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THE

STUDY OF THE EVERGREENS

IN THE

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

PREPARED BY

CLARENCE M. WEED,

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE.

1908.

399075

APPROVED BY
THE STATE BOARD OF PUBLICATION.

PURPOSE.

This publication is offered by the State Forester as supple-
mentary to " The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools,"
issued by this office last year.

The coniferous or evergreen trees make an interesting
group to study by themselves. They can be utilized by the
teacher in the winter time, or dormant season of the year,
when other material is not so accessible. In fact, at this
season of the year they give great variety and beauty to the
landscape. The interest in and association with the ever-
greens become very pronounced as soon as the deciduous tree
leaves have changed from their natural beauty of summer
to their grand autumnal glory, and finally fallen to the
ground. The uses to which the evergreens are put at yuletide,
and their part in making this season of the year one of the
happiest to the child mind, make this the psychological time
for their study.

If this treatise helps to awaken in our young and coming
generation a greater interest and love in trees and nature it
will have done its part.

Two other publications that teachers may find of assist-
ance, if they do not possess them already, are : —

" The Commercial Forest Trees of Massachusetts. How
you may know them. A Pocket Manual," for general use.

" The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools," for teach-
ers, mothers, and all interested in teaching children to love
trees and nature.

Under the Resolves of 1908, chapter 121, the Governor
and Council have designated that these publications be sold
by the State Forester at a price not less than the cost thereof ;
and additional copies may be printed, the expense thereof
to be paid from the receipt of such sales.

According to this decision the above-named publications
are offered at the following prices : -

" The Commercial Forest Trees of Massachusetts. How
you may know them. A Pocket Manual/7 for five cents a
copy at this office, or by mail for two cents extra.

"The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools," for
twelve cents, or by mail eight cents extra.

In case a large number is wanted, as for schools, etc., they
can be forwarded by express.

These publications are neatly gotten up, and as they are
in great demand (the first edition of 5,000 having been
exhausted in ten days), charging for them at cost is the only
feasible method of dissemination.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Dr. Clarence Moores Weed, of the Lowell State Normal
School, was selected to prepare this pamphlet. Owing to
Professor Weed's knowledge and interest in public school
work, he requires no introduction to Massachusetts teachers.
In fact, the syllabus and suggestions herein given have passed
the experimental stage, and have been successfully taught
as outlined.

The illustrations are from prints and drawings by pupils
in the Lowell Normal School and its training schools.

F. W. KANE,

State Forester.

STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS.,
Oct. 1, 1908.

The ear shares with the eye the beautiful effects of weather on
the landscape. The rushing of the storm through the narrow valley,
the murmuring tremor of the pines in the gentle breeze, the rustling
and bowing of a field of corn in an August gale, the clatter of
palmettos in a wind, the rattle of pebbles on a beach, dragged down
by the retiring wave, the onset of a thunder shower, — are delights
for the ear as well as the eye. — CHARLES W. ELIOT.

THE CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS.

The study of the coniferous evergreens is especially desir-
able early in winter, and for the lower grades may well cul-
minate at the time of the holiday festivities.

These trees furnish the most important features of many
of our winter landscapes; they are of great beauty as well
as of much economic value, and they give excellent opportu-
nities for studies of distinctive educational worth. Their
branches are easily obtained, and when brought into the
schoolroom are of decided decorative value. They may be
studied to great advantage in winter as they are available at
a time when it is most difficult to get material for nature
studies.

In this study of the evergreens especial emphasis should
be placed upon the native species. These are to be found in
fields and woods, where specimens may be gathered in abun-
dance. A very large proportion of the conifers planted for
ornamental purposes are exotic species, the determination
of which is frequently difficult, and which have not the
interest and associations possessed by the native sorts. : An
exception, however, must be made in the case of the Norway
spruce, which has been so generally planted for so long a
period that it is as abundant and as widely distributed as
some of our native trees.

In associating the evergreens with the animal life of the
winter season, the skillful teacher will point out the utility
of their seeds as food for the winter birds, and the great
benefit of their protection as homes, not only for the birds
but for rabbits and other animals that require shelter during
the winter months. The value to the trees themselves of their
slender leaves in shedding snow will of course be pointed out.

