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17
therefore may be areas where attention should be focused. This should not be
interpreted to mean that it is more important to establish a protected area in
Lake Ladoga than in the Congo rainforests for example (as might be understood
from Map 3 in the World Conservation Strategy, IUCN, 1980), this sort of
decision would depend on numerous other arguments such as the vulnerability
and fragility of the biome type, and the threats (and hence the urgency).
This brief survey shows us that the coverage is patchy, but to determine
exactly how patchy, more analysis of the figures is required, based on
accurate estimations of the size of the provinces; this work is in progress.
Turning to the marine biophysical approach of Hayden et al (1984), it has
not yet been possible to carry out the research necessary for a similar review
of marine and coastal protected areas, though the necessary information is
available to CMC. IUCN is actively seeking funds for this project.
Biogeographical coverage —- application at the local level
It is clear that the global biogeographic approach provides’ useful
information primarily at the global level. For application of this
information on the ground, we need to turn to either the regional or national
level where the same biogeographic principles can be applied with considerably
greater precision, yielding proportionally more useful results (though again,
in many cases, much of the basic information such as species distribution,
remains to be collected).
Various countries have produced biogeographical maps for use in the
assessment and planning of their own protected area systems, and various
assessments of coverage have been made (or attempted) for a wide range of
countries. (See for example recent papers on Pakistan, Indonesia and India in
Thorsell, 1985a).
Rodgers (1985) describes a biogeographical classification for India which
has been designed by the Wildlife Institute of India for conservation planning
purposes. The Institute is coordinating a national inventory of protected
area coverage in relation to this biogeographical approach. Based on the
results of this inventory, and the described biogeographical approach, a
"consultant team’ will be able to make recommendations concerning the
protection (or increased protection) of particular areas.
Wetterberg et al (1981) describe how the protected area coverage of the
Amazonian region was assessed using the phytogeographic regions of Prance
(1977). This was followed up by the definition and mapping of ‘Pleistocene
refugia’ (in effect centres of endemism and/or diversity) for birds, lizards,
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18
butterflies and woody plants, derived from the available literature. The
points of overlap were noted, and after further refinement (taking into
consideration rural development plans and other factors), 30 general areas
were identified where efforts to establish protected areas could be
concentrated. Brazil was able to incorporate much of this work into its
protected areas system plan (IBDF, 1982), and several protected areas
(covering several million hectares) have since been set up - mainly within
recommended regions.
Terborgh and Winter (1983) use the distribution patterns of bird species
having ranges of less’ than 50,000km~ in Ecuador and Colombia to make
recommendations on the siting of reserves within these countries -— based on
the premise that such species (which over the continent as a whole comprise
about a quarter of the terrestrial avifauna) are more vulnerable to
deforestation than more widespread species. Within these two countries, 156
such species were identified, and their distributions mapped, and then a
‘concentration map’ was prepared by superimposition of all individual species
maps. Zones of maximum overlap obtained are described as areas obviously
meriting protection in a rational conservation plan, though the authors also
note areas of importance not immediately apparent from this approach.
Terborgh and Winter (1983) clearly show that while a large majority of these
species could be protected in a few well-situated reserves, virtually none of
the crucial areas are contained within the existing or proposed protected area
systems of either country.
Huntley and Ellis (1983) used the then available vegetation maps of
southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South
Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe) to estimate the total area of each
country covered by each vegetation type (out of a total of 189). Maps of the
protected areas in each of these countries were then accurately plotted on the
vegetation maps so that the total area protected of each vegetation type in
each country could be estimated. This analysis served to highlight the
tremendous emphasis on conservation of areas with large and spectacular
ungulate and carnivore species. Some of those areas with the greatest biotic
diversity and most complex ecological processes were the most poorly conserved.
Following on from the work of Huntley and Ellis (1983), and also from the
earlier work of Lamprey (1975) and others, IUCN is working on a systems plan
for the Afrotropical region based on a wide range of published and unpublished
work including the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa (White, 1983),
and the Afrotropical Directory prepared by CMC and CNPPA (IUCN, in press).
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19
Similar work is also under way in both the Indomalayan and Oceania regions.
The methods and intentions are described more fully by MacKinnon (1985), and
have been summarised for OTA by Thorsell (1985b). Similar activities are
under way in the Neotropical region.
Other biogeographic considerations
There are a number of ‘kinds’ of ecosystem that do not fall easily within
the types of biogeographical system described so far at the international
level, these are ecosystems such as wetlands and coral reefs, and to a certain
degree mountains and oceanic islands. In each case the ecosystem concerned
forms a sort of mosaic of ‘islands’ superimposed onto other biogeographic
considerations, and is thereby azonal.
The approach to studying the protection of these systems therefore has to
be correspondingly different. The method used most frequently is the listing
and studying of all potentially important sites, followed by analysis of what
is protected, and what needs protection. A good example of this approach
would be the lists of important wetland sites drawn up by a number of
countries (often at least partially as a result of the efforts under the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention)).
Few studies of this kind have been carried out at an international level
(though there are notable exceptions over certain regions). However, over the
last year or two attempts have been made to carry out this type of survey for
several major ecosystem types including wetlands, coral reefs and oceanic
islands. In essence the approach has been to collect information on all sites
of international importance in each ecosystem type, but as the exact approach
varies these initiatives are described separately.
Collection of information on coral reefs has been directly coordinated by
CMC, working with the IUCN Commission on_ Ecology. This has involved
collection of information on all reefs protected within national parks and
reserves, all those proposed for protection, and all those recommended by
qualified experts as requiring protection or management on the basis of their
scientific interest or economic importance. Much of the information made
available so far is compiled as the First Version of the IUCN Directory of
Coral Reefs of International Importance (three volumes each of about 500
pages) prepared for the Sth International Coral Reef Congress in Tahiti, May
1985.
Collection of information on wetlands of international importance has
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23
will have by the time GRID is operational (on protected areas, species of
concern, discreet habitats and so on) this will-enable information users to be
much more effective in their use of information to implement conservation
action.
Other key users of environmental information are the major development
banks. Where these agencies can be provided relatively quickly with
background information on conservation concerns within the region - in terms
of protected areas, species, habitats etc. - they may be influenced to modify
projects to take this sort of information into account, or to obtain and use
this information in project development. This stage does not and cannot
replace the use of expert consultants on field missions, but provides the
necessary background and advance information necessary in project development
and planning. The importance the World Bank attaches to environmental aspects
of development projects is discussed by Goodland (1984), who also discusses
the role of wildlands management in economic development (Goodland, 1985).
Additionally, CMC's recent experience is that the private sector is also
interested in having such an information service available.
It is clear therefore that the potential for use of information on the
situation, status and trends in ecosystems, and the situation, status and
trends of in situ conservation in ecosystems, is both wide-ranging and varied,
and potentially involves many organisations at the national, regional and
international level, as well as governments and individuals.
Because of the wide range of potential users, it would be rather
presumptive to suggest how use of the information could be improved, except to
say that the better the information and the better the handling of that
information, the more effectively it can be used (measures for improvement of
the international database which IUCN is already developing are detailed in
the next section). What can be stressed however, is the need to:
1. Encourage and support those organisations which use or foster use of
environmental data in conservation of ecosystems; and
2. Encourage both wider use of the available information and further
research into the land-use, management and planning aspects of the
application of that information.
The majority of decisions affecting development and use of natural resources
are made at the national or local level, and it should therefore also be noted
that there is a specific need to:
3. Encourage the use of a wide range of environmental data in the making of
decisions affecting the management and use of natural resources at all
levels.
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24
Needless to say, many organizations, government departments, etc., are
already working in this area, and what is needed in may case is the additional
support and encouragement (both financial and otherwise) to ensure that such
activities become an integral and essential part of land-use planning.
Clearly another factor affecting the use of the data available is its
accessibility. Information held by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
is, in principle, available to anyone, though the need to both maintain the
database and to prepare information for those needing it inevitably leads to
the need to make some charge for it. At present we normally respond to
written queries from external users offering to provide either packages of
basic -— largely uninterpreted - data, or by writing reports tailored to a
user's requirements. We are however investigating the use of direct access
methods with the U.S. National Park Service. It should nevertheless be noted
that direct access methods can only provide a ‘quick and dirty' answer to any
given query at present because information cannot currently be incorporated by
CMC as fast as it is being received. This is detailed further below.
These comments will apply to most databases, so even though the networking
of information sources is desirable, and probably inevitable, one should never
loose sight of the fact that it is unlikely that the computer files will ever
contain all the information available to a database, nor is it likely that a
computer will ever be able to replace the interpretive ability of an expert
familiar with the data. Added to this is the additional problem of different
databases using different conventions in the interpretation of their data for
codifying it. It should therefore be stressed that
4. Close cooperation between all organisations managing information on
conservation issues should be actively encouraged and supported, to
ensure good flow of information, avoidance of duplication of effort, and
use of similar methods of interpreting data where necessary, with the
ultimate aim of improving the use of information.
Possible U.S. response
Recommendations on actions that can/should be taken by various U.S.
institutions, development banks, non-governmental groups etc. have been
prepared for Congress in two recent documents, the U.S. Strategy on the
Conservation of Biological Diversity (an interagency Task Force Report, 1984)
and Conserving International Wildlife Resources: The United States Response (a
report by The Secretary of State and The Secretary of the Interior, 1984).
Within these documents a number of the recommendations clearly relate to the
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25
importance of information on the status and trends of ecosystems and their
conservation, and directly relate to use of that information. As noted by
Thorsell (1985b), IUCN is in general agreement with the thrust of the whole
range of recommendations contained within these documents.
Thorsell also recommends a number of actions that could be taken within the
United States which would involve use of information directly provided by the
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre. This includes wider use of the database
within the ongoing programmes of USAID, the State Department, and the
Department of the Interior. It .is also suggested that all U.S. missions
abroad should hold up-to-date information on conservation issues within the
countries concerned, and that such information could be provided by IUCN/CMC
on a subscription basis. As has been noted, IUCN is currently investigating
with U.S. National Park Service the possibility of on-line access to protected
areas information. Clearly other U.S. organizations may also be interested in
using this sort of access, including other federal agencies, the Nature
Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund.
However, perhaps the most important point to make here is that if the
United States agencies, institutions etc. encourage and support the use of
environmental data in decision making, and use such data in their own decision
making processes, this should in itself encourage the development of the
information base at all levels. This information base will then provide an
improved tool both for making new planning decisions, and reviewing the
effects of previous decisions. Further development of the use of information
within the U.S. will hopefully also lead to further use of environmental
information within planning and managment in other parts of the world.
IMPROVING THE DATABASE
Within the protected areas database now run by IUCN we already have an
international database which we believe to be of some value, and which was
recognised by the World National Parks Congress as being a valuable tool in
the implementation of the Bali Declaration (Recommendation 1, World National
Parks Congress, 1984).
The IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre is also recognised by Conserving
International Wildlife Resources: The United States Response (a report by The
Secretary of State and The Secretary of the Interior, 1984) as the “principal
focal point for information on the status of plants and animals, existing
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26
parks and protected areas". Recommendation 2.1 of that report, which
emphasisies the value of collecting “in one -world repository, sources of
information concerning conservation status of species and habitat" also notes
that CMC has already made "important strides in this regard and, because of
sovereignty sensitivities, would be more likely to receive information freely
from all countries” than a similar database in Washington.
This being the case, it is worthwhile discussing further here a number of
requirements/shortcomings in the existing database which are apparent to us.
Many of these points could equally apply to other databases at local, national
and regional levels, and several of the recommendations at the end of the
section also apply to these databases. Other recommendations relate to the
actual groudwork necessary for the collection of information, which is not
discussed in much detail here (it is presumably covered by other papers
solicited by OTA).
Assuming that the aims and objectives of the database are clear, there
remain three main parts to its development and maintenance:
a) continual collection, verification and compilation of information on
protected areas;
b) the management of that information; and
c) use of that information.
The last item has already been discussed.
Collection, verification and compilation of information on protected areas
As was emphasised earlier, good flow of information to an international
database ultimately depends on the availability of information within each
country; ideally with good information flow from each area to the national
level, and from here on to the international database. At each level this
information is of value when stored within a database of some form (not
necessarily a computer database). Decisions are generally made at the local
or national level, therefore within a specific area that information is of
value in the management of that site (and of similar sites elsewhere), while
at the national level the information is of value in assessment, management
and planning within the national system. It is clear that not only must these
databases exist, but the wherewithal must be provided for them to interrelate
with each other, and with the international database.
In some countries information flow is currently good, in others it is not.
It therefore follows that the flow of information to the international level
is itself rather variable. The information that comes to CMC also comes from
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27
a variety of different sources, from the Management authorities, from NGOs,
from individual scientists, and so on. In -other words, the process of
information collection is rather labour intensive, since information must be
compared and often verified before the work of incorporating it into either
data files or protected area information sheets begins. As a result of this
and low staff numbers (PADU is currently limited to a staff of four) this
becomes rather a slower process within the IUCN database than is desirable.
In many cases it is also necessary to review the relevant literature on
parks and reserves, and to have it to hand for further information,
verification of facts, etc. Much of this literature is available in
libraries, but it would be sensible in the future to ensure receipt of many
more unpublished reports, and other papers and publications direct from the
protected areas authorities, international organisations and others
responsible. IUCN's Conservation Monitoring Centre does not currently have
any set budget for purchase of relevant publications, but this clearly needs
to be a future budgetary item.
As well as the national databases mentioned above, a number of regional
databases, or ‘specialist’ databases also exist with which it is important to
interrelate. Currently, interrelationship is often hampered by the lack of
available funds for the necessary travel to make effective contact between
those responsible for organisation of these databases. This is unfortunate
not only because of the resulting lower level of interaction, but also as it
may result in several international groups approaching a country for
essentially similar information.
Within the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre we are currently in the
process of reviewing data collection procedures on protected areas and are
already implementing some improvements. These procedures will also be an item
for discussion by a working group set up by IUCN's Commission on National
Parks and Protected Areas to look into data collection, management and
dissemination. It is intended that this working group will be an advisory
body for the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre's work on protected areas.
The above would suggest that some of the key actions needed to ensure that
good information is available at the international level are to:
1. Strengthen and encourage national and local conservation database
development;
2. Foster the free exchange of information and maintain its flow from the
local to the national and on to the international level (including
support for regional meetings such as those organized by IUCN's
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas);
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28
3. Encourage closer ties between the various regional and international
databases dealing with conservation issues; and
4. Strengthen existing database capability of IUCN with the provision of
more staff time to improve the capacity to collect and compile
information on protected areas, and the provision of proper library
facilities.
It should finally be noted here, that the current limiting factor on
collection (and management) of information on protected areas by the IUCN
Conservation Monitoring Centre remains inadequate staffing levels. There is
urgent need for at least two further senior research staff and appropriate
support.
As has been mentioned above, the development of national and/or regional
conservation databases is a logical step for a variety of reasons, and many
are being, or have been, set up in many countries (note for example the work
of the U.S. Nature Conservancy in this regard). IUCN's experience in
development of its conservation database could be put to good use in assisting
in this national/regional development. It is also worth noting that there is
still a general lack of use of computers in management of conservation
information.
IUCN's Computer Service Unit (within the Conservation Monitoring Centre)
has the capability but not the opportunity to develop a standard software
package which could be used on micro-computers for establishment of national
databases. Apart from the obvious advantage of the simplicity of being able
to get a system ‘off the shelf" (once the software has been developed) this
would also mean that the information would be stored within these databases in
a form which could be readily understood within IUCN's computers. It would be
likely that CMC would cooperate closely with the U.S Nature Conservancy
(International Programme) in this sort of activity.
Management of information
Geographical Information System: Clearly to be of maximum benefit in the
analysis of the status and trends of in situ conservation of biological
diversity, all of the information available on protected areas must be tied as
closely as possible (preferably within the computer database) with information
on species and ecosystems, so that comparisons and analyses can be readily
carried out. Various ‘classification’ systems exist which can be used in the
assessment of the protected area coverage of various ecosystems. These can be
divided into two forms, those that are map based and those that are not.
a
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29
Mention has already been made of the maps and methodologies of Udvardy
(1975), Bailey (1983) and Hayden et al (1984). Other major regional maps
which may be important in this sort of analysis are, for example, those for
the ecoregions of the United States (Bailey, 1976) and North America (Bailey
and Cushwa, 1981), the physical geographical regions of the Nordic countries
(Nordic Council of Ministers, 1983), the physical geographical regions of the
Soviet Union (Gvozdetskiy, 1968), and so on.
Clearly IUCN needs the capability to handle maps so that information within
their database can be quickly located on any part of any map. The ideal
solution, and the best long term solution, is the availability of computer
hardware and software to handle the maps and their information content, and
the necessary support staff to assist in their use. Once this software and
hardware is available, in theory any map can be input (including vegetation
maps, species distribution maps, distribution of remaining ‘virgin' forest,
geological maps, soils maps, climatic maps, etc.), and analysis can then be
made of protected area coverage using any combination of maps required.
It is also of value to consider information on non-biological or
geographical aspects such ‘as distribution of the human population, relative
effect of man on different regimes, desertification, estimated productivity,
etc. in analysis of in situ conservation. Much of this information can be
input as maps, and therefore could be easily handled with full Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) capability.
An improved Geographical Information System (GIS) will also bring a series
of other benefits. It will make it much easier to relate one area to another,
making the database more able to indicate where areas meet, overlap or fall
one within another. For example, when asked for a list of conservation areas
over 1 million hectares it will not only provide a list of those over this
figure, but also a list of sites where their contiguity to other sites takes
them over this figure. It will similarly simplify analysis of ‘percentage
cover’ of any given geographical region.
Such a system would also enable us to determine where within a given area
another smaller area lies. That this capability is important can be
demonstrated by two simple examples. Firstly, it will be able to tell us very
quickly which protected areas are on international borders, or the coast and
s0 on. Secondly it will enable IUCN to identify not only which areas are
within which biogeographical regions, but which are near the boundaries of
those regions. As Pielou (1979) pointed out the areas where transitions occur
are important in their own right and deserve special attention.
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30
Another valuable corollary of the development and use of a full GIS would
be the capability of relating the information on the size of an area with that
on its relative isolation from other protected area, and perhaps also its
shape. This should allow further detailed assessment of reserve networks and
their efficiency, especially when combined with further information on the
effectiveness of management, and eventually on species and_ species
numbers/trends.
Habitats: It is clear that all information within a database must not only
be linked to all geographical information based on maps, but on actual ground
features. We need to know for example which protected areas actually contain
tropical rain forest, elfin forest or mangroves, which contain sea grass beds,
glaciers or limestone karst topography and so on. It therefore follows that
information on each protected area needs to be linked with a ‘habitat’
classification system or with numerous partial systems such as vegetation
systems (e.g. IUCN, 1973; Unesco, 1973), geomorphological systems, island
systems (e.g. Dahl, 1980), wetland systems (e.g. Cowardin et al, 1975) etc.
Information on each protected area is very variable, as we have noted, so
classifications clearly need to be hierarchical so that information can be
used, however crude or sophisticated. It has been suggested that a single
system should be developed which will be used not only by IUCN for management
of its information on protected areas and species, but also by the GRID.
Once such a scheme is available, this will form a major ‘skeleton’
throughout the CMC database, with both protected areas and species linked to
the habitat types which they contain, or are found associated with,
respectively. Implementation will be a very time consuming task, however, and
one for which outside funding will be required.
Ecosystem inventories: As was noted earlier, IUCN has also been involved in
projects concerning management of information on specific ecosystem types such
as coral reefs, wetlands and oceanic islands. Work like this clearly needs to
be improved and extended so that information on ecosystems of concern can be
more effectively collected and managed, and linked with information on both
the species and protected areas in those ecosystems. Only in this way can
full assessment of the conservation status of these particular systems be
made, and only when much of this information is together can recommendations
and advice be given to conservation and development agencies and other
interested groups.
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33
5. Strengthen existing database capability of IUCN with the provision of a
full GIS, the hardware to run it on, and.the support staff to implement
it.
6. Support the development of a comprehensive ‘habitat information’
classification, and once developed, support its implementation by
international databases, and where relevant by national and regional
databases.
7. Encourage application of improved methods to assess the achievement of
Management objectives for use at all database levels.
Also, to answer the full series of relevant questions on in situ conservation
of ecosystems all this information relies on the available information on
species and ecosystems. It is therefore necessary to:
8. Strengthen the existing database capability of IUCN to improve the
capacity to collect and compile information on species of conservation
concern, and ecosystems, and to link it more fully with information on
protected areas.
Implicit in all of this discussion is that the information is of value at
all levels - not just internationally, and therefore there is a need as
recommended above to:
9. Encourage the development of national and local databases managing
information for use in decision making and planning at those levels.
What must also be apparent, however, is the need for large amounts of
information on species and habitat distribution. The more accurate and
complete the records are, the more objective the biogeographical analyses can
be, and hence the better the proposals/judgements made based on these
analyses. This information depends on two factors, collection/identification,
and coordination of information. There is therefore a need to:
10. Encourage and support the necessary’ basic research requiring
systematists (to classify the species in the first place), fieldworkers
and other scientists to identify and locate items of the biota
(including habitats), and biogeographers and other scientists to analyse
the available information) ;
and to:
11. Encourage the development of effective cross-linking/networking of
databases maintaining information on species/habitat,
location/distribution.
Clearly both of these activities are at the very core of information work
in conservation, and involve a wide body of people from a wide range of
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37
However, perhaps the most important point to make in conclusion is that if
United States agencies, institutions etc. encourage and support the use of
environmental data in decision making, and use such data in their own decision
making processes, this should in itself encourage the development of the
information base at all levels. This information base will then provide an
improved tool both for making new planning decisions, and reviewing the
effects of previous decisions. Further development of the use of such
information within the U.S. will hopefully also lead to further use of
environmental information within planning and management in other parts of the
world.
