11) Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back, and hanging at right angles to it 3 (12) Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body and well up behind ; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size . . 8 (13) Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible; flank deep and full 4 (14) Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed; hind legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks; forearm, muscular ; bones, fine and clean . . 3 (15) Flesh — Even and without patchiness . . 3 (16) Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. Much of the thriftiness. feeding properties and value of the animal depend upon this quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judg- ment. A good "touch" will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily, as though resting on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is ob- jectionable, especially in a cold climate . . .10 (17) General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and feminine. The walk square, the step quick, and the head up 5 Perfection 100 FOR BULLS. POINTS (i) Color — Same as for cows, but add, a white cod is most undesirable 3 (2) Head — Same as for cows, but substitute forehead broad, face slightly prominent for "forehead mod- erately broad and slightly indented," and eyes mild, full and expressive, for "eyes, full, bright and expressive" 10 (3) Throat — Same as for cows 3 (4) Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with mod- erate crest (which increases with age) spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck reins . 3 Go THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (5) Shoulders — Same as for cows . (6) Chest — Same as for cows (7) Brisket — Same as for cows (8) Ribs — Same as for cows (9) Back — Same as for cows . (10) Hindquarters — Same as for cows (11) Tail — Same as for cows . (12) Underline — Same as for cows (13) Legs — Same as for cows . (14) Flesh — Same as for cows (15) Skin — Same as for cows . ( 16) General Appearance — Same as for cow stitute masculine for feminine s, but sub- 6 10 4 8 10 8 3 4 4 4 10 10 Perfection 100 The following additional points are sub- II. niitted : (1) Head, not large, clean cut, bandsome and well set on. and finer in the female. (2) Muzzle, black in color. (3) Cheeks, not heavy, but probably deeper than in some breeds. (4) Body, fairly long, broad, deep, cylindrical, well rounded at the angles and evenly covered with smooth flesh. (5) Breast, full, wide and deep and brisket broad. (6) Forearm, broad and plump and tapering gracefully to the knee. (7) Crops, full and level with the shoulder. (8) Hind flanks, full, deep and thick. (9) Buttock, moderately broad and slightly rounded at the sides. (10) Milk veins, distinctly traced. (11) Hoofs, semi-circular. (12) Skin, stronger in the male than the female. (13) The hair in the best animals has two growths, or lengths, the under one being short, thick and downy. III. Color — The color most in favor is black without any variation. (1) A shade of brown is not rejected, nor is some white about the udder, but white above the underline or on the legs will exclude from registry. (2) Red or brindled is also inadmissible. (3) Formerly they embraced a great variety of colors, as brindle, red, brown, silver colored yellow, and dark red and black stripes alternating. ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 6 1 IV. General Appearance — In general appear- ance they are low set and sturdy, fairly long in body and very smooth in outline. V. Compared with Shorthorns. (i) The Aberdeen-Angus are longer in body in proportion to the hight, smoother and more cylindrical, less prominent at the angles and even shorter in the limbs. (2) They are something finer in the muzzle and longer in the nose, a trifle longer in the neck and somewhat thicker in the hide. (3) There are also the differences in horn and color pre- viously mentioned. 00 LECTURE NO. 17. GALLOWAY CATTLE — THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORV I. Galloway cattle are so named from the province of Galloway, which now comprises the stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wig- town. (1) The principal pedigreed herds in Britain are found in Kirkcudbright, Dumfriesshire and Cumberland, where they have been bred pure further back than any authentic records carry us. (2) Several writers of the sixteenth century speak in high terms of the excellence of the flesh of the cattle of the Galloway district. II. The Galloways are certainly one of the purest, as well as one of the oldest, of the improved breeds. (1) Some authorities hold to the opinion that they are descended from a wild aboriginal polled breed still repre- sented at Chatellerault in Lanarkshire, Scotland. (2) There has been no infusion of outside blood whatever within the period of their recorded history, as all efforts to improve the breed from an outside source have been un- successful. (3) This is not inconsistent with the fact that horned cattle of other breeds have been bred simultaneously in the same districts. (4) An unmistakable proof of the antiquity and purity of the breed is found in the entire absence of scurs in pure Galloways, and in the great power which they have to remove the horns when crossed upon other breeds. III. The treatment to which they have been subjected, and the cold, damp climate in which they were originally reared, have contributed much to their proverbial ruggedness. 63 G4 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (i) They have there heen frequently reared 1500 feet above the sea level, where grain will not ripen. (2) The long wavy coat which protects them is probably owing to the dampness of the climate. IV. During much of the last century and also the beginning of the present one, it was customary to drive Galloways in large numbers to the south- eastern counties of England to be finished for the London market. (1) For many years, from 20,000 to 30.000 head were thus driven annually from the home of the Galloways. (2) This trade ceased after the introduction of turnip husbandry into that part of Scotland. V. Introduction into America. (1) The first recorded Galloways were imported into Canada by Graham Bros, of Vaughan. Ont., in 1853, but (2) Their dissemination in that country was owing chiefly, to the untiring efforts of Thomas McCrae of Guelph. Ont., who began breeding them in 1861, and importing them from Scotland a few years subsequently. (3) They were imported into Michigan about 1870, and somewhat later to Wisconsin and Missouri. (4) They have also been introduced to some extent into other Anglo-Saxon countries. VI. During the last century there were many Galloways of mixed colors, a point that is well brought out in crossing them on other breeds. (1) Some were belted, some had white faces and a white mark along the back, others were brindled, drab or dun, red, and red and white. (2) When crossed with an old established breed, one-half the calves will probably show a variety of colors. VIT. Galloway breeders" Associations. O) The Galloway Cattle Society in Britain was estab- lished in 1877. (2) The American Galloway Breeders' Association was established in 1882. VIII. "Registration in Britain. (i) The first volume of the Galloway Herd Book, as distinguished from that of the Aberdeen-Angus was published in 1878. 66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) Previous to that time they had been registered in the same record as the Aberdeen-Angus breed. (3) The Rev. John Gillespie, Mousewald Manse, Dum- fries, has been the editor of the Galloway Herd Book since the adoption of separate registration. IX. Registration in North America. (1) Registration was commenced in Ontario in 1872, and up to 1874 was entirely confined to Canada. (2). The first volume of the American Galloway Herd Book was published by the Agriculture and Arts Association of Ontario in 1883. (3) In 1883, the interest of the last named association was purchased by the American Galloway Breeders' Associa- tion, and since that time the American registration of Gallo- ways has been conducted in the United States. X. Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) The more important centers of distribution in the United States are Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas and Minnesota and in the order named. (2) A considerable number are found in the various provinces of Canada, and they are probably most numerous in Ontario and Nova Scotia. XI. Registration in the United States. (1) Nine volumes of the American Galloway Herd Book have been issued. (2) A total of 14.401 animals have been recorded, of which 6,262 are males and 8,229 females, and 1,000 pedigrees await record. LECTURE NO. 18. GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- ISTICS. I. Popularity. (i) Galloway cattle are probably not so popular as the Shorthorn, Hereford and Polled Aberdeen breeds, yet (2) Among the leading beef breeds they are entitled to at least the fourth place. (3) In the United States, and also to a less extent in Canada, they are gaining ground where cattle must needs rustle in inclement weather. II. Adaptability. (1) They are incomparably the hardiest of the British races, except the West Highland breed. (2) Their long hair and thick mossy undercoat enables them to endure well the severities of weather arising from wet and cold, hence (3) They are very well adapted to rugged regions and to the purposes of the range, both in the western states and the Canadian Northwest. (4) They do better on spare diet than nearly all of the ether beef breeds, as they have been much reared on rocky and thin land. (5) This vigor of constitution enables them to stand well long journeys by road, rail or ship transit. III. Relative size. O) In size they are considerably less than the Shorthorns and Herefords. and something less than the Aberdeen Polls, and possibly the Sussex, but (2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to the apparent size. IV. Early maturing qualities. (1) They do not mature quite so quickly as some of the beef breeds, owing to the way in which they have been reared, but (2) When fed a forcing ration they are capable of matur- ing at an early age. 67 68 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Grazing qualities. (i) The grazing qualities of Galloways are of a high order. (2) They are capable of "roughing it" on rugged pastures, and of making fair gains on these, and (3) When put on rich pastures they finish quickly and in fine form. VI. Feeding qualities. (1) Galloways feed well, not only in the pure form, but when crossed upon certain other breeds, as the Shorthorn and West Highland. (2) The largest specimens are not usually equal in feed- ing qualities to the short legged animals with small, fine bone. (3) They take on flesh smoothly, being almost entirely free from patchiness. VII. Quality of meat. (1) Galloway beef has been noted for its fine quality in the London markets for nearly two centuries, where, during that time, it has commanded the highest market price. (2) The fat is put on more internally than externally, and is finely intermixed with lean, the proportion of the latter being unusually large. (3) The grain of the flesh is extremely delicate and it is rich in flavor. VIII. Milking qualities. (1) Galloways cannot lay claim to any superiority as a milking breed, since they have been bred mainly for the block, but (2) Some individuals milk well and the milk of all is rich. IX. Value in crossing and grading. (1) For prepotency Galloways are almost unrivaled. (2) When a bull of this race is crossed upon any of the various horned breeds, a large percentage of the produce will be black, and from 95 to 100 per cent without horns. (3) A first cross from cows of various breeds has per- plexed good judges to distinguish them from pure breds. X. Breeding qualities. O) The breeding qualities of Galloways are excellent, owing largely, doubtless, to freedom from confinement during much of the year. (2) For a similar reason they breed to a good old age. GALLOWAY CATTLE. 69 XI. Utility in the hides. (1) The hides of Galloways are likely to be much used for robes and outer garments, owing to the length and beauty of the outer coat of hair. (2) This feature is also likely to exercise an influence on the character of the sires chosen for breeding. XII. Weak points. (1) Their undeveloped milking qualities render them less well adapted to mixed husbandry, and (2) Their lack of size renders them less suitable for rich arable sections. XIII. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are ahead of Shorthorns in hardihood, in adaptability to exposed situations, in grazing properties, in the high quality of the meat, in prepotency and in breeding qualities and in the value of the hides, but (2) Thej' are not equal to them in popularity, in general ad? ptability, in size, in feeding qualities and in milk pro- duction. LECTURE NO. 19. GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following scale of points was drawn up by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Society of Great Britain in 1883: (1) Color — Black, with a brownish tinge. (2) Head — Short and wide, with broad forehead and wide nostrils; without the slightest symptoms of horns or scurs. (3) Eyes — Large and prominent. (4) Ears — Moderate in length and broad, pointing for- ward and upward, fringe of long hairs. (5) Neck — Moderate in length, clean and filling well into the shoulders ; the top in a line with the back in the female, and in a male naturally rising with age. (6) Body — Deep, rounded and symmetrical. (7) Shoulders — Fine and straight, moderately wide above; coarse shoulder points and sharp or high shoulders are objectionable. (8) Breast — Full and deep. (9) Back and Rump — Straight. (10) Ribs — Deep and well sprung. (11) Loin and Sirloin — Well filled. (12) Hook Bones — Not prominent. (13) Hindquarters — Long, moderately wide and well filled. (14) Flank — Deep and full. (15) Thighs — Broad, straight and well let down to hock; rounded buttocks are very objecticnable. (16) Legs — Short and clean, with fine bone. (17) Tail — Well set on and moderately thick. (18) Skin — Mellow and moderately thick. (19) Hair — Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat; wiry or curly hair is very objectionable. IT. Compared with the scale of points given by Aiton in 181 1, the following are the chief points of difference : (2) The muzzle is now broader. More prominence is now given to the ear. (3) The hams are squarer. (4) The tail is finer, and (5) The hide some thinner. 