In most localities it is a comparatively easy matter to get
abundant material for the study of the evergreens. This is

one reason why the subject should be reserved for the winter
season. Two or three small branches will furnish enough
leaves of a given species to suffice for a whole class, and
wherever there are large bearing trees, with little trouble one

vrpRE"

can get the cones which are so necessary to an adequate study
of these trees. The cones of the white pine may generally be
found in abundance underneath the trees, while those of the
pitch pine, though generally less numerous on the ground,
are frequently within easy reach' upon the lower branches.
By a little searching one may often find trees which have

been blown over or cut down, so that the cones in the top-
most branches may easily be reached. This applies not only
to the pines but also to most of the conifers.

The cones of some of the spruces fall to the ground early,
where they may readily be gathered. This is particularly
true of the Xorway spruce, the large and beautiful cones of
which furnish most interesting objects for study. In the
case of the black spruce, which abounds in peat bogs, the
cones are generally within reach upon the smaller trees; this
is also commonly true of t'he hemlock, the arbor vitae and
the tamarack or American larch. The curious berry-like
fruits of the red juniper and the low juniper are also very
easy to obtain.

The teacher who does not avail herself of the opportunity
to make the collecting of these evergreens the object of many
winter walks will miss a personal pleasure, and will not
secure the enthusiasm from her pupils that she might easily
get.

In the cities one can often* obtain fir balsam and some of
the spruces at Christmas time among the trees offered for
sale as Christmas trees. It will frequently happen that such
trees may be obtained directly from the pupils after the
Christmas season is over.

In the hot, dry rooms of most schools the spruces, hemlock
and other conifers whose leaves are shed in drying dry out
rapidly and fall off, and may cause trouble for the janitors.
This may be avoided to a considerable extent by keeping the
specimens in unheated closets, or hanging them out of doors,
when not in use; they will thus retain their leaves much
longer.

METHODS OF STUDY.

The teacher who appreciates the value of visual impres-
sions in nature study will display before the pupils twigs
and cones of the pines, and such other conifers as do not
drop their leaves in drying, mounted upon good-sized sheets
of paper or cardboard and plainly labelled. She will also
make upon the blackboard characteristic drawings of the
various species studied, using as far as possible colored

10

crayons, showing the appearance of cones and branches, as
well as detail drawings of the leaves upon a larger scale.

The evergreens may be used to great advantage in bringing
the pupils into direct contact with real things in nature. The
material is so easily obtained, and in such abundance, that
there is no excuse for adopting the mere question and answer
method in vogue in many of our schools. Give the pupils
twigs, or at least bundles of leaves, and if possible cones, and
let them use their discriminating powers in sorting the speci-
mens as to species. Let them 'see for themselves the dis-
tinctive characters of each, and in the higher grades let them
determine the species by reference to illustrated tree books.
Then let them make careful drawings of the twigs or leaves
and cones of each species, being sure that they know the name
while they are making the drawings. Part of the drawings
at least should be made with a lead pencil, securing as great
a degree of accuracy as is possible, but some of them should
be made with green and brown pencil crayons, by means of
which very attractive pictures may be obtained. In the
upper grades it may also be worth while to use water colors
for some of the drawings.

The importance of blackboard drawings by the pupils,
especially in the grades above the fourth, can hardly be over-
estimated. These are especially valuable for the memory
drawing, and in the case of the evergreens, through the use
of green and brown crayons, the great advantage of colors
that simulate the actual plants may be utilized.

Very beautiful Van Dyke solar prints may be made of
many of the evergreens. Examples are shown in the accom-
panying illustrations of the arbor vitse and the white pine.

In addition to the drawings the pupils may use the same
specimens for language work, which shall take the form of
short essays in which the chief characteristics of the speci-
mens are described. The length and completeness of these
descriptions will of course vary with the development of the
pupil, but something worth while may be done in any grade
above the fourth. These written exercises should be upon
paper the same size as the drawing paper. Dictation exer-
cises may also be given, using poems and prose selections
treating of the various evergreens.

11

For the written descriptive exercises the pupil in the inter-
mediate and upper grades should have before him upon the
blackboard some such outline as the following. The wise
teacher will of course adapt it to the degree of development
of her pupils, leaving out those things which the pupil will
be unable to describe to advantage. If there are no cones it
may be better to omit that topic.

Outline for Description of a Conifer.
1. Leaf:— 4. Fruit: —

Arrangement.