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38
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—_ ati nda ite ec (ome
obIav22neoy tamer) tiewget® te
a5 Brn eee AeBeL) 7 , Freese Oe.
> .WOUTLIEOT. ann asad ee “wey 7 got.
paut .¢288r) .6.1 igiinmes hate 08 Ws. x
OUR ees aad >of MOU ere oe
eer: |
ee 4 jewite.d “- * * ,etod oa 4-9 SO01S 2 i 4 7 r
A cael oft vere) sniewqoe? ban vhea lS )
=o saobsee ot on) - to tuomtaaged .2.0 eg v
it ied. atqetgquego ty -(toer) MR
esi bat ieientan | tadols ~ (OaRh?
(ge |
a i lilies Lenetged 10000). Ll
82 Wal, ,aemwOK , ac ian! rao! 21 ttaa
ay
get modeye A (ASOT)
80 davieano: 10. iL
y apne) perez te phased de
a ss: * amatpal ite fae te
Aine) ata
z- cA ach’ .weerd
39
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imac! rh +
“eat tor vv
he eaqe
erage
ERD
“steroid We
neon) | @ opies Ete
peau dah, |
oe
be ibaa Atel Lave ( 2arr
= deaid Sgotanaacne oq?
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40
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Koppen, W. (1931). Grundriss der Klimakunde. Walter de Gruyter Co., Berlin.
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Lamprey, H.F. (1975). The distribution of protected areas in relation to the
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eonlise |. ~~ 3 res Sa ae “Steel ae ee -
ay ren 1 thos xoim int.
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oes taint
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41
Schonewald-Cox, C.M., Chambers, S.M., Macbryde, B. and Thomas, W.L.
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1a
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sectors Lae demelig 8... Aol M AYO nto" ies pan): (CRAG Me
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42
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
UNEP Global Environment Monitoring System
Geographical Information System
GEMS Global Resource Inventory Database
International Biological Programme
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources
International Council for Bird Preservation
International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources
International Waterfowl Research Bureau
Man and the Biosphere (a Unesco programme)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
CMC's Protected Areas Data Unit
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
U.S. National Park Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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Figure 1 Growth of the world coverage of protected areas
Number of protected areas (~~ ) and total area
protected ( ifiiiillilll| ) im IUCN management categories I-V
Area (millions of hectares)
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Figure 2 Number of protected areas established ( ——— ) and their
total area (ct{ /{)) in each five year period since 1870.
IUCN management categories I-V.
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Figure 4
IUCN management
in
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1 realm (after Udvardy, 1975).
broken down by biogeographica
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400 Woodlands and Sub-polar Deciduous Thickets 40
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Table 4: Analysis by biogeographical province
Number Total area
of areas (hectares)
Sitkan 12 3,869,827
Oregonian 6 380,344
Yukon Taiga 12 21,010, 636
Canadian Taiga 41 9,311,043
Eastern Forest 39 1,155,364
Austroriparian 43 734,852
Californian 6 52,010
Sonoran ilal 3,464,499
Chihuahuan 10 493,332
Tamaulipan 1 5,117
Great Basin 15 657,128
Aleutian Islands 7 7,025,370
Alaskan Tundra 9 25,292,471
Canadian Tundra 2 4,557,110
Arctic Archipelago (0)
Greenland Tundra fe)
Arctic Desert and Icecap 2 71,050,000
Grasslands 25 387,751
Rocky Mountains 46 6,783,793
Sierra—Cascade 16 1,251,492
Madrean—Cordilleran 19 285,793
Great Lakes 7 444,713
329 158,212,645
Chinese Subtropical Forest 10 312,509
Japanese Evergreen Forest 38 1,430,485
West Eurasian Taiga 106 5,061,090
East Siberian Taiga 16 3,402,600
Icelandian 22 791,431
Subarctic Birchwoods 14 258,590
Kamchatkan 1 964,000
British Islands 34 IAG! lnliz:
Atlantic 96 1,063,740
Boreonemoral 55 743,047
Middle European Forest 97 W232), 282
Pannonian 22 245,056
West Anatolian 1 11,338
Manchu—Japanese Mixed Forest 22 1,480,074
Oriental Deciduous Forest 36 1,378,671
Iberian Highlands 42 1,835,557
Mediterranean Sclerophyll 80 1,538,599
Sahara 2 117,094
Arabian Desert 5 499, 440
Anatolian—Iranian Desert 32 5,499,190
Turanian 13 1,170,858
Takla—Makan-—Gobi Desert 2 4,507,850
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Table 4 (cont.): Analysis by biogeographical province
NNYNYNHNNNYNHNMNNHMNNM NNN NNN ND LH
www Ww WwW Ww WwW WwW Ww WwW ww www Ww
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
01
O01
01
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
06
07
07
07
07
07
07
12
12
12
12
12
Tibetan
Iranian Desert
Arctic Desert
Higharctic Tundra
Lowarctic Tundra
Atlas Steppe
Pontian Steppe
Mongolian—Manchurian Steppe
Scottish Highlands
Central European Highlands
Balkan Highlands
Caucaso-Iranian Highlands
Altai Highlands
Pamir—Tian—-Shan Highlands
Hindu Kush Highlands
Himalayan Highlands
Szechwan Highlands
Macaronesian Islands
Ryukyu Islands
Lake Ladoga
Aral Sea
Lake. Baikal
Guinean Rain Forest
Congo Rain Forest
Malagasy Rain Forest
West African Woodland/Savanna
East African Woodland/Savanna
Congo Wood land/Savanna
Miombo Woodland/Savanna
South African Wood land/Savanna
Malagasy Woodland/Savanna
Malagasy Thorn Forest
Cape Sclerophyll
Western Sahel
Eastern Sahel
Somalian
Namib
Kalahari
Karroo
Ethiopian Highlands
Guinean Highlands
Central African Highlands
East African Highlands
South African Highlands
Number Total area
of areas (hectares)
1 266,913
9 1,409,356
5 3,491,000
1 795,650
2 2,961,254
3 By IAS
16 581,053
3 172,580
20 81,723
105 2,037,182
32 390,241
42 2,236,152
2, 935,093
17 616,490
1 14,786
10 1,708,148
2 52,000
7 48,095
¥2 4,047
(0)
i 18,300
(@)
10217 52,878,456
iS) 907,720
23 en bakin HTS
6 243,238
53 13,543,787
36 7,873,091
5 2,990,700
33 13,396,995
105 10,437,555
i 388,224
1 43,200
41 1,620,967
7 1,726,000
2 1,719,700
18 4,142,182
7 6,768,070
8 9,282,803
15 144,330
5 636,000
me 335,625
9 3,622,985
9 431,108
13 78,908
PrprprpPpPrpPprerrprrprrerhrpPrrPrerrh HP RHP HS wWwwww Ww w
Onnnnnm
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Ol
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
op
02
03
04
05
06
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
Ol
Ol
Ol
opt
01
O01
O01
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
07
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
Table 4 (cont.): Analysis by biogeographical province
Name of Province
Number Total area
of areas (hectares)
Ascension and St Helena Islands (0)
Comores Islands and Aldabra 1 19,000
Mascarene Islands 3 4,033
Lake Rudolf fe)
Lake Ukerewe (Victoria) iL 45,700
Lake Tanganyika (@)
Lake Malawi (Nyasa) 1 9,400
426 88,166,096
Malabar Rainforest 30 1,303,273
Ceylonese Rainforest 1 97,956
Bengalian Rainforest 22 657,352
Burman Rainforest (0)
Indochinese Rainforest 28 1,780,756
South Chinese Rainforest 21 165,709
Malayan Rainforest 20 1,087,728
Indus—Ganges Monsoon Forest 136 6,835,608
Burma Monsoon Forest 18 515,429
Thailandian Monsoon Forest 20 942,417
Mahanadian 17 1,022,379
Coromandel 3 105,828
Ceylonese Monsoon Forest 36 544,709
Deccan Thorn Forest 8 454,036
Thar Desert 35 1,628,854
Seychelles and Amirantes Islands 2 2,893
Laccadives Islands (0)
Maldives and Chagos Islands te)
Cocos—Keeling and Christmas Islands 1 1,600
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 8 28,592
Sumatra 29 4,253,807
Java 38 644,930
Lesser Sunda Islands 10 174,155
Sulawesi (Celebes) 22 1,093,265
Borneo 39 3,791,061
Philippines 26 390,932
Taiwan 2 45,137
572 27,568,406
Bamtan 24 3,747,672
Micronesian 5 13,258
Hawaiian 4 214,502
Southeastern Polynesian 8 53,977
Central Polynesian 4 44,055
New Caledonian 7 48,796
Table 4 (cont.): Analysis by biogeographical province
Name of Province Number Total area
of areas (hectares )
5 07 13 East Melanesian Ds 5,342
54 4,127 602
6 01 01 Queensland Coastal 53 7,776,347
6 02 02 Tasmanian 26 904,976
6 03 04 Northern Coastal 10 934,272
6 04 06 Western Sclerophyll 138 2,444,584
6 05 06 Southern Sclerophyll 56 Tey 5 7/727/
6 06 06 Eastern Sclerophyll 95 2,741,356
6 O07 06 Brigalow 12 319,156
6 08 O07 Western Mulga 10 2,144,280
6 09 O07 Central Desert 13 3,657,703
6 10 07. Southern Mulga/Saltbush 10 4,363,400
6 11 10 Northern Savanna 9 1,458,655
6 12 10 Northern Grasslands 3 582,738
6 13 11 Eastern Grasslands and Savannas 34 670,163
469 29,411,357
7 01 02 Neozealandia 145 2,783,281
7 02 09 Maudlandia 6 34,959
7 03 09 Marielandia 1 160,000
7 04 09 Insulantarctica 5 100,075
157 3,078,315
8 01 01 Campechean 4 63,918
8 02 01 Panamanian 6 660,902
8 03 01 Colombian Coastal 6 1,019,000
8 04 01 Guyanan 21 2,155,078
8 05 01 Amazonian 14 12),.73'3:, 681
8 06 01 Madeiran 2 448,150
8 07 01 Serro Do Mar 8 196,468
8 08 02 Brazilian Rain Forest 16 447,233
8 09 02 Brazilian Planalto 2 15,839
8 10 02 Valdivian Forest 13 4,018,459
8 11 02 Chilean Nothofagus z/ 4,367,307
8 12 04 Everglades 9 774,279
8 13 04 Sinaloan 5 462,994
8 14 04 Guerreran 5 66,873
8 15 04 Yucatecan 2 106,970
8 16 04 Central American 23 825,207
8 17 04 Venezuelan Dry Forest 26 1,125,794
8 18 04 Venezuelan Deciduous Forest 11 546,930
Table 4 (cont.): Analysis by biogeographical province
Name of Pravince Number Total area
of areas (hectares)
8 19 04 Equadorian Dry Forest 3 181,300
8 20 04 Caatinga 3 236,100
8 21 04 Gran Chaco 6 1,175,000
8 22 05 Chilean Araucaria Forest 1 5,415
8 23 06 Chilean Sclerophyll 5 38,795
8 24 O07 Pacific Desert (0)
8 25 07 Monte 7/ 1,446,751
8 26 08 Patagonian 4 36,700
8 27 10 Llanos 3 1,207,000
8 28 10 Campos Limpos 3 3,192,000
8 29 10 Babacu 1 155,000
8 30 10 Campos Cerrados 11 2,457,403
8 31 11 Argentinian Pampas (0)
8 32 11 Uruguayan Pampas 9 70,516
8 33 12 Northern Andean 9 913,288
8 34 12 Colombian Montane 8 1,397,050
8 35 12 Yungas 9 1,108,268
8 36 12 Puna 13 1,168,439
8 37 12 Southern Andean 47 6,450,237
8 38 13 Bahamas—Bermudean 4 122,540
8 39 13 Cuban 4 24,305
8 40 13 Greater Antillean 9 225,230
8 41 13 Lesser Antillean 6 87,875
8 42 13 Revilla Gigedo Island (6)
8 43 13 Cocos Island 1 3,200
8 44 13 Galapagos Islands 1 691,200
8 45 13. Fernando De Noronja Island 1 36,249
8 46 13 South Trinidade Island 0
8 47 14 Lake Titicaca ie)
348 52,464,943
Biogeographical classification unknown 132 7,866,578
TOTAL 3,514 423,774,398
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ivos Gemwerces Lom Mond poring Centre, ;
An introduction to the
Protected Areas Data Unit,
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Jeremy Harrison
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
219c Huntingdon Road
Cambridge CB3 ODL
United Kingdom
The work of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre is
a contribution to the Global Environmental Monitoring System
of the United Nations Environment Programme
Cambridge, 1985
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tf
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Tee hy Lagi
INTRODUCTION
For well over two decades IUCN has been collecting information on the world's
conservation sites, both for use in its own programmes, and to assist in its
work with other conservation organizations. During the late 1970s, IUCN's
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) was reorganized ona
regional basis and, as a part of this process, data-gathering on protected
areas was made more systematic. The resulting increased flow of information
created the need for an office to handle it, and the Protected Areas Data Unit
(PADU) was set up in 1981 with the assistance of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the US Nature Conservancy. The unit now
forms part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (CMC) and is based in
Cambridge, in the United Kingdom. The information handling capabilities of
the unit depend on a Wang VS mini-computer which provides an integrated
data-processing and word-processing system. The following paragraphs give a
brief outline to some of the work carried out by PADU, and provide an
introduction to how the unit is integrated within IUCN's conservation
monitoring activities. Further details on the development of the CMC computer
database are discussed by Mackinder (1984).
