UMASS/AMHERST 31EDt,b00S15fi4E'^ .0^ ^^Ss a ^ ^ ^BrsT^* DATE DUE m i UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY SB T}n' reason it will be safe to plant any of the standard] sorts that grow well in a given locality and produce large and fair, well colored fruit. New Varieties — Few, if any, of the varieties in general cultivation may be called perfect, and it is the part of wisdom for each grower to test, on a limited scale, some of the more promising new kinds or those that have become prominent in other sections or other markets, to determine if some other variety than those already grown may not be more profitable. Each kind, however, is found to succeed better in one locality, or perhaps upon one kind of soil, than another, or may be more profitable from its being well known in certain markets, and one must go slowly and grow the main crop of the ^'old reliables" until the merits of any new varieties are positively known. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES For convenience of description and determination of varieties perhaps the best classification is that adopted by the late J. J. Thomas, in his book entitled American ^ THE APPLE 53 Fruit Culturist, in which all varieties are arranged into three groups, i. e., summer, autumn and winter. Each of these groups is again divided into sweet and sour and these again into those that are striped and not striped, as follows: Summer Sweet •< AT J- J. • 1 ( IS ot striped CI ( Striped Sour < ^r ^ J. ' 1 ( IS ot striped r Sweet \ |*7«f . , L . \ I -Not striped Autumn-^ ) c^, . i ^ (^ ( Striped ( Not striped Winter^ ^ o , ( Striped ( Not striped ^ ( Striped ( Not striped By the above arrangement one may trace the variety to its description and name if too many varieties are not grown in a given locality. Standard Varieties — In this list I shall only in- clude those varieties that are especially desirable and profitable in many sections of the country and especially in New England and the northern Middle States. For a more extended description of varieties I would refer the reader to that valuable and complete work, Down- ing's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, the reports and bulletins of the horticulturists of the numerous experiment stations, the reports of the leading horticul- tural societies, and especially that of the American Pomological Society, in which the varieties most valu- able in each locality are specified. SUMMER VARIETIES Red Astrachan — Large, flattened, beautifully col- ored apple of Eussian origin. The flesh is very white, 54 SUCCESSJbX'L i'KUIT CULTURE crisp and tender, but rather acid for table use. The tree is vigorous, upright, with large foliage, hardy and productive. To be most profitable this variety and Early Williams must be allowed to ripen on the tree, and be picked from time to time as it colors, or hay may be spread under the branches for the fruit to drop upon. Williams — A favorite table apple wherever known. Large, oblong, conical, brilliantly colored when ripened on the tree, but if picked before colored it fails to take on the beautiful colors which make it so attractive in the market. Quality good, of a mild sub-acid flavor. AUTUMN VARIETIES Oldenburg — Of Eussian origin ; fruit large, round, yellow striped with red, of a mild acid flavor and valu- able for cooking and table use. Tree productive and comes into bearing early; needs thinning to produce fruit of the best size. Gravenstein — Perhaps the most valuable of all fall apples, and one that by means of cold storage can be put on the market for two months. It succeeds best on a deep, sandy loam, but on a strong clay or clayey loam soil is liable to be injured by the action of frost upon the bark of the trunk. The tree is remarkable for its vigorous growth and is a good bearer. Wealthy — No new apple has attracted so much interest as this. It promises to fill a long felt need for a showy apple of good quality for shipping to European markets. It is in perfect condition in Sep- tember, but will keep for a month or more with ordi- nary care and much longer in cold storage. Its great beauty, fine texture and fine quality will make a market for it anvwhere, and its firmness in texture will insure its exporting in good condition. The fruit is medium to large in size and of the most brilliant color. The THE APPLE 55 tree is moderately vigorous and begins to bear early and is very productive. Mcintosh — An old variety originating in Canada, but now attracting attention on account of its great beauty and fine quality. It ripens with the Wealthy and Gravenstein. In some localities it is reported to be not very productive, and is often subject to the attack of the apple scab, like its parent, the Fameuse. Fall Pippin — A large apple, somewhat resembling the Ehode Island Greening; large, with a white, firm flesh, often with some blush on the exposed side. The tree is vigorous and moderately productive; valuable especially for cooking, September to December. WINTER APPLES Baldwin — A bright red apple of medium to large size, of fair quality and a good keeper. Tree vigorous, and generally thought to be more productive in the Eastern States than any other variety. In many sections of the country the fruit is badly affected with the "brown" or "dry-rot," which attacks it when it is ripen- ing. When these spots are numerous, the fruit, which looks well on the outside, is of little value and seriously injures the demand for other kinds. Ben Davis — A large, red-striped apple, that is val- uable for its late keeping qualities only, being so poor in quality that few people will buy them a second time. Tree vigorous and very productive. Fameuse (or Snow Apple) — Fruit of medium size, of deep red color and with a remarkably white flesh; very juicy, crisp and of the finest quality, tree vigor- ous and productive. It is a very valuable dessert fruit, and when well grown, upon rich soil and the fruit thinned, it is of good size and profitable. Huhhardsion — A large, oblong, conical, early winter apple of fine sub-acid quality. The tree is moder- 56 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ately vigorous and very productive. A valuable dessert fruit. Wasliington Royal (Palmer Greening) — An early winter apple of a light green color, often shaded with bright red on the exposed side, changing to a golden yellow when ripe, and is sure to sell when well grown. The tree is of rather slow growth, but under good conditions makes a good size, and is very productive. Time of ripening, from January to March. Sutton Beauty — This apple is much like the Bald- win in form and color, but a little smaller in size. In quality it is better than the latter and is free from the brown spots under the skin when ripening, so common to the Baldwin. The tree is vigorous, upright and compact in growth, and very productive. It is being largely planted in place of the Baldwin, especially in New England, where it originated. Rhode Island Greening — Everywhere known as a very good early winter apple, succeeding almost every- where; excellent both for cooking and for the table. Tree rather spreading in form, vigorous and productive. Khig (Tompkins Co. King) — A very large, striped apple of good quality, showy, but coarse and often imperfect. Profitable in New York State and some Western sections, but not in New England. Roxhury Russet — An acid, round, russet apple, valued especially for its late keeping qualities. Tree vigorous, productive, but requires a rich soil. Spy (Northern Spy) — In quality one of the best, but succeeds only in certain sections. The tree is vigor- ous, upright in habit, but comes late into bearing. It makes a very valuable stock upon which to top-graft slow growing kinds. Yorh Imperial — An apple that is attracting atten- tion for shipping, and in English and other European markets it brings the highest prices. In form it is THE APPLE 57 round, oblique, of a deep red color and good quality. It is one of the best keepers, and promises to be one of the most profitable varieties. Neivtown Pippin (Albemarle Pippin) — This variety is of only local value, as it succeeds only in a few sections, but where it can be grown it is very profitable. It somewhat resembles the Ehode Island Greening, but is smoother, more beautiful and of better quality. It is well known in European markets, where it brings the highest prices. SWEET APPLES Siueet Bough — A large, pale yellow apple, juicy and good; valuable for home consumption. Early sweet apples are not generally in large demand in most mar- kets, but a limited amount will sell at good prices and this is one of the best in its season. Pumpkin 8weet — A very large apple, oblate in form, with more or less russet over the whole surface. In quality very sweet and cooks well, though the texture is rather coarse. Tree remarkably vigorous and moder- ately productive. Much subject to the attack of the apple maggot. Ladies Stveet — One of the best winter sweet apples. It is of medium to large size, roundish-conical in form and nearly covered with red; sweet, crisp, tender and a good keeper; tree moderately vigorous and pro- ductive. Jacob's Siueet — Large, light green, changing to a light yellow and shaded with a. bright red on the sunny side. One of the largest and best early winter sweet api:>les and a fairly good keeper. ADDITIONAL VARIETIES Summer — Early Harvest, Alexander, Yellow Transparent, Golden Sweet. 58 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Autumn — Twenty Ounce, Leicester Sweet, Con- gress, Pomme Eoyal. Willi er — Fallawater, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Lady Apple, Danvers Sweet, Wolf Eiver. GATHERING APPLES Summer apples should be picked, if for market, as soon as mature but before they become mellow, and be sent to market at once or put in cold storage. Yel- low or green varieties require the greatest care in pick- ing and packing and must be handled so that the skin will not be broken or the tissues below the skin injured. For cooking purposes the fruit may all be picked at once, but for table use or to supply fruit stands, some varieties will sell well only when they are allowed to color on the tree. It is the practice of many growers who supply a local market to spread two or three inches of hay under the tree and allow the fruit to fall as it matures. Such varieties as the Gravenstein, Williams, etc., treated in this way become very beautifully colored and bring better prices than if picked from the tree. The cost of picking is also much less. For long distance shipping, however, this could not be practiced. As a rule, the sooner after maturing summer and autumn varieties are picked, and in the market, the bet- ter and the more profitable they are to the grower. Win- ter apples should not be picked until fully grown, but should be secured before severe freezing weather takes place, and always before the mellowing process begins, to have them keep well. It is pretty well settled that apples picked early in autumn, i. e., before October 10th, will keep longer than if picked later, though they may not be as large, well colored or of as good quality. Apples should never be shaken from the tree, as not one in ten thus gathered will fail to receive some THE APPLE 59 injury. The fruit should be picked by hand into baskets suspended by hooks to the ladder or to a branch near where the ladder is placed, be taken to the ground and carefully placed in piles or in barrels or boxes, to be carried to some cool place for packing. It requires some skill to do so simple a thing as to pick apples properly. If the stem is pulled out, the beauty of the fruit is injured, as well as its keeping qualities. If the apples are pulled off, the spur with its fruit buds is often broken and the crop for the next year destroyed. In picking, the thumb or forefinger is placed against the stem and the apple turned completely over, when, with the pressure of the finger, the stem separates from the tree at the proper place, and neither tree nor fruit is injured. For picking tender fleshed varieties, like the Pal- mer Greening, Fameuse, etc., the basket should be lined with burlap, or some other cloth, to prevent bruising. For picking specimens beyond the reach of the ladder, some of the hand pickers are very serviceable. For getting into the tops of large trees long ladders are indispensable, and several lengths should be in readiness, all made of straight grained, light lumber and well seasoned. All ladders should bo thoroughly painted and be kept housed when not in use, other- wise they decay very rapidly, and a weak ladder is a dangerous thing to work with. Extension, ladders are found very conven- ient. The common stepladder will be found indispensable, es- pig. 35— Orchard stepladder pecially for the low branches and low-headed trees. One of the best forms of step- ladders is shown in Figure 35. The two main legs of the 60 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ladder come together at the top and the third leg is bolted in between them, thus forming a tripod, and if the two main legs are three or more feet apart, it will stand very firmly. This ladder is more cheaply made than the common form of stepladders, occupies less space, and the top being pointed, it can be placed in among the branches much better than the common ladders. The main legs of the six-foot ladder should be two and one-half feet apart, the eight-foot ladder three feet and the ten-foot three and one-half feet apart. After picking the fruit many growers put it in piles under the trees and sort and pack from the ground. But this is a very slow and hard way of doing the work, for no one can work to advantage in such a position. If the fruit is to be packed in the orchard, a much better way is to put it into a low wagon body that stands just high enough for comfortable working and sort and pack as the fruit is picked, moving the wagon along as the trees are finished. A sorting box or tray is also sometimes used, it being moved along from time to time as is needed. This box should be made with three legs, so as to stand firmly on uneven land and slope to the sorting end from three to four inches, so that the fruit will work toward the sorter. Some of the largest growers in the country put into barrels as they are picked and take them directly to a cool, open shed or barn, or to a cold storage room. Here they may be kept until all the fruit is safely housed before it is sorted and then be packed. If help is abun- dant, unless the fruit is to be kept for a late market, it is just as w^ell to pick and pack in the field as it comes from the trees, but if help is not abundant, or if the crop is very large, it is best to get the fruit into a cool place as soon as possible. One of the best methods is that practiced by the veteran fruit grower of Massachusetts, Dr. Jabez Fisher THE APPLE 61 of Fitchburg, who uses a bushel box with a corner piece nailed on eacli corner, as shown in Figure 36. This piece is seven-eighths of an inch thick and allows the air to circulate over the fruit enough to carry off the surplus moisture and yet not enough to cause it to wilt. The boxes of fruit are placed in the cold stor- Fig. 36 — Convene age room or cellar in piles, P'K* 37— Box lent Bushel Box .^^ ^j^^^^,^ -^ -p-^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Storage not disturbed until it is to be sorted for market. Any kind of a box might be used, but the common Inishel market box is very convenient to handle, it packs to good advantage and is cheap. in* (fed te» cs in ASSORTING APPLES A great deal of skill is required to sort apples so that they will give the most satisfaction to the buyer and the best returns to the grower. In connection with many large orchards, or in large apple growing sections, large cold storage buildings are constructed with can- ning and evaporating appliances, so that all the No. 2''s and those often called "cider" apples are worked off and only No. 1 fruit is put into barrels. In sorting fruit, where there is no evaporating or canning plant, the fruit is divided in two grades. No. 1 and No. 2 for packing, and cider apples that are generally sold in bulk. The standard for grading varies very much with differ- ent individuals and with different localities, but few packers put up their fruit so as to get the best results. The standard of No. 1 and No. 2 fruit also varies greatly. It does not matter so much as to the size of the fruit as to its perfectness and even grade, yet the larger the fruit, other tilings being equal, the better will be the price at which it will sell. If we could grade our apples G2 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE as oranges are graded, they would, without doubt, bring much higher prices than they now do. But this cannot be done cheaply by hand, and no machine has been found satisfactory. No. 1 apples should be perfectly smooth, above two and one-half inches in diameter, of good color and free from all blemishes, such as worm holes and other marks that break through the skin. As commonly grown there is but little such fruit to be found, but by spraying and thinning, and more and better fertilization and care, a large per cent of the fruit should be Xo. 1. No amount of skill or care in sorting will make good fruit; the place to begin is at the roots and follow this up to branch, leaf and fruit with the best modern practice. PACKAGES AND PACKING In most parts of the country the barrel is almost wholly used for storing and shipping apples and it has many valuable features. It is cheap and easily obtained ; it can be handled by rolling more easily than any other package of its size, but it has many disadvantages also. It contains a larger amount of fruit than most families cars to buy at once, and it does not pack to advantage, either in the cellar or in shipping. Many attempts have been made to introduce a more convenient package, but it has not been successful. For local markets, the bushel box is largely in use. It is a cheap package, costing only ten cents or less, and it is the practice in most places to return an empty box when a full one is brought into the market and thus one lot of boxes may be made to last a whole season. The fruit is rather more easily and firmly packed in barrels than in boxes, the round form and bulging sides allowing the fruit to settle together better than when packed in boxes. Only clean barrels of the standard size should be used. THE APPLE 63 New ones are of course to be preferred, but cost more than second-hand flour barrels. The former can be bought for about thirty to forty cents each, while the latter will cost from ten to twenty cents, according to the quantity purchased. Many growers secure a supply from time to time, as they are ready, from grocers or boarding houses and get them at low prices. The bar- rels thus obtained will need more or less repairing and should be put into good shape before the crop is ready to harvest. The heads should be looked over and matched up and placed one on top of another in barrels, so as to be ready for use without delay. They are cleaned by washing and drying. First the flour and dirt are brushed out, then a pailful of water poured in and with an old broom the inside washed. This water is then poured into another barrel and thus three or four barrels can be washed with one water. A layer of choice specimens is first placed on the bottom of the barrel with the stem down, and while finely colored specimens should be used for this they should not be very much better than those of the remaining part of the barrel. The barrel is then filled up with choice fruit, shaking it from side to side several times as it is being filled. It should be filled two or three inches above the top of the barrel and be made as level as possible. The head is now put on and the screw press, Figure 38, adjusted. This press is much more convenient than that fixed on a platform, as it can be carried from tree to tree. Figure 39 shows a lever press. Sometimes a false head with a lining of canvas or wadding is put on first, to prevent bruising the -^T" i Fig. 38— Screw Press 64 SUCCESSFUL PRUIT CULTURE Fig. 39— Lever Press fruit, as it is pressed in j^lace, and then the permanent head is put on, pressed in place and nailed firmly. The head is now further fastened in place by nailing small, round sticks, called "liners," firmly across the ends or the parts of the head. Some packers loosen the hoops before the head is pressed in, while others cut off a strip from one piece of the head and then press it in without starting the hoops. The latter way is the quicker, and if carefully done is just as well. The corrugated paper board cover should be used where much j^ressure is required, as for shippers to Europe. More care must be exercised in filling the barrels for exporting than for home markets. Some of the fruit will be injured in pressing in the head, and the pressure should be only enough to keep the fruit from shaking in transportation. The name of the variety, the quality, and the name of the grower are to be neatly stenciled on the faced end of the barrel, which should be made smooth and clean, if it is not so when the packing begins. It is the practice of many growers to put their name only on the Xo. 1 fruit, the seconds going to market with only the name of the variety and the grade upon the barrel. In packing in boxes the bottom of the box is taken off, a head is nailed on with half-inch openings, and the fruit is faced as with the barrel and then filled in the same way, pressing it so that it will not shake in shipping. Many attempts have been made to ship apples in boxes to the English market, but in very few cases have they been successful, the boxes being THE APPLE 65 packed so closely and solidly in the hold of the vessels as to heatj and if they are shaken about they strike inore solidly than when in barrels. Yet because of the ease of handling, the smaller*package and the fact that the box contains nearer the amount that is required for immediate consumption, the box will in time be sure to come into more general use. MARKETING APPLES In seasons of scarcity the crop of apples is not sufficient to supply the demand for home consumption and in seasons when the crop is large our people could consume it if it were distributed to all parts and eco- nomically handled. Every season more or less quantity is shipped to English or other European markets, and when it is of good quality and well packed it often brings paying prices. The first and most important condition of success in shipping apples to foreign mar- kets is good quality, the second is firm fruit, and the third is good packing. Fruit put into either of these markets in the above conditions is sure to sell at paying prices. The quantity shipped from America in the past has varied from 81,55.2 to 3,395,594 barrels. The con- ditions of the foreign markets vary much according to the crops at home and the quantity of fruit that is shipped at one time, and another thing that is against English or European trade is the fact that the fruit is sold at once on receipt, no matter how much there may be in the market at the time, there being no facili- ties for holding it over until the surplus is worked off. When our shippers will have agents at the ports of shipment, with facilities for holding the fruit in case of surplus, prices can be maintained and almost certain profits be realized. The home market, however, is the one that we must depend upon for the consumption of our apple crop. 66 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE for our people do not have all the fruit they should have for health and comfort, and the fruit can be delivered to the home market at a very little cost for transportation and package. There would be also a large saving in that the money now spent for foreign fruit Avould be kept at home. But this economy may not be needful, as the majority of our people are able to use large quantities of both home and imported fruit; the more fruit our people consume the better health they will possess. For the home market, the same conditions hold as to quality and packing as for foreign markets, but perhaps more emphasis should be placed upon quality, for our people can afford to pay as high prices as any people in the world, and the rule which governs the sale and price of other fruit commodities affects more or less the apple crop also, i. e., that the more good fruit a market has the more it will take at reasonable prices and the tendency will be to an upward price, unless there is an overproduction, and the over- supply must be prevented, by finding a market for the surplus in other countries. Facilities are now such that we can send any prod- uct to the remotest part of our country, and the home markets should be investigated before any attempt to supply foreign markets is made. The weather and crop reports ]nade by the government and published in the agricultural papers, are generally accurate and will help the fruit grower to decide where to send his fruit — whether to hole], or to sell from the orchard. Where a fair price is offered, it is generally best to sell directly from the orchard, unless one has good facilities for stor- ing, for there will always be a great deal of waste from keeping and the extra cost of handling is an item that must be carefully considered. In most sections of the country the apple crop is bought up by dealers and it is important that the THE APPLE 67 grower know the conditions of the crop, both in this country and abroad, in order to know at what prices to sell or whether to hold. As with most products grown on a small scale, it is best to have the crop sold by co-operative unions, or by commission dealers, unless one has a retail trade where he can deliver directly to his customers, but where the product is large the grower can often do as well to go into the market alone and sell at as high prices as can be obtained by unions or commission men. The most marked tendency of the times is concentration and combination, and all kinds of produce are being put into the hands of large com- mission houses, where the retail dealer can find just what he wants and in any quantity he may desire. The consumer, too, goes to the large retailer and expects to find anything that may be needed in the way of fruit or vegetables and does not like to wait for the truck peddler to come around. The cost of selling is thus very much reduced, but the profit generally goes into the pockets of the commission men. Until the fruit growers join hands and put their products into a few large sales places and have it all graded in the same way, they cannot expect to control the market as to supply or price. STORING FRUIT Every fruit grower should have some place where he can hold his product for a longer or shorter time, in order to keep it from rapid decay in hot weather and to regulate the supply for market. It very often happens that in extremely hot weather small fruits may be cooled off by putting them into a cold storage room for an hour or two, so as to carry to market in good condition, when if such conveniences were not available the lot would be at a total loss. If apples and pears of such varieties as the Gravenstein and 68 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Fameuse and Bartlett and Bosc be kept until the main crop is out of the market, a glut could be prevented and much higher prices be obtained. The increased value of Gravenstein and Fameuse apples and Bartlett or Bosc pears is often as much as one dollar to two dollars per box. Cold storage houses are constructed on three prin- ciples : ( 1 ) Those that are cooled off at night by letting in cold air from the outside and shutting out the hot air during the day. (2) Those cooled by means of ice. (3) Those cooled by chemicals. The first and second of these only are adapted to the use of the small grower. The first method is of little use, except for fall and winter fruit, but after the cold nights of September, if the doors and windows are kept open at night and are closed during the daytime, an even, low temperature may be kept up that will retard the ripening of apples and pears, so as to be of great profit to the grower and that without much expense. The walls of such a building must be made with several air spaces on the sides. The roof and the windows must be of several thicknesses and be made to shut tightly. Such a house can be used in warm weather by having an ice chamber large enough to hold sufficient ice to lower the temper- ature to the required point and then be kept cool by opening only on cold nights. If it is desired to make the temperature very low, ice and salt may be combined "to reduce it very quickly. The amount of ice required can only be determined by experiment. Many cold storage houses are now in use in which the low temperature is obtained by storing ice in the second story, the cold air dropping down into the space occupied by the fruit. In some of these houses the entire space overhead is filled with ice and in others only a large ice box is constructed in the center of the space overhead. In the former case the atmosphere is likely THE APPLE 69 to be too moist for the best results and a very large amount of ice required — enough to last through the entire summer — while in the latter ice is only put in as it is needed, a quantity being stored the winter before in a convenient place to fill up the ice box at the time needed. Figure 40 illustrates a very satisfactory cold storage house with the ice chamber in the center, h, storage space on the first floor, a, with space for storing barrels, boxes, etc.j in loft. The door and driveway are shown at d. Packing and workroom, c, is in the L attached, with doors opening into storage room. Those Fig. 40— Fruit Cold Storage House who have used both kinds of these prefer the small ice chamber, using the salt and ice mixture to lower the temperature quickly when ready to put in the fruit in the fall. A cellar, if it can be perfectly drained, often makes a very good fruit room, but much attention must be given to ventilation and the condition of the atmosphere as to moisture. In the construction of the walls of a cold storage room, air spaces are generally better than those filled with sawdust, but a wall filled with charcoal dust is much better than either, as it is a perfect non-con- 70 SUCCESSFUL ruUlT CULTURE ductor and will prevent the decay of the woodwork. One thickness of building paper to each sheathing should be used if there are four or more air spaces and two thicknesses if there are less than four air spaces. The best results will not be obtained, however, unless the walls are at least two feet in thickness, and with four or more spaces. All doors and windows must be made with two or more thicknesses, and all joints to fit closely. The use of chemicals for lowering the temperature can only be profitably employed where large quantities of fruit or other produce are to be stored. Such houses are generally located in large business centers, the produce shipped directly from the grower and is then kept until being sold. As fruit does not generally keep as well after having been in cold storage as when fresh from the grower, this method is not very serviceable, except to the large grower or dealer. For insects and diseases attacking the apple see Chapters XX and XXI. Ill THE PEAR (Pyrus communis) The pear, while not generally considered one of the most healthy fruits, is from its peculiar flavor and qualities, known as melting, sugary, huttery, etc., a fruit much liked by most people, and eaten in its fully ripe condition and in moderate quantities is a healthful and delicious fruit. In its natural and unim- proved condition, the fruit was hard and composed almost entirely of the gritty wood cells, known to bot- anists as sclerogenous cells, and a harsh and astringent . juice that was anything but digestible, and which led that ancient writer, Pliny, to say, "All varieties what- soever are poor meat unless baked or boiled.'