70 GALLOWAY CATTLE. Jl ILL The following- list of undesirable points in Galloways was drawn up by James Biggar, Dal- beattie, Scotland : (i) Long, narrow head with high crown. (2) Narrow tapering muzzle. (3) Long, drooping ears. (4) Small, deep-set eyes. (5) Small, light neck. (6) Light, scraggy breast. (7) High, narrow shoulders. (8) Flatness behind shoulders. (9) Light fore or back ribs. (10) Square and prominent hook bones. (11) High or drooping rumps. (12) Weak or slack loins. (13) Rounded buttocks. (14) Fleshy double thighs. (15) Big, coarse bones. (16) Thick, stiff skin. (17) Hard, wiry or too curly hair. (18) Black, hard hair without soft undercoat. IV. General appearance of Galloways. (1) They are low set, sturdy, robust, lively and spirited. (2) The muscles are strong, especially those concerned in traveling. (3) The coat is long, beautifully waved and handsome. V. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) Galloways are less in size, more low set, and not quite so squarely built. (2) They are shorter in the head and polled, broader in the ear, more prominent in the arm and thigh, not quite so well filled in the crops, less prominent at the hooks and stronger at the tailhead, and (3) They are thicker in the hide, longer and more wavy in the coat and are black in color. VI. Compared with Aberdeen-Angus. (1) Galloways are something less in size and not quite so long in body. (2) They are shorter in the head and less prominent and pointed at the poll. (3) They are a little more prominent at the angles of the body, not quite so cylindrical in shape, more prominent at the arm and thigh, a little stronger at ;he tailhead and not quite so well filled in the crops, and (4) They are a little thicker in the hide and longer and more wavy in the coat. LECTURE NO. 20. SUSSEX CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. Some obscurity hangs over the origin oi this breed, but there are good reasons for believing that they are closely associated in ancestry with the Devons. (1) Their breeding in England is largely confined to the counties of Sussex, Kent, Surrey and Hampshire, and (2) It is only recently that they have been exported to other countries. II. It is only within a comparatively limited period that the improvement of the breed has received marked attention. (1) Formerly the animals of both sexes were used for plowing and other farm work, but now they are bred mainly for beef. (2) Of late years they have scored well at the Smithfield Show at London, and also to some extent at the Fat Stock Show in Chicago. (3) The calves are generally reared on the dams, usually getting only a part of the milk at first, and afterwards th" wh ")le of it. (4) The Sussex Herd Book was established in England in i860. III. Sussex cattle in other countries. (1) They were imported to the United States by Overton Lea of Nashville. Tenn.. in 1884. (2) In 1891 a small importation was made into Canada by the Ontario Experiment Station at Guelph. but some speci- mens of the breed had been brought into the country at an earlier period, although they were eventually taken to the United States. 72 74 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. IV. Distribution in the United States. (i) It can scarcely be said that Sussex cattle have made marked progress since their introduction into the United States. (2) A few herds have been established, chiefly in the Mississippi basin, but accessible information regarding them is very meager. (3) They are now found in the states of Tennessee, Maine, Illinois, Indiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Colorado and in Canada. V. Registration in the United States. (1) No Herd Record for Sussex cattle has yet been pub- lished in the United States, although (2) Material for the same is accumulating. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity and adaptability. (1) Sussex cattle are popular only in limited areas owing in a considerable degree to the little effort made by breeders to place them before the outside public. (2) Like the Shorthorns they are best adapted to locali- ties rich in production and temperate in character. II. Relative size. (1) They are a heavy breed, fully equal to the Galloways in weight, but are rather larger than the Galloways in frame. (2) They are possessed of several of the same properties as the Devons, to whom they bear a somewhat close resem- blance, but they are considerably larger. III. Early maturing- and grazing qualities. (1) In maturing they are a little behind some breeds, but in this respect they are rapidly improving. (2) As grazers they are nearly, if not quite, equal to the Herefords. IV. Feeding qualities and quality of the meat. (i) They feed well, but in some instances are said to be a little over-nervous in temperament. (2) The quality of the meat is very good, though some individuals are a little overstrong in bone. SUSSEX CATTLE. 75 V. Milking qualities. (i) In milking qualities they are measurably deficient, hence they are not much used in the dairy. (2) They are usually suckled by their own calves. VI. Value in crossing and grading. (1) They have not been greatly used for this purpose in the United States, hence (2) But little on these points can be said with definiteness. VII. Breeding qualities. (1) These are good, since (2) They have not been reared quite so artificially as some breeds. VIII. Weak points. (1) They have scarcely been tested enough in this country to know which these are, but (2) They will include milking qualities that rank not high, and in many instances a little slowness in maturing. IX. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are not nearly equal to Shorthorns in popu- larity and in milking qualities, and (2) They are not quite equal to them in all-round adaptability, in size, in early maturing and feeding qualities and in value in crossing and grading, but (3) They are probably something ahead of them in the marbling of the meat and in breeding qualities. PRINCIPAL POINTS. In the absence of an authorized scale of points the following is submitted : I. Size — Medium for the breed, inclining to large. II. Head — Medium, though in some instances it inclines to large. (1) Forehead, wide. (2) Nose, medium in size and inclining a little to long. (3) Muzzle, fairly broad and moist, and nostrils about average. (4) Eyes, large, full, clear and of medium calmness. y6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (5) Horns, somewhat long but not coarse, fairly spread- ing, with a graceful forward curve in the male and forward and upward curve with some spread in the female. III. Neck — Medium in length and cleanly made, but some animals of the breed have a little dewlap. (1) It should widen and deepen as in the Shorthorn, but (2) It is sometimes not quite so well filled in the neck vein. IV. Body — Of the parallelogrammic type. (1) Back, wide and straight throughout, with a flat loin, nearly as wide at the fore as at the hind end, and each side lying on a level with the chine. (2) Withers, moderately wide. (3) Shoulders, large and smooth. (4) Breast, wide and projecting well forward, as is also the brisket. (5) Crops, full and heart girth good. (6) Ribs, well sprung, giving a rounded appearance to the body, and narrow between the last rib and hip bone. (7) Hooks, broad, with a wide space between and lying nearly as high as the chine. (8) Hips, large and straight without, both at the side and rear. _ (9) Thighs, flat on the outside and without incurvature behind. (10) Rumps, long and flat and wide at the setting on of the tail. (11) Buttock, wide and straight. (12) Twist, deep and set low. (13) Tail, perpendicularly hung. V. Legs — Medium in length and neither fine nor coarse in bone. VI. Skin — Only moderately thick and mel- low and covered with soft hair. VII. Color — Usually a solid red, both light and dark shades being common. (1) These shades sometimes commingle to form a beauti- ful dapple bay. (2) A little white is permissible about the udder and a few white hairs, nearly always single, except on the foretop and flank, are regarded most favorably. SUSSEX CATTLE. JJ VIII. General Appearances-Sussex cattle are smooth and symmetrical and neither massively built nor of the pony order. IX. Compared with Shorthorns. (i) The Sussex breed are not so large, something less in width and a little longer and stronger in limb. (2) They have heads slightly stronger and longer, horn? longer and more upturned, are scarcely so well filled in the neck vein and breast, and are not so wide nor massive though equally smooth. (3) In color, they are red only. LECTURE NO. 21. WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. The West Highland cattle, sometimes called Kyloes, are no doubt descended from the aboriginal wild cattle of the country. II. Although Argyleshire is their central home, they occupy the whole of the west and middle Highlands, and the western islands, being found in the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides. (i) One of the oldest herds is that of Poltalloch, founded in 1795. (2) In many places to the southward they have displaced the deer formerly kept in the parks of noblemen. III. Much attention has been given of late to the improvement of the breed, and with a success that is encouraging. (1) The cows suckling calves are housed for a short time in winter, and some of the young cattle have sheds provided, but the principal portion winter in the open air. (2) A Herd Book has recently been established for the breed, in Great Britain, largely through the influence of Lord Dunmore. IV. West Highland cattle in other countries. (1) Some have been imported to the United States, more especially the far West, and some to the Dominion of Canada, but (2) As yet tbey have not obtained an extensive foothold outside of Great Britain. 78 WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 79 V. They have a beautiful appearance when in finest bloom, which is during the last three months of the year, owing (1) To the sturdy character of the frame. (2) To the wild piercing glance of the eye, and (3) To the long shaggy coat which grows so abundantly, especially about the head and neck. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) West Highland cattle ha^e as yet but little popularity outside of Great Britain, since (2) They have been but little exported to other countries. II. Adaptability. (1) Their incomparable hardihood and their fine grazing qualities adapt them to mountainous conditions, cold and bleak, where many other breeds could not subsist. (2) There should be a place for them on the mountain pastures of both the eastern and western states. III. Relative size. (1) They are considerably the smallest of the distinctive beef breeds, but (2) They weigh well in proportion to their size, owing to their sturdiness of build. IV. Early maturing qualities. (1) They are not good, owing to the conditions to which they are subjected, but (2) Under improved conditions of environment these would also improve. V. Grazing qualities. (1) These are of a high order, as they are cortented with the coarsest fare, and ultimately get fat where more tender breeds could scarcely exist. (2) They are well capable of enduring both damp and cold, and (3) Their staying powers are almost without limit, hence they can travel far in gathering food. (4) In winter they frequently eat heather and fur.'*, and when taken south they fatten on pastures from which tbc best portions have been eaten. WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 8l (S) They are generally finished on low land, and for this purpose they are in high favor in Scotland and England. VI. Feeding qualities. (i) These are only medium, as they mature so slowly, and (2) Owing to their natural wildness, they take some time to become accustomed to confinement. VII. Quality of meat. (1) The meat is well laid on, is of the finest quality, and commands the highest price in the English markets.^ (2) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight is also large. VIII. Milking qualities. (1) These are not good, since they are subjected to con- ditions unfavorable to milk production, but (2) The quality of the milk is excellent. IX. Value in crossing and grading. (1) For either use there would seem to be no place for West Highland cattle, since (2) Decreased hardihood in the progeny would make them less well adapted to mountain pastures, and want of size would make them less valuable than other breeds on lowland pastures, but (3) When crossed upon by the Galloways, the progeny are excellent where the food conditions can be improved. X. Breeding qualities. (1) These are of the best, since (2) Their environment is favorable to such breeding. XI. Weak points. (1) For cold, bleak conditions they seem to be completely furnished, but (2) Want of size, scant milk production and shyness of disposition will hinder them from supplanting the large and more completely domesticated breeds. XII. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are considerably behind Shorthorns in popu- larity, general adaptability, size, maturing, feeding and milk- ing qualities, and for crossing and grading, but (2) They are considerably ahead of them in hardihood, grazing and breeding qualities and in the marbling of the meat. 6 82 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. PRINCIPAL POINTS. In the absence of an authorized scale of points, the following is submitted : I. Size — Medium, but it will naturally adjust itself to the attendant conditions of environment. II. Head — The head is short and well pro- portioned, and has a profusion of long, shaggy and curly hair coming down below the eyes. (i) Forehead, broad and jawbones to correspond. (2) Eyes, prominent and possessed of a quick piercing glance. (3) Nose, slightly turned up at the point. (4) Horns, long, wide apart, curved and pointed and tipped with black. (a) They should come out level with the head, and (b) They should then incline forward and upward with a peculiar back set curve and wide sweep. III. Neck — The neck should be medium in length and strong. (1) It should be without dewlap, but oftentimes is not. (2) On the crest of the bulls there is a mane of coarser hair. IV. Body — The body is strong, deep, thick, muscular and compact. (1) Back, straight, wide and well rounded from the shoulders backward. (2) Shoulders, thick and immensely filled out downwards, from the point to the lower extremity of the forearm. (3) Chest, wide and deep with much breadth between the forelegs. (4) Ribs, well developed and fairly arched. (5) Hind quarters, large development, square between the hip bones and the tail, and also at the buttock. (6) Thighs, possessed of immense development. (7) Tail, thick and strong, with a full bunch of hair hanging down toward the ground. V. Legs — The legs are short, extremely mus- cular, are "well feathered," bone thick, broad and straight and hoofs strong. WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 83 VI. Skin — Rather thick, but mellow to the touch. (1) The hair should be abundant, long, glossy, and pos- sessed of a graceful wave. (2) A curl in the hair is a decided fault. VII. Color — The color varies, some animals being black, others red, dun, yellow and brindled or red and black. (1) As a rule, the color is black, but fashion now inclines to yellow or light dun and brindle. (2) A well marked brindle is said to be the favorite color for bulls. VIII. General Appearance — In general ap- pearance the West Highlander is sturdy and strong, and when seen on mountain or in timber pastures and in good condition he is weird, stately, grand. IX. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) They are much smaller, but sturdier, and more low set. (2) The head is shorter, the horns much larger, and the eye livelier. (3) The bones are stronger, and the arm and thigh much more fully developed, and (4) They have a more picturesque appearance, owing largely to the long hair which covers them, more especially about the head and neck. THE DAIRY BREEDS LECTURE NO. 22. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. But little is known with certainty regarding the ultimate origin of this breed, but (1) Judging from the few flashlight statements coming from a remote past they would seem to have been bred pure in much of the country eastward from the North sea for fully 2000 years. (2) History makes it clear that since the Christian era, if not, indeed, before that time, cattle keeping has been the chief occcupation of the rural population. (3) There is some evidence to show that as early as the ninth century, Holland was famed for its dairy products. (4) The historian, Motley, referring to this country, speaks of oxen 2000 pounds in weight, and of the immense production and exportation of butter and cheese, even in the seventeenth century. II. Holland has several breeds or types of cat- tle, of which the Friesian, or Friesland, are the most numerous. (1) The Friesian and North Holland cattle, resembling each other in all essentials and the progenitors of nearly all the Holstein-Friesian cattle in the United States, are by many supposed to have come originally from the duchy of Holstein. (2) The sub-breeds, Oldenburgers, West Friesian, East Friesian, Gronnigen and Beemster are all supposed to have been derived from one parent stem. (3) The differences are owing in part to differences in management, but more probably to differences in soil pro- duction. 85 o U Q. CO I HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 87 III. Offshoots from Holland cattle. (1) Among these are the Flanders breed of Belgium and France, the Oldenburg and Brittenburg breeds of Germany, and the Holmogorian breed of Russia. (2) Cattle are also numerous in other parts of Europe which evidently possess the blood of the cattle of Holland in a greater or less degree. IV. Importations into Britain. (1) In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries more or less of the blood of Dutch cattle was carried into England and Scotland and exercised some influence on the milking qualities of the old Teeswater and Ayrshire breeds. (2) In England this influence extended northward from the Humber and over a considerable region. V. These cattle have for centuries past been noted for their extraordinary dairy properties. (1) The effort to further improve them would seem to have been constant and unceasing. (2) The unusual succulence and productiveness of the pastures, which grow largely on reclaimed dyke lands, have facilitated such improvement. VI. Care and management in Holland. (1) They are carefully housed in clean, well lighted and comfortable stables in winter and are milked in the pastures from about May 1st to November 1st. (2) When on pasture they are blanketed during inclement weather. (3) Only a few of the :hoicest bulls are kept for breeding and about 20 per cent of the choicest females. (4) The calves not reared are usually sold for veal and the cows for beef, after having produced five or six calves. VII. Importations into the United States. (1) The first cattle imported from Holland are supposed to have reached the Mohawk valley about 1621, and other sundry importations are thought to have been made subse- quently by Dutch settlers. (2) The first importation of which we have any definite knowledge was made to Cazenovia by the Holland Land Company in 1795. (3) The first herd, the blood of which has been kept pure, was imported by W. W. Chenery of Belmont, Mass., in 1861. (4) Importations did not become general or frequent until about 25 years ago. 88 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. VIII. Registration of Holstein-Friesian cattle. (i) Nine volumes of the Holstein Herd Book were pub- lished by the Holstein Breeders' Association of America, the first of which appeared in 1872 and the last in 1885. (2) Four volumes of the Dutch Friesian Herd Book were published by the Dutch Friesian Herd Book Association of America, the first of which appeared in 1880 and the last in 1885. (3) These two associations were united in 1885 under the name of the "Holstein-Friesian Association of America." (4) Public herd records are also now kept in Ontario, Holland, Belgium and Germany. IX. Advanced registry. (1) The Holstem-Fri^ian Association of America was the pioneer association in establishing a system of advanced registry based on structural form and actual performance. (2) It was established in 1885 and largely through the efforts of Mr. S. Hoxie of Yorkville, N. Y., who was made the first superintendent. (3) No animals are admitted under the age of two years. (4) No bull will be admitted which ha1: not evidenced superior quality in his progeny and that will not scale eighty points in the rigid standard set for advanced registry. (5) A cow must have borne a calf and made certain milk and butter records required of cows of her form or year. X. Distribution in the United States. (1) Holstein-Friesian cattle are kept in every state in the Union. (2) They are most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania. Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa. Massachusetts and Michigan, and probably in the order named. XI. Registration in the United States. fi) Since the consolidation of the associations named under Note VIII, sixteen volumes of the Holstein-Friesian Herd Book have been issued. (2) Four volumes of the advanced registry were pub- lished separately, beginning with 1887, but the records com- mencing with Vol. XII of the Holstein Herd Book are now bound up with and appear in the several volumes of the same. (3) There have been recorded in the records of the con- solidated association, including Vol. XVI, 93.464 animals, of which 31.533 are males and 61.931 are females. (4) The American branch association of the North Hol- land Herd Book has also recorded 396 males and 1125 females. LECTURE NO. 23. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAX CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHAR- ACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) The Holsteins deservedly rank very high among dairy cattle in America. (2) Although they entered the field considerably later, they are only second to the Jerseys in point of numbers. II. Adaptability. (1) The large, capacious frame of the Holstein calls for environment where the land is level rather than broken, and rich in forage and grain production. (2) When these conditions are present the}- may be kept with much advantage in providing milk for cities, for cheese factories and creameries and also for private dairies, in which the skimmilk can be turned to excellent account. III. Relative size. (1) The Holsteins are unquestionably the largest of the distinctive dairy breeds found in America. (2) The frame is fully as large as that of the Brown Swiss and is not much behind that of the Shorthorn. (3) The average live weight of cows may be put at 1200 pounds, while they vary from 1000 to 1500 pounds. IV. Milking qualities. (1) In the production of milk, auantity alone considered, the Holsteins are without a rival, but (2) The milk does not average so high in butter fat as that of some breeds, although to this there are some excep- tions. (3) The milk is good for cheese or butter making, and tither fresh or skimmed it is excellent for promoting quick development in young animals, since it is rich in constituents that go to form bone, muscle and fibrous tissue. 89 90 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Early maturing qualities. (r) Because of their large size they do not mature quite so quickly as some of the smaller breeds, but (2) The heifers usually become milk producers at from twenty-four to thirty months. VI. Grazing- qualities. (1) These are good, but not of the highest. (2) The large frame forbids grazing them on lands much broken, or where they would have to travel far in gathering food. (3) Soiling foods can be used with peculiar advantage in supplementing their summer pastures. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) They are of quiet disposition, grow rapidly, make large relative gains and attain good size when grown for meat production, but (2) As they go on toward maturity they frequently lose in smoothness, although (3) Up to the age of about eighteen months they should be capable of producing much meat relatively and of excellent quality. (4) It is probably true that much of the discrimination shown against matured Holstein beef in this country, but not all of it, is grounded in prejudice. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (:) Holsteins may be crossed upon common animals with much advantage when the object is to produce large dairy cows of free milk producing powers. (2) When the object is to produce dual-purpose cattle they are not so well adapted to this end as some other breeds, but (3) Where large quantities of skimmilk are wanted for pork production, or where what is termed "baby beef" is reared, the Holstein cross may be eminently in order. (4) Their marked prepotency is well brought out in the distinctive color markings which they impart. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) As breeders Holsteins stand high among the dairy breeds, since (2) In-breeding has been carefully avoided, more espe- cially in the parent stocks, hence in a great measure their freedom from disease, but HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 91 (3) Under feeding too forced and conditions too artifi- cial, these good breeding properties will wane. X. Weak points. ' (1) The milk of this excellent milk producing breed does not average really high in butter fat. (2) The average handling qualities are not so good as in some breeds, which would point to a relatively large con- sumption of food, and (3) The quality of the matured meat does not rank among the very best. LECTURE NO. 24. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE — THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following scale of points was drawn up by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America in 1885 : FOR BULLS. POINTS (1) Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour . 2 (2) Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing . 2 (3) Face — Contour graceful, especially under the eye, medium in length, broad muzzle . . .2 (4) Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair I (5) Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright . . 2 (6) Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short, oval, inclining forward ..... 2 (7) Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders, nearly free from dewlap, of good length, proud in bearing 5 (8) Shoulders — Of medium hight, well rounded and even over tops 4 (9) Chest — Low, deep and full 8 (10) Crops — Full and level with shoulders . . 4 (11) Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open . 3 (12) Barrel — Well rounded, with large abdomen . . 6 (13) Loins and Hips — Broad, full, long and level . 5 (14) Rump — High, long, broad and level . . 5 (15) Thurl — High, with great width . . . 4 (16) Quarters — Long, straight behind, wide and full at sides 5 C 17) Flanks — Deep and full . . . . 2 (18) Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, in position firm, wide apart, feet of medium size, round, solid, and deep 6 (19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set- ting, tapering finely to a full switch ... 2 (20) Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of a rich brown or yellow color . . . .10 Q2 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 93 (21) Mammary Feins— Long, large, branched, with extensions entering large orifices ... 10 (22) Rudimentary Teats— Not less than four large well spread .2 (23) Escutcheon— Large and fine development . * 8 Perfection 100 FOR COWS. POINTS (1) Head— Decidedly feminine in appearance, com- paratively long from eyes to base of horns, fine in contour 2 (2) Forehead— Broad between the eyes, dishing . ' 2 (3) Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes, showing facial veins, length medium, broad muzzle 2 (4) Ears — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft' hair x (5) Eyes— Moderately full, large and mild . . 2 (6) Horns—Set moderately narrow at base, fine, ' oval, well bent, inclining forward . . 2 (7) Neck— Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly joined to head and shoulders, top line slightly curving, of good length, moderately thin, ele- gant in bearing . (8) Shoulders— Fine and even over tops, lower than' hips, and moderately thick, deep and broad •? (9) Chest— Low. deep and broad ... 6 (10) Crop s— Full and level with shoulders .' .' 2 (n) Chine— Straight, broadly developed and open . 3 (12) Barrel— Well rounded, with large abdomen . 5 (13) Loins and Hips— -Broad, full, long and level' . 5 (14) Rump— High, long, broad and level, with roomy pelvis , (15) Thurl— High, with great width . . . ' . 4 (16) Quarters— Long, straight behind, roomy in the twist, wide and full at sides .... 4 (17) Flanks— Fairly deep and full . ... 2 (18) Legs— Short, clean, tapering with strong arm, in position firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep .... 5 (19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set- ting, tapering finely to a full switch . . . 2 (20) Hair and Handling— Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of a rich brown or yellow color ... 10 94 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (21) Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked, branched with extensions entering large orifices 10 (22) Udder — Capacious, flexible, well developed both in front and rear, teats well formed, wide apart, and of convenient size .... 12 (23) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 8 Perfection . 