HANDLING THE INFORMATION
IUCN has a worldwide network of contacts, many of whom can provide information
on protected areas within their respective regions. Many of these contacts
are members or consultants of JIUCN's Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas (CNPPA), and PADU receives much of its information through the
regional working sessions of the Commission which PADU staff attend, and where
the participants are asked to review information on the region. Information
collected in this way is added to through correspondence and literature
research, and in discussion with scientists and land managers from around the
world.
Information is received in a variety of forms ranging from departmental
reports to scientific papers, though many contacts provide information on
standard forms, or correct draft information sheets prepared by PADU staff.
Although it is easier to deal with information sent on standard forms, it is
important to also receive original information such as management plans, maps,
departmental reports, scientific papers, and species lists. The availability
of such documentation not only enables extraction of further information, and
verification of information where necessary, it also means that if detailed
information is required by IUCN for any given region the original documents
can be quickly found and used.
Initially basic data are abstracted from the information received, and entered
into the main data file on the computer. These files are constantly being
extended, and the programs which handle them improved, but the core
information includes the name of the protected area, the country it lies
within, its size, year of establishment, management category (according to
IUCN/CNPPA, 1984), its definition within the country (eg National Park, Nature
Reserve), and its biogeographic code (according to Udvardy, 1975). Various
other codes, such as document addresses (explained shortly), those indicating
what sort of maps PADU has on file, and a unique number (one for each
protected area) are used in cross—referencing information.
Using the computer this information can be handled in a wide variety of ways,
and data items can be selected and sorted using any character or group of
characters within the data file. It is possible, for example, to obtain a
= 9)
list of protected areas of over 100,000 hectares within the Tropical Humid
Forest biome in Latin America, a list of sites in Burma and Thailand in IUCN
Management category I, or a list of all the protected areas established
between 1954 and 1972. By sorting the data, it is relatively straightforward
to put together volumes like the UN List (IUCN, 1982a; 1985b). In this case
information is first selected from the data file, then sorted by country, by
Management category within country, by size within management category within
country, and so on. The material which has been sorted can then be put into
the right format by careful programming so that it is ready for publication.
Programs can also be written to summarise the information in a wide variety of
ways, and several summaries have already been published by IUCN (1982a;
1985b), Harrison, Miller and McNeely (1982) and Unesco (1983). Two examples
will perhaps illustrate this capability. By mid 1982, over 2,600 areas had
been created which were considered to be of sufficient status to be included
in the 1982 UN List, and the total area protected as of October 1982 included
some 4 million square kilometres. The rate of growth to achieve this is
illustrated in Figure 1 from information held and sorted by the computer.
These data can be further broken down to illustrate the situation in each of
the different realms (Figure 2), again using information selected from data
files, and sorted appropriately. Using other programs, protected areas in
IUCN management categories I-V can be sorted into size classes facilitating
the plotting of frequency histograms (Figure 3).
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NUMBER OF PROTECTED AREAS [STABLISHED
Figure 2
of reserves
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Figure 3
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Use of the data files is only half the story.
into an ‘information sheet! where information is grouped under a number of
specific headings (Figure 4). As noted earlier, the information may already
have been. supplied to in this format. Each of these information sheets is
entered into the computer as a word processing document or text file. The
text can be stored by the machine and recalled for correction or reformating
whenever necessary. Each text file has a document identification, and it is
this number which we enter into our data file as the document address
mentioned above. This gives is the essential cross-link between the basic
information and the detailed text.
Data on each area are compiled
The information in these text files is regularly checked and added to, using
material from various sources. More systematic checking is accomplished by
taking all of the sheets for any given region to each CNPPA meeting in that
region for review. In this way, material can be prepared for publication.
The IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas was published at the time of
the World National Parks Congress in Bali, Indonesia (IUCN, 1982b), and during
1984 final drafts of both the Directory of Wetlands of International
Importance (IUCN, 1984) and the IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas
were prepared. The Afrotropical Directory will be published shortly (IUCN,
1985a), and work is now in progress on both the Indomalayan and Oceanian
regions.
Name of protected area Noteworthy flora
Management category Noteworthy fauna
Biogeographic province Conservation management
Legal protection Zoning
Date established Disturbances and deficiencies
Geographical location Visitor facilities
Altitude Scientific research/facilities
Size of area Principal reference material
Land tenure Staff
Physical features Budget
Habitat/Vegetation Local administration
Figure 4 The major headings under which information is
collected on protected area information sheets
The word-processing system is also being used to manage the documentation on
World Heritage sites for the secretariat at Unesco, and plans are under way to
carry out similar projects for biosphere reserves and sites listed under the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfow]
Habitat.
USE OF THE INFORMATION
It is abundantly clear that any one country will have far more information
available on its own protected areas than could ever be handled by a few
people in an office in the United Kingdom. Similarly many countries have the
capacity to establish computer systems and are able to maintain aa i
information on protected areas in ways that meet their own needs. How en
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PADU aid conservation? There are in fact a variety of reasons, of
varying levels of importance, for Maintaining a global overview.
a)
b)
Broad comparisons of protected areas networks
Around the world there are many different designations of protected
area. In Kenya, for example, the terms include national parks, national
reserves, nature reserves, forest reserves, and in Spain national parks,
natural parks and national hunting reserves. In Thailand there are
areas known as no hunting areas, in Uganda game management areas, while
in Kiribati similar areas are designated wildlife sanctuaries. However,
the definitions of any one designation will vary country to country, for
example the national parks of the United Kingdom are certainly not
national parks in any international sense.
In an attempt to clarify this situation, and to encourage the use of a
wide range of protected area ‘types', IUCN (1978) identified a series of
ten management categories defined according to management objectives.
PADU is using these ten categories to classify areas, and hence is able
to give a better comparative picture of the protected area situation
country to country than could be achieved by use of the national
designations.
Biogeographical analysis of protected area coverage
A major objective of the global protected area system is to maintain the
diversity of species and ecosystems, but listing protected area coverage
by country does not provide much information on how well natural
ecosystems around the world are being conserved. IUCN has therefore
been using the system of biogeographical provinces described by Udvardy
(1975) to make a first estimate of the coverage of major living
resources by protected areas. This system divides the world into eight
major realms, each of which is divided into a number of provinces. Each
province is characterised by a particular biome type. Hence the Akagera
National Park in Rwanda, for example, is within the Afrotropical
Realm, in the East African Woodland/Savanna Province, which is
characterised by a tropical dry or deciduous forests or woodlands
biome.
A first approach to assessment of coverage of the world's biogeographic
variety by protected areas is to examine coverage by province and
biome. At present such comparisons are relatively crude, and it is
important to note, for example, that biome type is not synonymous with
habitat type, and also that the total area of each province or biome is
‘not the same; problems which can hide important differences in the
figures (Harrison et_al, 1982). However, for all of its limitations the
approach through biogeographic provinces does provide a useful tool for
identifying major holes in the protected area network. For example 13
of the biogeographical provinces did not have protected areas included
in the 1982 UN List, and some 34 provinces had 5 or fewer protected
areas covering an area of less than 100,000 hectares. The rather crude
tool of global biogeography could therefore suggest that these poorly
protected provinces may be where international attention should be
focussed. We know that coverage is patchy. To determine exactly how
patchy, more analysis of the figures is required, based on more accurate
estimations of the size of the biomes and provinces; this work is in
progress.
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It is clear that the global biogeographical approach provides useful
information primarily at the global level. For national systems, the
same biogeographic principles can be applied with considerably greater
precision yielding proportionally more useful results; examples of such
applications include those in Costa Rica, Canada, New Zealand, and in
the Amazonian region of Brazil. Also, with more detailed continent—wide
biogeographic maps, such as the vegetation map of Africa
(Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO, 1983), it is possible to make more accurate
assessments of protected area cover at this level. The information held
by PADU is currently being used in the development of protected areas
systems plans for two of the major tropical regions, the Afrotropical
and Indomalayan realms. This project is described in detail by
MacKinnon (1985).
The system of marine biophysical provinces and coastal biogeographical
provinces described at the World National Parks Congress in Bali,
Indonesia (Hayden et al, 1984), has important applications in
identifying the major gaps and weaknesses in the present coverage of
coastal and marine ecosystems. This is something that has not been
systematically tackled before for the whole world, and should lead to a
significant increase in the number and size of protected areas in these
aquatic habitats. Work will begin on this shortly.
Development of publications on protected areas
Having all this information available on one site enables PADU to work
with CNPPA in developing a variety of publications on protected areas.
