U',Ci^i('rtrr;r.- STCKAGt ITEM FRCCHSSING-CNE Lpl-F19G ' U.B.C. LIBRARY si .^, THE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Gift Mr. Jack V/allis. W SJL. ¥ f 7 i' r-f^ -ST':' ",TV L* -> -J ^,^^- -.y^ ;i'-: yt^r' "^ ■^^'^ ^ *■ . \\/ i7'i -y. -'-■'^'^ "■■■■■ ^> '\^^^ .::.«> l^i<%^^L .;5^ P- "^^ k ** ^^. '>, f ^k *^-''^ k f'% ^-'. -^f^; •'• M,^ ■^.^'^ U^^ W*' '..X,,,. .^•^ ^ li'^]^'^y^ ^^^..T J, ^,^^ ^/J' /Ttir — —^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/successfulstockmOOgard ^'^V^^^^^^^S ( X '■riKIN OF THE HORSE. 21 54. lllo c-jecal. 100. Bronchia. 55. Gastric artery. 101. Vena cava, posterior. 56. Splenic artery. 102. Iliac veins. 57. Mesenteric, anterior. 103. Hepatic veins. 58. Arteries of small intestines. 104. Portal vein circulation. 'ou had better make your advances with a half open door between you and him ; gradually make his acquaintance and teach him that ^'ou do not care for his open mouth ; but a regular biter must be gagged with a wooden bit made for the purpose, so large that he cannot close his mouth. Of course there is no difficulty in handling the leg of a quiet horse or colt, and by constantly working from the neck down to the fetlock, you may do as you please. But mau}' horses, and even colts, have a most dangerous trick of striking out with their fore-legs. There is no better protection against this than a cart wheel. The wheel maj^ either be used loose, or the animal maj' be led to a cart loaded with hay, when the horse-tamer can work under the cart through one of the wheels, while the colt is nibbling the load. Ha\-ing, then, so far soothed a colt that he will permit you to take up his leg without resistance, take a strap, pass the tongue through the loop under the buckle so as to form a noose, slip it o\'er the near fore- leg and draw it close up to the pastern-joint, and then with leg doubled upon itself, put strap around the leg and fasten the leg wp. But 30 THE HORSE. you must not be rash in lifting the leg, and employ but little, force in doing so. It is better to wait until he lifts it williuglj- by the use of gentle means. Do not get out of temper if you have to make a dozen ineffectual attempts to raise it. The near fore-leg being se- curely strapped, and the horse, secured from biting, if necessary, with the wooden bit, you will then make him hop about, as before stated. This he will learn to do easily. The trainer, must however, take care to keep behind his horse's shoulder and walk in a circle, or he will be like- ly to be struck b}' the animal's head or strapped up leg, A horse can hop on three legs for two or three miles, if you give him his own time, and no plan has ever been tried that has been equal to this for curing a balky horse. After you have tired him out pretty well in this manner, 3'ou proceed to make him lie down, which process re- quires considerable patience and skill. For this purpose take a longer strap, and making a loop with it put it round the off fore-leg. With a verj' quiet horse this can be easily done ; with a wild or vicious horse 3'ou may have to make him step into it ; at an}' rate, when once the off- fore-leg is caught in the noose it must be drawn tight round the pas- tern-joint. Then put a stout glove on your right hand, pass the strap through the belly part of the surcingle, take a firm hold of it with your gloved right hand, standing close to the horse behind his shoulders, and with your left hand take hold of the near rein ; by pulling the horse gently to the near side he will be almost sure to hop ; if he will not, he must be led. The mom.ent he lifts up his left off fore-foot, you must draw up the strap tightl}' and steadily. The horse will then go down on his knees, because if 5^ou hold the strap tight he will not be able to stretch out his feet again. As soon as a horse recovers from his as- tonishment at being brought to his knees, he begins to resist ; that is he rears up on his hind legs, and springs about in a manner that will some- times alarm the trainer. During these struggles you must not try your strength against the horse's strength, but merely follow him about, hold- ing the strap just tight enough to prevent him from putting out his fore- leg. As long as you keep close to him, and behind his shoulders, you are in very little danger. The bridle in the left hand mu.st be used like steering lines, by pulling to the right or left as occasion requires ; the horse, turning on his hind legs, may be fatigued l)y being forced to walk backwards. The strap passing through the surcingle keeps, or ought to keep, the trainer in his right place ; he is not to pull or in any- way fatigue him.self any more than he can help, but, standing upright, MAXAGEMEXT AXD CARE. 3I simply follow the horse about, guiding him with the bridle so he will not precipitate himself against the side of the stable or room in which you are exercising him. When held and guided properly, he will soon sink down. Corn-fed horses will hold out longer than gra.ss-fed ones, and the most energetic horse will not struggle more than ten or fifteen minutes. Usually at the end of eight minutes violent struggling, the animal sinks forward on his knees, sweating profusely, with heaving flanks and sliak- ing tail. If he resists, he may be forced by the bit to walk backwards and forwards, but this is generally unnecessary', as by pushing gently at his shoulder or b>- pulling steadily the off-rein, 3'ou can get him to fall, in the one case on the near side, in the other on the off-side; but this assist- ance should be so slight that the horse will not attempt to resist it. The horse will often make a final spring when 3^ou think 'he is quite beaten ; but at length he slides over, and lies down, panting and ex- hausted, on his side. If he is a pretty spirited animal take advantage at the moment to tie up the off fore-leg to the surcingle, as securely as the other, in a slip-loop knot. Now let your horse recover his wind, and then encourage him to make a second fight. It will often be more stubborn than the first. The object of this tying-up process is that he shall thoroughly exhaust without hurting himself, and that he shall come to the conclusion that it is you who, by your superior strength have conquered him, and tliat you are always able to conquer him. Under the old rough riding system, the most vicious horses were oc- casionally conquered by daring men with firm seats and strong arms, who rode and flogged them into subjection; but these conquests weie temporary, and usually personal; with everj^ stranger the animal would begin his game again. One advantage of this system is, that the horse is allowed to exhaust himself under circumstances that render it impossible for him to strug- gle long enough to do himself any harm. It has been suggested that a blood vessel would likely be broken or apoplexy produced by the exer- tion of leaping from the hind legs; but up to the present time no acci- dent of any kind has been reported. Treatment of the Horse After He is Down. If the horse has fought hard in going down, he will then lie perfectly still, and you can gentle him, scrape the sweat off, and rub him down, smoothing the hair of his legs, and drawing the fore one straight out. In this position you have the opportunity of making him perfectl}' familiar with you, 32 THE HORSE. and the more you fondle him and reconcile him to 3-ou the better. His head, tail, and legs should now be handled with freedom, caressing and talking to him all the while. If he has hitherto resisted shoeing, hand- le all his legs with a view to accomplish it, and if he attempts to resist, continue till you subdue him, speaking to him with a voice of authority. If he is a bad kicker }ou may be obliged to confine his fore-legs; and with them tied, you may spend an hour in handling his legs, tapping the hoofs with your hammer — all this to be done in a firm, measured, soothing manner; onl}* now and then if he resists, cry as you paralyze him with the ropes. Whoa, in a determined manner. It is bj^ this con- tinued soothing and handling that you establish confidence between you and the horse. After patting him as much as you deem needful, say for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, you may encourage him to rise. Some horses will require a good deal of helping, and it may be necessary to draw out their fore-legs before them. The handling of colts in this condition, particularly requires caution. A colt tormented by flies will kick forward nearly up to the fore-legs. If a horse, unstrapped, at- tempts to rise, you may easily stop him by taking hold of a fore-leg and doubling it back to the strapped position. If by chance he should be too quick, don't resist, for it is an essential principle of this system nev- er to enter into a contest with a horse unless you are certain to be victo- rious. In all these operations you must be calm, and never m a hurry, or in a passion." HOW TO GIVE MEDICINE. Blectuaries. A medical compound of powders, or other ingredients, mixed with honey, or syrup, and made a little thicker than honey, is called an electuary. These are easily given by rubbing on the tongue or teeth, from which the animal at once licks them, and swallows them with the saliva. When necesssary to give only a verj^ small quantity of medicine it may be dropped or poured upon the tongue. Injections. Several instuments have been made with the false no- tion that it is best to force liquids into the intestines of the animal. Ex- perience has shown that the best instrument to be used for this purpose is a Gamgee's funnel. It is a straight tin tube about a foot long, ta- pered and rounded off at the smaller end, bent at the opposite end at right angles. This end supports a funnel about a half dozen inches deep and as many across. Always thoroughly oil before using, and af- MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 33 ter entering the instrument pour the Hquid into the funnel. The liquid from the funnel will by the force from its own weight graduallj- find its way into the rectum. Every owner of horses and cattle should provide himself with such an instrument. Of course in ca.se such an instrument is not at hand, the old way may be resorted to, namely; the bladder tied to a hollow elder stick. Giving a Ball. To one who has never given a ball, a few directions may not be amiss. The method described by Gamgee is easily learned by following his directions, as follows: First, "turn the animal from the manger with a halter on, held by an assistant. Attempting to give a ball to a horse tied up in a stall has before this proved a fatal experi- ment to the operator. Second; it is extremely dangerous to resort to twitching with awkward horses, as our power in keeping 'the mouth open depends on the moderate stretch on the tongue, which is not felt or cared for by ahorse severely punished by a twitch on his ear. Third; stand on the off side of the horse's head, with a cloth in the left hand to wipe the mouth, should there be, as in some cases an excess of saliva to interfere with holding the tongue; the left hand is placed on the horse's crest, while the right is put into the angle of the mouth, the tongue is seized gently, wiped if necessary, grasped with the left hand and drawn downwards. Some compress the tongue against the left side of the lower jaw, bringing it between the molar (back) teeth on that side. Others drag the tongue out of the mouth, and hold it firmly. It is ver>' important to hold it so that, in any movement the horse may take, there is a point of support for the hand against the lower jaw. Pulling on the tongue may give unnecessary pain, make a horse rest- less, and in tossing his head about, the tongue may be severely lacer- ated. Fourth; the ball, which has been ready all the time in the waist- cc^t pocket, or grasped by the lips of the operator, is seized, and avoid- ing unnece.s.sary hustle and hurry, it is carried up the middle of the mouth and dropped on the back of the tongue; at the same instant the tongue is quietly let loose, and as the horse draws it back, the ball is held in the back part of the mouth, from which it can- not come except by a fit of coughing; as soon as the hands are with- drawn, the mouth is kept closed, and the left side of the neck watched to see the ball pass down the oesophagus; this ma>' occur before looking round to the neck, so that, after waiting a little, if the ball is not seen the horse should be caused to drink a little water. It is well to always give a drink after giving a ball, as it is disagreeable to leave an animal, 34 THE HORSE. and Avhen yonr back is turned to have the ball coughed into the manger. In morbid conditions of the system, and in the unnatural manner in which the ball is given, the passages are not well moistened and lubri- cated, and it may be some time before the ball enters the stomach through the cardiac orifice. ' ' Making- a Ball. The old way of making a ball is to mix the ingre- dients with a little molasses, honey or syrup so as to form a stiff dough, adding if necessary, enough ground flax seed or bran to give it the re- quired size, which is about that of a man's thumb. There are now to be had in nearly every drug-store gelatine capsules, which are much nicer in every way. Those having many horses to care for, would do well to keep a supply on hand. Giving I/iquids. In the absence of a drenching horn use a soda- bottle. The following rules if followed will be found to be practical. "First, hold the horse's head up at a moderate height, so that the line of the face is horizontal. Second, allow sufBlcient movements of lips, tongue, cheeks, and jaws, so as not to interfere with the first act of swallowing. To draw the tongue forcibly outward is very injurious, for if the tongue is stretched it does not aid in pressing back the fluid which gravitates as the tongue is pulled upon, and the larnyx and phar- nyx advance, the animal maj'- be choked. Third; if the animal makes an effort to cough, rather lose the draught than risk the danger of suf- focation, which so readily occurs if fluid is suddenlj^ thrown over the tongue. Fourth; entice efforts of swallowing should the horse obsti- nately hold the liquid in his mouth. This is done by rubbing the side of the neck, along the oesophagus. Holding the Horse. The following from F. O. Kirby gives the best known methods: ' 'The methods of holding horses during the giving of liquids are various, but the most important ones are three. In the first place, by ropes and pullej^s a horse's head is pulled up from a beam or other high object in a stable or shed. This is very objectionable, especially in a vicious horse; and we have never found it to answer better than the method of introducing a rope-noose over the upper jaw. This noose is fastened to a stick, or slipped over a stable-fork prong, and a man can then hold up the head of the heaviest horse and follow him in his movements. It requires management. I do not like the fork, as it is a dangerous instrument, and prefer an ordinary twitch. In the third method the man holds the head up and gives the medicine. It is the most simple and useful method. It only requires one person, who MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 35 holds the tongue, places his thumb round the lower jiw, and with his fingers causes the horse to open his mouth whilst the draught is poured out of the horn or bottle with the right hand. ' ' General Advice. An ownerofstock should keep on hand some of the more common, and useful drugs so as to be ready for emergencies. He should also be provided with a few of the most useful surgical instru- ments. Do not wait till some animal is sick before studying the symp- toms of the various diseases. As soon as you learn that an animal in xc? neighborhood is sick, go and look at it. It is not necessary for you to offer any advice in the matter, but by obser^^ation and reading you will soon be able to determine the disease as soon as seen. If you know the disease for a certainty and also the remedy, there is no reason why i<^h careful nursing you cannot cure it, if capable of being cured, as well as any one. A veterinarian has to study and observe for three years before he is considered capable to recognize all the various dis- eases; so do not be discouraged, if you have to spend some time before you feel sure as to the trouble. Each effort will make you more confi- dent and proficient. Study the pulse of the various anima'.s; a..d count the respirations. Remember it is only by careful study ths t you cac succeed. CHAPTER II. Feeding and Care. General requisites, watering horses when warm, quantity of WATER required, KINDS OF FOOD, DIGESTION OF TWO KINDS, FEED OATS AFTER HAY, COMMON ERROR, HORSE HAS A SMALL STOMACH, TEN POUNDS OF HAY A DAY, STRAW, CHAFF, GRAINS, WHEAT, RYE, BRAN, CORN, LINSEED, POTATOES, BEETS, CARROTS, GRASSES. EEEDING and care of an animal have much to do with its gen- eral health. Animals not at hard work and running in well wat- ered pastures, are seldom ill, but horses confined in stables and G) fed and watered^ and worked according to the notions of the care- taker, are very liable to diseases of various kinds. As much pains should be taken to feed, water, and care for the animal properly, in health as would be taken to cure it, if sick. Watering- Horses "When Warm. There i: a common notion among users of horses, that if a horse is warm he should not be allowed to drink, many claiming that the "first swallow" of water either "foun- ders' ' the animal or produces colic. This is not true. It does not mat- ter how much heated the horse may be, it is always safe to give him a half-dozen swallows of water. If this water is given just before being put in the stable, the animal should be immediately supplied with a few pounds c hay, and should not be fed grain until the animal has rested about an hour. The danger is not in the "first swallow" but is always due to the large quantity which the animal will take when warm, if al- lowed to drink without restraint. Over one-half of the digestive dis- orders are undoubtedly caused by improper feeding and watering, hence one can readily see the importance of a proper understanding of these subjects. Quantity of Water Required. When horses can get water when- ever they wish it, they never drink enough at one time to injure them. FEEDING AND CARE. 37 Where the horse is dependent upon his attendant for water, he common- ly requires about eight gallons a day. This will vary with the class of food, if green food is used a portion of this is supplied and a less quantity needed than when fed on dry hay and grain. The horse should be watered at least three times a day when idle and oftener when at work. Remember always to water before feeding. Kinds of Food. Since the horse is fed in this country on hay, grass, oats, corn, wheat, r>'e, and roots one might conclude that the horse could not be fed on any other kind of food The following from Loudon's Encyclopedia is of interest : "In some barren countries horses are forced to live on dried fish, and even on vegetable molds ; in Arabia, on milk, flesh-balls, eggs, and broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged ver>' nutritious. Few, perhaps no oats are grown ; barley is rare and not often fed to horses. In Bengal a plant, something like the tare. Is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon-pea forms the ordi- nary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the j^ear around. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn-tops, and sometimes molasses, are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are sup- posed to produce a spirited animal and give it a fine coat. Broth made from sheep's head is sometimes given." Digestions of Two Kinds. In the horse as well as in man di- gestion takes place in the stomach and intestines. The food after pass- ing into the stomach undergoes a change before passing out to the small intestines where the process of digestion is finished. The change taking place in the stomach is called, stomach digestion, and that in the in- testines, intestinal digestion. Feed Oats After Hay and Straw. The time required for stomach digestion varies with the different foods. Hay and straw are digested and pass out of the stomach more rapidly than oats or other grain. If oats are fed first, and are followed by hay, the hay soon pass- ing onward into the intestines will carry along with it oats that are not yet prepared for intestinal digestion thus causing a loss of food. An- other reason for feeding hay first, (more particularly if the horse is very hungry or tired from over work) is that it takes more time to masticate the hay and the horse cannot bolt it down as it would grains. Water should not be given soon after feeding, as it washes the food from the stomach before it has had time for proper stomach digestion. 38 THE HORSE. Common Brror of Feeding. An error that produces many dis« orders of the digestive system, is TO feed too soon after a hard day's work, a very small quantity of hay may be given but grain should not be fed within less than an hour. Horse has a Small Stomach. An examination of the ANA- TOMICAL MANIKIN OF THE HORSE as found in the beginning of this book, shows that the horse has a very small stomach iu pro- portion to his size. This proves to us that the horse should be fed in small quantities and often. The disproportion between the size of the stomach and the amount of water usually given at one time shows plain- ly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. Feed at least three times a day, and not wholly on concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the food in its passage through the small intestines, so that it can be thoroughly digested and the nutriment ab- sorbed. Ten Pounds of Hay a Day. A horse that is fed twelve quarts of oats a day, or other grain in proportion, should be allowed ten to twelve pounds of good timothy hay a day. Do not keep horses that are at light work, entirely on hay, if you do they will vsoon become "pot-bellied," fall off in flesh, and will not thrive. Even colts unless fed with some r^^-ain, grow up long, lean, ana gawky, and never make as good horses as thc-e accustomed to grain. Hay The best hay for horses is timothy. Hay from six months to a yea. and a half old is best. It should be of a greenish color, crisp, clean and fresh. New hay is hard to digest, produces "slobbering" and sometimes diarrhea. Mow-burnt hay produces disorders of the kidneys and bowels. Musty or moldy hay has often been said to pro- duce that peculiar disease variously known as cerebro-spinal-meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. Straw. The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay, and ground or crushed grains. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most used, and of these oat straw is the most easily digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable according to most writers. Chaflf. Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or .ess serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often ser\'e as the nucleus of the "soft concretions" FEEDING AND CARE. 39 which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oat chaff, if fed in quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn- fodder, is ver}' much reHshed by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as a troublesome and sometimes fatal diarrhea follows the practice of allowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff. Grains. Oats takes precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as the ingredients neccessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are besides more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to Stewart the best oats are one 3'ear old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-dried oats are to be re- fused as a rule, for even though originally good this drying process in- jures them. Oats that have sprouted or fermented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given whole or crushed ; whole in the majority of instances, crushed to old horses and those having de- fective teeth. Horses that bolt their food are best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. The average horse requires, in addition to the allow- ance of hay above spoken of, about twelve quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the grain richer at this time in nutritive materials, but there is also less waste from "scattering" than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive dis- orders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. Wheat and Rye. These grains are not to be used as food for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are almost certain to produce digestiv^e disorders, laminitis "foun- der, ' ' and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. Bran. The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the bowels open. Sour bran should not be given. It disorders the stom- ach and intestines and may even produce serious results. 40 THE HORSE. Com. This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with "lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water, for ten or twelve hours. Corn is better given ground, and fed in quantities of from one to two quarts at a meal mixed w'th crushed oats or wheat bran. We must be very particular in giving com to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. There is no grain more likely to produce acute indigestion than corn if these directions are not obser\'ed. I/inseed. Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of particular ser\'ice during convalescence, when the bowels are sluggish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. Potatoes. These are used as an article of food for the horse in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. Beets. These are not much used as food for horses. Carrots. These make a most excellent food, particularly during sickness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative properties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. Some vet- erinary writers claim that chronic cougH can be cured by feeding carrots. Carrots may be considered as very beneficial if fed regularly in small quantities. Grasses. The natural food of the horse is grass. There are many varieties and they vary much in value. Some are almost without value as food and are only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, while others are positively injurious or even poisonous. None of the grasses are sufficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are "soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing stock grass is of great value, and there is no doubt that it acts as an alterative when given to horses that have been fed on hay and grain. To such it should be given in small quanti- ties at first. If the horse is turned to grass for a time each year it gives the stomach and intestines a chance to undergo rest and recuperate. CHAPTER III. Medicines, Their Doses and Effects. TlMB REQUIRED FOR DRUGS TO TAKE EFFECT, EXPLANATION OF THE EFFECT OF DRUGS, DOSES OF MEDICINE ACCORDING TO AGE, HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINE, TABLE OF DRUGS, THEIR DOSES, AND EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ACTION. EUCH attention and study should be given to the quantity of a drug or medicine that should be administered and how often the dose should be repeated. The effect that should be expected from the medicine and the time that should elapse before the result should be noticeable. One not having accurate knowledge is often through impatience tempted to repeat a dose before the medicine has had time to operate, and thus an overdose is the result, which is often more dangerous in its results, than the disease it is given to cure. To aid in the better understanding of the effects of drugs and of the table herein annexed which gives the action and doses of the various medicinal substances, the following explanation of the usual terms used, is given. EXPLANATION OF THE EFFECT OF DRUGS. Absorbent — that which takes up or absorbs. Alterative — that which changes the conditions and functions of organs. Anaesthetic — that which causes the loss of feeling or sensation. Anodyne — that which sooths or diminishes pain. Antacid — that which kills the effect of acids. Anthelmintic — used to kill or expel worms. Antiperiodic — stops or holds back the return of .spasms in periodic diseases. 42 THE HORSE. Antiseptics — stop or hold back the decay of tissues. Antispasmodic — that which prevents or lessens cramps. Aperient — used to gently open the bowels. Aromatic — a strong smelling stimulant used to dispel wind and allay pain. Astringfent — that which causes contraction. Carminative— a warming stimulant. Cathartic — used to freely open the bowels. Caustic — that which will destroy tissues. Cholag^OgTie — causes an increase in the secretion of bile. Demulcent — a soothing substance which protects irritated surfaces. Deturgfent — a substance which cleanses the skin. Diaphoretic — a remedy which increases the secretion of sweat. Discutient — a local application which removes the congestion of in- flamed parts, and the skin covering them. Disinfectant — that which destroys contagious matter. Diuretic — increases the secretion of urine. l^cbolic — that which causes contraction of the womb. Hmetic — that which induces vomiting. [Emollient — a substance which softens and relaxes the parts to which they are applied. Kxcitant — a stimulant when applied locally. Bxpectorant — that which aids in removing the secretions from the air-passages. Febrifuge — lessens fevers and lowers temperature. I^axative — a mild physic. Narcotic — produces sleep and allays pain. Refrigerant — that which diminishes heat. Sedative — that which exerts a soothing effect upon the system. Soperific — another name for a narcotic. Stimulant — that which temporarily excites the nervous system or the circulation. Sialogogfues — that which increases the secretion of saliva. Stomachic — an improver of digestion. Tonic — that which improves digestion and nutrition. Vermifuge — a substance used to kill and expel worms. A reference to the above explanation will readily explain the effects of the drugs as given in the table. FEEDING AND CARE. , 43 DOSES OF MEDICINE ACCORDING TO AGE. Horse. Ox. Sheep & Swine Dogs. Dose. 3 years 2 years I year 6 months I part I to 3 years 6 months 9 to 1 2 months 3 to 6 months % " 9 to 1 8 months 6 to 1 2 months 5 to 9 " I to 3 " % " 5 to 9 " 3 to 6 " 3 to 5 " 20 to 30 days >^ " I to 3 " I to 3 " I to 3 " 10 to 20 " 1-16 " The foregoing table may serve as a guide to the proportionate amount of medicine to be given at the various ages. This refers to animals that are of ordinary size for their ages. Allowance should be made in case the animal is much under or over size. It is well also to make some al- lowance where the animal is of an exceedingly nervous temperament. A study of the effect of various diseases upon the action of medicine is very important. It will be found that in many diseases of the brain and spinal cord, and in some diseases of the stomach, a much larger quantity than usual of purgative medicines are necessary. On the other hand, in severe cases of low fevers and influenza, much less than the usual dose may prove fatal. Thus it can be seen that a careful study of the effect of medicine under various conditions is very essential. HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINES. Alteratives — may be given once or twice a day. Purgatives — should not be repeated under twenty-foiu- hours, even in severe cases, and in ordinary cases not imder forty-eight hours. Tonics — should be given two or three times a day. Stimulants — if found necessary may be repeated after three, hours. Anodynes — may be repeated after an hour. Bcbolics — may be repeated after forty-five minutes. Febrifuges — or medicine to reduce temperature and allay fevers, should be given as often as every two or three hours in severe cases, and as often as three times a day in mild cases. Aconite, belladonna, the various forms of ammonia, spirits of nitre, and the solutions of the ni- trate and chlorate of potash, are the most common of the febrifuges. 44 THB HORSE. Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action. ACTION. AGENT. DOSE. INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY Arabic, gum Demulcent Antiseptic Ad Hb. Acetic acid Astringent and Rubefacient I to 3 drams Arsenious acid Tonic Caustic 2 to 7 grains Acid, muriatic, dil. Tonic Antiseptic or and I to 3 fluid drams. Acid, hyd. chl., dil. Tonic Caustic Acid, nitric, dil. 1-5 Tonic Caustic I to 2 fluid drams. Acid, sulphuric, dil. Tonic Caustic I to 2 fluid drams. Aconite, tincture Sedative Sedative 10 to 20 drops. Aconite, extract Sedative 15 to 20 grains. Adeps (Lard) Aloes, extract Emollient Purgative 4 to 8 fluid drATOS. Alum Astringent Astringent 2 to 4 drams. Alum, burnt Stimulant Escharotic Dust freely. Ammonia aqua and Antacid Stimulant Yz to I fluid dram Am. spirit aromatic Antacid Alterative Y-i to I fluid drr*ni. Arsenic and Tonic Alterative I to 5 grains. Arsenic, iodide and Tonic 2 to 10 grains. Boyax Detergent Sedative Belladonna extract. Narcotic I to 2 drams. Caustic Carbolic acid and Antiseptic Camphor Narcotic Discutient I to 3 drams. FEEDING AND CARE. 45 Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action. ACTION. AGENT. ] DOSE. INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY. Stimulant Cantharides and Diuretic To Blister 5 to 15 grains. Chloride of lime. Antiseptic Antiseptic 2 to 4 drams. Chamomile Tonic ....... 2 to 4 drams. Cayenne Pepper Carminative Rubefacient ID to 20 grains. Caraway Carminative 2 to 4 drams. Cascarilla bark Tonic 2 to 4 drams. Catechu extract Astringent I to 2 dram.s. Chloroform Anaesthetic I to 2 drams. Diaphoretic I to 2 drams. Colchicum and Eaxative I to 2 drams. Collodion Adhesive Copaiba, balsam of Diuretic y^ to I ounce. Antiseptic Caustic y, to I fluid dram. Creasote and and Tonic Antiseptic Yi to I fluid dram. Chalk, prepared Antacid Absorbent 2 to 4 ounces. Croton oil Purgative Irritant 20 to 30 drops. Astringent Erodent I to 2 drams. Copper, sulphate of and and Tonic Excitant I to 2 drams. Calomel Cathartic • » J^ to 2 drams. Corrosive sublimate Alterative Caustic 5 to 10 grains. Digitalis Narcotic I to 2 drams. Ergot Parturient 2 to 4 drams. Ether Antispasm Refrigerant 4 to 6 fluid drams. Flax seed Demulcent Ad lib. Gentian Tonic 2^4 drams. Gentian, tincture Tonic y. to I fluid ounce. Ginger Tonic 2 to 4 drams. 46 THE HORSE. Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action. ACTION. AGENT. DOSE. INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY, Glycerine Nutrient Emollient 4 to 6 ounces. Henbane, extract of Narcotic Narcotic Sedative I to 2 drams. Henbane, tincture and Anodyne Sedative I to 2 ounces. Glandular Glandular Iodine and and 5 to lo grains. Excitant Excitant Astringent Iron, sulphate of and Tonic Alterative 2 to 4 drams. Iron, iodide of and Tonic y2 to I dram. Linseed oil Laxative Emollient >^ to I pint Mercury, bichloride Alterative Causu: 5 to ID grains. Alterative lo to 20 grains. Mercury, chloride and Cathartic jE^ to 2 drams. Magnesia Antacid ^ to I ounce. Magnesia, sulphate I^axative Antiseptic }4 io I pound. Myrrh and Tonic Traumatic 2 to 4 drams. Nut-galls Astringent Astringent 2 to 4 drams. Nitrate of silver Demulcent Caustic Olive oil and Laxative Narcotic Emollient I to I ^-4 pint. Opium and Antispasm I Ic 2 Irams. DRUGS AND MEDICINES 47 Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action. ACTION. AGENT. DOSE. INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY Narcotic Opium, tincture of and Antispasm Anodyne j4 to 2 fluid ounces. Petroleum Stimulant Stimulant Stimulant 2 to 4 ounces. Pimemta (allspice) and Tonic 2 to 4 drams. Pitch, Bursfundy Rubefacient Pitch (Tar) Antacid Rubefacient Caustic Potash Potassium carbonate and Diuretic 2 to 4 drams. Potassium, chlorate Stimulant (?) I to 2 drams. Febrifuge Refrigerant Potassium, nitrate and and 2 to 4 drams. Diuretic Antiseptic Quinine Tonic }^ to I dram. Resin Diuretic ^2 to T dram. Sabina Antacid Irritant Soap and Diuretic Antacid Stimulant y2 io 2 ounces Sal-soda and Diuretic 2 to 4 drams. Soda sulphate (Glaubers salt) Diuretic Diuretic ]/2 to I pound. Spirit of nit. ether. and Antispasm I to 2 fluid ounces. Sulphur, iodide Alterative Detergent % to I dram. 48 THE HORSE. Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action. AGENT. ACTION. INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY. DOSE. Stimulant to Strjxhnine motor nerves. Laxative I to 3 grains. Sulphur and Alterative Nauseant Detergent I to 4 ounces. Tartar, emetic and Diaphoretic. Irritant Yz to I dram. Turpentine Diuretic Digestive Yz to I ounce. Diuretic 2 to 4 fluid drams. Tupentine oil Antispasm Irritant 3 to 6 fluid ounces. Cathartic Yi to I pint Zinc, acetate Astringent Astringent Caustic Zinc, carbonate Zinc, chloride and Antiseptic Zinc, oxide Astringent Astringent Erodent Zinc, sulphate and and I to 2 drams. Tonic Astringent Common Names for a Few Drugs. Tincture of Opium Laudanum. Sulphate of Iron Copperas. Mercury, bichloride Corrosive Sublimate. Mercury, mild chloride Calomel. Sulphate of Zinc White Vitriol. Cantharides Spanish Fly. Nitrous Ether Sweet Spirits of Nitre, Argentum Nitrate Nitrate of Silver. CHAPTER IV. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. Description of alimentary canal, diseases of the teeth, diseases of the mouth, diseases of the gullet and cesophagus, diseases of the stomach, diseases of the intestines, dis- eases of the liver, intestinal worms. EHE process carried on by the various organs of the alimentary canal thereby changing the form and character of the food, in or- der that it may be absorbed into the blood as nourishment is known g) as digestion. The organs whose functions it is to perform this work are known as the digestive organs. The first portion of the ali- mentary canal is the mouth, where are found the teeth for making the food fine and mixing it with the saliva from the salivary glands which open into this organ. By mixing the saliva with the food, dry sub- stances become soft, are easily swallowed, and more easily digested. This saliva has another very important duty and that is, that by aid of a peculiar ferment called ptyalin, the starchy substances found in hay, grain, and roots are changed to maltose, then by taking on water further change to grape sugar. The digestion carried on in the stomach is called gastric digestion or stomach digestion, that in the small intestines intestinal digestion. The large intestines are used principally in ab- sorbing the liquid coming from the small intestines and carrying off the refuse matter after the nourishing portion has been absorbed by the villi 50 THE HORSB. which are processes or projections which line the small intestines, the greater number being found in their upper half. Whenever any portion of this wonderful canal does not properly perform its duties, there is a waste of food, and a lack of proper nourishment of the body. The fol- lowing are the diseases to which this portion of the body is liable to- gether with the treatment as given by Dr. Charles B. Michener, V. S. Inspector of Bureau of Animal Industry and Professor of Pathology and Obstetrics at New York College of Veterinary Surgeons. An authority that cannot be questioned. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Cutting" Teeth. PVom birth to the age of five years, the young horse is cutting his teeth. During this time two sets have made their appearance, the first or milk teeth and the second or permanent teeth. More difficulty is experienced in cutting the latter, and the mouth should be frequently examined, in order to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed by the for- ceps. Also, see if the second teeth are causing little red tumors on the gums, if so make incisions through the gums down to the coming teeth. There is a tendency among farmers and veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young horses. Percival relates an illustration of this which is best told in his own words : "I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth > ^ar, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence, tnat his owner, a veterin- ary surgeon, was under no light apprehension about his life. He had himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any defect or disease ; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion ihat the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent "cudding," arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in consequence filed, but without beneficial re- sults. It was after this that I saw the horse ; and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory in- terpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me, I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and dis- covered two little tumors, red and hard, ill the situation of the inferior tusks, which when pressed gave the animal great pain. I instantly took DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 5 1 out my pocket-knife and made crucial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and by degrees his wonted condition. ' ' Irregular Teeth. In large cities there is a class of ' 'veterinary dentists" and it is a fashion to call these humbugs and have the teeth regularly "floated" or "rasped." In some instances rasping is benej&- cial, but in most cases it is entirely mmecessary. The rubbing or grind- ing surface of the horse's teeth should be rough, hence rasping them down flat and even is injurious, Remember that the upper jaw is a little wider than the lower and hence the teeth do not fit exactly one over the other and after a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and the outside of the upper molars, it may excoriate, (lacerate or cut) the tongue or lips. This condition can readijy be felt and these sharp cutting ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. Any one can do this without the aid of a veterinarian. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the absence of its fellow on the other jaw opposite. If this is the case, call a veterinarian who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting it. Decayed Teeth. When a tooth is decayed it is quite common to find the tooth, corresponding to the decayed one, on the opposite jaw very much lengthened, sometimes so much that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth also need a veterinarian with proper tools. In all cases where horses ' 'quid' ' their food, or where they are slobber- ing, or show pain when chewing their hay or grain, which is shown by their holding their head to one side when chewing, the teeth should be examined. If as in most cases these symptoms are due to sharp comers, or edges these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth are found or any other serious difficulty call an expert. Toothache. This is very rare in the horse, and usually is caused by a decayed tooth. It is only found in the molar teeth. The horse will show pain while drinking cold water, or while eating. They will sometimes suddenly stop chewing, throwing the head to one side, and slightly open mouth. They act as if some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If these symptoms appear, examine the horse for some for- eign body, and if not found carefully examine each tooth. If you are not able to do this with the hand in the mouth, you can in most in- stances discover the aching tooth by pressure from the outside. The horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon. 52 THE HORSK. What to Do. The only thing that can l^e done in most cases, is to take the tooth out, and this should only be attempted by the veteri- narian. Parrot-mouth. This is a deformity of the mouth that interferes with the teeth fitting properly one over the other, hence hindering proper mastication and thus indirectly digestion. In a parrot-mouth the upper incisors (front cutting teeth) project in front of and be5'ond the lower ones. The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as they are not woni down by friction. Horses having parrot-mouths find it very difficult to eat grass if not cut for them. "What to Do. Little can be done, except to frequentl}^ examine the mouth and if the teeth of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise the "bars" of the upper jaw, they must be shortened b}^ the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. I/ampas. The mucous membrane (skin) covering the hard palate (roof of the front part of upper jaw) occasionally becomes swelled and projects in a more or less prominent ridge just back of the upper front teeth (incisors.) This is called lampas. In rare instances, particularly while teething, there is congestion and swelling of this part of the roof of the mouth sufficient to interfere with feeding. In one instance only in the extensive practice of Dr. Michener has he found a case where the swelling was so extensive as to have it caught between the front teeth when the horse attempted to eat. What to Do. If the swelling is ver\^ bad a resort to scarifying .should l)e had, being careful not to cut deeply into the structures. A wash of strong alum water may also be beneficial. Burning of the lampas, so often recommended, is cruel and unnecessar}-, it should never be permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow. Note. — It is a quite common opinion among owners of horses and stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once ' 'he has the lampas. ' ' It is almost impossible to convince them of their error, ^et in a practice of fifteen 5^ears Dr. Michener has never seen but two or three cases of what is called lampas that ga\'e the least trouble, or that called for any treat- ment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more of a disease of the stableman's imagination than of the horse's mouth. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 53 Inflammation of I/ining of the Mouth. This is scientifically called vSTOMATiTis. It is an inllannnaliou of the mucous membrane lin- ing the mouth, and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other substances. The symptoms arc swelling of the mouth, which is hot and painful to the touch ; copious discharge of saliva ; mucous membrane reddened; sometimes ulcers appearing. What to Do. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary In some cases it may be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay should be fed steamed, and all other foods in soft condi- tion. Inflammation of the Tongfue. The true name is glo.ssitis and is very similar to stomatitis, generally exists with it and dije to same causes. The treatment is the .same. If it is caused by injuries to the tongue which are severe enough to produce lacerations or abcesses, call an expert. Kxcessive Saliva. Ptyalism or salivation is an excessive secretion of saliva. Often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth, inflammation of mouth or tongue, or use of such medicines as lobelia, and mercury. Some foods produce it, as clover, particularl}- second croj) ; wheat chaff or corn- cobs lodged in the mouth. When cau.se is removed, usually the trouble ends. Alum water may be applied to the mouth with a sponge. Pharyngitis. This is inflammation of the lining of the pharynx (back part of the mouth). Generally accompanied l^y stomatitis, glos- sitis, or laryngitis. When mostly confined to j)harnyx, there are fever symptoms, difficulty in swallowing ; soreness over larnyx (large ring of windpipe); increased flow of saliva ; difl&culty of swallowing liquids and cough only when trying to drink. "What to Do. Give chlorate of potash in half ounce do.ses three or four times a day. Mix with licorice root powder and honey and give with a strong spoon or wooden paddle. Borax or alum in same size doses may be given suspended in warm water, if the chlorate of potash is not handy. Paralysis of the Throat. This is properly called Paralysis of the Pharnyx, and is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse. The horse is unable to eat ; manger contains sali\-a and frothy food that has returned through the nose ; horse has anxious countenance ; pulse, respi- ration, and temperature, at fir.st about the same as in health ; animal tries to eat or drink but unable to do so ; if water is offered the animal 54 THK HORSE. will try to drink by the hour, and apparently does so, but the water in the pail does not lower ; food returns through the nostrils or is dropped from the mouth quiddcd. There is no apparent obstruction and no S}-mptoms except that the parts are flabby to the touch. What to Do. Treatment is verj' unsatisfactory. Apply some blis- ters behind and under jaw. Swab mouth frequently with alum or chlorate of potash, one ounce to a pint of water, by means of sponge on end of stick. Strychnine is the best thing to be used to overcome this paralysis, and .should be given in one-grain doses three or four times a day. This medicine should be given as a hj^perdermic injection deep into the pharnyx. As a rule the external blister, frequent swabbing as above, and a nerve stimulant are all that can be done. Abscesses in the Pharnyx. Symptoms resemble laryngitis or distemper. If breathing is interfered with, which increases, and with- out swelling or onh' slight and increasing fullness there may be an ab- scess in this location. About all that can be done, is to hurry the ripen- ing of ab.scess, by steaming with hops, or hay. If the abscess can be felt through the mouth call a \'eterinarian to open it. DISEASES OF THE GULLET. Choking". The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It is often caused when the animal is suddenl}^ startled while eating apples 'or roots, and we should ne\-er suddenly approach or put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone they rarely choke, but if startled they try to swallow before the food is proper- ly masticated and choking is the result. Choking also arises from horses bolting their food, hence avoid narrow deep grain mangers. Wheat chaif is also a frequent source of choke. Whatever the object causing the choking it may lodge in the upper part of the cesophagus (pharynegeal ehoke) in the middle part (cervical choke) or close to the stomach (thoracic choke). The symptoms will var}' according to position of the body causing the choke. Pharyngeal Choke. The object is lodged in upper portion of the oesophagus. Animal in great distress; hurried breathing; frequent cough; sweating; trembling or stamping of fore-feet. Abdomen rapidly distend with gas. The ol)ject can usuall}^ be felt in the uj^per part of the throat, and can be removed by the hand. Cervical Choke. The object is lodged anywhere between the throat-latch and the shoulder. The object can be both seen and felt. DISEASES OF TlIK DICESTTVE ORGANS. 55 S3'mptoms not so severe ; animal occasionally draws himself up ; arches his neck ; and sometimes utters a loud shriek ; expression anxious, and attempts at vomiting made ; abdomen full. Soften or lubricate the ob- struction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks, as flax-seed tea, down the gullet. Endeavor to move object by gentle pressure w^itli the hands. If oats or chaff, gently squeeze the lower portion trying to loosen a little at a time. Work at least an hour before giving up, then if a failure, use the probang. Thoracic Choke. Symptoms less severe, yet similar to above, and if choke is not found between throat-latch and shoulder, it is probably lower down. It can be successfully treated by means of the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the probang. Probang and How to Use It. In the absence of the regular in- strument, which must alwaN's be flexible and finished with a smooth cup- shaped extremity, use an inch hose. Keep mouth open wdtli a gag of wood, head slightly raised and extended. The probang carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gently forced down until the obstruction is reached. Pressure then should be gradual and firm. Do not use too much force, keep up a firm pressure initil you feel the object moving, after which you are to follow it rapidly to the stomach. Never allow a whip-stalk or shovel handle to be used. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. Stomach Staggers or Gorged Stomach. Properly named im- paction. The stomach is so filled and distended that it loses all power of contracting upon its contents. It is occasioned by too large a feed after a long fast, or when animal has gotten loose and gained access to grain bin and eaten ravenousl}'. The small stomach of the hor.se and- inability to vomit will account for its frequent occurence. The animal is dull and heavy, or drowsy; slight colicky symptoms are observed, which are continuous; rarely lies down; carries head extended and low; nearly touching the ground. Dullness increases; eyes are partially closed, vision impaired; thrusts head against side of stall; paws or even climbs with fore-feet. Breathes less frequently than in health; the pulse slow and sluggish. All symptoms increase rapidly in severity; soon becomes de- lirious; cold sweat on body; trembles violently; slobbers out a sour fer- menting mass; staggers from side to «ide, and plunges till he drops dead. 56 THE HORSE. Treatment. This is verj- unsatisfactor5\ Give a purgative of Bar- badoes aloes, one ounce. Then tr}^ to stimulate the walls of the stom- ach to contract by giving caj'enne pepper, one-half ounce, or Jamaica ginger one-half ounce. Give rectmn injections of two ounces of turpen- tine into eight ounces of linseed oil. Tympanitis of the Stomach. This is of frequent occurrence yet not treated separately in works on veterinar}^ medicine. Causes and symptoms similiar to the last, 3'et distinct enough to enable the careful obser\'er to tell one from the other. In tympanitis the distension is caused by gas instead of by food. This corresponds to "hoven" in cat- tle and is due to overloading the stomach with j-oung growing herbage, clover in particular, or feeding extra meal immediately before a hard journey. The flanks are distended with gases and the horse tries to retch or vomit. What to Do. Treatment must be prompt and energetic. Some antacid must be given. As it usuall}- occurs on the road and probably some distance from a drug store, hasten to the first house. Get com- mon BAKING SODA and give two to four ounces as quickly as possible. One-half ounce of cayenne pepper or two ounces of black pepper may be added to this with advantage, as it serves to aid the walls of the stomach to contract and expel the gas. Any medicine that will check or stop fermentation, or absorb the gas may be given, as for example: charcoal in any amount ; chloride of lime, one-half ounce; or carbonate of ammonia, one-half ounce. A phj'sic of one ounce of aloes or one pint of linseed oil should be given to unload the stomach. Learn this lesson from these attacks— that when an animal is expected to do an mi- usual amount of work it will he best done on its usual amount of feed. Don't be so humane (?) as to extra feed just before the journey, but wait until your journey's end, and even then don't feed until the animal is thoroughly rested. Many a faithful animal has been killed by the kindness of its master. Rupture of the Stomach. This usually occurs as a result of en- gorged or tympanitic stomach, and there is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could one be sure that this is the trouble it would be best to destroy the animal at once, but there is always an uncertain- ty, as it may be only a very severe case of engorged or tympanitic stom- ach and the animal may recover, hence give powdered opimn in one dram doses every two or three hours in addition to remedies as recom- mended for tympanitis. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57 Gastritis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the stomach. Symptoms not well marked and are generally due to me- chanical irritation or irritating or corrosive poisons in large quantities. There is a feverish condition, colicky pains, and intense thirst. When poisons have produced gastritis there will be other symptoms according to the poison swallowed. I^ead Poisoning'. This occurs near paint works, near newly paint- ed buildings and fences, and where paint kegs are left in the fields, and where water nnis through new lead pipes. Lead poisoning produces labored breathing, abdominal pains, partial paralysis, tottering gait, convulsions, and death. "What to Do. Give thirty to sixty drops of sulphuric acid in a half gallon water. Follow with or precede if not ready at hand, either milk, white of eggs, oil of any kind, flaxseed, gruel or tea. If the poi- son is due to long taking of small quantities of lead or from water flow- ing through new lead pipes, give from one-half to a jxiund of Epson salts. Iodide of potassium in one dram doses, twice a day are of much service. If much pain is manifest, give three to five grain doses of morphine, two or three times a day. Arsenic Poisoning". When the poison is arsenic there will be symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea, purging accompanied b}' an offcn- .sive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, paralysis of hind ex- tremities. Poisoning from arsenic is most common where sheep have been dipped in arsenical baths to cure ' 'scab' ' and then run on pas- ture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is thus deposited on the grass and is eaten by animals in the pasture. Give oil, milk, white of eggs, and flaxseed gruel or tea. Powdered opium in one-half dram doses two or three times a day may be given to allay the pain and in- flammation. Care should be observed in feeding for a time, giving only soft and easily digested foods. Note. — Gastritis may also occur from poisoning by copper, corrosive sublimate, and some vegetable poisons. Stones in the Stomach. Gastric concretions, calculi (stones) in the stomach have been most found in millers' horses. A small piece of mill stone or other substance forms a centre around which is gathered in layers the stony substances which al^ound in their feed, (sweepings from the mill floor). There are few symptoms exhibited that will lead us to suspect calculi and probably none by which we can unmistakably assert its presence. There is a depraved capricious appetite; a disposi- 58 THK HORSE. tion to eat any thing within reach. They sometimes have repeated at- tacks of cohc, which recover abruptly; and the animal assumes a position to relieve pain — sitting on haunches, or standing with front feet on an elevation. There is no effective remed}-, all that can be done is to give ph3'sic to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat the inflammation. Bots — I^arvse of the Gad-fly. There are .so many wrong opin- ions concerning the bot and the harm it is supposed to do the horse, that we give it considerable space. Of the many insect parasites and other tomentors of the horse, mule, and other solipeds, the gad-fl}- is of the most importance. Cobbold, who it the best authority on the subject,^ says: "The common gad fly attacks the animal while grazing late in the summer, its object being not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This is accomplished b>- means of a glutinous excretion, causing the ova (eggs) to adhere to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly those of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore-legs, especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will have no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the animal licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed, the mois- ture of the tongue, aided b}' warmth, hatches the ova, and in something less than three weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the larvae have made their escape. As maggots they are next transferred to the mouth and ultimately to the stomach along with food and drink. A great many larvae perish during this passive mode of immigration, some being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that out of the many hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of the fifty of the larvae arrive within the stomach. Notwithstanding this waste the interior of the stomach may be completely covered (cuticular portion) with bots. Whether there be few or many they are anchored in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the bots have attained perfect growth they voluntarily loosen their hold and allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they es- cape with the feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground and when transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the sur- face in order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. Hav- ing remained in the earth for a period of six or .seven weeks, they final- ly emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterus (winged) insects DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 59 the gad-fly. It thus appears that bots ordinarily pass about eight months of their Hfetime in the digestive organs of the horse. ' ' The species just described infest chiefly the stomach and duodenum (small intestine leading from the stomach.) The idea, almost univer- sally obtained, that bots often cause colick}^ pains is wrong. It is com- mon to hear by-standers declare that almost every horse with the "belly ache" "has the bots," and their treatment is varied and heroic. Dr. Michiner says in his practice he has never known bots to be the cause of any disturbance. The opinion that "bots have eaten through the stomach" when the stomach is found ruptured is also an error. Bots ARE HARMLESS. Even if they were not, there are no medicines that af- fect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, nor anthelmintics (worm medi- cines) nor anodynes cause them to become loose and pass out -the body. To prevent them watch for their eggs on the legs and different parts of the body in the late summer and autumn, scrape them off and burn them. It is useless to try and remove them, they go at their appointed time during May and June. Indigestion. This is the name applied to all conditions where from any cause digestion is imperfectly performed. The trouble called in- digestion is not severe enough to produce colic, yet it is troublesome and the most frequent of all digestion disorders. The seat of the trouble will var>\ Teeth are often at fault, examine for sharp irregular edges or deca^-ed teeth, (see remedies suggested under teeth.) The principal seat however of the trouble is the stomach or the small intestines. Whenever the secretions from these organs are excessive or deficient dyspepsia or indigestion must follow. It is often caused from ' 'bolt- ing" the food (then get larger manger and spread out feed) or winter- ing on hard dry hay or corn-stalk, and other bulky and not very nutritive food ; irregular feeding or over feeding. Indigestion is shown by irregular appetite, refusing food at one time and at others eating ravenously ; appetite depraved ; bowels irregular ; one day loose and bad smelling, the next bound ; grain often passed through whole ; hay passed in balls ; animal passes wind having a sour odor ; skin hard, dry, and tight Chide bound). What to Do. After observing all that has been said regarding feeding under its special head if no improvement is seen, give a physic, aloes one ounce or linseed oil one pint. There is usually a tendenc}' to gas which distends stomach and bowels, for which use the following alkaline treatment. Baking powder, powdered ginger, powdered gen- 6o THE HORSE. tian, four ounces each, mix and give heaping tablespoonful twice a day before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above dose iu a half pint of water and given as a drench. DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. Spasmodic or Cramp Colic. Commonly called gripes. It is that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a i)ortion of the small intestines. It is caused by indigestible food ; foreign bodies, as nails or stones in the bowels ; large drinks of cold water when the ani- mal is warm ; driving a heated animal through deep streams ; cold rain ; draughts of cold air ; etc. Study the Symptoms. Study carefully the symptoms to dis- tinguish this from other forms of colic requiring quite a different treat- ment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the hor^se stops suddenly, stamps impatiently, looks backward, then resumes feed- ing, to be followed by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting up. Then an interval of ease, and the animal eats again and appears well. Then the pain returns increasing in .severity only to pass off for a time. The intervals of ease getting shorter and shorter. Animals with this kind of colic show the most severe pain ; they throw them- selves down; roll over and over; jump up; whirl about; drop down again; paw or strike with the front teeth ; steam and sweat ; make frequent at- tempts to pciss urine with partial erection. Only a small quantit}^ of water passed at a time, because the bladder being so frequently emptied, THERE IS BUT LITTLE WATER TO PASS. The attempts to urinate are often thought to be sure symptoms of kidney and bladder trouble. Re- member diseases of the bladder or kidneys arc ^•cry rare. The stomach and intestines are diseased a thousand times, where the kidneys or blad- der is once. The attempts to pass water and failure to do so are not enough to warrant the decision that the animal has "trouble with his water, ' ' neither should a statement be made that the horse has kidney disease, even if it }-ields or sinks when pinched over the loins. Try this pressure on any horse, and nearly all will >ield ; this is rather a sign of health than a symi)tom of disease. Keep in mind the conditions to which the animal has been subjected ; the suddenness of the attack ; the intervals of a lessening of pain (grow- ing shorter as the case progresses); the severe pain ; the temperature and pulse getting natural during the intervals of pain ; the frequent attempts DISEASES OE THE BIGEvSTUT? ORGANS. 