Color.

Length.

Shape.

Apex.

Color.
Size.
Shape.
Scales.
Seed.
5. Tree: —

Manner of growth.
Range.

2. Bark: —

Color.
Surface.

3. Buds:-

Color.

Shape.

Surface.

Many of the conifers have distinctive odors, which may
well be noted in their study. The aromatic perfume of the
arbor vitse is very different from the resinous .odor of many
of the pines, and would serve to identify it at any time.

Upon the foundation laid by the studies thus outlined a
more complete superstructure may be built by a study of the
trees out of doors, beginning with such as may be seen from
the windows of the schoolroom, and continuing as far as
possible by means of outdoor excursions. Occasional reviews
with actual specimens, and memory drawings of leaves and
cones, as well as sketches of the growing trees, will be helpful
in making permanent the pupils' knowledge of the ever-
greens.

The final visible result of the pupils' work may be a
booklet, into which is bound the drawings, the mounted speci-
mens, the descriptions and the written selections. The com-
pleteness of these booklets and the perfection of their work
will depend, of course, upon the development of the pupil and
the kind of supervision given. To some extent such booklets

12

may be made in every grade of the lower schools, and they
certainly may be made to great advantage in the high and
normal schools. Some standard size of drawing paper, which
is of good shape for artistic results, should be selected. A
good size is six by nine inches, as this enables one to put both
the mounted specimen and the drawing upon the same sheet
if desired. To accompany the drawing paper there should
be sheets of writing paper of the same size, ruled or unruled,
as the development of the pupils may necessitate. All the
sheets are to be punched upon the left-hand six-inch margin,
so that they may be bound in covers of stiffer paper, either
by the ordinary brass fasteners or preferably by means of
raffia. In the latter case it is desirable that three holes be
punched in the margin.

EXAMINATIONS.

It is very easy to determine whether the pupils know the
evergreens they have been studying or not. Place a small
branch and cone of each variety upon a side table, numbering
each species, and let the pupil, absolutely without assistance,
make a list of the names of the evergreens represented.
Memory drawings may also be utilized for examinations, or
the pupils may be required to write a synopsis of the dis-
tinctive characteristics of a certain number of species.

CORRELATIONS.

It may be worth while, at the risk of some repetition, to
indicate briefly the correlations with other studies which may
properly be carried on in connection with the study of the
evergreens.

In language it is obvious that any written or oral exercise
describing the evergreens is simply one phase of English
expression, and may very well be utilized as work in com-
, position. It is also readily seen that the pupil who secures,
through the study of the evergreens, adequate mental images
of the characteristics of the different species, and of the
appearance of the trees, either singly or in forest groups, is
preparing himself to appreciate references to these trees in
literature. This appreciation will be increased through the

13

use of selections from the best writers of prose and poetry,
as recommended on a previous page.

The correlation with drawing is so evident that it need
scarcely he dwelt upon. No nature study is at all adequate
which does not constantly afford the child opportunity to
express, through graphic representation, what he sees. In
the case of the coniferous trees it is especially desirable that
the appearance of the tree as a whole be represented from the

WM ITE: RUN

point of view of the art supervisor, and that the cover designs
for the booklets be made according to his suggestions. It is
desirable, also, that some of the selections be from those
artists who have written appreciatively of the outer world.

It is easy to see the lines which should be followed in cor-
relating the study of the evergreens with geography. The
range maps will form the foundation for this. The use
which is made of these trees for commercial purposes, as
lumber, as the basis for wood pulp, as the source of turpen-

14

tine, pine tar, Canada balsam and similar products indicates
that in treating of the product the source from which it comes
should receive adequate consideration. The importance of
the great coniferous forests as features of the landscape and
as modifiers of climate are facts of great geographic interest.
The natural distribution of our various native species may
also serve as a basis for interesting studies in geography.

In the lower grades the bundles of needles of the pines
could advantageously be used for combinations in number
work. In the higher grades interesting computations may
be made as to the number of leaves on a given branch or a
given tree.

The value of the conifers in forestry and in ornamental
planting will of course be emphasized. Wherever practicable
each pupil should be led to transplant in spring or early
autumn at least one evergreen about his home. Just as soon
as possible there should be an assortment of native conifers
growing on the school grounds.

SEQUENCE OF STUDY.