The United Nations List has already been mentioned, as has the series of
directories of protected areas. The directories, which give basic
details on the protected area networks of each country and one or two
pages of information on each protected area, are intended to serve as
handbooks for the protected areas of each major land mass. Volumes on
the Neotropical Realm and the Afrotropical Realm have been produced so
far (IUCN, 1982b; 1985a), and work is now under way on volumes to caver
the Indomalayan and Oceanian realms.
PADU is also in a good position to prepare or help prepare general
overview papers on protected areas issues.
It is also possible to produce publications on request; a volume ona
particular country; on the vegetation of parks and reserves of South
East Asia; on the protected areas of tropical rain forest around the
world; on the threats to all protected areas containing tigers,
bowerbirds, or coco de mer; or on those areas set up to protect
important watersheds, or protected under specific international
conventions or programmes. Some of these would be more difficult to
produce than others, but we already hold much of the necessary
information.
Providing information to conservation agencies
IUCN, the World Wildlife Fund, and other international conservation
agencies need a basis for determining high priority areas for allocation
of scarce conservation funds. Using PADU, TUCN is in a position to
supply essential background information on protected areas. For
example, the results of the projects mentioned above to evaluate
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protected area coverage in the tropics will have direct effects on the
conservation efforts made by IUCN and others in different parts of each
region.
The World Heritage Convention requires global information in order to
ensure that sites inscribed on the World Heritage List are of truly
“outstanding universal significance". IUCN is responsible for the
technical evaluation of natural sites nominated for inclusion on this
list, and the information held on these sites by PADU is an important
component of this work. In the future, analyses of the information
available on natural World Heritage Sites will be required in order to
assess the working of the Convention, and to systematise the information
on what is listed under it. Because of its developing expertise in this
field, PADU is perhaps in the best position to do this type of work — in
particular because of the possibilities for comparison of World Heritage
Sites with other protected areas.
Unesco's Man and the Biosphere Programme requires global information to
ensure that representative areas of all biogeographic provinces are
established as Biosphere Reserves. Much of the information available on
Biosphere Reserves also needs to be analysed. PADU is already ina
position to carry out some of this work, and produced analyses of
Biosphere Reserve information for the First International Congress on
Biosphere Reserves in Minsk, Byelorussia (Unesco, 1983). As with World
Heritage Sites there is a need for a more systematic monitoring system,
and it is hoped that in the future PADU will be able to provide this
type of service.
PADU also acts as the repository for information on sites listed under
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971), and is responsible for maintaining an
up-to-date list of sites. As with all other areas discussed, an
information sheet for each site is also prepared, and a draft directory
of these sites was presented to the second conference of contracting
parties to the convention in Groningen (IUCN, 1984).
Providing information to aid agencies
If international development agencies such as the World Bank and US—AID
could be provided with quick, accurate, large-scale overviews of
protected areas needs and problems, they would be in a position to avoid
adversely affecting particularly sensitive areas. Also, if they could
be given the right background on all the conservation issues in the area
concerned, they would perhaps be able to design their projects to
enhance sustainable development.
PADU would not be in a position to supply all of the information itself,
but by incorporating data held by PADU with that held by other units of
CMC, IUCN could give the agency concerned a good introduction to
conservation needs and problems in the region, and perhaps help further
by suggesting consultants to carry out the vital field assessments.
Reports of this kind prepared so far by CMC include preliminary
environmental profiles of the Sind-Kutch region of the India-Pakistan
borderlands, and of the Madhya Pradesh region of central India.
This type of information might also be of interest to a wide range of
multinational companies.
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Providing information to governments
Many governments need to know what is being done in the field of
protected areas Management elsewhere, in order to enhance their own
efforts and to avoid repeating mistakes. In particular, information is
required by two groups of people, the decision makers and the Management
agencies, who require background information on which to base and
justify decisions. The biogeographical analyses mentioned above will be
of relevance here, for example, as they can be used as strong arguments
for the siting of protected areas in given regions. Management agencies
may be more in need of technical assistance, for example on some
particular management problem. A centralised source of information will
hopefully be able to detail where this type of work has been done before.
In large countries (such as the United States of America) there are many
different types of protected area, run by a variety of agencies. In
some cases, our efforts to collect this type of information may mean
that such national information is being collected together in one site
for the first time.
Manipulating conservation data by computer is still a relatively new
field and it may be some time before governments develop their own
information systems. IUCN is developing a strong capability in the use
of computers for conservation, and this expertise could be made
available to those needing assistance in setting up their own systems.
Providing information to scientists
Scientists often need to make comparisons over a wide range of habitat
types, or over complete species ranges. Information on the species and
habitats in protected areas may therefore be of particular use in
pinpointing research sites or illustrating distributions. Analyses of
site protection are also being carried out, and information held by PADU
has helped in projects as diverse as the identification of coastal
wetland protected areas in the Neotropics, and an assessment of the
workability of the Gunung Mulu management plan.
There are also numerous examples of the application of a protected area
database in the area of genetic resource conservation. A plant breeder,
for example, may need to know where wild ancestors of particular
domestic agricultural crops can be found in protected areas, in order to
locate sources of genetic diversity for improving crop breeds. This
type of information is not available at present, but we are work ing
towards it, and various proposals made to IUCN and others, if carried
out, will increase the available information considerably.
Information is also required by scientists planning expeditions.
Provision of such advance information can be important in project
development, and may lead to a greater emphasis on conservation and
Management needs.
Providing information for education and training
It is of particular value both in the teaching of nature conservation
and in the training of nature conservation personnel to put what is
being taught into a global or regional context. Analyses and syntheses
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of the information held by PADU can be used by teachers and trainers to
provide that context. PADU can also make available original material
such as maps and management plans which can be used in developing
education and training programmes.
i) Providing information to the media
The international effort to promote protected areas requires a
centralized source of information for publications, requests from
journalists, and other promotional and publicity uses. If this type of
information is available from a central office, journalists, writers and
broadcasters can quickly obtain information on both the issue concerned
and the background to it. For instance during the recent South-West
Tasmania argument, PADU was able to give not only information on the
national parks of that area, but also on the World Heritage Convention
(and to further draw attention to the fact that the UK had not at the
time ratified the convention). In addition lists were provided of a
number of other sites that had been (or were) threatened by damming
projects, together with some background information on these areas. In
other words a central information office on protected areas is of value
in ensuring adequate and accurate media coverage of issues concerning
protected areas.
Any of PADU's outputs could be produced by other individuals or organizations
given sufficient time and energy, and sufficient back-up — PADU only provides
what is fed into it. But the amount of information already available to PADU,
and the fact that much of it is already on computer, means that we have the
capability of reproducing the data quickly, providing analyses as necessary,
and providing the outputs in a wide variety of configurations. We will not
replace any of the human element in protected area management, but should
allow managers, development planners, conservationists, and scientists to be
more efficient by providing the data they require, when it is needed, and in
the form required.
Perhaps more importantly, collection and presentation of protected areas
information in a- professional and competent manner demonstrates to
governments, development agencies, and individuals around the world that
national parks and reserves are valuable land-use tools for managing areas
which should, for various reasons, be kept in a natural or semi-natural
state. Making data on protected areas more accessible will help to ensure
that the reserves can play their proper role in resource management and
development.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
PADU is still developing, and is not yet in a position to do all we would
like. For example, currently information cannot be sorted by habitat or
vegetation type. As noted earlier, this means that it is not possible to
produce lists of protected areas protecting tropical rain forests, although we
can produce lists of areas within a tropical humid forest biome. Therefore a
future need is the development and implementation of a coding system which
would allow us to do this. Implementation will involve sorting through our
files manually and assigning habitat codes for each protected area, codes
which can then put into the computer files. This process will take some time.
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Information is gradually being extracted from our manual files and from the
text files on the computer so that the data sorting and selection facilities
can become even more useful. In the future, for example, we hope to be able
to sort information on criteria such as the practical benefits accruing from a
protected area (watershed management, inshore fisheries protection, etc), on
climatological or geomorphological characteristics, and of course on the
indigenous flora and fauna. Work is already underway on pilot projects to
link the protected area data files with those on threatened animals and plants
managed by other parts of the Conservation Monitoring Centre. CMC is rapidly
working towards greater integration at all levels (see Mackinder, 1984), and
we use a number of common programs and files on the computer (particularly
those concerned with geographical location, and with bibliographies). Future
developments will include the integration of computer mapping and map handling
techniques.
National conservation databases are now being developed or planned in several
countries, and CMC is already working with a number of these. Working with
such databases has the dual advantage that not only is much of our information
coming from one source, but also that it can be sent to us in computer
compatible form. Information on parks and reserves in both New Zealand and
South Africa, for example, has been supplied on computer diskette, and most of
the information on the subantarctic islands has also been supplied in this
way. CMC's senior programmer has been assisting warious conservation
organizations in managing information on micro—computers, and again we are
able to accept information directly from many of these machines.
Despite all these developments and the evident usefulness of PADU and CMC, the
ability to carry out all of the tasks required ultimately depends on the
information available, and our capacity to make use of that information. For
outputs to be of most use to conservation planners at all levels, the data
need to be both flexible and broadly based. This is a central aim of our
operation. Crucial to this aim is the maintenance of high quality, accurate,
information, and this is leading to the development of an ever broadening
contact network. Currently our information is patchy, and we know that much
more work must be done in improving it. This work is under way.
THE WIDER IMPLICATIONS
As the number and extent of protected areas continues to increase, and as the
existing networks develop, management will in the future need to be much more
effective, and integrated on an international scale. Managers must define
clear objectives for each site, and make hard decisions to attain these
objectives (especially where there are many alternative demands on an area).
Effective management depends ultimately on knowledge, and the disseminaton of
that knowledge, be it on management techniques, or on ecosystems and their
Management needs.
This knowledge can be, and is being, gleaned at the local level by scientists
and conservationists throughout the world, but can be put to best use if it is
gathered and disseminated not just at a local level, but also through a
central office (facilitating, for example, the application of global arguments
to local issues). If this is done through the framework of international
organizations, then the results can in many instances be even more powerful
and useful than if those same functions were performed independently at
national or regional level. IUCN is aiming to provide such an international
framework through its Conservation Monitoring Centre.
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However, for conservation ideals to become more fully integrated into
Management and management planning on a global scale, information is required
from a far wider range of disciplines than those normally associated with
‘nature conservation'. The Global Environment: Monitoring System (GEMS) was
set up by the United Nations Environment Programme to “keep track of
environmental trends, to be able to predict events and to provide
decision-makers with sound information upon which to base environment action
plans" (UNEP, 1982). They are now in the process of establishing a Global
Resource Information Database (GRID), of which CMC will be a part. GEMS is
not an organization, but a programme, coordinating and directing existing
talent and facilities, making use of organizations such as the World Health
and Meteorological Organizations, the Food and Agriculture Organization,
Unesco, and of course IUCN (Croze, 1984).
If GEMS is the hub of the wheel of organizations associated with the
environment, CMC occupies a similar position with respect to organizations and
government departments associated with nature conservation, and within CMC,
PADU deals with that sector of CMC work relating to protected areas and
protected area issues. The organization is involved, and acronyms abound, but
this should not detract from the value, and indeed the necessity of the work.