100 II. General appearance. (1) The large parallelogrammic rather than the wedge shaped frame of the Holstein conveys the idea of much ca- pacity, and (2) The long and slender head, neck and limbs, with the distinctiveness of the black and white markings, convey the idea of generations of careful breeding. III. Compared with Shorthorns. (1) Holsteins are usually as large, but not so massive in frame. (2) They are something longer and less wide in head and neck and longer in limb. (3) They are not so full in the neck vein, brisket and flank, and are lighter in arm and thigh, but (4) They have the same squareness of development at the rear, except that they slant away a little more from the sacrum, and (5) They have a more accentuated development of milk veins. LECTURE NO. 25. DUTCH BELTED CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. I. The Dutch Belted cattle originated in Hol- land prior to the seventeenth century. (1) They are the outcome of scientific breeding and selec- tion carried on through long generations. (2) From the outset they have been chiefly if not entirely controlled by the nobility of Holland. II. Origin of the name. (1) They are so named from the white belt or band which encircles the barrel of every animal of the breed. (2) The original Dutch name is ''Lakenfield cattle," from "Laken, a sheer to be wound around the body of the animal." III. Distribution in other countries. (1) They are not found in many countries outside of Holland, owing (2) To the decimation of the herds by contending armies and to the disinclination of the owners to part with them. IV. Importation into the United States. O) The first importation definitely traced was made by D. H. Haight. Goshen. Orange county, New York, about 1838, but (2) It is thought that early settlers had brought some specimens to that county at an earlier date. (3) Importations have been infrequent, owing to the diffi- culty in securing the animals. (4) A large proportion of the best specimens now in the United States trace to the herds of D. H. Haight, mentioned in Note O), J. A. Holbert, Goshen, New York, and J. H. Knight, Monroe, New York. V. Organizations. (1) It is only during recent decades that Dutch Belted cattle have been registered in Europe or America. 95 DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 97 (2) The Dutch Belted Cattle Association was organized in New York city in 1886. VI. Distribution in North America. (1) Dutch Belted cattle are now kept in twenty-six states of the Union, in Mexico and in Canada. (2) They are most numerously kept in New York, Mas- sachusetts. Pennsylvania and Ohio, and in the order given. VII. Registration in the United States. (1) Five volumes of the Dutch Belted Herd Book have been issued. (2) There have been recorded 1250 animals, of which 367 are males and 883 females. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) Dutch Belted cattle have not as yet come greatly into favor with the many in Europe or America. (2) This is probably more the result of circumstances connected with their origin and distribution than of any want of inherent excellence. II. Adaptability. (1) Dutch Belted cattle have much the same adaptation as Holsteins. (2) They do best in tillable areas where grazing is plenti- ful and where fodders can be grown in ample supply, as, for instance, in the Mississippi basin. (3) While not delicate, they are not perhaps so well adapted to withstand rigors of climate as some dairy breeds, hence their movement in this country has been southward rather than northward. III. Relative size. (1) They are somewhat less in size than the average Hol- stein and are a little ahead of the Ayrshire and Guernsey. (2) The average weight of the cows has been put at 1000 to 1200 pounds and of the bulls at about 1800 pounds, or a little more than that. IV. Milking- qualities. (1) These are excellent, but their utmost capacity in milk production does not appear to have been heretofore tested, as in the case of the Holsteins. (2) The average in milk production, however, would probably be very similar, as also the character of the milk and the uses to which it is adapted (see Page 89). 7 98 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Early maturing qualities, (i) They are average in this respect. (2) Like the Holsteins they come into milk at from twenty-four to thirty months, but continue to develop for at least two years subsequently. VI. Grazing qualities. (1) These are much the same as with the Holsteins, that is to say, they need good grazing lands rich in production and that do not involve climbing on the part of the animals grazing them. (2) Their grazing properties do not appear to have been much tested in northerly iatitudes and in exposed situations. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) As in the case of the Holstein they feed well up to the age of one to two years and they grow quickly. (2) Up to the age mentioned, the killing qualities are good, but not so good relatively, subsequently, owing to more accentuated development in the dairy form. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Their marked prepotency is shown in the reproduc- tion of the band or belt around the body when they arc crossed upon common animals. (2) Such crosses should prove beneficial where the chief object sought is improvement in dairy qualities. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) These are average, but not probably of the highest type, although (2) When properly managed they are sufficiently repro- ductive. X. Weak points. (1) By inheritance they stand on the borderland of undue refinement, hence (2) They have probably not the same all-round vigor of some breeds. XL Compared with Holsteins. 0) They are not as yet so generally popular as the Hol- steins, nor are they quite equal to them in size or vigor. (2) In all the other essential characteristics the two breeds are very similar. DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 99 STANDARD POINTS. I. The following scale of points was adopted by the Dutch Belted Cattle xA.ssociation of America : foe cows. POINTl (1) Body — Color, black, with a clearly defined con- tinuous white belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the shoulder and ex- tending nearly to the hips 8 (2) Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dish- ing ; broad between the eyes ; poll prominent ; muzzle fine : dark tongue ..... 6 (3) Eyes — Black, full and mild ; horns long com- pared with their diameter 4 (4) Neck — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in symmetry with the head and shoulders 6 (5) Shoulders — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they extend backward and downward, with a low chest ....... 4 (6) Barrel — Large and deep, with well developed abdomen, ribs well rounded and free from fat 10 (7) Hips — Broad, and chine level with full loin . . 10 (8) Rump — High, long and broad .... 6 (9) Hindquarters — Long and deep, rear line in- curving; tail, long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8 (10) Legs — Short,- clean, standing well apart . . 3 (11) Udder — Large, well developed front and rear; teats of convenient size and wide apart ; mam- mary veins large, long and crooked, entering large orifices 20 (12) Escutcheon — 2 (13) Hair — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thick- ness and of a rich dark or yellow color . . 3 (14) Quiet disposition, and free from fat . . 4 (15) General condition and apparent constitution , 6 Perfection 100 FOR BULLS. II. For males the scale should be the same as fc r females, except that IOO THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (i) No (il) should be omitted and the hull credited 10 points for size and wide spread, and placing of rudimentary teats, and (2) Five points additional should be allowed for develop- ment of shoulder and five for perfection of belt. III. General appearance. (1) Dutch Belted cattle are a handsome breed because of their symmetry of form, their clean cut head, neck and limbs and the striking character of their color markings. IV. Compared with Holsteins. (1) The all-round development is something less with Dutch Belted cattle. (2) They are a little finer at the muzzle and a trifle more prominent at the poll, the horns are wider spread and more uniformly tipped upward at the points, they are something more incurved at the rear and the tendencies to refinement of form are stronger than with the Holsteins. (3) There are also the differences in color markings. LECTURE NO. 26. AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. The origin of the Ayrshire breed of cattle is involved in much obscurity, but it is generally sup- posed that they are made up largely of the blood of the Holderness, Dutch, Alderney, Kerry and West Highland breeds, engrafted upon the native stocks of the country during the eighteenth century. (1) No particular individuals stand out prominently as improvers of the breed. (2) Their chief excellences are supposed to have arisen from the peculiar circumstances of climate and soil and from the situation of several of the western counties of Scotland. (3) Much attention was drawn to the breed toward the close of the last century by exhibitions gotten up for the pur- pose of improving it, and (4) During the first half of the present century, the devel- opment of the wedge shape and hindquarters was much improved and the udder was brought to its present beautifully symmetrical proportions. II. Ayrshires are so named from the county of Ayr, where the breed originated, and which is still its principal center. (1) They were at one time frequently spoken of as Dun- lop cattle from a family of that name wno had given consid- erable attention to breeding them in the eighteenth century. (2) They now form the only class of dairy stock in the counties of Ayr, Wigtown, Bute, Argyle, Dumfries, Kirkcud- bright and Perth. (3) They also exist numerously in other counties of Scotland and in England. III. Their mixed ancestry is indicated in the following resemblances : (i) The wide and deep hindquarter points to Shorthorn blood in the ancestry. (2) The fine skin to Alderney blood. IOI AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO3 (3) The general outline and high milking qualities are akin to those of the Holsteins. (4) Their ability to give milk from sparse pastures points to Kerry relationship, and (5) Their natural shyness of disposition with certain horn and hair resemblances indicate West Highland kinship. (6) This view of their mixed origin is strengthened by the numerous instances of atavic transmission found in' some herds. IV. Distribution in other countries. (1) They have obtained a fair footing in Finland, pure or crossed on native stocks, and are numerous in Sweden and Norway. (2) In New Zealand they stand next to the Devons in point of numbers. (3) They have also been introduced into various other countries, including Japan, and in all of these they are dis- tinguished for their dairy qualities. V. Importations to the United States and Canada. (1) Ayrshires were brought into Canada by Scotch settlers early in the century, and during the past two or three decades importations into that country from Scotland have been frequent. (2) The first importation into the United States is thought to have been that made by Henry W. Hills of Windsor, Ct, in 1822. (3) Recent importations into the United States have been less frequent than into Canada, hence the closer resemblance now observable between Scotch and Canadian Ayrshires. VI. Ayrshire Breeders' Associations. (1) The American Ayrshire Breeders' Association was established on its present basis in 1875, although the breeders had done organized work since 1859 in conjunction with "The Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred Neat Stock." (2) The Ayrshire Importers' and Breeders' Association of Canada was established in 1870, and merged into the Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association in 1898. (3) The Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association was established in 1889. VII. Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) Ayrshires are more numerous in Ontario and Quebec, in the order named, than in any of the states of the Union. 104 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) In the United States they are most numerous in New York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire in the order named. (3) They are kept in considerable numbers in the eastern states and to some extent in the states of the south which border on the Atlantic. (4) But few Ayrshires are found west of the Mississippi river. VIII. Registration in the United States and Canada. (1) Twelve volumes of the American Ayrshire Record have been issued of the new series, or sixteen volumes in all. (2) In the Canadian Records 22,152 animals have been recorded. (3) In the American Ayrshire Records 22,061 animals have been recorded, of which 6798 are males and 15,263 females. " o U < a. 59 LECTURE NO. 27. AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- ISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) Ayrshires are not popular over so wide an area as Holsteins, but they stand third among dairy breeds in point of numbers in the United States. (2) They have been introduced into northerly rather than southerly latitudes and probably because of their hardihood. II. Adaptability. (1) Ayrshires are decidedly the hardiest of the dairy breeds imported into America, except the Kerry and the French Canadian breeds. (2) This natural vigor combined with their activity fits them for areas where the seasons are somewhat rigorous and where some traveling is necessary in gathering food from the pastures. (3) They are pre-eminently the cow for the dairy farmer where lands are broken and not particularly fertile, and yet they do equally well relatively under better conditions. III. Relative size. (1) The average weight of matured Ayrshire cows is put at 1000 pounds in the standard, but the tendency now is to breed them of a somewhat greater weight. (2) They are therefore considerably behind Holsteins in weight, though a trifle ahead of Guernseys. IV. Milking qualities. (i) Ayrshires have not produced yields so phenomenal as the Holsteins, Guernseys, or Jerseys, but in average milk- production they are not excelled if indeed equaled by any other breed. (2) The milk is excellent for butter or cheese, hence these cows are equally useful for the cheese factory and the creamery. (3) Like the milk of the Holstein it is admirably adapted to calf-rearing in the new or the skimmed form I06 AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO7 (4) It is also claimed that because of even quality and well balanced constituents it is growing in favor as a food for children in cities and towns. V. Early maturing qualities. (1) These are not more than average, but (2) The heifers, as with those of the Holstein, come into milk at the age of from twenty-four to thirty months, and (3) Since Ayrshires have been less inbred and less arti- ficially reared than some dairy breeds they are productive to a greater age. VI. Grazing qualities. (1) Ayrshires will give more milk than Holsteins, Guern- seys, or Jerseys when they have to travel over considerable areas when gleaning food. (2) Although well adapted to rich pasture lands, their active disposition and somewhat light development of form fit them admirably for grazing on abruptly undulating and hilly or broken lands. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) These are much the same as with the Holsteins. with the difference that the Ayrshires are much less in size than the former. (2) When not in milk, like the Holsteins, they take on flesh better than the Guernsey, or Jersey. (3) The plump form and good hindquarters of the Ayr- shire calves fit them for good meat production up to the age of nine to, say, eighteen months. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Ayrshires when crossed upon the grades of certain other breeds and upon common cattle of good size produce a fine dairy animal. (2) Excellent results have been obtained by crossing Ayr- shires upon Shorthorn and Holstein grades, but (3) Such crosses should not be made when the conditions of adaptation suited to the Ayrshires are not present. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) The breeding qualities of Ayrshires are excellent. (2) This is largely the outcome of the absence of in-and- in breeding, of undue pampering, and of the extent to which they are grazed in the fields. 108 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. X. Weak points. (i) Though generally quiet and docile, they are sometimes over-nervous and shy, and are possessed of that temperament that resents ill treatment. (2) The teats are frequently a little small for the highest comfort to the milker. XI. Compared with Holsteins. (1) Ayrshires are not nearly equal to Holsteins in size, and are also behind them in general popularity, in milk pro- duction, quantity alone considered, and in marked docility, but (2) They are ahead in ruggedness and all-round adapta- bility, evenness of milk production and quality of milk and in grazing and breeding qualities. (3) In early maturity, in feeding qualities and in value in crossing and grading they are probably not far different. LECTURE NO. 28. AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following scale of points was adopted by the American Ayrshire Breeders' Association in 1889: FOR COWS. POINTS (i) Head — Short; forehead wide; nose, fine be- tween the muzzle and the eyes ; muzzle large ; eyes, full and lively; horns wide set on, inclin- ing upward ........ 10 (2) Neck — Moderately long, and straight from the head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically toward the shoulders 5 (3) Forequarters — Shoulders, sloping ; withers, fine ; chest, sufficiently broad and deep to insure con- stitution ; brisket and whole forequarters light, the cow gradually increasing in depth and width backwards . . . . . . .5 (4) Back — Short and straight ; spine, well defined, especially at the shoulders; short ribs, arched; the body deep at the flanks .... 10 (5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight, hook bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat ; thighs, deep and broad ; tail long, slender and set on a level with the back . ... 8 (6) Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole nearly level and extending well forward ; milk veins about udder and abdomen well devel- oped ; the teats from two to three inches in length, equal in thickness — the thickness being in proportion to the length — hanging perpen- dicularly; their distance apart at the sides should be equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to one-half the breadth 30 (7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones fine, the joints firm 3 I09 HO THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (8) Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic and covered with soft, close, woolly hair 5 (9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a mixture of these, each color being distinctly defined . . 3 (10) Average Live Weight — In full milk about 1000 pounds 8 (11) General Appearance — Including style and move- ment 10 (12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . 3 Perfection 100 FOR BULLS. POINTS (i) Head — The head of the bull may be shorter than that of the cow, but the frontal bone should be broad, the muzzle good size, throat nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full ; the horns should have an upward turn with suffi- cient size at the base to indicate strength of constitution ........ 10 (2) Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched and large in the muscles, which indicate power and strength 10 (3) Forequarters — Shoulders close to the body, without any hollow space behind ; chest broad, brisket deep and well developed, but not too large 7 (4) Back — Short and straight : spine, sufficiently de- fined, but not in the same degree as in the cow ; ribs, well sprung and body deep in the flanks . 10 (5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight; hip bones wide apart ; pelvis, long, broad and straight; tail, set on a level with the back; thighs, deep and broad 10 (6) Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in front 7 (7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm; hind legs well apart and not to cross in walking 5 (8) Skin — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium thickness 10 (9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a mixture of these — each color being distinctly defined 3 (10) Average Live Weight — At maturity, about 1500 pounds 10 AYRSHIRE CATTLE. Ill (il) General Appearance — Including style and move- ment 15 (12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 3 Perfection IOO II. General Appearance — The Ayrshire is a sprightly looking animal of what may be termed the plain plebeian type, with straight top and rear lines and possessed of much relative development in the hindquarters. III. Compared with Holsteins. (1) In general outline of body the Ayrshire might almost be called a miniature Holstein. if the color markings were changed and the horns differently curved, but (2) The head of the Ayrshire is probably a little stronger relatively, the horns are much more erect, the eye is not so restful, the play of the ear is more active, the skin is thinner and the teats are considerably smaller. (3) The Ayrshire is also more active in movement. LECTURE NO. 29, GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. Guernsey cattle are so named from the isl- and of Guernsey, cne of the Channel island group off the northwest c ast cf France. (1) Like the Jersey, they are supposed to be descended from the cattle of Brittany and Normandy, but more par- ticularly from the latter. (2) For many centuries they have been bred without admixture of alien blood. (3) Through long years the importation of cattle to Guernsey from any quarter except for purposes of slaughter has been strictly prohibited. II. The climate of the island of Guernsey is less genial than that of Jersey, hence something more of hardihood in development has been sought. (1) The extreme length of Guernsey is ten miles, and it contains only i6,ojo acres of land and rock surface. (2) The greying of cattle and dairy products is the chief concern of the .armers. (3) In 1896 the total number of cattle on the island was 5262, and yet many animals are exported every year. III. Management of cattle in Guernsey. (1) In the summer they are tethered in the fields, which partially explains their great docility. (2) In winter, hay is supplemented with roots and meal and bran. IV. Improvement of Guernseys. (1) For more than a century the improvement of Guern- seys has been carefully sought in their island home. (2) The outcome of these efforts is increased size, earlier maturitv and a more fully developed lacteal system. 8 113 114 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. The objects most sought by breeders. (i) The animals are selected and bred with a view to utility rather than beauty, and for maximum butter production of a high quality, which explains (2) The relatively plain appearance of Guernseys, the rich orange color of the skin and the superlative golden color- ing of the milk and butter. VI. Exportation to other countries. (1) Guernseys have long been exported, more or less, to various countries, but chiefly to England and the United States. (2) In several of the counties in the south .of England they stand high in favor. VII. Importations into the United States. (1) Information on this head is as yet not plentiful. (2) They have been numerously imported within the last two or three decades. VIII. Organization in the interests of the breed. (1) Associations have been formed in Guernsey, the United States and other countries to protect the interests of Guernseys. (2) Two herd records have L^en established in Guernsey, one on the principle of selection and the other admitting all Guernseys on the island to registration. (3) The American Guernsey Cattlr Club was organized in 1897. (4) It now offers prizes from time to time to the largest producing cows to encourage the breeder.- to keep private records and to reach out to higher production. IX. Distribution in the United States and Canada. (1) Guernseys are now being registered from some twenty-eight states in the Union and from nearly all the provinces of Canada. (2) They exist most numerously in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wisconsin and least numerously in the Southwestern states. X. Registration in the United States. (1) The Guernsey herd register, first published in 1878, has been issued qua-terly since 1895 under the name of the Guernsey Herd Register and Breeders' Journal. (2) The total number of animals recorded is 18,053, of which 6132 are bulls and 11,921 are cows. o LECTURE NO. 30. GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- ISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) Although there is no little resemblance between the characteristics of the Jerseys and Guernseys, the latter have never become so generally popular in this country. (2) This may probably have arisen, in part at least, from their greater plainness in form, but more from the less effort put forth to place them before the public, as (3) While breeds are yet young in a country, men have more to do with their popularity than even merit. II. Adaptability. (1) The Guernsey is better adapted to temperate and mild climates than to those that are rigorous, but good herds have done well in the climate of Quebec. (2) Through ancestral inheritance rather than great size they are not well adapted to endure fatigue in gathering food on thin pastures and hilly lands. (3) They are best adapted to the average arable farm where milk is wanted for the creamery or the private dairy and where attractive looking and high class butter is an impor- tant consideration. (4) A limited number of Guernseys in a large dairy of average cows adds to the marketable quality of the butter through the rich color imparted. III. Relative size. (1) The Guernseys are about equal to the Ayrshires in size of frame, but they are probably a triile behind them in average weight. (2) Putting the average weight of the matured Ayrshire cow at 1,050 pounds, the mature Guernsey would be about 1,000 pounds. IV. Milking qualities. (1) The Guernsey has deep and prolonged milking quali- ties, the average production of whole herds being high, and the relative cost of production is low. Il6, GUERNSEY CATTLE. 1 17 (2) The milk is fully equal to that of the Jersey in butter fat, is even richer in color, and the average yield per cow is probably greater. (3) It is relatively better adapted to making butter than cheese, though for cheese-making it is good also. (4) The naturally rich color of the butter is unexcelled, so that when Guernsey milk is mixed with that from common cows and from certain dairy breeds, the color of the butter is proportionately improved. V. Early maturing qualities. (1) The Guernseys are only average in maturity, being a little behind the Jerseys probably in this respect. (2) They usually come into milk something over the age of twenty-four months. VI. Grazing- qualities. (1) For a breed of only moderate size, they are not by inheritance adapted to other than productive grazing and also easy of access. (2) Like the Holstein and the Jersey they have special adaptation to the combined system of grazing and soiling. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) Their offspring grow to a larger size than the Jersey, and they are, on the whole, more in favor as meat producers, but they should be made ready for the block at an age consid- erably prior to maturity in order to obtain from them the greatest profit. (2) The cows discarded from the dairy have some capac- ity for meat making. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Guernseys are especially valuable for crossing on cows of mixed breeding to produce milkers of fair size and hardihood and that will give a good fair quantity of high class milk for butter making. (2) Any favorable influence on the progeny as meat pro- ducers should not be too highly prized, as certain other breeds exercise a much higher influence in this respect. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) These are at least average, but (2) As with all other breeds, they improve or decrease according as they are subjected to wise or unwise manage- ment in breeding, feeding or environment. I iS THE STUDY OF BREEDS. X. Weak points. (i) These are not pronounced in any direction. (2) They are not so rugged as some breeds, but they are not delicate. XL Compared with Holsteins. (1) The Guernseys have a decided lead in average rich- ness of milk, are probably something ahead in easy keeping qualities and are better adapted for crossing where improve- ment in the character of the milk and butter product are both sought. (2) The Holsteins lead as yet in the extent to which they prevail, are fully 200 pounds ahead in size, give more milk and are relatively better adapted for meat-making, either in the pure or graded form. (3) In other essential characteristics, as early maturity, grazing and breeding qualities they are about equal. LECTURE NO. 31. GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following is the scale of points adopted by the American Guernsey Cattle Club : COUNTS hair . igh and 40— (3) (1) Quality of Milk. (a) Skin, deep yellow in ear. on end of bone of tail, at base of horn, on udder, teats and body generally . 30 — (b) Skin loose, mellow, with fine, soft (2) Quantity and Duration of Flow. (a) Escutcheon, wide on thighs, h broad, with thigh ovals (b) Milk veins, long and prominent (c) Udder, full in front . (d) Udder, full and well up behind (e) Udder, large but not fleshy (f) Udder, teats squarely placed . (g) Udder, teats of good size . Size and Substance. (a) Size, for the breed (b) Not too light bone (c) Barrel, round and deep at flank (d) Hips and loins, wide . (e) Rump, long and broad . (f) Thighs and withers, thin . (4) Symmetry. (a) Back, level to setting on of tail (b) Throat, clean with small dewlap (c) Legs, not too long, with hocks well apart in walking (d) Tail, long and thin (e) Horns, curved and not coarse (f) Head, rather long and fine, with gentle expression (g) General appearance 16— 14— quiet and 20 10 too — Perfection (5) For bulls, deduct 20 counts for udder. (6) For heifers, deduct 20 counts for udder. 