^ Until fully ripe, most varieties of pears have more or less of the above qualities, and should be eaten with moder- ation during warm weather unless cooked. For pre- serves, no fruit is superior to it and it is largely grown in many sections for this purpose alone. Like the apple, it is a native of Middle or N'orthern Europe. The tree, under the most favorable conditions, grows to a large size, and sometimes reaches a greater age than the apple, but as it is more subject to diseases, few trees reach great age. In value of products, the pear stands fourtli on the list of large fruits, though it is losing ground in many places, except where it is grown for canning purposes. 72 SUCCESSFUL rHUIT CULTURE THE ORCHARD For the best results, strong, rather moist land should be selected, but it is best that it be on an elevation where there will be a good drainage and a free circulation of air during the growing season, under which conditions there will be less danger from fungous diseases. The pear will grow well upon a variety of soils, as with the apple, but much profit cannot be expected unless all conditions are the most favorable. Trees for Planting — The pear tree is more difficult to grow in the nursery than the apple, and more care must be taken in growing them and in the i^election of trees from the nursery. A medium to large No. 1 two- year-old tree is the best for general planting, though most No. 1 trees sold are at least three years old. The preparation of the land, the pruning of the tree, and the planting have already been described for the apple, which should be followed for the treatment of the pear. Distance for Planting — The trees of most varieties naturally grow in a pyramidal form, and while it sometimes grows to a large size, it is more compact than the apple and requires a less distance. Fifteen by 15, or 20x20 feet, are the distances most generally planted, according to the variety and the method of training. Such varieties as the Seckel, Giffard, Bart- lett, and many others, if kept well headed in, will need only the former distance, while the larger growing kinds and those trained with a broad head will need the latter distance. Pruning — During the first few years of its growth after planting in the orchard, the pear tree has a tendency to growth of only a few central shoots and with little growth of laterals. All of these strong cen- tral shoots must be checked by pinching as soon as this tendency is discovered, but one leader or central THE PEAR 73 shoot being allowed to grow in advance of the others, and this shoot or center should be kept all through the life of the tree, and whenever any laterals grow beyond it they should be checked, thus forcing the growth into the lower branches. If proper attention is given to the training of the tree while young, very little after priming will be required. Age of Bearing — The pear tree may be expected to produce paying crops of fruit at an earlier age than the apple, i. e., from five to eight years from planting, according to the variety, and unless attacked by disease may be expected to bear for fifty or more years. Like the apple, it generally produces fruit only in alternate years, unless the land is kept rich, well cultivated and the fruit thinned. The cause of this condition is the same as with the apple and the remedy is the same. VARIETIES In form, size and color of the fruit the pear does not vary much from the apple, but in the color of the branches, the appearance of the leaves and its habit of gi'owth, the variations are much greater; so m-uch so in many cases that most varieties may be distinguished by the expert from the appearance of the leaves or twigs alone. Varieties are generally classed as summer, autumn and winter. Of the varie- ties that will succeed in all localities it will be impos- sible to give a satisfactory list, and the reader is again referred to his own State experiment station workers, the following lists being given as those in most gen- eral cultivation throughout the country and possessing valuable qualities. SUMMER PEARS Ansault — A pear of medium size, light greenish- yellow, mostly covered with thin russet, melting, juicy. 74 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE and fine grained. Tree a poor grower and must be top-grafted on to make a strong, upright tree. Bears young. Clapp — While not a variety of much value for general market, from its vigorous growth, its large size and good quality, it is valuable for home use or a local market wlien proj^erly ripened. The tree is very vigor- ous in growth, the fruit is of large size and of good quality when picked from the tree as soon as fully grown, but before the wormy specimens turn yellow. In this condition it will color beautifully, will not rot at the core, and be very high flavored. This variety makes a good stock for such varieties as the Ansault, Bosc and other poor growing kinds. Giffard — Of medium size; in color and form like the Bartlett, but with more blush on the exposed side. Tree rather slender in growth and moderately produc- tive. In quality one of the best of its season. Margaret — Another pear of medium size and of greenish-yellow color with a brownish-red cheek and covered with greenish dots. Flesh fine, melting, juicy and of first quality. Tree vigorous and productive. AUTUMN PEARS Bartlett — Probably the best known pear and largely grown from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is among the pears what the Baldwin is among the apples, and the Concord is among the grapes. It is too well known to need description. The tree is not very vigorous, but is hardy and productive, and often overbears; a fault that may be very easily remedied by thinning the fruit, and giving an abundance of plant food the bear- ing year.* It ripens in September, but by putting into cold storage as soon as mature, it m^y be kept from four to six weeks and sold when the market is not well supplied and much better prices be obtained. THE PEAR 75 Bosc — This is a large, light russet pear, with a large body and a neck that tapers into a very long stem; the flesh is white, juicy, melting and of fine quality. The fruit is very large and heavy and liable to be blown off by heavy winds, and the trees should be trained low to prevent this. It is one of the best fall varieties and always sells at good prices when well grown. In New England it ripens in October, but may be kept in the same way that the Bartlett is carried over a glut and the price very much increased. The tree is rather weak in growth, especially when young, and to get the best results should be top-grafted on some strong growing variety like the Clapp, Flemish Beauty, etc. The Kieffer has been recommended for this purpose but has not been successfully used in the East. Sechel — A small, light cinnamon colored pear with a blush on the exposed side and of the finest quality. The tree is very stocky and compact and a vigorous grower and regular bearer. The fruit is small, unless very severely thinned, but when well grown always sells at a good price. Sheldon — A large, round, russet pear of the best quality. The tree is a good grower, productive and hardv. The color is not attractive, but where known, it sells at a good price. Anjou — A large, oblate-pyriform pear, yellow, with blush on the exposed side. Some seasons this variety ripens to be of good quality, but it is more often of poor quality and unsatisfactory. It comes into bearing late and is not very productive. Kieffer — There are probably more trees of this variety planted the country over than of any other kind, and it is no doubt a very profitable kind to grow for canning, but the quality is so poor in most places that if sold for table use it will lessen the demand for 76 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE this fruit. We would not advise its planting except for canning purposes. WINTER PEARS Dana's Hovey — A small pear resembling the Seckel in form and appearance but larger and with less of the brown or russet color. The quality is very much like the latter and the tree is of the same habit of growth. When properly thinned, so as to grow to large size, it sells at the highest price. Lawrence — Medium in size, resembling the Bartlett in form, but smaller. The tree is compact in growth, very hardy and productive. A good early winter pear. Additional varieties to be recommended are Worden Seckel, Patrick Barry. HARVESTING^ STORING^ MARKETING Gathering and Ripening — All varieties of pears, with one or two exceptions, are of better quality if picked from the tree before quite ripe, or when the wormy specimens are beginning to mellow, or with some even earlier. Varieties, like the Clapp, that rot at the core as soon as fully matured, need to be picked fully two weeks before they would mellow on the tree. The fruit should be left on the tree until fully grown, but then be gathered as soon as possible and be put into a cool, dark place until it is to be sold. It is the practice of some growers to pick the trees over twice, taking all the largest specimens first, and then allowing the balance to grow for a time. This practice applies to the fall varieties, but winter fruit must be picked before severe freezing weather. MarTceting — For the local market there is nothing better than the bushel box, and even for a long distance it is as good as the barrel. To present the fruit in THE PEAR 77 the best condition, the bottom of the box is taken off, the cover nailed on and the fruit faced on the cover. When the box is full and the last layer is well leveled off, the bottom is securely nailed on so that when the top is taken off, the fruit presents a regular and even appearance. The corrugated paper board cover is very valuable in preventing injury to the fruit when pressed firmly into the box. A cold storage room is more im- portant in handling pears than with the apple, because of the short time the fruit will keep, and only a few varieties being grown, nearly all of one kind come into the market at once. To prevent a glut much of the crop must be held until the market is cleared and there is a decided demand, when good prices will generally follow. The cold storage house, described under the apple, is equally well adapted to the keeping of pears. For insects and diseases attacking the pear, see Chapters XX and XXI. IV THE PEACH {Prunus Persica) In relative importance as a money crop and as a home fruit the peach stands next to the apple in the United States and its importance is gaining more and more as we become more skillful in caring for it. Our ideas as to the best part of the country in which this most luscious fruit will grow have undergone a great change in a few years past, for, instead of thinking that it will grow only in certain favored localities, we now find it succeeding in almost every part of the coun- try from Canada to Mexico, and large areas are being planted where it was supposed a few years ago that the peach could not be profitably grown. The peach is a native of Southern Asia and China, but the trees grow equally well in proper soil in Canada as in Texas, though the fruit buds are not hardy where the temperature remains lower than eighteen below zero for more than a few hours at a time. To grow the trees so that they shall withstand the changes of our climate in the northern parts of the United States, it is necessary to plant on high elevations, in rather light soil and in full exposure to air and sunlight. To reach its greatest perfection the fruit must be ripened on the trees, and with the modern facilities for trans- portation in refrigerator cars it may be allowed to become nearly ripe and yet be carried a long distance to market. It is best, however, in this business to give the greatest attention to the local market, for the best THE PEACH 79 prices will be obtained there, the cost of transportation being less, and the fruit will 'give the best satisfaction because the quality is much better than anything that can be put into the market from a distance. THE ORCHARD The peach orchard should be located on high land with a full exposure to the west, northwest or north- east, but not to the south, unless on the top of a hill with full exposure to air. The soil may be a sandy loam, clay loam or even of clay, if it is thoroughly underdrained and is not too much enriched before the trees come into bearing, but the ideal soil is a light one of good strength, with a clay subsoil and with many small stones well mixed in it to give quick drainage and to furnish the mineral food that is needed for fruit of the best quality. Some of the best orchards in the country are growing on very poor soil, and this kind of soil has many advantages. It is cheap, the trees do not make an overgrowth, but sufficient growth can be made by the application of ]Aant food, the buds are hardier, the fruit is of better quality, but the cost of growing is greater than on stronger land. Distance for Planting — The distance the peach is planted varies with the variety, the soil and the method of pruning from 12x12 feet to 15x15 feet, or even 20x 20 feet. In some cases they are planted double thick, one way, i. e., 7 1-2x15, 10x15, or 10x20 feet, and when the trees begin to crowd so as to injure each other, one- half of those in each row are cut out. This is a very satisfactory way if the grower will act promptly and cut out the surplus trees at the proper time. Trees for Planting — Most growers prefer medium or small trees (N"o. 2) for orchard planting, because they cost less, the freight charges are less, there are generally m.ore dormant burls on the central shoot and 80 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE therefore the head can be more certainly formed just where it is desired. This is shown at Figure 41, a, while Figure 42 shows a No. 1 tree. The very small trees of any lot, however, are probably those that were budded on the weaker growing seedlings, their growth having been in- fluenced by the stock, and for this reason it would be better to grow trees rather closely and on soil that will produce a rather small Fig:.41— No. 2 ,1 1 1 J. j-i u 4. Fig. 42— No. 1 Peach Tree growth and Select the best ^^^^^ j^^^ of these. To produce such trees a limited amount of nitrogen should be used in the fertilizer, with a liberal amount of potash and phos- phoric acid, which will tend to give a hardy stock. Preparation of the tree for planting is a very important matter and there are many different ideas in regard to the best way of doing this. The common practice is to cut off all of the lateral shoots and the main stalk (Figure 43, a) to about one, two or three feet in hight, according to the hight the head is to be formed. Another method practiced by the writer is to cut the top down to about three inches of the point where the bud was inserted and let only one bud grow into a new tree. (Figure 43, &.) By this method lateral branches can be formed just where de- sired along a central shoot, * ''?-^V; ''"'!; as seen in Figure 42, and ^T^^'/'/^'l; Tree Trimmed ^ ' Tree Cut Back to Whip will be less likely to break to stub a J. THE PEACH 81 down from a weight of fruit than upon a head formed in the ordinary way. But whatever method is practiced, the head should be formed at the earliest possible time and a central growth be developed from which the laterals shall come out on all sides of the tree and at a little distance apart. During the summer only those branches should be allowed to grow that are needed to establish the head and all others be pinched off before they have taken the strength of needed parts of the tree. At the end of the second season or before the growth of the third begins, the young trees should be put in as perfect form as is possible, as a rule cutting back the young wood about one-half, varying this, how- ever, to give perfect form to the tree. Orchard Care — The planting of the tree and after care is practically the same as for the apple, with slight variations as to pruning and cultivation. The habit of the peach tree is such that the growth is made largely at the ends of the leading branches, so that in a few years, if unpruned, the branches become long and with few laterals, so that when loaded with fruit the trees break very easily. To overcome this habit severe prun- ing must be practiced. This is done in several ways, some cutting back all of the last season's growth one- half, but if this is done by rule the tree will be irregular in form and too many small shoots will be developed in tufts at the ends of the branches that will require much labor to thin out, or the work will be neglected and poor growth of the tree and fruit also will be the result. In this work it is better to first cut out any large branches that may make the head of the tree too close or give it an imperfect form and then head back some of the strongest shoots, not many, which will tend to increase the growth of the remaining lat- erals, and the fruit will be so distributed over the tree as not to be easily broken down by weight of fruit or 82 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ice. Figure 44 shows a four-year-old tree at the end of the season, and Figure 45 the same pruned for fifth season^s growth. Figure 46 shows an unpruned tree of same age, and Figure 47 a three-year-old peach tree in foliage. Cultivation — While we often find peach trees of great age growing in the grass without any care, there .#s«*- ^lA^^^ts^r :« „ Fig. 44— Peach Tree Before Pruning are few orchards where this method of care has been profitable. It is, with few exceptions, only by con- stant cultivation and care that we can expect large fruit and an abundance of it, but this work can be so cheaply done with the tools described for the cultivation THE PEACH 83 of the apple, and when so cultivated so much less fer- tilizer is needed that it is practiced by most successful peach growers. Cover crops have come to play such an important part in the question of fertilization, of plant food and the prevention of the washing of the soil on l^-M /^ ^^ mmwm^ t* ;3b-^^' ^^'^tZ. •*!»¥. ^*7^^%^^" Fig. 45— Peach Tree Pruned hilly land, that I wish to call attention to this matter as discussed on Pages 32-34. Mr. A. A. Marshall of Fitchburg, Mass., has an orchard of over 6000 peach trees in the most perfect condition, growing in turf. (Figure 48.) These are of three, four and five 5^ears' growth and are in condi- tion to produce a large crop of the largest fruit of fine color and quality. A five-year-old peach orchard in 84 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE turf is seen in Figure 49. The grass is cut with a mow- ing machine as often as the cutter bar will work under it — about three times each season — and allowed to lie on the ground to decay, thus nothing but a crop of fruit is carried from the land and the growth of trees Fig. 46— Peach Tree Not Headed In is kept up by the application of bone, potash, phos- phoric acid, lime and magnesia, using an amount aver- aging from twenty to fifty dollars' worth per acre, according to the season and the crop. By this method THE PEACH 85 cheap land can be utilized, but it must be borne in mind that it will require more plant food to produce a satisfactory growth in turf land than under constant cultivation, and that in time of drouth there is more danger of injury. After trees have become established, however, by close and frequent cutting of the grass there is less danger than to young trees. With skillful man- Fl«. 47— Three=Year=01d Peach Tree in Foliage agement and good judgment this method can be recom- , mended, but under neglect neither this method nor any jOther will succeed. : -Fertilization — The peach is a fruit that does not require much fertilizer in good, ordinary soil until the trees begin to bear, if the land is frequently cultivated, lA U V u £ 9 a. o II a >" II u s o U. I 00 88 SUCCESSFUL TRUIT CULTURE but when a crop of fruit is set, unless the fruit is thinned severely, a liberal supply must be used to carry the crop through and not weaken the trees. The best fertilizers to use are those rich in potash and phos- phoric acid, with only nitrogen enough to make a moderately vigorous growth of wood. These materials may be put on in any forms that are most available, but the quantity must be determined by the grower, who alone knows the condition of his soil and trees, and upon his good judgment will depend his success. VARIETIES The number of varieties of peaches has become so large that the beginner finds much difficulty in deciding what kinds to plant, and yet when we come to investi- gate we find that there are but a comparatively small number of varieties planted by the successful peach growers. The following named varieties are among the best and most largely grown : White Fleshed — Of the very early varieties of this group, including the Alexander, Early Eivers, Sneed types, none will be found profitable, as they are certain to be attacked by the brown rot nine years out of ten. Those generally found profitable of this group are Mountain Eose, Carman, Champion and Oldmixon. Yellow Fleshed — Triumph (in a dry season may be of some value), Crawford's Early, Crawford's Late, Elberta and Crosby in Northern localities. This list is purposely made very small for the reason that few varieties will do equally well in distant localities and the grower must study the varieties in his own locality and plant such as have proved the most valuable. The experiment stations are all making comparative tests of the leading varieties that succeed in the different parts of the country and can give the best possible advice as to what will be most profitable. THE PEACH 89 THINNING THE FRUIT There is no one thing connected with the growth of the peach of so great importance as thinning. When the fruit buds are not destroyed by the cold or injured by late spring frosts, the trees are generally so loaded with fruit that, if it is all allowed to grow, the trees will be so injured as to be subject to all the diseases that so commonly attack the trees, while the fruit will be of little value in the market. Thinning should be done f.s soon as it can be determined whether the fruit is perfect or not, the amount of thinning to be done depending upon the size and vigor of the trees, and the quality of fruit desired. If the largest and finest fruit is desired, only a limited number of specimens should be allowed to remain, i. e., thin to from five to six inches apart, while, if the trees are very vigorous and only a medium grade is desired, a distance of from four to five inches may be the rule. The greatest profit will come from the more rigid thinning. It will be found where the trees are well set with fruit that the quantity will be about as great in one case as in the other, while the larger the fruit the higher the price at which it will sell and the less the strain upon the tree. In thinning, all poor or curculio-stung spec- imens should be picked off, even if the last fruit is removed, for it would be of no value in the market and might be a breeder of insects or fungi. HARVEST AND MARKETING Much of the profit of growing this fruit will depend upon the way in which it is harvested and put on the market. To reach its greatest perfection the fruit should be allowed to become nearly ripe, and be picked and taken to the market at once, as it will not keep long after it reaches this stage. It is the practice 90 SUCCESSFUL PKUIT CULTURE of those who grow this fruit for the local market to pick over the trees several times to get the fruit in the best condition. In picking, each specimen is examined on all sides before it is picked and if the green fruit has changed to a cream or light yellow, and the reds are well developed, it is picked. Some depend upon the feeling, pressing the projecting part on one side of the suture in addition to the change of color. Package — The common peach basket is the poorest package that could be devised for keeping the fruit, as well as for harvesting and marketing. It is of such form that the fruit as it becomes ripe and soft settles Fig. SO— Georgia Peach Basket and Crate together and is badly injured in the jar of transporta- tion. It is very difficult to pack in wagons or cars and occupies more space than any other package. The only merit it possesses is its cheapness, and it has been so long in use that it will be a long time before it will be replaced by a more sensible package. One of the best packages in use is the carrier of the Georgia peach growers (Figure 50), which holds six baskets of about three quarts each, or four baskets of four quarts each, making practically about the quantity that is shipped in the standard one-half -bush el peach basket, but its cost is much greater, varying from ten to fifteen cents, THE PEACH 91 according to the locality and the quantity purchased, while the peach basket may be bought at from three and one-half to four cents by the thousand, or larger lots. For long distance shipment, the carrier has now been generally adopted and it should not be long before all of this crop will be put up in a better package than the common peach basket. Keeping the Fruit — The practice of not picking this fruit until it is nearly ripe, makes the danger of glutting the market much greater, and consequently produces the necessity of providing some means of hold- ing the crop beyond the natural season. This is done to a limited extent by means of cold storage rooms or refrigerator cars in shipping. While this fruit does not keep in cold storage as well as the apple or pear, 'it can be kept for a considerable time and for the local markets where large quantities are grown, this is a neces- sity. The temperature at which it will keep the best is from thirty-two to thirty-four degrees, and with a rather drier atmosphere than for the apple. For method of propagation, insects and fungous diseases attacking the joeach, see Chapters XVIII, XX and XXI. THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE These two fruits are little known in the North and are seldom seen in our markets except in a dried state. This may be from the fact that as commonly grown the trees are short lived, and the fruit is of rather poor quality. THE APEICOT The apricot is thought by some botanical authori- ties to be a cross or hybrid between the European plum, PruniLS domestica, and the peach, Prunus Persica, and by others to be a distinct species. It matters little to the practical grower which view is correct. I incline to the latter theory, as its specific fea- tures are as marked as many of the most distinct species of other plants, and it is a question at what time all species of plants may have been evolved by the process of hybridization or environment to their present condition. I have never known either the apri- cot or nectarine to produce plants from seed other than their specific types, though I have grown many seedlings of both. As grown in the Eastern States the fruit is not of as good quality as that from California, but in a warm soil, rather thin, with a full exposure to the west, the trees grow rapidly, and with proper thinning, pruning and spraying very satisfactory results may be obtained. The peach stock is most largely used upon which to bud these fruits. The plum stock is recommended for heavy soil, but I know of no case where the apricot THE APRICOT 93 has succeeded on heavy soils, and, therefore, consider the peach the best stock. The greatest obstacle to be over- come is the brown fruit rot or monilia that is so destruc- tive to the early varieties of peaches and most of the European and Japanese plums. To overcome this pest the trees should be heavily sprayed in March or early April with the standard bor- deaux— six pounds copper sulphate, six pounds lime and fifty gallons water — and then again with the same just before the blossoms open. After the petals have fallen spraying with diluted bordeaux (1: 1: 50) at intervals of from two to four weeks, should be kept up until the fruit is nearly full growm. If the fruit begins to rot as it approaches ripening, spraying just after every rain with a solution of copper sulphate, four ounces to fifty gallons, will check it. Thinning the fruit as is done in growing peaches and plums, must be practiced, to help prevent this rotting, strengthen the growth of the tree and improve the size and quality of the fruit. Sometimes the trees are winterkilled, but when planted in light soil, as previously mentioned, and an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid used, with only enough nitrogenous matter to make a moderate growth, they will make a hard, short-jointed growth that will be seldom injured by the most severe winter weather, and will live as long as peach trees. The pruning re- quired is practically the same that is given the peach by the most successful growers of that fruit. Head in the most rampant shoots so as to encourage a close, short-jointed growth. The number of varieties that are satisfactory in the East is very small, yet even many of those of poor qual- ity are valuable for canning purposes because of the peculiar flavor and of the ease with which the stone or pit separates from the flesh. Among the best in quality aud the most hardy are Early Montgamet, Moorpark 94 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE and Peach apricot. Some of the Eussian varieties are highly recommended as hardy and productive, but in my experience they are neither as hardy nor of as good quality as those mentioned above. THE NECTARINE This fruit is perhaps less known even than the apricot, either in the fresh or dried state. In appear- ance of tree and habit of growth it is with difficulty distinguished from the peach, being practically a smooth-skinned peach. It is a distinct species, repro- ducing the type from seed. The tree is about as hardy as the peach and thrives best under the conditions de- scribed for the apricot. It is subject to the same insect and fungous pests and spraying must be done with the same material and at the same times as for the peach and apricot. This fruit and the apricot also are much injured by the plum curculio, and this insect must be kept from injuring the crops by jarring the trees very early in the morning every other day for two weeks and catching on sheets or frames. Or arsenate of lead may be used as the fruit reaches the size of small peas, which is an effectual remedy if all other stone fruit trees in the vicinity are sprayed with some arsenate, and is much cheaper than jarring. If only a few trees are sprayed the insects coming from those near by would be able to lay their eggs before they would eat enough of the poison to destroy them. Among the best varieties are the Boston, Pitmaston and Rivers Orange. VI THE PLUM There is no more delicious or nutritious fruit than the plum, and it is largely planted, but owing to the numerous insect and fungous pests that attack it, the crop of fruit is generally very small. On the Pacific Coast, where no fungous pests develop, on account of the dry atmosphere, this fruit is grown largely and is kno^ATi as the prune, and prune growing has become an important industry. The term "prune," though commonly applied to the dried fruit, is equally applica- ble to all the varieties of the European or "domestica" plums. All varieties, how^ever, do not make good dried prunes ; those containing about twelve per cent of sugar will make "prunes" that will keep without fermentation, while those containing less sugar will soon ferment. New impetus has been given plum growing in the East by the introduction of the Japanese plums and the many hybrids produced between this and the European and American varieties. The varieties