For many reasons our environment requires management; the key to successful
Management of the environment is information.
REFERENCES
Croze, Harvey (1984). Global monitoring and biosphere reserves. In
Unesco—UNEP, Conservation, science and society. Unesco, Paris.
Hayden, B.P., Ray, Carleton & Dolan, R. (1984). Classification of Coastal and
Marine Environments. Environmental Conservation 11(3): 199-207.
Harrison, J., Miller, K. & McNeely, J. (1982). The world coverage of protected
areas: Development goals and environment needs. fAmbio XI(2), 238-245.
IUCN (1982a). 1982 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas.
IUCN, Gland.
IUCN (1982b). IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland.
IUCN (1984). Draft Directory of Wetlands of International Importance. IUCN,
Cambridge.
IUCN (1985a). IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland
and Cambridge.
IUCN (1985b). 1985 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas.
IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
IUCN/CNPPA (1984). Categories, objectives and criteria for protected areas.
In McNeely, Jeffrey A. and Miller, Kenton R. (Eds.) National Parks,
Conservation and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining
Society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
Mackinder, D.C. (1984). The database of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre. In Allkin, R. and Bisby, F.A. (Eds.) Databases in Systematics.
Academic Press, London.
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Bay ener af Heirs fronts. “ERA. np ‘ my whan J j ‘ S~ 74
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bedoto * eet
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MacKinnon, John (1985). Outline of methodology for preparation of a review of
the protected areas syslem of the Afro—tropical realm. Proceedings of the
twenty-fifth working session of IUCN's Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas, Corbett National Park, India, 4-8 February, 1985. IUCN,
Gland.
Udvardy, M.D.F. (1975). A classification of the biogeographical provinces of
the world. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 18. UCN, Morges.
UNEP (1982). GEMS. UNEP, Nairobi.
Unesco (1983). MAB Information System: Biosphere Reserves. Compilation 3.
Unesco, Paris. (Prepared for Unesco by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre. )
Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO (1983). Vegation Map of Africa. Unesco, Paris.
The first version of this paper was prepared from a
presentation made to the World National Parks
Congress, October 1982, and presented to the Bureau
of the World Heritage Committee in 1983. A revised
version was prepared for the 16th TIWCN General
Assembly in Madrid, October 1984. The paper has
again been revised May 1985 for presentation to a
CNPPA Working Group on Data Collection and Monitoring.
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MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION:
TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED GLOBAL OVERVIEW
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
219c Huntingdon Road
Cambridge, United Kingdom
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) is essentially a global network of governments,
governmental agencies, non-governmental organisations, scientists and
other conservationists joined together in the common cause of promoting
the protection and sustainable use of living natural resources. In
undertaking this mission, one of IUCN's principal functions has been
the gathering of data on species and habitats under threat, in order
that scientifically—based conservation actions might be taken.
With 537 members located in 116 countries and having the ability to tap
the knowledge of the some 2,000 technical experts comprising IUCN's six
Commissions and their working groups, this network is capable of
gathering a vast amount of information which is directly relevant to
environmental conservation. & historical difficulty of the network,
however, has been the lack of an effective ability to archive the data,
update them and rapidly retrieve them when required. The need for this
central focus gave rise to IUCN's Conservation Monitoring Centre (CMC)
which now has the mission of handling and putting to best advantage the
amount of data being received.
In undertaking this task CMC has utilised computer technology to
develop a global database on species, wildlife trade, protected areas,
habitats and ecosystems of conservation concern. Such computerisation
has led to the ability to integrate and overlay the data in a variety
of new and unique ways. CMC is thus not constrained merely to
considering questions about a single species or area, but is capable of
analysing quite complex issues. For example, an application recently
undertaken consists of identifying the 100-200 sites globally whose
protection would do most for plant conservation.
In addition to reviewing the structure, function and operations of CMC,
this paper thus cites examples of how the database has contributed to
the resolution of global conservation concerns. Also discussed is how
the monitoring network might be improved in order to enhance CMC's
abilities to provide a global perspective.
WHAT DOES THE CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE DO?
The primary function of CMC is the continuous collection, analysis,
interpretation and dissemination of data as a basis for conservation,
Species, habitats and areas of relevant conservation concern include
those having current or potential economic import as well as those
believed to be under threat.
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CMC undertakes its function by integrating four monitoring activities
(our major management units) which cover the status of:
* Animal species (Species Conservation Monitoring Unit)
* Plant species (Threatened Plants Unit)
* Wildlife trade (Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit)
* Protected areas (Protected Areas Data Unit)
Data resulting from these activities are linked by common geographical
and taxonomic coding systems within the computer. The result is a
highly sophisticated database capable of producing integrated outputs
on a wide range of contemporary conservation issues.
CMC disseminates this information through a series of publications,
including the renowned IUCN Red Data Books on plants and animals, and
by producing special reports tailored to the needs of clients.
WHERE DOES THE INFORMATION COME FROM?
The accuracy and relevance of CMC's data are owed to an unrivalled
network of organizations and specialists all over the world. These
include:
HK The network of IUCN members, which include governments, government
agencies and non-governmental organizations that make IUCN the
international union of conservation organizations.
KK The international network of scientists and other cooperators
affiliated to IUCN and its six commissions. Our principal
contacts, the combined memberships of the Species Survival
Commission, the Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
and the Commission on Ecology, number over 2,000 individuals
worldwide.
*K The researchers under contract for over 300 JIUCN/WWF field
projects annually.
** The IUCN Environmental Law Centre, which provides a similar
service to ours but on legal matters, and the IUCN Conservation
for Development Centre, which maintains a roster of consultants
able to undertake conservation and development projects.
#* The network of TRAFFIC offices (Trade Records Analysis of Flora
and Fauna In Commerce). Established in several countries, each
office monitors trade in wildlife to and from its region, CMC
co-ordinates them and draws on their data.
** The professional contacts set up by CMC staff with colleagues
around the world. CMC staff call upon the knowledge and
experience of scientists and conservation experts who work in
government agencies, universities, zoos and botanic gardens, and
museums and libraries.
** International organizations with whom we cooperate. In particular
CMC works with the International Council for Bird Preservation
(ICBP), the International Wildfowl Research Bureau (WRB), the UN
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the UN Environment
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Programme (UNEP), and the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (Unesco),
Although CMC staff are not usually sent into the field themselves they
are thus in direct contact with those individuals who are at the
forefront of conservation action. On any one subject CMC staff can
seek the guidance of the foremost experts in the world.
WHAT DO WE DO WITH THE INFORMATION?
Once the raw data have been collected and verified, they are critically
interpreted, summarised and entered into the computer in two different
yet complementary forms:
HK Text is handled ina word-processing system and can be as detailed
and extensive as required. It can be rapidly modified to
incorporate new information.
HK Data files. Summaries of the information are coded into data
files, permitting rapid processing and analysis. This is done
because computers cannot efficiently extract and sort information
from plain text.
The two types of file are linked by common geographical and taxonomic
coding systems. This dual approach produces an unusually flexible
system, giving CMC the advantage of rapid computer selection and
sorting of information but avoiding the problem of forcing variable
biological data into a rigid data processing format. The information
on computer is backed up by more detailed material on manual files and
the capability to locate and contact the relevant experts on any
particular issue. CMC is thus well equipped to respond rapidly and
accurately to requests for information.
HOW IS CMC ORGANISED?
a) Monitoring the status of animals
Animals, particularly vertebrates, have been the traditional focus of
Many IUCN/WWF conservation projects. This emphasis has generated a
demand from many sectors for quite specific data on the conservation
status of a wide range of animal species. Monitoring activities have
consequently developed to answer this demand and led to the publication
of the internationally respected IUCN Red Data Books, a series of
authoritative references on threatened species. Collection of data for
this series continues to provide an important focus for CMC's work.
However, the collection of data is not confined just to threatened
species. The database includes information on all species of
conservation concern, including widespread but depleted wild taxa of
economic importance, and wild relatives of domestic stock.
Although continually under development, the animal datafile currently
contains summary information on 17,000 taxa of conservation concern.
Detailed ‘Red Data Book' accounts have been prepared for 2,000 of these
taxa. These sheets provide comprehensive information on distribution,
population status, habitat needs, ecology, threats to survival and
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proposed conservation measures, along with a
comprehensive reference
list.
Information on individual species is readily available for the higher
vertebrates (birds and mammals) but different approaches have had to be
developed for the less well studied lower vertebrates (fish, reptiles
and’ amphibians) and invertebrates. These approaches have included the
collection of data on an area basis, e€.g. on such specific places as
the Banks Peninsular in New Zealand or the Usambara Mountains in
Tanzania, or on specific habitats such as coral reefs. This work links
up with other area—based information in the CMC database, particularly
that on plant sites and protected areas.
b) Monitoring the status of plants
The increasing demand for information on the conservation status of
plants has accompanied the growing realisation that plant species are
critical for maintaining the ecosystems upon which mankind relies. In
1970 only Belgium had produced a list of its threatened plants. Today,
virtually all countries of the geopolitical 'North' (including
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) have produced threatened
plants lists, often as national Red Data Books. Many countries of the
‘South' are now taking similar action. This rapid progress has
coincided with a decade of intense activity by IUCN on threatened
plants, much of it dedicated to encouraging and helping countries to
document their threatened plants.
With estimates of the world's threatened flora ranging up to 40,000
species, no one book could attempt to list them all, let alone describe
them in detail. However, with computer assistance, CMC is able to
monitor a major proportion of the key species identified by our
information networks. Although still under development, the CMC
database now holds basic information on 30,000 plant taxa and provides
a basis on which to plan the conservation of plants around the world.
Knowing which species are threatened in the wild also enables CMC to
monitor their status ex situ (off-site), principally in botanic
gardens. The plant data-file is used to produce lists of threatened
species which are circulated to the 130 gardens that subscribe to
IUCN's Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body. Gardens then
return lists of the threatened species that they grow. The aim is to
help gardens work as a network, avoiding duplication and contributing
to the cause of preserving plant genetic resources.
Whereas the plant data-file contains many species found in temperate
and subtropical climates or on islands, most of the world's plants
occur in the less studied mainland tropics where habitat destruction is
accelerating. Because of the size of the flora involved in these
areas, a species approach is less practical, and alternatives are being
investigated. These include gathering data on specific groups of
plants such as those of economic or medicinal value, or those
threatened by trade or habitat destruction. These floristic data are
being used to identify key sites for conservation, leading to the
publication of a Plant Sites Directory that identifies which areas of
the world are most significant for plant conservation.
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occurring in various realms of the world in the series of IUCN
Directories on Protected Areas.
Apart from the ability to provide information on protected areas to
interested parties, the linking of this information with other files in
the database enables CMC to help CNPPA identify significant gaps in
protected area coverage worldwide and subsequently to help plan
conservation action. In particular, new approaches are being
undertaken to survey protected area coverage in various parts of the
tropics using CMC data to provide the initial overview on which further
study can be based.