119 10 6 6 8 4 4 2 5 1 4 2 2 2 3 1 2 I 2 3 . 2 100 120 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. II. The above very neatly worded scale of points would seem to be defective. (i) In the excessive number of counts allotted to the indications of milk production in the skin, udder, milk veins and escutcheon. (2) In the meager allotment of counts for other essentials, especially in form, indicative of good milk production and also stamina, as head, neck, body capacity and width through the breast, and (3) In want of comprehensiveness in detail. III. Additional particulars not given in the above scale : (1) Head, inclining to long and not coarse, with mod- erate dish. (2) Muzzle, broad and white or buff in color and sur- rounded by a fillet of light short hair. (3) Eyes, large, clear and mild. (4) Horns, inclining to small, circling well forward and considerably upward, and yellow and waxy at the base. (5) Ears, not large nor thick and thinly covered with hair. (6) Neck, inclining to long, deep and thin. (7) Forequarters, something less in development than the hindquarters, moderate width at the withers and wide through the heart. (8) Breast, wide below, but not full. (9) Barrel, capacious, increasingly so far downward and backward. ( 10) Ribs, of but moderately rounded and deep spring and well defined. (11) Excessive downward slant away from the sacrum and droop toward the tailhead are to be avoided, though both fre- quently characterize good animals. (12) Thighs, inclining to broad and thin and to incurva- ture. (13) Twist, open and placed high. (14) Limbs, moderately fine. (15) Skin, not thick, soft, pliable, unctuous. (16) Hair, plentiful, soft and not long (17) Prominence at the angles characterizes many excel- lent animals, but should not be carried too far. (18) When in full milk there is an appearance of spare- ness of flesh. (19) The indications of gentleness should be present in both look and movement. (20) The color and color markings vary considerably. GUERNSEY CATTLE. 121 (a) The colors include red, light lemon, orange and yel- low fawn, sometimes solid but more commonly with white markings. (b) The shading includes such hues as reddish yellow, darker than brown, and fawn dun, but never gray, as in the Jersey. (c) The color markings are white and are distinct, and they are found sometimes on the body, but oftener on the face, flanks, legs and switch. (d) Among the favorite colors are orange red, orange fawn and lemon fawn, with white markings. IV. Bulls contrasted with cows. (i) They are stronger and more masculine in form and limb. (2) The head is shorter, wider and less dished, and the horns are stronger, shorter and less curved upward. (3) The neck is shorter, thicker and more arched. (4) The forequarters have more relative development and more width through the breast, the coupling is relatively not so long and the angular points less distinctly defined. (5) The skin should be thicker and particularly loose and pliable before and around the scrotum and the embryo teats widely placed. (6) The carriage and action are more pronounced. V. General Appearance — The Guernsey has that plain attractiveness and evenness of balance in dairy development which conveys the idea of capacity for everyday work and her mild look speaks of a quiet and contented disposition. VI. Compared with Holsteins. (1) The Guernseys are considerably less in size ana weight than the Holsteins and they are also more prominent at the angular points. (2) They are not so long in the head, are less incurved at the horn, less straight in the back and at the rear, shorter, lighter and less square relatively in the hindquarter and thin- ner and more incurved at the thigh. (3) They are somewhat thinner, more unctuous and high colored in the skin and there are the differences in color markings. 00 T30 t%3 LECTURE NO. 32. JERSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. This excellent breed of dairy cattle origi- nated in the island of Jersey, which is a dependency of Great Britain. (1) The island is about eleven miles long and considerably less than that in width and contains 39.680 acres, of which about 25,000 acres are tillable. (2) Dairy cattle and dairy products are the chief concern of the farmers. II. It is generally believed that Jerseys are descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor- mandy on the adjacent coast. (1) It has been claimed that they have been bred with little or no admixture of alien blood for a period of 500 years. (2) Since 1789 the importation of other cattle into the island has been strictly prohibited except for purposes of slaughter. III. Improvement of the breed in Jersey. O) For more than 100 years the breeders of Jerseys have steadily sought the improvement of the breed, more especially in prolonged milk giving and in milk rich in butter fat. (2) To attain this end much care has been exercised in breeding and selection during all those years, and (3) Along with these qualities they have secured much of beauty and utility in their cows. IV. Management of cattle in Jersey. (1) They are pastured all the year during the day by the tethering system. (2) From May to October they are out night and day, except during the hottest portion of the day in midsummer. (3) In winter they are housed at night and the grass pas- tures are liberally supplemented with hay and roots. 123 124 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Importations to the United States and Canada. (i) In 1850, John A. Taintor imported several Jerseys for a little club of gentlemen in Hartford, Ct.. but it is probable that Jersey blood had reached the United States prior to that date. (2) In 1851, an importation was made by Thos. Motley of Jamaica Plain, Mass. (3) In 1868, S. S. Stephens of Montreal, Can., imported nine animals. (4) Many of the descendants of these animals have be- come greatly distinguished as butter producers. (5) From 1868 onward, importations became frequent, not only from Jersey, but from England. VI. Exportation to other countries. (1) The great demand for Jersey cattle came first from England. (2) Because of their beauty they were much sought for to graze in the parks of noblemen. (3) For a time the craze for solid colors and for beefy types wrought much injury to the dairy qualities of Jerseys in England. (4) They are now found in many countries in both hemis- pheres, but the United States is pre-eminently their home. VII. Competition at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. (1) Twenty-five pure bred animals, of the Jersey. Guern- sey and Shorthorn breeds respectively, were pitted against each other for fifteen days in the production of cheese and by-prod- ucts, and for ninety days for the production of butter. (2) In both instances the first awards went to the Jerseys which produced the most milk, cheese and butter respectively, of the highest quality and at the lowest cost, but (3) In this magnificent showing the greater number of the eligible Jerseys that could be selected from should not be overlooked. VIII. Organization to promote the interests of Jerseys. (1) Associations have been formed to promote the in- terests of the breed in the United States and Canada, Jersey, England and other countries. (2) The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in 1868 with a membership of forty-three. Fig. 20. Typical Jersey Cow («S) 126 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (3) About 1834^ the Royal Jersey Agricultural Society drew up a scale of points as an aid to breeders and judges. IX. Distribution of Jerseys in North America. (1) Jerseys are kept in all parts of the United States and in all the provinces of Canada. (2) They are most numerously kept in the Middle and Eastern states and are also kept in considerable numbers in the West and South. X. Registration of Jerseys in the United States. (1) There have been issued fifty volumes of the American Jersey Cattle Club Register, the first of which appeared in 1871. (2) The total registration is 199,500, of which 55,500 are males and 144,000 females. XL Butter tests. (1) Provision has been made for conducting butter tests with recorded animals and keeping a record of the same. (2) The first volume of the book of butter tests, records 3955 such trials, carrving the record of the same up to August 1, 1898. LECTURE NO. 33. JERSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) The Jersey is unquestionably the most popular breed of dairy cattle in America, if numbers are taken as the basis of judgment. (2) It is probably true that Jerseys, excluding Holsteins, outnumber all the other dairy breeds combined. (3) This great popularity is to some extent owing to the longer period they have been in the country and to the great enterprise shown in disseminating them, but it is chiefly owing to their intrinsic merit in the dairy. II. Adaptability. (1) The Jersey is par excellence the cow for £te indi- vidual who keeps but one, because of her gentleness and her easy keeping and unexcelled cream-producing qualities. (2) She has also marked adaptation for the dairy, where butter primarily is sought. (3) Jerseys can be kept -in cold climates, but are better adapted to mildly temperate regions, and they will thrive fur- ther south than some other dairy breeds. (4) Although small in frame they should not be kept on sparse or rugged pastures, as they have not the staying ppwers of the Ayrshires, or Kerries. III. Relative size. (1) The Jersey is small and deer-like in form, the average weight in the matured cow being under rather than over 900 pounds. (2) She is the smallest of the dairy breeds in America, save the French Canadian and the Kerry, and the system of breeding and selection practiced for many years would seem to have reduced rather than increased the size. (3) In recent years a wise revolt against too small size and over-refinement of frame has set in among breeders in the Eastern states at least. (4)' As a result the average Jersey of the Eastern states is probably 50 to 100 pounds more than the figures given above in Note (1). 127 J 28 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. IV. Milking qualities. (i) The Jersey is noted rather for the richness of her milk than for the quantity of the same, although she is notably persistent in milk production. (2) In the production of butter fat she is without a peer and without a close rival, save in the Guernsey and French Canadian breeds. (3) The fresh milk undiluted has in some instances been found too rich for successful calf- rearing. (4) It is good for cheese-making also, but some other breeds are ahead of the Jersey in that respect, because of the greater quantities given. V. Early maturing qualities. (1) No other breed of dairy cattle matures more quickly. (2) The heifers usually come into milk at the age of two years, and in some instances at an earlier age. VI. Grazing qualities. (1) Jerseys should be given rich pastures, but they will do fairly well on such as are of average production. (2) It will be found more profitable with Jerseys than with some other breeds to supplement scant pasture production with soiling foods rather than to have them travel far in search of food. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) In easy keeping qualities Jerseys rank high, but (2) They stand low as meat producers, even among dairy breeds, because of the extreme dairy form which characterizes them. (3) The claim that the steers will make as rapid growth prior to maturity as those of the beef breeds is yet to be ques- tioned, but (4) Though they should, the discrimination in price against such meat is severe, however (5) Jersey calves fed substantially on skimmilk and cer- tain meal and fodder adjuncts up to the age of sav six to eight months, make good and profitable meat. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) The marked prepotency of the Jersey when crossed upon common cattle, and even upon pure breds of the other dairy breeds, almost invariably results in adding to the rich- ness of the milk. (2) When butter-making is the chief concern on the farm, Jersey blood may oftentimes be used with great advantage. JERSEY CATTLE. 1 29 (3) Where skimmilk is an important factor, or where it is desired to grow good beef, such crosses should not be introduced. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) The breeding qualities of Jerseys naturally have been in some instances impaired by in-and-in breeding, and in others by subjecting them to conditions too artificial, but (2) It would not be correct to say that as a race they are shy breeders. X. Weak points. (1) Chief among these are small size, lack of width through the heart, and in some instances a tendency to delicacy of constitution. (2) Injudicious selection, in-and-in breeding, environ- ment too artificial, and the search for extreme refinement and spareness are largely responsible for these weaknesses. XI. Compared with Holsteins. (i) The Jerseys lead in all-round popularity, in richness of the milk, in early maturity and probably in easy keeping qualities. (2) The Holsteins lead in all-round adaptation, in size, in quantity of milk produced, including value of skimmilk, in value for meat production and probably in average stamina. (3) In grazing qualities, in value for crossing and grading and in breeding qualities the difference between the two breeds would not seem to be greatly marked. XII. Compared with the Guernseys. (1) The Jerseys are more refined in form and limb and are as yet more in favor with the general public. (2) The Guernseys are considerably larger and stronger in frame, have larger teats, are even more characteristically yellow in the skin and are something ahead in meat pro- duction. (3) In all other essential characteristics they are very similar. LECTURE NO. 34. JERSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. I. The following scale of points was adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1885 : for cows. POINTS COUNTS (1) Head — Small and lean; face dished, broad be- tween the eyes and narrow between the horns . 2 (2) Eyes — Full and placid ; horns, small, crumpled and amber colored ....... I (3) Neck — Thin, rather long, with clean throat, and not heavy at the shoulders 8 (4) Back — Level to the setting on of tail 1 (5) Loins — Broad across 6 (6) Barrel — Long, hooped, broad and deep at the flank 10 (7) Hips — Wide apart; rump long 10 (8) Legs— Short ....... 2 (9) Tail — Fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch I (10) Hide — Mellow, inside of ears yellow ... 5 (11) Fore Udder — Full in form and not fleshy . . 13 (12) Hind Udder — Full in form and well up behind . 