of plums in cultivation may be grouped into three classes, i. e., European {Prunus domestica), Japanese (Prunus tri flora) , and American (Prunus Americana and other species). EUROPEAN PLUMS The European varieties are represented by the com- mon blue, yellow and red plums of the garden, and produce fruit of the finest quality, but are so subject 96 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE to. the attack of insects and fungous pests that they cannot be grown except by the best attention and skill. The best soil for the growth of this group is a deep, moist loam, though they will grow under a great variety of conditions. It is of the greatest importance that the trees be planted in full exposure to air and sunlight, which will in a great measure counteract the tendency to rotting of the fruit and the growth of the black knot. It is better to plant on a light soil with such an expos- ure, than on heavy land if low and in a close, sheltered place. JAPANESE PLUMS The Japanese plums are as vigorous in growth as the peach, begin bearing as young and are being planted largely. In quality the fruit is not as good as the European varieties, and it is subject to the same diseases and insects, but owing to the short time it requires to grow the trees to fruiting and their great productiveness, they may perhaps be more profitable than the former, even with the varieties now grown, and if out of the many new varieties now being offered, with great claims for quality, are found those equal to the best of the European, this group may entirely supersede the latter. The soil best suited to the growth of the Japanese plums is about the same as that for the peach, but perhaps a little richer and deeper. Nearly all varieties are subject to the brown rot, the black knot and the shot-hole fungus, and possibly to the disease known as the peach yellows, and it is important thai they be planted in full exposure to air and sunlight. This group is largely propagated upon the peach stock, and generally does well on this stock, but whether this, the American or tlie Myrobalan stocks are the best no one has conclusively proved by careful experiments. THE PLUM 97 AMERICAN PLUMS The varieties of the several species of this group are now attracting much attention on account of their great hardiness, productiveness, and freedom from disease and insect attack. The fruit is generally of small or medium size, the skin is thick and the flesh acid and clings very firmly to the pit or stone. When fully ripe and soft, many of the varieties are of good quality. Nearly all of the varieties are valuable for canning. The greatest promise of value in this group lies in the possibilities of crosses or hybrids with the Euro- pean and Japanese plums, some of which are already being largely planted. These varieties succeed in a variety of soils, but will generally do best in rather moist land with good exposure. Many of the varieties are not self-fertile and require to be planted near others that will fertilize them. This subject is fully discussed in Plums and Plum Culture, by Prof. F. A. Waugh. The varieties of all of the groups differ very much in size and habit of growth, and the distance at which they should be planted is from twelve to twenty feet, according to the kind. Two-year-old trees of the Amer- ican and European plums and one-year-old of the Jap- anese are the best for planting. CULTIVATION In order to obtain fruit of the largest size and best quality the land must be kept well cultivated or enriched, so as to produce a vigorous growth of foliage and wood. Fertilizers recommended for the apple are equally adapted to the plum. PPtUNING Most of the varieties of the plum require the same attention as to pruning and training as the pear, hav- 98 SUCCESSl^UL FltUlT CULTURE ing the same tendency to produce only a few shoots the first and second years. It is always better to stop these strong, leading shoots during the summer than to let them grow till fall and then cut them off, thus wasting considerable wood growth which, if it had been dis- tributed to the lateral branches, would in a year or two develop into fruit buds. In this work of pruning the aim should be to obtain stocky, low-headed trees that will carry a heavy load of fruit and not break down and be so low that all the work of thinning, spraying and harvesting may be easily and cheaply done. Age of Sealing — The Japanese varieties may be expected to produce some fruit two years from planting and full crops in three or four years, the European will bear in from four to eight years and the American in about the same time, but all varying much in time, according to the variety. Thinning the Fruit — All varieties of plums have the tendencv to overbear, and it becomes an absolute necessity to thin severely if good fruit is expected and the trees are to be saved from injury by overbearing. When the fruit is from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in diameter all imperfect and insect stung specimens should be picked off, one plum 'uly being allowed to remain on each spur and these not nearer than from three to five inches apart, according to the variety and the grade of fruit desired. If the plums are grown for canning purposes more fruit should be allowed to remain (a small plum is generally preferred for this purpose) than if fine table fruit is desired. The fruit generally grows in clusters and care is needed in this work that all of the plums on the spur are not pulled off at the first effort, but by turning each plum carefully backward from the cluster all but one may be removed without injury to the rest. The earlier this work can be done the less will be the strain on THE PLUM 99 the tree, but it will be more work to detect imperfec- tions while the fruit is small than when it is nearly grown. VAIUETIES European Varieties — These varieties are classified into green or yellow, red and purple, though the latter classes may run together under different conditions Fig. 51— Pellenbergr Plum of season and crops. Thus if the Lombard is allowed to be overloaded, and the foliage is not in full vigor, the fruit will be red in color, while under the most favorable conditions and a long season, some red varie- ties will become purple or nearly black. Among the best of this type are : B 3 a. 9 B 3 ea (A THE PLUM 101 Green — Green Gage, McLaughlin, Gen. Hand and Washington. Purple — Bradshaw, Lincoln, Quackenboss, Smith's Orleans, Fellenberg (Figure 51), Kingston. Red — Pond's Seedling, Victoria. Japanese Varieties — The varieties of this group vary in color from yellow to very deep shades of crim- son. The fruit is of much better quality if allowed to become soft on the tree, or if kept a considerable Fig. 53— Hawkeye Plum time after being picked before it is sold. As with the last group the color of fruit depends much upon the length of the season and the crop on the trees. The following are some of the best : Abundance, Eed June, Chabot, Burbank, Satsuma (for canning) (Figure 52), Wickson, October Purple. Many new varieties of great promise have been recently introduced, but their value for any given locality can only be determined by further trial in each locality. 102 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE American Varieties — There is more uncertainty in regard to the value of the varieties of this group for market than with the other groups^ from the fact that they have no reputation in many of the large markets of the country, and the people must become acquainted with them before they will be in demand. Among the best are the following: Hawkeye (Figure 53), Hammer, Wildgoose, Wolf, Wyant, etc. For insects and fungous diseases attacking the plum see Chapters XX and XXI. VII THE CHERRY (Prunus cerasus and P. avium) In some sections of the country cherry growing has become a very important branch of horticulture, i. e., on the Pacific Coast, where it is grown to ship East and for canning, New York State and some of the Middle Western States, where it is largely grown for the canneries. In the older p'ortions of the country it is very little grown on' account of the rotting of the fruit, the black knot, and its attack by the plum curculio, the cherry maggot and the black aphis. In these sec- tions old trees are only found growing in a vigorous condition by the roadside and on the lawn, where the ground is rather rich and well drained and yet where they do not make a vigorous growth. The fruit is one of the most delicious, and Avhere the conditions are favorable for its growth it becomes a profitable crop. THE ORCHARD The best soil for the growth of this fruit is one rather light and moderately rich and warm. If the land is very rich or moist, where the trees grow very rapidly, they are soon injured by the winter and after three or four seasons the trunks crack open on the south side, decay soon sets in and in a few years the trees die. The remedy for this condition is first, to plant on light land and fertilize very sparingly and with quickly soluble fertilizers, especially potash and phosphoric acid. 104 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE applied in the spring. Growth should be completed by the middle of September, and this will be insured by the sowing of a cover crop about August 10, or by ceasing cultivation by the middle of August. The cherry succeeds well under turf culture. To prevent the cracking of the trunk on the south side a board or stake should be set up to prevent the sun striking it during the fall, winter and spring. The dist- ce for planting will vary somewhat, according to the variety; those making a large tree should be set twenty to twenty-five feet, while the smaller kinds will need only fifteen to eighteen feet each way. It is the practice of many orchardists to plant 10x10 feet, or lOx 20 feet, and when the trees begin to come together, cut out every other one. For directions for preparing the trees for planting, planting and after care, see directions for the apple. The cultivation of the orchard to be followed is also practically the same as for the apple. Pruning — Very little pruning is required more than to direct the growth, so that there shall be but one leader in case of the sweet cherries^ which are nat- urally pyramidal in form, while the round-headed varieties may have several main branches. Large branches should never be cut away from trees of the stone fruits if it can be avoided. CLASSIFICATION The varieties of the sweet cherries {Primus avium) are divided into two groups : The Heart cherries, those heart shaped in form, with a very juicy and sweet flesh and the tree of a pyramidal form, illustrated by Gov. Wood and Black Tartarian, and the Bigar?'eau cherries, the fruit of which is also heart shaped, but firm in flesh and the tree rather round and stocky in growth. This group is represented by the Napoleon or Yellow Spanish. Figure 54 illustrates a row of sweet cherries. w u r/5 o I Fig. 55— Sour Cherry Trees THE CHEREY 107 The varieties of sour cherries {Prunus cerasus) are divided into two groups, the Duke and Morello. The fruit of the former is borne on stout, round-headed trees, is red or crimson in color and not very acid, while with the latter, tree is small and with slender weeping branches. The fruit is round, of a bright red color and very acid. Figure 55 shows the characteristics of the sour cherry tree. The following are among some of the best varieties of each group: Heart — Gov. Wood, Black Tartarian, Downer's Late and Windsor. Bigarreau — ^Yellow Spanish, Cleveland, Rockport and Schmidt. Diike — May Duke, Eoyal Duke. Morello — Early Richmond, English Morello, Mont- morency. The fruit is marketed in several ways. In some places it is sold in the common quart strawberry box and put into the bushel crate or carrier, in other localities it is sold in the four or eight-pound grape basket, while on the Pacific Coast it is shipped in small shallow boxes holding two layers of large, finely-sorted fruit. As grown in the East, where the fruit is likely to decay quickly, the quart box is perhaps the best package unless it is to go to canning factories, when the package is of no great importance, so long as the fruit is delivered in good condition and will keep until it is canned. See methods of propagation in Chapter XVIII, and insects and fungous pests and their destruction in Chapters XX and XXI. VIII THE QUINCE {Cydonia vulgaris) In the past few years quince growing, as a business, has not been as profitable as formerly, owing, perhaps, to an oversupply of this fruit, or the abundance and low price of other fruits. It is not a fruit that can be used for dessert without cooking, and consequently is not consumed largely — only for canning, but its aroma and peculiarly agreeable flavor make it a much prized fruit for preserves. As a shipping fruit, it is not so valuable as for the local market, from the fact that the slightest bruise or scratch disfigures it, and when taken from the box or barrel, where packed with pres- sure, it presents anything but a pleasing appearance, but where it can be taken into market in the bushel box or market basket it shows to better advantage and sells at good prices. THE ORCHARD The best soil for the production of this fruit is a deep, rich, moist loam; not one containing stagnant water, but well drained, naturally or otherwise. Trees two or three years from the root graft or cutting are in the proper condition for planting. They are trained in two ways, i. e., in the tree form and bush form. The advantages of the tree form are that cultivation can be done better and the trees present a better appearance, while if the borers attack the trunk they can be easily THE QUINCE 109 discovered and destroyed. The bush form is the most natural to this fruit, and if when trained to the tree form suckers are not cut away as they come out, it will soon take the bush form, and it may be grown in this form with less labor, while if borers get in between the trunks it is more difficult to get at them. If, how- ever, one trunk should be killed there will be others to Fig. 56— Low=Branching Quince Tree take the growth of the root and the tree is continued. A low-branching five-year-old quince tree is seen in Figure 56. Distance for Planting — Ten by ten or 12x12 feet are good distances, according to the soil. The roots of the quince are very fine and numerous and consequently it is easily planted. No fruit responds more quickly to 110 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE good cultivation and fertilization th^n the quince, but nitrogenous manures should not be used too freely dur- ing the summer. If stable manure is used, it had best be put on in the fall and late cultivation should be avoided, as a late growth tends to increase the danger of an attack of the fire blight, which is often very destructive to the quince. For the production of fruit from three liundred to five hundred pounds of sulphate of potash and one-fourth to one-half ton of fine ground bone will make a good dressing, according to the condition of the land and the grow^th of the trees. Fig. 57— Orange Quince Fig. 58— Rea's Quince Pruning — Little or no pruning is required after the trees have become established, except to cut off the suckers from the trunk or roots if they become too numerous and to keep the head in good form. In good soil the quince begins to bear paying crops of fruit in from four to six years from planting in the orchard and continues to bear, with good treatment, for from twenty to forty 3^ears. Harvesting — The fruit should not be gathered until it begins to turn yellow, when it may be all picked at once. Like the varieties of the apples with yellow skin, it must be hanfllod Avith greatest care, as even THE QUINCE 111 slight bruises or scratches make the skin turn brown. The fruit may be kept a month or more in a cool cellar, or longer in cold storage, but there is little demand for it after the fall canning has been done. VARIETIES There are but few varieties in cultivation, and these show less ilistinctive characteristics than those of any other kind of fruit. Among the best are the following : Orange (Figure 57) — This is an old standard sort, nearly round in form, of a bright yellow color and fine quality. Rea's (Figure 58) — One of the best in cultivation; of the largest size, of good quality and comes into bearing early. Champion — A late variety that is valuable when the demand continues into November, but not as valuable as the last tw^o mentioned. IX THE MULBERRY CHINESE {Morus alba var. muIticauUs) RUSSIAN (Morns alba var. Tartanca) Commercially, the fruit of the mulberry is of little value. Some varieties yield a large quantity of fruit, but it is so small and ripens so unevenly that it is of little use, except for poultry and pigs. It may have a value as a preventive of injury to the cherry and strawberry crops, as the robins and cedar birds are very fond of the fruit and will take less of the former fruits. The var ie ties that produce the largest and best fruits, the New American (Fig- ure 59), Down- ing (Figure 60), Hicks, Towns- e n d, etc., are either grafted or budded upon the Fig. 59— The New American Chinese (Moi'US ^^S- 60— The Down- '^"^^'^^'-^ alba muUicaulis) '"^ ^"'^^""'^ or Eussian stock {Morus alba Tartarica), the latter being a little more hardy, but none standing north of the forty-third degree parallel, many being killed even much farther south. THE MULBERRY 113 For the best success, the trees should be planted in a warm, rather poor soil, with full exposure to sunlight and air. Sometimes the trees are injured by too rapid growth, in the same manner as the sweet cherry trees, in fact, they both succeed under about the same conditions. The Eussian mulberry, introduced into the Middle West as a timber tree and bird food, to save the cherry crop, has proved of little value, the fruit being too small in size and quantity. The weeping form, known as Tea's weeping mulberry, is an acquisition to our list of beautiful ornamental trees. It is not perfectly hardy north of Boston. X THE GRAPE THE FOX GRAPE {VlUs LobrUSCO) SUMMER GRAPE {ViUs aestivalis) EROST GRAPE {VUis coi'difolia) EUROPEAN GRAPE {Yitis vinifcm) The grape, from its healthfulness, the large range of the country over which it flourishes and its large products, may be placed next in importance to the apple. The area planted is somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 acres, of which about one-half is in California. The number of vines planted is given in the last census reports as 200,000,000 and the yield of fruit as 1,144,- 278,000 pounds. The largest closely planted grape area in the world is claimed to be that of the "Lake Shore Grape Belt,^' a tract extending from Brocton, ^. Y., to Sandusky, 0., and from Lake Erie to Lake Chautauqua. This fruit is of especial importance, because of the success attained in growing it in the home garden on the south side of fences, walls and buildings* ORIGIN AND HISTORY There are about twenty species of the grape in the United , States, but all of the varieties of any importance in cultivation have come from the four above mentioned species. In 1820 only one or two of the varieties now cultivated were known in any section of this country, and all of the especially valuable kinds have been pro- duced within forty or fifty years. A few fairly good THE GKAPE 115 varieties have been produced by hybridization, but most of those in cultivation are chance seedlings, or selected seedlings of such hardy varieties as the Concord, etc. The introduction of foreign blood, as it is called, i. e., the crossing of our native species with the European grape (Vitis vinifera) has always resulted in a weak vine, liable to diseases and to injury from cold, yet in flavor and keeping qualities they are superior to the former, and by continued effort it is hoped that varieties may be obtained of superior quality and hardiness. The greatest hope, however, seems to be in crosses between these and hardy native varieties. THE VINEYAKD The best soil for the growth of the vine is a light sandy or gravelly one, on a high elevation and exposed to the south, Avhere the fruit will be of fine quality and there will be little danger from late frosts in the spring and early frosts in the fall. The more very small stones in the soil the warmer it will be and the richer the fruit. While this fruit may be sometimes ripened on low land, competition is so great and prices are so low that much profit cannot be expected, except under the best of conditions. ^Ye may escape frosts now and then on low land, but the loss of even a few crops in a series of years would render the business unprofitable. Steep slopes should be avoided, on account of the washing of the soil during heavy rains, as the cost of terracing- is so great as to take any possible profit. Vines — The best vines are strong, one-year-old plants, from the cutting or layer, and with a good amount of root. Before planting the top should be cut back to about two buds and the roots to one foot in length. See chapter on the propagation of the vine. Distance — Before planting the land should be thor- oughly fitted by plowing and harrowing, and be marked 116 SUCCESSFUL PllUIT CULTURE out with a plow or a marker. The distance of planting most practiced is eight by ten feet, though small grow- ing vines ma}^ be planted six by ten feet. Close planting has a tendency to cause mildew and rot, especially if planted on land not fully exposed to air and sunlight. Planting — The crown of the vine should not be planted deep, as the grape roots naturally run very near the surface. Three or four inches is deep enough for tlie crown, but the ends of the roots should be put down into the moist soil, as seen in Figure 61. It is Fig. 61— Planting the Grapevine sometimes the practice to put the roots on the sloping side of a furrow, with the crown four inches deep and the root spread out flat, at an angle of about forty-five degrees, then covering with soil and pressing it firmly about them. If a double furrow is plowed, leaving a ridge between them, the vine can be easily and quickly planted. The best surface soil should be used in filling in about the roots, and if it is very poor a little fine ground bone should be well mixed with the soil at planting. Fertilization — The grape does not require a large amount of fertilizers. The elements most needed are Fig. 62— Vineyard with Cover Crop Fig. 63— Vineyard Witliout Cover Crop 118 SUCCESSFUL FUUIT CULTURE potash and phosphoric acid, and this is, in part, the reason why it succeeds best on gravelly soil. Enough nitrogen must be applied, however, to make a moder- ately vigorous growth of wood. A very good formula for the grape, to be varied somewhat according to the soil and the condition of vines is : Fine ground bone, five hundred pounds, sulphate of potash, three hundred pounds; or nitrate of soda, two hundred pounds, sul- phate of potash, two hundred pounds, acid phosphate or fine ground rock j)hosphate, four hundred pounds. If the vines make a poor growth of wood, add more bone or nitrate of soda, but if the wood growth is large, use only the potash and phosphoric acid. A cover crop, sown about August 10, of peas and barley, will be found very useful, especially on sloping land, to supply organic matter, hold the soil from washing and to protect the t — ^ Fig. 64— Economical Use of Posts grape roots from severe freezing. Figure 62 shows a vineyard with cover crop of peas and barley, and Figure 63 the same without the cover. Cultivation — The first two years after planting, some hoed crop, like peas or beans, may be planted among the vines, but a late growing crop, like the potato, might do harm by causing a late growth of the vine, the crop being dug in August or September. Supports and Trellises — The trellis most in use and which is the most satisfactory for the commercial vineyardist, is made of posts and wire. Chestnut or cedar makes the most durable posts, though other mate- rials are used. If the posts are six inches in diam.eter at the small end and are sawed diagonally, as seen in Figure 64, so that they are 2x6 inches at the opposite THE GRAPE 11!) ends, two good posts are made of what usually makes but one. The posts are set from twenty to thirty feet apart, according to the weight of the vines, or even a greater distance, and small stakes are put in between. Two or three wires are used for the support of the vines, according to the method of training. If the vines are trained as in Figure (35, known as the Kniffin system, only two wires are needed, but if more than two canes are grown, more wires will be needed. Wire makes the best support, as it is the cheapest, the most durable, and the vines will support themselves more or less by their tendrils without tying. No. 11 and Xo. IG galvanized wire are the sizes most in use. The wires are fas- tened to the posts or stakes by the common wire fence staples, the top wire being placed on the top of the post. The hight of the posts varies in dif- ferent localities from five to six feet and they should be planted from three to three and one-half feet deep, to be beyond the action of frost. Chestnut and cedar posts will last from twelve to fifteen years, and should be renewed before quite rotted off, that the weight of the vines does not break them over when loaded with fruit. The wires are stretched on the trellis with the common wire fence stretcher. Many devices are employed to brace the end posts; the most common perhaps is to put in a short post six to eight feet from the end of trellis and brace to that. Another is to run the wire over the end post and sink a heavy stone about three feet deep around which the wire is wound, as shown in Figure 66. This latter method Fig. 65— The Kniffin System of Grape Training 120 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE is very satisfactory if care is taken not to catch the cul- tivator teeth into it when turning the ends of the rows. On the north side of a vineyard, where a windbreak is needed, a tree like the Norway spruce or European larch can be planted at the end of each row and after a few years the wire be fastened with a screw eye to the trunk near the ground, and thus a brace and windbreak and shelter be provided. The trellis need not be put up until the beginning of the second yearns growth, where the vines are strong, or the third year if they have made a small growth. Fig. 66— Method of Bracing the End Posts TRAINING AND PRUNING Tlie First Year — It is the common practice the first year to let the vines lie on the ground, giving them no care further than to see that they are not injured in cultivating, but this is not the best way, as the leaves that lie on the ground are sure to be attacked by mildew, while if trained to a small stake they would be much less subject to this injury. The Second Year — At the end of the first year, unless the vines have made four to six feet of growth, and before the sap begins to run, the tops of the vines THE GRAPE 121 are to be cut back to two buds, in order to obtain a very vigorous start for the second year, if, however, the growth is more than four feet, the vine is to be cut at the level of the first wire on the trellis. During the second year of the strong, or the third year of the weak vine, two canes are allowed to grow from the two top buds, running along the first wire of the trellis. All laterals should be pinched off when they have made one leaf, but not removing this leaf, as it would cause the bud at the base to grow, a thing that is to be avoided if possible. Then when another leaf is formed on this lateral it is pinched again, thus forcing all of the growth into one or two canes. («^ IVS^v.