6l to pass urine ; if a male, the erections ; etc. ; and there is Ijut Httle danger of mistaking this for any other form of coHc. What to Do. The paiu being due to spasms or cramps of the bowels, medicines should be given to overcome these spasms, viz. : anti- spasmodic. The best remedy is one ounce of chloral hydrate in a half- pint of water. Another remedy quite common and effectual is two ounces each of sulphuric ether and laudanum in half-pint of linseed oil. Still another remedy may be composed of two ounces of sulphuric ether and eight ounces of alcohol. If nothing else is at hand give one-half pint of whiskey in hot water. If the animal is not relieved in an hour repeat the dose. Keep the body very warmly clothed and try to get the aninial to per- spire. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantitj^ of turpentine has been added, should be fastened around the belly and cov- ered with dry blankets; the belly may be rubbed with stimulating lini- ments or mustard water. The difficulty of keeping the hot blankets in place while the horse is violently moving about during the .spasms of pain forces them in most cases to be abandoned. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete till the offending irritant is removed, and a cathartic consisting of one ounce of aloes or one pint of linseed oil should be given. Injections into the rectum of warm .soapy water, or salt and water, aid the cure. The injection or enema .should be lukewarm and from three to six quarts given at a time. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles, but .severe galloping or trotting should be avoided. Treatment of Wind Colic. Sometimes called tympanitis or bloat. The most frequent causes of this form of colic are sudden changes of food; too long fasting and then food given while the animal is very tired; new hay or grain; large quantities of green food; food that has soured in the manger or mixing tub; indigestible food; irregular teeth; crib-biting; in fact anything that interferes with digestion. Symptoms. This colic is not so suddenly developed, nor are the symptoms so severe as in spasmodic or cramp colic. The animal is at first dull, paws slightly, may or may not lie down. Tlie pains are con- tinuous; the belly enlarged, and when struck in front of the haunches a drum-like sound is heard. If not soon relieved the symptoms are ag- gravated and in addition there is difficult breathing; profuse sweating; trembling of hind-legs; animal .sighs when breathing; staggers from side to side; and, finally, plunges forward dead. The distinguishing 62 THK HORSE. SNTnptotn of flatulent or wind colic is the bowels filled with gas, which is detected by the bloated appearance and the drum-like sound when struck in front of the haunches. Treatment for Wind Colic. The treatment for wind cohc differs very much from the treatment for spasmodic or cramp colic. Gases have been formed and alkalies are used to neutralize them and they must be promptly given. Give baking-soda (bicarbonate of soda) in doses of two to four ounces. If this fails give chloride of lime in half- ounce doses, or the same quantity of carbonate of ammonia, every half- hour till relieved. Charcoal may be given in large quantities. Relax- ants and antispasmodics are beneficial in this form of colic, and as chloral-hj'drate is a relaxant and antispasmodic and also an anti-ferment and pain-reliever it is particularly well adapted in the treatment of wind colic. Give in doses of one ounce in a half-pint of water. A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possible, the best being aloes in doses of one ounce. Injections into the rectum of turpen- tine one to two ounces, mixed with linseed oil eight ounces, may be given to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the bowels to aid in the expulsion of the gases. Wind colic is more fatal than spasmodic and requires prompt and per- sistent treatment. It is unsafe to predict results, some mild cases going on to speedy death, and some severe ones responding easily to treat- ment. Do not give up your efforts till you are sure the animal is dead. Blankets wrung out of hot water and renewed every five or ten minutes will do much to afford relief. Impaction of the I^arge Intestines. This is a very common bowel trouble, and one if not recognized and properly treated results in death. It is caused by over-feeding especially of grain, and is most common where rye is fed either alone or with other grain ; old, hard, dry hay, or stalks when largely fed; lack of water; want of exercise; etc. Symptoms. There is abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or so to return again. The feces passes more frequently but in small quantities and dry; the "belly" is full, but has no drum-like sound; the animal ])a\vs and then looks back at his side. The most characteristic sign is the horse lying flat on his side, head and legs ex- tended, occasionally raises his head to look at his flank; he remains on his side often from ten minutes to a quarter of an hour. The animal rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, look at his sides, backs up DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 63 against the stall which he presses with his tail, and then lies down on his side again stretching out his legs. The pulse is little changed at first, being full and sluggish; later if condition is not improved, the pulse becomes rapid and feeble. The Treatment. This consists in efforts to produce movements of the bowels. A cathartic is to be given, care being taken to give a full dose. Powdered aloes, one ounce ; calomel two drams ; and powdered nux vomica one dram should be given. In place of this linseed oil one pint and fifteen drops of croton oil may be used. Some give Bpsom salts one pound with one-quarter pound of common salt claiming this makes the animal thirsty and the water of which it will drink large quantities will soften the hardened mass in the large intestines thus favoring its expulsion. Remember it takes from twenty to thirty hours before a horse responds to a physic, and under no circumstances should the dose be repeated in less time. If aloes have been given and have failed to operate, follow at the proper time with oil or some different cathartic. Give the animal all the water he will drink. The action of the physic may be aided by giving ever}^ three or four hours, one-half ounce of tincture of belladonna, or one-half dram of nux vomica. In- jections into the rectum should be given every hour using at least six quarts at a time and varied; give first soapy water, then salt and water, then one ounce of turpentine mixed with eight ounces of linseed oil. Rubbing or kneading of the "belly," putting on stimulating liniments or strong mustard water will at times favor the expulsion of the harden- ed mass. When relief is not obtained it runs into inflammation of the bowels, and death follows. Constipation or Costiveness. This is a common disease in the adult horse, particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to j)ass feces or shows signs of cohcky pains, immediate attention must be given. A few injections of soapy water in the rectum to break down any hardened mass is usually all that is necessar}^ If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and two to four ounces of castor oil should be given. The foal should always get the first of it mother's milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative properties. Constipation in adult horses is usually the result of feeding on dr}^ innutritious food, scanty water supply, or lack of ex- ercise. Usually a change to light, sloppy food, linseed gruel or tea, 64 thp: horse. with plenty of exercise is all that is required. Sometimes tvvo-drara doses of extract of belladonna three times a day will be necessary, or daily handful doses of Epsom salts in the feed. Intussusception or Invagination. This is a slipping of a por- tion of the intestine into another portion immediately following, like a partially turned glove finger. It may occur at any part, but most com- mon in the small intestines. This is most likely to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowels. It may occur during the ex- ' istence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, spasmodic colic, inflanmiation of the bowels, etc. There are no symptoms by which it can be positively known. If there is severe straining it should be given attention, particularly if accompanied by colicky pains and constipation. In some cases the horse recovers and if this is suspected, call a veterin- arian, he may be able to relieve the animal. Twisting of the Bowels or Gut-tie. Volvulus or gut-tie is a somewhat conunon accident, and occurs quite frequently from the violent manner in which the horse throws himself about when affected with .spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of obstruc- tion of the bowels and should be treated in the same manner. Diarrhea. Moldy or musty food, stagnant water, diseased teeth, eating irritating substances, feeding on low, marshy pastures and ex- posure during cold nights, will produce this disease. It is more often a symptom of some other disease; rather than an organic disease. Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia and influenza or during disease of the liver. The symptoms are fre- quent liquid stools, with or without abdominal pains. What to Do. Treatment at times is very simple, but requires the utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty food and poor water, change them. If due to some irritant in the intestines, give one pint of linseed oil. If however purging continues, it may be checked by giv- ing wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, or half dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water two or three times a day. Powdered opium, two drams; subnitrate of bismuth, one ounce; repeated three times a day, gives good result. Horses that scour on the road, should be watered and fed as long as possible before driving, If ,| there is much bloating or flatulency during diarrhea, baking soda in I doses of from two to four ounces often cures. If the discharges are very offensive in odor this can be remedied by giving one ounce of sulphite of soda or half a dram of carbolic acid in water, morning and night. DISEASES OP THE DIGESTl\rE ORGANS. 65 Superpurg-ation. This is the name given to that diarrhea or flux induced by and following the action of a physic. It is accompanied by irritation or even inflaunuation of the bowels, and is always of a serious character. In rare cases it follows an ordinary dose of physic. It is usually the result of too large a dose of physic; to giving physic to hors- es suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases; to riding or dri\ing a horse when purging; to exposure or draughts of cold air, or giving large quantities of cold water while physic is operating. There is alwaN's danger of superpurgation if a physic is given a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. When physic is given always feed the animal on sloppy food or mashes, until the physic be- gins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of draughts. After pliysic has thoroughly operated, the purging can gen- erally be stopped by feeding dry oats and hay. If it does not stop give flax-seed tea, oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. If these are not satisfactory in result, give one-half dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or three times a day. If the animal has become weakened, give brandy in doses of from two to four ounces, with milk and eggs four or five times a day. ''Founder" is a frequent result of this disease, and should be guarded against by removing shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some similiar bedding. Dysentery or Bloody Flux. This disease is characterized by coffee-colored or bloody discharges, liquid, and very offensive in odor and passed with much tenesmus (straining). It is rare in the horse. Symptoms. The first symptom is a chill which will probably pass unnoticed. The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in the liquid portion; shreds of mucous membrane and blood are pas.sed; there is nuich straining, and, occasionally, symptoms of abdominal pain; the animal lies down a great deal; pulse is quickened and the temperature raised. The appetite may remain fair, but in spite of this the horse continues to lose flesh, and becomes a sorry looking oljject. Thirst is a prominent symptom. Death usually follows in from one to three weeks. What to Do. Care and feeding is more to be depended upon than any drugs or medicine. First the horse should be placed in a warm, dr>', well ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention "by frequent rubbings and the body should be well blanketed and the legs bandaged. Water pure and given in small quantities; the food .should be light and ea.sily digested. As to medicine give first a light dose of castor oil, 66 THK HORSE. about one-lialf pint to which add two ounces of laudanum. The veget- able and mineral astringents may also be given. Starch injections con- taining laudanum often afford great relief. Strength should be kept up by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oat-meal gruel, etc. In spite of the best of care and treatment, d^^seutery proves fatal oftener than it comes to a successful ending. Inflammation of the Bowels or Enteritis. This is an inflam- mation of the mucous membrane lining the bowels. This inflammation may extend and effect the muscular and also the serous coats. The dis- ease is rare unless it is caused by irritants or corrosive poisons, or follow- ing invagination or twisting of the bowels. How to- Know Enteritis. Fever symptoms mark, from the out- set, all attacks. The lining of nose, mouth, and eyes are congested and reddened, the mouth is hot and dry, respirations are increased, pulse is hard and rapid, temperature is raised to 103° or 105°. Colicky pains are continuous. Horse keeps moving; paws; lies down carefully; and will often turn himself upon the back, remaining in that position for some time; thirst5% and as a rule the bowels are sluggish or inactive, but when due to irritant foods or medicine purging may be present. The inflammatory pulse; position of horse when down; coldness of ears and legs; high temperature; continuous pain, which is increased upon pressure, will enable the careful observer to safely diagnose a case of inflammation of the bowels. "What to Do. Rely principally upon opium internally. Give one to two drams of powdered opium every three or four hours. One dram extract of belladonna should be added to the above doses of opium. Calomel in one dram doses to be given twice a day is recommended. Do not as a rule give purgatives or enemas; and keep the bowels as quiet as possible. Hot blankets applied to the belly and counter-irritants to abdomen are useful. Give linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and starch water. Avoid solid food, especially if hard dry and indigestible. If when the inflammation has subsided, the bowels do not act, encourage action by walking the horse and give injections into the rectum. Should the.se fail tlien give oil. Apoplexy of the I^arge Bowels. By some called muco-enteri- tis. This is nnich more common and most rapidly fatal of the bowel diseases. It is most conmion in heavy draught horses. It seems to be induced by the same causes that produce enteritis. Post-mortem ex- amination reveals extensive clotting of blood between the mucous and DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 67 muscular coats of the large bowels; and thickened walls sometimes two or three inches in thickness. Symptoms. There is a rapid and very weak pulse; profuse perspi- ration; severe and persistent pain, labored respiration, and a paleness of the mucous membrane of the anus. A peculiar, anxious expression ex- ists that, when once seen is always remembered to denote this disease. Toward the last the horse sighs, breathes loudly, staggers and pitches about, and dies in a state of delirium. They rarely live more than ten or twelve hours, and often die inside of six. What to Do. The case has usually advanced so far, before noticed that treatment is of no avail. The best common remedy is white-oak bark tea given in large and frequent doses. Tannic acid, one dram or fluid extract of ergot, one ounce is more desirable if at hand, and should be given every half -hour till four or five doses have been administered. Apply blankets to body, wrung out of hot water, in which turpentine has been sprinkled; mustard water should be applied with sharp rub- bing to the legs. Peritonitis. This is an inflammation of the membrane lining the cavity and covering the viscera contained in the cavity below or back of the diaphragm, and known as the abdominal cavity. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries to the abdomen such as wounds, blows, kicks, and is still more common following the operation of castration. Symptoms. This disease is usually preceded by a chill; the animal does not care to move, and if forced to do so, moves with a stiff or sore gait; paws with front feet and may strike belly with hind ones; lies down very carefully; stands most of the time; walks uneasily about. Generally constipated. Pressure on belly, causes sharp pain, and the horse will usually bite, strike, or kick at you if so used; the body is tucked up; and the feet, legs, and ears are cold. Temperature reaches 102° to 104°. The pulse is almost enough in itself to determine the disease; it is quickened, beating seventy to ninety times a minute, and HARD and WIRY. What to Do. Treat similiar to enteritis. Powdered opium one or two drams, with calomel, one-half dram, should be given every two, three, or four hours. These constitute our main dependence in this dis- ease. Extensive mustard plasters or even mild blisters over the belly are very beneficial. Never give purgatives during the disease. Should it be necessary to move the bowels it may be done by gentle enemas. This is seldom necessary. 68 TIIK HORSE DISEASES OF THE LIVER. Horse Has No Gall Bladder. The liver in the horse is rarely the seat of disease. There is a difference in the anatomical arrangement of the liver in the horse from that of man. It is a very common thing to hear some local "horse-doctor" say that a horse "has disease of his gallbladder." Truly a little learning is a dangerous thing, and this local "horse doctor" thus unwittingly exposes his ignorance, as the horse has no such organ. Diseases of the liver in horses are very obscure and generally remain unnoticed till death. There are a few symptoms when present, that should make us examine the liver care- fully. These are yellowness of the lining of the mouth, nose and eyes; and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty. Inflainination of the I/iver. This disease is technically known as hepatitis, and may assume an acute or chronic form. Symptoms. The distinguishing characteristics are dullness; evi- dence of internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay colored dung balls; scanty and high colored urine; and general fever symptoms. Lies down on left side; looks towards the right side; which upon close in.spection will be found to be enlarged over the posterior ribs, (see location of liver in manikin) where pain is manifested if pres- sure is used. The symptoms of this trouble are ver}' obscure, especially the chronic form, and even with the experienced veterinarian it is mere "guess-work." What to Do. Give first one ounce of Barbadoes aloes or some other physic. Apply a large blister to the right side, extending from a little back of the girth backward to the last rib, and about fifteen inches wide, midway between the middle and back of belly. Four to six quarts of blood may be drawn from the jugular vein, (see location of same on manikin) if taken in the early stages of the disease. After physic operates, saline medicines to act on the liver should be given. One ounce doses of saltpeter or muriate of ammonia, three or four times a day are beneficial. Feed the horse sparingly and principall}' on bran ma.shes. If recovery takes j^lace, which is somewhat doubtful, give the animal regular exercise and light food. Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus. This is the result of the bile being absorbed into the blood. It is not a disease, but a symptom of dis- order of the liver, or a plugging of the bile duct. The nose, lips and eyes will be yellowish instead of the pale pink color of health; the urine is DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 69 saffron-colored; the excrement dirty gray in color; and generally consti- pation is present. "What to Do. Endeavor to get rid of the excess of bile in the sys- tem, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act on the liver. Calomel, two drams; with aloes, seven drams should be given. Glauber salts in handful doses, once or twice a day for a week is also ef- fective May-apple (podophylin ), rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathar- tics that act upon the first or small bowels, may be given. Avoid hard, dr>-, bulky foods and see that the bowels are kept open. Gall-Stones, or Bilary Calculi. These are rarely found in the horse, but occasionally they occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and colicky pains. There are no symptoms by . which gall stones can be positively determined; but if a horse has repeated symp- toms of wind colic, accompanied with violent pains, and that during or following these attacks there is evidence of jaundice, a good guess is that the animal has gall-stones. There is not much that can be done except to give medicine to overcome pain, and trust that these formations may pass out of the ducts into the bowels, where they will not occasion any trouble, on account of their small size. INTESTINAL WORMS. Description of the Common Kinds. Although there are sev- eral kinds of worms found in the intestines of horses, it will be sufficient to refer to three or four of the most common ones. Weak and debilita- ted and young horses are most frequently afflicted. I/Umbricoid. This is a worm four to twelve inches in length, al- though some have been seen over thirty inches long. In form it is much like the common earth-worm (fish-worm). These worms are white or reddish in color, and vary in thickness from a wheat straw to a lady's finger, being thickest at the middle and growing smaller toward both ends. They are found singly and in groups, and live chiefly in the small intestines. Pin-Worm. This is a very common variety of worm and they are found mostly in the large intestines. They are semi-transparent; thread-like in form; and measure from one to two inches in length. Tape-worm. This is a white, flat, thin, broad, jointed worm. The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. Tape-worms of the horse sometimes measure from twenty to thirty feet in length. 70 THE HORSE. Symptoms of Intestinal Worms. Slight colicky pains at times are noticed or there may be only switching of the tail ; frequent passages of manure ; slight straining ; itching of the anus ; and rubbing of the tail or rump against the stall or fence. The horse will be in poor con- dition ; does not shed his coat ; is hide-bound and pot-bellied ; the ap- petite is depraved — licking the walls ; biting the wood- work of the stalls ; licking parts of his body ; eating the ground ; and very fond of salt. The bowels are irregular, constipated, then diarrhea being noticed. Some place much dependence on the itching of the upper lip, as shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stall. The one symptom, that should always be looked for, and one that will not deceive, is seeing the animal pass the worms in the excrement. How to Hxpel Worms. Remedies to destroy worms are most effective if given after a long fast, and then followed by a physic to carry off the worms. The best worm medicines are santonine, turpen- tine, tartar-emetic, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy tape-worms, areca nut, male-fern, and pumpkin seeds are best. If the long round worms are being passed, give twice daily, for three or four days, a drench composed of turpentine, one ounce, and linseed oil, two or three ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by one ounce Barbadoes aloes. If pin- worms are seen, use injections into the rectum, of infusions of tobacco or infusion of quassia chips one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few days, and follow by a physic. Remem- ber intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition ; and an important part of our treatment is to improve the appetite and powers of digestion. This is done by giving the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, or quassia is to be given in the food twice a day. Unless the system is toned up, the worms will rapidly accumulate again, even though they may all seem to have been expelled by the worm medicine. Note. — The following powders are very effectual in removing intestinal worms. After giving twelve of these powders as directed, give with the last dose one ounce of turpentine and four ounces of linseed oil. 1 ounce Ferri. Sulphate, 1 ounce Tartar Emetic, 1 ounce Carbo. Lig, 2 ounces Areca Nut. Mix and divide into twelve powders, and give one night and morning. THR HORSE. 7 1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CAUSES THAT PRODUCE THE VARIOUS KINDS OF COLIC. Whenever a horse presents symptoms of abdominal pain (pawing, Ij'ing down, rolhng, etc.) it has been the custom from time immemorial to call it colic. As a great number of different diseased conditions in the abdominal cavity cause such symptoms the treatment should there- fore be varied. Many of these diseases of course cannot be clearly differentiated during life, although we are able to notice characteristics which are in a measure peculiar to certain diseased conditions which enable us to make a positive diagnosis. The statistics show that ten to twenty per cent, of horses affected with colic die, and that forty per cent, of the deaths of horses are due to this trouble. Certain medical compounds have been put upon the market as specifics for colic. This is what makes the treatment of colic unsatisfactory and increases the mortality. The classification of the causes of colic is as follows: I St. Food colic. (a) Over feeding colic. (b) Colic due to damaged or improperly prepared food. (c) Starv^ation colic. 2d. Colic caused by obstruction to the gut. (a) Colic due to impaction of dried, woody food in the large in- testine of adult horses. The retained uncomium or the in- gested straw and hay of the foal. (b) Mechanical obstructions, such as twisted gut, intussusception, rupture, and tumours. 3d. Cohc due to paralysis of the intestine. 4th. Colic due to plugging of the blood vessels of the intestines. (Thrombosis and embolism). 5th. Nervous colic, due to exposure, fatigue and other causes, (Spas- modic colic). 6th. Colic due to worms. 7th. Colic due to foreign bodies in the intestines, such as stones (calculi), sand or dirt. The chief danger is the accumulation of gas from which relief should 72 THE HORSE. be given promptly and practically as possible, for the following reasons: ist. To avoid rupture of the stomach, intestine, and diaphragm. 2d. To prevent suffocation. 3d. To prevent the effect of the absorption of gases. 4th. To permit healthy intestinal movement and prevent paralysis. 5th. To relieve pain. 6th. To prevent intestinal displacement. The most prompt and safe way to remove gaseous distention is to use trochar and canula, and plunge this into the highest part of the right flank. This of course should be done by a skillful veterinarian. SHIRE MARE, "BLOSSOM II." r nfk^"* T^f^- or b' T.gsyijtit vo&slet ilalq HurcaKSTKO. 3a£D by jouic oarpsa HQ&t£Slll]L CatUAlHiQZi MARK AT RHTRR •HnRHR'KHnW, l/^Xfum. \R&fL CHAPTER V. RESPIRATORY ORGANS. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. Description of organs of thoracic cavity, diseases of the nos- trils, THE NASAL CHAMBERS, THE SINUSES, THE PHARYNX, THE LARYNX, THE WIND-PIPE, THE BRONCHI, THE BRONCHIAL TUBES, AIR-CELLS, PLEURA, AND DIAPHRAGM. ^^ ESPIRATORY organs are those that are used for, or aid in ^J breathing. ' Some of the organs are used almost entirely in the J^ process of breathing, while others serve a double function. The (3) taking or drawing in of the air into the lungs is called inspiration. The side walls and front of the chest move upward and outward forming a vacuum and the air rushes in to fill the cavity. The sending of air out of the lungs is called expiration. This is ordinarily accomplished by the weight of the chest, which sinks down, displacing the air. Description of the Respiratory Organs. The organs aid- ing in respiration may be classed as follows: NOSTRILS — the nasal openings, the place where the skin gradually changes to mucous membrane; NASAIy CHAMBERS — the cavities through which the air passes to the head. These chambers are completely separated, the right from the left; by partitions of cartilage; SINUSES — the compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same mcm])rane; 74 THE HORSE. PHARYNX — the back part of the mouth and above the first rings of the gullet. It is common to the functions of respiration and digestion; LARYNX — the complicated structure situated at the top of the wind- pipe, and just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered a box which opens into and is continuous with the wind-pipe: WIND-PIPE OR TRACHEA— the air tube consisting of rings of cartilage which extends downward from the larjmx to opposite the fourth or fifth dorsal vertebra; BRONCHI — the two parts into which the wind pipe divides. The one going to the right lung is called the right bronchus, the one to the left lung is the left bronchus; BRONCHIAL TUBES— the division of the bronchi which penetrate and carry air to all parts of the lungs; AIR-CELLS — the small recesses at the" end of the bronchial tubes. These are separated from each other by a delicate membrane, between the layers of which lies the plexus formed by the pulmonary artery. The blood is thus exposed to the air on two surfaces; LUNGS. — the bronchial tubes, the air-cells and plexus together make up what is commonly called the lungs. There are two divisions, one on the right and the other on the left; PLEURA — the thin double membrane that surrounds the lungs. One layer of this membrane is attached to the lungs, the other to the chest wall. This membrane secretes a fluid to lubricate their surfaces as they move one upon another; DIAPHRAGM. — the muscular division which separates the heart, lungs, and large blood vessels from the stomach, liver, and intestines. It is the muscle of inspiration. Causes of Diseases of Respiratory Organs. These organs are more liable to disease than the organs connected with any other functions of the body, and as nearly all are the results of carelessness it is well to know and study causes. In the spring and fall when animals are changing coats, there is a tendency to contract disease, and care should be taken at these periods to prevent other exciting causes. Avoid badly ventilated stables. Avoid taking horse from pasture and putting in too warm a stable. Avoid cold, close, damp stables as well as hot, close, and foul ones. Avoid changing from a hot to a cold stable. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 75 Avoid stables not well ventilated or not well cleaned. Avoid allowing an overheated horse to dry by letting the hair dry by evaporation. Rub the horse dry. Avoid letting a horse (especially if warm or covered with sweat) stand in a draught. Walk the horse till cool. Avoid prolonged or fast work, when animal is out of condition. Avoid leaving horses, that have been out in cold rains, to dry by evaporation. Rul) them dry. Avoid leaving on horse blankets that have become moist from the sweating animal. Take them off and put on dry ones. DISEASES IN THE HEAD. • Catarrh or Cold in the Head. Catarrh means a discharge of fluid from the mucous membrane. Catarrh is at first a congestion fol- lowed by inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cav- ities. It usually extends into the sinuses of the head, and sometimes to the membranes of the larnyx and pharynx, causing sore throat. The nasal duct which leads from the eyes to the nose is lined with the same membrane, and often the congestion and inflammation extends to the eyes as shown by their redness and flowing of tears. Symptoms. The mucous membrane is at the beginning of the at- tack, dry and congested; much deeper pinkish-red or red than natural; then a watery discharge makes its appearance; the eyes may become af- fected, and tears flow on the cheeks. The animal has some fever which may be easily detected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feel- ing of heat coming to the finger will be greater than the natural; the animal may be dull; frequently emitting a sort of sneezing snort, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; very often forces air through his nostrils as if he was ' 'blowing his nose. ' ' A few days after the attack the discharge changes from a watery to a mucilaginous state, and is of a 5-ellowish- white color. Note. — To become quite expert in ascertaining the changes of temperature in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths known to be healthy. How to Cure. This disease is not serious, but if left to go its own way, it may run into a dangerous complication and should receive prompt attention. Have the horse inhale steam about fifteen minutes at a time, four or five times a day, as suggested under MANAGEMENT 76 THE HORSE. AND CARE. Pay particular attention to the diet. Feed bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If constipation ap- pears, relieve the animal b}^ injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum, three or four times a day. But under no circumstances give physic. To simple cases the above is all that is necessary, but if appetite is gone and the animal appears dull, give three times a day three ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and two drams of powdered chlor- ate of potash, diluted with a pint of water. When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite does not return give two ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water as a drench, every night and morning for several da^'s. If after ten days the discharge continues, give one dram of powdered sulphate of iron three times a da3^ Chronic Catarrh. This is an inflammation of some part of the membrane affected by a common cold which has become persistent. The sinuses of the head are the usual seats of the trouble, and it is mani- fested by a more or less continuous discharge of a thick, white or yellowish-white matter from one or both nostrils. Symptoms. The long-continued discharge just mentioned will in- variably indicate the disease. Exercise great caution in examining these cases to distinguish them from glanders. This disease is neither dangerous nor contagious, although at times it is difflcult to cure. The discharge may be irregular, quite large quantities being discharged at times, while at others scarcely any. Treatment. The animal should have nutritive food and regular light exercise. The food should be placed iu a box on the ground, and the hay where the head must be lowered to eat it. For eight days give one of the following powders night and morning; sulphate of iron, three ounces; powdered nux vomica, one ounce; mix and make into sixteen powders. Then for the next eight days, give night and morning one of the following: sulphate of copper, four ounces; powdered gentian, six ounces; mix and divide into sixteen powders. After this give one dram of iodide of potassium dissolved iu a pail of drinking water, one hour before each meal. A blister over the face is often of much benefit. The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one-third its weight of lard is very efficient. As a disinfectant sprinkle chloride of lime about the stall, and a small (quantity may ])e placed in the manger inider the hay. DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 77 Inflammation of the Pharynx. In the back jiart of the pharynx is the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz: in- fluenza, strangles, etc. , and is probably more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. The treatment is the same as for inflamma- tion of the lar^'nx, which is next described. I^aryngitis or Sore Throat. The mucous membrane lining the larynx is so highly sensitive that the smallest particle of food, which happens to drop into it will cattse it to contract and violent coughing en- suses, which is continued until the foreign matter is ejected. Inflamma- tion of the larynx is a serious and sometimes fatal disease and as before stated, is usualh' complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, con- stituting what is generally known as "sore throat." Symptoms. A cough is first noticed followed by the difficulty in swallowing. In many cases the difficulty in swallowing is so great that the water, and occasionally the food, is returned through the nose. The mouth is hot and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the lov.'er jaw bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larjTix induces a violent fit of coughing. The head is more or less "poked out;" membrane in the nose becomes red; discharge from nos- trils soon appears. As ths disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a rasping snore is given with each breath; and the breathing becomes hurried. How to Cure Sore Throat. In all cases steam the nostrils as advised for "cold in the head" or catarrh. In bad cases keep up the steaming for hours, or until relief is gained. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried along with the steam to the affected parts. In mild cases, steaming the nostrils every two hours will suffice. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The feed should consist of soft food, such as, bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. Fresh water should be before the animal all the time. Constipation (if it shows itself) must be relieved by injections of warm water three or four times every twenty-four hours. A liniment made of olive oil, two ounces; solution of ammonia, one ounce; and tincture of cantharides, one ounce; should be thoroughly rubbed-in, about the throat from ear to car, a:ul about six inches down 78 THE HORSE. over the windpipe and in the space between the lower jaws. Apply this liniment once a day for two or three days. If the animal can swallow without much difEcult}^ give the following as a drench, to be repeated every six hours: fluid extract hyoscyamus, one dram; powdered chlorate of potash, two drams; molasses, two ounces. Should great difficulty be experienced in breathing, do not attempt to give drenches, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve two ounces of chlorate of potash in every gallon of water given. Even if this is not swallowed and returned through the nose it will be of bene- fit as a gargle to the pharynx. If breathing begins to be loud, relief is sometimes afforded by giving as a drench two ounces of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If this benefits, repeat the dose five hours after the first. This will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth within a half hour. Roaring" This is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some parts of the respiratory tract. This is really a symptom of some ailment and not a disease of itself. There are many causes that may induce temporary, intermitting or permanent noisy breathing; but in nine out of every ten cases of chronic roaring, the cause is paralysis of the muscles of the larynx. A skilled veterinarian who is able to de- termine the cause of the trouble, may be able to benefit, but the result is doubtful. Note. — An animal that is a roarer should never be used to breed from, no matter how valuable the stock. This taint is transmittible, and the offspring is born with a predisposition to this trouble. High Blowing. This is a noisy breathing that is decidedly a nasal sound, and must not be confounded with "roaring." Tbe sound is pro- duced by the action of the nostrils. This is a habit and not an un- soundness. In "roaring" when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound increases, in "high blowing" the sound ceases. Whistling. This is one of the sounds made b}^ a "roarer" and therefore needs no further notice, except to state that this sound may be made during an attack of severe "sore throat" and will pass away with the disease that causes it. Thick Wind. This is another term which Is applied to a disease, which is only a symptom. The great majority of horses called "thick winded" belong either to the "roarers" or have the "heaves." Occa- sionally a mare heavy with foal, or horses excessively fat are affected DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 79 with heavy breathing that may be called "thick wind." In the one nature will cure; while in the other there is needed a light diet that will lessen the fat, and plenty of exercise. Guttural Pouches. There are two sacks not included in the organs of respiration, that are near the pharynx and larynx. They are peculiar to solipeds and their use is unknown. In health they contain air, but sometimes pus collects in them, causing considerable interference with respiration. Symptoms. Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially if head is low- ered. The swelling is soft, and if pressed upon, matter will escape from the nose, if head is lowered. What to Do. Turn the animal out to grass or feed from the ground. In addition give the tonics recommended for "nasal gleet" or as it is more properly called chronic catarrh. DISEASES WITHIN THE CHEST. How to Detect the Diseases Within the Chest. It is nec- cessary to study the horse in health, as to pulse and respiration, to be able to distinguish the change so as to recognize disease. Study care- fully the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE, so as to be able to locate the organs. Where to Take the Pulse. By this is meant the beating of the arteries which correspond in number and character to the beating of the heart. The artery usually selected for "taking the pulse" is the submaxillary artery where it winds around the lower jaw-bone. On the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may be readily felt and to "take the pulse" should be pressed against the bone. The number of beats in a minute; the regularity or irregularity; the strength or feeble- ness; and other peculiarities may be easily noted. Number of Pulse Beats per Minute. In the healthy horse the average number of beats in a minute is about forty. But in different horses will vary from thirty-five to forty-five. In the low-breed large lazy horse it will not be more than thirty-five, while in the highly- bred ner\'ous animal it may reach forty-five. Work and excitement increase the number of pulsations. If the pulse of a horse be taken while standing quietly in the stable, it will be less frequent than when at pasture 8o THE HORSE. Peculiarities of the Pulse. A little study of the following will aid much in the determination of the various peculiarities of the pulse. If the pulse beats fifty-five or more times in a minute while the horse is is at rest, it is an evidence that fever is present. FREQUENT PUESE— is one that beats an increased number of times in a minute. INFREQUENT PULSE— is the reverse. QUICK PULSE has reference to the time occupied by each separate pulse The beat mav strike the finger either quickly or slowly. The pulse may beat forty quick pulsations in a minute, or forty slow ones. les. , . -11 INTERMITTING PULSE— is one in which a beat is occasionally omitted The beat which is omitted may come at the end of some given number of pulsations, when it is called regularly intermittent. _ LARGE PULSE— is one that seems to feel fuller and seems to strike the finger over a larger space than usual. SMALL PULSE— means the opposite. FEEBLE PULSE— is one in which the artery is easily pressed down and conveys the idea of emptiness. HARD PULSE— is one that causes the feeling of hardness or resis- tance The artery feeling full and the pulse beating with force; DOUBLE PULSE— is one in which the beat seems to give two rapid beats at once. r i r The pulse may include the character of two or more of the foregoing classes Thus a horse may have a quick, intermitting, feeble pulse, etc. TemiJerature. The temperature of the healthy horse is slightly above that of man, ranging from 99>^° to ioi^° F. The average is about ioo° F High surrounding temperature and exercise as well as digestion will increase the animal temperature. The most accurate ^xay of taking temperature is by introducing a self-registering thermometer into the rectum. The thermometer should remain m three or four min- utes before it is removed. ■, u a;. Respiration. The character of breathing is much changed by dis- ease. These peculiar characteristics are very e.ssential in determining the location and nature of a disease. _ Respirations Per Minute. In health, standing quiet, the horse breathes from twelve to fifteen times a minute; work or excitement in- creases the number. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 8 1 Kinds of Respiration. The following terms are u.sed in explain- ing the variou.s characteristic breathings. QUICK BREATHING — refers to an increa.sed number of respira- tions per minute, which may be due to exercise or disease. DIFFICULT BREATHIXG— is always the result of something ab- uornal, and it is often a perfect guide to the trouble. STERTORIOUS BREATHING— is not to be confounded with diffi- cult breathing. It is more of a snore-like breathing, and is due to a re- laxation of the palate, and not to disease of this part. It is generally associated with brain disease, when the consequent derangement of the uen-ous functions causes the relaxation of the soft palate. ABDOMINAL BREATHING— is when the ribs are kept nearly stationary, and the abdominal muscles assist in breathing to a 'greater extent than is natural. The "belly" is seen to work like a bellows. In pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by moving the ribs, abdominal breathing is always present. THORACIC BREATHING— is the opposite of abdominal breathing, that is the ribs rise and fall more than usual, while the abdomen re- mains fixed. This is due to abdominal pains, such as peritonitis, etc. IRREGULAR BREATHING— is shown to good advantage in heaves, and often in acute diseases during their critical stage. Secretions. During the first days of an inflammatory disease no- tice carefully the secretions. In a common cold, there is first dryness, then water^^ discharge, followed by thick mucus. In pleurisy the membranes are at first dry, which can be easily determined by putting the ear against the chest over the affected part and there will be heard the dry rubbing sound, like two pieces of paper rubbing one against the other. Cough. The surface being congested there is usually an effort as if to remove some source of irritation in the respiratory tx^ack. The DRY COUGH is heard during the first stages of a disease of the respiratory organs. In pleurisy the cough is a dry one, and the animal tries to suppress it. The MOIST COUGH is heard when the secretions have been re-es- tablished. Cough is but a symptom — the effect of a disease. Roaring, heaves, pleurisy, and pneumonia have each a cough peculiar to the affection. Detecting- Disease by Sound. Au.scultation is the term ap- plied to the detecting of diseases of the organs within the chest by 82 THE HORSE. listening to the sounds. Generally the ear is placed directly against the part but occassionally an instrument called the stethoscope is used. The ear is best for horses. First, get accustomed to the sounds in a health}' horse, which can be done by practice only. Then more patience and practice with your sick animals and 3'ou will be able to distinguish signs of disease and their indications. Percussion. This term in the practice of medicine means striking some part of tne body to determine the condition of the internal organs. If the wall of a cavity is struck the sound is easily distinguished from that emitted when a solid substance is knocked npon. This method of examination requires practice with the healthy as well as with the un- healthy animal. Bronchitis. This is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The mucous membrane lining the tubes may alone be affected or it may ex- tend to the whole structure. When confined to the largest tubes it is less serious than when the smaller ones are affected. Symptoms. The animal appears dull; appetite wholly or partially lost; head hangs; the breathing is much quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking cough" is suc- ceeded in a few days by a moist rattling cough ; the mouth is hot ; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse frequent, hard, and quick in the first stages, but as disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. In a few days a whitish discharge from the nostrils, which may be tinged with blood may make its appearance. The ribs rise and fall more than is usual, which proves the animal has not the pleurisy. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. Urine decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. Bronchitis affecting the smaller tubes is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger is never serious. It is an extremely difficult thing for the non-expert to discriminate between the two forms, and also he will have difficulty in distinguishing between bronchitis and pneu- monia. Treatment. Put animal in well ventilated box-stall. Cover body with blanket. Hand rub legs till warm, then apply flannel band- ages from hoof to knees and hocks. If the legs cannot be made warm by rubbing apply liniment recommended for "sore-throat." Rub in thoroughly and then put on bandages. Rub the same liniment over side of chest, and that part of the side occupied by the lungs as indi-. Gated by the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE. Repeat application to DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 83 the chest in about five days. If applied oftener it will be apt to irritate the animal too much and make him restless. Compel animal to inhale steam. In each gallon of water put a table- spoonful of oil of turpentine. In serious cases give steam every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the benefits. Three times a day, give as a drench; solution of acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; bicarbonate of po- tassium, one-half ounce; water one pint. Care must be used in drench- ing. If it makes animal worse, don't persist, but give instead one-half ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful of water the ani- mal will drink. Keep cold water before him all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give tiie following drench: spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; rectified spirits, three ounces; water, one pint. Repeat dose every four or five hours, if it ap- pears to benefit. If the horse is hard to drench give the following ball: pulverized car- bonate of ammonia, three drams; linseed meal and molasses sufiicient to make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and it is ready to give. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. Do not let this ball break in the mouth as it will make the mouth sore, and prevent the animal from eating. If constipated give enemas of w^arm water. Do not bleed the animal. When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all medicines except the following tonic treatment should be discontinued. Give the following mixture: pulverized sulphate of iron, three ounces; powdered gentian, eight ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen pow- ders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats if the animal wdll eat it, or shaken with about a pint of water and administered as a drench. If cough remains for so long a time as to lead you to think it will be- come chronic, say three or four weeks after the horse is apparently well, apply the liniment above recommended to the throat and well over the wind-pipe and breast. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dis- solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Chronic Bronchitis. This is due to same causes as the acute form, or may follow it. Chronic bronchitis may change into the acute form by a very shght cause. Its course is slower, less severe, and not 84 THE HORSE. accompanied with as much fever as acute. The general sj^mptoms are the same and the non-expert is apt to sa}', "the horse has a touch of bronchitis;" but as the animal does not improve he at last is forced to commence treatment. What to Do. Do not work the animal. Rest is necessary if a cure is desired. Give the same general treatment prescribed for the acute form. If the animal is not benefitted to a marked degree, give the following: powdered nux vomica, three ounces; powdered arsenic, seventy grains; powdered sulphate of copper, three ounces; mix to- gether and divide into thirty-six powders. Give a powder mixed with bran and oats ever}^ night and msrning. If all other treatment fails, try the following: hydrocyanic acid (Sheller's strength), twenty minims; nitrate of potassium, three drams; bicarbonate of soda, one ounce; water, one pint. This dose should be given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, if necessary. Congestion of the I/Ungs. Inflammation of the lungs is always preceded by congestion, or we may .say congestion is the first stage of inflammation. Congestion is an excess of blood in the parts affected. Congestion may exist as an independent affection, and is generally cau.sed by over-exertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to un- dergo more than moderate exercise. Symptoms. If the animal is taken ill on the road, he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may .stagger and even fall. The nostrils will be dilated; the flanks heaving; the countenance haggard; and every other appearance ot suffocation will be evident. If the symptoms do not appear until returned to the stable the horse will be found with his head down; legs spread out; eyes wildly staring or dull and sunken; breathing rapid and almost gasping; body covered with sweat, which may soon dry, leaving legs and ears cold; breathing both thoracic and abdominal; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought into action. If pulse can be felt at all, it will be very frequent, often reaching one hundred or more a minute. The ani- mal may tremble all over, and if the ear is placed against the side of chest, a loud murmur or perhaps a fine crackling sound will be heard. Treatment. If taken on the road, do not attempt to return to the stables. If in the stable give plenty of pure air. If weather is warm, open air is best. Let the animal stand still; he has all he can do to get enough pure air to sustain life. If pos.«ible set three or four men at DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 85 work, rubbing body and legs, until the skin feels natural. Do not let the men stop short of a good vigorous rubbing. Rub over the cold part of the legs the same liniment used in bronchi- tis, but do not put it on the chest. The medicines needed are diffusible stimulants. Give two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, diluted with a pint of water, every hour till relief is afforded. But if it takes too long to get this medicine, give a quarter of a pint of whiskey in a pint of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy. An ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water everj' hour for four or five hours, may be used, if the last can not be obtained. If none of these remedies are at hand give two ounces of oil of turpen- tine, shaken with a half pint of milk. This will be of l)encfit till the better remedies can be obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia (hartshorn), diluted with a pint of water, and given every hour, may be of service in saving life when nothing else can be obtained in time. Great care must be used after the animal has commenced to improve, as this disease may be followed by pneumonia. Provide comfortable stall, avoid draughts, and keep the animal blanketed and legs bandaged. Apoplexy of the I/Ungs. This is another term for congestion of the lungs. When there is bleeding from the lungs during their con- gested state it is called PULMONARY APOPLEXY. Pneumonia or I/Ung F'ever. This is an inflammation of the lungs, in which the air cells are the parts principally affected, although the minute branches of the bronchial tubes are always inflamed to a greater or less degree. Symptoms. The fir.st symptoms of pneumonia when a primary dis- ease, is a chill, more or less prolonged, wdiich in most cases is overlook- ed, or not seen. The breathing becomes more rapid; the animal hangs his head and has a very dull appearance; the mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger, indicates fever; if thermometer is used, the temperature will be found to reach 103° F., or higher; pulse beating from seventy to one hundred or more per minute; character of pulse varies very much, it may be hard or feeble, large or small, intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which changes in character as the disease advances; if pleurisy sets in the cough will be peculiar to that affection, that is, cut short in the endeavor to stop it. The appetite is usually poor, but the desire for water is greater, par- 86 THE HORSE. ticularl}- at the beginning of the disease. The legs are cold; the bowels more or less constipated; the passages being covered with a slimy mucus. Treatment. The general treatment is the same as for bronchitis. Give animal plenty of fresh, cold drinking water. Blanket the body. Rub legs till warm, then put on bandages from hoof up as far as they are cold. If hand-rubbing does not make legs warm, put on liniment recommended in the treatment of bronchitis. At least twice a day the bandages should be removed and the legs well rubbed, and bandages again applied. Over the affected side apply the liniment recommended for ' 'sore- throat," and if necessary it may be repeated after five days. Do not use mustard. Do not clip off the hair and rub in powerful blisters. Hot applications to the side of the chest are beneficial if the articles necessar}^ to use to apply them are handy. Do not use aconite. Do not give ph3'sic. If the animal is constipated, relieve it by an allowance of laxative food, such as scalded oats, bran and linseed mashes, and grass in season. If this does not relieve, give an injection of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. If the animal has no desire for this food, let him eat anything that he cares for. Make hay tea by pouring boiling water over good hay into a bucket and allow to cool. Remove the hay and allow to drink as much as desired. If the animal will drink milk, it may be supported for days, by giving three or four gallons of sweet milk, into which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. The following drench should be administered every six hours: solution of acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, three drams; water, one pint. Use great care in drenching. If the horse gets very much weakened, use stimulants of a more pro- nounced character, as follows: rectified spirits, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; water, one pint. If benefit is derived repeat every four or five hours. Or give six ounces of whiskey with a pint of water instead. When animal improves and the fever has left, give the tonic medicines advised in bronchitis. Pleurisy. This is an inflammation of the double membrane (the pleura) which surrounds the lungs. In health this membrane moves upon itself with every breath, and secretes a fluid (called serum) for DISEASES OK THE RESPIRATORY ORCANS. 