A natural sequence of study of the evergreens through the
grades may be indicated as follows : -

Grades 1 to 3. — Definite acquaintance, making through
sense perceptions and name connections. The pupils to see,
hear, feel, taste, plant and enjoy, in every way possible, as
many of the evergreens as may be; and always to know the
name of the species they are utilizing.

Grade 4- — Review of conifers in connection with topic
of seed dispersal.

Upper Grades. — In one upper grade a definite study of
the families of conifers, with individual booklets, including
the native species. In other grades correlations with geog-
raphy, language and drawing.

LISTS FOR THE LOWER GRADES.

In making out the following list the species most easily
recognized are placed first, although in many localities the
sequence might well be modified to meet local conditions.
The sequence is of comparatively little importance, however,

15

provided there is a definite list for each grade, so that when
the pupils enter the fourth grade they will not have been
studying a few of the abundant species to the exclusion of
the others. Constant reviews, of course, are necessary, but
when the pupils really know a species a new one should be
taken up.

First Grade.

1. White pine.

2. Pitch pine.

3. Norway spruce.

4. Arbor vitae.

5. Hemlock.

Second Grade.

6. Red pine.

7. Fir balsam.

8. Low juniper.

9. Black spruce.
10. American larch.1

Third Grade.

11. Juniper.

12. Red cedar.

13. Yew.

14. Red spruce;

white spruce.

15. Cypress.

16. Southern white

cedar.

A good time to begin the study of the conifers in any of
the grades is late in November, four or five weeks before
the holiday vacation. The subject can be gone over pretty
thoroughly before the term ends, and rapidly finished when
the winter term begins. It may well be followed then by a
study of the broad-leaved evergreens.

THE CONIFERS TO STUDY.

First Year List-

White Pine (Pinus Strobus). — Leaves arranged in clus-
ters of five, each leaf being long and slender and averaging
from %y2 to 4 inches in length ; its margins are finely serrate,
and in cross-section it is triangular. Green in color, with
two or three distinct whitish lines on the two lower surfaces.
Bark of young twigs olive brown, covered with a brownish
pubescence ; bark of older twigs smooth and shining. Scars
where the bundles of leaves have fallen o'ff broadly oval,
sometimes nearly circular. Buds conical, with a distinctly
pointed tip; they are rather small, averaging i/i inch in
length. Cones large, slender, 4 feet8 to 6 w^long; scales
resinous, whitish brown, each scale distinctly pointed ; rather

1 While the larch is not an evergreen it is a conifer and is usually associated with
evergreens.

16

thin at the tip, with their apical margins rounded and smooth.
Seed with wing. 9 inches long, light hrown in color. One of
our most important commercial trees, which is being planted
in great numbers in Massachusetts for lumber purposes.

Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida).- — Leaves arranged in clusters
of three, each leaf being long, rather stout and roughened by
a row of serrations along three of the margins, the teeth
pointing toward the tip. Green, with narrow rows of white
spots on all the sides. Bark of young shoots yellow brown,
not pubescent; its general appearance rough on account of

17

the scales, from in front of which the bundles of leaves cfome
out. Bark of older branches duller yellow brown. Terminal
buds very resinous, rather long, cylindrical with a conical
tip, averaging % inch in length; usually two or three or
more smaller accessory buds beside the main terminal bud.
Cones large, broad, 2 fe* long. Scales thickened at the tip,
with a stout sharp spine at the middle of the outer margin;
borne on the sides of the branches, often in small clusters.
Seed with wing.6 inches long ; wings very delicate in texture,
whitish, with stripes of brown. Called also torch pine.

The pitch pine is a much less important tree than the white
pine, but throughout the northern States it is abundant and
generally distributed. The tree is at once distinguished from
the white pine by the lighter color of its leaves, as well as
by their coarser appearance, and by the broad cones which
hang upon the branches in all parts of the tree for many
years after the seeds have been dropped. The younger cones
are bright reddish brown in color, while those which have
been weather-beaten for many years become a dark slaty
gray color.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). — Bark of season's
shoots light reddish brown; of older shoots much darker.
Buds subconical, the imbricated scales reddish brown, with
their margins slightly darker. Leaves yellow green, more
bluish green on the under surface; arranged spirally on the
branches, but the lower ones twisted around so as to give a
flattened effect to the lower surface and a brushlike effect
to the upper ; average length, % inch. Cross-section of each
leaf nearly square, with parallel rows of whitish dots upon
each of the four sides; apex bluntly pointed. Cones very
large, averaging when expanded 5 inches long by 2 inches
broad. Margins of the scales rather thin, slightly and irregu-
larly toothed, with the exposed portion having somewhat of a,
triangular effect, though the point of the triangle is generally
truncate. Winged seeds light reddish brown in color, % inch
long by % inch broad.