^ Pig. 67— The Modified Kniffin System The Third Year — At the beginning of the third year the stronger one of the two canes is carried to the top wire of the trellis for fruiting, while the weaker one is cut back to two buds, from one of which is to be grown a new cane for the next year's fruiting. The vine is now fixed on the trellis, as shown in Figure 67, and each year from this on the training required will be the same, the forcing of the summer's growth into the top or fruiting cane and into the one new cane that is to replace each fruiting cane after the crop has been taken from it. The fruiting laterals on tlie top canes will need pinching off as soon as the last cluster of flower buds can be distinguished, or owing to their soft growth may be broken off by high winds. These laterals must be kept headed in all summer and will need attention 122 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE several times cluriug the summer, as well as all laterals on the new cane on the lower wire. A large amount of foliage should never be removed from a vine at any time; it is much better to stop growth when it has reached the proper length. The winter pruning required after the vine has become established, i. e., after the third year, is simply to cut away the old fruiting cane at or near the point where the new cane started, and cutting away all of the laterals on the new cane. This w^ork may be done at any time after the leaves have fallen and until about the middle of March. After this date the vines are likelv to be injured by bleeding. It is not best to prune when the canes are frozen, as they are then very easily broken. The common hand-j^runing shears (Figure 26) are used for this purpose, of which there are many forms, those having the flat spiral or wire spring being preferred by the writer. Pruning Old Vines — In many gardens are to be found old vines that have not been pruned for years, and which produce fruit that is almost worthless in consequence. The owner still neglects them because he does not know how to take hold of the vine and put it into shape. Such a vine, with a little care, may be made productive and can be brought up in a few years, to any system of pruning. The first thing to do is to cut away all of the old wood, leaving only the required number of new canes for the system of train- ing desired. Any vine that is vigorous will have enough new canes to fill up the trellis or side of a building and will often produce as much fruit on the few remain- ing canes after pruning as if the vine were not pruned at all, and that of a much better quality. In case the vine is not vigorous and has but few or no new canes, the whole top may be cut off and only the desired number of new canes be allowed to grow during the THE GRAPE 133 following summer, when after one season a large crop of fruit may be expected. In both of these cases all laterals must be kept pinched off in the same manner as if the vine were in the vineyard. A very good way to locate the canes on an old vine of this kind that it is desired to save is to start near the ground and mark them with blue or red chalk at frequent intervals and then cut out all not so marked. Thinning the Fruit — The money value of a crop of grapes depends very largely upon the size and per- fection of the bunches, and. this will depend a good deal upon the number of bunches allowed to grow on a vine. On a vine that is vigorous and well supplied with wood, more bunches of fruit will set than it can mature to the greatest perfection^ and the number should be reduced as soon as the berries are the size of small peas. The number of bunches that are to be allowed to grow will depend upon the vigor of the vine. In a well established vineyard the average number should be from twenty to thirty to the vine, making, at a distance of 8x10 feet and the bunches averaging one- half pound, 5410 to 7160 pounds per acre, which is perhaps about the average of vineyards under good care. One, two or three bunches are allowed to each lateral, according to the number and strength of the laterals. Gathering the Fruit — Unlike other fruits the grape does not improve in quality after being picked but soon loses its lively fresh taste, and must be fully ripened on the vine. In many localities the fall frosts hold off so that maturity is practically assured every year, but in others it is often destroyed before fully ripe. The ripeness of the fruit is generally determined by the color, but it may be more definitely shown by the chang- ing of the stem of the bunch where it joins the cane. When this takes the color of the cane for one-fourth to 124 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE one-half of an inch, it is safe to pick and put into storage. Light frosts will injure unripe fruit, but when fully ripened it will not be injured except by a freeze. To retain the beauty of tlie fruit, the bunches should be removed from the vine by taking hold of the stem and cutting with a knife or scissors, so as not to injure the bloom. Where large quantities are to be picked, in some sections, they are placed on trays four feet long by eighteen inches wide with cleats on ends and a single layer deep, the trays to be stacked one above another. These tra3's are made by nailing head pieces upon the ends of a board of the required dimen- sions. Strips two and one- half inches wide and three- eighths inch thick are nailed on the edges of the trays to keep the fruit from falling off. (Figure 68.) This gives cir- ig. - rape ray culation euough about the fruit and large quantities can be placed in a small space until they are packed for shipping. Pacl'ing and Shipping — For nearby markets grapes are packed in open trays, holding from twenty to twenty-five pounds, the common Diamond market basket, containing ten to twelve pounds, or in small chip or veneer baskets, holding from three to six pounds, and taken into the market with the bloom uninjured, but for long distance shipping they are almost invariably packed in the three, five, eight or ten-pound veneer basket with a cover. Varieties with a tough skin pack the best in the last named basket, though hundreds of tons of the thin-skinned Concords and Wordens arc packed and shipped in this way. To do this work requires considerable skill and quick movements. In sections wliere large quantities of grapes are grown, the THE GRAPE • 125 packing is done by the buyer, or at a central packing house of a grape union. In both cases the results have proved much more satisfactory than where each grower packs his own fruit, as the grade will be much more uniform, and as skilled help can be employed, the work is better and more cheaply done. In shipping, the local market should be considered first, as better prices can often be obtained there, because the fruit can be put into the hands of the consumer in better condition than where it has been packed in a basket, and the cost of package and transportation may be less. Grapes in Cold Storage — Unless one ha^ especially good facilities for keeping this fruit, it is best not to attempt to carry it much beyond the holidays, as there will be often much waste. Prices do not generally improve very much after this time and the quality deteriorates very rapidly unless the conditions for stor- ing are very favorable. In storing with ice, the moist air from the ice chamber should be cut off from contact with the fruit, as it causes the stems to mold. A too dry atmosphere also must be avoided, w^hich causes the stems to shrivel. The most successful cold storage houses for grapes are cooled by chemicals, where the tempera- ture and moisture can be more exactly regulated than with ice. VARIETIES Varieties are classified or grouped into white, red and black or purple. Of the hundreds of varieties known but a very few are of much value for commer- cial purposes, and only those of decided merit will be mentioned. BLACK VARIETIES Warden — This is perhaps the best very early grape in cultivation. It resembles the Concord very closely, 12G succEssruL pruit culture though the bunch is not quite so large; the berry is hirger than the latter, of a dark brown purple color until fully ripe, but is in good eating condition a week or ten days before the Concord. It has the same thin skin as the latter and is more liable to crack during rainstorms, just as it is getting ripe. Concord — One of the most vigorous and productive, and perhaps the most largely planted of all. The bunches are large, the berries of good size, the skin thin and the pulp is tender and juicy but rather acid at the center. In Northern localities it is often cut off by the earlv frosts in the fall. Campl) ell's Early — A comparatively new grape that begins to color earlier than Moore's Early, but like the latter the pulp does not become soft and sweet until after the Worden is in good eating condition. It how- ever hangs a long time on the vine and finally becomes very rich, sweet and tender. Wilder — A hybrid grape of large size and good quality. It ripens with the Concord, has a thick skin and a soft, sw^et pulp that is very satisfactory. The vine is very vigorous but subject to mildew and anthrac- nose, and the berries to anthracnose and black rot. With favorable conditions and good care it is desirable. Tlie fruit keeps much longer than the others mentioned. RED GRAPES Delaware — This little grape is everywhere known. It is hardy and productive but of slow growth and the thin leaves are liable to injury from mildew. It is one of the best in quality and by proper spraying the leaves can be prevented from mildewing and the variety made profitable. Brighton — In size of bunch, vigor and productive- ness, and in quality of fruit, under favorable conditions, THE GRAPE 127 no variety is superior to this, but the vine is tender and often injured by diseases so that it has been dis- carded, by many growers, as a commercial variety. It must be planted near other varieties to have it pollenize, as it is not self-fertile and fails to set full bunches when planted alone. WHITE VARIETIES Green Mountain (Winchell) — The earliest good white grape that produces a bunch of large size and line quality. The vine is vigorous, hardy and produc- tive, but the fruit is not of very attractive color, and has not been largely grown for market. Moore's Diamond — This variety produces very large clusters of beautiful fruit of good quality. The vine is hardy and generally free from disease. It ripens a little later than the Concord and for Northern locali- ties is therefore not profitable. Niagara — The bunches, and the berries as well, are a little larger than those of the last named variety, but the color is not quite as good and it is a little later in ripening. The vine is very vigorous and productive, but is very much subject to disease, especially in the >s^orth. Of the varieties of grapes of different colors, those of a purple color sell the best, a very bright red, like the Delaware, the next, and the white or green, unless of a golden color, the poorest. GIRDLING THE VINE In Northern sections and with very late varieties the crop is often cut off by early frosts in the fall, and girdling (taking out a narrow ring of bark below the fruit) is practiced to some extent to hasten the ripening. The effect of this girdling is to stop the backward 128 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE flow of the elaborated sap to the parts of the vine back of the girdle, and as a result the foliage beyond the girdle is much increased in vigor and the fruit in size, and it matures a week or ten days earlier than the un- girdled cane. The fruit thus grown has a more watery consistency, does not taste as sweet, but many analyses of girdled fruit show it to contain several per cents more sugar. The lack of sweet taste is due to the acid being more quickly soluble than the sugar. Only the part of SPr«ct«r Fig. 69— Implements for Ringing Grapevines the vine that is bearing the fruit should be treated, i. e., that bearing the fruit, for if the whole vine is girdled, there being no elaborated sap to go below the cut, no new roots will be formed, and the vine will consequently make a very weak growth the next season if it is not killed outright. To obtain the best results, several strong and vigorous canes should be grown below the girdle, when no injury will result from this practice. By this operation the growers in Northern sections can THE GRAPE - 129 get their fruit into the local markets before the main suppl}^ from the large grape growing sections gluts them and the prices are too low for profit. The work of girdling is done with a common pocket knife, or some implement made for this purpose, as shown in Figure 69. The best time for this work is when the berries are about one-third to one-half grown. The width of the ring varies from one-quarter to one inch, according to the size of the canes, the smaller the cane the narrower the ring. In girdling, care must be taken not to make the cut on the hend of the vine, as in that case it is very liable to be broken by the weight of the fruit or by high winds. XI THE BLACKUERRY THE HIGH BLACKBERKY {RuhuS vUloSUS) THE DEWBERRY {Ruhus Canadensis) This is one of the very important native fruits, and is found growing wild in almost every section of the country; perhaps the most noted section for the growth of this fruit is New Jersey, from which large quantities of fruit are shipped to many Northern and Western cities. This fruit is noted for its medicinal properties and is a very valuable addition to the list of late summer fruits. In the garden the blackberry is commonly planted in some out-of-the-way place where it is allowed to spread unmolested, until it becomes an impenetrable tangle, where neither man nor animals can get the fruit. It is then voted a nuisance, when with a little care at the proper time it would have yielded an abundance of fruit. It should be more largely grown than it is now, both in the field and garden. THE COMMON HIGH BLACKBERRY The Soil — While the blackberry will grow in a great variety of soils, it succeeds best in a rather heavy moist one. If planted on a thin soil a very large amount of manure or fertilizer must be used in order to produce a large growth of tops that will shade the ground and thus keep it cool. A plantation in thin soil will not last as long as one in heavy land. On a THE BLACKBERRY 131 thin soil, if water is available for irrigation, large crops may often be produced, or this result, a soil-cover, may sometimes be obtained by heavy mulching. The danger from mulching is that the roots are brought to the surface of the ground and the mulch must be kept up all of the time, or when it decays, or if it is removed and the land cultivated, the surface roots will be de- stroyed. Planting — The best time for planting is in the fall, but the plants may be set with success in the spring if it is done early. If it is necessary to delay planting until late in the spring, a plantation may be made by taking up the new soft suckers, putting them into a pail of water as they are dug and setting them Avithout exposure to the sun and air. The soft ends of the canes should be cut off before they are dug. This method may be practiced at any time during the summer when- ever young shoots can be obtained, and is a very con- venient way to fill out a newly planted field. The distance of planting varies greatly with different growers, ranging from 4x6 to 6x8 feet. Two methods are practiced, the Hill system and the Row system. The advantages of the former are that most of the work of cultivation can be done by the horse, and the fruit may be more easily gathered than in the close row. With the row system the soil is more covered, and more shaded, a thing that must be provided to get the best results, especially in dry weather, and the fruit will be larger, as the largest and best fruit is always found under the shade of masses of foliage. Cultivation — There are few crops that may be so easily grown, if the work be done at the proper time, as the blackberry, and few also that if neglected require so much care to put into condition again. All suckers not needed to fill out the rows or hills must be treated as weeds and the ground be kept light and loose at all 132 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE times during the summer, especially during dry weather when the fruit is ripening. By frequent cultivation the roots are kept deep in the soil, which produces the cool condition under which they succeed the best, and plant food is being rapidly developed by the frequent exposure of the soil to the air. Late cultivation is generally to be avoided, but in seasons when there is but little moisture in the soil during August, it may be best Fig. 70— Blackberry Canes Pruned and Unpruned to keep up cultivation till the middle or the last of September, or until there has been a considerable fall of rain. Pruning — Success in the growth of this crop will largely depend upon pruning. The first year, at plant- ing, the canes are cut back to within five or six inches of the ground, and from each of these canes will grow, THE JJLACKBEllllY 133 the first summer, one or two canes, and perhaps one or two sprouts from the roots. These may be expected to bear a few berries the next season, but the fruit, being so near tlie ground, will not be worth the trouble of protecting from the spatter of dirt during heavy rains. The second summer more numerous new shoots, from three to six feet long, should be produced, that may be expected to bear a crop of considerable value the third season. After the canes begin to bear, the work of pruning consists in cutting out the old canes that have borne a crop, thinning out the small, weak shoots, and heading back the new ones so that, as seen in Figure 70, when they are loaded with leaves and fruit they will not be bent down to the ground. The old fruiting canes are cut aw^ay by some growers in the late summer or early fall, but are left by most of them until the leisure days of winter. Some growers summer prune by heading back the new canes when they have made about three feet of growth, which causes a stocky and branching condition, as seen in Figure 70, while others let the canes grow to their full length and do not head back until after growth ceases in the fall, or until the winter or spring pruning. After many trials of the different methods and under many varying conditions and soils, we conclude that the single uu- branched cane with numerous strong buds along it will give more fruit than the summer pruned canes with buds that mature later on the branched growth resulting from this summer pruning. Another objection to the branching canes is that witli a heavy fall of wet snow or heavy accumulation of ice, the laterals are liable to be broken from the main canes. Pruning is often delayed by many until after the buds have begun to grow in the spring, that it may be definitely known what canes are winterkilled and what are not, otherwise many canes that perhaps were alive would be cut out,^ 134 SUCCESSFUL PliUlT CULTURE while many dead ones would be left, if the pruning were done before growth began. Training — While many growers do not give their blackberry plants any support, it is often much better to have some way of holding them up from the ground in cases of heavy foliage and crops of fruit during wet weather. A very good and inexpensive support consists in stretching No. 14 or 16 galvanized wire on each side of the row and holding it in place on a crosspiece from one to two feet, according to the width of the row of canes, nailed to stakes set at intervals of from fifteen to thirty feet apart, as shown in Figure 71. At the end of each crosspiece is driven a strong nail to catch the wires. In putting up the trellis • one wire is drawn on the ground close up to the row on each side and fas- tened to one end stake. It is then drawn as firmly as it can be done without breaking, and then fastened tempora- rily at the other end, and caught over the nail on each stake, as seen in Figure 72. The wires are then drawn together in as many places between each stake as may be found necessary to bring the canes into an upright position, after which they may then be drawTi more tightly and only a few canes will be found that will need tying. This support has the advantage that the wires can be quickly taken off the crosspiece, drawn along the middle of the row during the summer, again caught on the nail, thus all new canes brought into the row, so that cultivation may be carried on more com- fortably and the fruit be more readily gathered. Only Fig. 71— Crosspiece in Black- berry Trellis THE I3LAGKBEKKY 135 a limited number of canes should be allowed to grow in the row or hill, and yet there should be enough to cover the ground well during the months pf July and August. The larger the canes the fewer there need be. They should stand from six inches to one foot apart, and all small canes be treated as weeds. Winter Protection — There is no variety of black- berries tbat we find hardy under all conditions, and in order to insure a crop every year, some means of protection must be provided. This is not generally Fig. 72— Support for Blackberries and Raspberries practiced, however, except in the extreme North, and in manv cases the cost will be more than the 2:ain. The method of protection most in use is covering with soil, as described under the raspberry. VARIETIES The number of varieties that are widely grown are but few, and these do not succeed over a very wide range, therefore the reader should consult his own experiment station or some successful grower in liis own vicinity as to what to plant, and plant only those that are generally profitable. 136 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Agawam — The earliest hardy variety for the North. Fruit of large size, fine quality and sweet as soon as black. It is rather soft, but firm enough to carry to a near market and keep for two or three days. Its large size, good color and earliness make it profitable. Suc- ceeds best on heavy soil. In some places it has been attacked by the fall orange rust, but this is not a serious defect on strong land. Snyder — A very hardy and upright growing variety that is largely grown at the North. In heavy soil the fruit is of large size and good color, but on light soil and where the bushes are not growing vigorously it is small and ripens unevenly in color, so that the berries have a mottled appearance. It also turns red after being put on the market, yet it is more largely grown in many localities than any other. Taylor — The canes of this variety are much lighter in color than the two last, very upright and spiny in gro^\i;h. The berries are long, black and of good qual- ity, ripening about one week later than the Snyder. Eldorado — This comparatively new variety is of the Snyder type, equally hardy, and as far as tested seems to be productive. The fruit is without the color defects of the latter. Of varieties that are valuable in some localities may be mentioned the Ancient Briton, Erie, Ohmer, Early Harvest, Bangor, Mersereau, etc. Picl-ing and Marketing — If the fruit is to be shipped a long distance it should be picked every day, that a' I of the berries shall be firm. It should not be picked while wet if it can be avoided, and should be put into a cool place as soon as possible after picking. It is marketed in quart baskets, put into crates holding thirty-two quarts. The prices at whicli the fruit sells vary in the local market from five cents to twenty cents, and where shipped a long distance, from three cents THE BLACKBERRY 137 to fifteen' cents, according to season and condition of fruit. The yield will vary from 1000 to 5000 quarts per acre. THE DEWBERRY (Ruhiis Canadensis) This species of blackberry is found growing wild from X e w" f oundland to Virginia and west to the Eocky moun- tains, and possesses many desirable qualities, but its habit of running on the ground and its liability to winter- kill in cultivated land have prevented its cultivation as a commercial crop. By giving proper treatment, however, it has been found to produce paying crops in some cases. If the canes are covered during the winter with a little coarse hay or straw and this material is then put under Fig. 73— Lucretia Dewberry them in the summer, conditions are produced that will result in a large crop of fruit, and as it ripens one or two weeks earlier than the high blackberry it brings a good price. Some growers of this fruit 138 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE have, in addition to the above treatment, trained the canes to stakes, by which means the fruit can be more easily gathered, but if fully exposed to the sunlight and air the berries are not as large as when shaded. For the best results, the land must be made very rich, so as to produce plants enough to shade the ground, and an abundance of moisture be present at the time of ripening. Varieties — There are several varieties listed by nurserymen, but the only one that has been grown to any extent is the Lucretia. (Figure 73.) This is a vigorous grower, as hardy as any, and the fruit is of large size and excellent quality. See metl^ods of propagation in Chapter XVIII, and insects and fungous pests in Chapters XX and XXI. XII THE RASPBERRY THE RED RASPBERRY {UubuS StvlgOSUS) The red raspberry is the most popular of the bush fruits in most localities. It is found in a wild state from Labrador to the mountains of Xorth Carolina and west to Missouri and Minnesota. Like the blackberry, it delights in a cool, moist location, but is found growing in almost every kind of soil. It is propagated in the same way as the blackberry and the general treatment in the field is the same. The varieties that are most cultivated are not quite as hardy as those of the black- berry, but, as the canes can be more easily protected from cold by covering, the crop is quite as certain to be profitable. As with the blackberry, large fruit cannot be expected unless the land is rich enough to produce a large growth of canes to shade the soil and keep it cool. The distance for planting varies much with dif- ferent growers and different methods. In a very rich soil the canes may grow so large and tall that if planted in rows six feet apart or in hills 4x6 feet, the ground will be well shaded, as seen in Figure 74, while in thin or poor soil the cover would not be obtained if set 3x5 feet. The trellis used for the support of the blackberry (Figure 72) is sometimes used; the canes are some- times tied to stakes, though no support is used by most growers. Pruning and Training — The methods of pruning and training outlined for the blackberry apply to this es 4) t 4) a V) cs Of « I In be 0. THE RASPBERRY 141 fruit in almost every particular ; it is better, however, to cut out the fruiting canes soon after the fruit has been gathered. Summer pruning is not as generally prac- ticed as upon the blackberry, but some growers obtain good success by this practice. Winter Protection — The canes being small and flexible, they can be laid over to the ground and covered with soil and thus injury from cold be prevented. The work of laying down the canes is very simple, three men being employed to the best advantage. One man with thick gloves on grasps a cluster of the canes grow- ing together and with a strong pull bends them to the ground, as seen in Figure To ; the second and third man then throw on soil enough to hold the canes down. Another cluster of canes is grasped and the process is repeated. The canes should be bent toward the south, so that the Fig. 75— Laying Down Red Raspberry Canes sun may not strike them perpendicularly, which would cause them to start too early in the spring and injure them. After all are laid down the plow is run lightly on each side of the row, turning more soil over or against the canes. It is not necessary that the canes be entirely covered, as the moisture and warmth of the soil without covering is sufficient to keep them from injury. In the spring the canes should be taken up before growth begins, as the buds will start more quickly when near the ground than when standing up- right. Deep working of the soil among both raspberries and blackberries should be avoided, as both are shallow rooted plants and when worked deep the roots are some- times seriously injured and the growth of the plants is 14:2 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE checked. As with the blackberry, there are but a very few varieties that are of much value at the North, while at the South many of the so-called hardy varieties lose the foliage by burning during the summer. VARIETIES Cuthhert — While this variety is often winterkilled, where it does withstand the weather it yields a very large crop of large berries of good quality, and is very profit- able. The berries are large, of a slightly conical form, and rather firm, so that it carries fairly well to market. In color it is not the best, but it sells well. It succeeds best in a rather moist soil. King — A very early variety of bright red color and fine quality. In size it is not as large as the Cuthbert, but is one of the largest of the very early kinds, and one of the most productive. It is rather more hardy than the Cuthbert. Loudon — A very stocky, hardy growing plant that in good soil produces large fruit of good quality. It requires a rather heavier and richer soil than other varieties. In a few cases it has been reported as being attacked by mildew when the fruit is about ripening in wet weather. This perhaps would be prevented by thorough spraying just as the blossom begins to open in the spring. Other varieties that are of value in many localities are Miller, Phoenix, Thompson's Pride and Early Pro- lific. MARKETING The fruit is very soft and breaks down quickly in the market in hot weather. It should be marketed in pint boxes, and be picked every day. It should never be picked when wet if it can be avoided. As soon as gathered the fruit should be put into a cool, dry place, THE lUSPBERRY 143 and then shipped to market at the earliest possible moment. Tlie prices obtained range from five to twenty cents per pint, according to quality and condition. THE BLACKCAP RASPBERRY {RubuS OCCidentolis) The blackcap raspberr}^, in its wild state known often as the thimbleberry, differs in the habit of growth, color of fruit and method of propagation very widely from the red raspberry. It grows in hills and throws up no suckers from the lateral roots, but sends up strong shoots from the center of the plant each year, and is propagated by the ends of these canes rooting, under fa- vorable conditions, during the late summer and fall. Figure 76 shows the rooting of blackcap plants. The fruit is black in color, less acid tlian the red varieties, but with larger and perhaps more numerous seeds. It was very popular some ten to fifteen years ago, but now in many markets there is little demand for it. It yields much larger crops than the red varie- ties, and comes to the market following the strawberry and just before the red raspberry. Pig. 76— Rooted Tips of Blackcap Canes 144 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Distance of Planting — They are planted from 4x5 to 5x6 feet, according to the vigor of the variety, and cultivation is generally done with the horse both ways. Blackcap plants should be planted only in the spring, as the roots are very soft and tender in the fall, and the slight pressure of the foot will bruise them, while in the spring they have become somewhat hardened. The end bud of the "tip" or plant should not be planted more than an inch or two below the surface of the soil, but the roots must be put down into the moist soil. Figure 61, illustrating the planting of the grapevine, shows a good way of planting the blackcap raspberry. Most failures in planting the blackcap raspberry come from putting the end bud so deep that it cannot break through the cover soil. Pruning — The pruning required by the blackcap is about the same as for the blackberry, though it will stand more summer pruning and perhaps requires two or three "pinchings-in" to make the canes stand up without sup- port. Some growers tie to stakes, while others use the trellis and do not attempt to cultivate both ways. The fruiting cane should be cut out as soon as the fruit has been gathered in order to allow full growth of the new canes. Harvesting and Marl^eting — The fruit is picked in quart baskets and sent to market in twenty-four or thirty-two-quart crates. It carries well, but the prices are very low, ranging from five to ten cents per quart, yet the yield is generally large and the fruit ripens nearly all at one time, so that the cost of growing and picking is small and much profit may be expected where there is a demand for this fruit. VARIETIES Scarcely a variety is now grown that was in cul- tivation ten years ago, on account of disease and THE RASPBEilRY 145 deterioration of varieties, and it is advisable not to depend upon the old sorts too long but renew the plantations after four or five years with new kinds. Among the best at this time may be mentioned the Palmer — This is an early variety of large size and good quality, of dark color and productive. One of the best for general cultivation. Kansas — Perhaps more productive than the last, a little later in ripening, but especially valuable on account of its quality and hardiness. Cumberland — One of the most vigorous and pro- ductive of the blackcaps. It is late and of good quality. It is recommended very highly wherever grown. Other varieties that are grown in some localities are Souhegan, Gregg, Ohio, etc., etc. THE PURPLECAP RASPBERRY {RuhuS negUctus) This group of raspberries has of late attracted much attention on account of their great vigor, pro- ductiveness and fine quality. In habit of growth they are like the blackcap, but with a fruit about half way between this and the red raspberry, and the flavor and texture of the latter. They are not as hardy as the other two species, yet the canes seldom kill down so close to the ground but that laterals bear more or less of a crop of fruit every year. The color of the fruit, a reddish-purple, is such that it does not sell readily, but it is especially valuable for home use. It is propagated in the same way as the blackcap, and should be treated in the same way as this species as to pruning and other particulars. Among the leading varieties are : Shaffer — One of the oldest of this group, and one of the best in quality, but is not quite as hardy as some of the later kinds. The fruit is large in size but is too soft for distant market. 