87 lubricating its walls. This keeps the surfaces always moist and smooth. In pleurisy the membrane first becomes congested, the surfaces getting dry and roughened. This dry condition is followed after a tim- by the membrane throwing off more fluid than usual. This fluid accumulates in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, causing "dropsy of the chest" or hydro-thorax. Symptoms. This disease usually commences with a chill, which is often overlooked. The animal does not move or turn around. When compelled to do so, he grunts or groans with pain. The animal stands Stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is has abdominal breathing; both fore-feet and elbows ma\- be turned out; the animal may be restless, and act as if he had a slight colic; may lie down, but does not remain long. After the membrane begins to secrete the excessive fluid mentioned above, a furrow will be found running along the lower part of the chest, from behind the elbow to the flank; this is due to the endeavor of the animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as possible an unmovable position. Every movement of the chest causes severe pain, therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and comes as near no cough as the ani- mal can make it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth hot, the temperature being raised from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual fever symptoms, such as cos- tiveness, and scanty and dark-colored urine are present. The pulse is frequent, perhaps seventy or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. If the ribs are struck with the knuckles, there will be some spot, more or less extended where the blows cause more or less pain. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. By listening at the side you will come to a place where there will be distinguished a sound very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper to- gether. In many cases the friction is so great that it can be felt by placing the hand over the diseased part. When the dry state is suc- ceeded by the secretion of fluid, the Sound disappears. If the quantity of the fluid is large, the large amount retards the pro- cess of absorption to a great extent. In some cases the symptoms manifest a serious state. The pulse becomes more frequent; the breath- ing more hurried and labored; flanks work like bellows; the nostrils flap; the eyes stare wildly; countenance expresses anxiety; and general signs of breaking up are plain. After a short time swellings appear un- der the chest and belly and down the legs. Pleurisy is most often con- fined to the right side. 8^ THE HbRS]^. Treatment. This is quite similar to the treatment of bronchitis and piK^umonia, but as pleurisy is so apt to be complicated "vvith either of these diseases the treatment may be considered as merel}' an addition to the treatment for these ailments. The hot applications applied to the chest as suggested in tl:e treatment for pneumonia are very beneficial, and should be kept up while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. The liniment should not be applied till the symptoms of pain, have somewhat subsided, tlien n:b it well over the affected part. Apply every other day till several applications have been made. From the beginning the following drench should be given every six hours: solution of the acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce; bi- carbonate of potassium three drams; water one pint. If the pain seems very severe in the beginning of the attack, causing the animal to lie down or paw; give the following drench; tincture of opium, two ounces; raw linseed oil, twelve ounces. If the pain con- tinues the opium ma}^ be repeated after four hours. Should the case after ten or twelve days not progress favorably, it is due to the excessive fluid not being absorbed; hence effort must be made to excite aVjsorption. Apply the liniment over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest, and give the following drench three times a day, for a week, if it appears necessary and of benefit; tincture of perchloride of iron, one ounce; tincture of gentian, two ounces; water one pint. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the drinking water one hour before feeding, every night and morning for a week or two. If tapping of the chest is neccessar)^ it should be done, before the strength of the animal is lowered beyond recovery, and it is best to call a veterinary to perform the operation. Pleuro-Pneumonia. When an animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is often the case, it is called PL,EURO- PNEUMOXIxV. At the beginning only one of the atiections may be present, but the other soon follows. The symptoms of both diseases are present, but usually that of pleurisy, is the most prominent. The course of treatment is the same as recommended for piieumonia and pleurisy when they occur repeatedly. Then symptoms of both diseases are pres- ent, but usually that of pleurisy is the most prominent. The course of treatment is the same as recommended for pneumonia and pleurisy when they occur separately. The symptoms will be the guide whether it is DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89 best to give laudanum and oil for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not give it unless absolutely necessary to relieve the pain. Broncho-Pleuro-Pneumonia. This is the name given when bronchitis is present with pleurisy and pneumonia. It is not a common occurrence It is impossible for a person not an expert to determine this combination with certainty, as the apparent symptoms are the same a pleuro-pneunionia. Broncho-Pneumonia. This is a common complication. Either the bronchitis or the pneumonia may be first. The treatment is the same as for the diseases when separate. Heaves— Broken Wind — Asthma. The popular mind is much confused with regard to the nature of "heaves." Many horsemen apply this name to all ailments when the breathing is noisy or difficult. This disea.se is thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. This continued affection leads t© a paralysis of these small circular muscles, and is thought to be one of the first stages of the disease. There is good foundation for the opinion of some emminent veterinarians, that the cause of this trouble is due to a lesion of the pneumo-gastric nerve. This trouble is al- ways, connected with some disorder of the digestive organs. How to Know the Heaves. Nearly every experienced horse- man is able to detect this disea.se. The cough which is present in this di.sea.se is peculiar; the sound is short, and .something like a grunt. When the air is drawn in, it appears to be done in the same manner as in health, but when expelled, the lungs having lost most of their power of contracting, the great change i:i breathing is then ver}' plainly .seen. The abdominal muscles are brought into pla}-; those about the flank contract, then pause a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellows-like jerky motion with every breath. A wheezing noise is heard when the animal is exerted, and the same can be heard to a less degree when the animal is at rest, if the ear is put against the chest. Indigestion is always preserrt; the animal lias a depraved appetite, often eating dirt and .soiled bedding instead of the clean food in the manger; they often overload the stomach; the animal often gets "pot- bellied;" wind of an offensive odor often passes: attacks of colic may occur and they are usually fatal; the bowels are often loose; and the animal can not perform much work, as the muscles are soft. Never let a day go by without giving light exercise. go THE HORSS. What to Do. When this disease is once settled there is no cure for it. The treatment must be such as to reheve the symptoms, which are ready to return any time, if the animal overloads the stomach or is given food of a bad quality. Proper attention to the food is necessary. Clover hay and bulky food generally have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be omitted. Moldy or dusty hay, or fodder of any kind is very injurious. Hay should be fed only once a day, and then only in small quantities. Always water before feeding; never directly after; slightly dampen hay, fodder, and oats to allay the dust; do not w^ork the animal under an hour after a meal; turning to pasture gives relief; carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped fine and mix- ed with the oats or corn makes a good diet. Arsenic is the only medicine that is considered by the best authori- ties as of any value, and this only palliates the symptoms. Use the so- lution of arsenic in hydrochloric acid, which should be purchased at a drug-store because it is then of uniform strength. Each ounce of this solution should contain about four and one-half grains of arsenic. For about two weeks, mix wdth the bran or oats three times a day, a table- spoonful of this solution; then for the next two weeks give the same dose only twice a day; then once a day for a month. If bowels are cos- tive, give one pint of raw linseed oil, once or twice a month. Medicine is only secondary; the food is of the greatest importance. Never breed from animals having the "heaves." Note. — If buying a horse of one of the "smart" individuals, a care- ful examination should be made for the purpose of detecting the heaves. These "jockeys" by keeping the stomach and intestines empty, and giving depressing medicines, manage to hide the symptoms of heaves for a short time. To detect the heaves, give the horse all the water he will drink, and then have him ridden or driven up a hill, or on a heavy road. This will bring out the peculiar breathing, common to the heaves. The giving of arsenic to suppress the symptoms is one of their favorite tricks. Chronic Cough. A cough of this character may succeed acute disease of the respiratory organs, such as laryngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia. It is a symptom and not a disease, therefore the proper treatment is to find the cause of the trouble and cure that disease if pos- sible. Chronic cough accompanies the "heaves," chronic bronchitis, and chronic roaring. It is a symptom of chronic indigestion and worms. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 9I Pleurodynia. A rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, Cmuscles between the ribsj. The symptoms to a non-expert are similiar to pleu- risy. It is distinguished from pleurisy on account of lack of fever, cough, and friction sound is absent when the ear is applied over the lungs. The tieatment is the same as for rheumatism of the other parts. Wounds Penetrating the Walls of the Chest. It is well to call a veterinarian inmiediately as the treatment of wounds of this character require professional .skill, and even that as .soon as pos.sible. Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm. This disease is often thought to be palpitation of the heart. While it is true ' 'palpitation of the heart" is occasionally called thumps, yet the disease we here deal with is of a very different character. The diaphragm is the essential organ of respiration and the spasmodic or irregular contractions of it produce what is known as hiccoughs in man. Thumps in horses are identical with hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made in the throat in all cases. This affection should be easily distingtiished from palpitation of the heart. The whole bod}' is affected by the "jerky motion" and it is not confined to the region of the heart. Place one hand over the heart and the other near the middle of the last rib, and the "jerky motion" will be felt under the last rib and will have no connection with the beating of the heart. What to Do. Since the trouble is produced by the same causes that bring on congestion of the lungs, the same remedies should be used that, have been recommended for that disease. If not relieved death usually results from congestion of the lungs, and it is often seen in connection with that disease. Rupture of the Diaphragm. Examinations of the bodies after death, .show a great many cases of rupture of the diaphragm. It is the general opinion that this happens after death, and is caused by gase.s which arise as the result of the decompo.sing remains. It is possible to happen before death but there are no symptoms by which it can be de- termined. CHAPTER VI. CIRCULATORY ORGANS. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. Descriptiox of the heart, arteries, and veins, inflammator\ DISEASES, functional AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF THE HEART, DIS- EASES OF THE ARTERIES, DISEASES OF THE VEINS, DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. i^Tf ONDERFUL as it seems with our present knowledge, it is onl}' a few centuries ago that Harve}- discovered tlie circulation of the blood. Since that time it has been discovered that their is still ((g)^^ another system of circulation in the body intimately connected with the blood vessels. That is known as the l}-mphatic or absorbent system and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to sac-like structures called lym- phatic glands, through which these fluids pass on their way to the right lymphatic vein and thoracic duct. These lymphatic glands contain lymph which is on its way to the larger trunks undergoing a sort of fil- tration. The Heart. Nearly in the center of the chest is a hollow, cone shaped muscular organ called the heart. Its average weight is Ijetween six and .seven pounds. It extends from near the third to the sixth rib, having the ba.se of the cone near the third rib, and extending downward, backward, and toward the left side. It is suspended from the spine by the large blood -v^e.ssels and held in position by the sac in which it is con- 94 THK HORSK. tained being fastened to the breast-bone (sternum). The sac in which the lieart is contained is called the pericardium (peri=around, cardium :=the heart). This is a membrane of a fibrous, dense nature, which is lined with a delicate serous membrane, of which there are two layers, the inner one closel}' fastened to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac. There is a space between them in which is found a small amount of serum, which is secreted by this serous membrane for the purpose of lubricating the surfaces, which rub against each other every heart beat. How Divided. The heart is divided into four ca\dties, having two on the right side which contain the venous (blue) blood, and two on the left which contain the arterial (red) blood. It is so divided that the cavities on the right side have no communication with those on the left, but the two cavities on either side are connected by valves. The upper cavities are called auricles from their supposed resemblance to a dog's ear. The one on the upper right side is called the right auricle, the one on the left, the left auricle. The cavities at the lower part of the heart are called ventricles, taking the names right ventricle and left ventricle accord- ing to location. Action of Heart. The right side of the heart receives the dark blue blood from the vena cava. It is received into the right auricle, where it passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It is there forced out into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The blood here gives up its carbon-dioxide, takes on oxygen, and re- turns to the left auricle, through the pulmonary vein. The blood, now of a bright scarlet hue, passes through the bicuspid valves into the left ventricle, from which it is forced out through the aorta into the arteries, by which it is distributed over all parts of the body. Movements of the Heart. When the heart closes to force out the blood, the movement is called systole, and when expanding, diastole. There is a pause following such expansion. Hence the heart takes a rest after each beat. This amounts to several hours per day. Functions of Blood-vessels. The blood-vessels carry blood to and from the various parts of the body. They are divided into three classes: the arteries and arterioles, carrying blood from the heart; the CAPILLARIES, bring the blood into close relation with the tissues; and the veins, carrying the blood back to the heart. Arteries. These are hollow tubes carrying blood to the capillaries, which are situated in all parts of the body. The arteries contain no DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 95 valves, but consist of three layers. The inside one forms a smooth sur- face for the blood to pass over, the outside one an elastic layer, while be- tween them is a muscular layer which regulates the amount of blood re- ceived by each part. This coat is necessary, as it is manifest that the heart cannot regulate the supply of blood sent to each portion of the body. Capillaries. The capillaries are interposed between the ends of the arteries and the beginning of the veins and not only carry blood, but, owing to the construction of their walls, they enable the blood to come in intimate relations with the tissues. By the blood thus coming so in- timately connected with the tissue, it is enabled to deposit nourishment, give up its oxygen, and lake in return what has been chemicall)- united. They take from the blood the nourishment, and give it off as a fluid known as lymph, whose function is to irrigate and nouri.sh. Veins. In most veins are valves which flap back against the side as the blood flows onward toward the heart. Thus the blood cannot be forced backward by any cause. The walls of veins are not so thick, strong, or elastic as are those of the arteries — the strength and elasticity not being needed, as the blood simply flows through the veins and is not forced through as it is in the arteries. The blood is aided in its course through the veins by a contraction of the voluntary muscles, indirect action of the valves in the veins, and by suction produced by the move- ments of the thorax in breathing. Pulse. At certain portions of the body arteries come near the sur- face. If the finger be placed over these blood-vessels a beating can be felt. These beats are caused by the heart forcing the blood into the arteries. Each pulse represents a heart beat. Character of the Pulse. This has been described under the chapter DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. INFLAMIMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. General Structures. There are three parts to the heart that are liable to inflammation. From the names of these structures the names of the diseases are derived. Myocardium is the muscular structure of the heart; endocardium is the serous membrane lining the heart; and peri- cardium is the .sac surrounding the heart. Myocarditis. An inflammation of the mu.scular structure of the heart. This is rarely detected without being connected with inflamma- tion of the endocardium or pericardium. The causes are over-exertion 96 THE HORSE. or heart strain, influenza, rheumatism, etc. Since it is not recognized unless involved with one or the other of the above mentioned diseases, and the symptoms and treatment are so closely connected with those diseases, it will suffice to describe them under those ailments. Hndocarditis. This is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the heart. It is often found in general rheumatism which involves the serous membrane. Symptoms. The most prominent symptoms which characterize this disease are a staggering gait with painful movement of the fore-legs; a constant irregularity of the heart's action; but there will be equality of strength regardless of the rapidity of the beating of the heart. In the chronic form there is generalh' a persistent palpitation with irregularity of the rapidity of the heart beats. This disease ma}' be ushered in by a chill, with sudden and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or nmy become irregular, while the heart- beats more or less tiunultuoush'. In early stages soft blowing sounds may be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which corres- pond in number and time to the heart's beating. In nearly all cases there is partial suppression of the urine. In fatal cases death often occurs about the fourth or fifth day. What to Do. The most reliable medicine known to control the ir- ritability of the heart, is the tincture of digitalis in twentj-drop doses, repeated every hour. After the desired action upon the heart is obtained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case re- quires. Fluid extract of convallaria majalis, in two-dram doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart where digitalis fails. Avoid bleeding; cold applications around the chest or over the heart; blistering; and stimulating applications to the chest. Chlorate of potash, in two- dram doses given in drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and followed by the nitrate of potassium, in half-ounce doses for a week, or until the urine becomes very profuse. Where rheuma- tism is present give two-dram doses of salicylate of soda instead of the chlorate of potash. Iodide of potassium in one-dram or two-dram doses should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several weeks. Absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, are necessary. Pericarditis. This is an inflammation of the sac into which the heart is enclosed. It may be caused by cold and damp stabling, expos- DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 97 lire and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. It is usually associated with an attack of rheumatism, influenza or pleurisy. Symptoms. This disease shows itself abruptly by a brief stage of chills accompanied b}- evidence of pain in moving; a short painful cough, rapid and short breathing; and high temperature, with a rapid and hard pulse. The fever, with corresponding pulse, is highest in the evening and lowest in the morning. In the early stages the pulse is regular in beat; later the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be doubled. By placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasp- ing sound may be heard, corresponding in number to the heart-beat. Be- tween the second and fourth days this sound disappears and by striking on the surface over the. heart, there will be found an increased dullness. In the acute form of this disease the animal may die in a few days, but in the chronic form the case progresses much more slowly. What to Do. "In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digitalis and tincture of aconite root may be mixed, taking equal quan- tities, and give twentj- to thirty drop doses every hour till the pulse and temperature become reduced. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if they are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets to promote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, two ounces of tincture of opium may be given once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drink- ing water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in two- dram does, may be substituted. Hot packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease may give marked relief, or smart blisters may be applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indi- cated, but the iodide of potassa, in one or two-dram doses, two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping, by an expert veterinarian, may save the animal." FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF HEART. Palpitation of the Heart. This is a tunmltuous and usually an irregular Ijeating of the heart. It may be caused b\- indigestion, sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See "Thumps"). Study care- fully the difference in the symptoms of the two diseases. 98 THE HORSE. Symptoms. The heart .beats may be violent enough to jar the whole body, and often it may be heard quite a distance from the animal. The jar will correspond to the beating of the heart. This disease can usually be traced to the cause, which may be avoided or overcome in the future. Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of opium or tincture of digitalis will generally give relief. It must be regarded as a symp- tom when organic. Enlargement of the Heart. H>pertrophy of the heart, or car- diac enlargement frequently follows an increased demand for propelling power. Symptoms. In addition to the usual symptoms manifested in or- ganic diseases of the heart, there is a painful and heavy pulsation at each heart beat. These pulsations are regular. When full and strong at the jaw, there is a tendency to congestion of the capillary vessels, but if small and feeble an obstacle to the escape of blood maj^ be suspected. Treatment. If the cause can be discovered and removed it should be done. Hydrocyanic acid in thirty drop doses twice a day, may re- lieve muscular irritability. Give general tonic, avoid overwork or ex- citement as well as bulky food. DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. Inflammation of the Artery, This disease is rarely observed in the horse as a primary disease. It may extend only to the inner coat or it may involve all of the layers of which there are three. Symptoms. There will be a painful swelling along the inflamed vessels, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts fed by the inflamed artery. Treatment. Give one-dram doses of the carbonate of potassium mixed with four ounces of liquor acetate of ammonia, e\'ery six hours. P'eed scalded bran enough to produce loosening of the bowels. Put on applications of hot water or hot hop infusions. DISEASES OF THE VEINS. Phlebitis. Infiannnation of veins may be confined to a limited por- tion of a vein or it may attack the vein for a long distance, occasionally extending from a limb or foot to the heart. DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 99 Symptoms var>' according to the extent and the severity of the in- flaniniation. The vein is usually swollen and thickened so as to resem- ble an artery. What to Do. Apply a smart blister over the aflectcd part; open any abscess that may be formed; give animal complete rest; and keep bowels loose with bran mashes. When fever runs high give half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium, in the drinking w^ater, which may be changed in two or three days for dram doses of the iodide of potassium. Give animal carbonate of ammonia, one dram, and powdered gentian three drams every six hours should the animal show great weakness. Varicose Veins. Othenvise named varix, and dilatation of veins. This disease is the result of weakening of the coats of the veins from in- flammatory diseases. The vein which lies near the surface on the inside of the hock- joint is sometimes affected. This is sometimes due to the pressure of a spavin. It is occasionally seen in stallions as dilatation of the cord of the testicles. Piles or hemorrhoidal veins are occasionally met with, principally in horses which run at pasture. Treatmient. Piles may often be reduced by astringent washes — tea made from white oak bark or a saturated solution of alum. Stallions having enlarged testicular chord should wear suspensory bags, when ex- ercised. DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. Inflammation of the I/ymphatic Structures. This inflamma- tion usually effects a hind-leg, very seldom a fore-leg. This application is sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied b}^ a high tem- perature, and great general disturbance. Symptoms. Usually commences with a chill, rise in temperature, and some uneasiness; in a short time it is followed b}^ lameness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The limb is very tender to the touch; the animal perspires; the breathing is accelerated; pulse hard and quick; and the temperature may reach io6° F. The bowels become constipated; urine becomes scanty; symptoms on the increase for about two days, then stationary for same time; the fever then lowers; swelling goes down and becomes less painful. The swelling seldom all leaves the leg; there is left behind a permanent enlargement, and attacks return occasionally. lOo THE HORSE. Elephantiasis. In severe cases the skin loses its hair in patches, the Hmb remains more or less enlarged due to a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of Elephantiasis. What to Do. Kxternally; bathe the leg every ten or fifteen minutes for six or eight hours with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add two ounces of nitrate of potassium to each gallon of the mixture. At the end of the bathing; dry with woolen cloths and bathe with camphor- ated soap liniment. Internally; give tincture of digitalis and aconite root, equal parts of each, thirty drops every hour until the fever and pulse become reduced Half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium in the drink- ing water every six hours; bran mashes; and complete rest. This treat- ment if used early in the attack very often brings about u remarkable change within twenty-four hours. DISEASES OF THE I^IUSCLES. Lameness of the shoulder, caused by violent muscular contraction in starting heavy loads, jumping, slipping on smooth, icy roads or barn floors, is of frequent occurrence. The external symptons are not usually very well marked, and errors often occur by mistaking this trouble for other aSections. The lameness is not intermittent but continued. It is more marked when the bones are diseased together with the muscles. When the animal moves the shoulderblade (92) and the bone of the upper arm (77) are sometimes almost immovable, and when walking the entire mass of muscle is displaced by being dragged forward without either flexion or extention. In many cases there is a certain amount of swell- ing, and in other cases instead there is muscular atrophy. This is com- monly called " Sweenied." It is not itself a cause of shoulder lameness, although this condition may interfere with perfect action ''Sweenied" shoulders are more often caused by diseases below the fetlock than to affections above the elbow. Give the animal plenty of rest. Warm wet blankets are of great service, and in addition put on camphor, belladonna, or liniments. Later it may be necessary to use the blistering compound on page 162, and finally, when necessity demands it, the firing iron and the seton. The great essential condition of cure, and the one that will help pre- vent a relapse, is rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which it may be associated. CHAPTER VII. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, Its Diseases and How to Cure Them. Divisions of the nervous system, functions op the various PARTS, inflammation OF THE BRAIN OR ENCEPHALITIS, MAD STAG- GERS OF THE OLD WRITERS OR MENINGITIS, SUNSTROKE OR HEAT EXHAUSTION, SPASM OF THE THIGH, INFLAMMATION OF THE MEM- BRANES SURROUNDING THE SPINAL CORD, LOCK-JAW, HYDROPHOBIA, ELECTRIC SHOCK, ETC. ITUATED within the Ixjdy having the brain as a center is a won- derfully complex system of nerves, which is almost entirely controlled by the will of the animal. Besides this there is ((g) another set, independent of this system, which regulates the beat- ing of the heart, and all other movements over which the will has but little or no control. The latter consists of numerous small centers, call- ed ganglia, extending in two great chains from the head to the tail, on each side of the back-bone, and closely connected with the other system by a peculiar communication. They are usually considered and defined as follows: Divisions of the Nervous System. There are two di^asions of the nerv'ous system, the cerebro-spinal or that presiding over animal life, and the sympathetic, that regulating organic life. I02 , THE HORSE. Structure. It is composed chiefly of two structures; the gray, originating impulses and receiving impressions, and the white, conduct- ing impressions. Cerebro-spinal System. This consists of the brain, spinal GANGLIA, CRANIAL NKRVES. and SPINAL NERVES. Membrane Surrounding the Brain. The membrane which Unes the skull constituting an interior periosteum is called the dura mater; beneath this is a delicate membrane called the arachnoid, and still beneath this is another membrane, which even dips into the con- volutions of the underlying brain. This is called the pia mater. These three divisions taken together are called the meninges. Divisions of the Brain. The divisions of the brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons VAROLII and MEDULLA OBLONGATA. Functions of the Cerebrum. "The cerebral hemispheres are the organs Ijy which j^erception is carried on and from which motor im- pulses are given out. They contain the organ of the will; they possess memor}^ or the means of retaining impressions of sensible influences. " (Hare.) Functions of the Cerebellum. "It is absolutely insensible to irritation and may be cut away without any signs of pain; its removal from the body or destruction by disease is generally unaccompanied by loss or disorder of sensibility. Animals from which it is removed can see, hear, and feel pain to all appearance as perfectly as before. It governs the coordination of movements, and while irritation of the cere- bellum produces no movements at all, remarkable results are produced by removing part of its substance. As portion after portion of it is cut away the animal gradually loses the power of springing, walking, stand- ing, or preserving its equilibrium. If laid upon its back it cannot re- cover its normal posture but struggles to get up, and if a blow is threat- ened tries to avoid it, but fails to do so. According to Gowers, the middle lobe of the cerebellum governs equilibrium by means of afferent fibres from the semi-circular canals and the ocular muscles and also the muscles of the legs. " (Hare). Function of the Pons Varolii. "It contains a large number of nerve fibres both transverse and longitudinal, and is a conductor of im- pressions from one part of the spinal axis to another. Concerning its functions as a nerve centre little or nothing is certainly known." (Hare). DISEASES OF THlv XlCKVOrs SYSTEM. I03 Medulla Oblongata. This is the prolongation of the spinal cord, ?xtending from the spinal cord to the pons (bridge) Varolii. This part of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. Spinal Cord. This occupies the cavity of the backbone. It ex- tends from the brain down to the last vertebra. It is protected by the same membranes as the brain, but in the brain the gray matter is on the outside, while in the spinal cord the gray matter is within. It is divided into halves and these again subdivided into two parts. It contains two nerves of motion and two of feeling. The nervxs of motion are the ones which carry the orders of the mind to the different organs, while the ner\'es of feeling bring back impressions which they receive. Spinal Nerves. These are forty -two or forty-three in number, arise each by two roots, a superior or sensory and an inferior or motor. The neives originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special ' names, according to their functions, or the parts to which the)' are distributed, viz: 1. Olfactory. 5. Trifacial. g. Glosso-Pharyngeal. 2. Optic. 6. Abducens. 10. Pneumogastric. 3. Oculo-motor. 7. Facial. 11. Spinal- Accessorj\ 4. Pathetic. 8. Auditory. 12. Hypoglossal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN TISSUES AND ITS MEMBRANES. Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain is caused by exposure to extreme heat or cold; excessive continued excitement; direct injuries to the brain; and sometimes appears as a result of influenza, pysemia, and poisons that directly affect the brain matter. Symptoms. Acute inflammation may commence by an increased sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction of the pupil of the eyes, and a quick hard pulse. These symptoms are not always present in acute attacks. There will follow twitching of the muscles, con\nilsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular con- I04 THE HORSK. trol, often followed by stupor and coma. When the membranes are much implicated convulsions and delirium with violence may be expect- ed, but where the brain substance is principally affected, stupor and coma will be the most prominent symptoms. When the brain sub- stances is principally affected the pulse will be soft or depressed with sometimes a dilation of pupils and deep, slow, stertorous breathing; but if the membranes are implicated the pulse will be quick and hard. The animal may become very violent early in the disease, and by rearing up, striking with the fore-feet or falling over do himself great injury, but usually the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself against the manger, until he falls from inability of muscular control. Treatment. See treatment under head "General Treatment for In- flammation of the Various Brain Structures. ' ' Meningitis or Mad Staggers of the Old Writers. This is an inflammation of the cerebral envelopes. It is caused by excess of heat or cold, wounds of the skull and its contents, rheumatism, influ- enza, rupture of the blood-vessels of the membrane surrounding the brain. Symptoms. In an attack of the acute form the symptoms are often very violent. The animal has violent pains in the head which is indi- cated by the animal flying back in the halter; plunging forward or run- ning ahead, without regard to any obstructions; the pulse is very rapid; the breathing accelerated or panting; the pupils of the eyes contracted; the muscles of the body quivering. These symptoms may develop in a few minutes or in a few hours. If the animal does not get relief, spasms or stiffness of the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back will become evident; the head will be held up higher than usual; the eye-balls will be drawn back in their sockets; the eye-lids twitch; convulsions and furious delirium will soon appear, followed by coma (insensibility) and death. During the w^hole course of the disease the least noise will seem to bring on violent paroxysms (spasms), which are very marked during the disease. Between these paroxysms there are quiet moments in which the animal seems dull and drowsy. The urine is frequently forced out in spurts and great efforts are made to effect passage of the bowels. In the SUB- ACUTE form the symptoms develop more slowly and are less marked by violence. In such attacks the animal may suffer for a week or longer and ultimately recover. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. IO5 In meningitis the temperature varies from 103° to 107° F., according to the severity of the disease. Do not confound the violent symptoms of this disease with hydropho- bia (rabies). In hydrophobia the animal directs his violence toward some object or upon himself; but in this desire there is only the evidence of severe pain, in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from en- cephalitis and cerebritis by there not being any marked symptoms of paralysis of local parts or of coma till near the approach of death. Teatment. See treatment under head "General Treatment for In flammation of the Various Brain Structures. ' ' Cerebritis. Inflammation of the brain substance has many causes. Those that produce either of the two last, together with cystic and cal- careous tumors, thrombi, uraemic poisoning, etc. Symptoms. When not in connection with other diseases this disease is seldom recognized during life. It is always confined to some specific portion of the brain, and the s>'mptoms vary according to the part affect- ed. The treatment as given below will be all that can be usually done. As it would not be recognized except b\' an expert it is unnecessary to give a list of the symptoms. General Treatment for Inflammation of the Various Brain Structures. "When the animal is found in the first stages of the disease, where the animal is unnatural!}- excited or has stupor with high temperature and quickened pulse bleed from the jugular vein. Especially in acute meningitis, bleexiing is imperatively demanded. The finger should be kept on the pulse, and the blood allowed to flow until there is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given at one dose: barbadoes aloes, seven drams; calomel, two drams; powdered ginger, one dram; tincture of aconite, twenty drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible, and cloths wrung out of hot water placed on his head. Re- new frequently for twelve hours. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of saltpeter may be dissolved in his drinking water ev'ery six hours. Inject warm water into the rectum to aid the action of the physic. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in twenty drop doses, should be given every hour, and one dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours, until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. I06 THE HORSE. If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the ad- vanced stages, or if the animal has been neglected in the early stagest the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of er- gotin, in five grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water every six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Cold water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot water cloths on the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, to be used in all cases in which there is not much perspiration. "If the disease becomes chronic — encephalitis or meningitis — use alter- atives and tonics, with such other treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in two dram doses should be given twice a day, and one dram of calomel once a day, to induce absorption. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added two drams of powdered hydrastis, may be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) should be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in two grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, should be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to subse- quent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, ursemic poisoning, pyaemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. ' ' Sunstroke or Heat Exhaustion. The term "sunstroke" is ap- plied to troubles caused by exposure to the direct ray's of the sun for hours, when the animal has not received proper care in feeding, water- ing and rest; and also when caused by the action of great heat, com- bined with other disturbing elements such as dryness of the air, and an unusual accumulation of electricity. Symptoms. Generally comes on suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head; begins to stagger; and soon falls to the ground insensi- ble. The breathing is stertorious; the pulse is slow and irregular; cold sweats cover the body; and the animal dies without becoming con- scious. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, I07 Previous to the other symptoms coming on the animal often requires urging for some time; the perspiration is checked; the animal becomes weak in his gait; the breathing hurried or panting; the eyes watery and bloodshot; nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse rapid and weak; the heart bounding. What to Do. Apply ice or very cold water to the head and along the spine. Give six ounces of whiskey or half an ounce of carbonate of annnonia in a pint of water. Injections into the rectum of ginger tea, moderately strong, or weak ammonia water may benefit. Brisk friction of the limbs, using spirits of camphor when possible, will often yield good results. The stimulant should be repeated in one hour if the pul.se has not become stronger and slower. If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion instead of sunstroke use the same treatment, only use hot water on the cloths instead of cold. In either case as the animal gets better give as a tonic during con- valescence: sulphate of iron, one dram; gentian, three drams; red chincona bark, two drams; mix and give in the feed morning and even- ing. How to Prevent. In very hot weather, keep wet sponges or light sunshades on the head while at work, or sponge the head with cold water as often as possible during the day. Do not over feed; water often; keep stables cool and well ventilated. If an animal seems weak and exhausted from work or disease, give tonics. Spasm of the Thigh or Cramp of the Hind I^eg. Horses standing on sloping plank floors, or subject to severe exercise are liable to this disease. Symptoms. The leg becomes rigid, and efforts to bend it are unsuc- cessful; it is cold; there is not much pain manifested, unless efforts are made to change position of the leg. The cramp may be of short dura- tion, or it may continue for several days. This "cramp" is often taken for a dislocation of the stifle-joint. In dislocation, the foot is extended backward, and tlie horse being unable to advance it, drags the foot be- hind him. An examination of the joint will also show a change of form. What to Do. Rub the cramped muscles with liniment composed of soap liniment four parts and chloroform one part. Compulsory movement usually causes the muscles to relax very quickly. Therefore take animal out and force him to run or trot. Sometimes a single crack of the whip or a smart blow will cause relaxation. Should this fail, the I08 THE HORSE. liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. -One ounce chloral hydrate will relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return very quickly after the effect has passed off. Spinal Meningitis. This is an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the spinal cord. It may be the result of irritating proper- ties of blood poisons, exposure, all forms of injury to the spine, rheuma- tism, etc. Symptoms. May be introduced by a chill; a rise in temperature; general weakness; or shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, spasmodic twitching of the muscles set in, followed by a hardness of muscles along the back-bone, when the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain ill moving; evidences of paralysis develop; either holds the urine, or it runs away without effort ; and marked fever at the beginning of the attack, together with spinal symptoms. This disease generally becomes seated and is then principally known by a paralysis back of the seat of the disease. The whole or only portions may be paralyzed. Treatment. Put along the spine, bags filled with broken ice, to be followed later by strong blisters. Control fever by giving twenty-drop doses every hour of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, until the de- sired effect is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and the flow of blood to the meninges may be given every five or six hours till the pupils of the eyes become much enlarged. If the pain is very severe inject hypodermically five grains of sulphate of morphine. Keep the animal as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it mu.st be drawn off every six hours. In very severe attacks the animal dies in a few da3\s. If the animal grows better give two-dram doses of iodide of potassium in the drinking water, morning and evening. Also once a day give one-dram of nux vomica and twice a day .same dose of iodide of iron. Cerebro-Spinal-Meningitis. This disease is very apt to attack every animal in a stable, although it is conceded by good authority that it is neither contagious nor infectious. It seems to be connected in some way with the food or general surroundings. In many cases the disease has broken out in various localities, where portions of the same lot of oats, hay, and brewers grains have been fed. Special Precautions Necessary. If this disease breaks out in a stable, remove all the animals at once. Provide them with clean, well- ventilated, well drained stables elsewhere, and give each animal one- DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. IO9 dram or the extract or half an ounce of the tincture of belladonna, twice a day for several days as a preventive. Clean the old stable thoroughly from all matter, throw over it some chloride of lime, and give the stable a coat of whitewash in which four ounces of carbolic acid has been dissolved in every gallon. Let the stable dry thoroughly. Symptoms. There are three grades of attack into which the symptoms may be divided. FIRST GRADE. In the most rapidly fatal cases, the first indica- tions are usually a weak, staggering gait; part or total loss of power to swallow; eyesight is poor; muscles twitch and slight cramps may be noticed; soon followed by paralysis of the whole bod}-; inability to stand; sometimes a delirium in which the animal goes through a series of movements as if trotting or running; the delirium becomes violent, and the animal may seriously bruise himself in his struggles, but a deep sleep usually renders him tmconscious till he dies, which usually follows in from four to twenty-four hours, from the beginning of the first symptoms. The pulse is variable during the disease; it maj- seem al- most gone at times; then very rapid and irregular; the breathings generally quick and catchy. When this severe and rapidly fatal form appears, it may not be possible to determine it from encephalitis, only from the fact of other animals in the same stable or neighborhood being similarly affected. SECOND GRADE. This is in not so severe a form as the last. The first noticable symptom is a difficulty in swallowing; a slowness in the chewing of the food; and a weakness which may be first noticed by a loss of strength of the tail, the animal being unable to switch it or offer any resistance if you raise it up over the croup. The pulse is generally a little slow; no evidence of pain; breathing unchanged; temperature little less than in health; bowels may be constipated. If the result will terminate favorable, there will be no change of symp- toms for two or three days, after which gradual improvement. But if the termination will be death, immediately following the stationary con- dition the animal may lose its power to swallow, and the weakness in gait becomes more and more noticable; then sleepiness or coma may ap- pear; the pulse depressed, slow and weak; stertorous breathing; unable to stand; and some rigidness of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck. Death follows in such cases in from four to six days. THIRD GRADE. In this last or mildest form, the inability of voluntary- control of the limbs becomes but little marked; the power of no THE HOR.SK. swallowing while lessened is never entirely lost; the animal has no fever, pain or unconscious movements. The animal will begin to im- prove about the fourth day and recover. When changes for the better take place the sj^mptoms usually leave in the reverse order in which they came on, but local paralysis may re- main for some time. Treatment. "In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attempt to give medicine b)- the mouth because the animal cannot swallow. Cold shower baths ma)^ possibly induce revulsive action in connection with stimulants into the rectum, four to six ounces of whisky in two pints of milk; the breathing of ammonia vapor from a sponge wet with dilute aqua ammonia may bring the animal to consciousness. In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of one ounce of aloes and the giving of one to two drams of the solid extract of belladonna, alter- nated every three hours with thirty drops of tincture of aconite root, and the application of blisters to the neck, spine, and throat. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of atropia may be hypodermically injected under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimu- lant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as the animal ma3^ be able to eat; keep fresh, cool water constantly before him; sup- port him in slings if necessary; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. ' ' I/OCk-Jaw or Tetanus. This disease is speciall}^ shown by spasms which affect the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs and all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. Symptoms. The first indication of this disease is difficulty in chew- ing and swallowing; an extention of the head; and a membrane called the haw, protruding over the inner part of the eye. This haw will turn farther over the eye if the nose is lifted. The animal is not able to open the jaws to their full extent, and the effort to do so will produce spasms of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved as if they were stiff. The least noise throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affect- ed muscles. The tail is usually raised and held without moving; the bowels constipated; the temperature and pulse not much changed. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Ill These symptoms in an acute attack become rapidly worse till the muscles become hard — in a state of rigid spasm — with a tremble continuously running through them; cold sweat breaks out on the body; breathing becomes painful; jaws are set; eye-balls drawn back; lips drawn tightly over the teeth; nostrils enlarged; and the animal showing extreme agony till death comes. In the sub-acute cases the jaws are never entirely locked; the muscles are not so rigid; the nerves not so excitable. There is some stiffness of the neck or spine, which is shown when the animal is turning or mov- ing; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the nose is lifted. All symptoms gradually increase for about ten days and then gradually di- minish under careful treatment, or otherwise the}- go on to the most severe type and end in death. Tetanus may be mistaken for spinal meningitis, but the peculiarit}' of the spaMU-locked jaw; the peculiarit}' of spasms due to swallowing; the haw over the eye; and the eye-balls drawn back into the head should easily note the difference. Treatment. Put the animal in a dark box stall without bedding, as far away from other horses as possible; cover \\4th sheet in fly time; keep every noise away from the animal. Give at once aloes, six to eight drams; mixed with solid extract of belladonna, two drams. Give in form of ball; but if the animal is too much excited or can not .swallow, mix it with two ounces of olive oil and throw on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, do not try to give medicine by the mouth. In such cases use hypodermic injection under the skin of one-quarter of a grain of atropia; and five grains of sulphate of morphia; di.s.solved in one dram of pure water. Repeat often enough to keep animal under its influence all the time. Good results may be obtained by injecting per rectum the fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each one dram, every four or .six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. If un- able to swallow liquids give rectum injections of oatmeal gruel and milk. This will help sustain the strength of the animal. Good results may be obtained by putting woolen blankets over the upper part of the head and neck and the greater part of body, and keeping them wet with very warm water. Continue this for several hours at a time. Hydrophobia or Rabies. This is the result of a bite from a rabid animal— generally a dog or a cat. The disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — ver>' rarely in twelve or fourteen days. 112 THE HORSE. Prevention. When it is positively known that an animal has been bitten l)y a rabid animal, in^nediatelJ^ cauterize the wound with a red- hot iron. This may destroy the poison before it is taken up by the blood. Symptoms. The first evidences of the disease may be excitability and viciousness. The approach of a person, causes the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any object near him. Often the animal will bite his own legs or sides, tearing the skin. The eyes are staring and blood- shot; ears held up; and the head erect. In some cases the animal will continually rub and bite the wonnd caused by the rabid animal. This sjmiptom may precede all others. The furious symptoms appear spas- modically; at other times the animal is quiet and may eat and drink, although swallowing becomes painful near the end. Rabies may be mistaken for lock-jaw. In that disease there is rigid- ne.ss of the muscles of the jaws or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and the animal shows no signs of viciousness. Treatment. As soon as the nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Hlectric Shock. Since electric wires are becoming so common, the accidents arising from coming in contact with them is of frequent occurence, and has the .same effect upon the animal system as a shock of lightning. There are two degrees of electric shock; the one killing directly and the other producing temporary insensibility, from which re- covery is possilile. In the latter case the animal is usually insensible; the respiration slow, labored or gasping; the pulse slow, feeble, and ir- regular; and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be con- tracted and sensitive. The temperature is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominating symptoms are extreme heart and re.spiratory depression. Treatment. Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in one quarter grain doses every hour or every two hours until the heart beats are strengthened, the number and fullness of the breathing increased and consciou.sness returns. Stimulating injections into the rectum may also be useful in aiding the circulation; for this purpose whisky or ammonia may be used. CHAPTER VIII. THE URINARY ORGANS. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. Diabetes insipidus, excessive urine, saccharine diabetes, gly- cosuria, BLOODY urine, poisoning BY ALBUMINOIDS, ACUTE IN- FLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLAD- DER, INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, URINARY CALCULI , ETC. EHESE organs to a large extent are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system. It is through their action that most of the products of normal cell-life are carried off. The body is a (5) great chemical laboratory and within it is carried on wonderful changes, which renew the tissues of the body as well as destroy those that are worn out. These chemical changes produce many poisons that will cause disease if left within the body. To remove these poisons, with the aid of the skin, is the function of the urinary organs. The kidneys are the organs which separate from the blood the substance by which the nitrogen of the decomposed or worn out tissue is giv^en off. This subtance is called urea. Most of the other secretions of the body are useful in various ways, as the bile from the liver and the ga.stric fluid from the stomach are used in digestion, and the perspiration is a means of cooling the body by evaporation, but the secretion of the kidneys can- not be utilized in any other process and hence must be removed from the system. Kidneys. These glands are two in number, one lying on each .side of the vertebrae just forward of the loins. The left kidney, weighing 114 THE HORSE. twenty-three ounces, is shaped like a French bean (SEE MANIKIN OF THE HORSE) and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two ribs. The right kidney (SEE MANIKIN OF THE HORSE) is the shape of the heart of cards, and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib. Each kidney consists of these distinct parts : a. The ejcternal or vascular part, in which the blood-vessels form elaborate capillary network within the globe-like sac's which form the beginnings of the secreting tubes. b. The internal part, made up in the main of the blood-vessels, lymph- atics, and nerv^es extending between the notch on the inner border of the kidney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on. c. A large sac-like reservoir in the centre of the kidney into which all the urine tubes empty their secretions. From this reservoir there leads a tube, called the ureter, which carries off the urine to the bladder. There are two of these tubes, one from each of the kidneys, and they open by a valve-closed orifice into the roof the bladder just in front of the neck. Action. The arteries which carr}^ the blood to the kidneys are called RENAi< arteries, and the veins which carry the blood from the kidneys to the large veins leading to the heart are called renal veins. The kid- neys do not act constantly but alternate in their action. The blood passes into the kidneys through the arteries, it then reaches the capil- laries of the kidneys which have the power of removing the watery part of the blood contaming urea. The blood is then taken up by the small veins and carried to the renal veins. Bladder. This is a reservoir which receives the urine from the kid- neys through the arteries, and holds it until the distension is sufficient to cause its voluntary discharge. Circular muscular fibers surround the neck of the bladder which keep it closed, and looped muscles extending in all directions forward from the neck around the unopen end of the bladder empty it by contracting. A dilatable tube (urethra) extends from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis. In the male the urethra extends through the penis to its free end, where it opens through a conical papilla of a pink color. In the full grown female the urethra is nor far from an inch in length, and it is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers which closes the neck of the bladder. It opens directly in the middle line of the floor of the vulvas about four and one-half inches from its outside opening. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. II5 Changes in the Urine. lu health the urine of the horse fs of a deep amber color and it has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and liay it may show a uniform transparency, wliile on grass there is an abundant white deposit of hme. There is scarcely an important organ of the body that can suffer derangement without its showing in the urinary system. Therefore, the condition and changes found in the urine, while they may not mark a direct disorder of the urinary system, they serve as an indication of a disturbance of some organ, and these changes are often a great help in determining the character of a disease. The action of the skin and the action of the urinary sj'stem are closely allied. In summer when there is profuse sweating, the quantity of urine is less- ened, but in winter when there is but a small quantity of liquid exhaled through the skin, the urine is increased in quantity. This action of the skin and kidneys usually balance and keep within the limits of health, but the quantity of urine may become so small that there is not enough liquid to properly hold in solution and carry off the solids, and then crystalize and form stone and gravel. A disordered liver may produce an excess of biliary coloring-matter and stain the urine, or may cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied products which being less soluble than the normal product of tissue change (urea) favor the formation of stone. A disorder which causes a decrease in the functions of the lungs may cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied bodies, or of oxalic acid or sugar in the urine, which will irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid deposits in the urinary passages. A disease of the nervous system, especially those that affect the base of the brain and spinal cord, may induce a urinary disorder prominent among them are diabetes, albumenaria, and chylous urine. A disease that causes imperfect nutrition or a destruction of the bony tissues, causes a deposit of phosphates of lime and magnesia, in the urine. This may lead to the formation of stone and gravel. An extended inflammation or an acute fever will lessen the liquids of the urine, while tl'e solids (waste products) are increased, and the over- charged urine is irritating to the urinary organs, or the waste products not being taken out by the action of the kidneys will poison the system. Feeding green vegetables covered with hoar-frost or furnishing an ex- cess of food rich in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, len- tils, rape-cake, cotton-seed cake) or a privation of water which entails a concentrated condition and high density of the urine may irritate the IIO THE HORSE. kiduej'S. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold draughts of air, and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already' overworked or irritable kidne3'. Kxaminatioti of the Urine. In some cases the changes of the urine are the only signs of disease that can be detected. Of these changes the following may be looked for : Color — White from deposits of salts of linae; brown or red from blood- clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood-pigment; pale from excess of water. In giving medicine remember santonin makes it red; senna and rhubarb, brown; tar and carbolic acid, green. DEN.SITV — The horse's urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 i^^ diuresis. Chemical re-action — as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The honse on vegetable diet has alakline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking-colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. Organic constituents — as when glairy from albumen coagulable by strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. In its salts — which may crystalize out spontaneously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical re-agents. Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria. This disease is also called Diabetes Mellitus and Inosuria. This is primarily a disease of the nerv- ous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, but since the most prom- inent symptom is the sweet urine it may be treated under this head. Its CAUSES are varied, but are chiefly disorder of the liver and disorder of the brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a principle allied to grape-sugar, and the passing of it into the blood for further oxidation. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is chemically destroyed in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain cases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is given off by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is more than can be dispo.sed off in the natural way, and i-t appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. I17 the superabundant supply of the sugar-forming food, and last for a few hours only, and has no significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, chloroform, quinia, ammonia, and arsenic. Sytaptoms. These are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indiges- tion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet principle, grape-sugar, or inosite, or both. This mav be most promptly detected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by add- ing a tea-spoonful of liquid yeast to four ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density' will give indication of the amount of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 J^i ^ urine which was formerlj' 1.060 would indicate about fifteen grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite or muscle-sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be in- dicated b}' its sweetness and the absence of fermentation, or by Gallois' test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evaporate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose-color, which disappears on cooling and re-appears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, luicertain gait, and drowsine.ss may be noted. Treatment. This is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some cural)le disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver disease, a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and sulphate of soda, one ounce daily as a laxative, and carbonate of potassium, one-fourth dunce as an alkali, may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly Il8 THE HORSE. albuminous, such as wheat-bran or middhngs, pease, beans, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given as skim milk or butter-milk, and in the last case com- bines an anti diabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclu- sive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeine, one of the alkaloids of of opium, is strongl}^ recommended by Dr. Tyson. The dose for the horse would be three grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain bromide of potassium, four drams, or ergot, one-half ounce, ma}' be resorted to. Bitter tonics (especially nux vomica, one-half dram) are useful in improving digestion and general health. Excessive Secretion of Urine, or Diabetes Insipidus. This disease is also known as diuresis or polyuria. It consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. Causes. It may be caused by any agent, medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous, which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless adminis- tration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse-powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still im- perfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been prop- erly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the stack is espec- ially injurious. Hence this malady, like (sleepy staggers), is wide- spread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts. Symptoms. The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, water)'-, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal, a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. II9 sweats oil the slightest occasion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. Treatment. This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons or food, and suppl)ing sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (two drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian bark (fo-ur drams) help greatly by bracing the sj'stem and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potas- sium (two drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (one dram), or oil of turpentine (four drams) properly diluted, may be resorted to. Poisoning by Albuminoids or Hsemoglobinuria. Also known as azoturia or anazoturia. This is commonly supposed to be a disease of the kidneys, because the prominent symptoms are ropy and dark- colored urine and loss of control over the hind limbs; but it is rather a disease of the liver and, blood-forming functions. This disease is never seen at pasture, rarely when the animal has constant daily work. It is connected with high feeding, especially food rich in nitrogen, such as oats, beans, and cotton-seed meal, and is made to show itself by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to work. The poison does not seem to be diffused, when starting, as the horse is usually lively and spirited, but within the first quarter or half mile it usually succumbs. This disease is peculiar to solipeds. In all others the portal veins have no communication with the vena cava (SEE MANIKIN OF THE HORSE) except through the capillaries of the liver, but in the soHpeds there is a persistence through life of a condition common to fcetal mam- mals, of several good-sized veins leading directly from the veins of the stomach and intestines (portal veins) into the posterior vena cava and heart. By the accelerated breathings there seems to be drawn directly into the blood the stored up nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxi- dized condition, thus rendering the blood unable to retain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. I20 THE HORSK. Symptoms. In the milder forms this affectioj may appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succecanig to some sudden exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are j^truck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred yards or more. The fire and hfe with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in hea^•ing flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling bod}'. The muscles of the loins or hatmch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs are carried half doubled, and he soon drops, unable to support himself. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power over the movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are quickened, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor glob- ules. The color is mainly due to haemoglobin and other imperfectly elaborated constituents of the blood. It may end fatall}^ in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speed}- and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. Prevention. To avoid this serious affection, restrict the diet and give daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barn-yard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to one pound Glauber salts), and have exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. Treatment. In mild cases give a laxative, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (one ounce). Sudden attacks will some- times promptly subside if taken on the iastant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (four drams) and sweet spirits of niter (one ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to begin treatment by a full dose of aloes (four to six drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be con- tinued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 121 alwa3's useful in calming the excitable condition of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secretion from the two latter. On the second day give diuretics, such as .saltpeter, one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum, one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four days .should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears an>- remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one- half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating lini- ment (aqua ammonia and sweet-oil in equal jiroportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least twelve hours. As .soon as he can be made to stand he ma}- be helped up and even supported in a sling. Chronic Inflammation of the Kidneys. Chronic inflamma- tion of the kidneys is more conunonly associated ^vith albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine ma}' be the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may follow blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system, such as indi- gestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation or assimilation. In short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional in- firmity than on a sim^e local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrink- age (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. Symptoms. There may be stiffness, weakness, and increa.sed .sensibil- ity of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increa.se or suppre.s.sion) or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, and micro.scopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy shown by swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the dropsy takes place along the lower line of the body, or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability tosu.stain severe or continued exertion, poor or irregular appetite, lo.ss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any 122 THE HORSB. one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. Treatment. This is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs elsewhere. If any such disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron, two drams; nux vom- ica, twenty grains; powdered gentian root, four drams, daily), or sixty drops of sulphuric acid or nitro-muriatic acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is high temperature of the body and tender- ness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp as for acute inflammation, a:nd even in the absence of these symp- toms the mustard may be used with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infusion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins ma)^ also benefit. To apply a cup shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper vi full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the m9Uth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. Bloody Urine or Hsematuria. Bloody urine in the horse is usually the result of injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacera- tions of the sub-lumbar muscles, irritation caused by stone in the kid- ney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. Bloody urine may occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumours in its substance, or diseased growth in the bladder. The presence in the food of acrid diuretic plants may lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The horse is not as predisposed to Bloody Urine as the ox or sheep, the reason is that there is greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the larger quantities of fibriue. If the blood comes from the kidneys it is likely to be found diffused through the urine, while if it comes from the bladder or urinal passages it is usually present in blood clots. Again if the blood comes from the kidney, the microscope will reveal minute cylin- drical blood clots surrounding blood-globules. The location of the in- DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 1 23 jun' may be better ascertained by obser\'ing whether there is sprain of the loins, stone, or tumour of the bladder or urethra. Treatment. Since the disease is mainly due to direct injury, the cause should be removed if possible, and then general and local syptics should be applied. Irritaiits in the food must be avoided; if from sprain, give it proper treatment; if stone in the bladder or urethra it should be removed. Give freely of slippery-elm or linseed tea, and doses of the following : three drams of tincture of chloride of iron; one-half dram of the acetate of lead; one-half dram of tannic acid; or one ounce of the oil of turpentine. If the bloody discharge is considerable in quantity apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal very quiet. Acute Inflammation of the Kidneys or Acute Nephritis. The inflammations of the kidneys have been variously divided according to their varying symptoms and conditions, but for ordinary utilit)^ it is sufficiently extended to divide into acute and chronic. Causes. The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are varied and the congestion may be the result of any of the following : 1. Altered and irritant products passing through the kidneys during inflammation of other organs, and during fevers. The inflammation may last during the existence of the cause, or may continue and become aggravated. 2. The blood-pressure being thrown back on the veins and kidneys as a result of heart disea.se. 3. The escape of urine from the kidney being prevented by disease of the ureter or bladder, thereby causing increased fullness in the pelvis and tubes of the kidney. 4. When urine is detained in the kidneys from any cause, it becomes decomposed and produces ammonia and irritants. 5. The advance of bacteria from the bladder to the kidney through the ureter. 6. The receiving into the body with hay or other fodder acrid or irri- tating plants, including fungi. 7. The absorption of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, (cantharides) ; the reckless giving of diiu-etics; the presence of cal- culi (stones) in the kidney; exposure to cold and wet; and blows on the loins or sprains. 8. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritating products. 124 '^^^ HORSB. Symptoms. These are more or less fever; stiffness of the back and a straddling gait with the hind legs; evident difficulty in lying down and rising; the animal will sometimes groan wdth pain if compelled to walk in a circle; arching of the loins and tucking up of the flanks; looking back at the belly as if there were colicky pains, and tenderness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony process six inches from the median line, (See manikin for location of kidneys, and also page 60 the last four lines of Study of Symptoms.) Urine is passed frequently', a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows microscopic casts. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly, and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alter- nate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are sug- gestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment. This consists in removing any cause that may be recog- nized. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, two or four quarts of blood ma}- be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys as far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of cas- tor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kidneys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. (Dover's Powder consists of sixty grains ipecac in No. 60 powder, sixty grains powdered opium, four hundred eighty grains sugar of milk in No. 30 powder). Boiled flaxseed may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be persistently applied to the loins. This may be be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed m against the direction of the hair, and covered up with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket re- applied. When the action of the bow^els has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of two or three ounces of Glauber salts. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica one scruple, grounl gentian root four drams), should be given. The patient .should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHAPTER IX. GALLS AND BRUISES. Their Effects and How to Avoid Them. Abscesses or boils caused by contusion, bruises and their treatment, chafing by the harness, and saddle or collar galls, etc. ''ouNDS and bruises often produce inflammation as a result of the injur}' of the affected part. If the wound is a puncture of some joint as the hock, fetlock, or knee, often there is discharged fey^ a thin, whitish or 3'ellowish faiid, called joint-oil, or joint-water. If it is a bruise it often causes abscesses or the accumulation of pus. If it is caused by a continued rubbing, (chafing) it often leads to sores that are hard to heal, and even when healed the hair often grows in white or there is left a calloused condition of the skin. Abscesses. These consist of accumulations of pus within circum- scribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold or chronic abscesses. Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, occurring during tlie existence of "strangles" or "colt distemper." The glands behind or under the jaw are .seen to slowly increase in size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painfulr At first the swelling is uni- formly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while 126 THE HORSE. becomes soft (fluctuating) at some portion, mostly in the center. From this time on the abscess is said to be "pointing" or "coming to ahead," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at first is dr}', but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity gradually fills up — heals by granu- lations. Abscesses in muscular tissue are usuall}- the result of bruises or inju- ries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an abscess as soon as the pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be rec- ommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anatoni}'. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is imperative if the abscess is in the re- gion of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fin- gers at first to remove the clots (inspissated pus) but after this the ori- fice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a whalebone probe, should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the lowest portion of the abscess. Hot fomentations or poultices are some- times required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly indicated when the base of the absess is hard and indu- rated. As a rule, injections into the cavity of abscesses are not in- dicated, though in cases of serous abscesses (if one may be allowed such latitude of terms), as cysts of the elbow, knee, etc., astringent in- jections (sulphate of zinc, fifteen grains to the ounce of water) are required to cause adhesions of the walls of the cavity and prevent it from refilling. If abscesses are foul and bad-smelling their cavities must be syringed with a weak .solution of carbolic acid or other an- tiseptics. Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that are the result of a low or chronic form of inflammation, in the center of which there is a small collection of pus. These are mostly met with at the base of the neck and in front of the shoulder joint. The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding GALLS AND BRUISES. 1 27 parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced stiff- ness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such ab- scesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, surrounded by a softer cedematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This diffused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it re- mains statu quo. If, however, the animal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an oedematus condition, which, after a few daj's' rest, dis- appear, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon care- ful manipulation we ma}* discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the mass. The quantit}' of matter so contained is very small (often not more than a tablespoonful) and for this reason it can not in all cases, be detected. Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-contin- ued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow in- flammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small quantity of matter, inclosed in very thick and but partially organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tu- mors, which they most resemble. Treatment. The means recommended to bring the acute abscess "to a head" are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful, too nuich time has been occupied in the cure. We must lc5ok for other and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist in, first of all, carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions must be made over the softest part, and carried deep into the tumor (to its very bottom if neces.sary), and the matter allowed to escape. After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into tlie in- cision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppura- tion follows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be dis- 128 THE HORSE. posed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision, and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the walls remain thick- ened and indurated. It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by such methods, they almost invariabl}- return again when the horse is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practical, as the walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not remain any track, trace, or remembrance of the large, unsightly mass. Bruises. These are nothing but contused wounds, where the skin has not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity of the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, etc., which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of the bruised part. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, very many cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four hours. The water should be allowed, about this time, to gradually be- come cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly and quickly, and bathe them freely with camphor one ounce, sweet oil eight ounces. A dry, light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed rest, and, if necessary, the camphorated oil may be repeated for two or three days. If, however, the wound is so severe that sloughing must ensue, we must encourage this by poultices made of linseed meal, wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is bad smelling. After the slough has fallen off the wound is to be dressed with antiseptic washes of carbolic acid, chloride or zinc, permanganate of potash, etc.. If granulating (filling up) too fast, use burnt alum; or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A physic of Barbadoes aloes, one ounce, should be given as soon as po? sible, after the accident. Sedatives, as tincture of aconite root, fifteen GALLS AND BRUISES. I29 drops every two or three hours, and ounce doses of saltpeter twice or three times a day, are also to be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of our patient must be supported b_v good food and tonics. One of the best tonics is as fol- lows : Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gentian, and powdered gin- ger, of each four ounces. Mix thoroughly and give a heaping table- spoonful twice a day on the feed, or as a drench. Cliafing: by the Harness and Saddle or Collar Galls. Wounds or abrasions of this description are \ery commonly met with during the spring plowing, particularly in "new ground," or from ill-fitting saddles or collars at any time of the year. Collars too large or too small are equally productive of this trouble. In the spring of the year, when the lior.se has been unused to steady work for some months, the .skin is tender and easily abraded. The horse, from being wintered on a scanty allowance of grain, is soft, sweats easily; and if the collar and shoulders are not properly attended to. chafing of the skin is almost sure to fol- low. The harness .should be repaired, cleaned, and oiled before using, and the collar in particular should be thoroughly cleansed after every days' use. The shoulders are to be frequently washed with cold water, and afterward bathed with white-oak bark tea, alcohol, or other astringents. Should ill-feeling or badly made harness or saddles gall a horse, they must be refitted at once, or laid aside for other and better ones. Treatment. The remedy for such abrasions is simple and effective if the cause be removed without delay. The parts must be thoroughly bathed in soapy water, allowing the lather to remain on the abraded surface. There are many remedies for harness galls. Among them may be mentioned alcohol, one pint, in which are w^ell shaken the whites of two eggs, a solution of nitrate of silver, ten grains to the ounce of water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; carbolic acid, one part in fifteen parts of glycerine, and so on almost without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a cure provided the .sores are not irritated by friction. If the animal must continue his work the harness must be padded or chambered. I^acerated and Contused Wounds. These may be described together, although there is of course this difference, that in contused wounds there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, 130 > THB HORSB. however, are as a rule also contused; the surrounding tissues to a greater or lesser extent. While such wounds may not appear at first sight to be lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are always to be re- garded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic infection or mor- tification as a result of these injuries. We find in severe contu- sions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues; disorgan- ization and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper-seated structures. In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly inconsiderable; even very large blood vessels are thus torn apart without inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and uneven. These wounds are produced by some blunt object, as where a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners of buildings, or where he is struck by the pole or shafts of another team, falling on rough, irregular stones, etc. Treatment. In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exer- cised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear to see if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent the wound from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens again, discharg- ing a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the presence of some object in the parts. After a thorough exploration these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with warm water to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of one part to one hundred of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened in vitality and structure by the contusion that stitches will not hold; they only irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coadaptation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in the treat- ment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if the pus is found to be burrowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and afterwards in- jected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as chloride of i, zinc, one dram to a pint of water. A depending opening must be main- H tained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds afford much relief and should be persisted in. CHAPTER X. GENERAL DISEASES. Their Causes, Symptoms and Treatment. Influenza, pink-eye or epizooty, strangles, distemper or catarrhal fever, pleuro-pneumonia, horse-pox, and rabies. MONG the diseases to which horse flesh is heir, there are a few that may be better classed as general diseases than as diseases of any set of organs. While their symptoms show that one set of organs may be more affected by the diseases than another it has been the custom among veterinarian writers to class them as general diseases. Among these may be mentioned inflammations that are gen- eral in their attacks, and a few of our contagious diseases. If the in- flammation is confined to one class or organs or one organ of the class it has been described under its proper head. Influenza, Pink-Bye, or Bpizooty. This is a contagious and infectious specific fever of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefaction of the brain and nervous system, great depres- sion of the vital forces and frequent inflammatory complications of the important vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and laminae of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete recov- ery is sometimes followed by serious sequelae of the nervous and blood- vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain conditions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epizootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as, at one period the lungs, at another the intestines, etc. 132 THE HORSE. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not des- cribed as again occurring in a severe form until 1S70-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and westward to California. It is now a per- manent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially susceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and uncleaned dealers' stables and assumes, from time to time an enzootic form, as from some reason its viru- lence increases, or as from reasons of rural economy and commerce large numbers of 3'oung and more susceptible animals are exposed to its contagion. As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five 3-ears of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the farm where it has been free from the risk of contamination, and is sold to pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp dealers' stables of our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. O.erfed, fat young horses, which have just come through the sales' stables, are much more sus- ceptible to contagion than the same horses* are after a few months of steady work. The atmosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick animals to healthy ones, and through it it may be carried for a consider- able distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and droppings of tne animal, and in the feed in an infected stable, for a con- siderable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The drinking water in troughs and even running water niaj' hold the virus and be a means of its communication to other animals even at a distance. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall, will all hold the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible animals when piaced in the same locality Terminations. The termination of simple influenza may be death by extreme fever, with failure of the hearts' action; from excessive GENERAL DISEASES. 1 33 coma, due generall}^ to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poisonous effects of the debris of the disintegrated 1)lood corpuscles; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by subsi- dence of th^ fever, return of the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid convalescence; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they oc- cur as sporadic diseases. Symptoms. After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection a period of incubation of from five to seven days elapses, during which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is visible. WTien the symptoms of influenza develop they may be intense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter con- dition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the ex- citing ca-ises of complications which would not have happened had the animal oteu left quietly in its stall in place of being worked. The dis- ease may run its simple course as a specific fever, with alterations of the bloDd, or it ma}' become at any period complicated by local inflammatory troubles, the gravit}' of wliich is augmented by developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutriti\c and reparative functions. The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes de- jected and inattentive to surrounding objects; .stands with its head down and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has chills of the flanks, the mascles of the croup, and the muscles of the .shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty minutes, and fre- quently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104'', 104^°, and io5°F., or even in severe ca.ses to loy^F., within the fir.st twelve or eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, .stands immobile with its head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with excessive lacrymation, .so that the tears run from the internal canthus of the eye over the cheek and may blister the skin in its course. The respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute, and the pul.se is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred, moderate in volume and in force. There is 134 THE HORSE. great depression of muscular force; the animal stands limp as if excess- ively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention of the animal. On movement, the horse stag- gers and shows a want of coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as the "pink eye," and the mouth and the natural opening become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially noticeable on the rims of the gums and is a condition not found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coaguable than normal, but at a later period it becomes of a dark color and less coaguable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. Complication of the I/Ungs. If at any time during the course of the fever the animal is exposed to cold or draughts of air, or in any other way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may be affected. In the majority of cases; however, after three, four, or five days of the fever, the congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or apparent exciting cause. This is due to the alteration of the blood, which allows a more easy osmosis of the blood into the surrounding tis- sues and to the checking of the capillary blood vessels, produced by the increased rapidity and force of the circulation. Unless this congestion of the lungs is relieved at once it is followed by an inflammatory product, a fibrinous pneumonia. The pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. The animal commences to breath heavily, which be- comes distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilation of the nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The respirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the temperature increases one to two degrees, the pulse becomes more rapid, and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tis- sues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneumonia. On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas; GENERAL DISEASES. 1 35 on ausculation at the back of the neck over the trachea a tubular mur- mur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. After resolution, however, and absorption into the lungs convalescence is rapid, and recovery takes place perhaps more quickly than it does in the simple form of the disease. There is a cough, at first hacky and aborted, later more full and moist, when we have a discharge from the nostrils which is muco purulent, purulent, or hem- orrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, this discharge may be "rusty," due to cap- illary hemorrhages. We find that the blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly instead of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the recommencement of the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfavorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene occurs, ushered in by severe chills, a rapid elevation of temperature, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the no.strils, and a fetid breath, the symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene complicating other diseases. Complication of the Brain. At any time during the course of the disease, at an early period if the fever has been intense from the out- set, but more frequently after three or four days in ordinary cases, a congestion of the brain may occur. The animal, which has been stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it becomes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes, rubbing against it until it reaches the corner and again fa.stens it.self. It may become more violent and rear and plunge. If disturbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright light, it will stamp with its fore-feet and strike with its hind-feet, but is not definite in fix- ing the object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies, and which renders the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fastened by a rope to a stake or 136 THE HORSE. post the animal will wander in a circle at the end of the rope. It wan- ders almost invariably in one direction, either from the right to left or from left to right in different cases, which is dependent upon a greater congestion of one side of the brain than the other. The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the opposite in the other. The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the surrounding noises, the crack of the whip, or even a blow on the surface of the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are diminished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungovernable at- tacks of violence. Treatment. While the appetite remains the patient should have a moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats and bran; or even a little fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. With the first decided symptoms of fever the antipyretics are indicated, of which we have a variable choice. Bleeding in this disease is a questionable treatment, and is only to be employed at the verj^ outset of the disease. In large, strong horses of a sanguinary temperament an abstraction of a few quarts of blood will frequently diminish the stupefaction, lower the temperature, slow the pulse and respiration and, render the course of the disease shorter by twelve or twenty-four hours. In some cases, how- ever, bleeding seems to increase the amount of depression, and it should never be used after the deep ocher color of the mucous membranes show that an extensive disintegration of the blood corpuscles has taken place. Derivatives, in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine and hot water, after which the animal must be im- mediately dried and blanketed, serve to wake the animal up from the stupor and relieve the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially idicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or of the brain is threatened. Quinine and saH- cylic acid in dram doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous u.se of quinine in .some cases increases the after depression. Aconite is especially indicated, as in addition to its action on the circulation it .seems GENERAL DISEASES. 137 to be almost a specific in certain cases ni relieving tlie congestion of the brain and the nervous symptoms produced by the latter. Iodide of pot- ash reduces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is a stimulant to.the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the elimi- nation of waste matter by the kidneys. Antimony, in guarded doses of one-half dram to one dram, repeated not more than two or three times, will reduce excessive fever, and can be used with special advantage at the first appearance of complications, but it must be used with care, as it is an irritant to the digestive tract and may produce an intestinal com- plication, causing a severe diarrhea. Small doses of Glauber salts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart, digitalis can be u.sed with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when convales- cence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in pint doses may be given as stimulants, to these may be added dram doses of turpentine. In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most fre- quently used to relieve the pain cau.sing the colics; diarrhea is also re- lieved by the use of bicarbonate of .soda, nitrate of potash, and drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small doses of laudanum. In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease itself. Founder occurring as a complication of fever is difficult to treat. It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes have gone on for .some da5-s. If recognized at once, local bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the animal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the stupefied animal is un- able to be moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treat- ment, and the only treatment consists in local bleeding above the cor- onary bands and the application of poultices. For congestion of the brain large does of aconite and small repeated doses of mercury form the ordinary mode of treatment. During con- valescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digested food, not to overload the intestinal 138 THE HORSB. tract, causing constipation and consecutive diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose the animal to cold. Strangles, Distemper or Catarrhal Fever. This is an infectious disease seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving an ani- mal which has one attack protected from future trouble of the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with formation of matter or pus in the air tubes and lungs, and frequently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer, or is followed by the development of deep-seated abscesses which may prove fatal. Causes. The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an immunity from previous at- tacks. At three, four, or five years of age the colt, which has been at home, safe on a meadow or a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and driven to the market tow^n or county fairs to be exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway cars, to dealers' stables, equally unclean, where it meets many opportunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or some other infec- tious disease, and at last it succumbs. The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth, or the end of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be excessively full- blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age CENEKAI, DISKASKS. I 39 than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are much less sus- ceptible and are but rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain analog}' between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infection there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. SjTnptoms. The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when placed in its stable, is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten- tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger, before the patient, it will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow- ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short time. The coat becomes drj^ and the hairs stand on end. At times the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore-quarters or hind-quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the muscles, dry- ness of the skin, and its hairs standing on end. If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breathing may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a cough is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This discharge is at first water}'; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and increases greatly in quantity. At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the windpipe, or the air-tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused by ordinary cold. Shorth' after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen, somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an ab- scess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostils has fully devel- 140 THK HORSE. oped the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appetite, unless the swelhng is sufficient to interfere with the function of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the throat dimin- ishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses ma}' have the disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may continue to eat and perform their or- dinar}^ work as usual and no symptom may be seen beyond a slight dis- charge from the nose and a rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry an 5' but the most particular owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malignant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of discharge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the nostrils, the front of the animal, manger and surrounding objects be- come covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condition marked symptoms of fever are seen; the appetite is lost, the coat is dry, the horse stands back in his stall at the end of the halter strap with his neck extended and his legs propped apart to favor its breathing. This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of the lunge (asphyxia). The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes inflanunation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistu- las at the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the re- sult of continued lung tremble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in the poll, in the withers, or in tlie spaces of loose tissue under the arms, in tlie fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testacies. During the course of the disease or later, when the animal seems to be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the GENERAL DISEASES. I4I internal organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. Delirium. Roaring, phniging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head wedged in the corner of the stall, indicates the collection of matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous discharge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the medi- astinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the formation of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the mesentery. Patholog"y. The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of tho mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory s)-stem and in the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glrtnds, and consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrine, and if the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and un- coagulated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood, are found. Treatment. Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be- yond diet, warm mashes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and protec- tion from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive the horse may re- ceive small quantities of Glauber salts (handful three times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in dram doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash, aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna leaves and tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri- tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung com- plications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence be- gins great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, I4i TIIK HORSE. which may bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its strength. ' Anthrax. This is a severe and usuallj' fatal contagious disease chracterized by chills, great depression and stupor of the animal, and a profound alteration of the blood, due to destruction of the red blood cor- puscles. It is caused by the admission into the animal body of bacteria, or low order of living organisms, or their spores, known as the "bacillus of Davaine" or "bacillus anthracis." It affects all animals exposed to its contagion. The herbivora are especiall}' susceptible in the following order : the sheep, the ox, and the horse. The Guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice and other animals die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omnivora and carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunatel}', in some cases, develop from it only local trouble, followed by recovery. The direct cause of anthrax is always contagion or infection of a pre- viously sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of a previously infected animal. Outbreaks often occur at the time of the first rains after a dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground in search of moisture; it finds the spore which has been washed there in past years, swallows it, and brings it to the surface, when the rain furnishes the moisture which drives tjie worm itself from its deeper home. The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the working of the harness-maker or the cobbler and after the oiling of the completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these products may be carried by the atmo.sphere. Symptoms. The symptoms of anthrax develop with extreme rapid- ity; they are frequently so sudden that it appears but a few minutes for the animals to have passed from a condition of perfect health to a dan- gerously diseased one. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of profound stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble, indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times col- GENERAL DISEASES. M3 icky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ochre or bhiish-red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° and 105° F. The breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but the arteries are soft and almost imperceptible, while the heart-beats can be felt and heard, violent and tumultuous. In other words, it resembles a very severe case of influ- enza, except in regard to the heart's action. The symptoms last but two, three, or four days, at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An examination of the blood .shows a dark fluid which is not clot, and which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the bodies putrify rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with gases and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and fre- quently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the latter. The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs and tis- sues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are friable and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is specially marked in the heart. The black, uncoagulated and iucoaguable blood shows an iridescert scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dissolved by the ammonia, produced by the decomposed tissues. The serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, which, when ex- amined microscopically, is found to have the red globules crenated and the leucocytes granular. A high power of the microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rod-like bodies of homogeneous texture with their brilliant spores. The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is found teem- ing with the virus. The mucous membranes of the intestines are con- gested and brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places de- nuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic spots. The liver has a cooked appearance; the kidneys are congested and fria- ble; the urine is red; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are congested and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. The symptoms are those which are found in any disease with a rapidly decomposing blood. Treatment The treatment of anthrax was entirely useless and in- effectual until within a comparatively few years. The curative treat- ment, for which almost every drug in the pharmacopoeia has been used, [44 THE HORSE. was without avail, except, perhaps, the use of iodine, injected in the circulation in as large quantities as could be tolerated by the system. This treatment gives good results in the human being, but requires too much personal attention to be economical in animals when the disease occurs in epidemic form, although it may be used in the horse when oc- curring in an animal of great value. The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of certain fields and marshes which were i:ecognized as contaminated dur- ing the months of August and September and had been occupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It underwent, however, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of a pro- phylactic inocculation which granted immunity from future attacks of the disease equal to that granted by the recovery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease. This treatment consists in an artificial cultivation of the virus of an- thrax in broths, jellies, or other media, and in the treatment of it by means of continued exposure to the atmosphere or to a high temperature for a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent that it is only capable of producing an ephemeral fever in the animal in which it is inoculated, and which yet has retained a sufficient amount of its power to protect the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The production of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the farm- ers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made only in private laboratories. Inflammation with Pustules. This is often wrongly named "farcy buds." In this affection the individual elevations on the in- flamed skin show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus, in place of the clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a hazel nut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distinguished by the watery contents and the cord-like swelling, extending from tlie pustules along the line of the veins, and those of boils by the inflammation and sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair on the pustule stands erect, and is often shed with the .seal) which results. When itching is severe the parts become excoriated by rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin disease, the character of the eruption may become indistinct. Old horses suffer mainly at the root of the mane and tail, and about the GENERAL DISEASES. 1 45 lieels, and suckling foals around the moiftli, on the iace, inside the thighs, and under the tail. Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwholesome food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food, above all from dry to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of the mare and allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk rendered unwhole- some b}' faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is brought up by hand the scouriug and decompositions in the milk derange the digestion and cause such eruption. Vetches and other plants affected with honey- dew and buckwheat have been the cause of these eruptions on white portions of the skin. Disorders of the kidneys or liver are common causes of this affection. Treatment. Apply soothing ointments, such as benzoated oxide of zinc, or vaseline with one dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Or a wash of one dram sugar of lead or two drams hyposulphite of .soda in a quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded and scabb}', smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoria- tions are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caus- tic, two grains to one ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costiveness and remove intestinal irritants b)^ the same means as in eczema, and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposul- phite of soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or arsenic. In all the greatest care must be taken with regard to food, feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold sea- sons predisposed animals should, as far as possible, be protected from wet, mud, snow, and melted snow, above all from that which has been melted by salt. Fever. This is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a degree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body tempera- ture, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of excessive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted tasks, or in the course of a fever the two conditions may both exist, the 14^ THK HORSE. one succeeding the other. To fever as a disea.se is usually added chills as an essential .symptom. Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed by produce force; or the pullulation of the ferments of influenza in the blood which destroy the red blood corpuscles; or the presence of irritating mate- rial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or tuberculosis, the general train of symptoms are the same, only varying as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or when some special quality in them has the specific action on one or an- other tissue. There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood xas- sels, which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the current of the blood. There is then an elevation of the per- ipheral temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the ar- teries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These con- ditions may be produced by a primary irritation of the nen^e centers, or the brain from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever or sunstroke, in which trouble the extremes of symptoms may som.e- times be seen alternating with a very short period, to be counted scarcely by hours. There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist- ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, fever, or as it is better termed a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken place, but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this condition is liable to take coM, develop a lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or other- wise exposed. Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phenomena, GENERAI, DISEASES. 1 47 but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, by the fami- hes which form groups of the races, and by certain conditions in indi- viduals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydes- dale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms: The normal body temperature is elevated from one to nine degrees. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is moderate, 104° to 104° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the folds between the hind legs; it is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nostrils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation. The pulse, which in a liealthy horse is felt beating about forty-two to forty-eight times in the minute, is increased to sixty, seventy, ninet}', or even one hundred. The^ respirations are increased from fourteen or sixteen to twenty-four, thirty, thirty-six, or even more. With the commencement of a fever the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total loss of appetite, if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast differ- ence among horses in this regard. With the same amount of elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course of the fever and will even continue to eat oats and other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water with the chill taken off .should be kept .standing before the patient, who may be allowed it whenever the animal desires. The .skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an outbreak of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mucous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctiva of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one; without altera- tion of blood the mucous membranes become a rosy or deep red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflammatory troubles, the mucous mem- 148 THK HORSE. branes are tinged with j-ellow, which may even become a deep ochre in color, the result of the decomposition of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excretion from the liver and intestinal glands is dimin- ished and produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period the undigested material acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflammatory process, producing a severe diarrhea. The excresion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely suppressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapid I}', and deposits quantities of salts. At a later time the diminished ex- cretion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold in their temperature, or be much cooler than they normally are. This lat- ter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circu- latory system. It is of the greatest importance as an aid in diagnosing the gravit}^ of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condi- tion in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals in which fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodj^ne, or even only quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to diminish it. When fever is the result of local injury the cure of the cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms: when fever is the result of a pheumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflammation, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have exaccerbations of fever due to secondarj' inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small abscesses the development of secondary bronchitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and scepticsemia, there is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried to GENERAL DISEASES. 149 the heart and to the nen-ous system , which produces a pecuhar irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the temperature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple in- flammator>' disease may be grafted on that part of the specific trouble, and the line of causation of the fever between the two, frequently a narrow one is yet an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. Any animal suffering from fever, from an}' cause, is much more sus- ceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become complications of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have an in- creased current of more or less altered blood, flowing through the ves- sels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions become still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicaemia, and at the termination of severe pneumonias. Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions, etc. , must be considered as a symptom of organic disturbance. This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; alterations of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct ir- ritants to the ner\-e centres themselves, as in cases of heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. Treatment. The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. As nerve irritation enters into the etiology of fever in all cases, one of the important factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from all other animals and extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and draughts of air. Anodynes, belladona, hypo.scyamus, and opium, act as antipy- retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant ex- ists in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate sweat and excretions from i50 THE HORSE. the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the kidneys, cholagogucs and laxatives to increase the action of the liver and intes- tines, and to obtain from these important organs all the waste material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood ves- sels. As the heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the outset of a fever, and increases it by pumping an augmented quantity of blood through the whole body, we employ cardiac depressants to diminish the force of this organ. Among these, antimony, aconite, veratrum viride, and iodide of potash are the most important. The increased blood pres- sure throughout the body may also be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This is obtained in many cases with advantage by direct abstraction of blood, as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins, or by derivatives, such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby lessening its volume, without having the disadvantage found in bleeding, of impoverishing the elements of the blood. When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, either in the form of bacteria (living organism), as in glanders, tuberculosis, influenza, septicaemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign chemical element, as in rheumatism, gout, hsemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various dis- eases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicyclic acid, antipyrine, mer- cury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aromatics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are ad hoc and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vege- table acids, as vinegar, lemon" juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts, Bweet spirits of niter, etc., which are household remedies, are always useful, because they act on the excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Pleuro-Pneiimonia. See page 88. Rabies or Hydrophobia. Seepage m. CHAPTER XL GLANDERS OR FARCY. A Contagious Constitutional Disease. . Gl,ANDERS AND FARCY THE vSAMR DISEASE, CAN BE COMMUNICATED TO MAN, CHRONIC FARCY, CHRONIC GLANDERS. ACUTE F'ARCY GLANDERS. LANDERS is a contagious constitutional disease of the horse, ass, and mule and is readily communicable to man, sheep, goat, dog, cat, rabbit, and Guinea pig. It runs a variable course until it produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is charac- terized by the formation of neoplasms of connective tissue, or tubercules which degenerate into ulcers from which exudes a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable amount of fever according to the rapidity of its course. It is subject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the sulx:utaneous connective tissues. Glanders was imported into America at the close of the last century, and before the end of the first half of the present century had spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badlj' diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of the present century a large school of veterinarians and medical men protested against the con- tagious character of this disease, and prevailed by their opinion to such an extent again.st the common opinion that .several of the governments 152 THE HORSB. of Kurope nnc\ertook a series of experiments to determine the right be- tween the existing parties. At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound had placed among them glandered horses under various conditions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the contagious character of the disease. Htiology. The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recognize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of the specific virus of the disease. In studying the writings of the old authors on glanders, and the works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as factors in the de- velopment of the malady. While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of the horse family will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast differ- ence, in the contagious activity of the products of diflferent cases of glanders. We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the development of the disease in different individuals, and we find that the contagion is much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circumstances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con- tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops as a local sore. In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, as is shown by the inevitable inaction of susceptible animals inoculated with the disease; while the discharge from chronic glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result; again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the nei;^hborhood of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glandered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall, or are fed from the same bales of hay or straw which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the discharge of sick animals. The contagion must term- inate by direct contact of the discharges of a glandered animal with the GLANDERS OR FARCY. 1 53 tissues of a sound one, either on the exterior or when swallowed mixed with food into the digestive tract. Glanders is not infectious in tlic old acceptation of the word. Renault made a large number of experiments, forcing sound horses to breathe the expired air of glandered horses for an hour and a half a day for seven days, by means of a tube of canvass, and was unable to produce the disease in any case. The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, clothing, the teeth of the currj-comb, the sponge, the bridle, and halter, are car- ried to other animals. An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved from one pnrt of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the provocation of disease without the cause being recognized. Glanders is found frequently in the most hidden forms, and we recog- nize that it can exist without, being apparent; that is, it may affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An oM gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family use with good care and light w^ork for a period of eight years, during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster, who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal died. In a recent ca.se a coach horse was examined for .soundness and passed as sound by a prominent veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterward it became hidebound, witli a slight cough and a slight erupticn of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially expo.sed, and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an ab.scess in the right lung. Farcy buds developed on the surface of the Ixjdy and the animal died. 154 "^^^ HORSB. Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of hoarding-stables and the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recip- ients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood more than a year before. The horse, the ass, and the mule, are the animals which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we find a much greater re- ceptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We find that the race of horse infected in- fluences the character of the disease; in full-blooded, fat horses, of a sanguinary temperament, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses, the disease usually assumes a chronic form. In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional disease with all the .symptoms which are found in the horse, but more frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, remain- ing for .some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving a per- fectly sound animal; but while the local .sore is continuing to ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of contagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and destroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemmorrhage, or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, most fortunately, glanders may develop as in the dog, only in local form, not infecting the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper treat- ment is turned into a simple one. In the cat species glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inoculation ulcerates rap- idly and the entire system becomes infected. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a glandered horse. The rabbit, Guinea pig and mice are spec- ially su.sceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and the recent di.scover- ies in regard to this di.sease have made the.se animals most convenient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations. A litter of kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost GLANDERS OR FARCY. 1 55 their entire faces, including the nasal bones, were eaten away liy rapid ulceration. Tubercles were found in the lungs. The sheep and the goat are both capable of developing the disease. The goat is more susceptible and frequently develops it by means of the digestive tract, from its habit of eating droppings, rags, etc which are found in the neighborhood of the stall. Horned cattle and barnyard fowls are absolutely exempt from attacks of glanders, whether the virus is given to them by the digestive tract or inoculated into their tissues. The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute, chronic and latent, show that the disease may assume several different pliase*^. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three classes: chronic FARCV, CHRONIC GLAXDP'RS, and .VCUTK FARCY GI^ANDKRS. Chronic Farcy. In farcy the symptoms conuiience by formation of little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as farcy "buds" and fare}' "buttons," are from the size of a bullet to the size of a walnut. The}- are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and infringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known as a chancre. The ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either case it is mixed with a viscious, sticky, yellowish material like the white of an egg in con- sistency, and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diag- nostic; it resembles .somewhat tlie di.scharge which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the spe- cific discharge is characteristic. The di.scharge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive deposits on the undersurface until they fall off, to be replaced by others of the .same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy ulcers may retain their .specific form for a considerable time— days or ev^en weeks; but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in character and a.ssumes the ■ appearance of healthy 156 THE HORSE. matter. The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced b}- rosy granulations, the ragged edges beveled off, and the chancre is turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur at any part of the body. We have next an inflammation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh- borhood of the chancres. These become swollen and then indurated and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and then gradually disappear, or the}' may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscious oily discharge like the chancres themselves. The essential symptoms of farcy are the above; the button, the chan- cre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symp- toms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, while not diag- nostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagno.sis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers are not characteristic. Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glan- ders; and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always be re- garded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently develops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves — a short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscul- tation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few mucous rales. An- other common symptom is a sudden swelling of one of the hind legs; it is suddenly found swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses, or the oedema which we have in chronic GLANDKKS OR FARCY. 1 57 heart or in kidney trouble, as in the last the swelling is cool and not painful and the pitting on pressure remains for some time after the lat- ter is withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with grea.sy heels. In these the disease commences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length in a single night, or within a very short period. When greasy heels are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is fre- quently followed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface. In the entire horse the testacies are frequently swollen, hot and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppura- tion. The acute inflammation is rapidl}' followed by the si:)ecific induration which correspond to the local lesions in other parts of the body. Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, but sometimes occurs. Chronic Glanders. In chronic glanders we have the same train of inflammatory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic farcy only by the difference of the tissues in \vhich they are located. In chronic glanders we have first the tubercle, which is a small node from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nostrils or on the septum which di- vides the one nasal cavity from the other and be easily detected, or they may be higher in the nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or they may form in the larynx itself, or on the surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. The tubercles, which are first red and hard and con.sist of new con- nective tissue, .soon soften and become yellow; the yellow .spot breaks and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding tubercle, which has a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. This ulcer pours from its surface a viscious, oily discharge similar to that which we have .seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpen- tine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves. If the tubercles have formed in large numbers we may have them caus- ing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a ca- tarrhal discharge which may mark the specific discharge, or that which 158 THE HORSE. comes from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases. The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of the neighboring Ij-mphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for the first few days may seem soft and oedematous, but which rapidly becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and nodulated. The enlargement of the glands is found high up on the inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is not to be confounded with the swelling, puffy, oedematous, and not to be separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues, which we find in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflamma- tory troubles. These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses; but in the latter disease the glands have not the nodulated feel which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feel- ing like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together. The essential symptoms of glanders are the tubercle, the chancre, the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the tubercles on the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount of eruption which they cause, we may have a cough which resembles that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, accord- ing to the location of the lesions. In chroi.i^ glanders we have the same accessory s\'mptoms which we have in chronic farcy, the hem- orrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and in the entire horse the swelling of the testacies. On healing, the chancres on the nuicous membranes leave small, whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlargement of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they are .scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute attacks, with a mini- mum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, but does have a genefal depraved appearance; it loses flesh and becomes hide bound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, but is not GLANDERS OR FARCY. 159 diagnostic, althouo^h it has in it certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal snspicious to the eye of the expert veter- inarian, while withont the presence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based his opinion. Acute Glanders. In the acute form of glanders we have the symptoms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glanders in a more acute and aggravated form. We have a rapid out- break of tubercules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. We have a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and site of the local eruption. We have over the surface of the body swellings which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; we have the indurated cords and enlargement of the lymphatics. Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind-legs, and the swelhiig of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption of the glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has diffi- culty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F. With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu- monia, but on examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular murnuirs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubular murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and ausemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to cold, it develops an an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute glanders. In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses, acute glanders usually termi- nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms may subside. The sjniptoms of pneinnonia gradually disappear, the tem- perature lowers, the pulse b-comes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but a few symp- toms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During the attack of l6o THE HORSK. acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, -which are found in the forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause abscesses of these cavi- ties, which may remain as the only visible symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case of acute glanders, like the an- imals which are affected by chronic glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condition they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in the more acute cases. With good care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an apparent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food, with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again in an acute form. Treatment. Fully the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur- roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently ameliorate the symptoms and often do so to such an extent that the animal would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ai.imal. But while in this case the number of tuberclus of the lungs, which are in- variable there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the examiner, they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely with the constant possibility of a return of acute symptoms. In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with glanders have been known to work for years and die from other causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but, allowing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease should be allowed to live. In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the states in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veterinarian at the GLANDERS OR FARCY. l6l first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow a liberal indemnity for ihe animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are thoroughly disin- fiicted. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. Several states have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but with, few exceptions these laws are not carried out with the rigidity with which they should be. In other states where an indenmity is allowed on declaration on the part of the owner, the apprai.sement of the animal is not fairly made. If the owners of infected animals are to be encouraged to declare the presence of the di.sease in order to protect their neig;hbors from the danger of contagion they should be paid, not what the animal affected with the disease is considered worth, when it is valueless, but the one-hulf or two-thirds of what would be its market value without the disea.se, and the community should share the loss which the owner should make in order to protect others. X62 THB HORSB. SOME SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. Blister. There are two classes of blisters; one is principally a counter-irritant, while the other is an absorbent, and is used to re- duce the size of thickened flesh, etc. This latter always contains iodine or some preparation of iodine, as biniodide of mercury, commonly known as the red iodide of mercury. For counter-irritants and for blister in spavin, sprain, etc. — Cantharides blister i dram. Vaseline i ounce. Cut hair off with shears and rub the above in well. Allow to remain on for forty-eight hours; then wash off and grease. Keep the animal's head tied, so that the blistered parts cannot be bitten. The absorbent blister should be applied in the same manner. It is made as fol- lows: Red iodide of mercury i dram. Vaseline i ounc$. Mix well before applying. This is often successfully used in splint. This may be left on and allowed to peel off. Keep parts oiled after the third day. It is also the best one to be used in ringbone. Wind Puffs. These troublesome blemishes may be remedied by using the cantharides blister as above directed. But wind puffs are very liable, after a time, to reappear. Gentle hand-rubbing, three times a day, fifteen minutes at a time, is often verj^ successful in reducing enlargements. Bandaging or painting with tincture of iodine once a day is often very effectual. Spavin. Remember that one of the symptoms of spavin is the horse points his foot while standing, and drives out of his lameness. Firing and blisters are the simplest reme- dies. Cunean or tarsal tenectomy is a satisfactory treatment. This consists of severing the cunean tendon, which passes over the inside of the hock bone, and re- quires several weeks' absolute rest. Hoof Ointment. This is one of the best ointments for softening and making the hoof tough and keeping it in condition : Cosmoline 12 pounds. Resin i pound. Oil turpentine i pint. Charcoal, powdered 4 ounces. Melt the cosmoline and resin and then add the turpentine and charcoal. Curb. This can be successfully treated by blis- tering with the red iodide of mercury blister, as previously recommended. Do not wash off or grease, but keep horse from biting. Thoroughpin. There is now in the market, and to be had of all dealers in horse goods, a truss that is very successful in removing this blemish. Bog Spavin. The truss is also very useful in remov- ing bog spavin. Is the Lameness in the Foot? It is often difficult to determine whether a horse is lame in the foot or not. The following plan determines that fact: In- ject with a hypodermic syringe a ten per cent, solution of cocaine over the nerves leading to the foot where they pass over the fetlock joint on either side of the leg. Wait about fifteen minutes, and if the horse goes sound the lameness is in the foot; if he does not, the lameness is above the ankle. SOME SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. 163 Leg and Body Wash. Goulard's extract of the strength of one ounce to four ounces of extract to a pint of water makes a good wash. Weak Stifle. Blister the parts well with cantharides blister, applied as before recommended. It is not necessary to clip hair. If pre- ferred, use the following liniment, which will blister: Aqua ammonia . 2 ounces. Olive oil ... 2 ounces. Tincture cantharides 2 ounces. Shake well every time before applying. To Make Hair Grow. The best preparation for stimulating the growth of hair is — Fluid extract jaborandi i ounce. Tincture cantharides i ounce. Soap liniment 6 ounces. Mix, and apply once a day with light friction. If the roots of the hair are de- stroyed or dead, nothing will make the hair grow. Blood Out of Condition. Horses sometimes break out in fever patches, sores or swellings. They lack life and ambition, and their coat is un- even. Give Hypo-sulphite soda 8" ounces. Nux-vomica ij^ ounces. Mix, make into twelve powders, and give one powder in feed three times a day. Sometimes it is advisable, to remove humors from the blood, to give the follow- ing treatment : Give one-half ounce doses of hypo- sulphite soda twice a day for two weeks; then follow for a couple of weeks with one-half ounce doses of Fowler's solution of arsenic twice a day. If the horse has sores, apply once a day Salicylic acid i ounce. Boracic acid i ounce. Tincture iodine i ounce. Glycerine x6 ounces. Rheumatism. Animals with rheumatism sometimes start out sound, but go lame before going far, and may go sound again before re- turning. They become weak in the joints and oftentimes stumble. Sometimes in driving they lift one knee higher than the other. There is not, as a rule, anj- swelling or soreness to be found. Give Salol 2 drams. three times a day. This disease is often very obstinate, and where a remedy is effectual in one case it may not be so in another. If the above does not fulfill the requirements after a two weeks' trial, give Iodide of potash 2 drams. three times a day for the same length of time. Then, if necessary, return to first treatment. Scratches. In this disease the blood is out of con- dition, and the treatment for ' Bi,oOD Out of Condition" should be given. Then apply a bandage to the leg, moist- ened with tne following solution : Sugar of lead i ounce. Glycerine 6 ounces. Water 1 pint. Apply same to the sore parts also. If this does not bring about the desired re- sult, apply Citrine Ointment once a day. Do not work the animal till the cracks are all healed. Cough Mixture. The following is one of the best reme- dies for coughs and colds that can be pro- cured. A bottle of it should be on hand in every stable : Tincture of camphor 2 ounces. Muriate of ammonia 2 ounces. Chlorate of potash 2 ounces. Fl. ext. licorice 2 ounces. Fl. ext. belladonna, i ounce. Syrup I pound. Mix, and apply one ounce to the horse's tongue twice a day. i64 THE HORSE. O m W o w Q > CHAPTER XII. KXTKRN AL EVIDENCES OF DISEASE. Location and Name of Various Diseases. The common names given to deformities, their causes pro- ducing MANY FAMILIAR DISEASES, LACK OP CONFORMATION. 1. — Bt.tnd eye. There is often a continuous flow of tears over tbe clieek accom- panyino: a blind eye. 2.- — CiOlTRE. An enlarged thyroid gland. 3. — Enlarged .lUGCLAK VKiN. This is often the result of bleeding, when improperly done. 4. — Swollen parotid gland. Caused by undue pressure from throat-latch. 5. — Bone Tumor. Caused by a blow on the jaw bone, by striking against the pole of a wagon or manger. 6. — Salivary fistula. A fistula of the duct that leads from the parotid gland to the mouth. 7. — Fistula of the upper jaw. Caused by an ulcerated tooth. 8. — Fistula of tfie lower jaw. Caused by an ulcerated tooth. 9. — Flabby lip. Caused by partial paralysis. lO. — Excessive saliva. Caused by a wound or swelling of the tongue. 11. — Mucus. A discharge from the nose. It may be caused by acute or chronic catarrh, or in glanders. 12. — LOF EAR. Some horses have ears so large that they drop from their own weight. 13. — Hare e.ar. 14. — Poll evil. A common name for a running sore on the back of the neck, often caused by the horse striking the part against a low ceiling. It is also the result of a boil which has not properly healed. 15. — Farcy buds. Enlarged lymphatic glands. They are found on various parts of the body. See numbers 21 and 49. 16, — Mange OR itch. These are skin diseases which often cruse the animal to rub against the manger or fences till the hair and mane are all rubbed off, 17. — Deformed neck. Sometimes called Ewe neck. The neck curves downward instead of upward. 18, — Fistul.\. Caused by the wound from improper bleeding, failing to heal. 19. — Fistulous withers. An abscess caused by a bruise from which there is a chronic discharge. 20. — Sway back. A back that is very hollow. 21. — Farcy buds. Swelling of the lymphatic system. 23. — Abscess. Generally caused by bruise. 23. — Enlargement of the knee. The result of sprains or bruises. 24. — Enl.arged tendons. Caused by sprains. The tendons and their sheaths thicken at the back of the legs and cause lameness. 25. — Splint. Caused by an unnatural fluid being thrown off, between the common and splint bonea, which gradually turns to bone. 26, — Front swelling, 27. — Deformed pastern. A long low pastern throws the fetlock too low, and makes the animal subject to sprains. 28. — Ridge in the hoof. This is the result of fever in the coronet. A ridge or wrinkle in the hoof shows that the coronet at some previous time was injured or was effected with fever, and the hoof in growing out shows the result the same as the nail on a man's finger shows the result of an injury to the root of the nail. 29. — Gall. Caused by interfering. 30. — Ox l66 THR HORSB. FOOT. A bulging out of the lioof in the front y&n of the foot, the result of disease of the coffin joint. Some horses are born with this peculiar form of the hoof, which is called "ox foot" from its resemblance to the hoof of the ox. 31. — Qcartek- CUACK. Caused bv the nutrition of the hoof not being normal. The fibres of the boof become brittle and the hoof splits. 32. — MuD fever. This is an inflamma- tion in the skin, caused by driving the animal through mud and cold water. The leg swells, and the skin soon becomes scabby. It is not an uncommon thing for the hair to fall out. 33. — Stilt foot. Result of diseases around the heels or quar- ters. 34. — Contracted HOOF. Caused by disease or standing in the stable on a hard floor. 35. — Saddle gall. Caused by uneven pressure of the saddle. 36. — Shoe boil. A tumor caused by the horse lying on the shoe. 37. — Mal- LEXDERS. An inflammation of the skin behind the knee, where the skin folds in doubling up the leg. The inflammation causes the skin to become dry and hard, and the knee becomes enlarged. 38. — Sitfast. At first a simple saddle gall, but if not properly attended to, becomes chronic, when it is called sitfast. 39. — Snake BACK. A rough, uneven back over the croup. It is sometimes called "eel-back." 40. — Pointed hip. It is this kind of a hip that is so liable to be knocked down. 41. — Navel RUPT ORE. The intestines extend downward through the navel open- ing, which is unclosed. 42. — Inguinal rupture. The intestines extend down- ward through the abdominal rings and inguinal canal. In stallions they extend downward into the scrotum. 43. — Atrophy OP the MUSCLES. This is caused by disease or a bruise, or from long standing lameness, causing a wasting away of the muscles from disease. 44. — Drooping rump. A deformity. 45. — Rat tail. The hair having dropped off, from disease of the tail. 46. — Mange, or itch. These are skin diseases which often cause the animal to rub against the manger or the fences till the hair is rubbed of from different parts of the body, 47. — Flank HERNIA. The intestines extending outward through the abdominal wall at the flank. 48. — Stifle. A sprain, kick or puncture at this point may cause stifle lameness. If the patella is out of position (dislocated) the horse is said to be stifled. 49. — Farcy buds. Enlarged lymphatic glands. 50. — Big spavin. A distension of the synovial sac, causing lameness. 51. — Bone spavin. A bony tumor of the hock joint. 52. — Sallenders. An inflammation of the skin, behind the hock joint, where the skin folds in the bending of the foot backwards. The inflamma- tion causes the skin to become hard and dry, and causes lameness. 53. — Front BURSAL swelling. A soft puffy swelling in front of the fetlock, caused by inflam- mation of the bursal. 54. — Sand-crack. Same as a quarter crack, only this comes in front. 55. — HoOF with ridges. This indicates former inflammation of the coronet, as explained under No. 28. 56. — Weak thigh. Small from faulty formation. 57. — Capped nocK. An enlargement on the point of tbe hock. It is often caused by a bruise from a kick in the stall or pasture. 58. — Thoroughpin. A puffy enlargement at the upper aud back part of the hock joint, often appearing on both the inside and outside. 59. — Curb. An enlargement at the back of the hock, usually the result of a sprain. 60. — Blood spavin. An enlargement of the vein at the hock, caused by a bony tumor pressing upon it. 61. — Wind galls. Soft swellings filled with secretion of the joints, called synovial fluid. 62. — En- larged leg. Caused by neglect or the disease known as elephantiasis. 63. — Grease heel. A skin disease that gives off an offensive discharge. 64. — QuiT- TOR. A fistula of the quarter, the opening above the coronet. 65. — Flat-foot. The hoof is too flat and large. THIS MANIKIN IS PREPARED BY Aodrew A. Gardenier, F*hi.D., EXPRESSLY FOR The Successful Stockman AhfD MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY. The PCing=Richiarcison Co., SPRINOKIELD, IVIASS. CHAPTER XIII. KNEE, FETLOCK, FOOT, &c. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. . Anatomical description of the parts, physiological functions, FAULTS OF formation, INTERFERING, COCKED ANKLES, WINE GALLS, QUITTOR, CORNS, SAND-CRACKS, RINGBONE, SPLINT, SPAVIN, ETC., ETC. EO FOOT, NO HORSE, is as true to-day as when the old aphor- ism first fell from the lips of man. Domestication of the ancient "companion of the wind," has caused him to be put to many uses, and the constant reproduction of hereditary defects has changed him into a very short-lived piece of machinery, which is often out of repair. The horse, as a domestic animal, is of all the animal tribe the largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dangers which are among the incidents of civilized life. While travelling he may pick up a nail from the road, or slip upon an icy street. No matter where this faithful animal is, there is no hour when he is not in danger of incurring injuries which may demand the best skill to repair. To detect and cure diseases of the organs of locomotion as well as the diseases of the other parts of the body, it is necessary to have a knowl- edge of the construction and functions of the parts which may be under consideration. Therefore, as a guide to a better understanding of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, we give the anatomical structures and physio- logical functions of their various parts. 170 THE HORSE. For a thorough understanding of the parts described consult the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE on pages 17 to 22, and the MANIKIN OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT, just preceding this chapter. Bones. The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the cannon bone (the metacarpus in the fore -leg and the metatarsus in the hind-leg), the two sesamoid bones, the large pastern or suffraginis, the small pastern or coronet, the coffin bone or os pedis, and the small sesa- moid or navicular bone. Cannon Bone. This bone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, and is cylindrical in .shape, and stands nearly or quite perpen- dicular. In the fore-leg it is called the metacarpus and in the hind-leg the metatarsus. They correspond with the bones in the palm of the hand and the ball of the foot in man. Sesamoid Bones. These occur in pairs, are small, shape resem- bling a three-faced pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the large pastern or suffraginis, having the base of the pyramid downward. Suffraginis, or I^arge Pastern. This is a very compact bone, set in slanting direction downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the coronet or small pastern. Coronet, or Small Pastern. This is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the suffraginis and coffin bone, in the same slanting direction. Coffin Bone. This forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the horny box in which it is enclosed. Navicular Bone. This is short, flattened above and below, and is attached to the coffin bone behind. All of these bones are covered on the surfaces with a cartilage which goes to make up the joints, while the portions between are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Joints. The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any interference with their function very largely impairs the value of the animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to injury and disease. There are three of these joints — the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 17I b)- ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick viscid fluid, called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing the joints. Fetlock. This joint is made by the union of the lower end of the cannon and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that the joint is capable of a ver}- extensive motion. These bones are held together by ligaments, only one of which (the suspensory) demands spe- cial mention. Suspensory I^igament. This ligament starts from the knee, ex- tends down behind the cannon, lying between the two splint bones, until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either vside of the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the sides 'of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As it crosses the sesamoids on the posterior borders of the fetlock it throws out fibers, which hold it fast to these bones. Pastern Joint. This is made by the union of the two pastern bones. Coffin Joint. This is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin, and small sesamoid or navicular bones, the latter being set behind and beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone, in such a way as to largely receive the weight of the large pastern. Tendons. There are three tendons which serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. Two of these bend the joints, while the other extends or straightens the column bones. Flexor Pedis Perforans. This is the deep flexor of the foot, passes down behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory liga- ment in front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone, after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and with it the horny box. Flexor Pedis Perforatus. This is the superficial flexor of the foot and follows the course of the preceding tendon, and is attached to the middle of the ankle. The function of this tendon is to bend the foot at the fetlock. Extensor Pedis. This runs down the front of the leg and is at- tached on the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for its function the straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. 172 THE HORSE. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connective tissue, -which gi\-cs a symmetry to the parts by filling up and rounding off, and all are jirotected by the skin and hoof. Skin of the Fetlock and Ankle.. This is generally character- ized by its thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts of the fetlock joint in certain l>reeds of horses. The most important part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band. Coronary Band. This consists of that portion of the skin which secretes the horn by which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resembles the nail which grows on the fingers atid toes of man. It is composed of hollow, cylindrical tubes, extending from the coronary band to the lower border of the hoof, whicli.are neld together by a tena- cious opaque matter. Hoof. This is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and contains, besides the coffin, na\ncular, and part of the small pastern bones, the sensitive laminae, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages. The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped like the circumference of the foot, except that a v shaped opening is left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall, in that its tubes are not straight, and from the fact that it scales off in pieces over the whole surface. Frogf. This is a triangular shaped body, divided into two equal parts by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It fills the triangular space in the sole to which it is intimatel}' attached by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner as the sole, but it differs from both the wall and sole, in that the horn is soft, moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function of the frog to destroy shock and prevent slipping. Sensitive I^amlnae. These are thin plates of soft tissue covering the entire anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the iinier surface of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is made complete. Plantar Cushion. This is a thick pad of fibrous tissue, placed be- hind and under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND rOOT. 1 73 and frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the column of bones and to destroy shock. I^ateral Cartilages. These are attached, one on either side, to the wings of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates of fih)ro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacant structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced by the weight of the lx)dy while the foot rested on the ground. Joints. The contact of two or more bones so arranged, that they move one upon the other either more or less is called a joint. In the movable joints at the point of articulation are ligaments whose office is the holding of the bones in position. There is as a result of the moving of one part upon the other a certain amount of friction, and to in.sure easy play and smooth movement of its parts nature has arranged a yellow, oily, or glair>' lubricant, called synovia, the last somewhat resemljling the white of an egg. This fluid is deposited in a containing .sac, and the serous membrane which forms the lining is the .secreting organ. This membrane is of a ver>- sensitive nature, and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments it is attached only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon their length or between the layers of cartilage, which lie between the Xxmes and their articular surfaces. vSo long as the bones, the muscles and their tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments and their synovial structure; the ner\'es and the blood vessels which distribute to ever>' part, howe\'er minute, are exempt from di.sease, and pathological change, the function of mo- tion will continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency. But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change or irregularity of form, location or action occur in any portion of the apparatus, any obstruction of vital power take place, any interference with the order of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of bal- ance, and the result is lamkxkss. Description of the Manikin. The outside plate on the right of page 1 68, shows the part of the leg between the knee and the fetlfx:k joint in a healthy condition. The second plate of this .series shows a DIFFUSE SPLINT, bony growth with a diffuse base, in which, the lx>ne has permanently as.sumed greater size. This is a serious difficulty on account of the deformity interfering with the movement of the cord which pas.ses behind it, thereby becoming a source of continual irritation and consequently permanent lamenes.s. 174 THE HORSE. The next plate of this series shows the simple splint, in which there is only a single bony growth. The horse by being called to perform tasks beyond his strength has strained his muscles and torn apart the fibres which unite the bones at their juncture. The last plate of this series shows the simple splint on the bone with the muscles, cords, and tendons removed. Here can be plainly seen the smaller cannon bone which during the youth of the animal is more or less articulated, but which as the horse matures, becomes firmly joined by a rigid union and the turning into bone of their inter-articulate sur- faces. B}' straininr, this union becomes divided and as a consequence local irritation develops. The outside plate of the series in the center, shows the hock with the skin removed. The bones which are surrounded by ligaments, tendons, and muscles correspond to the bones of the human ankle. The bone at the upper part is the tibia, the one at the lower the cannon bone, (metatarsus) while between them hidden by the ligaments and muscles are the os calcis, astragalus, cuboides, navicular, and the outer and the inner cuneiform bones. The second plate of the center series shows a blood-spavin and a bone- spavin. The blood-spavin being the one indicated near the tibia (the highest on the plate) and is alwa5's found in front and a little inward of the hock This is always round, smooth and well marked, and on the outer surface running from below upwards, will be found a vein which is more or less enlarged. It is from this conspicuous blood-vessel that the tumor is named. It is the dilatation of the articulate synorial sac and differs from thoroughpin in location and part affected. See thor- oughpin. The last plate of the series, shows a badly spavined hock. The bone has enlarged and become a fixed condition which there is no known method of removing. The exterioi plate at the left shows a sound foot and fetlock. The wall of the hoot is shown below and the periople (coronary band) just above. The ligaments of the joints are shown above and below, and the extensor tendon in front and the flexor tendon on the back of the fetlock is shown beginning near the top and extending downward to the hoof. The second plate at the left shows a low ring-bone and a high ring- bone. The low ring-bone is found on the lower portion around the up- per border of the foot. The high ringbone forms a large bunch on the upper part of the coronet quite close to the fetlock joint. KNEE, FETUDCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 1 75 Faults of Formation. A large percentage of the horses have feet which are not perfect in formation, and as a consequence of these imperfections they are especially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases. Flat Feet. This is that condition in which the sole has little or no convexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy, lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the fore-feet, which are generally broad, low-heeled, and with a wall less upright than is seen in the perfect foot. In flat-foot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the reason that it has no arch and the weight of the animal is received on the entire plantar surface as it rests on the ground instead of on the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration rdien the process is once established. Plorses with flat foot should be shod with a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the walls only, while the heels and frog are never to be pared. Flat-foot generally has weak walls, and as a consequence the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and the shoe cast. Clubfoot. This is applied to such feet as have the walls set nearly perpendicular. When this condition is present the walls are high, the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. Clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases, but as a rule spe- cial shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered as much as possible and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe piece, slightly turned up, while the heels of the shoe are to be made thin. Crooked Foot. This is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the an- kle is thrown outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormall}^ wide apart and the toes close together. Animals with this deformity are "pigeon-toed," and are liable to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the other being perfect, the liability to interfere is .still greater, for the rea.son that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center plane. When the out.side heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but 176 THI$ HORSU. one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not so near to the center line. Such animals are especially liable to stumb- ling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equalize length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks from interfering. Interfering". An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite leg, as it passes by. The inner surface of the fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although it may hai)pen to any part of the ankle. It is more common in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes a bruise, which is generally accompanied by broken skin. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening of the injured parts. Causes. Faulty formation is the usual cause of interfering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long; from defective shoeing; rough or slippery roads; from the exhaustion of labor or sickness; swell- ing of the leg; high knee action; fast work, and because the chest or hips are too narrow. Symptoms. Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily de- tected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the animal, after first paint- ing the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. Treatment. When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty forma- tion it may not l)e possible to overcome the defect. In such cases, and as well those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the fet- lock or ankle boot must be used. In many instances interfering may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of the foot on the injured leg .should be lowered sufficiently to change the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it further away from the center KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. I77 plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot to pass by without striking. A very shght change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the same time the offending foot should be so shod, that the shoe sets well under the hoof at the point which causes the injury. The shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. When the cause has been removed cold water bandages to the injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long-contin- ued bruising, a Spanish fly bhster over the parts, repeated in two or three weeks' time if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its natural condition. Knuckling or Cocked Ankles. Knuckling is a partial disloca- tion of the fetlock joint, in which the relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with the lower end of the cannon bone rest- ing behind the center line of the suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. Causes. Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the great majority of cases it is only temporarj'. It is largely due to the fact that, before birth, the legs were bent; and time is required, after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt themselves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body. Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particularly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race-tracks or roads are exciting causes of knuckling. It is also seen as an accompaniment to that faulty formation called club-foot, in which the toe of the wall is perpendicular and .short, and the heels high, a condition most often seen in the mule, especially the hind feet. Lastly, knuckling is caused by disease of the suspensory ligament, or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fetlock joints. Treatment. In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- ference in the course of a few weeks' time. When knuckling has com- menced, relieve the tendons and ligaments by proper shoeing. Prepare 178 THE HORSB. the foot for the shoe by shortening the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high; or if the foot is prepared in the usual waj' the shoe should be thin in front, with thick heels and high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with calks seems to do best. When possible, the causes of knuckling are to be removed, but since this can not always be done, the time maj^ come when the patient can no longer perform any service, particularly in those cases where both fore-legs are affected, and it becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by surgical interference. In such cases the operation is beyond the skill of the ordinary horseman, and an expert should be consulted. Over-reaching. An over-reach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely hap- pens except when the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and running horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters are most liable to the injury. Symptoms. The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore-foot (an accident known among horsemen as "grabbing") the shoe may be torn from the fore-foot or the animal may fall to his knees. Horses accustomed to over-reaching are often "bad breakers," for the reason that the pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought back to the trot- ting gait. Treatment. If the injury is but a slight bruise cold water ban- dages applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts are deeply cut more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths may be ased, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and a roller bandage. Wlien an animal is known to be subject to over-reaching, he should never be driven fast without quarter-boots, which are specially made for the protection of the heels and quarters. If there is a disposition to ' 'grab' ' the forward shoes, the trouble may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as pos- sible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the hind shoe. When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore-feet may be shod with the tips instead of the common shoe, as described in th» treat- ment for contracted heels. KNKE, FKTLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. I79 Calk Wounds. Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are hable to wounds of the coronary region, either from tramping on themselves, or on each other. These injuries are most common in heavy draught horses, especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore-feet are more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injur)' is commonly on the quarters. In the hind-feet the wound often results from the animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive laminae, the extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone. Treatment. Preventive measures would include the use of boots to protect the coronet of the hind-foot, and the use of a blunt ca,lk on the outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offender where the fore-feet are injured. If the wound is not deep and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, such as car- bolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc. , active measures must be resorted to. In these cases cold, astringent baths, made by adding two ounces of sulphate of iron to a gallon of water, should be used, followed by poul- tices if it is necessary' to hasten the cleansing of the wound by stimu- lating the sloughing process. Where the wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow the directions laid down iu the article on toe-cracks. Frost Bites. Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of the horse liable to become frost-bitten. The cases most commonly seen are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In moun- tainous districts where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often in- tense, frost bites are not uncommon even among animals running at large. Symptoms. When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and swell- ing. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an in' creased sensitiveness to cold remains. l8o THE HOKSU. In cases more severe, irregular patches of skin are destroyed, and after a few day's time slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary band is the part most often affected. In many instances there is no destruction of the skin, but simply a temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary band. The fore-feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and for some reason the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen and painful, and after two or three days' time the horn separates from the band and slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the suppuration disappears, the lameness subsides; new horn, often of an inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is occasionally frost bitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. Treatment. Simple frost bites are best treated by cold fomentations followed by applications of a five per cent, solution of carbolized oil. When portions of the skin are destroyed their earh' separation should be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be treated by the application of stimulating dressings such as carbolized oil, a one per cent, solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is re- placed always shrinks in healing, and as a consequence unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is involved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulating the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and new horn, no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this accident happens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a sufficient growth of horn protects the part from injury. Sprain of the Fetlock. Sprain of the fetlock joint is most com- mon in the fore-legs, and as a rule affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, runners, steeple-chasers, hunters, cow- ponies, and those that interfere, are particularly liable to the injury. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE. AND FOOT. l5l Causes. Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with diseases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, con- tracted heels, side bones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stumbling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or struggles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up the inflammation of the joint. Symptoms. The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the severity of the injury. If slight there may be no lameness, but simply a little .soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground, and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. Treatment. If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. In cases where there is intense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a con- stant stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. When the inflammation has subsided a blister to the joint should be applied. In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the lameness may last a long time. In the.se cases the joint should be kept completely at rest; and this condition is best secured by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be secured, the patient must be kept in slings. In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage is re- moved, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always re- mains after the other evidences of the disease have dissappeared, may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the firing iron and blisters. A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition of the injury. 1 82 THE HORSE. Thrush is a disease characterized by an excessive secretion of un- healthy matter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than other breeds, a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in cities and towns. Causes. The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to con- tract the disease in the hind-feet when the cause is due to filth, while the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore-feet. Hard work, on rough and stony roads, may also induce the disease, as may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause is often seen to operate in old truck horses, whose feet are constantly soaked in the bath-tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, ex- cite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted feet, scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals which otherwise pre- sent a perfect frog. Symptoms. At first there is simply an increased moisture in the cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a considerable discharge takes place (thin, watery, and highly offensive), changing gradually to a thicker uniform matter, which rapidly destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the patient lame and the foot feverish, (cases in which the whole frog is involved in the diseased process). Treatment. Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared away, and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of powdered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog and the grooves on the edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with dry calomel, and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. If the discharge is pro- fuse the dressing should be changed daily, otherwise it may be left on for two or three days at a time. Where a constitutional taint is sup- posed to exist with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., a purgative fol- lowed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated daily, may be pre- KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 1 83 ficribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems too slow, a Spanish fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a sequel to other diseases a perma- nent cure may not be possible. Wind-gfalls. Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended, by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called wind- galls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are most often found in the fore-leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, between the tendon and the shin-bone. When they develop in the hind-leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the tendon. The majority of the horses are not subject to them after colt- hood is passed. "Causes. Wind-galls are often seen in young, over-grown horses, where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sus- tain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most cow-ponies there is a pre-disposition to wind-galls. Street-car horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones most apt to develop wind-galls in the hind legs. Symptoms. The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the ground. In old horses wind-galls generally develop slowly and cause no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the ani- mal is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it may be in- jured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the lime salts. Treatment. The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, re- quire no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean up, and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured by i84 THE HORSi:. the use of sliugs and a high-heeled shoe. Cold water douches should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold water bandages, until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a bhsteris to be applied. In old wind-galls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the red iodide of mercury blisters. Enforced rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted on, as a too early return to work is sure to be followed by a relapse. Bruise of the Frog. When the frog is severely bruised the in- jury is followed by suppuration beneath the horn, and at times by par- tial gangrene of the plantar cushion. Causes. A bruise of the frog generally happens from the animal stepping on a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when the animal is trotting, running, or jumping than when he is at a slower pace. A stone wedged between the branches of the shoe in the cleft of the frog, or between the sides of the frog and the shoe, and remaining for a time, produces the same results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument or a punctured wound with a blunt pointed instrument may also cause suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet, with low heels and fleshy frog, are most liable to these injuries. Symptoms. Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. When the animal moves the toe only is placed to the ground, or the foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs. When he is at rest the foot is set forward with the toe resting on the ground and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is exam- ined early the injured spot may usually be found, and if no open- ing exists the collection of pus may be detected working its way toward the heels. The horn is felt to be loosened from the deeper tis- sues, and if it is pared through, a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead, sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffio bone may be involved in the injury and a small portion of it may become carious. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 1 85 Treatment. If the injury is seen at once the foot should be placed in a bath of cold water with the object of preventing suppuration. If suppuration has already set in the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of the sole if necessary, is to be pared thin, so that all possible pressure may be removed and the foot poulticed. As soon as the pus has loosened the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is discharging from an opening near the hair the whole frog, or one-half of it will generally be found separated from the plantar cush- ion, and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days' time the gangrene portion of the cushion will slough off under the stimulating effects of the poultice, and under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be removed by surgical interference. Where the slough is all detached the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulat- ing dressings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and bandages as directed in punctured wounds. The lameness having sub- sided, and a tliin layer of new horn ha\'ing grown on the exposed parts, the foot may be shod, the frog covered with a thick pad of oakum, held in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and the animal returned to slow work. Rupture of the Suspensory I^igament. Sprain, with or with- out rupture, of the suspensory ligament, may happen in both the fore and hind-legs, and is occasionally seen in horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and especially hunters, runners, and trot- ters, are the most subject to this injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always in one, or both, the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draught are more liable to have the ligament of the hind- legs affected. When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great one or both of the branches may be torn from their attachments to the sesamoid bones; one or both of the branches may be torn completely across; or the ligament may rupture above the point of division. Symptoms. The most common injury to the suspensory ligament is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore-legs. The trouble is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling and tenderness of the affected branch, beginning just above the .sesamoid bone and extending obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If the whole ligament is involved the swelling comes on gradually, and is found above the fet- lock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient stands or walks l86 THE HORSE. upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesamoids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up and, as the animal at- tempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at the fetlock. These .symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and swelling of the parts at the point of injury will enable any one to make a diagnosis. Treatment. Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a month, and the application of cold douches and cold water bandages, firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks' time, if neces- sary. When rupture has taken place the patient should be put in slings, and a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a w^eek or ten days' time a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off blisters may be used to remove the remain- ing soreness; but it is useless to expect a removal of all the thicken- ing, for in the process of repair new tissue has been formed which will always remain. Corns. A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving at the same time the soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood- vessels are ruptured and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by permeating the horn in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury is continuously repeated the horn becomes altered in character, the .soft tissues may suppurate, causing the disease to spread, or a horny tumor may develop. Corns always appear in that part of the sole included in the angle between the bar and the outside wall of the hoof. In many cases the laminae of the bar, or of the wall, or of both, are involved at the same time. Three kinds of corns are co" monly recognized (the dry, the moist, and the suppurative) , a division based solely on the character of the conditions which follow the primary injury. The fore-feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for two reasons: first because they support a greater part of the body; secondly because the heel of the fore-foot during progression is first KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 1 87 placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion than the heel of the hind-foot, in which the toe first strikes the ground. Causes. It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that even the best feet may suffer from them when the conditions necessary to the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breed of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets seems to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. Among the causes which lead to corns may be named high heels, which change the natural position of the bones of the foot; contracted heels, which partly destroy the elasticity of the foot; long feet, which by removing the frog and heels too far from the ground, deprive them of necessary moisture, weak feet, or those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency to spread. Wide feet with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior wings either rest upon the ground or the shoe. Improper shoeing either as a direct or a predisposing cause, produces many corns. One of the most serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be found in the preparation of the foot for the shoe. Instead of seeking to maintain the strength of the arch the first thing done is to weaken it by paring away the sole; the mutilation does not end here, for the frog is also largely cut away. This permits an ex- cessive downward movement of the contents of the horny box, and at the same time removes the means by which concussion of the foot is destroyed. There is also faulty construction of the shoe and the way it is adjusted to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, by extend- ing it too far back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole, or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until the heel rests upon the sole and bars, becomes a direct cause of corns. Small stones, hard dry earth, or other objects which collect be- tween the sole and shoe is often the cause of corns. Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard roads, predispo.se to this disease of the feet. Symptoms. Usually a corn causes enough pain to cause lameness. It may be intense as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be a slight sore- ness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by no means un- l88 THE HORSE. usual to see old horses having chronic corns, apparently so accustoni ^i to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all; but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding behind them at night, and in many instances they refuee to lie down for any length- ened rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity but the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight and the fetlock is bent until all pressure by the contents of the hoof is removed from the heels. In suppurative (festered) corn the lameness disappears as soon as the abscess has opened. When the in- jured tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases, the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot is hot and tender to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences of local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers the heel so that the concussion is reduced to a minimum. If a corn is sus- pected the foot should be examined for increased sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the .shoe wnth a hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of a pinchers, with moderte pressure, will cause more or less flinching if the disease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed' and the heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn i.'-. pared out not only the sole in the angle is dis- colored, but, in many instances, this insensible laminae of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discoloration is less marked than in dry corn and may even be entirely wanting. In these cases the horn is soft, often white, stringy or mealy, as seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thickness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle it is generally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn in that the injury is more severe, the parts affected are more or less inflamed, and the horn of the .sole in the angle is undermined by a citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and lam- inae, cau.sing the horn to become .somewhat spongy. A suppurative corn differs from the others in that inflammation ac- companying the injury ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and finally escapes by working a passageway between KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 189 the sensitive and insensitive laminoe to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made by the separation of the wall from the coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or carries of the coffin bone. As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered if possible, and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advisable, it may be saifl that all errors, either in the preparation of the foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application, may very properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may, at times, make it impera- tive that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objections, as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. For a sound foot, perfectly formed, a fiat shoe, with heels less thick than the toe, and which rests evenh' on the wall proper, is the best. In flat feet it is often necessar}'^ to concave the shoe as nnich as possible on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar shoe, rest- ing upon the frog, will aid to excessive tension upon the .soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A piece of leather placed between the foot and the shoe serves to largely destroy con- cussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some animals in that they may be kept at work. Lastly, among the preventive measures, may be mentioned those which ser\^e to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation, and for this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances; damp dirt floors or damp bedding of tan-bark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too dry and hard. As to the curative measures which are adopted much will depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic dry corn, yvith but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to injure the soft IQO THE HORSE tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered until all pressure is removed, and, if the patient's labor is required, the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall but on the sole and bar. In moist corns cut them out. If there is inflammation present, cold baths and poultices should be used; when the horn is well softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath, and poultice the foot for two or three days. When the granulations look red dress the wound with oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits of cam- phor, and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient returned to work. In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed so that the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the coronary band, and escapes from an opening between the band and hoof, an open- ing must be made on the sole, and cold baths, made astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper, are to be used for a day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy the fistulous tracts may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as for the operation for moist corns. Contracted Heels. Contracted heels, or hoof-bound as it is some- times called, is a common disease, especially among horses kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much saddle work. It consists in shrinking of thej:issues of the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It affects the fore-feet principally, but is seen occasionally in the hind-feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind-foot strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expansion of the heel is necessary than in the fore- feet where the weight is first received on the heels, and any interference with the expansibility of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time, but when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other. Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent loss of the animal's usefulness. According to the opinion of some of the French veterinarians, hoof- KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. igi bound should be divided into two classes — total contraction, in which the whole foot is shrunken in size, and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends onl}- from the quarters backward. Causes. Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not alone because the horn becomes dry but because fever of the feet and wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another com- mon cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may happen also as one of the results of other diseases of the foot; for instance, it often accompanies thrush, side-bones, ring-bones, canker, navicular dis- ease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and suspensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints. Symptoms. In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing heels, is much shrunken, and at times affected with thrush. The sole is more con- cave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so hard that it can scarcely be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly and often rigid like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction of the horn fibers. When the disease is well advanced lameness is present; in the earlier stages there is only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot or feet. Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared, in old cases a dry, mealy horn where the sole and horn unite, extending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters. Treatment. First of all, the preventive measures must be consid- ered. The feet must be kept moist and the horn be prevented from drying out by the use of moist sawdust or other damp bedding; by occa- sional poultices of boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and the use of greasy hoof ointments to both the sole and walls of the feet. The wall 192 THE HORSE. of the foot should be spared from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be used on the shoe except when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and dail}' exercise must be insisted on. As to curative measures a diversity of opinion exists. A number of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult of make and application. The following method of treatment in these cases is not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of the patient's ser\-ices for a time is not considered a part of the question. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water for a few days until the horn is thoroughl)^ softened. The foot is now prepared for the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little, the frog remaining untouched. A shoe called a "tip" is made by cut- ting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a common foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the same two and one-half to three inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in cut- ting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all around the coronet with vSpanisli fly ointment, and when this is well set the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the patient can be returned to work in two or three months' time. The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being relieved from excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the disease is not of too long stand- ing. The blister not only tends to relieve any inflammation which may be present, but it -also stimulates a rapid growth of healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and normal heel. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 193 Canker. Canker of the foot is a disease due to the rapid reproduc- tion of a vegetable parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but by setting up a chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a healthy horn by which the injury might be re- paired. Heavy cart horses are more often affected than those of any other class. Causes. The essential element in the production of cankers is of course the presence of the parasite; consequently the disease may be called contagious. But, as in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder must find a suitable soil in which to grow be- fore they are reproduced. It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply predisposing causes. The condition most favorable to the development of cankers is damp- ness— in fact, dampness seems indispen.sable to the existence and growth of the parasite; for the disease is rarely, if ever, .seen in high, dry dis- tricts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. Filthy stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes of canker; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than favor a prep- aration of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irritation and inflammation of the tissues which follow, are sufficient to induce the disease. For .some unknown reasons horses with lymphatic temperament, thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with white feet and legs, are especially liable to canker. Symptoms. Usualh^ canker is confined to one foot; but it may at- tack two, three, or all of the feet at once; or, as is more commonly seen, the disease attacks finst one then another, initil all may have been suc- sessively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has ex- posed the .soft tis.sues of the foot the wound shows no tendency to heal, but, instead, there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, thin, fetid, watery discharge, w^hich gradually undermines and destroys the surrounding horn, until eventually a large part of the sole and frog is diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark-colored, and covered at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowi.sh, thready horn, which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid .se- cretion by which they are immersed. As this escapes to the sur- 194 THE HORSE. rounding parts it dries and forms small cheesy masses composed of the partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury, the first evi- dences of the trouble are the offensive odors of the foot, the liquid secre- tion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away of the horn of the frog and sole. In the earlier stages of the disease there is no interference with local motion, but later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed the lameness is severe. Treatment. Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment arc to restore the parts to a normal condition when healthy horn may again be secreted. In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of stripping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less pain- ful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after all success de- pends more on the persistent application of simple remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any particular drug. First, then, clean the foot with warm baths, and apply a poultice con- taining powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the charcoal, or a table-spoonful of the acid, mixed with the poultice serves to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of horn now to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only healthy horn bor- ders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may overlap their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the many stimulating and drying remedies may be used. Whichever is selected at the outset, it will be necessary to change frequently from one to another, until all may be tried. The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid, sulphates of iron, copper and zinc, chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime, carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric acids. KNEF, FETLOCK, ANKLK, AND FOOT. 1 95 In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding two ounces of powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot is reniov'ed it is dressed with oakum balls, dipped in a mixture made of Barbadoes tar, one part; oil of turpentine, eight parts, to which are slowly added two parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now encased in a boot or folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. When they are removed all pieces of new horny matter, which are not firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of oakum. As the secretion dimin- ishes dry powders may prove of most advantage, such as calomel, sul- phates of iron, copper, etc. The sulphates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over, the dressings should be continued for a time, weak solu- tions being used to prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in two-dram doses, twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed. Side-Bones. A side-bone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the depositing of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in heav)^ horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow-ponies, and other saddle horses, and in runners and trotters. Side-bones are peculiar to the fore-feet, yet they occasionally develop in the hind feet where they are of little importance, since they cause no lameness. In many instances side-bones are of slow growth, and being unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no lameness until such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere with the action of the joint. Causes. Side-bones often grow in heavy horses without any ap- parent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over- expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal. Blows, and other injuries to the cartilages, may set up an inflammatory process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High- heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the conditions which may excite the growth of side-bones. They are often 196 THE HORSE. seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular diseases, punctured wounds of the foot, quarter crack, and occasionally as a sequel to founder. Symptoms. In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the lameness of side-bones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise. Since the deposit of the bony matter often begins in that part of the cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process may exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt. Later on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its soft elastic character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionall}' these bones become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing on the joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes entirely useless. Treatment. As soon as the disease can be determined active treat- ment should be adopted. Cold water bandages are to be used for a few days to relieve the fever and soreness. The hnprovement consequent on the use of these simple measures often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered; but with a return to work the lameness, fever, etc. , reappears. For this reason the use of blisters, or better still the firing iron, should follow on the discontinuance of the cold bandages. Btft in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these bony tumours, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion that the patient may be used for slow work; but in animals used for faster drixing or for saddle purposes the operation is practically useless. Years ago a number of cavalry horses at Fort Leavenworth that were suf- fering from side-bones, were unnerved and the records show that in less than seven months' time all were more lame than ever. Since a predis- position to develop side-bones may be inherited, animals suffering from this disease should not be used for breeding purposes unless the trouble is known to have originated from an accident. Ringbone. A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumour on the ankle. This tumour is in fact not the disease, but simply the result KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 1 97 affected by an inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper of the large and small pastern bones. Causes. Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young unde- veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among the principal exciting causes of ringl)oncs. Horses most disposed to this disease are those with short upright pasterns, for the reason that the shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore-legs of these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks, a too great shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels; predispo.se to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet. Symptoms. The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony tumour forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern its growth is gen- erally imattended with acute inflammatory action, and, consequently, produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called false ringbones. But when the tumours form on the whole circumference of the ankle, or simpl}' in front under the exten.sor tendon, or behind under the flexor tendon; or if they involve the joints between the two pastern bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin bone, the lameness is always severe. These constitute the true ringbone. Besides the lameness the ankle of the affected limb presents more or less heat, and in many in- stances a rather firm, though limited, swelling of the deeper tissues over the seat of the inflammatory process. The lameness of ringbone is char- acteristic in that the heel is first placed on the ground when the disease is in a fore-leg, and the ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind- leg, however, the toe strikes the ground first when the ringbone is high on the ankle, just as in health; but the ankle is maintained in a rigid po- sition. If the bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind-leg, or if it involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In tlie early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ring- bone; but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt and seen as well. The importance of a ringbone of course depends on its seat, and often on its .size. If it interferes with the joints, or with the tendons, it may cause an incurable lameness even though small. If it is on the vsides of the large pastern, the lameness generally appears as .soon as the tumour has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even where the pastern joint is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect action of the foot remaining, due to the stiff joint. 198 THE HORSE. Treatment. Before the bony growth has commenced, the inflam- matory process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits have begun, the firing iron should always be used. Even where the tumours are large and the pastern joint involved, firing often hastens the process of anchylosis, and should always be tried. Where the lower joint is involved, or where the tumour interferes with the action of the tendons, of course recovery is not to be expected. In many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made service- able by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the ground the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short toe. On the other hand, if he walks on the heel a thick-toed and thin heeled shoe must be worn. Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases no animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breeding purposes. Spavin. This affection, popularly termed bone spavin, is a disease of the hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock, the bony growth should be seated on the front and internal of the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute a spavin in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargment may appear on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little below the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, forming what is known as a HIGH spavin; or, again, the growth may form just on the outside of the hock and become an outside or external spavin. And, finally, the entire under surface may become the seat of the bony deposit, and involve the internal face of a'l the bones of the hock, and this again is a bone spavin. There would seem, then, to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar affections which might confuse if careful and intelligent examination is not made. The hock may be spavined, while to all outward appearance it still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement tangible to sight or touch the animal may be disabled by an occult spavin, which has resulted from a union of several of the bones of the joint, and it is only those who are able to realize the importance of its action to the perfect fulfill- ment of the full power of action of the hind leg, who can comprehend the gravity of the trouble. No diseases, if we accept those acute inflam- matory attacks upon vital organs to which the patient succumbs at once. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. IQQ are more destructive to the usefulness and \'alue of a horse than a con- farmed spavin. Serious in its starting, serious in its progress, it it a trouble which, when once established, becomes a fixed condition which there are no known means of dislodging. The inflammation of the periosteum which it nearly always follows, is usually the effect of some cause operating upon the complicated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a ligament insertion and lacerated some of its fibers; or a violent effort in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been compelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use by a sporting owner, mider the pretext of "improving his breed"; or the extra exertion of starting too heavy a load; or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep; or slipping upon an icy surface; or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and other kindred causes. Further there are families of horses in which this condition has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals otherwise of excellent forma- tion rendered valueless by the misfortune of inherited spavin. The evil is of the most serious character for other reasons, among which may be named the slowness of their development and the de^ termined growth. Among the signs that may be mentioned as indi- cating this condition is a peculiar posture assumed by the patient whlu at rest, and becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the action of some hidden cause. The posture is due to the action ol the abductor muscles, of the lower part of the leg being carried invvai d, and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel stiffly, and with a sort of sidelong gate between the shafts, and after finishing his task and resting again in his stall, will pose with the toe pointing forwaid, the heel raised, and the hock bent. Some little heat and considerabk amount of inflammation soon appears. The slight lameness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be noticeable after a short distance of travel. A minute examination of the hock will then begin to reveal the exist- ence of a bony enlargement which may be detected just at the junction of the hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and evident to both sight and touch. This enlargement or bone spavin grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which render it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. The argu- ment obtained by some that because these bony deposits are frequently 200 THE HORSE. found on both hocks they are not spavins, is wrong. If they are dis- discovered on both hocks, it proves that they are not confined to a single joint. The peculiar lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion of the hock joint, presents two conditions. In one class of cases it is most pro- nounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at work. The first is shown by the fact that when the animal travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more slowly, the motion of bending at the hock taking place stiffly, and accompanied by a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the other case the peculiarity is that the lameness increases as the horse travels; that when he stops he seeks to favor the same leg, and when he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the first variety. As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the di- mensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem to bear any relation, the greatest lameness at times accompanying a very small growth. But the distinction between the two varieties of cool and WARM may easily be determined by remembering the fact that in a ma- jority of cases the first, or cooL, is due to a simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular surface. It is seldom that the advantage of an early knowledge of a spavin ex- isting can be secured, and when the true nature of the trouble has be- come apparent it is usually too late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, might have been employed. But for the loss of the time waited in the treatment of purely imaginary ailments very many cases of bone spavin may be arrested when starting and their vic- tims preserved for years of comfort for themselves and valuable labor to their owners. To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery of lameness has been made; that is, the existence of an acute inflammation has been de- tected. The increased temperature of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the peculiar pose of the limbs and the question is asked, "What is to be done?" Even with only these very doubtful symptoms (doubtful with the non-expert) direct your treatment to the hock in preference to any other joint, since of all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and function. And in answer to the query, "What is to be done?" we should answer rest, (emphatically, and aS KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 20I an essential condition, rest.) Whether only threatened, suspected, or positively diseased, the animal must be entirely relieved from labor, and it must be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than a simple inflammation, or whether accompanied by a complication, there must be rest until the danger is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of, the longer the rest, the better. Good results may be expected from local applications. There are va- rious applications which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the tension of the blood vessels, the warm fomentations which aid the cir- culation in the congested capillaries, the liniments of various composi- tion, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative preparations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine, recommended and prescribed by one or another. The best are counter-irritants, for the simple rea- son, among many others, that they tend by the promptness of their ac- tion to prevent the formation of the bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alterative preparations of iodine or mercury. And if the owner of a spavined horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for; beyond this let him be well persuaded that a "cure" is impossible. For this reason, be on guard against the patented "cures" which the traveling horse doctor may urge upon you, and withhold your faith from the circular of the agent who will deluge you with references and certificates. It is possible that nostrums may in some instances prove of service, but the greater number of them are capable of producing only bad effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by such means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should be followed by nothing worse than the forming of one or more ugly, hair- less spots, it will be well for the horse. Rest and counter-irritation, with the proper medicines, constitute, then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies and methods referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce satisfactory re- sults. Either the rest has been prematurely interrupted, or the blisters have failed to rightly modify the serous infiltration, or the case in hand has some hidden cliaracteristics which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the means used to cure it. An indication of more energetic 202 THE HORSE. means is then presented, and free cauterization with the fire-iron be- comes necessary. At this point a word of explanation in reference to this oper- ation of fireing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and possible cruelty. The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occasions of which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a given part of the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure with a view to a given effect upon the diseased organ or tissue. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation. Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great effi- cacy for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to pro- duce relief after a few applications and after allowing a sufl&cient interval of rest, should be followed by a second or, if needed, a third firing. Blood Spavin and Thoroughpins. The complicated arrange- ment of the hock joint, and the powerful tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the product of secretion from one ten- dinous synovial and several articular synovial sacs. One large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of the shank bone (the tibia) and the bones of the hock proper (the astragalus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself, and extends upwards and downwards in the groove of that joint through which the flexor tendons slide. The dila- tation of this articular synovial sac is what is denominated blood spavin, the term thoroughpin being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. Blood Spavin is situated in front and a little inward of the hock; the THOROUGHPIN is found at the back and on the top of the hock. The former is round, smooth, well defined, presenting on its outer surface, running from below upwards, a vein which is more or less prominent as the bursa is more or less dilated, and it is from this conspicuous blood vessel that the tumor derives its name. The thoroughpin is also round and smooth, but not so regularly formed, on each side and a little in front of the tendons in that part of the hock known as the KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE. AND FOOT. 203 "hollows," immediately back of the posterior face of the tibia or shank bone. In their general characteristics these tumors are similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms, changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except that it is possible for a blood spavin to cause lameness, and thus to involve a verdict of unsoundness in the pa- tient, a circumstance which will of course justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a single type of disease. The treatment and the means employed should be (rest, of course) with liniments, blisters, etc., and early, deep, and well-performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory reports of a form of treatment by the application of pads and peculiar bandages uporf the hocks, and it is claimed that the removal of the tumors has been 'affected by their use. But experience with this apparatus has not been ac- companied by such favorable results as would justify indorsement of the flattering representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf. Stringhalt. The characteristic symptom of this disease is the spas- modic bending, more or less violent, of the hock, sometimes to the ex- tent of striking the abdomen with the fetlock of the affected leg, and at others only sufficient to lift it a few inches from the ground, but always with the same sudden, uncontrollable jerk. The habit is not affected by the gait of the animal, and whether trotting, walking, or merely turn- ing around, it is all the same. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age, young and old being troubled the same. Its first appear- ance sometimes is very slight. It has been noticed in animals when backing out of the stable and ceasing immediately after. In some ani- mals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the affected leg, and is not noticed when he moves straight forward. That this pe- culiar action interferes with quickness of motion and lessens a horse's claim to soundness can not for a moment be denied. Veterinarians are yet in doubt in respect to the cause of this trouble, as well as to its nature. They know not whether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative character; whether it .springs from a mal- formation; whether it is purely a muscular or purely a nervous lesion, or a compound of both. Stringhalt still continues to be the puzzle of the veterinarian. Various experiments in the line of treatment have been tried, but none have been crowned with satisfactory results. Perhaps some un- 204 THE HORSE. designated disease of the hock is responsible for it, and in the present state of knowledge the best prescription that can be devised is the safe and economical one of rest, a long rest in a pasture, where unmolested nature shall be permitted to bring about any necessary change that may be appropriate to the case. Interfering". The results from interfering are not often very serious. However violent the blow may be it is rarely that complications of a troublesome nature occur. The chief evil attending it is a liability to be followed bj' a thickened skin for a callous which is an eyesore and a a blemish. The remark than ' 'an animal which has interfered once is always liable to interfere, ' ' is often confirmed and sanctioned by a re- currence of the trouble. A point in which there is a resemblance between this trouble and others which we have considered is in its yielding to the same treatment. In- deed the prescription of warm fomentations, soothing applications, and astringent and resolvent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through the list. If the swelling assumes the character of a serous collection, pressure, cold water and bandages will contribute to its removal. If festering seems to be established, and the swelling as- sumes the character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of boiled vegetables and the use of basilicon, or propuleum, oint- ments containing preparations of opium or belladonna, recommend themselves by their general usefulness and the beneficial results which have followed their application, not less in one case than in another. When an abscess has formed and is ripening, it should be carefully but fully opened to let out the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is neces- sary in emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflam- mation to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations (scabs), or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there remains in either case a plastic seal) and a tendency to the callous organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various forms, in- cluding those of cantharides, mercury, and iodine should then be used chiefly in the early stages, as it is then that their effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery, with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the enlargement, has when employed in the early stages, nearly always hastened recovery with complete absorption of the thickening. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 205 Founder or I^aminitis. This in its simple form is inflammation of tiie sensitive laminae which cover the outer and upper surface of the coffin bone. The laminae consist of five or six hundred very fine folds, which are profusely supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. This inflammation is of a character similar to that which attends in- flammation of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitu- tional disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease. In severe cases it has a strong tendency to destroy destructive disorganization of the tissues affected. Causes. These are wide and variable and may be divided into pre- disposing and EXCITING. PREDISPOSING CAUSES. A predisposing cause exists to an ex- tent in those animals unaccustomed to work, particularly if they are in- active, and in all those that have had previous attacks of the disease, for the same rule holds good here that we find in so many diseases: i. e., that one attack impairs the activity of the affected tissues and thus renders them more subject to a subsequent inflammation. Unusual excitement by causing an excessive blood suppl}^ bad shoe- ing, careless paring of the feet by removing the sole support, as well as high-heel calkings without corresponding toe pieces, must be included under this head. EXCITING CAUSES. These are many and varied, the most com- mon are rapid changes of temperature, over exertion, exhaustion, in- gestion of various foods, purgatives, and metastasis. I . Rapid change op temperature. This acts as an excitng cause of laminitis in precisely the same way as they act to produce disease in other tissues, the result of these variations of temperature showing itself upon those parts which are particularly liable to the changes from some loss of their natural disease-resisting powers. This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large quan- tities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the internal heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood-vessels con- strained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly diminished, while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly increased. In many of thecas,es which result from this cause there has not been sufficient labor performed to impair the powers of the laminae, yet it seems that laminitis is more readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other surface organs because of the impossibility upon the part of the laminae to relieve themselves of the threatened congestion by the general safety- 206 THE HORSE. valve of perspiration. A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the body when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for it arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are protected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to be some of the internal organs, as the lungs, where the previous work has been rapid and their activity impaired; but in numerous other in- stances the blood is forced toward the feet, and that it so depends upon two facts; first, that these tissues have been greatly excited and are already receiving as much blood as they can acconmiodate consistently with health; secondly, even though these tissues are classed with those of the surface, their protection from outside influence by means of the thick box of horn around them renders them in this respect equivalent to internal organs. Again, a limited local action of cold excites this disease, as seen from driving through water or washing the feet or legs while the animal is warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction takes place in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot re- sults from an interference with the return flow of blood, which is being sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be simple cases or congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true cases of laminitis. 2. Over-exertion. Heavy pulling or rapid work, even when there is no change for immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease, although in the majority of instances exhaustion is a conjunctive cause, for over-exertion can not be long continued without inducing exhaustion. 3. Exhaustion. However produced, this is nearly as prolific a source of laminitis as is concussion, for when the physical strength has been greatly impaired, even though but temporarily, some part of the economy is rendered more vulnerable to disease than others, and it is not strange that in many instances it should be those parts still called upon to perform their function of maintaining the weight of the body and their activity has been exhausted. It is to this cause we must ascribe those many cases which we see following a hard day's work, where at no time has there been over-exertion or immoderate concussion. The same cause exists where one foot has been blistered, or where one limb is incapacitated from any other reason; for the opposite member KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 207 being called on to do double dutj^ soon becomes exhausted, and conges- tion followed by inflammation, results as a matter of course. Where one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the other or cor- responding member participating at a later date, not always because of sympathy, but because the transfer of all the functional performance to the one foot proves within itself a sufficient exciting cause. 4. Ingestion of various foods. Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does not seem to be clearly understood. Cer- tainly they possess no specific action upon the laminae, for all animals are not alike affected, neither do they always produce these results in the same animal. In the case of some of these ailments, where their in- jestion causes a strong tendency to indigestion, the con.sequent irritation of the alimentary canal may be so great as to warrant the belief 'that the laminae are affected through sympathy. In other instances there is no ap- parent interference with digestion, nor evidence of any irritation of the mucous membrane, 3'et the disease is in some manner dependent upon the food in question for its inception. Barley, wheat, and sometimes corn are the grains most prolific in the production of this disease. With some horses there appears to be a particular susceptibility to the influence of corn. In such instances the feeding of this grain for a few days will be followed by inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days' to two weeks' time. In these animals, to all appearances health}', the corn neither induces colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irrita- tion whatever of the alimentary canal. 5. Purgatives. Fortunately purgative medicines but rarely become the exciting cause of inflammation of the laminae. That it is then the result of a sympathetic action upon the part of the tissues affected is no doubt more than hypothetical, for when there it no derangement of the alimentary canal existing a dose of cathartic medicines will at times bring on severe laminitis; and that, too, before purgation commences. 6. Metastasis. Most if not all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic laminitis is a reality. That such a condition ever does exist outside the imagination certainly awaits the proving. That lam- initis may and ofttimes does exist as a concurrent disease with numerous others is unquestionably true, but to V^elieve an inflammation can be almost momentarily transferred from organ to another, no matter how remote, is to destroy all belief in our knowledge of the pathology of this complicated process. It is possible that the induction of laminitis, dur- ing the course of some other disease, may serve to arrest the further in- 2o8 THE HORSE. vasion of healthy tissue by the primary process, or that it may exert a remedial influence upon the first disease, but it can not and does not at once remove that inflammation and obliterate its lesions, for the products of any inflammation, however simple, require a certain time for their re- moval, and it is impossible that the products of inflamed lung tissue can be immediately removed and the inflammation in whole transferred to the laminae. Metastatic laminitis, then, is nothing more nor less than concurrent laminitis, and as such presents little if any peculiarity outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause, and the practitioner who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him, simply because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary disease, may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment. This form of laminitis is by no means commonly met with, but when seen will usually be found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt with inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and Williams sometimes with bronchitis. 