The Norway spruce is, perhaps, the most generally planted
for ornamental purposes of all the evergreens. Although
not a native species it is so universally distributed and its

18

cones are so characteristic that it probably will need to be
included in any study of the evergreens.

Arbor Vitce (Thuja occidentalis). — Easily recognized
among all the evergreens by the flattened, frond-like character

/h

DESIGN OF PITCH PINE NEEDLES. FIRST GRADE.

of the foliage, the leaves being very small and suggestive of
closely appressed, imbricated scales. Bark of older parts of
the twigs somewhat shining, grayish brown. Cones small,
ovoid,. 5 inches long, with few obtuse scales, chestnut brown

19

in color. Seeds elongate oval, broadly winged on both sides.
Fully developed tree generally of conical form. Foliage
with a distinct, characteristic, aromatic odor, which probably
arises chiefly in the little glands upon the leaves.

The arbor vitse is one of the most generally distributed of
the evergreens. It is a native of the northern States, and is
probably more widely planted for hedges in private grounds
and public parks than any other conifer. The Indians, used
to call the plant by the characteristic name of featherleaf.

20

Some confusion is likely to arise because in many regions
this species is called the white cedar, but it is very distinct
from the true white cedar, or, as the latter is sometimes called,
the southern white cedar. When growing in the open the
arbor vitas assumes the form of an attractive pyramidal tree.

Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis). — Branches generally hori-
zontal and having a flattened appearance, due in part to the
horizontal position of the leaves, which are commonly two
ranked on each side. There is also a row of leaves along the
upper side of the twig, each leaf parallel with the twig, and
in typical cases lying nearly flat upon it. In these cases the
apex of the leaf points to the apex of the twig, so that the
normal lower surface of the leaf becomes here the upper sur-
face; these leaves are generally less than half the length of
those that project sideways. The ordinary leaves generally
a little less than % inch long and not quite M.2 inch wide,
each leaf having a short petiole and generally a rounded tip ;
the upper surface bright, shining green, the under surface
appearing very much lighter, due largely to the whitish
stripes along the midrib and along each side of it. Crushed
leaves have a distinctly resinous odor. Youngest twigs pubes-
cent, light grayish brown in color; older twigs much darker
and roughened by the scales from which the leaves have
fallen. The leaves fall off in drying.

The hemlock is one of the best known and most character-
istic of the evergreens. It is widely distributed throughout
the United States and Canada, sometimes becoming a forest
tree more than 100 feet high. The lower branches are apt
to be scraggly, so that it is not so commonly planted in open
ground as some of the other evergreens.

Second Year List.

Red Pine (Pimis resinosa). — The red pine is at once
distinguished from the other native pines of the northern
States by its long leaves, arranged in pairs in a rather long
sheath, and its cones, borne at or near the ends of the branches.
The slender leaves are 4 to 6 inches long, and the sheaths are
from % inch to 1 inch in length. The cones are only about
2 inches long, nearly egg shaped, and the scales are smooth.

21

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). — General aspect of leafy
horizontal branches flattened, due to the approximately hori-
zontal position of the leaves. Upper surface a bright, clear
green, under surface markedly bluish green. Each leaf ses-
sile, averaging % inch in length, with the sides nearly parallel
and the apex distinctly notched ; upper surface bright, deep
green, with a longitudinal depression in the middle; lower
surface with two broad whitish stripes, one on each side of
the distinctly projecting midrib. Bark of season's shoots
light reddish brown, rather thickly covered with stiff brown
hairs ; bark of older twigs darker. Buds clear reddish brown,
with the imbricated scales covered by a transparent shiny
varnish ; subconical and rather small, averaging about %
inch. Leaves with a distinct balsamic odor and aromatic
taste. Cones large, averaging 4 inches long by 1 inch wide,
with the margins of the scales rounded; projecting upward
from the small branches.