146 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE Columbian — A more vigorous plant than the last, and very productive, but the fruit is not of as good quality. Numerous other varieties of this type have been introduced, but all of them are of the same dark red color that is not attractive in the market, and none of them should be planted largely for market unless there is a certainty of a demand for them. YELLOW RASPBERRIES Yellow varieties, or albinos, of the blackcap and the red raspberry, are listed in most nursery catalogs, but they are of little value in the market, as they are not attractive, and are not of as good quality as the red or black varieties. The best among the yellow raspberries is the Golden Queen or Yellow Cuthbert, which is sup- posed to be a white or albino form of the latter. When first picked it looks well, but it soon turns to a brown color. The yellowcap raspberry and the white black- berry are of no commercial value and are to be planted only as curiosities. XIII THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY THE CUREANT (Ribes ruhrum) This is one of the most healthful fruits, is easily grown, and should be found in every garden. It is grown to a considerable extent for market, and where the soil is suited to its growth it is found profitable. It succeeds best in a deep, moist loam, but if too wet the plants are heaved out in the fall and spring by frost. To prevent this heaving out the land may be heavily mulched in the fall with coarse stable manure or straw, but this must be removed in the spring before the roots have made much growth, or it will cause the roots to grow so near the surface as to be injured by the cultivator, and the second winter the bushes will be likely to be tipped over by high winds. Shallow level cultivation will give the best results. The land must be kept rich with a heavy dressing of stable manure or fertilizer each year, using enough to produce a few strong new canes each season, for there is no fruit that runs small so quickly on old wood as the currant. Planting — The distance most generally planted is 4x6 feet, and they may be planted either in the fall or the spring, as is most convenient. Some growers set the plants nearer than four feet in the row, and prune the bushes to three or four strong canes. The best plants are strong one-year cuttings, though many J48 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE growers prefer two-year-old plants. The currant comes into bearing the second or third year from planting, and with proper care should last for a generation at least. Pruning — The pruning required consists in remov- ing the old wood after it is three or four years old and allowing only a limited number of new canes to grow. These canes should be strong and upright, so as to carry the fruit high that it may not be spattered by heavy rains. If the canes are low it is well to mulch while the fruit is ripening, but this must be removed at the earliest possible time after the fruit has been harvested, so that the roots may not be drawn to the surface. Harvesting and Marketing — Currants are marketed in quart baskets in the same manner as strawberries and raspberries. It is a fruit that will hang a long time on the bushes, especially if grown under the shade of trees or when the foliage is heavy, and is often in condition for marketing for more than a month. Some growers pack about ten pounds of this fruit in a common market basket and sell by the pound. The prices range from five cents to fifteen cents per quart, with an average of perhaps not far from eight to ten cents for the season. The yield under good conditions is often 200 bushels per acre and upwards. VAIIIETIES While there are many more or less distinct varie- ties, they are not so marked in their variations as most of the other fruits. It is often said that the difference in the varieties sold under different names is due to the treatment the-y receive as to soil and fer- tilizers, and this is in a measure true, 3'et there are several varieties that are marked enough to warrant distinct names. Among the best of these are: THE CURRANT 149 Cherry (Figure 77) — Bush stocky and vigorous, producing short bunches of large berries of a decidedly acid quality. This variety is found badly mixed in most of the nurseries with the Versailles, a long bunched and more vigorous grower, but not as valuable a variety. For this reason the Cherry is not as desirable as some other varieties that have been kept free from mixtures. Wilder — A variety resem- bling the Cherry somewhat, but with a longer bunch and rather more vigor of bush. The stock has been kept free from mixture and is free from the objection to the Cherry. Fay's Prolific — This is perhaps the most planted of any variety. The bush is vig- orous and very productive, the fruit is large, bunches longer than the Cherry, but of about the same degree of acidity. It is a more valuable variety than the latter from the fact that it is entirely free from mixtures. Bed Cross — Resembles the Wilder very much in bush and bunch of fruit, but perhaps a little more vigorous. Pomona — A very vigorous and productive variety of especially good quality. Grown in a very rich soil the fruit is of good size and its immense productiveness and fine quality make it often one of the most profitable varieties in cultivation. Fig. 77— Cherry Currant 150 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE White Imperial (Figure 78) — White varieties of this fruit are not very popular in the markets, but as the fruit is much less acid than the red kinds and of much better flavor, they should be planted for home use, and the markets be educated to know of their superior qual- ity. The above variety is the best in quality of this group, and is equally productive with the White Grape, which is also a good kind, but more acid than the latter. The Black Currant {Ribes nigrum) — The black currant is a vigorous growing, hardy and productive fruit, but is not generally in demand ex- cept in markets where there are many English or German peo- ple. In its uncooked state it has a peculiar flavor that is not liked by Americans, but it makes a most delicious jelly or marmalade. It is easily grown, is free from all insect pests and fungous diseases that attack the red currant, and where there is a market for the fruit at reasonable prices it would be very profitable. If a hybrid could be produced between this and the red currant, with improved quality and with the same hardiness and vio:or, it would be a valuable addition to our hardv fruits. Among the best varieties are the Black English, Black Naples and Lee's Prolific, the latter perhaps being the best of the three. Fig. 78— White Imperial Currant THE GOOSEBERRY 151 The Golden Flowering Currant (Ribes aureum) — This is the common flowering currant of the garden, an improved variety of which, known as CrandalFs Im- proved, has been introduced, that produces a much larger berr}^ of rather better quality than the original. The principal objection to this variety is the habit of not ripening all of its fruit at one time. Like the black currant, this is of little value for market, but offers some hope of value if it can be crossed with some other species and thus give us a hardy and vigorous strain that will be as free from disease and insects. Crandall's Improved is the only variety that is offered by nur- serymen. See Chapters XX and XXI for protection from insects and fungous pests. THE GOOSEBERRY EUROPEAN (Ribes grossularia) AMERICAN (Ribes oxyacanthoides) The gooseberry is not a fruit that finds a ready sale in our markets in large quantities, but its consump- tion is increasing, and it should be more largely used. The season for marketing is longer than that of the currant, from the fact that it is sold in both the green and the ripe state. The conditions of growth are about the same as for the currant, but it will grow fairly well under the shade of trees. The land should be made rich with an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid and nitrogen enough to make a fair growth of wood. In pruning the same plan should be followed as with the currant, cutting out the old wood after it is more than three years old, and thinning out some of the small and weak new shoots, and thus forcing the growth into those shoots that are left. Among the varieties that 15^ SUCCESSFUL niUIT CULTURE succeed over the largest area may be mentioned the following : Cohwihus — Fruit large, greenish-yellow, and of good quality. Plant vigorous and very productive. One of the best. Downing — A very hardy and productive variety, with light green fruit of medium size. It is especially valuable for cooking on account of its tender skin and good quality. I^ed Jacket — One of the best of the red fruited varieties. Fruit of large size and good quality. Industry — An English variety that imder some conditions is very satisfactory. The fruit is of large size and good quality, but the bush generally makes a slow growth. For insects and fungous diseases attacking the gooseberry, see Chapters XX and XXI. XIV THE STRAWBERRY EUROPEAN" (Fragaria vesca) AMERICAN {Fragaria Virginiana) In some particulars the strawberry is the most important fruit crop of the temperate zone. It rivals the apple in the time that we may have it in the market in a fresh condition. Coming from the extreme South soon after New Year, a supply is kept up from the South to the North and from the North to the South until August. It is the first fruit of the season, and will produce, under good conditions, more bushels per acre than the potato. It is of especial importance to the grower just starting into business because an income can be obtained within twelve to fourteen months after planting. It is a fruit that succeeds in a great variety of soils, but is most profitably grown on a deep, rich sandy loam. In a very dry time on light land the crop is often injured by drouth, but if a heavy coating of stable manure is turned under before setting and the land is well mulched before the fruit begins to ripen, a crop will be carried through a great deal of dry weatlier. The strawberry often yields a very heavy crop on reclaimed meadows, but under such conditions the tendency is to run to plant instead of fruit, and the fertilizers used should contain a large amount of potash and phosphoric acid. A very good fertilizer is made, of three parts of good hard wood ashes to one of fine ground bone used at the rate of from one to two tons 154 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE per acre, according to the fertility already in the soil. A southern slope should be selected for an early crop and a northern one for a late crop. FITTING THE LAND It will be especially advantageous to work the soil deeply with a trench plow, fining it to a depth of fifteen to twenty inches, as the more deeply and finely it is worked the greater will be its capacity for resisting drouth. If it is plowed in the fall it will work up much earlier in the spring, and if stable manure is plowed under in the fall it will give better results than if turned under in the spring. Turf land that is to be devoted to the strawberry should be planted with some hoed, crop like potatoes, etc., for one season, or it may be planted with some leguminous crop like cowpeas, soy beans, hairy vetch or clovers, that can be turned under to supply nitrogen, and also humus to hold the moisture. The surface of the land should be thoroughly fined with the harrow and drag or leveler and marked out carefully to rows of accurate distances, that the work of culti- vating may be done quickly and easily. If the land is not well supplied with plant food any good fruit fer- tilizer may be scattered along the rows, to be worked in as the plants are set, the remainder to be worked in with a weeder or fine-toothed cultivator within a few days after planting. TIME FOR PLANTING While the strawberry may be planted at any time in the year when the ground will work, it is the practice of most of the large commercial growers to set only in the spring. This is done so that the plants may have plenty of time to make a full growth and mature an abundance of blossom buds, and the largest crops will be produced when planted at this time. Strong layers THE STRAWBERRY 155 or potted plants will yield a few very large berries, and it is from these plants that we often obtain the prize berries, but the cost of plants and the small crop ob- tained does not warrant the outlay if grown for profit. PLANTS Only plants with young, white roots should be used if the best results are expected, and plants taken from a bed grown for fruiting are not as good as those grown for plants alone when all of the plants are dug out by lifting the soil for several inches deep. In digging, the plants should be protected from the air as soon as ♦ "«••••. .»• >• » i» • til..* Fig. 79— Fig. 80— Method of Planting Perfect and Imperfect Varieties out of the ground by putting into sacks or covered baskets and be taken to a cellar or moist shed, where the dead leaves and runners are all pulled off, the roots straightened out and placed in bunches, or if to be sent away tied in bundles of twenty-five or fifty each. Placed in this way for a little time, the roots are straight and easily planted. If plants are to be shipped for some distance the roots should be packed in damp moss with the leaves exposed to the air, when they will keep for a long time in good condition. Staminate and Pistillate, or Perfect and Imperfect Plants — In selecting varieties it must be borne in mind that if those with pistils only are planted, little or 156 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE no fruit will be produced, but if every third or fifth row be of a variety that has perfect flowers, all will be fertilized and a good crop the result. The diagram. Figure 79, illustrates this planting; or if it is desired to secure plants of the staminate variety for planting unmixed, they may be planted as shown in Figure 80. PLANTING There are many different ways of putting the plants into the ground, the success of an}'' one of which depends upon the roots being placed deeply in the moist soil, Fig. 81-PIantedToo Deep Fig. 82— Planted Too High well spread out and the soil firmed closely in contact with them. A very good way to determine if the plants are properly set is to take hold of the leaf, and if the plant pulls out it is not planted firmly enough, while if the leaf breaks off it is properly firmed. The depth to plant is illustrated by the accompanying figures : Figure 81 shows a plant set too deep. Figure 82 one too shallow, and Figure 83 one set just right. Methods or systems of planting are very numerous, but only two or three will receive attention here. a?HE STRAWBERRY 15? The Hill System — This consists in setting the plants in rows of from three to three and one-half feet apart and one foot apart in the row, and keeping the runners cut off, when at the end of the season each plant has made a large numl)er of crown buds, and under favorable conditions will produce a large number of berries. All of the run- ners are of course pulled or cut off as they start out. The only serious objection to this svstem is that with the roots continually start- ing out higher on the crown as new^ buds are formed, the plants at the end of the season are rather shallow rooted, and are liable to be heaved out during the win- ter unless a deep covering of mulch is placed around them. This.method has the '"'''' 8^-p'«°*«*» J"«^ ^'^^t advantage that with the runners removed the ground about the plants can be kept clean very easily and cheapl}^, and the fruit easily mulched and harvested. The Hedge Row System (of Kellogg) — This is a modification of the hill system, the plants being set in rows two and one-half to three feet apart, and in o Fig. 84— The Hedge Row System X X X X X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X X X X X X the rows about two feet, and treated the same way as in the hill system except that plants are allowed to fill in the space at eight to ten inches apart. This is in fact but a modified hill system in which the hills come 158 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE close together, thus serving to protect one another, and, the ground being well filled with roots, there is less danger of their being heaved out by frost. The same heavy covering during the winter will be needed as with the hill system, taking care not to cover the crowns too deeply. In Figure 84 the old plants are represented by o, the runners by x. ^¥ide Matted Roiv — This consists in setting the plants in rows three, four or five feet apart, according to the richness of the soil, and one to two feet in the Fig. 85— Strawberry Field with Wide Matted Rows rows, and letting the runners grow over the space be- tween the rows from four to six inches apart, thus making beds of fruiting plants eighteen inches to three feet wide. Figure 85 shows strawberry field of A. A. Marshall of Fitchburg, Mass., set 4x5 feet, and run into beds three feet wide; irrigation pipes are seen in the foreground. Some growers place the runners the proper distance apart as they grow, and others let the bed be covered in a natural way and then dig out the surplus plants in the fall, the last of August or early September. The first plan, however, is the better, as then each THE STRAWBERRY 159 plant has an abundance of room to fully mature and will give a much larger crop of fruit with larger berries than the small plants of the second method. The Matted Row System — Probably more berries are grown by this system than by any other, and perhaps it requires less labor, yet the size of the fruit will be smaller and, in time of drouth, the ground between the plants not being stirred easil}^ the roots will be near the surface, and therefore more injured. One advan- tage that the wide matted and the matted row have over the hill and the hedge row system is that the roots are running through all of the soil, holding it together, and the plants are not as likely to be thrown out by frost. Whatever the system, the crop will depend more upon whether the land is rich in plant food and has an abundant supply of moisture in it at the time the fruit is maturing than anything else. CULTIVATION" If the plants have been set in regular lines both ways, most of the work of cultivation can be done by the horse cultivator or the small hand cultivators, of which there are many different kinds. All of the run- ners are generally cut off until the plants get strong, or up to about the first of July, after which such as are needed are allowed to grow. After the runners begin to grow, if in the matted row, great care must be taken not to disturb them after they have become rooted. If the plants are grown by the hedge row or in the hill system, the runners being cut off before they are rooted, they will not interfere with the use of the hand or wheel hoe, and better work can be done, and be done more cheaply. The land should be kept fine and mellow to the depth of two or three inches, and the drier the time the more frequently the soil should be cultivated- 160 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE If the plants are not making the growi;h that is desired, more fertilizer should be applied about July 1, and again early in September. Chemical fertilizers sliould not be applied when the leaves are wet, but, if dry, can be applied safely unless used in very large quantity. If it should adhere to the leaves it can be easily brushed off with a broom or by drawing a bush over the row. If large quantities of quickly soluble fertilizer like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or the potash salts be used, it must be scattered at a little distance from the plants and the soil must be frequently stirred to keep it from burning the leaves as it is deposited on the surface of the soil by evaporation. During the first season the young plants should be sprayed two or three times to keep the rust fungus from gaining a hold. In soils that are infested with the plants known as the chickweeds, of which there are two troublesome species, which grow during ver}'- cold weather, the land must be cultivated until the ground freezes, and also in the spring the small chickweed plants must be weeded out. Under this condition the cost of cultivation is much increased and the crop will not be as large as in land free from this pest. IRRIGATION One of the great needs in strawberry growing is an abundance of water as the fruit is ripening, and even if the soil is naturally moist and we have done all that could be done to preserve what there is in it, there often comes a season when a crop would be largely benefited by the use of Avater on the surface. Of the profits resulting from the establishment of an artificial supply of water we have no figures, but that must depend largely upon the cost of the water and its application. If one is situated so that water can be carried to the THE STKAWBERRY 1(51 strawberry field by gravity in open ditches or cheap troughs, the cost need be but small, while if to be carried a long distance in pipes and be raised to a considerable hight it would be very much greater. There are two methods of applying water most generally em- ployed, the ditch method and the sprinkling method. The Ditch Method — This is the simplest and most used. The water is let into ditches at the upper part of the field where it can run down between the rows as Fig. 86-Ditcb Method of Irrigation shown in Figure 86. If the fall is so great that the soil will be washed, hay or straw is trodden into the ditch, when it will run more slowly and spread out better among the plants. If the land is nearly level, the water must be directed by means of frequent small ditches and be carried to different parts of the field by means of pipes or troughs. Cheap hose may be made of cotton cloth for this purpose that will last a long time if taken up and thoroughly dried after being used. 163 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE The Sprinkling Method — This method is not so much in use, as the last, but possesses some merits over it, as the water is applied in the most natural manner and over the whole surface, and when properly applied has generally given remarkable results. It can, however, be applied only ^ where there is a good head or force to distribute in a fine spray to considerable distance. The best time for applying watei is an im- portant matter. It has been found that the same amount of water applied at night will do much more good than if applied in the morning, that there is less loss by evaporation, and the ground is less hardened. If water is applied, enough should be used to wet down to the roots fully, or little or no benefit will result, for if only the surface soil is wet the roots work up to the surface and continued dry weather will be more de- structive than if no water were used. WINTER PROTECTION While the strawberry is perfectly hardy, growing, as it does, at the extreme Xorth, if the ground is not covered with snow from the time it is frozen in the fall till settled weather comes on in the spring, the plants will be heaved out, and for this reason it is the practice of all Northern growers to cover the strawberry fields as soon as the ground is frozen in the fall. If deeply covered before the ground is frozen the plants are often smothered, and all of the old leaves destroyed, and, while this does not ruin the crop, yet the plants do not start with the vioror that thev would if these leaves were uninjured. Mulching Material — Various materials are used for this purpose, among the best of which are pine needles, rye straw, oat straw, meadow or sedge hay, corn stover, buckwheat straw, soy beans, etc., etc. ; of these perhaps THE STRAWBERRY 1(33 the best are the pine needles, clean rye or oat straw and soy bean straw. But whatever is used, it should be free from weed seeds, as nothing reduces the yield of a plan- tation more certainly than numerous small plants grow- ing about them and carrying off moisture and plant food from the land. In the spring the mulch is drawn off from the crown of the plants as soon as growth has begun, and after the plants have begim to bloom it is best to draw the mulch closely under them so as to keep the fruit clean and the crown roots shaded. Some growers remove the mulch in the early spring, clean out all small weeds, stir the sur- face soil and, then put it back close up about the plants again. This in- sures a clean bed and helps to retain the soil moisture that in light land is so often deficient. Fig. 87— Staminate or "Perfect" Strawberry Flower VARIETIES Among the hundreds of varieties that are in cul- tivation; there are many that succeed well in one place that do not do well in others, and the grower will have to depend largely upon trial of several sorts and the testimony of those who are successful in growing this fruit in his own locality. It may be said that no variety will succeed long in one locality. It is a fact .that no varieties are generally gro^\m now that were 164 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE popular ten 3'ears ago, and some do not retain their vigor even that time. It is therefore the part of wisdom to have a trial bed of the most promising new kinds in order to know what is best adapted to each individual locality. The local experiment station will be the first to try all promising kinds, the best of which each grower should give a trial. Varieties are either staminate, or perfect (Figure 87), those having both stamens and pis- tils, and will bear fruit if planted alone, or pistillate (Figure 88), the flowers having only pistils, and must be planted near some staminate variety to produce fruit. The pistillate flowered varieties are more productive, as a general rule, than are the staminate kind, due probably to the strain on the flower of the latter to produce pollen. Among the varie- ties that are most grown are: Clyde — A stam- inate variety of great vigor of plant and freedom from disease that does well on rather light land, when the plants are not too close together, but on heavy soil, or if the plants are very close together, the color is poor and the berry is soft. It requires a rich soil to make it carry out to perfection the large crop of berries that it will set. Haverland — A pistillate variety that has made the largest record for productiveness of any now in cultiva- tion. The fruit is medium to large, and is borne on Fig. 88— Pistillate or "Imperfect" Strawberry Flower THE STllAWBERRY 165 long and slender stalks that do not stand up under the weight of its he?ivy crop of fruit. This fault, together with the small size of the berries under ordinary condi- tions, places it in the list of only medium value. Glen Mary — A perfect flowered variety of vigorous growth and good quality. The fruit is large but some- what irregular in form. The flowers do not produce as much pollen as some other varieties, and if planted as a fertilizer for pistillate sorts it should be planted in every third or fourth row. Sample — One of the most productive pistillate varieties, jjroducing berries of large size and good qual- ity. For general purposes it has proved one of the most profitable. It is medium in season and often carries its fruit very late. Brandywine — One of the most vigorous perfect flowered varieties, producing berries of large size, firm and of the best of quality. It is a rather late variety, and under most conditions is productive, but under others it is reported as not productive. It is a good pollenizerfor late varieties. Other varieties ,that are of value under some conditions are Bubach, Senator Dunlap, Nick Ohmer, Seaford, Gandy, Warfield, Excelsior, Marshall, etc., etc. MARKETING The strawberry is a very perishable fruit, and must be handled with the greatest skill to give the best results. If possible the picking should be done early in the morning or the latter part of the day, and after picking at any time the fruit should be taken to some cool place where there is not too much of a draft of air to dry them too rapidly. It is not advisable to put them on the ice, if it can be avoided, on account of the con- densed moisture that will collect on the berries when 166 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE brought from the cold storage, yet if properly exposed to cool, dry air for a little time after being taken from cold storage they will not be injured by this treatment. Package — The quart basket is almost universally used, packed in a bushel (thirty-two-quart), twenty- four-quart, and sixteen-quart crate or carrier. Most of the thirty-two-quart crates are now considered as gift l^ackages, and are not returned to the shipper, but are sold to local growers near the markets for ten cents each. If the grower delivers his fruit to the retailer he may have his crates reserved, and thus only a small number will be needed to market a large crop of berries. One of the best packages for carrying and displaying the fruit is the "Marshall" carrier. Figure 89, in which twenty-four quarts of berries are packed, and it has the advantage that all of the fruit is exposed to the view of the purchaser without removing any partitions, and if well put up will attract customers by the large amount of fruit exposed in one mass. This figure shows thirty quarts, with only from eight to fifteen berries in a ^Dasket. Soiled baskets should never be used, as the fruit shows to better advantage -in new baskets, and the new ones are as cheap as old baskets collected from the consumers. Picking — This is one of the greatest problems of the strawberry grower. Some employ boys, some men and some women. The first are the most difficult to manage, and do the work in the most uncertain way. Girls and women do their work well, are easily managed, but are rather slow in many cases. Quick, active young men make good pickers ; the cost per quart, however, is much greater, but they can often be brought into the field in times of an emergency when other help is not available. Numerous methods of recording the number of boxes picked by the different pickers have been de- vised, perhaps one of the best of which is the card system, THE STRAWBERRY* 1G7 where the picker keeps his record card, and when fruit has been picked the record is made by punching out the proper number of boxes. At the end of each day or week, as the case may be, the first card is taken up and the total number is punched on another card, which is kept by the picker until payment is made. In picking the fruit, each berry should be picked by the stem, and not be pulled off, and for a local market should be allowed to become fully ripe before being picked. Sorting and PacHng — It will be found very diflBcult to find pickers in many places who will sort the fruit as 23icked so that it will be most satisfactory for a f anc}^ market, and it is therefore the practice of most growers of fancy fruit to have it sorted and packed in a shed or house near the strawberry field. All that is done often, where the pickers are reliable, is to sort over and pack the top layer of berries, picking out any defective berries and replacing them with sound ones, and turning the top layer so as to present the best appearance. Others turn out all of the berries in a box and sort and pack all of the fruit. This must be done very carefully, or the berries will be so crushed that they will not stand up long after they reach the market. If, however, this is properly done, the fruit will keep longer, for all of the overripe berries having been removed, decay will be less rapid, and much better prices be obtained. Many growers make two sorts, those that are perfect in every way and of large size, and those of small size and possibly with some other defect. The second grades are sold for canning, making syrups, etc., and often will sell at as good ])rices as the average run of berries not sorted, while the fancy berries bring high prices and sell the seconds. The common bushel crate or carrier is the most used for shipping to near markets, but when shipped long distances those holding forty-eight or sixty-four THE STRAWBERRY 169 quarts are largely in use. The Marshall carrier (Figure 89), holding twenty-four quarts, is especially adapted to fancy berries, as all the fruit can be seen at once upon taking olf the cover, and presents the most attractive appearance possible. For insects and fungous pests, see Chapters and XXI. XV THE CRANBERRY ( Vaccinium oxycoccus) This delicious fruit is distributed over almost the entire country and under favorable conditions produces large and profitable crops. The entire crop of the country for a single season has been over 808,000 bushels, of which Massachusetts produced 432,000 bushels, New Jersey 175,000 bushels, Wisconsin 101,000 bushels. It can only be profitably grown in a soil nearly saturated with water, bogs and wet meadows being utilized for this crop. The conditions for success are wet, boggy kind, with an abundant supply of water, so that the "bog'' may be flooded in a short time in case of a late frost in the spring when the plants are in bloom, during the summer to prevent injury from the "leaf roller" insect, and in the fall to protect from frost before the fruit is gathered. Water should be in sufficient supply also to keep the bog flowed all winter. PREPARATION OF THE BOG All growth of trees, bushes, grasses or other plants must be removed from the surface and the bog made level by grading. Ditches should be made at intervals so that the water may set back into them to hasten flooding, and to quickly drain away the water after flooding. The level of the water in the ditches for the best results is from ten to twelve inches below the surface THE CRANBERRY 171 at all times. After all growth has been removed from the surface and the land roughly graded perfectly level, it should be made as fine and mellow as possible, after which a covering of clean, sharp sand from three to six inches deep is spread evenly over it. The land is then ready for the plants. Setting the Plants — The plants, or rather cuttings, are the end runners of established bogs, twelve to fifteen inches long, cut from the edges of the rows or paths, or often taken from some more solid part of the bed. If possible these cuttings should be taken from some spot where the plants are producing large crops of large, finely colored berries. The bog is marked off in from nine to eighteen-inch squares, and the cuttings, three or four in a bunch, are forced through the sand into the fine soil below with a blunt wooden dibble or paddle, and the sand pressed firmly about them. In planting the cuttings, care should be taken not to break off the lower end of them in forcing through the sand. After planting no weeds should be allowed to grow, all that appear being pulled out by hand. It is not the general practice of growers to use the hand hoe unless obliged to do so, and a good bog is so soft that it would not hold up a horse. Sometimes when the land is espe- cially poor, a light dressing of any good commercial fruit fertilizer just before the sand is put on or after the plantation has been in bearing several years, 'will produce marvelous results. Well prepared bogs will yield good crops the third year, and after this nearly a full crop every year, unless insects or frosts destroy them. The yield of a good bog under favorable condi- tions has often been between one hundred and two hun- dred busliels per acre. Tlie average of all bogs in fho Cape Cod section in a single season has been one hundred and seventeen bushels ; that of the country between eighty and ninety bushels. 