7. Concussion. This acts as a producer of this disease by the local overstimulation which it occasions, the excessive excitement being fol- lowed by an almost complete exhaustion of the functional activity of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by congestion, and event- ually by inflammation. But congestion here, as in all other tis- sues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation; for although the principal symptoms belonging to true laminits are present, the con- gestion may be relieved before the processes of inflammation are fully established. This is the condition that obtains in the many so- called cases of laminitis, which recover in from twenty-four to forty- eight hours' time. These are the cases which should be called conges- tion of the laminae. Prevention. To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so liable to result from the simplest causes as laminitis, and especially when the best judgment may not be able to know the extent of the disease-resisting powers of the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall constitute an over-excitement, it is not strange that horse owners find themselves in trouble from uninten- tional wrong-doing. If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determi- nate quality, some measures might be adopted that w^ould prove gener- ally preventive. But when we recall the fact that predisposing cau.ses KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 209 are so prevalent and often cannot be remedied, that what is but general work in one instance may incite disease in another, that what is food to-day may to-morrow prove detrimental to health, and that necessary medical interference may cause a more serious trouble than that which was being treated, the troubles to overcome are plain. Yet there are some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the development of an unusual number of cases. In the first place all the predisposing causes named must be removed where possible, and when this is impossible unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard work, and if the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great they should have but slow, gentle labor until they become used to it, and the tissues hardened. Green horses should always have moderate work for the same reason, and particularly when changed from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements. The increased jarring, changed conditions and artificial living, will be active causes of disease under such circumstances. Army horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient prepar- ation, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring, are among the most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy and gradual. If long marches or drives can not be avoided then the load must be as light as possible and the animal must have frequent rests. This allows the laminae to regain their impaired activity and thus will withstand much more work without danger. And then it permits the driver to easily detect an oncoming attack; it thus prevents working after the disease begins and renders treatment much more effective by cutting the process short at the stage of congestion. All animals when resting immediately after work should be protected from cold air or draughts. If placed in a stable that is warm and with- out draught no covering is necessary; if cold, or if there is a draught blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of the labor performed have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming in warm from work be "cooled off" by slow walking until the sweat has dried and the circulation and breathing returned to the nor- mal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should always be protected from rapid change of temperature by blankets. If it can be avoided horses that are working should never be driven or ridden through a stream or pool of water. Where necessary the>' should be cooled off before passing through, and then kept exercising until com- 2IO THE HORSE. pletely dried. The same rule is to be observed with regard to washing the legs in cold water when the animal is just in from work, for, although it is practiced extensively and usuall)^ without damaging results, it often proves the cause of a most acute attack of founder. Regarding shoeing as a predisposing cause, unusual changes in the manner of supplying the shoe should not be hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must not be substi- tuted at once, but the change, if necessary, should gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves to the change they are called upon to bear. If, on the other hand, such changes are imper- ative, as is sometimes the case, then the work must be reduced in quan- tity and quality that it can not excite the disease. Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer from this disease through the influence of the different foods. When an attack can with any certainty be ascribed to any particular food, it should always be withheld unless in the smallest quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should receive but a little at a time at first, and always mixed with bran, oats, or other food, until it is known that no danger exists. Corn is much more liable to cause laminitis in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be fed with care during spring and summer months. When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the other or opposite member should have the shoe early removed and cold water frequently applied. At the same time the slings should be used if the subject re- mains standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked; to guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, and various other influences must be carefully noted. Watering while warm is a very bad habit, and unless the animal is accustomed to it, it is apt to result in some disorder, ofttinies in laminitis. Symptoms. Laminitis is characterized by a number of symptoms so well marked as scarcely to be misunderstood by the observer. They are nearly constant and only modified by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced the disease, and the previous condition of the patient. They may be divided into general symptoms, which are shown in all cases of the disease, subject to variations and special symp- toms, or those which serve to show which feet are affected and the com- plications which may arise. GENERAL. Usually the first symptoms that would indicate the KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 211 disease is an interference \Yith locomotion produced by congestion of the sensitive membrane. Occasionally the other symptoms are presented first. With the development of the lameness the i)ul.se will be found quicker, full, hard, and striking the finger more strongly; the tempera- ture soon rises several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes io6° F., although it generally ranges between 102 >^° and 105° F. The respirations are rapid and panting in character, the nostrils being widely- dilated, and the mucous membranes highly colored. The facial expres- sion is anxious and indicates the most acute pain, while the body is more or less covered with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to diarrhea, or it may appear later, particularly as the result of the medi- cines used. The urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of in- creased specific gravity, owing to the water from the system being elim- inated by the skin instead of the kidneys. The appetite is impaired and sometimes entirely lost, while the thirst is greatly increased. The affected feet are hot and dry to the touch. They are relieved as much as possible from bearing weight. Rapping them with a hammer or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected member causes intense pain, while the artery of the fetlock throbs beneath the finger. SPECIAL. lyiability to affection varies in different feet according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet may become the sub- ject of this disease, although it appears more often in the fore- feet than in the hind ones, a fact owing to the difference of function, i. e. , that the fore-feet are the basis of the columns of support, receiving nearly all the body weight during progression and consequently most of the concussion, while the hind-feet at such times become simply the fulcrums of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt from concussion. Treatment. In cases of simple passive congestion of the laminae, the body should be w'armly clothed and warm drinks given to draw the blood in increased quantity to these parts so as to direct it from the feet; at the same time the feet should be placed in warm water so as to in- crease the return flow of blood. In the course of half an hour the feet may be changed to cold water, which serves as a tonic to all the tissues, and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional symp- toms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half -ounce doses of salt- peter, three times a day in the water, answers the purpose. In cases of active congestion the warm water foot baths should be omitted and cold 212 THE HORSE. ones substituted for the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands the same treatment with laxatives if there is constipation, and the addi- tion of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics ma}' need to be continued for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute I^aminitis, what has been called the "American treatment" is so simple and withal so efficient that it is -to be remarked other countries have not adopted it. Since the disease is a local one, unquestionably the remedies used should be applied in the immediate neighborhood of the affected parts, or if drugs are administered internally, they should have some specific local- ized action. And such are the claims made for the above-named method of treatment. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold water. Three to four ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, icepeated every six hours, is the proper dose, and the laminitis frequently subsides inside of a week's time. These large doses may be contin- ued for a week without danger; never under any circumstances will the l^idneys be irritated to excess or other unfavorable effects be produced. The feet should either be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 35° to 50° F. (it may be lowered if desired), or if the animal is lying down swabs should be used and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water not onl}' keeps the horn soft and moist, but acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by reducing their temperature, thereby increasing their vitality and disease-resisting qualities, and at the same time by toning up the coats of the blood vessels dimin- ishes the supply of blood and limits the exudation. Furthermore, cold has also an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues and relieves the pain. Aconite may be given in conjunction with niter where the heart is greatly excited and beating strongly. Ten-drop doses repeated every two hours for tweiity-four hours is sufficient. The practice of giving cathartics is dangerous, for it may excite superpurgation. Usually the niter has sufficient effect upon the constipation to relieve it, yet if it .should prove obstinate laxatives may be carefully given. Bleed- ing, both general and local, should be guardad against. The shoes should always be early removed and the soles left unpared. Paring of the soles presents two objections. First, while it may tem- porarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it at the .same time KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 213 allows of greater exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects. Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when convalescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exer- cise should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided, for although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness, it serves to main- tain continued irritation, increases the exudation, and prolongs the recover}'. If, at the end of the fifth or sixth day, prominent symptoms of recov- ery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around the cor- onet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. As soon as the blister has drawn well the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one blister does not sufhce to remove the soreness, as is the case sometimes, especially where periostitis is present, it may be repeated, or the actual cautery applied. The same treatment should be adopted where side bones form or inflammation of the coronet bone ensues. When the sole breaks through and exposes the coflin bone and soft tissues, the feet must be carefully shod with thin heels and thick toes where there is any tendency to walking on the heels, and the sole well protected with appropriate dressing and pressure over the exposed parts. When there is turning up of the toe, blistering of the coro- net in front, carefully avoiding the quarters and heels, sometimes stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the only treatment that will keep the animal in a condition to do light, slow work. Where suppuration of the laminae is profuse it is better to destroy your patient at once and relieve his suffering, but if the suppuration is limited to a small extent of tis.sue, especially of the sole, treatment as in acute cases may induce recovery and should always be tridd. If from bed-sores or other causes septicaemia or pyaemia is feared, the bisulphite of soda in half-ounce doses may be given in conjunction with tonics and other treatment indicated in these diseases. Regarding enforced encum- bency the propriety of insisting upon it in the majority of cases is doubt- ful because as a rule the animal assumes whatever position gives com- fort. There can be no doubt that recumbency diminishes the amount of blood sent to the feet, and that the suffering is greatly relieved while in this position, so that the experiment of forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be renewed if it thereafter persists in standing. 214 THE HORSE. Where the animal stands, or where constant lying indicates it, to prevent extensive sores, the patient should be placed in slings, and the weight supported in this manner to the relief of the feet. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his weight on his feet and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery may never be effected. Peditis. This is the term which Williams applies to that serious complication of laminitis where not only the lamiuce but the periosteum and the cofhn bone are also the subjects of the inflammatory process. Neither is this all, for in some of these cases of peditis acute inflamma- tion of the "coffin joint" is present, and occasionally suppuration of the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in the outer or looser layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condi- tion than is recognized by practitioners generally, and the intimate contiguit}' of structures is the predisposing cause, the disease either spreading from the original seat, or the complication occurs as one of the primary results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases where the exudate separates the periosteum from the bone, suppu- ration, gangrene, and superficial caries are common results; where infiltration of the bone tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by the pressure upon the vessels and death of the coffin bone ensues. Grave constitutional symptoms mark these changes and soon prove fatal. In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it may be distinguished from pure laminitis. In the majority of the acute cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to seventh da}', it is safe to suspect that periostitis is present, particularly if the coro- nets are very hot, the pulse remaining full and hard, and the lameness acute. In the fortunately rare cases where the bone is affected with inflammation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense; he occupies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for more than a few minutes at a time, suffers from the most careful hand- ling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, high temperature, loss of appetite and great thirst. It is in these cases the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of suppuration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception of the dis- KNEK, FETLOCK, ANKLE. AND FOOT. 215 ease proves the inefficiency of any treatment that may have been adopted and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually between the tenth and twentieth days, either from exhaustion or pyaemic infections. Sand-crack. A longitudinal (up and down) division in the fibers of the wall of the hoof, is called a sand-crack. It is usually found either on the inside in the fore-feet when it is called a quarter-crack, or in front in the hind-feet when it is usually named toe-crack. The toe-crack is most likely to be complete (that is extending from the coronary band to the toe), while the quarter-crack is nearly always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. Sand-cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in the. injury. They may be complicated at any time by bleeding, inflammation of the laminae, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral cartilage and of the ex- tensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. Causes. Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predis- posmg cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more prolific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to dry. It is claimed that these injuries are more common in mountainous countries. Animals used to running at pasture when changed to hard, dry floors are more liable, especially to toe-cracks, than those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and feet which are excessively large, are oftener affected with sand-cracks than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-crack exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the inside quarter turns under. Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and suppura- tive corns must be included as occasional predisposing causes of sand-cracks. Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quarter cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. Symptoms. The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence of the disease; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, or by the long hairs of the coronet. 2l6 THE HORSE. Saud-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, in- volving its whole thickness, excepting a thin lajer on the outer surface. In those cases the existence of the injury may be suspected from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and follows the direc- tion of the horny fibers, but the trouble can only be positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but when the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quarter-crack the opposite is true, and the fissure closes when the weight is removed from the foot. As a rule sand-cracks begin at the coronary band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the horn on the borders of the fissures loses its vitality and scales off, sometimes through the greater part of its thick- ness, leaving behind a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end of the toe. In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the fis.sure is dry, but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a fungus-like growth, protrude from the narrow opening. Wlien the cracks are deep and the motion of their edges considerable, .so that the .soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every movement, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the lameness is severe. Ordinarily, the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient walks ; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is greater going down hill than up, for the reason that the.se conditions are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. Treatment. In so far as preventive measures are concerned but lit- tle can be done. The suppleness of the horn is, of course, to be main- tained by the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be proportioned to the weight and work of the animal ; the nails hold- ing it in place arc to be of proper size and not driven too near the heels ; sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses working on slippery roads, and the evils of jumping, fast driving, etc., are to be avoided. KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE. AND FOOT. 217 WTien a fissure has made its appearance, means are to he adopted which will prevent it from i;rowing longer or deeper; and this can only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack together is the A'achette clasp. These cla.sps, and the instruments necessary for their application, can be had of any of the more prominent makers of veterin- ary instruments. These instruments comprise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall, one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the fissure brought close together. The clasps being made of stiff steel wire are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly clean.sed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack may be filled with a putty made of two parts of gutta percha and one part of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be determined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested, etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quar- ters of an inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter- crack if the wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to with- stand the stain. In the absence of the.se instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled through the horn across the fissure, and the crack closed with a thin nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of steel or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with short screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the fis.sure, it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges for the simple reason that the plate and screw cannot be rendered immobile. In all cases of sand-crack the growth of horn should be stimulated by blistering the coronary band. In simple quarter-crack recovery will often take place if the Coronet is blistered, tlie foot shod with a "tip," and the patient turned to pasture. The shoe, in toe-crack, should have a clip on each .side of the fissure and .should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly under the fissure where it is to be pared away until it sets free from the shoe. Navicular Disease. Navicular disease, often called "navicular arthritis" by the English, is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, in- duced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many cases 2l8 THE HORSE. bj'' inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some instances the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the sesamoid sheath becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the inflammatory process. The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected with the disease than any other, yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The mule, however, seems rarel}-, if ever, to suffer from it. For rea- sons which will appear when considering the causes of the disease the hind feet are not liable to be affected. As , a general rule but one fore-foot suffers from the disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has become chronic in the first before the second shows signs of the disease. Causes. To understand fulh' how navicular disease maj^ be caused by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is necessary to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process and the functions which they perform in locomotion. It must be remem- bered that the fore-legs largely support the weight of the bod}' when the animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves the greater is the shock which the fore-feet must sustain as the body is thrown forward upon them by the propelling force of the hind-legs. This shock could not be withstood by the tissues of the fore-feet and legs were it not that it is largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which bind the .shoulder to the body, the ease with which the arm closes on the shoulder blade, and the spring of the fetlock joint. But even these means are not sufficient within themselves to protect the foot from injury, and so nature has further supplemented them by placing the coffin joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of di- rectly on top of it, whereby a large part of the shock of locomotion is dispersed before it can reach the vertical column, represented in the can- non, knee and arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing a soft, elastic pad (the frog and plantar cushion) at the heels to receive the sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward by the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordin- ary as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample as they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or load, they fail to completely relieve the parts from concussion and ex- cessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present. The result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the na- KNEH, FETLOCK, ANKI,K, AND FOOT. 219 vicular as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It is self-ev'ideut, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee action are more likely to suffer from this disease than others, concussion of the foot and intense pressure on the tendon being common attendants upon their usage. Besides these exciting causes must be considered those which predis- pose to the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity. It may be claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navicular disease consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the tissues which are involved in the process as in a vice of conformation which, as_ is well known, is likely to be transmitted from parent to offspring. The faults of conformation most likely to be followed by the development of navic- ular disease are an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, high heels, excessive knee action, and contracted heels. Finally, the environments of domestication and use, such as dry stables, heavy pulling, bad shoe- ing, punctured wounds, etc., all have their influence in developing this disease. Symptoms. lu the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation of the navicular bone the animal points the affected foot while at rest, a time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently travels as well as ever, but when placed iu the stable one foot is set out in front of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee fixed. After a time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes a few lame steps while at work, but the lameness disappears as suddenly as it came and the driver doubts if the animal was really lame at all. Later on the patient has a lame spell which may last during a greater part of the day, but the next morning it is gone; he leaves the stable all right, but goes lame again during the day. In time he has a severe attack of lameness, which may last for a week or more, when a remission takes place and it may be weeks or months before another attack supervenes. Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the more he is used the greater the lameness. In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground, so that the shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move back- wards the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the waight 220 THK HORSE. rests upon the affected \eg but a moment. When exercised he often stumbles, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If he is lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and if the patient is made to work he sweats profusel}' from the intense pain. Early in the development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work; as the dis- ease progresses this becomes more marked until the whole foot is hot to the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility of the foot, for the patient flinches from the concussion of a hammer lightly applied to the frog and heels, or from the pressure of the smith's pin- cers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale reddish color, and at times it is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the sanie result is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excessively lame. The mus- cles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently lengthened; the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss, while circular ridges, developed most to- ward the heels, cover the upper part of the hoof. When both feet are affected the animal points first one foot then the other, and stands with the hind-feet well forward beneath the body so as to relieve the fore-feet as much as possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the leg can not be straightened, and locomotion can scarcely be performed. The disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to re- covery— -the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. The compli- cations usually seen are ringbones, side-bones, thrush, contracted heels, quarter-cracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern bones. Treatment. But a few cases of navicular disease recover. In the early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away as directed in the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin; the coronet should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or four weeks' time the blister .should be repeated. This treatment is to be continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on when the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal should be put to slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed — • KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 221 an Operation in which llio sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. This operation in nowise cures the disease, and since it may be attended with serious results can only be advised in certain favorable cases, to be determined by the veterinarian. Quitter. This is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degenera- tion that results in the formation of a slough, followed by the elimination of the diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive sup- puration. Causes. Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the cause of cutaneous quittor, yet there can be no question but that in the great majority of these cases the disease develops without any known cause. Foi some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases happen ill the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injurious action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country the most mud, accompanied by freez- ing and thawnng weather, is seen in the early spring-time without a cor- responding increase of quittor. Furthermore, the very serious out- breaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the weathei is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps w4th justice, that during these seasons when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other seasons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an important factor in the production of quittor. Symptoms. Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the affected foot is white the inflamed portion will pre.sent a dark red or even a purplish ap- pearance near the center. Within a few hours' time the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses to use the foot at all, 222 THE HORSK. but carries it in the air if compelled to move. As a consequence the op- posite leg is required to do the work of both, and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so inteUvSe during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctu- ating fluid is felt beneath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, con- taining shreds of dead tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of skin, varying from one to two and one-half inches in diameter, slough awa}' at once, leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, suppurate freely; if there are no compli- cations they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely removed. When suppuration is fully established the lameness and general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess form, the disease progresses rapidly and recovery, under proper treatment; may be effected in from two to three weeks' time; but when two or more tumors are developed at once or where the formation of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the sufferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. Treatment. The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit- tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Watering places, accessible without having to wade through mud, are to be supplied. Carefully cleanse the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quittor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for treatment. If the case is seen early, that is, before any of the signs of suppuration have developed, the affected foot is to be placed under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this put the pa- tient in .slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with flannel KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 223 bandages loosely applied. vSet a tiih or barrel filled with cold water above the patient and by the use of a small rubber hose of sufficient length make a syphon which will carry the water from the bottom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of water should be quite small, and it is to be continued until the inflanuuation has entirely subsided or until the presence of jnis can be detected in the tumor. When suppuration has conunenced the process should be aided by the use of warm baths and 2:)oultices of linseed meal or boiled tiu-nips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largel}^ limited by a free incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band. If the tumor is Ijirge more than one incision may be necessary. The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or longer and then poulticed. The bleeding produced 1)>' the cutting and encouraged b}^ the warm bath is generally very copious and soon gives relief to the overtension of the parts. In other cases it will be found that suppuration is w-ell under way, so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first presented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus let out and the foot poulticed. By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by vv^arm baths and poul- tices applied for two or three daj's, needs to be protected by proper dress- ings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls of pledgets of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in place by a roller bandage four 3'ards long, from three to four inches wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which may be u.sed to stimulate the healing process are many, and as a rule they are applied in the form of solution or tinctures. The solution of bichloride of mercur}- one part, water five hundred parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercurj' to dissolv-e. The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before the}^ are applied to the wound. Among other remedies wdiich may be used, and perhaps with equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and zinc, five grains of either to the ounce of water; chloride of zinc, five grains to the 224 THE HORSE. ounce; carbolic acid, twenty drops dissolved in an equal amount of glyc- erine and added to one ounce of water, and the nitrate of silver, ten grains to one ounce of water. If the wound is slow to heal it will be found of advantage to change the remedies used every few days, for after a time a remedy eeems to lose its stimulating effect upon the slow-growing granu- lations. If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glis- tening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of cam- phor ma}^ do best. When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly an ointment made of one part of carbolic acid to forty parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all that is needed. If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed, which projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp, clean knife, the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is suppurating freely it will be necessary to remove the dress- ing every twenty-four or forty-eight hours. If the discharge is small in quantity and the patient comfortable the dressing may be left on for several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better, in so long as the healing process is health}'. When the sore commences to skin over the edges should be lightly touched with the lunar caustic at each dressing. The patient may be given a little exercise daily, but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is en- tirely healed. Various Forms of Quittor. WHien not only the skin and sub- cutaneous tissues are involved but also the tendons of the leg, and the ligaments of the joints it is called tendinous quittor. When the skin and subcutaneous tissues on some part of the coronet followed by a slough and the formation of an ulcer it is called a cuta- neous QUITTOR. The most common form is called the subhorny quittor. It is gen- erally .seen in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore-feet than in the hind ones. It nearly always attacks the iaiside quarter, but may affect the outside quarter, the toe, or the heel, where it is but of ZNKE, FETLOCK, ANKtE, AND FOOT. 225 little consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and more or less suppurration, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive laminae. HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. In conducting an examination to detect the seat of lameness, the ani- mal should be unblanketed, and held by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to manage his paces, and preference should be given to a hard road for the trial. He is to be examined from various posi- tions— from before, from behind, and from each side. Watching him as he approaches, as he recedes, and as he passes by, the observer should carefully study that important action, the dropping of the body upon one extremity or the other, and this can readily be detected by attend- ing closely to the motions of the head and the hip. The head drops on the same side on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping towards the right Avhen the lameness is in the left fore-leg, and the hip dropping in posterior lameness, also off the sound leg, the reverse of the conditions; of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the animal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, and this irregularit}- is accompanied by dropping or nodding the head, or depres- sing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness is on the off side. But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating to the lameness of a hor.se is, after all, not a very difficult taek. There are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources to settle satisfactorily. That a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what region, what structure, is affected, the easy part of the task is over, and the more difficult and important, because more obscure portion of the investigation has commenced, except, of course, in cases of which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame leg is performing its functions, and closely watching the motions of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which enter into structure; by minutely examining every part of the 226 THR HORSH. limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in tem- perature and the state of the sensibility, one may be guided to a correct localization of the seat of trouble, but one must catefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts which compose the suffering extremity. The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the extrem- ties to injury from causualities, natural to its situation and use, should al\va5's suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an obscure lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have an apparent location elsewhere, when that is the true seat of the trouble, and the person who, while examining his lame patient, discovers a ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without subjecting the foot to a closer scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect at a later day, when regrets wall avail nothing towards remedying the injur}' which has ensued upon his partial method of exploration. But, as in human experience, there are instances when disease will deliver their fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and classi- fied, so that it will happen that in the humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecognizable ailments will at times baffle the best veterinarian skill, and leave our burden-bearing servants to suc- cum to the inevitable, and suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. CHAPTER XIV. THE SKIIN. Its Diseases and How to Cure Them. Its Parasites and How to Destroy Them. Structure of the .skin, cracked heels or scratches, nettle- rash OR surfeit, horny sloughs or sitfacts, warts, con- gestion with pimples, animal and vegetable parasites, fis- tula, etc. EHE skill consists primarily of the superficial layer, the cuticle or epidermis without blood \-essels; and the deep layer, the corium, dermis or true skin, which has many blood vessels. The cuticle (5N is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less modified in shape by mutual compression and by surface evaporation and drying. The outside layer consists of the cells dried in the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff. The deeper layer is formed of somewhat rounded cells with large central nuclei, and in colored .skin containing numerous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations or branches by which they communicate with each other and with the superficial layer of cells in the true .skin beneath. Through these they receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and through the.s& liquids absorbed by the skin, may be passed on into the vessels of the true skin beneath. The TRUE SKIN or dermis has a framework of interlacing bundles of white and yellow fibers, large and coar.se in the deeper layers, and fine in the superficial where they approach the cuticle. Between the fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become finer as they approach the surface, and inclo.se cells, vessels, nerves, glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. 228 THE HORSE. The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute conical elevations or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent mem- brane. This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capillary blood vessels and ner\-es, and is at once the scat of acute sensation and the point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active changes of inflammation are especially concentrated. The HAIRS are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla lodged in the depth of a sack, hollowed out in the skin and extending to the. deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of epidermis, which at the bottom are reilected on the papilla and become the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of cells firmly ad- herent to each other by a tough substahce, and overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction towards the free end. The SEBACEOUS (oil) glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacks and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous net-work representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells representing the mucous layer of the cuticle. Their oily secretion gives gloss to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated sebaceous glands, opening directly on the sur- face of the skin, producing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste pro- ducts out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the en- tire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery secretion. Cracked Heels or Scratches. This usually sets in with swell- ing, heat, and tenderness of the hollow of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white skins), with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable horses. Soon slight cracks appear trans- versely, and may gain in depth and wndth, and may even suppurate. More frequently they become covered at the edges or throughout by THE SKIN. 229 firm incrustations resulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out, and the skin becomes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and saland- ers), and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, altered unwholesome fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with dung and urine and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in limestone districts, irrita- tion by dry limestone or sandy dust in dry weS^er on dirt road, also cold draughts, snow and freezing mud, washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick woollen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, natural or super\-ening on overwork, imper- fect nourishment, impure air, lack of sunshine, chronic, exhausting, or debilitating diseases, or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver or kidneys. These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cica- trix of a pre-existing crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to re- open under any severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes. In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove the cause when- ever possible. If there is much local heat and inflammation a laxative (five drams aloes, or one pound Glauber salts) may be given, and for the pampered animal the grain should be reduced or replaced altogether by bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non-stimulating food. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (five grains arsenic with one dram bicarbonate of soda daily. ) When the legs swell exercise on dry roads, hand-rubbing, and evenly applied bandanges are good, and mild astrin- gents, like extract of witch-hazel may be applied and the part subse- quently rubbed dry and bandaged. If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of two drams of sugar of lead to one quart of water may be applied on a thin bandage, covered in cold weather with a dry one. The same may be used after the cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid solution one part, glycerine one part, and water one part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part may be smeared with vaseline one ounce, sugar of lead one dram, and carbolic acid ten drops. 230 THE HORSE. Nettlerasli, Surfeit or Urticaria. This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from a hazel nut to a hickory- nut, transient, with little disposition to the formation of either blister or pos^ tule, and usually connected with shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesomeness or sudden change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring and in j^oung and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling embraces the entire thickness of the skin and terminates by an abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When the individual swellings run together there are formed ex- tensive patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any part of the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing becomes difficult and snufl&ing. It may be attended by constipation or diarrhea, or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear with equal rapidity or persist for six or eight days. Treatment. This consists in clearing out the bowels by five drams Barbadoes aloes, or one pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and one ounce Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to the swellings. Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the result of pressure by badly-fitting har- ness, or by irritating masses of dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the mus- cles, or with the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irritation. The horn-like slough may thus involve the super- ficial part of the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of more of the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irritant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic acid lotion, like a common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the oper- ator. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous the dead portion must be removed with the horn-like skin. During and after treatment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted that no pressure can come near the affected parts. THE SKIN. 231 "Warts. These are essentiallj' a morbid outgrowth of the superficial papillarj' layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears, beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. The smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface cauter- ized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp knife, or if with a narrow neck tliey may be twisted off and then cauterized. If very vascular they may be strangled bj' a waxed thread or cord tied around the neck, at least three turns being made round and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding turn of the card, so that they can be tightened day by da}' as they slacken b}' shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be trans- fixed several times with a double- threaded needle and then be tied in sections. Very broad warts that cannot be treated in this way may be burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a soldering bolt at a red heat and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth kept down by bluestone. Congestion, with Small Pimples or Papules. In this affec- tion there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, together with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy-seed to a coffee-bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt ^^ ith the finger where the hair is scanty. lu white skins they vary from the palest to the darkest red. All do not retain the popular t}pe, but some go on to form blisters (eczema, bullae), or pustules, or dry up into scales, or break out into open sores, or extend into larger swellings (tubercles). The majority, however, remaining as pimples, characterize the disease. When very itchy the rubbing breaks them open, and the resulting sores and scales hide the true nature of the eruption. The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and in the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple congestion and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is more pro- nounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, the animal rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is especially severe in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, and there the disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the horse in rendered virtually useless. The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many such cases the swelling extends wider into a button-like elevation, one- half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the effects of the poison ivy and poison sumac. 232 THE HORSE. In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply the same gen- eral remedies as for simple congestion. In the more inveterate cases use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphide of potassium in two quarts water, to which a little Castile soap has been added. Or use a wash with one-half ounce oil of tar, two ounces Castile soap, and twenty ounces water. ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN. Mange or Ascariasis. This affection is due to the irritation of the skin, caused by the presence of a nearly microscopic acarus or mite. The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which infests the skin, so that w^e must treat of several different kinds of acariasis. The parasite is sarcoptEvS EQUI. The disease is called sarcoptic ASCARIASIS. This is the special sarcoptes of the horse, but under favorable conditions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may live indefinitely on the human skin. The mite is nearly microscopical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among mov- ing scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all sarcoptes, it burrows little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays its eggs and where its young is hatched. It is therefore often difficult to find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been heated by a temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even then it may be needful to tie the .scab on the human arm till a prickling is felt, when the acrus will be found in the center of a minute capule by its bite. Like other acari this is wonderfully prolific, a new generation of fifteen indi- viduals beingpossible every fifteen days, so that in three months the off- spring of a single pair may produce a generation of one million five hund- red thou.sand. The sarcoptes have less vitality than the non-burrowing acari, as they die in an hour when kept in dry air apart from the skin at a heat of 145° F. They live twelve to fourteen days apart from the skin in the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived till the twenty-fourth day, but were dead on the twenty-eighth. The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and increasing itching of some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, etc.), the horse inclining himself toward the hand that scratches him, and moving his lips as if himself scratching. The hairs may be broken and rubbed of, but the part is never entirely bald as in ring- worm, and there may be papules or THE SKIN. 233 any kind of eruption or open sores from the energy of scratching. Scabs of any thickness may form, but the special features are the intense itch- ing and the discovery of the acarus. Treatment. This consists in the removal of scabs by soapsuds, and, if necessary, a brush, and the thorough application of tobacco one and one-half ounce and water two pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied more than once, and should always be repeated after fifteen days, to destroy the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All harness and stable utensils should be similarly treated; blankets and rubbers may be boiled, and the .stalls should be covered VN-ith a whitewash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chloride of lime to the gallon. Grubs in the Skin. This malady is caused by the grubs (Hypo- derma SiLENUs). getting under the skin. This fl;' deposits its embryo on or in the skin of the horse, as the Hypoderma bovis does in the ox, and the resulting larvae pass the winter in little rounded sacks beneath the integument, furnished with a central opening, through which the mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In dis- tricts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin and destroyed in the course of the winter. Grubs on the Skin, or Ply-Blow. The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores or on wet filthy parts of the skin, w'here their larvae or grubs give rise to serious trouble : Lucilia Caesar (blue bottle), Lucilia hominivorax (screw- worm fly), Mu.sca vomitoria (meat-fly), and Sarcophaga carnaria (flesh-fly.) To prevent their attacks wet, filthy hair should be removed and wounds kept clean, and rendered antiseptic by a lotion of carbolic acid one part, water fifty parts; by a mixture of one ounce oil of tar in twenty ounces .sweet oil, or .some other antiseptic. If the grubs are already present they should be picked off and one of these dressings freely applied. Flies. A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, pro- ducing great annoyance, and in .some instances death. The.se insects not only suck the blood, but also often instil an acid poison into the skin, and in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal by inoculation. Various devices are resorted to, to prevent the attacks, as to sponge the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly-net on the horse, to clo.se doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by py- 234 THE HORSB. rethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls clean, deo- dorized by g>'psum and to spread them in trays of dry chloride of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of one part of car- bolic acid in twenty parts of sweet oil or glycerine, or one-fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and one dram of carbolic acid in a quart of water may be used. Stings of Bees, Wasps and Hornets. These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly because the barbed sting is left in the wound, and partly because of the amount and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal the result may prove fatal. Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of soda or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or of sugar of lead two drams, lauda- num one ounce, and water one pint. The embedded stings should be extracted with fine forceps or even with the finger nails, Flea, or Pulex. The flea of man and those of the dog and cat, when numerous, will bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dispose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grub-like larvae as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar or petroluni; the stalls ma)^ be deluged with boiling water and afterward painted with oil of turpentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of one part car- bolic acid in fifty parts water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed with the same lotion, or, better removed from the vicinity of the stable. The chigoe (Pulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injurious, because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be hatched out slowly with much irritation. The tumor formed by it should be laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that its eggs es- cape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introducing a wire at a red heat. Iant with the facts will venture to deny. As a matter of physiological fitness the shoe and its mode of attachment are utterly indefensible. Each time a horse is shod (every nail driven) means so much injury to the foot. The better the job the less that injury is; but there is no such thing as an absolute immunity from an evil which must always exist in inverse ratio to the skill displayed in the execution of the work. These is, however, at least one very large and important class of horses to which shoes are by no means an habitual necessity, namely, our agri- cultural horses. The nature of their work, the pace at which they are required to perform it, and the character of the ground over which they ordinarily move, all unite to render artificial protection for their feet, save under exceptional circumstances, altogether uncalled for. When this is so, and when it is conceded that shoeing is, even under the most fav^orable circumstances, an evil (although in some cases a necessary one), a frequent cause of disease, and therefore a direct source of loss, it is a matter of deep regret that such a large majority of our farm horses, the very mainspring of our agricultural existence, should be needlessly subjected to a mutilation which curtails the period of their natural efficiency and too often renders their life thus shortened one long-continued agony. P'^ar too many blacksmiths are ignorant alike of the anatomy, physiol- ogy, and economic relation of the parts, they mutilate, and they cut and carve as whim, prejudice, or time-honored custom dictates. Disas- ter, it may be slowly, but surely, follows, and all too often the dumb creature's suffering foots the bill. Foremost among them is the insane habit of trimming the frog and thinning out the sole till it visibly yields to the pressure of the operator's thumbs. The frog is nature's cushion and hoof-expander; by its elas- ticity it w^ards off concussion from the less elastic portions of the struc- ture, and by its resilience assists in maintaining the natural state, but the drawing-knife's touch is fatal to it. Once cut and carved and de- prived of pressure, those very acts cause it to shrink, dry, and harden, and at once lose those very attributes which constitute its usefulness to the foot. Robbed of its elasticity and resilience, it is incapable of dis- SHOEING. 