The balsam fir is an abundant tree in the northern forests.
It is noted for the fragrance of its branches and for the trans-
parent resin produced upon the bark, which is the source of
the Canada balsam, largely used for preserving objects for
microscopic study as well as for other purposes. The wood
is used largely commercially in making paper pulp.

Low Juniper (Juniperus no/no). — A low-growing shrub,
often occupying circular areas in dry pastures and on open
hillsides throughout the northern States and much of Can-
ada. Leaves awl shaped, commonly coming out of the stem
in whorls of three, sometimes simply opposite in two ; hol-
lowed on under side and curved downward as seen from
above. Upper surface deep green ; general effect of under
surface blue green on account of the whitish stripes along
the middle of the under surface of each leaf. Bark of the
last season's twigs very light brown, with a greenish or gray-
ish tint ; bark of the next to the last season's growth reddish
brown, and of older branches dark brown. Leaves. 5 inches
to. 6 inches long. Fruit a berry-like object, % inch long
by % inch broad ; blue, with a glaucous bloom. The berry is
formed by the union of the thickened fleshy scales, the tips
of which may generally be seen. These enclose the three

22

nutlike seeds, which are curiously margined and sweetish
aromatic in taste. When crushed the fruits have a distinctive
aromatic odor. Called also ground cedar and ground
hemlock.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana). — Bark of young branches
reddish brown with a short pubescence, the hairs being brown-

ish or whitish. Leaves encircling the young twig yellow
green or green in color ; average length 4 inches ; cross-section
obtusely four angled ; longitudinal lines of whitish spots gen-
erally to be found on each of the four sides; apex acute.
Twigs straight or slightly curved, and commonly coming out
of the main trunk nearly horizontally. Buds commonly
arranged in groups of three at the ends of the more vigorous

23

twigs. Scales reddish brown, lower ones with long points
at the tip, upper ones with thin margins; general shape
ovate. Bark of older branches commonly blackish, giving a
generally dark appearance to the tree, which grows especially
in peat bogs from the far north southward to Michigan and
New Jersey. Cone. 9 inches to 1% iwiiong, oval in outline,
each scale having along the outer margin numerous irregu-
lar teeth ; remaining on the twigs for several seasons.

The black spruce grows abundantly in the so-called spruce
bogs of the northern States. It is not a very good tree for
ornamental purposes, as even in its favorite localities it is
commonly unsymmetrical. It is often brought into the mar-
ket as a Christmas tree.

American Larch (Larix laricina). — In early winter the
twigs are commonly bare, having dropped the leaves late in
autumn. Bark of season's shoots light reddish brown, with
more or less of a glaucous bloom. Buds on these shoots
globose, dark reddish brown, shining, the imbricated scales
having thin margins. On older twigs the bark is darker,
commonly being slaty gray irucolor, and the buds are on the
tips of very short branches.

The American larch or tamarack is one of the most abun-
dant cone-bearing trees to be found in the swamps of the
northern States. It is a distinctive tree that seems to require
an abundance of moisture. In the summer its numerous fine
leaves give it an attractive appearance, which is largely lost
when the leaves drop off late. in autumn.

Third Year List.

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis)- — Distinguished
from the low juniper by its tree-like form, with slender and
rather straight leaves. It is a northern species, which extends
southward to Michigan and ISTew Jersey. By many botanists
it is considered the same as the low juniper.

White Cedar (Chamtecyparis thyoides). — Bark of smaller
twigs reddish brown, somewhat shining, with the ends more
or less greenish. Leaf buds rather small, without scales.
Leaves minute, scale-like, opposite and four ranked, covering
the twig; tips sharply pointed. Most of the leaves have a

24

rounded greenish gland on the middle of the back. Fruit a
curious cone, usually rather small, seldom more than % inch
iri diameter, with the scales opening on the inside and several
minute winged seeds under each scale. Color of cone dull
brownish purple. Called also cedar.

The white cedar is generally found along the eastern coast
of the United States, although inland it occasionally occurs
in deep swamps, where it often forms the principal tree
growth. It is sometimes confused with the arbor vitee, largely
because the latter is also called white cedar. It is easily dis-
tinguished from the arbor vitse by its curious brownish purple,
more or less globular cones. The trees sometimes reach a
height of 50 feet, and the wood is famous for its durable
quality." Logs have been taken out of peat bogs and found
to be in good condition to work into lumber.