172 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE HARVESTING This crop must be harvested before fall frosts unless water facilities are such that the bog can be flooded at ten or twelve hours' notice. The crop is gathered by hand picking and by means of the rake or scoop. With the latter 400 to 450 quarts per day are picked by the most active pickers, while hand pickers will hardly pick more than 200 quarts unless the crop is large and thick. Storing and Marl'eting — The cranberry is a fruit that keeps well in an airy, cool, but not too dry place, the temperature never going down to thirty-two degrees. Fig. 90— The Large Bell Cranberry For home use, if put in fruit jars and covered with col(J water, the fruit will keep until May or June if placed in a moderately cool cellar. It is most largely sold in barrels of about 100 quarts. Prices obtained range from $3.50 to $15 per barrel, an average of about $7. Some markets demand the fruit in crates, and many dealers buy in barrels and repack in crates or boxes. RENEWING A CRANBERRY BOG After ten or fifteen years of fruiting many bogs begin to fail, and are renewed by resurfacing, or with THE CRANBERRY 173 little expense by again covering with sand. A light covering of sand every five years would probably give satisfactory results. It is found in some cases that a light dressing of superphosphate will give the plants a vigorous start and greatly improve the yield and quality of the fruit. INJURIOUS INSEOffS Two insects have become somewhat of a menace to the cranberry crop — the "leaf roller" and the berry moth. The former is prevented from doing serious damage by flowing for a few days or a week soon after they begin to work seriously. The berry moth is more or less destroyed by the use of arsenate of lead sprayed upon the plants and fruit while quite small. For further particulars as to controlling insect pests, see bulletins of Massachusetts and New Jersey experiment stations. Many varieties of cranberries are now being grown. They may be divided into three groups, i. e., the Bell, Olive and Bugle types. Figure 90 shows the large Bell varietv. XVI THE BLUEBERRY JND HUCKLEBERRY C {Vaccinium Canadense) BLUEBERKY ■< {Vaccinium corymbosum) (. {Vaccinium vacillans) HUCKLEBERRY {GayJussacia resinosa) While these berries are found in our markets in considerable quantities in almost every section of the countr}', the supply comes wholly from bushes grown in the pastures, fields and swamps. Many attempts have been made to cultivate it in garden and field, but with poor or indifferent success. Like most plants growing naturally on land with a good soil cover, they become weakened and soon fail if exposed to much sun and air about the roots and lower branches. In the pas- tures and meadows the ground is shaded by grass and undergrowth, and the stems of the bushes by close growing foliage about them, and to insure even a mod- erate growth these conditions must be provided in the garden. The natural soil cover of the meadows may be replaced by leaves, old hay or even by a close planting and a mulch of fine soil, and if the soil is naturally a little moist or the season cool and moist, a fair growth will be made. An acid soil seems to be a necessity in growing this fruit. TRANSPLANTING Plants that will come up with a bog or clump of roots should be selected, and only those producing the THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY 175 largest berries taken. Cut back severely and set close together about as deep as they stood in the pasture, tramping the soil firmly about the roots. A mulch should be placed around the roots and if very dry a lib- eral amount of water be poured into the holes to settle the soil about the roots before the mulch is put on. Additional mulch or manure should be placed about them when it becomes thin. Another method of treatment which is more generally satisfactory is to clear a blue- berry or huckleberry lot of everything but good, strong bushes of these fruits. Divide into three lots and early in the spring spread manure or fertilizer among them. Then mow the tops of one plot close to the ground. The two plots not cut down wdll produce a large crop of fruit if the season is favorable, and the new canes on the other plot will make a strong growth that for the next two years will yield very large and fine fruit. The second spring plot N"o. 2 is cut down, and No. 3 and No. 1 bear fruit. After this three years' rotation two plots of bushes will be producing vigorous canes that will yield an abundance of fine fruit, if, in addition to cutting back, an occasional dressing of manure or fertilizer be applied. Many brush pastures, by a little thinning out of "robber" plants, treated in the above manner, may be made a source of considerable income. Women and children can generally be found who will pick the ber- ries on shares ^'^if the picking is good,'' and the fruit be gathered when it will bring the best prices. XYII SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS THE ORANGE THE SOUR ORANGE (Citvus aumntium) THE SWEET ORANGE {Citrus auvantium dulcis) THE MANDARIN ORANGE (C Itrus aurantium nohilis) THE POMELO^ GRAPE ERUIT^ ETC. {Citrus decumana) THE HARDY ORANGE (Citrus trifoUata) THE LEMON {Citrus Umonum) Next to the apple the orange is by far the most important fruit in the United States, although it can be grown only in special localities. It is to the Southern sections of the country what the apple is to the jSTortherii sections. It is a good shipping fruit, even better than the apple, and its beautiful color and delicious flavor make it a close rival. Orange growers are generally very enthusiastic in their work, and well they should be, for the beautiful tree with its bright green leaves and wonderfully fragrant white flowers, followed by its golden fruit, makes it an object for admiration, and wdien the work is carried on in ,a systematic, business- like way, except when injured by frost, orange growing is profitable. AYhile easily grown, the trees must have constant care to keep them growing vigorously, and to protect them from insect pests, and in some sections to protect them from frosts. THE OIIANGE 177 PLANTING THE ORCHARD Orchards are started in two ways: (1) by planting trees already budded with desirable varieties, and (2) by planting seedlings (stocks) in the orchard and bud- ding them after one or two years' growth. The best stock for the extreme South is the sour orange, and for Northern sections the hardy orange (C trifoliata). In a general way the preparation of the soil, pruning of the tree before planting, etc., are the same as for the apple or peach. In planting an orange orchard or grove, local conditions of soil, exposure and markets must be very carefully studied. In different sections the distance varies much, according to the variety grown, the method of pruning and richness of soil, so that no rule can be given. Enough room should be given for the full development of the trees. Training the Trees — A round, low-headed, compact tree with an abundance of foliage is the ideal condition. If possible give the tree a slightly conical form by keeping the leader or central shoot a little stronger than the lateral branches. In other words, don't let the laterals outgrow the leader. The low head has many advantages. All the work of trimming, thinning, spraying, harvesting and protecting from frosts can be more cheaply and better done on low trees, and less fruit will be blown off in case of cyclones or heavy storms. Cultivation — As with other orchard fruits, the aim should be to produce a vigorous and healthy tree. If the soil- is naturally rich and drouth resistant, less cul- tivation and less fertilizing material will be needed. If the soil is very thin, even with a large application of plant food, very frequent cultivation must be prac- ticed. Where the supply of water for irrigation is abundant, less plant food and less stirring of the soil 178 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE will be needed, but very few good crops are grown, even under these conditions, without considerable cultivation. A very cheap source of organic matter (humus) in the FIf. 91— Orange Tree In Tub soil may be produced by sowing cover crops of clover, vetch or other leguminous crops about the time the trees are maturing their main annual growth. If there THE ORANGE 179 is any one season when drouth is more likely to occur than another, care must be taken that the cover crop is not making its greatest growth at this time, as with the great loss of plant food and moisture in this way at such a time the trees are likely to be seriously injured. Protection from Frost — To secure fruit and trees from injury by frost, provisions must be made for their protection, which should be ready at all times for use at shortest notice. When the trees are grown close to the ground coarse hay, reeds, brush or other similar material can be quickly piled up around the trunks and in among the branches at but little expense. Such material could no doubt be obtained near at hand or be grown especially for this purpose. After danger is past it could be used for bedding or for mulch. Folding covers, lined with paper, could be employed over small trees, which, if kept stored in a dry, airy place, would last a lifetime, and often in a single night save the results of years of labor and much invested capital. Other methods of protection may also be sug- gested, all of which should be investigated before adopting any of them. Figure 91 shows a sweet Florida orange tree grown in a tub, by Mr. E. H. Wrenn, Mt. Air}^, N. C. It is eight and one-half feet high and its top ten feet in diameter. In winter it is kept in a brick store, heated with a stove, and in summer out of doors. It bore over 200 oranges the past season. VARIETIES As with all other kinds of fruit, the varieties of oranges are very numerous, and new and im- proved kinds are constantly coming to notice. The work being done by the Department of Agriculture at Washington in searching every orange growing section 180 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE of the world for choice varieties to be tested in this country will no doubt lead to a rapid improvement, and each grower must follow this investigation and be ready to adopt those that prove the best. Among the varieties now largely grown may be mentioned Boone's Early, Satsuma, Homosassa, Jaffa, Maltese Blond, Pine- apple, Washington Navel, etc. POMELO (grape fruit) This fruit is practically a large orange with a thick skin and an acid, slightly bitter pulp. It requires nearly the same treatment as the orange. A few varieties to be recommended are Duncan, Eoyal, Triumph, etc. KUMQUAT (gold ORANGE) A most beautiful ornamental tree producing very small fruit in immense numbers. The rind as well as the pulp is edible, the fruit being especially valuable for preserving in the whole state. The great beauty of the trees, their great productiveness, and the quality of the fruit, especially when preserved, should make this fruit very popular in the near future. THE FIG (Ficus carica) While almost a tropical fruit, the fig, by careful manipulation and winter covering, may be made to bear fruit as far north as New England. In the South it must be grown rather slowly after it reaches fruiting age, as a rapid growth tends to the formation of leaf buds rather than fruit buds. The soil should not be cultivated deeply, as the roots run near the surface. THE PERSIMMON 181 Tlio strong new shoots that outgrow their neighbors should be pinched back when they have reached the desired length. This is much better than to allow long shoots to grow without checking and finally cutting off large shoots at the end of the season. At the North small trees may be grown in tubs or boxes, putting them in a warm, sunny place in sum- mer, and storing in a dry, warm cellar or pit during the winter. They are sometimes even grown in the garden if planted in a warm, dry soil in the sum- mer, and should be covered deeply in the winter with soil so that they will not freeze, but the tub or box system is much the best. Among the best varieties are the Black Ischia, Brunswick and White Adriatic. A bear- ing branch of the fig tree is seen in Figure 92. Fig. 92— Bearing Branch of the Fig Tree THE PERSIMMON AMERICAN (Diospyros Virginiana) JAPANESE {Diospyros Kdki) This fruit, a native of the Middle and Southern States, is one that should be given more attention. When ripe the fruit is beautiful, of good quality, and is pro- duced in large quantities. Few trees are planted in orchards, though some of the new varieties would war- 182 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE rant their extensive cultivation. WTien grown in a too rich soil the trees are often destroyed by cold, there- fore at the North it is best to plant in a rather light soil. The fruit of most varieties is not edible until the decay- ing process almost sets in, when they become very delicious. The Japanese persimmons are much supe- rior in size and quality, and are becoming of some com- mercial importance in the South. They are not hardy north of Washington. It is grafted upon the native stock, which mav tend to make it more hardv. An effort is being made to produce new varieties of the native species, as well as from crosses with the Japanese, and .we look for a great improvement in this fruit. Among the best varieties now in cultivation are Hyakume, Taber's N'o. 129, Yeddo, etc., etc. The cultivation required for success is not unlike that to be given to the Japanese plum oi' peach, though it is not as easily transplanted as either of the above. THE LOQUAT (Eriohotrya Japonica) The Japanese medlar or Japanese plum, as it is sometimes called, is a delicious fruit about the size of the Eeine Claude plum, but of a brighter color. The fruit ripens in March and April, and while the trees are hardy as far north as the Middle South, its fruit matures only as far north as the middle of Florida. The leaves are large, dark green above, with a whitish down upon the under side, making it a decidedly orna- mental tree. In Southern Florida it is being somewhat extensively planted, and the fruit often finds its way into nearby markets, but is little seen in the Northern markets. Besides its being used in a fresh state, eaten from the hand, it is preserved, having something of the flavor of sweet cherries. XVIII THE PROPAGJiTION OF FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS While it may not generally be advisable for the fruit gi'ower to attempt to grow, trees for his own planting, in many cases it may be best and profitable to do so, and it certainly will be of great advantage to all to know how they are propagated, to enable them to judge of the value of the trees they buy, and if one can have well grown ones on -his own place, ready to transplant at just the right time, and in a perfectly fresh condition, they will be much more sure to do well than the average nursery trees. In this chapter I shall attempt to give only the practice of tlie most reliable nurseries, so illustrated that with a little practice the intelligent and energetic man may grow good trees for his own planting, and perhaps supply some to his neighbors. The bo3'S and girls should become interested in this work, in which they might soon become skillful, and perhaps lay the foundation for the establishment of the nursery business in sections not now supplied with home grown trees. THE PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE None of the varieties of the apple reproduce the same kind from seed. Thus there has never been but one Baldwin apple tree grown from seed; all of the trees of this variety, except the first one, that came from seed, have been grown by inserting buds or cions 184 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE from this tree, or others like it, into other seedling stocks. The stocks most in use for this purpose are those imported from France or other European coun- tries, where the people have gained great skill, and where the price of labor is much less than in this country, though a few of our nurserymen grow good native stocks, either from imported seed or that from strong natural or unbudded trees. If only a small number of seedlings are needed, the seed can be obtained from strong trees of natural fruit, separating it from the pulp or planting the whole apples, first cutting them into quarters and planting in the fall before the ground freezes. If the seed is cleaned it may be planted in the fall, where the mice or squirrels will not destroy it, or it may be kept over in dry sand or fine dry loamy soil buried in the ground where there is no standing water, care being taken that the sand does not become wet. In the spring the seed should be sown as soon as the soil will work fine and mellow.- The Seedbed — Any rather moist, rich loam will grow good apple seedlings if it is properly prepared. It should be deeply worked with the plow or spade and well enriched witli partly decomposed stable manure, or Avith fine ground bone and potash at the rate of 1500 pounds of the former to 500 pounds of the latter per acre. After the seedbed has been thoroughly fitted the seed should be sown in drills fifteen inches apart if to be cultivated by hand, or thirty inches if it is to be done by the horse, and be covered ~ about one-half inch deep. After the seedlings are an inch or two high they should be thinned to about two inches apart, weeding out all weak or defective seedlings, and during the season cultivate thorough^ at least once a week. If in July tlie seedlings are not making the growth they ouglit, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered along the row and cultivated in. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 185 Digging the Seedlings — In tlie fall, before the ground freezes, the seedlings, which should have made a growth o-f from one to two feet, must be carefully dug and heeled-in, i. e., packed in trenches of light soil, where there will be no standing water, with the soil carefully worked in among the roots and nearly all of the top covered with soil, and as very cold weather comes on a covering of straw or hay be put on to keep the ground from deep freezing. If the seedlings aj*e to be root grafted, they are washed after digging and packed in sphag- num moss or sawdust and put into a very cool cellar. Boot Grafting — Much has been said pro and con as to the value of the root- grafted apple tree as compared with the budded tree, and it may be said that both are good when the work is properly done, and the writer believes that a root graft, skillfully made in December or January, and carefully stored in a cool cellar in moist sand or light soil until the last of April and then planted in a rich soil, will make as good a tree as most budded stocks, but, for the amateur, budding will give the best results. The root graft is made by taking the seedling and first trimming off the lateral roots and the end of the Fig. 93 Fig. 94 Fig. 95 Root Qrafting^ 186 SUCCESSFUL 'fruit CULTURE main root to about six to eight inches long. A cut is then made just below the collar about an inch long, as seen in Figure 93. A tongue is then. cut at A B; the cion, Figure 94, a piece of the last season's growth of the variety desired, is then taken, and a similar cut is made at A B, the two being pressed together with the cambium layers of both stock and cion in as close contact as is possible, as seen in Figure 95. The graft is then tied firmly and evenly with waxed string, waxed cloth or raffia fiber. The success of the work depends upon the smoothness of the cut, the perfection of the union of the cambium layers, and close and firm tying. To shut out the air and moisture from the grafted sur- face and insure a more complete union, it is best to cover the cut with grafting wax or with waxed cloth after tying. After the grafts have been made they should be packed in boxes in moist sand or fine sandy soil, pressing the packing very firmly about the grafted parts. After the box is filled it is placed in an upright position, that any growth that may take place will be toward the union of the graft. Tlie grafts should be planted as soon in the spring as the soil will work up light and mellow, and they are best set with a dibber or spade, the top bud being set at the level of the grQund. In planting with the spade the blade is inserted to 'its full depth, worked back and forth until the desired space is made, when a graft is placed at each end of the opening made, and one in the middle, thus setting them about four inches apart, with the top bud just at the surface of the soil. The spade is then again inserted a few inclies outside of this opening and the soil pressed very firmly against tlie grafts. The soil should then be trodden firmly on both sides. In taking the root grafts from tlie boxes it is best to keep them in a pail of water until they are planted. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 187 Budding — For propagation by budding, the seed- lings that luive been heeled-in the previous fall are taken up as soon as the land will work up mellow in the spring, the ends and lateral roots trimmed as for root grafting, and planted in the same manner as the root grafts, except that they are set only as deep as they stood in the seedbed. The seedling and the root graft are now planted in the nursery and in a few days after planting the surface of the soil must be made fine and mellow and be kept in this condition through- out the growing season. To insure success in budding, the stocks must be made to grow vigorously and be kept free from insects and fungous pests by spraying with kerosene and the bordeaux mixture. Budding is best done when the seedlings are approaching maturity, ranging from the first of August to September 15 in different parts of the country, but it must be done when the bark will peel readily. The buds used should be those from vigorous fruiting trees that produce the type of fruit desired. Before the work of budding begins, a sufficient number of bud sticks (Figure 96) should be prepared, as well as an abundance of tying material (raffia fiber) cut to the proper lengths, according to the size of the stocks to be budded. The bud sticks and tying material are carried in a moistened wrapper slung over the left shoulder, so as to be readily reached by the right hand. The stocks should then be trimmed for five or six inches above the ground of all shoots and leaves, so as not to interfere with the work of budding. A sharp shoe knife with a thin blade and a rounded point is generally used, though the budding Fig. 96— Bud Stick 188 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE knives (Figure 97) sold by dealers in horticultural supplies are preferable. The process of budding consists in first making a cross cut, as shown in Figure 98, then turning the knife and starting about three-quarters of an inch below, making an upward cut to the cross cut, where by a quick turn of the hand the bark on both sides of the cut is raised, as shown in Figure 99. A bud stick is then taken, and, placing the knife about half an inch below the bud, a cut is made through the bark upward, taking a little of the wood with the bud. The bud is then held by the stalk of the leaf that has been left for Fig. 97— Budding Knives the purpose, and the point inserted under the raised bark and pressed down until it is well in place, as seen in Figure 100. If the bark does not peel quite readily enough the rounded point of the knife is pushed under the raised points and run downward, raising it so that the Uud will be properly set, but buds w411 not be as sure to grow as if the bark peels with the pressure of the bud as it is forced down in place. After being inserted the bud must be firmly and evenly tied with some soft and flat tying material or soft string, as seen in Figure 101. The material most in use is raffia fiber, so commonly employed for tying asparagus and other vegetables. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 189 The conditions of success are: (1) a vigorous grow- ing stock; (2) a well matured bud; (3) a sharp, thin- bladed knife; (-A) a clean, smooth cut; (5) little exposure to the air and a good fit under the bark; (6) firm and even binding. After the buds have been in- serted a week or two the stocks should be examined, and if the bands are cutting into them, the result of rapid growth, they should be loosened a little, or if the M Pis. 98 Fig. 100 Fig. 101 bud has united sufficiently a cut may be made on the side opposite the bud, when the band will be gradually loosened by the continued growth of the stock. The buds require no further care until the following spring, when the stock is cut off just above the inserted bud, and we have practically the same condition as in the root graft just planted, except that, in the latter, one year's growth of roots has been made in the nursery, while in the former it has been just transplanted. Nursery Treatment^Taking the budded seedling and the newly transplanted root graft, we will give the treatment required to produce a first-class tree for 190 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE orchard planting. The conditions of success are: (1) a rich soil and frequent and thorough cultivation; (2) allow only one bud to grow, i. e., the bud inserted into tlie stock in budding and the top bud of the cion on the root graft; (3) allow only one shoot to grow (Figure 102), a clean, straight growth being necessary to a satisfactory tree. The 3^oung trees must be protected from injury by insects and fungous diseases as in the orchard, and the same methods are to be emplo3^ed. At the begin- ning of the second 3^ear, and before the growth begins, the one-y e a r-old shoot should be cut back to the hight at which it is desired to have the top formed. (Figure 103.) This hight may be from two to four feet, according to the method of training to be followed in the growth of tlie young tree, those not having made over two or three feet being cut back to the ground for a new start. Buds of those trees that have been topped at from two to four feet high will start all along from tlie top of the ground in most cases (Figure 102a), but only a few at the top are generally allowed to grow, the others either being rubbed off as soon as well started, or being allowed to grow an inch or two and then the ends pinched to check their growth, thus forcing all development into the branches desired for the head. These branches Fig. 102 Fig. 103 Nursery Treatment of Young Trees PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 191 pinched are to be finally cut off close to the trunk. The last method has the advantage of making a more stocky tree, though not quite so smooth and clean. At tlie end of the second year apple trees, either root grafts or budded stock, should stand from five to seven feet high, and be from three-fourths to one inch in diameter at the ground, with four or five strong shoots near the top and evenly placed on all sides of the trunk. Such trees, i. e., two-year trees, are better than those older or younger for general planting, and should not be allowed to stand longer in the nursery. Digging Trees from the Nursery — The value of nursery trees to the purchaser largely depends upon how many of the roots are secured in digging them from the ground, and how long they are exposed to the air before they are planted in the soil again. The best way to get them from the ground is to first dig the soil away from the tree down to the roots, which will be, in well cultivated land, about six inches. Then with sharp sj^ades cut a circle around the tree at from one to two feet, according to the size of the tree, severing all roots that go outside of that limit. With two strong spades, one on each side, and a third man to pull, the tree is then lifted out with the largest amount of roots that it is possible to secure. If a large number of trees is to be dug and the help is limited, all of those of one variety are first loosened and then, going over the row again, all are taken quickly from the ground and the roots covered, or each kind may be planted before another kind is dug. Trees should never be kept out of the ground any longer than is absolutely necessary. If trees are to be transported a long distance, the roots should be protected from drying by the process known as "puddling," which consists in dipping them in a thick mixture of clay and water, the covering thus formed making an almost air-tight covering over the roots. VJ2 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Trees from Home vs. Distant Nurseries — The ques- tion as to whether it is best to grow our own trees, to purchase them from nurseries near home, or to send to sections a long distance awa}' where they have peculiar advantages of soil or special skill that comes from long practice which enables them to grow better trees and at a low^er price, is one that needs careful consideration. There can be no doubt as to the value of two trees equall}^ well grown, the one from a nursery within a short distance of the place of planting, where they may be dug and planted the same day, and one grown hun- dreds of miles away. The one grown in the home nursery will be, beyond question, the best to plant. It is the practice of local nurseries to buy young stock of parties who are very skillful, and are gTowing in large quantities, plant them in their own nurseries for a year or two, and then sell to the local trade. These trees are, as a rule, more sure to grow than trees planted at first hand, but are more expensive. The question as to where to obtain the best "trees for planting is an important one, and can only be settled by a very careful consideration of all the surrounding conditions, but one thing must be imj^ressed on the planter — that it does not pay to buy poor stock at any price. PROPAGATION OF THE PEAR The pear is propagated in practically the same way as the apple, but requires more care in the selection of the seed, in the growth of the seedlings and in their care in the nursery. The stocks most in use by the nurserymen are imported, and called French stocks, but by a careful selection of seed and an especially good soil, good native seedling stocks may be grown. The varieties of the pear are generally increased by budding (see page 1.S9). Some nurserymen, how- PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 193 ever, use the root graft, tliougii this method cannot be recommended for general use. Nursery Treatment — The best soil for the growth of good trees in the nursery is a deep, moist loam, per- haps a little cla3^ey, but thoroughly underdrained. The seedlings are cared for and planted in the same manner as the apple, but more attention must be given to them that they do not cease growing from the time planted until they are budded, for, if from want of plant food or moisture they are checked in growth, the leaf blight may attack them, the leaves fall, and budding cannot be done. If it is found at any time in July that growth is weak, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered in a furrow close up to the roots and be cultivated in. Frequent cultivation must be kept up from the time the seedlings are set out until budding is completed — once a week is not too often — and in case of drouth more frequent working of the soil will be advisable. The leaf blight fungus, described in Chapter XXI, is more likely to attack pear seedlings in hot, moist weather, in low land, than upon that in full exposure to air and sunlight. The preventive, other than that mentioned, is spraying with the bordeaux as used in the orchard. The budding of the pear seedlings, cutting off of the stock and the forming of the head is the same as to time and method as for the apple, but it generally requires one year longer to grow a first-class pear tree than for the apple. Top-iuorhing-^—Soiae varieties produce a weak stock or trunk, and to make good, upright, clean trees, must be "top-worked." This consists in budding in summer, or splice or tongue grafting in spring, on some strong growing stock like Clapp or Flemish Beauty. In this way a stout trunk is obtained much earlier than can be produced on its own stock. Old trees of unprofitable varieties may be grafted over as described for the apple. 