11 (13) Teats — Rather large, wide apart and squarely placed 10 (14) Milk Ucins — Prominent 5 (15) Disposition — Quiet 5 (16) General Appearance and Apparent Constitution 10 Perfection 100 (17) In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 12 and 14. FOR BULLS. (18) The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, omitting Nos. 11, 12 and 14, and making due allowance for masculinity; but when bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts for progeny. IT. Additional particulars submitted, though not given in the above scale: 130 JERSEY CATTLE. I3I (i) The head should incline to long from the eye to the muzzle. (2) Muzzle, black in color and encircled with a band of a light color. (3) Eyes, intelligent, liquid and rimmed with black above and below. (4) Horns, tipped with black. (5) Ears, inclining to small and well fringed with hair and possessed of considerable erection and movement. (6) Withers, fine and inclined to rise. (7) Back, frequently swayed, more or less, the spinal column prominent at the chine and open spaced, the pelvic arch somewhat elevated, and the crupper prominent with a downward slope toward the outer hips. (8) The junction of the neck is somewhat abrupt. (9) Breast, wide in lower front, but not full, and brisket V-shaped. (10) Chest, wide through the heart, but frequently it is not. (11) Forearm, long but not full. (12) Thighs, long, lean and incurved. (13) Escutcheon, well developed. (14) Udder, thinly haired and the veins covering it well defined. (15) Milk veins, long, tortuous, branched, and they should enter the body through two or more large milk wells. (16) Limbs, inclining to fine and placed well apart in front and behind. (17) Skin, inclining to thin and distinctively yellow at the armpits and around the udder. (18) Hair, abundant, sleek and fine. (19) The appearance when in milk should be spare. (20) The color may include gray fawn and white, yellow fawn and white, silver gray dun, cream-colored fawn and light silver and dark steel gray, solid colors with black points being formerly much in favor. III. Bulls contrasted with cows. (1) The head of the former is stronger, wider relatively, and shorter, and the horns are shorter, stronger and more upturned. (2) The neck is thicker and is arched. (3) The relative development of ihe forequarters is greater, more particularly at the withers, breast and through the heart. (4) The barrel is relatively shorter, the hide thicker and the limbs stronger. IV. General Appearance — In general outline the Jersey has a beautiful, deer-like form, a large 1^2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. body supported by fine, clean limbs, a small head, small and crumpled horns, large, lustrous and liquid eyes, and, when in milk, a decided inclination to spareness in frame. V. Compared with Holsteins. (i) The Jerseys are much smaller, more refined, shorter in limb, more distinctively wedge-shaped, and as a rule not so straight in outline. (2) They are not so long in the head and neck, are higher and narrower at the withers and pelvic arch and frequently have more of a downward sway in the back and droop toward the tailhead. (3) They are less wide in the breast and chest, less wide and straight in the hips, thinner and more incurved in the thighs and smaller in the teats, and (4) There are the differences in color. VI. Compared with Ayrshires. (1) The Ayrshires are not so refined in form and limb, are more plain in appearance, particularly about the head and neck, and are more than 100 pounds heavier in average weight. (2) The head is a little stronger and not quite so much dished, the poll is wider and the horns are a little stronger and are upturned more or less, whereas in the Jei sey they are crumpled. (3) The back is straighter. the chest wider through the heart, the coupling a little shorter relatively, the hindquarter has more of relative development, being more straight above at the sides and at the rear, the teats are a little smaller and the legs are probably relatively shorter. (4) They are more sprightly and active of movement, and (5) There are the differences in color. VII. Compared with Guernseys. (1) The Guernseys are less clean cut and less handsome than the Jerseys, some coarser in the bone and larger in every way. (2) They are something plainer in the head, less crumpled in the horn, deeper in the neck, a little wider at the withers, something wider through the heart, a little heavier in the hip. even more prominent at the angular points, a little longer in average length of limb and richer in the color of the skin. (4) The formation of udder and average size of teat are even more perfect than in the Jersey. (5) In other respects they are very similar, save in the color markings. LECTURE NO. 35. FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. I. The French Canadian cattle are doubtless descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor- mandy. (1) The early settlers of Quebec came largely from these provinces of France, and doubtless brought with them the stocks of cattle bred there. (2) They were found in the new French colony as early ?s 1620. II. Subsequently to 1620 the additional colo- nists who from time to time arrived from north- western France, added, by sundry importations, to the cattle previously introduced. (1) These early importations were the only source from which French Canadian cattle derived their characteristics. (2) No other cattle were introduced into the colony prior to 1776. III. It is more than probable that the ancestry of French Canadian cattle is identical with that of the Channel island breeds. (1) So close is the resemblance that it would not be easy to distinguish a French Canadian cow from a dark-colored Jersey. (2) Their essential characteristics other than those which relate to form are very similar. IV. Introduction of the English breeds. (1) Subsequent to 1776, cattle of English origin were introduced to a somewhat limited extent, but 133 3 u_ a. *0 FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 35 (2) Their introduction has been chiefly confined to the neighborhood of cities and to the limited rural districts occu- pied by Anglo-Saxon settlers. (3) Their blood has been mingled only to a limited extent with that of the French Canadian cattle, hence (4) Many of the latter have been bred pure in Quebec for more than 250 years. V. The effects of environment. (1) The long and cold winters of Quebec and the expo- sure to which these cattle have been subjected have begotten in them a hardihood that is simply unrivalled in dairy cattle. (2) The coarse fare upon which they have been fed dur- ing much of the year has made them content with such food in the absence of meal, and (3) The continuous handling to which they have been subjected has made them exceedingly docile. VI. Registration of foundation animals. (1) The rules relating to the registration of foundation animals were first established by the Quebec legislature. (2) Before these foundation animals could be admitted to registry, they must be correct in form and of undoubted purity in descent. (3) The foundation herd book was kept open until the end of 1896, that is to say, for a period of ten years. VII. Organization. (1) The French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Association was organized in 1895, chiefly through the efforts of Dr. J. A. Couture, D. V. S., who was elected "perpetual secretary" of the same. (2) In September, 1895, the registration of French Cana- dian cattle was placed under the care of the said association. VIII. Distribution in Canada and the United States. (1) The French Canadian cattle are the prevailing breed in nearly all the counties of Quebec. (2) They are most numerously kept in the pedigreed form in the counties of Berthier, Joliette, Drummond, Kamouraska and LTslet. (3) A number of herds are also found in the state of New York. IX. Registration in Quebec. I36 THE STUDY OF BREEDS (1) Up to the end of 1899 there were recorded in the Foundation Herd Book, 922 bulls and 5,307 cows. (2) The whole number of animals now on record is 6,966. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) The popularity of French Canadian cattle is almost entirely confined to Quebec province and portions of states and provinces bordering on the same, but (2) Now that they are being systematically improved, these robust little money makers will doubtless become favor- ites in other states and provinces. II. Adaptability. (1) Because of their inherent ruggedness they are adapted to climates where the winters are long and stern, as in Quebec, the maritime provinces of Canada, the New Eng- land states and the highlands of t'e northern Alleghenies. (2) Because of their lightness of form they are eminently adapted to rugged pastures where much traveling must be done when grazing, and (3) Because of their excellent milking and easy keeping qualities, they are unexcelled for dairy uses on lands that respond tardily to the efforts of the husbandman. III. Relative size. (1) French Canadian cattle are the smallest of the dairy breeds in America unless it be the Kerry. (2) The cows weigh on an average 700 pounds. IV. Milking qualities. (1) They do not give so large a flow of milk as some breeds, but they milk with great persistence, and aggregate large yields in proportion to their size. (2) When well supplied with food they should give from 5,000 to 6.000 pounds of milk a year. (3) The milk is said to test on an average from 4 to 5 1-2 per cent, and (4) They have much power relatively to produce milk on fodder supplemented by only a small addition of grain or even in its absence. V. Early maturing- qualities. (1) These are not marked, but (2) With more generous feeding they will improve. (3) Even now heifers frequently come into milk at the age of thirty months and sometimes earlier. FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 37 VI. Grazing qualities. (1) These are of the very highest order. (2) Thej- will gather food and give fair supplies of milk where the large breeds and the small and less robust breeds would completely fail. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) They give an excellent return in milk for food con- sumed, but (2) They do not excel for meat production, since the dairy form is quite pronounced. (3) The calves, however, may be turned into profitable meat at an early age. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) The experience in crossing French Canadian cattle upon other breeds or grades has not been extensive, but (2) When improved milking qualities combined with hardihood are desired, they may be crossed with advantage on unimproved stock. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) These are of a very high order. (2) The unpampered conditions to which they have been subjected for generations and the exercise which they must needs take in gathering food have proved eminently favorable to reproduction. X. Weak points. (1) The chief of these are their small size for some con- ditions, and a little slowness in maturing, but (2) With improved conditions as to feed and environ- ment they would doubtless soon improve in size and maturing qualities. XL Compared with Holsteins. (1) The French Canadian cattle are much less well known, very much less in size, mature more slowly and give a less quantity of milk, but (2) They are more rugged, are better grazers, easier feeders and give richer milk. STANDARD POINTS. I. The following is the scale of points adopted by the French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Associa- tion : (1) Head — Short: forehead wide; horns generally turned inward and sometimes a little upward, white in color with 13b THE STUDY OF BREEDS- black tips; muzzle surrounded with a gray or yellowish circle; ears neither very small nor very long, the inside of which is orange color and covered with thin, short hair. (2) Neck— Thin. (3) Back — Almost straight. (4) Chest — Deep and almost in a line with the belly. (5) Belly — Not bulky and forming a continuous line with the ribs and hips. (6) Loins — Very broad. (7) Rump — Broad and long. (8) Barrel — Round, broad and deep at the flank. (9) Tail — Thin, long, reaching very often to the fetlock. (10) Legs — Short, fine and straight. (11) Skin — Thin and mellow and covered with an abun- dance of hair. (12) Color for Females — Solid black, black with a yellow stripe on the back and around the muzzle, brown with black points, brown brindle. (13} Color for Males — Black, with or without the yellow stripes in order to get the color uniformly black within as short a time as possible. II. The following additional points are sub- mitted : (1) Head, fine and well dished. (2) Neck, joining the shoulders abruptly. (3) Withers, inclining to fine. (4) Spine, sharp and well defined. (5) Shoulders, coming near in the upward slope. (6) Chest, wide through the heart. (7) Brisket, V-shaped. (8) Barrel, capacious. (9) Ribs, distinct and open spaced. (10) Twist, open. (11) Udder, large and well quartered. (12) Milk veins, well defined and well forward and mon or less branched. III. General Appearance — French Canadian cattle are small in size and limb, relatively capaciou? in body, and inclining to spareness in form. IV. Compared with Holsteins. (1) French Canadian cattle are not much more than hall as large, are shorter in limb, less square in quarter and mor« spare in development. (2) They are more abrupt at the angular points, and (3) There are the differences in color. LECTURE NO. 36. KERRY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. The Kerry is the only purely native breed of cattle in Ireland that is possessed of much merit. (1) From time immemorial they have been bred pure, but only in an aimless way until within a comparatively recent period. (2) In size, shape and color they bear a close resemblance to the native cattle of Brittany. II. Kerry cattie are so named from the county of Kerry, and until a comparatively recent period they were confined chiefly to the southwestern coun- ties of Ireland. (1) The unartificial conditions which surrounded them /or centuries have made them the hardiest of the British dairy breeds. (2) They have frequently been called the "poor man's cow" from the great service they have rendered to the cottager in rural districts. (3) The extent to which they have been kept for this pur- pose measurably accounts for their characteristic docility. III. Improvement of the breed. (1) This was late in commencing, but has been rapid dur- ing recent years. (2) Both in England and Ireland noblemen have zealously engaged in the work. IV. Exportation of Kerries. (1) Details with reference to this work are meager, but (2) From their original home they have been introduced into many of the counties of Ireland. (3) They are also numerously kept in several of the southwest counties of England, and 139 I a. >» I- C4 too ill KERRY CATTLE. I4T (4) They have been exported to the United States and Canada, though as yet only in very limited numbers. V. The Dexter cattle. (1) The Dexter is a variety of cattle, the outcome of a cross between the Kerry and Devon breeds, according to some authorities, and of selection, according to others. (2) Opinions differ as to the origin of the name. (3) As distinguished from the Kerry they have a rounder and plumper body, shorter and rather thicker legs, a heavier and stronger head, and larger, straighter and coarser horns, and are better for beef, though not so good for milk, but (4) These distinctions are being quickly obliterated through the indiscriminate blending of the two types. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. Popularity. (1) The popularity of Kerries can scarcely be said to have been tested in the United States, owing to the very limited numbers yet introduced. (2) In Ireland they are the most popular breed of dairy cattle, and in some parts of England they are meeting with no little favor. II. Adaptability. (1) Kerry cattle have special adaptation to conditions where the pastures are much broken and not abundant, thus involving much traveling in seeking food. (2) They should be admirably suited for the dairy in semi-mountainous areas in the United States, where hardihood and staying qualities are an important consideration. III. Relative size. (1) They are quite the smallest of the dairy breeds as yet imported into this country. (2) In many instances the hight does not exceed fort} inches, and the average weight of matured cows is not more than 600 to 700 pounds. IV. Milking qualities. (1) The ability of this little creature to give milk under adverse climatic and pasture conditions is simply surprising. (2) The quality of the milk is also rich, being not far behind that from Guernseys or Jerseys in butter fat, and the quantity is large for the size of the animal. 142 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. V. Early maturity. (1) These cattle are slower in maturing than any of the dairy breeds yet introduced into the United States, owing (2) To the unameliorated conditions under which they were kept in former years. VI. Grazing qualities. (1) These are of the very highest order because of their natural activity and hardihood. (2) Kerries will prove profitable under conditions where nearly all dairy breeds would fail. VII. Feeding qualities. (1) High feeding qualities are claimed for Kerries by some British writers, but probably on insufficient grounds, although (2) Kerry cows will fatten quickly when dry. VIII. Value in crossing and grading. (1) Their highest value in crossing and grading in this country would probably be found in mating Kerry sires with common animals kept in semi-mountainous regions, with a view to improving their milking qualities. (2) On good grazing lands it would seem wise to main- tain larger breeds. IX. Breeding qualities. (1) These are of the first order, owing (2) To the unartificial nature of the conditions of their environment. X. Weak points. (1) The chief of these are their small size and slowness in maturing, but (2) In both respects they are being improved. XI. Compared with the Jerseys. (1) They are not to be compared to the Jerseys in the general estimate of the public, in general adaptation or in the field that lies before them for crossing and grading, and they are not equal to them in size or maturing qualities, though nearly equal in the quantity of the milk produced, but (2) They are far ahead of Jerseys in vigor of constitution, in ability to "rough it" under adverse conditions, and they are something ahead in easy keeping and in feeding qualities and in the ability to breed with unfailing regularity. KERRY CATTLE. 143 PRINCIPAL POINTS. In the absence of an authorized scale of points in the United States the following is submitted : I. Size — This should be regulated to a con- siderable degree by the nature of the environment. II. General Outline — The body is essentially dairy in form, though not of the most pronounced type. III. Head — Small, inclining to fine, tapering and well balanced in the different parts. (i) Forehead, wide. (2) Nose, fine and inclining to long. (3) Muzzle, fine. (4) Nostrils, placed high and somewhat open. (5) Cheeks, lean. (6) Eyes, mild, full and lively. (7) Horns, rather thick at base, but gently tapering, with black tips, and coming gracefully forward and upward with considerabl; erection. (8) Ears, small and fine and rather lively in movement. IV. Neck — Straight, fine, inclining to deep, with medium abruptness at the neck vein. V. Back — Straight from withers to tailhead. (1) It is not wide at the withers, and is but moderately prominent at the chine, and (2) It slopes down considerably away from the sacrum. VI. Forequarters — A little less in develop- ment proportionately than the hindquarters. (1) Shoulders, smooth and relatively deep, but not broad. (2) Chest, wide. (3) Breast, fairly deep and broad, but not full. (4) Brisket, V-shaped. (5) Forearm, inclining to full. VII. Barrel — Capacious and deep, inclining to round more than to flat. (1) Ribs, of medium spring and distinct when the cows are in milk. (2) Crops, medium in fullness. 144 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (3) Fore flank, full. (4) Hind flank, not thick. (5) Heart girth, good for the size of the animal and nearly equal with the flank girth. (6) Underline, a little depressed. VIII. Hindquarters — Deep and of medium development. (1) Hips, straight on the side. (2) Thighs, inclining to light. (3) Buttocks, a little incurved. (4) Pin bones, of but medium distance apart. (5) Twist, open and placed somewhat high. (6) Tail, long and fine. IX. Udder — Between oblong and rounded in shape, capacious and evenly quartered, with teats of good size and placed well apart. X. Milk Veins — Large and long; very promi- nent for so small an animal, branched. XL Skin — Fine, soft, unctuous and of a fine orange tint clearly visible at the muzzle, eyes and ears. XII. Legs — Short, not coarse, and clean. XIII. Color — The color most in favor is a rich black with, in some instances a ridge of white along the back and a white streak under the belly, but some are black, brown, black and white and brown and white. XIV. General Appearance — Tne Kerry is a neat little creature, almost if not quite as handsome as the Jersey, and she carries in her appearance that too infrequent combination of docility and sprightli- ness of movement. XV. Compared with the Jersey. (1) The Kerry is considerably smaller and is less promi- nent at the angles. (2) She has a finer muzzle, stronger and more upturned horns, a straighter back and a slightly heavier frame for her size, and (3) There are the differences in color. THE DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS LECTURE NO. 37. POLLED DURHAM CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. I. Polled Durhams originated in the United States, and more particularly in the state of Ohio. (1) The development of this breed has all been accom- plished within the last two or three decades, and (2) It has been done by several breeders who for a time worked independently of one another, though essentially on the same lines. (3) The efforts of Dr. W. W. Crane of Tippecanoe City, O., to popularize the breed have been abundant and unceasing. II. The Polled Durhams have come from two different sources of ancestry. (1) One branch has been established through the crossing of pure Shorthorn males upon selected common muley cows. (2) The other is pure Shorthorn but hornless. III. The following details relate to the estab- lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a muley foundation : (1) Good common muley cows were selected, of large form and good milking qualities. (2) These were crossed by pure Shorthorn bulls, red in color. (3) The female progeny only were reared for a time, and of these only such as were hornless. (4) When possessed of 75 per cent of Shorthorn blood, and hornless, they were considered eligible for entry in the record, but the standard has been raised at certain times, as stated below. IO 145 I46 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. IV. The following details relate to the estab- lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a pure Short- horn foundation. (1) Recorded Shorthorn bulls that had never possessed horns were secured by different breeders, and these were bred to pure Shorthorn cows. (2) Only such of the progeny were kept to breed from as were hornless. V. The American Polled Durham Breeders' Association was organized in Chicago in 1889. (1) Eight persons took the initiative in the work, all of whom had been engaged for some time previously in establish- ing the breed. (2) The membership at the end of 1893 numbered forty, and included residents of several states. VI. The following are the requirements for registration in the American Herd Book of Polled Durham cattle. (1) Animals for registry must be at least one year old. (2) They must be hornless. (3) They must have the color and markings characteristic of the Shorthorn. (4) They must not have less than 87 1-2 per cent of Short- horn blood after 1893, 93 3-4 per cent after 1896, and 96 7-8 per cent after 1899, and the requisites previously mentioned. (5) The produce of animals already on record will be recorded, provided they conform to the requirements men- tioned in 1, 2 and 3, also (6) The produce of any bull in the Polled Durham Herd Book, with the same requirements, and (7) The produce of any cow in the Polled Durham reg- istry, when by a bull recorded in the American Shorthorn Herd Book, and possessed of the same requirements. VII. The leading Fair Associations were slow to give recognition to Polled Durham cattle in their prize lists, but (1) At the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, a full list of premiums was offered for Polled Durhams. (2) The grand sweepstakes prize at the same fair open to all "general purpose" cattle, was won by the Polled Durhams. POLLED DURHAM CATTLE. 1 47 VIII. The future of Polled Durhams. (1) There would seem to be a bright future before this breed in the United States and also in certain other countries possessed of the requisite adaptation, since (2) The}' meet the growing demand for cattle with all the essential characteristics of Shorthorns, and yet without horns. (3) They are rich in the blood of several of the best strains of English and Scotch Shorthorns, and many of them have in addition the renovating influence of muley foundation blood. IX. Distribution in the United States. (1) Polled Durhams have been recorded from about twenty different states. (2) The leading centers of distribution are Indiana, Illi- nois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennes- see, Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin, and probably in the order named. (3) The first exportation of Polled Durhams was made to Argentina from the herd of J. H. Miller, Peru, Ind.; in 1894. X. Registration of Polled Durhams. (1) But one volume of the American Polled Durham Herd Book has yet been issued, and it was published in 1894. (2) There have been recorded 2100 animals, of which 850 are bulls and 1250 cows. LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. I. The characteristics of the Polled Durhams are essentially the same as those of the Shorthorns given in Lecture No. 9. (1) They have the same large parallelogrammic frames, and (2) Like the Shorthorns they are adapted to arable locali- ties rich in food production. II. They differ in the following essentials : (1) More attention has been given to the development of their milking qualities, and (2) They are more free from the weaknesses of somft highly inbred Shorthorn families, as, for instance, shyness in breeding. 3 3 c a a. *0 POLLED DURHAM CATTLE, I49 PRINCIPAL POINTS. I. No standard scale of points his as yet been drawn up for this breed, but (1) These are essentially the same as in the Shorthorn, (2) They are given in detail in the scale submitted for Shorthorns in Lecture No. 10. II. They differ in the following essentials: (1) The Polled Durhams are hornless. ?,nd (2) They do not carry the beef form Q. >> H W5 U- DEVON CATTLE. l6$ effected by a number of persons working simultane- ously and more or less in concert. (i) Prominent among the early improvers stand the names of Francis Quartly of Champson, Molland ; John T. Davy of Rose Ash; Walter Farthing of Stowey Court. Bridgewater; and the Earl of Leicester of Holkham, Leicestershire. (2) In several instances Devons have been bred in the same families for at least 150 years. V. The high prices paid for meat early in the century, while the wars with France continued, tempted many breeders to part with their best animals. (1) This led to a lowering of the average standard of excellence in many herds, but (2) The equilibrium has again been restored, largely through the establishment of agricultural societies and the demand for good breeding stock. VI. Devon cattle were early distinguished as North and South Devon respectively, the latter variety being also known as South Hams and Som- ersets. (1) The North Devon was the smaller variety, their coat was softer and more curly, and they were more distinguished for their fleshing properties. (2) The South Devons, supposed to contain a dash of Guernsey blood, were of larger size and of coarser appear- ance, and were more distinguished for milk production. (3) These have been so intercrossed in many instances as to obliterate the distinguishing marks of the two classes. VII. Exportation to the United States. (1) The first well authenticated importation of Devon cattle was made into the United States by Robert Patterson of Baltimore. Md.. in 1S17. (2) They came from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, Holkham, and a very large number of the Devons now in the United States trace to this importation. _ (3) From 1817 onward, importations have been frequent until quite recently. VIII. Exportation to other countries. (1) Devons were imported somewhat freely into Ontario, Can., shortly after the middle of the century, but they have not prevailed to any considerable extent in that country. l66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. (2) They have also heen introduced into Jamaica, Mexico, the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand. IX. Herd books. (1) The first volume of the English Devon Herd Book, edited by J. Tanner Davy, was published in 1851. (2) The first volume of the American Devon Herd Book was published in 1863. (3) The first volume of the American Devon Record was published in 1881. (4) Registrations are also kept in Ontario and Nova Scotia. X. Distribution in the United States. (1) Devons are kept in every state in the Union, save North Dakota, Washington, Wyoming, New Mexico and Arizona, hence, (2) They are more generally distributed than any breed largely devoted to meat making except the Shorthorns. (3) They are most numerous in the states of Ohio, Penn- sylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Illinois and Texas, and probably in the order named. XL Registration in the United States. (1) Six volumes of the American Devon Record have been issued. (2) There have been recorded i8,S