Red Spruce (Picea rubens). — Leaves rather short, gen-
erally less than % inch long, obtusely pointed, dark green,
with longitudinal rows of white dots showing through a lens.
Surface of last season's twigs deep brownish red, with the
distinct sterigmata which make up this surface covered quite
densely with stout, prominent, brownish or blackish hairs,
and with the projections that serve as the bases of the leaves
unusually prominent. Bark of earlier years' growth darker,
especially on the sides most exposed to the weather. Buds
rather prominent, reddish brown or brownish red in color,
darker at the obtusely pointed apex. Surface of buds hairy.
Cones deep reddish brown in color, quite regular in size and
shape, when fully opened averaging 1% inches long by 1 inch
wide. Scales with the margin slightly irregular, giving a
suggestion of short, obscure teeth. Seed with its wing %
inch long, the wing at its broadest part being half that width.
General outline broadly triangular, with the light grayish
brown wing terminal on the dark brown seed.

White Spruce (Picea Canadensis). — Bark of season's
shoots light brown, with bases of leaves of a slightly reddish
brown tinge ; bark of older branches very much darker. Buds
subconical ; scales reddish brown, imbricated. Leaves bluish
green, a little lighter when seen from below; those on the
under part of the twig twisted around so as to give the upper

L'O

surface of the branch a much more dense appearance thai
the lower surface. Average length of the leaf % inch; four
angled, sharply pointed at tip, with stripes of white dots on
each of the four sides. The bruised leaves have a pungent,
aromatic, slightly disagreeable odor. Cones generally termi-

BLACK SPRUCE

nal on the smaller twigs, when fully developed averaging 1%
inches long by % inch broad, generally ovate cylindrical
when opened. Scales with thin and more or less rounded
margins, the middle of the margin being commonly truncate
and generally entire. Seeds rather small ; length with wing
being but % inch ; width of wing % inch.

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The white spruce is one of the most beautiful of our native
evergreens, forming a tall pyramidal tree, with the branches
extending from the ground. The cones drop off soon after
fruiting, so that they may be found beneath the tree at any
time. The blossoms appear during April and May.

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana). — The twigs of this
common evergreen are especially interesting because of their
two forms of leaves.. In one form the leaves are -small and
scale-like, arranged in opposite pairs which alternate with
each other, each leaf being acutely pointed and subtriangular
in its shape. The other form of leaf is long and slenderly
lanceolate or needle-shaped, with a very sharp point. This
second form of leaf seems in general to be present upon the
twigs and branches which have grown rapidly. The bark of
the older parts of the branch is reddish brown and shining.
The fruit is a bluish, berry-like object, the size of a pea, in
which the thickened outer scales have grown together to
enclose the three or four angular seeds. Called also savin.

The red cedar is an interesting and characteristic tree,
scattered over almost the whole of eastern North America.
It varies greatly, but in its typical form it has a characteristic
columnar appearance which is very attractive. The berries
form a large part of the winter food of many birds, so much
so in the case of the cedar bird as to give that species its com-
mon name. The tree belongs to the genus Juniperus and is
sometimes called the red juniper.

American Yew or Ground Hemlock .(Taxus baccata). —
General appearance of the leafy branches flattened in a way
suggestive of the Hemlock, the leaves, however, being much
larger and more robust, and the color very much more of a
yellow green. Average length of leaves %. inch to % inch ;
width, Yi2 inch. Each leaf narrowed at the base into a short
petiole and sharply pointed with a mucronate apex ; longitud-
inally convex above and concave below. Midrib projecting
on both surfaces, more prominent on upper. Shining yellow
green on the upper surface, less shining and lighter on lower
surface. Bark of young twigs shining greenish brown; of
older twigs reddish brown. Buds small, with rather thick
imbricated scales. Each scale brownish green, with a whitish
longitudinal stripe along the middle and sometimes upon the

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margins. Fruit a curious, red, berry-like object, formed by
the disk becoming pulpy and cup-shaped, so as almost to cover
the hard seed; % inch long. Small masses of the cut twigs
have a curious musky odor, very different from that of any
pther of our evergreens. The leaves remain upon the twigs
in drying.

SYNOPSIS OF THE CONIFERS.