194 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE PROPAGATION OF THE PEACH Peach trees for orchard planting are more easily grown than those of any other fruit. The soil best suited to the jjroduction of first-class trees is a medium deep loam, that will not be subject to drouth, and fully exposed to a good circulation of air. Much care must be exercised in the selection of the seed, that coming from vigorous, healthy trees being the best. Much of the seed used is sold as coming from Tennessee, North Carolina, etc., where it is claimed that the disease known as the "yellows" does not exist. It is undoubtedly true that this disease is less prevalent in the above-mentioned sections, but it is thought that it may be found there, and as the "natural" fruit often is less vigorous than many of the budded sorts, it would seem best to use seed from the most hardy, healthy and vigorous varie- ties, whether budded or not. The seed should be obtained as early in the fall as is possible, and be ^'hedded," i. e., mixed with soil and exposed to the frost so that it will germinate more readily in the spring. Bedding the seeds consists in selecting a rather moist soil of sandy loam, where there will be no danger of standing water, and making a pit from six to ten inches deep, and of the size required for the amount of seed to be used. In the bottom of this bed a layer of seeds two or three deep is placed, then a layer of soil of the same depth, treading it firmly, then another layer of seeds, and so on until the bed is filled a little above the level of the surrounding soil. Here the seeds remain exposed to the action of moisture and frost until they begin to sprout in May, when they are thrown upon a wire screen, and the shells will separate from the kernel if the frosting has been a success. If any seeds fail to sprout they must be carefully cracked with a light hammer. As the kernels are separated from PKOPAGATION OE TREES AND PLANTS 195 the shells they should bo kept covered with moist sand or soil until ready for planting. They are planted in rows from four to five feet apart and about two inches in the row, covering with fine soil from one to two inches deep, according to the character of the soil. Under proper conditions of cul- tivation and in good soil the seedlings should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches high by the last of August, when they are to be budded. If larger than this they are more difficult to bud, and will make a tree the following season too large for the best results in planting in the orchard. The peach is the most easily budded of any of the fruit trees, but care must be taken not to put in fruit buds. Buds should be taken from the best and most fruitful trees and not from the nursery rows, though the latter will be more certain to grow, and fewer blossom buds be obtained. The process of budding is the same as for the apple. As the peach seedlings grow very rapidly about the time of budding, a closer watch must be kept that the bands do not cut into the stocks so as to cause them to break off in the wind. The stocks are cut off, as seen in Figure 43, the following spring, and the buds start into rapid growth, requiring early attention that the inserted bud is not injured by other buds that start about it. The care required the first season is to see that only one leader grows, but all laterals are allowed to grow, and at the end of the first year's growth the tree is ready for planting in the orchard. Peach trees are graded according to size into No. 1 and No. 2, or according to hight, as five to seven feet, three and one- half to five feet, and three to four and one-half feet. The trees most planted are those of medium or second sizes, for the reason that these have more dormant buds on the main stem than the larger trees, and conse- quently more stocky heads can be formed from them. 196 SUCCESSFUL rilUlT .CULTURE PROPAGATION OF THE PLUM Varieties of plums are propagated by budding on several kinds of stocks, the most in use being the French or Myrobalan, strong growing varieties of the native or American plum, and the peach stock. For the Euro- pean varieties the Myrobalan is most largely used, thougli the use of the American stock is increasing. The Jap- anese plums are grown on both the Myrobalan and the peach stock, the former doing the best when to be planted on heavy soil and the latter when to be set on rather light soil. The nursery treatment is prac- tically the same as in the growth of the apple, and the amateur finds no great difficulty in growing good trees. Some growers are using peach roots on which to graft the Japanese and some American varieties, the claim being that when worked in this way, and planted deeply, roots will soon grow from the cion and thus the trees are on their own roots in a short time. The Japanese plums grown on peach stocks are generally large enough for planting at one year from the bud. PROPAGATION OF THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE These two fruits are propagated in the same man- ner as the peach, being budded on the peach stock. PROPAGATION OF THE CHERRY Like the plum, the varieties of the cherry are prop- agated on imported stocks. Two kinds are used, the Mahaleb and the Mazzard, the latter being most largely used and most valuable. The soil for the best results is a light, rather rich loam, kept well cultivated, by which means the seedlings are brought into good condi- tion for budding the last of August. If growing very rapidly at the time the buds are inserted, it is often the practice to head back the seedlings to check their PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 197 growth, and thus cause a more perfect union of the bud with the stock. After the stock is cut off in the spring, the bud grows very rapidly, and the trees are often large enough for transplanting to the orchard at one year from the bud. PROPAGATION OF THE QUINCE The quince is propagated by cuttings, by layers, by stools and by root grafts, but as the two former methods are rather difficult, the last two are the ones most used. Root Graft — For ^ this purpose small JL. L pieces of apple roots are \ja VTl>r# ' used; the trimmings of the seedlings are taken and cut into lengths of three or four inches, each one to be grafted on a cion six to eight inches long, of the de- sired variety, and are then planted in the same manner as the apple root grafts de- scribed on Page 186. The apple root supplies moisture and a little food material until roots are formed on the cion, when it fails to grow more, and we have the quince on its own root. Where only a few trees are desired they may be grown by what is called the "stooP method. This con- sists in first cutting a small, young tree down to within four or five inches of the ground, and allowing it to throw up new shoots that grow one season, as seen in Figure 104. At the beginning of the second season a mound of soil is made about this "stool" deep enough to keep the base of the shoots moist all of the time Fig. 104— Quince Stool 198 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE during the summer, when in the fall roots will be found well developed. These shoots are then cut off and treated as rooted cuttings, which after one season in the nursery under good conditions should be large enough to plant in the orchard. PROPAGATION OF THE GRAPEVINE The grape is propagated by cuttings, by layers and by grafting, and is one of the most easily propagated of the fruits. Cuttings — Tavo kinds of cuttings are employed, the long cutting and the short cutting. The long cutting, under ordinary care, gives the best results, the short cuttings only being employed under glass. The long cuttings are made of canes of the last season's growth, of medium size, about eight to ten inches long, containing two or more buds to each cutting, (Figure 105.) The best time to make them is in the fall before the ground freezes, tying in bundles of twenty-five and carefully heeling-in in a sheltered place or in a cold-frame where thev will not freeze, and Fig. 105— ^yiiere they can be gotten at early in the Cutting spring for early planting. Cuttings are some- times planted in the fall, but if this is done a heavy mulch of stable manure should be put on the bed before the ground freezes to keep them from being heaved out by the frost. Layers — Perhaps the best method by which the amateur may increase his stock of vines is the "spring layer." (Figure 106.) This consists in taking canes of last season's growth and bending them down into a trench five or six inches deep in the spring before growth begins, and after the buds along the cane have made a few inches of growth, filling in the trench with PEOPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS lOU good soil, when during the summer roots will form at each node or bud, and in the fall we shall have as many rooted plants as there are shoots. If, after the cane has been bent down, only the buds at the end of the cane and those near the vine start, it may be bent up, when the buds at the highest point will grow. If any of these new canes grow faster than the others the ends should be pinched off so as to force the growth into the weaker ones. Fig:. 106~Layertns the Qrapevlne Summer Layer — This consists in taking a cane of the present season's growth and bending it down into a trench in July, covering with five or six inches of soil as in the spring layer, but only two vines will be produced from each cane layered, i. e., that at the end of the cane and that part nearest to the vine. By these two methods anyone who has a vine or two in the garden may increase the number with much more certainty and with less labor than from cuttings. 200 SUCCESSFUL FllUIT CULTURE Grafting the Vine — Many of the varieties highly recommended by nurserymen prove of little value except under the most favorable conditions, and after planting it becomes necessary to destroy them or to change the variety. The latter can be done with a limited success only by grafting, though no one has been able to make more than a small per cent of grafts to grow, but when they do succeed the growth is so great that the graft bears fruit often the next year after grafting. The most successful method of grafting the vine is by cutting Fig. 107— Grafting the Grapevine off the stock two or three inches below the surface of the ground in the fall before the ground freezes, and making a common cleft graft. If the stock does not split well a fine saw may be used to split it. After the cion has been inserted the soil is packed firmly about the cleft, no wax being used, then a small flowerpot is inverted over it (Figure 107), so that the cion may not be disturbed when beiug uncovered in the spring. More soil (d d) is now banked around the flowerpot, and, as cold weather comes on, mulch enough is put PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 201 on to keep it from freezing deeply (g f). In the spring, after heavy frosts are over, the covering is taken off, the soil packed lirnily to the top of the cion, when, if the work is successful, growth will begin early and a large vine will result. This kind of a graft is also made by some in June after the leaves have unfolded, and the sap has become thickened, but the cions must be kept dormant in cold storage or deeply covered on the ice in an icehouse. If the stock used is very small the cion should be tied in with a strong string in order to obtain pressure enough to cause the cambium layers to unite. PROPAGATION OF THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY These two fruits are propagated in the same manner as the grape, i. e., by cuttings and layers. The Currant — Cuttings are best made as soon as the leaves begin to fade in August or September. They are made of the new wood, from six to eight inches long, and should be planted at once for the best growth. The soil should be a deep, moist, rich loam, and the planting and care is the same as for grape cuttings or root grafts, the top bud of the cutting being just covered • with soil. Before the ground freezes the bed should be covered with several inches of strawy manure or other mulch to- prevent the heaving of cuttings by the alter- nating freezing and thawing during the winter and spring. If the work is successful a large growth may be expected the next season, and the bushes will be ready to plant at one or two years from the time the cuttings were planted. Layers of the currant are made like those of the grape, but as cuttings root so easily under proper conditions, the layer is not much used. The gooselterry is not easily grown from cuttings unless the canes are first covered with soil for one season, but readily grown by what are called "stools," as 202 • SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE described under the quince. After the shoots have been covered one season they are cut off and planted as cuttings, rooting readily, and at two years they are ready to plant in the field. PROPAGATION OF THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY These two fruits are increased in two ways, i. e., from suckers and from root cuttings. A sucker plant is one that naturally comes up from the roots of these plants, and is the cause of their spreading. If these sucker plants are taken up we find that they have but few fine roots, but if carefully taken up and transplanted at once make good plants, and are largely used in setting new plantations. The root cuttings are, however, much better, as they have an abundance of fine roots. Root cuttings are made by digging up the roots of the desired kind in the fall before the ground freezes, cutting them into pieces of from two to three inches in length, using everything from one-eighth of an inch up, and planting in rich, moist soil in beds or wide rows about as peas are planted, covering about two inches deep. Before the ground freezes deeply a covering of coarse stable manure should be put over the bed that the ground shall not freeze deeply. In the spring the covering is taken off as soon as severe freezing weather is over, the ground carefully cleared of weeds as the season advances, and by July the bed will be studded over with buds from the planted roots. The only care needed during the summer is to keep the weeds down, keep the surface of the soil mellow and to check, by pinching, any very strong growing plants that tend to injure their neighbors. At the end of the season the plants should average two feet in hight and have a large mass of roots. Such plants are far more valuable than the sucker plants,- and sell at about double the price. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 203 The hlackcap raspberry is propagated by the ends or tips of the canes taking root. This takes place to a limited extent without assistance, but to obtain the largest number of plants the ends of the canes should be carefully covered with one or two inches of soil the last of August or early in September. The layer or "tip" plants (Figure 76) are better if not taken up until the following spring, but if carefully dug and handled, it may be done in the fall with a fair degree of success. The tips should not be planted in the field until spring. PROPAGATION OF THE STRAWBERRY The strawberry is not generally grown as a nursery product alone, but the plants for setting new fields are often taken from the fruiting plantations. To a lim- ited extent this practice is not seriously objectionable, but, as many kinds are often grawn in the fruiting fields more or less closely together, there are many chances of their getting mixed. The plants cannot be as well dug as from a bed where all are to be removed, and therefore it is better to have all plants grown in beds where no fruit is expected. A* method practiced by some af the experiment stations and others, called "summer bedding," is found very satisfactory. This consists in heeling-in, or planting in close rows or beds, the runners that are thinned from the rows or the field during the summer, where they reimain until the follow- ing spring, when they may be set in the field at any time from the first of April to June without being checked in transplanting. In this way runners that have made but very short roots, if heeled-in and shaded for a day or two, will make strong rooted plants in a few weeks, and each plant will have full exposure to the air and sunlight, thus making very strong plants. 204 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE In the foregoing pages of this chapter we have given a brief outline of the methods employed in propa- gating the fruits and the treatment they require in the nursery, which we hope will enable those who are about to go into fruit raising and with some practice to grow, under favorable conditions, good trees and plants for their own planting. XIX FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS While in this progressive age almost all of the fruits of the tropics and many local fruits are shipped to the North in a perfectly fresh condition from the South, yet to have native fruits out of season in the Fisr. 108— Curvilinear Span=Roof House great perfection that they may be grown in skillfully managed fruit houses will always be considered a great luxury. For many ^ears past fruit growing under glass has received much less attention than formerly on account of the improved facilities for transportation, and as a market product to compete with Southern or Pacific Coast products the fruit houses will hardly be 206 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE able to hold their own except for its greater perfection. Large estates, with their numerous gardens and green- houses, may add a fruit house, a cold or hot grapery, or force strawberries in any cool house, at little expense, with a great deal of satisfaction. So, too, the owner of a city home with but a few rods of land may have, if he can. afford the expense, even choicer fruit than -,-=7^ O >i: III/' .. ■•/'/, "^ Fig. 109— 5trai£rht Sash Bar Lean=to House '3.'< i ' can be grown by the farmer, and so control conditions as to have it through a much wider range of season. This expense, however, need not be great after the houses are built, and these may be simple and inexpensive structures built against the house or stable, or may be very elaborate and ornate, built by skillful greenhouse architects. As with fruits out of doors the grower must be familiar with the needs of each crop — and they need practically the same conditions under glass that they FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 207 do in the field — and be prompt and persistent in carry- ing out the details of the work in all of its stages. A little neglect or wrong treatment for even a short time will result in more serious injury than in the field. Too high or too low temperature for even a short time at critical moments may often destroy an entire season's growth, and no one should undertake the care of fruit under glass unless they are so situated that attention can be given to the crop by someone at any moment of the day when conditions may require it. Among the fruits that may be successfully grown under glass are the peach, apricot, grape and strawberry. THE PEACH AND APRICOT For forcing these two fruits, very nearly the same conditions are required. The most approved house for this work is one with a span roof running north and south. Both the curvilinear (Figure 108) and the straight sash bar (Figure 109) are used, the former being more ornamental, while the latter will make a closer house. In the extreme Northern sections the lean-to has the advantage that it can be most easily heated, on account of the shelter wall on the north side. The foundation should be raised above the surrounding land to insure quick surface drainage and a dry atmos- phere. The trees are generally grown in borders, but where space is limited they may be grown in pots or tubs and stored during the winter or dormant stage in close quarters in the houses, in stable cellars or in pits. The Borders — The borders are generally made in- side, as seen in Figure 108, but may be partly outside as well, as shown in Figure 109, and should be made of fine, light, but moderately rich material. Decayed sods, leaf mold, coarse bones, mortar waste and perhaps some sand if the soil is heavy should be well mixed together for this purpose. The border should be thor- 208 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE oughly underdrained with tile, as shown in the illus- trations, with a free outlet, so that there shall be no possibility of water standing about the roots. "Where the fruit is to be forced during the winter the inside border is probably the best, but where growth does not begin until spring the outside border has some advantages, requiring less care as to watering, though in case of heavy rain storms may become too wet unless drainage is very perfect. The roots of the trees planted inside reach the outside border through 6x1 8-inch openings in » I I Mil I I Pig. 110— Wall with Openings for the Roots the wall, as seen at a, Figure 110, at intervals opposite where the trees are planted, the border being filled up nearly to the sills of the house. The soil should be worked over thoroughly several times, and be not less than two feet in depth. Planting — Young, vigorous one-year-old trees should be used, the roots being well cut back and the top trimmed to ten to twelve inches, or perhaps better, cut down to two or three buds. The advantage of the latter method is that one clean central shoot may be trained from a single bud near the ground more easily than from a stock one foot or more high, and the buds FRUIT GROWING UNDEll GLASS 20U generally start with greater vigor when from near the ground. The planting and first year's treatment under glass is practically the same as out of doors, except that the training should be directed so as to produce the desired form, pinching here and there as needed to produce the flat form (espalier), or the tree form, as desired. The aim should be to obtain the conditions that would give the best growth if planted outside. Watering — Water should be applied liberally whenever the border becomes dry, but too much water is much worse than too little. Syringe the foliage two or three times each week on bright sunny mornings. In extremely hot, moist weather, withhold water, and if the red spider appears — an indication of a too dry atmosphere — syringe more freely. Ventilate freely both night and day during the summer, but in very cold, wet weather, keep the ventilators partly closed. At blooming time withhold water and keep a dry, airy atmosphere. So, too, when the fruit is beginning to color, give more air and increase or reduce the tempera- ture as the ripening of the fruit is to be hastened or retarded. Cultivation and Fertilization — During the growing season the border should receive about the same atten- tion as is given borders outside. The surface should be frequently stirred, and no weeds allowed to grow. If the border becomes too wet it will dry out more quickly if allowed to stand without stirring. Should the growth of the trees be weak and sickly a little quick- acting fertilizer like nitrate of soda will often give them a start. Before growth begins each season a liberal dressing of well decomposed stable manure should be worked into the border. To this may be added to advantage, sometimes, a light dressing of air-slaked lime or wood ashes. 210 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Training the Tree — Two plans or methods of training commonly practiced are the tree form and the "fan" espalier form, the latter being most in use. Much skill may be exercised in this work, and many modified forms of these two methods produced to adjust the trees to surrounding conditions. Each season the new shoots are to be cut back more or less to insure a moderate number of blossoms and enough shoots to renew the fruit bearing wood for the next season. No surplus wood should be allowed to grow, the whole force of the tree to be directed to the production of the fruit and the renewal shoots. During the summer all shoots not needed to carry out the plan of training should be cut off as soon as they appear. Thinning the Fruit — To produce fruit of the best size, quality and color, but a limited quantity should be allowed to grow on a given space of wood. Eeducing the number of. specimens to one-fourth or even more will often not reduce the measured quantity of fruit ripened, while the number of seeds or kernels being largely reduced, the strain on the tree is not as great, and it will often make a much larger growth, and be in better condition for next year's crop. No rule can be given as to the number of specimens to be left or the distance apart on the branches; each grower must "use his judgment," but it is best to err on the safe side by thinning , liberally, if the future good of the trees is to be considered. On a well branched, vig- orous tree, four inches apart would give a large number of fruits, while if the tree is weak six inches would be a better distance. Varieties — Among those recommended by success- ful growers are the following: Peaches — Eoyal George, Golden Eagle, Goshawk. Nectarines — Cardinal, Lord Napier, Darwin, Victoria. Trees in Pots — When one has limited glass space FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 211 and a good cellar or pit in which to store them during the winter, trees of the peach, apricot and nectarine may be grown in pots with a good degree of satisfaction. Small one-year-old trees should be planted in six to eight-inch pots in rich soil in April or May, and be grown vigorously in the open air until October. For the best results they should be shifted once or twice into pots of larger size until, when well grown, they will be in twelve-inch size. They must have a constant supply of water and an abundance of plant food. To prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture from the soil in the pot, they should be plunged to their rim, or an inch or two lower if the soil is dry, in soil, sphagnum moss, or some other material that holds moisture well. They should be plunged where they will have a full exposure to sunlight and air. Under no circumstances must the soil become dry for any considerable time, and whenever water is ap- plied sufficient should be used to saturate the soil in the pots and that about it. If the roots are found to grow through the drain hole or over the top of the pot the ball of roots should be pulled from the pot and given a full turn, returning all roots to the inside of the pot, settling the soil firmly in place by tamping. As cold weather comes on less water should be used that the wood may become well ripened. Any mulch about the roots should be removed unless in times of severe drouth. Allow the trees to stand in full exposure until there is danger of bursting the pots by frost, when the pots may be protected or be taken up and placed in a frame where the pots can be protected. At any time from December to March, after consid- erable exposure to frost has been given, the trees may be gradually exposed to a higher temperature in a light, airy house, starting at thirty-five degrees at night and forty to forty-five degrees during the daytime, and 213 SUCCESSFUL riiUIT CULTURE raising it about two to three degrees a week -antil well started into growth, when the treatment must be the same as for trees planted in the borders. GRArES UNDER GLASS Of all the fruit crops under glass none gives the satisfaction that the grape does, and none is so easily grown. They may be grown in cheap houses with a border outside and without any artificial heat, the fruit ripening a little earlier than the outdoor crop, or in houses with borders inside, and by the aid of artificial heat, the fruit may be ripened at any time from July to January. Many of the varieties grown under glass possess such long-keeping qualities that they may be had in perfect condition nearly the year around by a FRUIT GllOWING UNDER GLASS 213 little especial care, i. e., cutting a part of the cane with each bunch and inserting it in a bottle of water and hanging in a cool, dry cellar. Cold Grapery — Any glass house comparatively close, with long sash bars, and space for a border outside or in, may be used with success for this work. The best form is perhaps a lean-to eighteen to twenty feet wide facing the south, with long rafters or sash bars and ventilators at the top and bottom. Strong one-year-old vines are planted in the border outside, with the cane growing through the openings in the wall, as seen in Figure 111. The Border — The border should be made about two feet deep, of about the same material used for making the fruit house border, i. e., partly rotted turf, leaf mold, sand, bones, old mortar, etc. It should be well under- drained and the whole texture, when