CMC has also developed databases on sites of concern under contract to
other organizations. Such efforts have recently included maintaining a
database for Unesco on natural sites listed under the World Heritage
Convention, assisting them further by managing information on Biosphere
Reserves, and establishing a prototype database on sites listed under
the Ramsar Wetlands Convention.
e) Monitoring the status of significant ecosystems
Certain ecosystem types are of particular conservation interest and it
therefore becomes important to try to inventory and describe the major
sites where these ecosystem types occur. CMC has been involved for
several years in the development of an information base on coral reefs,
for example. More recently CMC has also become involved in the
development of a wetlands database, based on the results of various
projects to inventory and describe internationally important wetlands
in various parts of the world.
These aspects of the database are of particular importance in assessing
the conservation status of the respective habitat types covered. They
also facilitate the development of proposals to protect, or to better
conserve such areas.
HOW DOES IT ALL FIT TOGETHER?
CMC is capable of producing integrated outputs which draw upon all
files within the database. This is possible because the information is
linked by a common skeleton of taxonomic and geographic names. The
system also records the relationship of these taxonomic or geographical
names to others within a variety of hierarchical systems (e.g., species
within families, counties within states). Sorting of data files to
obtain the information needed by clients can thus be accomplished
relatively quickly, and the linkage of data files with the text files
enables reports to be developed rapidly.
CMC is also developing new database components, drawing information
from the four existing major data files. In particular, as has been
mentioned, area—based information is being synthesized for specific
habitats which will be the subject of new international conservation
initiatives: coral reefs, wetlands, oceanic islands, etc.
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WHAT HAS CMC ACHIEVED?
CMC
is a young organization and has spent much time developing the
conservation database. Nevertheless the following achievements
illustrate that the Centre has already progressed well towards the goal
of being able to provide timely advice on conservation and development
lssues. We have:
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Defined new areas of conservation concern. CMC published the IUCN
Invertebrate Red Data Book in 1983 as the first attempt to bring
the international problem of threatened invertebrates to public
attention. It has sold well and has been reviewed internationally
from Chile to Hong Kong. Many important initiatives including
field projects, surveys, captive breeding programmes, meetings and
legislation followed its publication.
Developed a lead in plant conservation. During 1983-84 CMC helped
prepare the IUCN/WWF programme and campaign to promote plant
conservation around the world. The database showed which places
in the world had the greatest diversity of plant life and where
among these places the threats were most acute, a vital ingredient
for choosing the limited number of countries in which
TUCN/WNF could reasonably sponsor projects. The programme is now
running and with its combination of strategic and field projects,
it not only sets. new ground for IUCN/WWF, but is beginning to make
plant conservation a more accepted part of conservation as a whole.
Provided background information and a rationale for new
legislation. Based on CMC data, IUCN submitted a _ formal
memorandum to the Council of Europe describing how their Bern
Convention could work for plants. IUCN suggested criteria to
select plants for inclusion under the Convention and applied these
to the database to produce a list of 119 species. These were
accepted without dispute. This illustrates how CMC can act as a
bridge between scientists and politicians. Only scientists know
which plants are threatened, but politicians can only work to
avert the threats if appropriately informed.
Helped conservation organizations lobby governments better. In
early 1983 a wealthy American asked the British Government for
permission to settle on Henderson Island, an uninhabited coral
island in the middle of the Pacific. At the request of WWF, CMC
assisted in the preparation of a report for submission to the
British Government regarding the island's unique flora and fauna.
These and other efforts were rewarded when the Government
announced that Henderson Island would not be settled.
Provided crucial statistics on success of conservation measures
In 1983, CMC informed the Parties to CITES at their regular
biennial meeting that as much as 45% of transactions in animal
trade and 79% in plant trade in species of concern to CITES were
not being reported as required. The analysis indicated that the
Parties had far to go in making CITES an effective conservation
body. CMC's ability to supply such precise figures provides
powerful incentive for concerned governments and bodies to improve
their compliance with agreed measures.
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THE WIDER IMPLICATIONS
As the World population continues to expand, and as development of
available resources continues to increase, use and management of
natural resources will in the future need to be much more effective,
and integrated on an international scale. Effective management depends
ultimately on knowledge, and the disseminaton of that knowledge, be it
on management techniques, or on ecosystems and their management needs.
This knowledge can be, and is being, gleaned at the local level by
scientists and conservationists throughout the world, but can be put to
best use if it is gathered and disseminated not just at a local level,
but also through a central office (facilitating, for example, the
application of global arguments to local issues). If this is done
through the framework of international organizations, then the results
can in many instances be even more powerful and useful than if those
same functions were performed independently at national or regional
level. IUCN is aiming to provide such an international framework
through its Conservation Monitoring Centre.
However, for conservation ideals to become more fully integrated into
management and management planning on a global scale, information is
required from a far wider range of disciplines than those normally
associated with 'nature conservation'. The Global Environment
Monitoring System (GEMS) was set up by the United Nations Environment
Programme to "keep track of environmental trends, to be able to predict
events and to provide decision-makers with sound information upon which
to base environment action plans". GEMS are now in the process of
establishing a Global Resource Information Database (GRID), of which
CMC will be a part. GEMS is not an organization, but a programme,
coordinating and directing existing talent and facilities, making use
of organizations such as the World Health and Meteorological
Organizations, the Food and Agriculture Organization, Unesco, and of
course IUCN.
If GEMS is the hub of the wheel of organizations associated with the
environment, CMC occupies a similar position with respect to
organizations and government departments associated with nature
conservation. The organization is involved, but this should not
detract from the value, and indeed the necessity of the work. For many
reasons our environment requires management; the key to successful
Management of the environment is information.
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INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
UNION INTERNATIONALE POUR LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE ET DE SES RESSOURCES
Conservation Monitoring Centre — Centre de surveillance continue de la conservation de la nature
Dr S. Shen
Project Director
Office of Technology Assessment
Congress of the United States
Washington D.C. 20510
16 December 1985
Dear Dr Shen,
Please find enclosed the final copy of my paper on ‘Status and trends of
in-situ conservation of biological diversity worldwide’.
I have taken account of all review comments sent to me with your letter of
19 September, though I may not have covered all points to the satisfaction of
your reviewers. This is partly because a number of the comments relate to
topics rather outside my brief (e.g. the need for armies of systematists)
while in others I do not claim sufficient competence to do the topic full
justice (e.g. discussion on biogeographical classifications). That being said
I have expanded on both points and I hope this is of value.
One of your reviewers takes me to task for my implied acceptance of
Pleistocene refugia. I would point out that where I use the term it appears
Within quotation marks and followed by the phrase ‘in effect centres of
endemism and/or diversity’. Whether these areas are refugia or not, if they
are areas of high diversity or endemism they must surely be areas of potential
importance for conservation. While noting the same reviewers comments on
island biogeography and design of reserves, this is not the reason I have
taken this section out. The comments would apply much more to the paper by
Jim Thorsell (who I assume you have contacted on this).
In this version I have gone into more detail on the need for national and
local database development (though it should be noted in this context that I
do not necessarily mean computer databases). This is a development area which
is generally thought to be particularly important, and which I have therefore
decided to include although it doesn't fall exactly within my brief. I have
also said a little more on the actual ‘ground level' collection of information.
Bearing in mind your specific query on integration of data, as I said on the
phone, I felt that it would be inappropriate to go into such specific detail
On one item within the paper. I have therefore appended this as a ‘project
concept" along with several other such ‘concepts’. I hope this is of value.
Please note, however, that this is for a feasibility study, not for the full
database you inquire after in your letter. Establishment and maintenance of
such a database would clearly be a very labour intensive task, the magnitude
of which would depend on the number of species we would expect to cover. I
contd.
219(c) Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom Telex 817036 Cables: Redbook Cambridge UK
Tel: (0223) 277314 and 277420 (Species Conservation Monitoring Unit), 277427 (Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit)
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would think at a minimum we would be talking about a further US$5,000 to
US$10,000 for overhead expenses, followed by an annual cost in the order of
US$100,000 to US$150,000. Even with this sort of input, implementation would
be "slow and steady'. Perhaps if you want more hard figures at this stage you
could contact me again.
Also, to put some of the other CMC needs into context, I have included
"project concepts’ for the set up and initial running of database sections on
oceanic islands and wetlands, as well as two specific projects related to the
Protected Areas Data Unit (the Africa research officer post, and one on marine
and coastal protected areas). These are examples, however, and I could as
easily have given you a proposal for a database on mangroves and sea-grass
beds, or one for an Indomalayan research officer post within PADU, or one to
provide CMC (or just -PADU) with adequate library facilities.
In other words, although these are real proposals, which we would like to see
implemented, they should not necessarily be construed as being the most
important for CMC's development now. For example our two most pressing needs
currently are not for funding of these proposals, but for sufficient funding
to provide both new accomodation and a new computer system. As you may
already be aware, we currently have a machine on which we cannot implement the
Geographical Information System we need (and which is discussed in my paper),
nor can it support any of the new graphics equipment. We would need something
in the order of US$500,000 to US$750,000 to purchase all the necessary
hardware and software (quite apart from the costs of using it). We also see
development and implementation of a habitat 'skeleton' within the database as
a particularly important project.
Could I suggest, therefore, that if you wish to make specific suggestions
relating to CMC you ought to discuss these with Dr Michael Tillman.
I have now included a summary within the paper, which details the main
recommendations, slightly rearranged and with some amalgamated. These if you
like are the key points - the action strategy - for improving the level of
available information. The fact that there are more recommendations relating
to CMC's needs should not be taken to mean that we see development of CMC as
more important than, say, development of national and local conservation
databases. This is so simply because it is easier to make more detailed
recommendations relating to your own particular sphere of activity than to
others, and also because these relate more specifically to items I was asked
to discuss.
’
You will note that I have not included even approximate costs of achieving any
of the recommendations. This is largely because any estimates would be so
gross that I would not want to include them within a paper which in other ways
attempts to be fairly objective. Within most of the items anyway, the amount
that could be spent is unlimited by anything other than lack of available
finance. I would, however, attempt to put prices to these items if you really
need this.
.
You will also note that in many cases it has not been possible within the
available space to either identify who (specifically) should be carrying out
some of the recommendations, and where funding should come from. This is
contd.
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largely because these activities cannot be regarded as the responsibility of
any one group, either for funding or for implementation. Again, if you want
me to go into specific detail on any given item I will attempt to do so.
Please get in touch if I can provide further information, assistance, or
clarification.
Yours sincerely,
Wn are
Jeremy Harrison
Protected Areas Data Unit
enc.
Copies of this paper have been sent to the following people, who you may wish
to contact on certain items or projects mentioned:
Dr
Dr
Dr
Mr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr
Robert Goodland
Michael Gwynne
Guillermo Mann
Rob Milne
Jane Robertson
John Sullivan
Jim Thorsell
Michael Tillman
Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs
The World Bank
1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433
GEMS-Programme Activity Centre
United Nations Environment Programme
PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Director (Science), International Programme
The Nature Conservancy
1785 Massachusetts Avenue NW, WaShington DC
Chief, International Affairs
National Park Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Division of Ecological Sciences, Unesco
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France
Office of Forestry, Environment,
and Natural Resources
U.S. Agency for International Development
Executive Officer CNPPA, IUCN
20036
Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland
Director, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
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PROJECT PROPOSAL SUMMARY
Title Feasibility study on linking species and protected area information
within the CMC database
Proposed project developer IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project executant IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project duration One year
Short description (Objectives, justification, activities)
One of the principal justifications for protected areas is the conservation of
genetic resources in situ. Therefore, it is of vital importance that
information on what is found where is available to those needing it. The
amount of information available at the local level is growing, and with the
increasing availability of improved information handling methods it would seem
likely that local and national database activity on the location of genetic
resources will increase.