The conifers as a whole are distinguished from the majority
of seed-bearing plants in that the seeds are borne on the face
of a scale rather than enclosed in an ovary. Our native
species belong to two families, — the pine family, which in-
cludes all but one of them, and the yew family. The former
is characterized by cone-like fruits, while the latter is char-
acterized by its soft, berry-like fruit.

The Pine Family (Pinacece).

The Pines (Finns). — The pines are known by having the
leaves needle-shaped and in clusters of two to five, and by the
numerous woody cone scales. The three following species
are the most generally distributed native species : —

White Pine (Pinus Strobus). — Leaves long, five in a
sheath; cone long, with margins of cone scales smooth and
unarmed.

Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida). — Leaves long, three in a
sheath ; cone broad, with outer end of cone scale armed with
a pointed tooth.

Red Pine (Finns resinosa). — Leaves long, two in a
sheath ; cones not long, oval conic ; margins smooth.

The Larches (Larix).

The larches are characterized by having the leaves in dense
clusters on the ends of very short branches, the leaves falling
off late in autumn. Our native species : —

American Larch or Tamarack (Larix laricina). — Small,
short, pale green leaves, in dense clusters. Small branches,
not drooping. Cones persistent and erect on twigs.

European Larch (Larix Europcea). — Distinguished by
the drooping character of the branches. Commonly planted
for ornament.

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The Spruces (Picea).

In their general aspect the spruce trees are similar, heing
conical in outline and having rather short, four-sided leaves,
which spread in all directions on the branches, although thev

commonly project upward in a manner that gives them a
hrush-like effect. Leaf buds scaly and generally more or less
resinous.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). — Distinguished by the
large cones, 4 or 5 inches long, and the drooping position of
the smaller branches. An introduced species.

White Spruce (Picea Canadensis) . — Distinguished by the
absence of hairs upon the bark of the smaller branches ; cones
oblong, cylindrical.

29

Spruce (Picea rubens). — Distinguished by slender
pubescent twigs, with sharply pointed leaves, and cones that
fall off.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana). — Distinguished by stout
pubescent twigs, with the leaves abruptly pointed, and cones
that remain upon the tree.

The Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis).

Only one species in the northern States, distinguished by
flat leaves with short petioles.

The Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea).

Easily recognized by the erect cones and the rounded or
notched tips of the rather large, flattened leaves.

The Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum).
This tree has not before been mentioned in this article, as
it is a southern species, ranging north to Delaware. The
scales of the small cones are arranged spirally and the leaves
are deciduous. •

The Arbor Vitce (Thuja occidentalis) .

Easily recognized by the flattened appearance of the
branches, and the small cones with opposite scales.

The Southern White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides).

Known by the small, scaly leaves and the globose cones
with peltate scales, each scale having a projecting tooth on
.the middle. Ranging as far north as Massachusetts.

The Junipers (Juniperus).

The junipers are readily known by their fleshy, berry-like
fruits, which are cones modified through the thickening of the
scales. The leaves vary much in size in the different species.
Many leading botanists now separate the common juniper
into two species, juniper and low juniper, according to its
tree-like or spreading habit.

Juniper (Juniperus communis). — A tree-like shrub or

30

small tree, having awl-shaped leaves nearly % inch long,
arranged in whorls of three. Fruit a berry-like cone, dark
blue, with a glaucous bloom when ripe.

Low Juniper (Juniperus nana) . — A low, spreading
shrub, very abundant in rocky fields in many regions, with
awl-shaped leaves arranged in whorls of three, and berry-like
fruits; dark blue, with a glaucous bloom when ripe. Called
also ground cedar.

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana). — A tree or tree-like
shrub with two kinds of leaves, partly small and scale-like
and partly longer and awl-shaped. Fruit, berry-like, similar
to that of the low juniper, borne on short, straight twigs.

Shrubby Red Cedar (Juniperus Sdbina). — A shrubby
procumbent form, similar to the red cedar except that the
fruit is on recurved twigs. Found in northern regions,
extending southward only to Maine, northern New York,
Minnesota and Montana.

The Yeiv Family (Taxacece).

The Yew ( Taxus Canadensis^ . — Characterized by the
red, pulpy, resinous fruit partially enclosing the seed, and
the linear leaves with short petioles and awl-shaped tips. A
low shrub.

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