completed, should be light, warm and rich. The first year it need be made only four to six feet wide, each year adding about two feet, until it is fourteen to sixteen feet wide. Fine ground bone and Avood ashes make a good fertilizer if the soil is not too heavy. Training the Vine (first year) — At planting the vine is cut back so that one or two buds will come inside of the wall, as seen at a. Figure 111. Only one cane is allowed to grow, and this should make from six to eight feet, but the end be pinched off when it has reached five feet, that the buds and wood may fully mature. No laterals are allowed to grow. If from any cause one of the lateral buds should start into growth, one leaf is allow^ed to unfold, when the cane should be pinched off just beyond it, as shown in Figure 111. The removal of this leaf would cause the bud at its base to grow. Summer Care — During the summer little care need be given the border. If properly made it will take care of itself unless it should become flooded, which 214 SUGCES«rUL rilUlT CULTURE good drainage will prevent. The inside treatment needed is an abundance of air and sunlight. As the time for growth begins keeij the ventilators well open in all bright, warm weather, night or day, so that the vines will not start too early, but keep iclosed when very cold or wet. Sudden changes from high temperature to low and close hot weather tend to bring on mildew and rot, and must be avoided. During the summer the atmosphere should be kept on the dry side, syringing the foliage in the morning during bright weather once or twice each week and more frequently should "red spiders" gain a foothold. When in bloom and again when the fruit is ripening, and until well ripened, use but little water, and expose to full air and sunlight to ripen the wood. Training the Vine (second year) — The first year's growth of five or six feet is generally cut back to two or three feet, as seen at h. Figure 111, and the second year be allowed to start a strong bud at the end. The lateral. Figure 111, will burst also, and a few bunches of fruit might be set, but this is not advisable until the second year. The ends of all laterals should be pinched off as soon as one leaf has been formed, as seen in same figure. Often several buds will start into growth from one node, all but the central one of which should be rubbed off entirely. As with the first year's growth, no laterals are allowed to grow more than one leaf at a time. At the end of the second year the leader will have made one clean cane from eight to fifteen feet long (Figure 111, a, h, c), with a few laterals on the growth of last year. (Figure 111, a, h.) Training the Vine (third year) — At the beginning of the third season's growth we should cut the new cane to about three feet, thus increasing the fruiting cane to about six feet in length. From each bud of this cane will be sent out shoots at every node, as seen in Figure 112, mm IT GROWING UNDER GLASS 215 each of which will produce from one to three bunches of blossoms. As soon as these can be distinguished the cane should be pinched off to the last large cluster and one leaf; thus there will be, when set, one large cluster of fruit and one or more large leaves, besides the leaves of the main canes. During the summer, as soon as a new leaf has been formed beyond the last bunch, the end of the cane is pinched off and at the end of the season we will have short spurs upon which are large bunches of grapes. In pruning the laterals after fruiting, cut back so as to reduce the length of the spur for the next year's cane as much as possible. Fig- ure 113 shows how much the s|)ur would be elon- gated if the cut were made at the large bud, h, and how much shorter it would be if the cut were to be made as sho\\Ti at a. Each succeeding sea- son the work is a repeti- tion of that of the third year until the permanent vine reaches the ridge of the house. Each succeeding year, however, will be likely to be met with some new- difficulty, the result of climatic or other changes, insect pests or fungous diseases, which must be met and overcome. If a vine becomes weak or seriously injured by cold the root often may be in a healthy condition, and the top may be renewed by starting a new cane from the ground. Fig. 112— Training: the Vine the Third Year 216 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE This is often practiced and the fruit from the young cane is much superior to that from the old, weak vine. Thinning iJie Fruit — Almost every varietv of the European grapes that are gi'own under glass sets so manv berries to the bunch and the stems are so short that, when full}* grown, they are so crowded that many are forced from their stem or are cracked, and the whole bunch soon decays. To prevent this loss, when the ber- ries are about one-half grown, those on the inside with short stems are thinned out. Sometimes it is necessary to cut out more than three-quarters of the berries if the bunches set are verv larsfe an4 the vines mowing very vigorously, but for an average growth one-third to one-half will be sufficient. Among the best varieties for the cold grapery are Fosters Seedling, Buckland Sweetwater and Black Hamburg. Hothouse Grapes — The construction of the house for forcing grapes is practically the same as for the cold grapery, except that the border is generally inside, and artificial heat is used. The treatment of the vines after startins: into OTOwth is also verv similar, though more care must be exercised during cold weather to prevent a chill, which will often bring on mildew or rot. Among some of the leading varieties for forcing are Muscat of Alexandria and Gros Colman. FOECIXG THE STRAWBEERY With a good supply of this fruit shipped to the Northern cities from the South as early as the middle of January, and then sent in from the Xorth after the local crop has been harvested as late as September, and the many autumn fruiting varieties, the forcing of the strawberry will probably never become a large industry. When managed skillfully, fruit of very fine quality may be put into the market early in January, and bring the highest prices, as it must to meet expense of growing. FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 2ir Success in this work depends largely upon strong, well rooted plants in large pots of rich soil, and a full resting state under similar conditions to those found in the field grown crop. Strong runners from vigorous plants are layered early in the summer in three-inch 2)ots, as seen in Figure 113. As soon as they are well rooted they are shifted to five or six-inch pots and placed where they can have careful attention as to watering and plant food. They must be kept growing vigorously until the time for resting in the fall, and Fig. 113— Layering Strawberry Plants in Pots if the plant food in the pots becomes exhausted, as it often will when water has run through the soil freely, more plant food must be applied. For success an abun- dance of fine white roots and large, heavy leaves musf be produced. As soon as freezing: nisfhts come on. the whole plant and surface soil of the pots should be exposed to the weather, water should also be withheld, but the soil never be allowed to become quite dry. After having been thus exposed to freezing weather for a few week?, forcing may begin, though the longer frozen the better they will force. The plants should be placed in a light, s I CO a E a cu « S JS m ifi I (O ja u a fiQ FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 319 airy house, with a temperature beginning at thirty-three to thirty-tive degrees at night and forty to forty-five degrees during the day, gradually raising it two to three degrees each week until forty to forty-five degrees at night and fifty to sixty degrees during the day is reached. As much air must be kept on the house as possible, and an abundance of water be given. Liquid manure may be used every week after blooming if the plants are not growing rapidly. When the plants are showing bud they should be placed as near the glass as 'possible, but the pots be shaded b}^ the foliage by placing close together, or by some packing like sphagnum moss about them. When the flowers begin to open the atmosphere should be kept as dry as possible. Fertilization of the flowers should be done by hand with the camel's hair brush or by having bees in the house. To keep the fruit from get- ting into the dirt and decaying, pieces of wire netting up a vigorous growth, and maintain as nearly as possible can be placed on top of the pots, as seen in Figure 114. The aim in all stages of growth should be to supply the best soil and an abundance of plant food ; to keep the temperature, moisture and air of an ideal season for strawberry growing outside. The best varieties for forcing are probably those that succeed best in field culture, and yet few can hope to supply the exact condi- tions under which they succeed in the field. I would suggest the Clyde, Brandywine, Sample and Senator Dunlap as among the best. XX INSECT PESTS There is nothing connected with the subject of fruit growing that is of more importance than a knoMd- eclge of the habits of the insect and fungous pests that we have to contend with and how to prevent their injury. It is a comparatively easy matter to make the trees grow, and perhaps to set a large crop of fruit, but if this fruit is injured by insects or fungous pests, it will not be salable at paying prices. With the increase of the number of trees or fruit plants in any given locality comes an increase in the number of these pests, and the successful fruit grower must equip himself with spraying outfits and make use of insecticides and fungi- cides if he will insure the quantity and quality of his fruit crop. No attempt will be made to describe the various ])ests with scientific accuracy, but to show them as they will be seen by the practical fruit grower. PREVENTIVES The first consideration in growing good fruit is to so grow the trees or plants that they will be the least liable to the attack of insects or fungi. The con- dition of the tree will have a great influence on the amount of injury that will l)e done by these pests. The more vigorous the growth, tlie less will be the injury from fungous diseases, and, to a greater or less degree, that from insects also, as most of the fungi and many of the insects only attack the weak plants. An abun- INSECT PESTS 22 i dance of plant food and good care and cultivation must therefore be the first point to be attended to, but cannot be wholly depended upon, for, when the season is right for the rapid increase of insects or fungi, trees under all conditions will be sure to be more or less injured unless the work of spraying is promptly and thoroughly done. Insecticides should be applied when the first insects appear, and fungicides before the spores come in contact with the host plant. If the first insect is de- stroyed there will be no further trouble, and if the first spore or seed of the fungus is destroyed, or, coming into contact with the copper sulphate, fails to germinate, there can be no further growth of that pest. Therefore we should adopt the rule that "prevention is better than cure," and it is certainly cheaper. INSECTICIDES ( INSECT KILLERS ) The substances used to destroy insects on our plants may be divided into two groups: Those that kill by contact, and those that kill by being taken into the stomachs of the insects, i. e., those killing "sucking" insects and those killing "chewing" insects. 1. Of the first, the most in use are Paris green, London purple, arsenate of lead, hellebone, arsenate of lime, arsenate of soda, white arsenic, etc. 2. Of the second group most in us^, we may men- tion whale-oil soap, linseed oil, kerosene, crude petrol- eum and pyrethrum or Persian insect powder. Promptness and thoroughness in the application of insecticides should be the watchword. The best pumps for the work in hand should be used, the prepara- tion of the insecticides and fungicides should be mo^^t carefully done, and in mixing and applying the greatest economy of labor be practiced. In fact, in all the work attending the growing and caring for any crop of fruit, thorough work and business dispatch must be the rule 222 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE if any profit is to be expected. In all this work of fruit growing the margin of profit is very small, and the strictest economy must be j^racticed even under the most favorable conditions. PUMPS Much of the success in the protection of our fruit crops depends upon the pump used, but there are so many good pumps now upon the market that no one need use a poor one. The main points to be consid- ered are: 1. That the j^ump be large enough to throw the liquid with so much force that it shall break into a very fine spray and yet strike the plants with force enough to have it cover the surface of all the parts of the plant sprayed. 2. All the parts that come in contact with the liquids must be of brass or copper if copper solutions are to b,e used, as iron would soon be eaten out by the copper. 3. An effective agitating apparatus should be provided, or very unequal results will be obtained, and if Paris green and other insecticides are used, much injury may be done. 4. Good rubber hose should be supplied of suffi- cient lengths to be easily and quickly moved around the trees or plants being sprayed. It will be found that the best quality of hose will generally be the cheapest in the end, and that of half-inch diameter will last longer than larger sizes where it is to be moved and pulled about very much, as it does not kink up as much. Co-operation in spraying, where orchards and fruit plantations are small, will be found of great economy, as has been the case in many sections where this has been done, as well as in co-operation in the selling of the crops, etc. Tlie cost of appliances for spraying on INSECT TESTS 223 a small place is often more than the profits will warrant, and one outfit often would be sufficient to do the spray- ing for a large community or even a township, and at a great saving in time and money. Most of the spraying pumps and machines are rather delicately made, and must have good care, as with all other farm and garden implements, and one must be something of a mechanic to keep them in good working order. After using the pump with mixtures like the bordeaux, unless it is to be used very soon again, clean water should be run through it until both the pump and the hose are well rinsed out, and it is well to hang the hose up so that the water will drain out of it after using. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE Eound-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Saperda Candida) (Figure 115) — This is one of the most destructive insects to the apple tree, and one of the most widely distributed. The perfect insect (Figure 115, c) is a beetle about three-fourths of an inch long, with three light brown and tAvo creamy white stripes upon its wing covers. It flies at night, laying its eggs upon the trunk in crevices of the bark, not far from the ground, in July and early August. The eggs soon hatch and the young larvae (Figure 115, a) penetrate the bark, feed- ing upon the bark for a time, often not reaching deeper than the sapwood until the following spring. The pupa or chrysalis is shown in Figure 115, h. During the second season it works in the sapwood, and at the end of the second season may be found in a burrow or hole that often runs upward for several inches. After the second season it often makes a turn outward toward the bark, where it undergoes its changes, and the following spring comes out a perfect insect to go through its round of life again. In young trees it often starts on one side of the tree, works into it, then goes 224: SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE upward and comes out on the other side. When the insect comes out of the tree it leaves a clean hole, and when one of these holes is found nothing need be done other than to prevent the deca}^ of the injured parts by filling the hole with putty or forcing in linseed oil. Its presence may be known by the chips or droppings that are found forced out of its hole, or by the discoloration of the bark under the injured parts. Remedy — The best and cheapest way to overcome the injury of this pest is to examine the tree twice each year, in August to find the very young larvae, and Fig. 115— The Round=Headed Apple Tree Borer again in the following June to destroy those that may have escaped in the August examination, digging out the larvae with a pointed knife or killing with a wire. In doing this work, first pare off the outer bark until the opening where the larva entered is found, then follow the channel until the larvae are reached, or until the upward burrow is found, and insert the wire. If the larvae are very young they will be destroyed in the operation of paring off the outer bark, but if deep in the tree considerable effort will be sometimes needed to reach them. The Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysohothris femorafa) (Figure 116) — This beetle is smaller than the INSECT PESTS 225 last, of a steel gray color, and moves about in the day- time. It lays its eggs not only on the trunk, but some- times on the main branches as well. It is generally found on the south side, and begins its work where there has been some injury to the bark. The larvae of the flat-headed borer work only in the bark and sap- wood, and are more easily destroyed than the round- headed borer. The insect generally completes its changes in one year, and in many places it is more abundant than the round-headed borer, and is more destructive. Figure 116, J^ shows the perfect beetle ; h, the chrysalis ; a, the larva, with the head en- larged at c. 'Remedy — The presence of this larva may be known in the same way as that of the round-headed borer, and the remedy is the same. The use of washes o-n the trunk or branches is of uncertain, if of any, value, while examina- tion, if thoroughly made, is suhb to reveal the insects if present, and there is no uncertainty about it, while the cost is less. The Oyster Shell Baric Louse (Mytilcpspis pomorum) — This insect, shown in large numbers in Figure 117, injures the apple tree by sucking the juices from the twigs and branches. While young the minute insects move about freely, but soon, finding a desirable place, fix themselves and feed there until they die. During the winter and spring we only find the dead shell and numerous eggs securely covered by it. In this state the shell or covering is so securely sealed that it is with difficulty removed from the bark, and can be destroyed only by very strong insecticides. Figure 117, a, shows Fig. 116— Flat=Headed Apple Tree Borer 226 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE the under side of a mature insect with the numerous eggs; bj same from above; c_, twig infested by female scales; d^ male scale, and e, twig infested therewith. It generally attacks weak trees and often destroys them. Remedy — It may be destroyed while the trees are dormant by brushing over with linseed oil, by the use Fl?. 117— Oyster Shell Bark Louse of fifteen to twenty per cent mechanical solution of kero- sene oil, or by a strong solution of whale-oil soap, two pounds to one gallon of water; or, after the leaves have unfolded, with a ten per cent solution of kerosene when the young are moving about, which is generally during the early part of June. As when used INSECT PESTS 227 for the woolly aphis, the kerosene should be applied with a nozzle that gives a fine spray, and only on bright days. The Tent Caterpillar {CUsiocampa Americana) (Figure 118) — This pest is so familiar to almost every- one in its larval state as to need no description. The .sSSSf Fig. 118— The Tent Caterpillar a b, nest and larvae: c, eggs; « INDEX 2GJ PAGE Cherry, varieties of: Royal Duke 107 Morello 107 Early Richmond lUT English Morello 107 Montmorency 107 Cions— time of cutting 50 storing 51 Citrus fruits ITtj Codlin moth 233 Cold grapery 213 preparation of border of. 213 storage house, construc- tion of 68 Commercial fertilizers for orchards 30 Co-operation in selling fruit. 67 In spraying 222 Copper solutions 252 sulphate 257 Cover crops in orchard 32 crops in orchard, time for sowing 33 Cultivation— effects of 23 implements for 24 Currant anthracnose 264 black, importance of 150 black, varieties of: Black English 243 Black Naples 243 Lee's Prolific 243 borer (imported) 243 cane girdler 244 distance for planting 147 fruit worm 246 golden flowering, impor- tance of 151 golden flowering, variety: Crandall's Improved 151 harvesting and market- ing 146 red, importance of 147 insects attacking 243 leaf spot 246 planting 148 pruning 243 plant louse 245 striped plant bug 246 worm (imported) 244 red, varieties of: Wilder. 146 Cherry 146 Fay's 146 Red Cross 146 Pomona 146 White Imperial 146 Dewberry— importance of 137 method of cultivation 137 varieties of 137 B „ PAGE Evaporated fruit 4 F Fertilizers for orchard 29 Fig— importance of 180 cultivation and pruning. 181 growing in tubs 181 varieties of : Black Ischia. 181 Brunswick 181 Adriatic 181 Forcing strawberries 216 Foreign market for fruit 3 Fruit as a promoter of health 2 as a luxury 2 as a money crop 2 canned 4 cost of production 5 evaporated 4 growing, future of 5 house, cost of 206 house, curvilinear 205 house, lean-to 206 under glass, importance of 205 trees in pots, summer care of 211 trees in pots, winter pro- tection ..., 210 Fungous diseases 250 Fungicides 251 Fungous pests attacking the apple 253 pear 254 peach 255 plum 258 quince 260 cherry 260 grape 260 raspberry and blackberry 262-264 currant 264 gooseberry 264 strawberry 265 G Gooseberry fruit worm 246 importance of 151 insects attacking 246 method of cultivation 151 mildew 264 propagation of by cut- tings 201 propagation of by stools. 201 pruning 151 soil for the 151 varieties of: Columbus.. 152 Downing 152 Red Jacket 152 Industry 152 270 INDEX PAGE Grafting 47 chisel 47 cions for 47 cleft 47 crown 49 methods of HI root 185 stock for 185 wax 49 Grape anthracnose 260 belt Ill berry moth 242 black rot 260 crop of United States, number of pounds 2 cold grapery 212 cold storage of 125 cuttings 198 cultivation of 118 distance of planting 115 downy mildew 260 European 114 fertilizers for 117 fox 114 fruit 1'6 frost 114 gathering the 123 girdling the vine 128 grafting the 200-201 importance of 114 insects attacking 242 layer, spring 199 layer, summer 199 leaf hopper 242 mildew, downy 262 mildew, powdery 262 origin and history of 114 picking tray 124 packing and shipping 124 planting the vine 116 preparation of soil 115 propagation of the 198 pruning summer 120-121 pruning old vines 122 thinning 123 training, first year 120 training, second year 120 training, third year 121 training, Kniffin system. 119 training, modified Knif- fin system 121 trellis, posts for 118 trellis, wires 119 trellis, braces for 120 under glass, cold grapery. 212 under glass, preparation of border 213 under glass, planting and training the vine, first year 213 under glass, planting and training the vine, sec- ond year 214 PAQB Grapes under glass, planting and training the vine, third year 215 under glass, thinning the fruit 216 under glass, hothouse 216 under glass, varieties of: Foster's Seedling 216 Buckland Sweet Water. .216 Black Hamburg 216 varieties, outdoor: black, Campbell's .126 Concord 126 Wilder 126 Worden 125 red. Brighton 126 Delaware 126 white, Green Mountain.. 127 Moore's Diamond 127 Niagara 127 I Imported currant worm 244 currant borer 243 Introduction 1 Insects attacking apple 223 blackberry 247 currant 243 cherry 241 grape 241 peach 238 pear 236 plum 239-240 quince 241 raspberry 246 strawberry 248 Insect pests 220 pests, effect of weather upon 221 pests, extent of injury... 220 Insecticides 221 arsenate of lead 221 arsenate of lime 221 arsenate of soda 221 arsenic, white 221 crude petroleum 221 hellebore 221 kerosene 221 London purple 221 linseed oil 221 Paris green 221 pyrethrum 221 whale oil soap 221 Insect pests — prevention 220 pests, spraying for 222 pests, spraying outfit for.222 L Labels for trees 22 Ladders 59 step 60 INDEX 271 PAGE Leaf spores 64 Lemons 176 Loquat 182 importance of 182 M May beetle 247 Medlar 182 importance of 182 Mulberry 112 importance of 112 varieties of: Downing ,..113 New American 113 Tea's Weeping 113 N Nectarine 92-94 care of 94 protection from insects.. 94 propagation of 196 varieties of: Boston 94 Pitmaston 94 Rivers Orange 94 O Oranges — cultivation of or- chard 177 cover crop in orchard 178 fertilizers for orchard... 177 gold (kumquat) 180 importance of 176 number of boxes 3 mandarin 176 planting orchards 177 protection of trees from frost , 179 sour 176 sweet 176 stock for sweet 177 training trees 177 varieties of: Boone's Early 180 Homosassa 180 Jaffa 180 Maltese Blood 180 Pineapple 180 Satsuma 180 Washington navel 180 Orchard — apple, age of bearing 44 apple, commercial ferti- lizing 30 apple, cover crops for 32 apple, cultivation of 23 apple, fertilization and care 29 apple, green manuring for 32 apple, mulching 34 apple, odd year bearing.. 44 apple, preparing trees for planting 17 ^ , , PAGE Orchard. apple, planting trees in 16 apple, planting the tree. 16 pruning 35 pruning, first year 36 regrafting old trees 46 stable manuring 29 turf culture 27 utilizing wastes of 4 Oyster shell bark louse 225 P Peach— after pruning 81 aphis 239 basket 90 basket, cost of 96 borer 238-240 brown rot 256 curl 256 house for the 207 harvesting and market- ing 89 importance of 78 keeping fruit 91 orchard, care of 81 orchard, cover crops 83 orchard, distance of • planting 79 orchard, fertilizers for... 84 orchard, in turf 83 orchard, land for 79 orchard, four years old. 86 orchard, five years old... 87 orchard, preparation of land for 79 orchard, preparation of trees for planting 80 orchard, trees for plant- ing 79 orchard, cultivated 85 packages 89 propagation 194 pruning, first year 81 rosette 258 seeds 194 seeds, budding ..194 seeds, natural fruit 194 seeds, planting 194 seedlings budded, first year 195 scab 255 seedlings, budding 195 seedlings, cultivation of.l95 thinning fruit 89 trees. No. 1 80, 195 trees. No. 2 80, 195 tree, pruned 83 tree, pruning 81 trees, number of 2 tree, number of bushels fruit 2 tree, unpruned 84 272 INDEX PAGE Peach under glass : — 207 under glass, dramage of border 208 under glass, preparation of border 207 under glass, fertilizing... 209 under glass, pruning and training .- 210 under glass, planting ...208 under glass, thinning ...210 under glass, trees for.... 208 under glass, watenng....z09 under glass, varieties of: Royal George 210 Golden Eagle 210 Goshawk 210 varieties of: Alexander.. 88 Early Rivers 88 Sneed ....^ °» Mountain Rose »» Carman »° Champion °° Oldmixon °^ Triumph °° Crawford Early 88 Crawford Late 88 Eiberta 88 Crosby 88 yellows ^^; Pear— age of bearing t^^ after care of tree i_^ cold storage H distance for planting t2 fire blight 2o5 gathering '^ harvesting ^6 importance of 'i leaf blight 240 leaf blister mite 237 marketing ^6 orchard '2 picking and packing .... (" propagation of 192 propagation of seedhng stock 192 propagation, nursery treatment 193 propagation, soil for — 19.3 pruning, first year 72 ripening '^'^ seedlings, budding 193 seedlings, storing 76 soil for 72 trees for planting 72 topworking 193 varieties of: Anjou 75 Ansault 73 Bartlett 74 J:5osc 75 Clapp 74 Dana's Hovey 76 Gifford 74 Kieffer 75 PAGE Pear, varieties of: Law- rence 76 Margaret 74 Patrick Barry 76 Seckel 75 Sheldon 75 Worden Seckel 76 Persimmon 181 importance of 181 Japanese 181 varieties of: Hyakume...l82 Yeddo 182 Plum — American stocks for. 102 age of bearing 98 aphis 240 black knot 258 classification of 95 curculio 238-239 cultivation 97 European 96 European stock for 96 fungous pests 258 importance of 95 Japanese, stock for 96 leaf rust 95 pocket 259 propagation of 196 propagation, nursery treatment 196 propagation, stocks for.. 196 pruning 97 shot-hole fungus 259 thinning fruit 98 varieties of: Arnrrican, Hammer 102 Hawkeve 102 Wildgoose 102 Wolf 102 Wyant 102 European 99 Bradshaw 101 Fellenberg 101 Gen. Hand 101 Green Gage 101 Kingston 101 Lincoln 101 McLaughlin 101 Quackenboss IPI Pond's Seedling 101 Smith's Orleans 101 Victoria 101 Japanese, Abundance 101 Burbank 101 Chabot 101 October Purple 101 Red June 101 Satsuma 101 Wickson 101 Picking baskets 59 Pomelo (grape fruit) 1»0 varieties of: Duncan — Iw Royale JfO Triumph A8W INDEX 273 PAGE Powdery mildew 258 Propagation of apple Ill apricot 196 blackberry 202 blackcap 203 cherry 196 currant 201 fruit trees 183 gooseberry 201 grape 198 importance of home grown trees 183 nectarine 196 peach 194 pear 192 plum 196 pomelo 160 quince 197 red raspberry 202 strawberry 203 Prunes — number of pounds grown in United States. 3 Pruning — covering wounds made in 40 large branches 38 for form 38 rules for 38 hooks ; 41 saws 40 shears 42 time for 42 Pumps, spraying 222 Q Quince— bush form 109 Champion 110 cultivation of 110 cuttings 197 distance for planting 109 fertilizers for liO harvesting fruit 110 importance of 108 insects attacking z-jI layering 197 orchard, soil for 108 propagation of 197 pruning 108 root grafting 197 soil for 108 stool, first j'ear 197 stool, second year 197 tree formed 108 R Raspberry anthracnose 262 blackcap, importance of. 143 blackcap, distance for planting 144 blackcap, propagation ..144 blackcap pruning 144 varieties of: Palmer 145 Kansas 145 TD 1, PAGE Raspberry, varieties of: Cumberland 145 purple cap, importance.. 145 purple cap, varieties of: Shaffer 146 Columbian 146 yellow cap, importance.. 146 cane borer ■ 247 fall orange rust 263 fungous pests attacking. 262 insects attacking 24o leaf spot 262 root borer 2^3 spring orange rust 263 red, distance for planting.1.39 red, importance of 139 red, pruning and train- ing 139 red, winter protection 141 red, varieties of: Cuth- bert 142 King 142 Loudon 142 Miller 142 Phoenix !!!!l42 Thompson's Pride .....*.! !l42 Early Prolific 142 S San Jose scale 228 240 Spotted paria [.248 Spraying pumps .'.'222 Strawberry— arrangement of staminate and pistillate ^plants 155 baskets igg crates [[[[ jigg crown borer * .248 cultivation of '..159 diseases of *265 fertilizers for 153,160 fitting the land 154 hedge row system 157 hill system 157 importance of 153 irrigating fields 160 irrigating, ditch system. 161 irrigating, sprinkling 162 irrigating, time to apply water 162 best kinds of plants 155 leaf spot or blight 265 Marshall carrier 166 matted row 159 mulching 162 mildew 265 picking and pickers 166 plants, pistillate 155 plants, staminate 155 plants from fruiting field. 203 planting time for 154 planting, depth of 150 INDEX PAGE Strawberry, propagation of. 203 sorting 167 spraying 160 spring treatment 160 summer bedding of plants 163 varieties of: Bubach (pis- tillate) 165 Brandywine (staminate).165 Clyde (s.) 164 Dunlap (s.) 165 Excelsior (s.) 165 Gandy (s.) 165 Glen Mary (s.) 165 Haverland (p.) 164 Marshall (s.) 164 Nick Ohmer (s.) 164 Sample (p.) 164 Seaford (p.) 164 Warfleld (p.) 164 winter protection ol 162 under glass, extent of.... 216 under glass, conditions oi success 217 under glass, layering the plants for forcing 2ri undo. glass, tempera- ture 219 under glass, fertilizers for 219 T PAGE Tent caterpillar 227 Thinning fruit — advantages of 43 fruit, time for 43 fruit, cost of 43 Tools— landside plow 22 cutaway orchard harrow. 2G grape hoe 26 spring-tooth Acme har- row 25 weeder 27 Top-working the pear 193 Trees — establishing the head 18 heeling-in 20 increasing hight of top of young 19 labeling 22 low-headed 18 planting 21 Turf culture in orchards.... 27 V Vineyard— the 115 the best soil for 115 cover crops 115 Vine, grape 115 W Woolly aphis 235 STANDARD BOOKS ..PUBLISHED BY.. 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