It is obvious, however, that an international database maintaining links with
local, national and regional database activity is essential. The role of such
a database would be fourfold:
a) to provide an overview;
b) to demonstrate what is found where (an information retrieval service) ;
c) to highlight resources that do not appear to be protected;
d) to draw the attention of management authorities to the relative
importance of some of the species they protect (important resources
that may not be protected elsewhere, for example).
CMC already has growing databases on both species and protected areas, while
other groups such as Unesco (MAB programme), FAO and IBPGR are also exploring
this type of database activity for either particular species groups or
particular areas. The species and protected areas databases managed by CMC
are not fully linked yet, though it has already been agreed that this is a
major priority. Indeed CMC has already obtained funding from British
Petroleum to develop better methods for handling area information. This
software improvement will be vital to the proper development of the
species-—area links.
It would clearly be an impossible (and probably valueless) task to document
the occurrence of all species in all protected areas at this time. This is
cetainly at the international level. There are, for example some 4170 mammals
described, approximately 9000 birds, 8240 reptiles and amphibians, 21,000
fish, 250 000 plants, and literally millions of invertebrate species. Also,
much of the information is not currently available, and may never have been
collected. For example there are many protected areas within the United
States that have yet to complete species inventories.
A feasibility study is therefore necessary for the following reasons:
a) to harden up the choices of what species and areas CMC should start
its database activity on;
b) to test the availability of the data;
c) to work closely with other groups (such as Unesco-MAB) to ensure
CMC's activities are complementary to other efforts in this field;
d) for initial development and testing of the basic computer software.
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Trials of the computer software will require the initial build up of part of
the database for testing purposes. To keep this to manageable proportions,
information researched in detail at this stage will be restricted to protected
areas and some of the threatened animal species of Africa.
tputs
The principal output of this project will be a detailed strategy of how CMC
can proceed with the linking of species and areas information, along with the
development of praject proposals for soliciting the necessary funding. This
is something that would be rather difficult to achieve without an
investigation of approaches and available information, without the development
of guidelines for identifying appropriate species for monitoring in this way,
and without further liasion with other agencies working in this field. This
work will be carried out during the course of the project, along with initial
development of the computer software required.
The feasiblity study is therefore an essential stage in the development of a
database which could, in future years, not only identify which protected areas
species are found within (and their status in those areas), but which could
also be used to investigate how well ‘covered’ any given species is by
protected areas, and to demonstrate to managers which of the species they have
are regarded as being particularly important.
In addition, the improved linking of information that will be used for trial
purposes (threatened species and protected areas of Africa), may be of some
direct value in the planning of conservation in Africa. If this project is
carried out soon enough, the information will be available to the current IUCN
project developing a protected areas systems plan this region. Clearly,
however, the value and importance of this particular aspect of the project
depends on how good the available information is, a factor which the project
itself aims to investigate.
Estimated total budget US$20,000
Status Ready to proceed as soon as funding becomes available
Date of proposal December 1984
A complete copy of this proposal is available from the IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom
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PROJECT PROPOSAL SUMMARY
Title Assessing the Conservation status of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Proposed project developer IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project executant IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project duration One year
Short description (Objectives, justification, activities)
It is clear that much remains to be done in the protection of marine and
coastal zones, and for this reason both IUCN and WWF have put some emphasis on
conservation action within this area. To be able to plan conservation action
effectively one needs to have good information on which to base decisions. In
the case of marine and coastal protected areas this means having complete
lists of such areas, and their locations, (as well as more detailed
information on each site). The information must also be arranged within a
biogeographical framework such as has recently been prepared for IUCN.
The objectives of the project are therefore to:
a) ensure that CMC has complete and accurate lists of marine and coastal
protected areas which can be further identified by presence or absence
of island, marine, estuarine, coral etc. components;
b) use the lists developed along with the classification of coastal and
marine environments in order to make a preliminary assessment of the
world coverage of marine and coastal environments by protected area.
This project will therefore involve the hiring of a staff member to go through
all information available to CMC on marine and coastal protected areas, and to
obtain further information from our contacts. This information will then be
analysed using the biogeographical methods mentioned, and a report prepared
analysing the world coverage of marine and coastal environments by protected
areas.
Outputs -—- Full lists of marine and protected areas for limited circulation
and possible publication ;
- Preliminary report analysing the world coverage of marine and
coastal environments by protected areas
— Preparation of a paper for publication from the above (with CNPPA)
The project will also contribute to development of CMC's growing information
base on marine and coastal environments, areas which would appear to be of
particular interest to aid agencies and industry.
Estimated total budget Approximately US$10,000
Status Ready to proceed as soon as funding becomes available
Date of proposal December 1985
he IUCN Conservation
this proposal is available from t i
PRatHne centee! nant CB3 ODL, United Kingdom
Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge
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PROJECT PROPOSAL SUMMARY
Title Creation and maintenance of an Oceanic Islands Database
Proposed project developer IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project executant IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project duration Three years
Short description (Objectives, justification, activities)
Much has been written on the nature of island ecosystems, and the effect of
time, isolation and small area has on their biota (leading to the development
of unique assemblages of species, varying endemic forms etc.). However,
oceanic islands are particularly susceptible to habitat loss and species
extinction from forest clearance, agricultural and urban encroachment, and
introduced predators and competitors. At the same time, information on these
islands and their conservation status and problems is often widely scattered.
The principal objective of this project is to assimilate and render readily
available much of the existing information on the conservation status of
oceanic islands or island groups. An information base of this sort will not
only be of value for both conservation and development communities in
providing information on what is going on where, and demonstrating which areas
are poorly known (and where efforts can be directed to improve our knowledge
of islands), it would also be instrumental in development of a more detailed
strategy for the conservation of oceanic islands.
It is anticipated that the research and implementation phase of this project
would involve two research staff and a secretary, working closely with staff
of the International Council for Bird Preservation, who would deal with
aspects of the project relating to birds. At the same time, development of
CMC's database software would enable it to also handle information on islands,
which would then be linked in to other parts of the CMC database.
Outputs This proposal does not include publication budgets, but would cover
preparation and circulation of draft directories and lists of oceanic islands
along the lines of Douglas (1969) and Clark and Dingwall (1985).
The principal achievement of the project, however, would be the development of
an accessible database on conservation aspects of oceanic islands.
Information from such a database would be of value to both development and
conservation communities.
Estimated total budget US$350,000 over 3 years; It is expected that
further sources of funding would be identified by the end of the initial three
year period.
Status Ready to proceed as soon as funding becomes available
Date of proposal December 1985
A complete copy of this proposal is available from the IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom
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PROJECT PROPOSAL SUMMARY
Title Appointment of a research officer for protected areas in Africa
Proposed project developer IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project executant IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project duration 1986 onwards
Short description (Objectives, justification, activities)
One of the principal methods used for the conservation of both species and
ecosystems is the legal protection of sites. To be able to plan effectively,
conservation agencies need to know which sites are already protected, how
successfully they are managed, and what they contain in terms of animals,
plants and critical habitats. Similarly development agencies need information
on these areas in order to avoid inadvertently damaging sites when
implementing their projects.
Clearly the maintenance of a database on the protected areas of the world is a
large and complex task, requiring a staff of professionals to carry out the
work. The task is continual, resulting in a need to employ staff for long
periods of time both to increase familiarity with any given region, and to
maintain a continuity of contact with park system managers, scientists etc. in
the field. Unfortunately this continuity has not been possible to date within
CMC's Protected Areas Data Unit.
The aim of this proposal is to obtain funding to appoint a full time research
officer within the Protected Areas Data Unit to work on the African region,
collecting, maintaining and synthesising all information available to CMC on
African protected areas, and maintaining and extending our network of African
contacts. This will be carried out in close collaboration with IUCN's
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. As well as covering the
salary and overheads involved in employment of a research officer, the
proposal also includes provision-for support staff (50% research assistant,
50% secretarial time).
Outputs No specific outputs are envisaged under this proposal, though the
work will lead to an improved database on protected areas within Africa, with
more detailed and more accurate information becoming available for future
publication and reports.
More importantly, the project will lead to the availability of a more detailed
and more accurate body of information, of use, and accessible to, both
conservation and development communities.
Estimated total budget Approximately US$30,000 per annum. The work carried
out under this proposal will continue and build on work carried out by CMC
over the past few years.
Status Ready to proceed as soon as funding becomes available
Date of proposal December 1985
1 is available from the IUCN Conservation
of this proposa i
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PROJECT PROPOSAL SUMMARY
Title Creation and maintenance of a Wetlands Database
Proposed project developer IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project executant IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
Proposed project duration Three years
Short description (Objectives, justification, activities)
Wetlands are among the world's most productive environments, providing
benefits to mankind through fishery production, maintenance of water tables
for agriculture, water storage and flood control, shoreline stabilisation,
timber production, waste disposal and water purification, and recreational
opportunities. They also provide crucial habitats for waterfowl and other
birds, as well as for countless mammal, reptile, amphibian, fish and
invertebrate species.
Despite this, wetlands are among the world’s most threatened habitats. This
is due mainly to accelerated drainage, land reclamation, pollution and
over-exploitation of wetland species. Yet in the face of this threat, the
conservation network is frequently unable to respond either because we have
little idea where many of the important areas are (or what they contain), or
know what ecological and economic value many of these wetlands have. This
means that not only are conservation agencies not able to easily gauge the
value of any given wetland, they are not able to advise development agencies
and industry on how they can reduce the impact of development projects.
IUCN has been working with a number of other agencies and NGOs to improve the
situation by supporting and planning the development of inventories of the
most important wetlands in many parts of the world. This project aims to draw
together all information gathered under these wetland inventory projects,
particularly those in the Palaearctic, Neotropical, African and Indomalayan
regions, using it to provide a framework for developing a full wetlands
database which can be accessed to provide information of value to both
conservation and development communities. The project also aims to develop
further with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service a database on wetlands values.
Outputs The principal achievement of this project would be the development
of an accessible database which can be used both by the conservation community
for conservation planning and directing action, and by the development
community for help in planning to avoid adversly affecting important sites,
and to help ensure maintenance of essential values of wetlands associated with
their projects. This includes preparation and circulation of various draft
directories and lists of wetlands.
Estimated total budget US$255,000 over 3 years. Much initial work has been
carried out under other budgets. It is expected that further sources of
funding would be identified by the end of the initial three year period.
Status Ready to proceed as soon as funding becomes available
Date of proposal December 1985
A complete copy of this proposal is available from the IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom
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