245 charging its allotted functions — both as a cushion and as an expander it is a dead failure; indeed, it is worse, as in its altered character it is now a menace instead of a protection, a bane rather than a boon to the foot that wears it. The destruction of this important factor having been thus accomplished the operator probably next turns his attention to the sole, which, by all traditions of the craft, must be pared down until only a thin film of soft, partiall}' formed horn is left to protect the living structures within against injury from the substances with which the foot necessarily comes in contact. Nor does the mischief stop here. The sole itself, or what is left of it, consists now of soft, moist, half -formed horn, which dries and shrinks on exposure to the air, and thereby entails a further and a still more serious injur}^ on the foot. There seems to be a fascination about this work of destruction, and the incompetent workman next addresses himself to the self-imposed task of improving upon nature by removing the bars and what he calls "opening" the heels, a process which, in plain language, means opening a road for them to close over. On this poor, maimed foot a shoe, often man}^ sizes too small, is tacked, and the rasp is most likely called into requisition to reduce the foot to fit the shoe; for although it is appar- ently of little moment whether the shoe fits the foot, it is indisputably necessary that the foot should, somehow or other, be got to fit the shoe, and horseshoeing, like other arts, must needs sacrifice on the altar of appearances. It is sad that art and nature should so often be at vari- ance, and that what satisfies the one should outrage the demands of the other. The foot is now .shod and protected from vnidue wear, to be sure, but at what a sacrifice ! Robbed of its cushion, its natural expander; its lateral braces removed; its sole mangled and its natural repair arrested; the hair-like fibers which make up the horny wall crushed, deflected, and their nutritive function impeded by an unnecessary number of nails; robbed by the rasp of its cordial layer of natural varni.sh, which retains the moisture secreted by the economy, the strong walls become dry and weakened, and the foot is in a ver\' sorry plight indeed. To some this picture may seem overdrawn, but it is nevertheless a matter of daily occurrence. Of course, even among agricultural horses, there are individuals which can not work unshod; but these are exceptional cases. Then again, in winter, when the usual snowfall is wanting, most horses' feet will re- 646 THE HORSE. quire protection ; but uowadays an owner has himself to blame if he sub- mits to having the \vork; done in that wrong-headed and ridiculous man- ner, which has called into existence such a long list of diseases and misery. The horse's foot is, after all, a good deal of what we make it, and if our horses, from their colthood up, had their feet more carefully attended to, and especially were they invariably to stand while in confinement or some material less deleterious to the hoof than dry wooden flooring, from which the foot suffers no irritation whatsoever, and by which it is moreover depleted of its natural moisture, their feet would, in the per- iod of the animals' active usefulness, be found to be better shaped, harder, less brittle, and in every way better suited for the work required of them. There is one instrnment which I should like to see, if possible, omitted from the shoeing outfit of every farrier, and that is the drawing-knife. If our blacksmiths would use their knives less and their heads more in the execution of their very important and by no means easy duty, our horses would be the better for it, and so would their owners. There is no great mystery surrounding the subject, and the application of ordin- ary common sense, in lieu of the barbarous routine which has been so long handed down from generation to generation until it has actually be- come a portion of the blacksmith's creed, would go a long way towards obviating many, if not most, of the cruel wrongs to which our horses' feet are day by day needlessly subjected. The outside, or horny wall, and that portion of the sole which is in immediate contact with it, on which the shoe should rest, are the only portions of the foot which require to be interfered with in preparing the foot for the shoe, and all the trimming that is necessary can and ought to be effected by means of the rasp. The frog and sole should on no pretext whatever be meddled with, save to the extent I have indicated. Their presence in their entirety, and in their natural state, is essentially necessary to the well-being of the foot, and neither brooks the touch of the steel. There may be differences of opinion among authorities as to minor de- tails in shoeing, but there is at all events one issue on which it is satis- factory to know that there is absolute unanimity; one practice which all alike utterly condemn; and that is the irrational treatment of the frog and sole, to which I have already alluded. Sufficient care is not always given to shortening the hoof so that its SHOEING. 247 angle should conform exactly to the inclination of the limb. It would be misleading to lay down any arbitrary degree of obliquity. The angle differs in different cases; and the natural bias of the superimposed struc- tures is the onl}- safe guide to follow. More than one instrument has been devised for ascertaining the correct degree of obliquity, some of them simple and efficacious; but an inspection of the foot in profile is usually the best way of deciding. Too much importance can not possibly be attached by the workman to this and the succeeding step, namely, leveling the ground surface of the foot, as the slightest departure from exactitude here renders whatever amount of care he may devote to the completion of his work worse than useless. The very smallest deviations from the perpendicular causes diastrous consequences not 'only on the foot but on the entire limb. In the foot itself, when the weight is borne unevenly, the lowest parts receive an undue share; the pressure re- tards the growth of new horn, and the foot in consequence becomes weakened, distorted, and deformed. The Shoe. The shoe should be as light as the weight of the animal and the nature of the work he is expected to perform will admit. Heavy shoes not only burden the animal which is condemned to wear them, for there is truth in the old adage, "an ounce at the toe means a pound at the withers;" but they also increase the concussion inseparable from progression, so even in the trotter, whose work is meted out to him with judicious care, although the weight doubtless accom- plishes the work for which it was intended, it is a draft at usury on the horse's future soundness, which that animal is bound to take up at maturity. The legitimate mission of the shoe is to prevent undue wear of the walls, and a light shoe will do this quite well as a heavy one; it is moie- over entirelj' erroneous to suppose that a heavy shoe necessarily wears longer than a light one, as experience proves the contrary, in many in- stances, to be the case. Even among our mammoth draft horses, whose shoes must of course be made with reference to the weight they have to bear and the inordinate strain to which they are subjected when the animal which wears them is at work, I am not prepared to admit that it is by any means necessary to add to the concussion to which his feet are unavoidably subjected, by several pounds of unyielding iron on each foot, when shoes weighing half as much would serve the purpose equally well. The lamentably short career of our city draft horse, which is usually determined by foot lameness of one kind or another, is largely 248 THE HORSE. attributable, to the aggravated amount of battering on hard pavements which his needless weight of shoes causes. The upper surface of the shoe should be perfecth' level. If the plane of the web inclines from outward inward, it greatly adds to the unavoidable tendency to contraction which shoeing invariably entails, and there is a wealth of unwisdom in most of the clumsy attempts at mechanically spreading the heels by making the inclination in the contrary direction. It would seem to be unnecessary to say that the shoe should be so shaped as to conform exactly to the natural tread of the foot, yet there is a very common practice of using a shoe of uniform shape, often less in circumference, if such a term is permissible, than the foot on which HIND-FOOT AND FORE-FOOT WITH SHOE PROPERLY ADJUSTED. it is to be nailed, and then rasping down the foot to fit it. It is easier to make the foot to fit the shoe than it is to make the shoe to fit the foot; a stroke or two of the rasp effects the former, but it is a far more arduous undertaking to modify the size and shape of the shoe. The outcome of this pernicious practice is disastrous in the last degree, more especially so in a dry climate like ours, as the walls thus robbed of their natural covering permit the moisture of the foot rapidly to evaporate, and the horn fibers, which make up the outside walls, instead of being compactly knit together, readily disintegrate, and in the course of a shoeing or two those very portions in which the nails should take firm hold possess little more adhesion than a bundle of broom corn. If the shoe fitted as it should, a touch of the rasp under each clinch would be SHOEING. 249 all that was necessary, and even this much might advantageously be dispensed with. Fitting. In many countries what is called hot-fitting, that is to say, after the foot has been trinnned and leveled, momentarily applying the shoe at a red heat to the foot, is generally practiced to the almost entire exclusion of any other method, and the system is not only found to an- swer, but receives the indorsement of the most competent authorities. The climatic conditions which render the practice open to objection in this hemisphere fortunately enable us to dispense with a procedure against which there exists in the minds of many horse-owners a not un- reasonable prejudice, which, however, is directed at the abuse rather than the intelligent application of a proceeding not necessarily hurtful SHOE OF PROPER SHAPE, \VEI.I. AD- SHOE AND NAIL? TOO LARGE. NAILS JUSTED AND PROPERLY NAILED TOO MANY AND DRIVEN TOO DEEP ON A THREE-YEAR-OLD HORSE SHOE SET BACK TOO FAR. HOOF SHOD FOR THE FIRST TIME. RASPED AWAY TOO MUCH. in itself. The advantage conferred by hot-fitting consists in the fact that a more accurate accommodation is by this means more readily ob- tained than by any other method, and the contactbetween hoof and shoe can thus be made more intimate and enduring. It moist climates it is only by means of hot-fitting that a set of shoes can be made to remain on for a reasonable length of time; but in no part of this country have I found any difficulty of this nature; indeed, on the contrary-, shoes are usually allowed to remain on too long, especially in the agricultural districts. It has frequently occurred to me, when in the discharge of my duties as veterinarian to the Farmers' Institute of Minnesota, I have remonstrated wnth some local blacksmith at the number of gigantic nails he employed in aflBxing a shoe, that I have been assured that 250 THE HORSE. did the shoe not remain on for several months his emplo3^er would be dissatisfied and would transfer his custom elsewhere. Nothing could be more short-sighted nor more unreasonable than such conduct. The hoof of the horse is in shape a truncated cone with the base downwards; as it grows the circumference of the base consequently in- creases, and the shoe fitted when it was newly put on after a time be- comes too small. It would be just as reasonable for a horse-owner to buy his little bo}' a pair of shoes which just fitted him when he was six years old, and then expect him to wear them until he was twelve, as it is for him to require his dumb servant, who can not protest against the infliction, to wear his shoes for months in succession without resetting. A badly fitting shoe is to a horse as painful as a tight boot is to his owner, and under no circumstances should shoes be permitted on more than a month or five weeks at the outside; many animals require to be reshod even more frequently. It is only when an owner lets his stiugy- ness overcome his reason that he allows himself to follow a penny-wise and pound-foolish policy, which can only result, as such policies inv^ari- ably do, in a loss. Nails. The fewest nails, and these of the smallest size, that will keep the shoe on for the proper length of time, is a rule that should never be departed from. The nail holes should not be punched too fine, that is, too near the outside edge of the web of the shoe (this is a very common failing of "keg shoes") if punched coarser the nails will take a thicker and lower hold of the walls, and in this way obviate their hav- ing to be driven so high up as to approach dangerously near the sensi- tive structures. Two of the commonest errors in shoeing are using too many nails and these of an altogether unnecessary size, and then driving them too high up into the walls. If a perfectly level bearing has been obtained (as ought to be the case) it is astonishing how few and how small nails will hold the shoe firmly in its place; but let the fitting be carelessly done, then, no matter how the shoe may be nailed on, but a short time elapses ere the clinches open and the shoe works loose. When we bear in mind that the wall of the hoof consists of a number of hair- like tubes cemented together, and that each tube is one of an infinite number of minute canals, which diffuse throughout the horn a fluid that nourishes and preserves it, it will be readily understood that each nail driven into the wall deflects those little tubules, probably absolutely closing those with which it comes into actual contact and hurtfully com- pressing those lying half way between the nails, thus impairing if not SHOEING. 251 destroying their utility and cutting off the supply of material necessary to the foot's existence. If we could dispense with nails altogethei our horses' feet would be better off. This, unfortunately, we apparently can not do, but we have it in our power to minimize an evil which, at present, at all events, we can not entirely avoid. There is one shoe, without some allusion to which an essay of this kind would be incomplete, namely, the "Charlier shoe," invented some 3'ears ago by M. Charlier, a well-known veterinarian surgeon of Paris, France, which has never, in my opinion, received either the attention or trial its merits deserve. Common sense and science alike indorse it, and were the system to become generally known in this country I venture to assert that there is an extremely large number of cases in which it would be found both appropriate and beneficial. For this reason I will briefly describe it. The shoes used are about one-third the weight of an ordin- ary shoe, and less than one-half the width. In preparing the foot for shoe and sole, frog and bars are left, as they ought to be, absolutely untouched, and a groove is cut, b}^ means of a knife specially designed for the wall, not high enough to reach above the sole level, and less than the thickness of the wall in depth. Into this groove a narrow but thick band of iron is sunk and nailed to the foot by means of four to six con- ical-headed nails, the heads being countersunk in the shoe. The advan- tage of this method of shoeing is that the frog, bars, and a portion of the sole come to the ground exactly as if the foot were unshod, and one and all participate in weight-bearing as it was obviously intended they should, while the wall is protected from wear by the small rim of iron let into its ground surface. I have used both the Charlier shoe and the tip in this country as well as in the East Indies, and I am perfectly satisfied that in many respects they are superior to any other model. They are infinitely lighter, the nails are smaller and fewer in number; all steps in the right direction; but the dominant superiority of the device consists in the fact that the frog obtains pressure to the extent contemplated by nature, and in the case of the Charher tip particularly the exercise of its double function as a buffer and dilator is absolutely untrammeled in any way by the shoe. Finishing Touches When the shoe has been fitted, the nails driven, drawn up, and clinched, there should be nothing left to be done. Very frequently, however, it is just at this stage that the incompetent workman, in the most uncalled for manner, inflicts serious and lasting 252 THE HORSK. injur}- on the foot. If the wall has not been suflficiently reduced in lev- eling the foot, or if the shoe used is too small, the rasp is required to re- duce the projecting parts. Often, indeed, when there is not even this pretext, the whole surface of the foot is subjected to its relentless touch. No procedure could well be devised which would be more hurtful to the foot. In its natural state the entire hoof, from the coronet to the sole level, is covered b}' a fine coating of natural varnish, tliickest at the up- per margin and gradualh' becoming thinner as it descends. ITnder cover of this beneficent curtain the new horn is secreted and protected until it has attained maturity. The moisture secreted b}^ the animal economj-, necessary to the perfection of the horn, is retained within it, and the prejudicial influences of alternating drought and moisture are set at de- fiance. In a very dr}^ atmosphere like ours it is of great importance that this beautiful shield should be preserved and fostered, and no name is bad enough for a custom which, to serve no good purpose, robs the foot of a necessary protection which it is beyond the power of art to imi- tate or replace. Winter Shoeing. The subject of winter shoeing presents, in many sections of the country, fresh difficulties, for now the shoe is required, in the case of all classes of horses, to discharge a double dut}-; to afford foot-hold as well as guard against undue wear. Various patterns of shoes have from time to time been invented to meet this double requirement, but the commonest of all, fashioned with shoe and heel calks or calkins, is, faulty though it be, probably, all things considered, the one which best suits the requirements of the case. It should, however, never be lost sight of that the shorter, the sharper, and the smaller the calkins are, so long as they answer the purpose which called them into existence, .so much the better for the foot that wears them. High calkins, while they con- fer no firmer foot-hold, are potent means of inflicting injury both on the foot itself and the superincumbent limb at large. It is only from that portion of the catch which enters the groimd surface that the horse de- derives any benefit ni the shape of a foot-hold, and it must be apparent to the meanest capacity that long calkins, which do not penetrate the hard, uneven ground, are so many levers put into the animal's possession to enable if not compel him to wring his feet, rack his limbs, and inflict untold tortures on himself. I have laid particular stress on this subject, as I am of opinion that the presence of navicular disease, a dire malady from which horses used for agricultural labor should enjoy a practical immunity, is traceable SHOEING. 253 largely to the habitual use, during our long winter months, of needlessly large calkins, only fractional parts of which find lodgment in the earth or ice during the progression. When a horse is shod with the exagger- ated calkins to which I have alluded, the toe and heel calks are, or ought to be, the same height, to start with, at all events. Very often, how- ever, they are not, and e\-en when they are, the toe calk wears down on animals used for draft purposes far more rapidly than its fellows at the heel. The result is that the toe is depressed while the heel is unnatu- rally raised. The relative position of the bony structures within the foot is altered, and the navicular bone, which is not one of the weight-bearing bones, is brought within the angle of incidence of both weight and' concussion, influences which it was never contemplated it should withstand, and which its structure precludes its sustaining without injury. The bone becomes first bruised and then diseased; the tendon, to which it was in- tended it should act as a pulley, which passes over and is in constant contact with it, before long also becomes implicated, and what is technicall}' known as navicular arthritis is thus engendered and de- veloped. Shoeing for a Specific Purpose. Thanks to the amount of at- tention which every detail that could possibly tend to the more perfect development of that paragon of horseflesh, the American trotter, has re- ceived at the hands of all classes of men, the matter of shoeing for specific purposes has made greater progress in America than in any other country on the face of the globe, and that is a department of the farrier's art which is justl}' entitled the highest eulogium that can be bestowed upon it. The different styles of shoes wdiich have been devised are marvels of ingenuit}', and many of them are admirably effective as remedial agents of faulty gaits and uneven action. Their number is infinite, but as, many are applicable only, or in a large measure, to horses used for speed purposes onl}-, any attempt at clas.sification or detailed description would be out of place in a work of this kind. When intelligentlj' ap- plied a considerable number are, however, potent auxiliaries in miti- gating in some cases the results of natural defects of conformation amongst animals whose lot is cast in the humbler if more useful fields of horse enterpri.se. Among these are the scoop toed or roller-motion .shoe for the fore-feet and the shoe for the hind-feet, which, while they obvi- ate "forging" or "clicking," a habit hurtful to the horse and .singularly 254 '^^^ HORSE. anno3-ing to his driver, do not in any way tend to inflict injury on the feet or Hmbs. The scooped or rolled toe confers a mechanical advan- tage, enabling the animal to get over his toes more promptly and thus remove the front foot from the stroke of the hind extremity, while the lengthening of the branches of the hind shoes, by increasing the ground surface, retards the flexion and extension of the hind limbs. The common practice of increasing the weight of the outside web of the hind shoes, to open the action, is equally harmless and efincaciou? when not carried to extremes. There are manj^ other styles of shoes, the product of American iu^ genuit)', for which probably equal merit might be claimed, but there are others, which, while they may cure or mitigate the special defect againsf which they are directed, only do so at the expense of some other por- tion of the structure. It has many a time furnished food thought to the writer, that, in this great commonwealth, while there are such a large number of artificers who make horse-shoeing a profession, who offer such convincing testimony of a vast amount of careful thought and pa- tient study of at least some of the principles of their very important pro- fession as many of these devices afford, the bulk of such work should be permitted to fall into the hands of a set of incompetent, ignorant, and ofttimes unprincipled bunglers, who prey upon the credulity of their employers and inflict upon the most generous of all our dumb servants an amount of injury which curtails the period of his usefulness and results in his premature decadence at an age when he ought to be still in his prime. In the meantime it behooves us to make the most of the means within our power. Our horses are national property. Surely, therefore, it is time that the possibility of a great national economy was recognized, and some legislation formulated which would require an established standard of attainment in a class of workmen to whose care property of such value is habitually intrusted, and upon whose proficiency, or the reverse, so much of its utility or comparative worthlessness depends, while it, at the same time, provided for some means of practical instruction which contemplated raising the science of horse-shoeing above the baneful in- fluences of ignorance and traditional routine, to that position to which importance to us as a people justly entitles it." CHAPTER XVI. THE TEETH. Age as Indicated by the Teeth. Alterations in the teeth, classifiCxItion of the teeth, tem- porary TEETH, PERMANENT TEETH, PARROT MOUTH, BISHOP- ING, ETC., ETC. EHE principal guide in determing the age of a horse, up to the sixth year, consists in the structural alteratives that take place in the teeth. The mouth of the horse at that age is said to become corn- s' plete and thereafter the age can only be approximately determined by the effects of wear, in altering the shape of the teeth, by the receding of the gums and their characteristic signs. Many circumstances, however, often contribute to modif}' the effect of wear on the teeth, and also to increase and decrease the action of time in other respects. Therefore, after six years old, an approximately correct opinion can only be formed b>' those who have given the subject some attention, thought and trouble. Classification. The teeth in the anterior (front) part of the jaw are called the incisors and are six in number in each jaw, when the mouth is complete. In the males, in the intermediate rear of these, on each side in each jaw, there is usually added one peculiarly pointed tooth called a tusk. The back teeth are called molars or grinders and when complete are twenty-four in number, twelv'e above and twelve below. A supplementary molar known as a "wolf's tooth" sometimes appears in either jaw. Back-teeth, or Molars or Grinders. At birth the foal usually has two, sometimes three, temporary molars in each jaw. When about 256 THE HORSE. one year old another molar, a permanent tooth, appears and before two years of age, a fifth molar, also a permanent tooth, shows itself. When about two and a half years old the two front temporary molars give way to permanent teeth, and between three and four years of age the remaining, or third, temporary molar also .srei)laced Ijy a permanent tooth. About this time the last or sixth perma lent molar begins to ap- pear. Thus at about four years of age so far as the number of molars is concerned the mouth is completed, there being six permanent molars on each side both above and below, or twenty-four in all. These changes are a very good index of the age of the horse up to the •period when they are completed, that is four j-ears old. The molars are, however, seldom referred to, because it is somewhat difficult to examine them. Yet, whenever there is a doubt as to the age indicated by the front teeth (incisors), it is a good place to look for verification. After four years of age they are not a good indication of age. A "Wolf's" tooth sometimes appears in either jaw. vSuch teeth do not often cause trouble, but if they do, they can be easily removed with a pair of pincers, as they are not deep seated. Incisors or Front Teeth. The front or anterior teeth are six in number in each jaw, when the mouth is complete. In the male on each side in the inunediate rear there is usually added a very peculiarly pointed tooth called a tusk. Though there are two sets of incisors, a temporary set and a permanent set, yet there is only one set of tusks. They usually begin to make their appearance when the horse is about four years of age, yet they are not usually fully developed till the last permanent in- cisor is more or less up. The incisors in the upper jaw are considerably longer and larger than those in the lower jaw. Temporary and Permanent Incisors. There are well marked signs by which the temporary or milk teeth can be distinguished from the permanent ones. The temporary teeth are smaller, whiter, and have more distinct necks. They are smooth on their outsides, and grooved inside. The fangs of the teeth are small and they have but little attach- ment to the gums. They are arranged in something like a half circle, in a plump, fleshy, round jaw. Permanent teeth are larger, broader and wider in their necks, grooved externally and smooth internally, and not so white as the milk teeth. The discoloration is due to the juices and other matters connected with the teeth lodging in the grooves. The external grooving enables the ani- mal to get a better grip on herbage, which is not necessary for the sucking THE TEETH. 257 colt which feeds on its mother's milk and on young and more tender food than does the adult horse. The circular form of the position of the teeth is less in the adult horse than in the colt, and gradually grows less as the hor.se grows old, until in old age the incisors are arranged in nearly a straight line. Temporary Teeth. The foal is born with his teeth in a rudimentary state in the gums. During the first ten months the different temporary incisors appear. Yearling". The yearling has complete in all six incisors in each jaw. The teeth show but little wear and the corner teeth are mere shells, hav- ing inner walls, and all the teeth are clo.se together. Two-Years-Old. At this age the inside walls of the corner teeth have grown up level with the outer wall. The center teeth show con- siderable wear and appear smaller than in the yearling on account of the increa.se in the size of the jaw. They have become somewhat wider apart at their necks. Three- Years Old. The horse sheds the two center teeth a few months before he is three years old and they are replaced by permanent ones. Thus the jaw at three years of age contains two centre permanent teeth and two temporary teeth in each side. Four- Years-Old. A few months before four years old the horse sheds the two next milk teeth, which are replaced by permanent ones. Thus at four years of age the jaw contains four permanent teeth and one milk tooth on each .side. Five-Years-Old. The remaining milk teeth are shed a short time before the horse becomes five years of age and are replaced by permanent ones. The jaw is now complete, but the corner teeth are shells, having no inner walls. The absence of this wall distinguishes the five from the six-year-old mouth. Six-Years-Old. The inner wall of the corner permanent teeth have by this time grown up level with the outer wall. The mouth now being complete in incisors, anc no further structural changes take place in them. As a general rule, the upper temporary teeth fall out sooner than the lower ones. Up to six jears of age, since there are structural changes, there can be but little doubt as to the age of the hor.se. High feeding encourages growth of the teeth as well as of other parts of the body, therefore thoroughbreds are somewhat more forward in their mouths than half- breed animalsr 258 THE HORSE. The Mark. There is a very peculiar hollow extending, when the tooth first comes up, about a half an inch down the temporary and rathei deeper down the permanent. This is known as the mark or Infundi- bulum. Up to the age of six there is no use spending time in studying these marks, not because they do not show some indication of age, but because the structural changes detailed above are more reliable. After six years have been reached, recourse must be had to the indi- cations given by the marks and other slight, but gradual alterations which take place in the form of the teeth. The Construction of the Tooth. The tooth as it originally ap- pears consists of four walls of enamel. The remainder of the tooth con- sists chiefly of dentine, less hard than enamel, and more like ivory. A small quantity of crusta petrosa is also found on the outside. This hollow affords lodgement for the debris of the food and only a short time after it makes its appearance it looks black. As the tooth wears down the hollow of course disappears, but the surface of the den- tine immediately below the original hollow, being a somewhat soft ma- terial, has become stained for some distance down. Therefore the black mark remains. With the further wear of the tooth in time this stained portion wears away, and the mark is then out. It is at this age when artificial marks are burned into the tooth to deceive the inexperienced. The time required for this mark to wear out varies with the class of food on which the animal has been fed, therefore it is not an exact guide, yet it may be relied upon to a greater or less degree as an indication of age. General Rules as to the Mark. Between three and five years old the marks are very plain in all the permanent incisors. At six the marks are wearing out of the two centre teeth, which came up at three years old. They are plain in the two next, and perfectly fresh in the two corner teeth. Seven- Years-Old. At this age the marks from the center teeth have worn away and those in the two next are wearing out, and are dis- tinct and plain only in the corner teeth. Bight-Years-Old. Here we find the marks as descril^ed have dis- appeared from all but the corner teeth in which they are becoming in- distinct. The faint outlines are to be seen and they will be found to be very elliptical. Nine-Years-Old. At this age there are not usually any marks found in the teeth. Faint outlines are still seen being most pronounced in the corner teeth. THE TEETH. 259 Over Nine Years Old. For a couple of years after the true marks have disappeared there will still be found a trace of the enamel iu the form of a star. This enamel lined the bottom of the original hollow and underlaid it for some distance. As the teeth wear this star decreases in size. At twelve or thirteen years of age the last traces of the enamel have usually disappeared even from the corner teeth but it may remain some time longer. Effect of Different Kinds of Feeding. The time required for the teeth to wear down depends much upon the natural hardness of the teeth and the kind of food on which the horse is fed. Grass-fed horses usually retain the marks a couple of years longer than those fed on hard food. Again in horses where the upper teeth overlap the lower jaw, the marks will remain many years. Horses that bite the manger, wear down their teeth very rapidly, and lose the marks very early. Horses feeding on salt marshes and on grasses which have been washed by the sea lose the mark quickly. Bishop-ing". There is a practice among some dishonest horsemen of trying to imitate the marks b}^ the use of caustic or the hot iron. The fraud is easily detected, because, though it is easy to make a black mark in the center of the teeth, yet it is impossible to put in the walls of pearly enamel which surrounds the natural mark. Fang-Hole or Secondary Mark. There is a secondary mark which may or may not appear at nine years of age. A slight trace usually appears at that age in the center teeth and of course later in the other teeth. If it shows at all it is a good sign that the horse has reached at least twelve years of age. There is no actual hole because with advancing years the upper part of the original cavity has become filled with a kind of dentine, which is more yellow than the true mater- ial of which the body of the tooth consists. This affords no true index to age and is mentioned to caution the mistaking of this for "the mark." The enamel of the mark it will be remembered is pearly white, while the mark of this secondary fang-hole is brownish yellow. Further Changes. At nine it will be seen the "marks" entirely fail as an indication of age and indeed at seven and eight are not always to be depended upon. After this age the best indications of age are given in the gradual alterations in the shape of the teeth from wear and in closing the mouth. The teeth are broad (extending from corner to corner of the mouth) in the young horse and gradually grow thin toward their necks and fangs. In very old horses there is often a marked space between the teeth. 26o THE HORSE. Shape of the Teeth. The teeth as thej- diminish in lateral breadth they increase in proportionate thickness from front to back. At six and up to eight tlie teeth are all broad laterally at their upper surfaces. At nine, when the marks fail, the two center teeth have become some- what triangular. At ten the two next show similiar "' 4. At eleven, the two corner teeth ha ,ecome somewhat triangular. At twelve, the triangularity has increased in all the teeth, and con- tinues to increase until in very old horses the depth from front to rear exceeds the lateral width. From these facts the reader will perceive that after six years old, i. e., after the structural changes in the mouth are completed, it is impossible to lay down any one si!igle definite rule by which the age can be ascer- tained. Still, with a little trouble and attention there is no real difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the horse's age up to a comparatively late period of his life. Such a knowledge is always valuable to an intending purchaser. Horses of eight or nine years old are .still in their prime; but from want of knowledge of the means of ascertaining the real age and from very natural distrust of what the owner may tell them, the public are very shy of buying such horses; and consequently they may generally be ob- tained at prices below their real value. THIS MANIKIN IS PREPARED BY Andre^A^ A. Gardenier, Phi.D., EXPRESSLY FOR The Successful Stockman AND MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY. Tine Klng^Richiardson Co., SPRINGKIELD, IVIASS. EXPLANATi ^,^*-«*^ MANY »w, bone, b dew-claws 25. ve. IT. ar. ear. 'se. EXPLANAKy •««»»• MANl^ )W. I bone. ,h dew-claws bone. ES. ;ye. ■ar. sar. ear. ose. lose. EXPLANATORY KEY — TO — MANIKIN OF THE COW. ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS. 1. Frontal crest. 2. Horns. 3. Forehead. 4. Bridge of the nose. 5. Upper lip. 6. Nostrils. 7. Root of the ear. 8. Clieek. 9. Ear. 10. Throat. 11. Nape of the neck. 12. Dewlap. 13. Withers. 14. Back. 15. Loin. IC. Breast. 17. Walls of the chest. 18. Belly. 19. Flanks. 20. Upper part of flank. 21. Rump. 22. Haunches. 23. Root of tail. 24. Tail. 25. Tuft. 26. Perinaeum with lacteal shield 27. Udder. 28. Shoulder. 29. Poiut of shoulder. 30. Fore-arm. 31. Elbow. 32. Knee. 33. Shin, metacarpal bone. 34. Fetlock joint with dew-claw 35. Pastern. 36. Coronet. 37. Hoop. 38. Hip-joint. 39. Upper thigh. 40. Stifle-joint. 41. Lower thigh. 42. Hock. 43. Point of Hock. 44. Shin, metacarpal bone. 45. Fetlock joint. 46. Pastern. 47. Coronet. 48. Hoofs. THE MUSCLES. 1. Circular muscle of eye. 2. Eyelid. 3. Middle abductor of ear. 4. Inferior abductor of ear. 5. Superior abductor of ear. 6. Elevator of lip and nose. 7. Elevator of upper lip. 8. Pyramid muscle of nose. 9. Zygomaticus. 10. Lacrymalis. 268 MANIKIN OF THK COw , 11. Depressor muscle of upper lip. 66- 12. Sinews of sterno maxlUaries. 68. 13. Masseter. 14. Sterno maxillaries. CIRC 15. Abductor of ear. 16 — 17. Muscle of headaud neck. 1. 18. Part of sterno maxillary. 2. 19. Great pectoral. 3. 20. Anterior pectoral. 4. 21. Inferior elevator of shoulder bone. 5. 22. Trapezium. 6. 23. Trapezium. 8. 24. Long brachial extensor, anterior. 9. 25. Long brachial extensor, posterior. 10. 28. Triceps extensor bracliii, external 11. head. 12. 29. Triceps extensor brachii, great 13. head. 14. 30. Scapular ulnaris. 15. 31. Latissimus dorsi. 16. 32. External oblique abdominal. 17- 33. Serratus magnus. 19. 34. Rectus. 20. 35. Metacarpus extensor, the great. 21. 36. Digitalis extensor, common. 22. 37. Digitalis extensor, external. 23. 40. Flexor of foot. 24. 41, 43 to 47. Tendons. 25. 42. Deep flexor of toes. 2G. 48, Annular ligament of fetlock. 27. 5«. Inner hoof extensor, sinew. 28. 51. Gluteus maximus. 29. 52. Vagina femoris. 30. 53. Femoris, rectus. 31. 54. Femoris, biceps. 32. 55. Biceps, posterior portion. 33. 56. Semitendinosus, 34. 57. Gluteus. 36. 58. Caudal curvator. 37. 59- -60. Pedis flexors. 38. 61. Abductor. 39. 62. Peroneus. 40. 63. Soleus. 41. 64. Gastrocnemius. 42. 65. Extensor communis. 43. -67. Extensor. Tendon of Achilles. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. Aorta Anterior aorta. Posterior aorta. Left inominate artery. Left coronary artery. Right inominate. Left carotid. Right carotid. Arteries which supply windpipa Parotid gland artery. Pharyngeau artery. Occipital artery. External artery. Lingual. Facial. -18. Coronary arteries. Lower dental. Upper labial. Temporal. Lower eyelid. Anterior intercostal. Oblique cervical. Deep cervical. Vertebral. Pectoral, exterior. Pectoral, interior. Radial. Metacarpal major. Metacarpal minor. Diaphragmatic. Bronchial. Intercostal, ten pairs of. Coelic axis. Anterior mesenteric. Renal. Spermatic. Posterior mesenteric. Lumbar, six pairs. Pelvic. Arteries of the thigh. MANIKIN OF THE CMV. 269 44. Saoriim. 38- —43. Lumbar vertebrae. 45. Abdominal. 44. Sacrum. 46. Spermatic. 4:,- -l!4. Coccygeal vertebrae. 47. AlKliiminal integumenl (!;')- -66. Pelvis. 48. Posterior circutudex. 07. Os pubis. 49. 50. Obturator. Femoral. Hall and sociket hip joint Sternum. 51. Tibial. 70. Scapula. 52. Metatarsal. 71. Sboulder joint. 53. Tarsal. 72. Humerus. 54. Plantar. 73. Ulna. 55. 56. Hypogastric. Ilio lumbar. 74. 75 Klbow joint. Radius. 57. Caudal. 76. Cuneiform bone. , 58. Muscular. 77. Polygonal bone. 59. Obturator, muscular branches. 78. Lunar. 60. Obturator. 79. Magnum. 61. 62. Internal pudic. Vena cava vein. 80. 81. Scaphoid. Semi lunar. 63. Jugular vein. 82. Sphenoid bones. 65. 66. Posterior vena cava vein. Portal vein. S3. 84. Metacarpal. Sesamoid. 68. Divisions of portal vein. 85. Pastern. 86. Coronet. BONES. 87. 88. Navicular. Hoof. 1. 1 prime to 13 prime, ribs. 89. Femur. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Horns. Frontal protuberance. Frontal bone. Temporal bone. Zygomatic bone. Lower maxillary. Malar. Cavity for eye. Lacrymal. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97- Patella. Stifle joint. Tibia. Hock joint. Calcis. Astragalus. Scapho-cuboid. -98. Cuneiform bones. 10. 12. Upper maxillary. Nasal bone. DIGESTIVE APPARA 13. The eight incisors. 1. Cerebellum. 14. Six upper molars. 2. Cerebrum. 15. Six lower molars. 3. Pons Varolii. 16. 17. Occipital. Atlas. 4. 5. Medulla Oblongata. Spinal Marrow. 18. Axis. 6- -6 Cervical vertebras. 19- -23. Cervical vertebrae. 7— -7. Dorsal vertebr-Te. 24- -37. Dorsal vertebrae. 8- -8. Lumbar vertebrae. 270 MANIKIN OF THE COW. 9. Sacrum. 10 — 10 Coccygeal. 11. Ligament urn nuchsB. 12. Tuibi))at»'il bones. 13. Pharynx. 14. Glottis. l^. Thyroid gland. 16. Palate. 17. Mouth with six molars. 18. Tongue. 19. Bronchi and divisions. 20. Left auricle. 21. Right auricle. 22. Right ventricle, interior. 23. Aorta. 24. Left ventricle, interior. 25. Right ventricle, exterior. 26. Left ventricle, exterior. 27. Diaphragm, tendinous portion. 28. Diaphragm, muscular portion. 29. Gall-bladder. 30. Bile duct of gall-bladder. 31—33. Lobes of the Liver. 34—35. Bile ducts of liver. 36. Posterior, vena cava, entrance. 37. Portal vein, opening. 39 — 40. Ureter, ducts from kidneys. 41. Vagina. 42. Bladder. 43. Opening of urethra. 45. Uteru.s. 46. Abdominal cavity. 50. Milk collecting ducts. 51. Milk-sinus. 52. Duct of teat. 53. Neck of uterus. 54. Mouth of uterus. 55. Umbilical cord. 56. Young in position before birth. 57. Cotyledons. 58. lUium. 59. Duodenum. 60. Pylorus. 61. Fold of fourth stomach. 62. Leaves of second stomach. 63. Meshes and cells of 2d stomach. 64. Opening into second stomach. 65. Opening of esophagus into the stomach. 66. Supports of paunch. 68. Front portion of paunch. 69. Middle portion of paunch. 70. Papillae of paunch. 71. Mesentery. 72. Jejunum, 73. Rectum, 74. Anus. 76. Colon. CATTLE. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. Their Diseases and How to Cure Them. DISCUSSIONS ON, SILOS AND ENSILAGE, THE USE OF THE SEPARATOR. AND THE CARE OF MILK. A DESCRIPTION OF AERATING MILK. BEAT cattle have been the useful and cherished companions of mankind from the earliest date of history. The great regard and esteem the ancients had for this useful animal is shown bj- the fact that Moses on his return from Mt. Sinai found the Israelite wan- derers worshipping a golden calf. The Egj'ptians w^orshipped an ox, Apis, the magnificent tomb of which has been recently discovered. Job, in his days of prosperity, was the owner of one thousand yokes of oxen. Homer, who lived eighteen hundred years before the Christian era, wrote of the noble bullocks with ' 'golden knobs on the tips of their horns. In the modern world there has been great improvement in the dis- tinctive characteristics of cattle. By gradual and natural progress each nation throughout western Europe has developed a grade of cattle dis- tinctly its own. The Moors of vSpain raised cattle from which descended the savage and headstrong bulls used in the arena of bull-fights and picadores. The islands south of England have produced the Jerseys, the Alderneys, and the Guernseys, while Holland has given us the large, noble Holsteiu or Dutch cattle, and England has produced for her beef-lovingc lords the Durhams. 272 . CATTLB. The North American continent, from the Atlantic on the east to the Pacific on the west, and from the great lakes oil the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south, with its vast low-lands, prairies, and mountain regions, furnishes a diversified climate, each section fitted for some breed of cattle, with characteristics .specially suited for its climate. The various soils and elevations of America furnish choice foods, and to be successful in cattle raising it is onl}- necessary to choose varieties of cattle best adapted to the positions they are to occupy, and the uses demanded of them. In selecting a herd for profit, there is to be consid- ered, whether beef, butter, cheese, or milk is to be the production, and then to select from the various herds that are best adapted for the de- sired product,, that variety that will do best in the climate and on the kind of food the easiest and cheapest to produce. The Short-Horns. It is asserted by historians that the Danes in- troduced cattle into Northumbria, Durham, and York, the north-eastern counties of England, long before William the Norman conquered the Heptarchy. Southern Denmark, Jutland, and Holstein, possessed a breed of cattle, that the Danes shipped to England in exchange for other products raised on the Isle of Great Britain. It is supposed by the majority of writers on early English agriculture and cattle, that the .short-horns are descendants of the cattle so introduced, and that for several centuries the}^ inhabited only the most eastern part of England. In the agricultural progress of the country, these cattle received much attention, and the}' improved much in form, flesh, and general appear- ance. The animals were coarse in form and flesh, but thej^ possessed great aptitude to fatten, and within their high, broad carca.sses were ele- ments that caused them to improve when brought under careful man- agement and given shelter, and good food. These animals had improved by the year 1740, so that a Mr. Mill- bank, of Earningham, dressed a five year old ox that weighed two thousand one hundred pounds in the four quarters, and had besides, two hundred twenty-four pounds of rough tallow; and a cow of the same stock, which weighed fifteen hundred forty pounds. These weights are recorded and it will be noticed that they nearly ecjual those of the pres- ent time. The improvement of the English short-horn has gone on, until now, as a producer of beef, they stand in the front ranks of all the bovine races in Great Britain, and also in portions of the adjacent continent, CATTLE. 273 and in the "English colonies of Australia and Canada, where the soil and climate are peculiarly adapted to their support. They are the heaviest beef cattle that are received into the London markets and they mature at an early age. It is claimed that they excel when bred for milkers, but we believe this is not supported by any authority other than the statements of the short-horn breeders and speculators. The introduction of the short-horns into America seems to be shad- owed in mystery. Either those who brought this cla.ss of cattle into the country before the Revolution did not deem the fact of sufficient impor- tance for record, or there were none introduced for the finst authentic record dates back only to their introduction by a Mr. Miller into Vir- ginia just after the close of the war. In 1797 a few of the descendants were taken into Kentucky. Various importations were made through the first half of the eighteenth century, until in 1856 America had as fine a bred stock of short-horns as could be found in England itself. The English Herd Book commenced in the year 1822, while the American Herd Book commenced in 1846. These books contain the records of over ninety thousand bulls and cows. This breed of cattle extends over a greater territory in the United States than any other foreign breed. Characteristics. There are two classes of short-horns, one classed as flesh-producing, the other as dairy. The class of short-horns that are noted for their flesh-producing qual- ities are those that have yielded to their natural tendency of taking on flesh. Because of this predisposition the English breeders began to breed for the production of flesh. They gave abundant food from early calf -hood till fully matured. Thus these animals grew rapidly, ma- tured early, and had great rotundity of body. The English breeders were encouraged in their production of this class of animals on account of the demand of the markets for beef, and the great desire of the breed- ers for cattle of this class for importation. The modern short-horn breeders in America appear to care but little for the production of milk, so that the flesh-producing class has been brought to greater perfection in this country than the dairy class. The early importations of short-horns into the United States were those chiefly for milking purposes, and agricultural publications of fifty years ago record remarkable yields of milk and butter. But the .short- horns are naturally beef -producers and will succeed best as such. Nature leads toward beef-production and the efforts of the breeders have been 274 CATTLE. CATTLB. 275 largely in that direction. Exhorbitant prices were paid tor years for good specimens of this class of stock for special importation into America. A first-class short-horn has a head with a fine >ellowish, nnt-brown, or black nui/./.le; broad forehead; full, ])right eyes; lean cheeks; con- cave or dishing face; short horns, standing wide, gracefully spreading out at the base, and then turning upward with a still further spread. The horns show no black except at the tips. The ear is of a moderate size, thin, and moves with a quick motion, and the throat is clean, with- out dewlap. The neck sets well into the shoulders and breast, and with a slight pendulous hanging of the skin, just at the brisket. The shoul- ders are full and wide at the tops and nearly straight; the shoulder points are full and wide; the brisket projects well forward, and is broad and low; the arm tapers to the knee; and the leg has a fine bone'ending in a well rounded foot. The ribs are full and round, and run back well towards the hips; the loins are full and level; the rumps long and wide; the tail set on a level with the back, and is small and tapering; the thighs full and heavily fleshed; the twist wide; the flank low and full; and the hock or gambrel joint, standing straight, or nearly so. Colors. The well bred short-horn varies in color from a pure white to a deep red, and intermixtures of these colors which produce the light roan, with white predominating over the red; the red roan, with the red more prominent than the white; and red. or white mixed or spotted in every conceivable manner. Some breeders think that short-horns of pure white are less hardy than the reds, but statistics do not bear them out in their prejudices. Flesh. As a beef animai they are superior in producing large quan- tities of beef, but it is not so tender and juicy, nor of so fine a grain as found in the Devons, the Galloways, or the Highlands. Climate Adapted to the Short-Horns. Experience has shown that the short-horns will thrive well in cold climates, even doing well as far north as 45° of latitude, (on a line with the northern boundary of New York State). Of course in the colder latitudes the cattle must have good protection in winter. It is soil and feeding that makes the animal thrive, and with shelter in inclement weather, and a fairly tem- perate climate good results may be expected. This breed of animals while profitable in the beef producing portions of America, are being superseded by the milk producers in the east. Beef can be shipped long distances to market, but milk should be produced 276 CATTLE. near enough to the market, that it may be received and placed on sale at least within ten or twelve hours after milking. Therefore the short- horns will be found most profitable at such distances from our great cities that it is impossible to ship milk profitably to their nuirkets. The Herefords. This is a valuable herd of cattle, although but comparatively little known in America. The Herefords are named after a county in south-western England which is adjacent to Wales. These cattle are of very ancient ancestry, but have been very much improved within the last century. MiifS-symwfiBiwrtiii iwwi'iififlMlW^^ ;^\m. C-ova^vh ^v'^'^'^'^-'^c^'^- HEREFORD BULL, "LEATHER STOCKING. The color of this breed has a peculiar history as to its changes and markings. One hundred years ago they w^ere deep red — almost brown, in color ; now they are usually red, with wliite faces, throats, bellies, and sometimes backs. About the time of King John of ivngland (A.D. 1200) they were all white with red ears, and Maude dc Brehos, against whose husband King Jolin was highly incensed, in order to .soften the wrath of the mighty king and thereby saving the life of her husband, presented to the queen, the wife of King John, four hundred cows and one bull, all white with red ears. CATTIES. 277 Lewis F. Allen, in his admiralilc book " American Cattle," gives the only good description of these cattle that can be found. History is very silent regarding tiie Herefords, but Mr. Allen had excellent opportuni- ties for close and almost daily obser\-ation of a herd of imported Here- fords. We append his description, which is as follows : "In our researches among English authorities, we find less said of the Hereford, its history and breeding, than almost any other well-known breed. Youatt devotes but four pages to them, knowing little of them himself, and having not much information from others. What we hav^e ^'^"■^-- — -^^KSSsm^imaiw^immaasiBfiii^fsmrf,^)^"!- -. A>"'ge THE "royal," first PRIZIC IIP^RKFORD COW. gleaned from English accounts is chiefly in fugitive papers and maga- zines, b)' sundry writers and breeders; but more fortunately for the pre- sent purpo.se, we have had several years' close and almost daily observa- tion, in a herd of imported Herefords and their descendants which were kept near us, as well as of occasional observation of other importations, which have given us a more intimate knowledge of them than volumes of books, without such per.sonal observation, could have done. " Perhaps we cannot conve}' a better description of the Hereford than to say : give a Devon a quarter more size, somewhat more proportionate 278 CAm.s. boue and horn, a trifle shorter leg and longer body, a little coarser in every part, and 3'ou have a good Hereford in all excepting color. ' ' As useful cattle the Herefords are a good breed. We are aware that their introduction into the United States has not been, in compari- son with some other breeds, successful in popularit)'^ or extended distri- bution ; but that fact decides nothing as to the positive merits of the stock itself. Partiality, prejudice on the part of our cattle breeders, or pre-occupation of the ground by other breeds which meet the general approbation, may keep them for a time in the background ; but their actual merits once known, they will have a fair trial and achieve a sub- stantial success. " Like the Devon, we place the Hereford under three distinct heads; and finst. As a Dairy Cow. In this virtue she has little reputation, either in England or America. We have found no English authority, except a rare instance or two, which gives her much credit as a milker. Possibly this may have arisen from the fact that the Hereford districts are graz- ing, and not dairy. The milk is rich, but too little of it — not much more than to rear her calf in good condition. She dries early. " If she ever was a milker before her modern improvement began, the milking faculty has been sacrificed for a ready tendency to flesh, which has been obtained in a high degree in her race. We have seen a dozen of them milked through three or four successive seasons, and the yields were such as would be unsatisfactory to a modern dairyman. Now and then a fair milker turned up, but they were in a minority of numbers ; taken together they w'ere less than ordinary for the season. We will not therefore discuss this question further, but pass to another quahty as yielding greater pleasure in the relation. As a Working" Ox, " The Hereford is the peer of any other and superior to most. Large, long, muscular, well developed in form, noble and stately in carriage, he suggests all that need be found in an honest, true worker. At full maturity — say six years old — he girts seven feet behind the shoulders, in ordinary condition, to the Devon's six feet, and is every way the more powerful, if not quite so quick or active. A team of two, three, or four yokes of Herefords, under the control of a good driver, for ' a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull altogether,' is the per- fection of bovine strength and majesty. The joints of the ox are well knit, his sinews strong, his shoulders slant well to the yoke, and he carries his load well, be it at the plow, the cart, or the wagon. He is CATTLE. 279 kindly, intelligent, honest in his labor. We have seen them froni half to three-quarters blood, crossed from the conmion cow, and up to thor- ough bred, all of great excellence as draught beasts, well matched, and admirable in all their points. The Hereford blood is strong in marking its descent. From the bulls which were kept in our neighborhood eighteen j-ears ago, crossed upon cows which run on the adjacent com- mons, in their summer pasturage, we now, in theii progeny, to later generations, frequently see cows and oxen but a quarter, an eighth, or sixteenth in blood — got by scrub bulls— that show strong Hereford marks in form and color. " Where hay and pasturage are cheap, and the faimer has a taste for the business, it must be a profitable investment to obtain a thorough bred Hereford bull, cross him on well selected native red cows, and rear and break steers for the markets where good working oxen are in de- mand. The strong blood of the bull will give uniformity in shape and color, so that the steers may be easily matched, and if not wanted for the yoke, they are equally valuable, as other cattle, for feeding and the shambles. As a Beef Animal, ' ' The Hereford is superior. They feed kindly, are thrifty in growth, mature early — at three and four years old — and prove well on the butchers' block. We are aware that they have not now a general popularity in the great cattle breeding regions of our Western states. Few of them have been introduced there, and tho.se, perhaps, not in the right hands to push them to the best advan- tage. We could wish for tbem a fairer trial ; but the prejudice against the cows as milkers, and the lack in their taking appearance as a highly distinctive race, in comparison with the more taking shorthorns, have kept them back in public demand. Their time has not yet come; and it may be, that in the right hands, and with a more critical observation among our cattle breeders and graziers, they may achieve a reputation as a grazing beast, equal to some now considered their superiors. " In their native counties in England, they still hold a high rank, and at the prize shows in the London markets compete .successfully with other improved breeds. With all the deficiencies which the advocates of other breeds allege against them, the Herefords still maintain their reputation among the English breeders, who hold on to them with a pertinacity which vShows an unabated confidence in their merits and profit as a true grazier's beast. We might show recorded tables of their trials, in England, with shorthorns, and the relative profits of their feed- 2So CATTLE. ing for market, in which the Herefords gained an advantage on the score of economy; but as the trials were not from birth to slaughter, and the comparative early advantage of each breed were omitted in the ac- count, a repetition of the tables here would not be conclusive. Herefords in America. ' ' Within the past twenty years numerous importations of good Hereford cattle have been made into both the United vStates and Canada, and scattered chiefly into the Western States and Territories for crossing on the native cows and rougher Texan ones 5V.tiC%vC5>\>( M, Jiv «,YCt\«.YA -■ 3.>c<.i=i' ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL, "LIXDOLPH." for beef raising, as well as breeding in their pure blood. They com- mand ready .sales and good prices, are rapidly rising in public favor and will add largely to the better qualities of beef production. They have a Herd Book record of their own, and may be counted as having taken an established po.sition in the broad grazing districts of the country. " It is doubtful whether in early maturity for the shambles they will equal the short-horns, now so universally prevalent, but as they are ac- tive in movement, may better suit some localities where the lymphatic CATTLE. 281 temperament of the short-horns will not so well enable them to range over wide distances to gatlier Ihcir forage. Taken altogether the Here- fords are a good breed of cattle, and will undoubtedly maintain a high position among our bovine varieties." Aberdeen-Angus. The native polled cattle of Aberdeen and Angus have earl}' development of rapidly fattening properties. There ABEknKKX-AXr.US, BLACK HKIFKR, "KMPKKSS," WEIGHT 1600. SWEEPSTAKES AT FAT-STOCK SHOW, BIRMINGHAM, ENGLAND. were originally two classes, one large and another small. The small were rather puny creatures, always thin in flesh, and were very badly used. Of the larger kind abcnit one-half were jet black, excepting the udder, which was usually white and often the whole underline was 282 CATTLE. white. They could not stand stan'ation like the small polls, and with a better treatment they gave a heavier yield of milk. There is no record of any systematic combination of the two races, but as the stock raisers of those days saw no special advantage in keep- ing any herd absolutely pure from generation to generation, the natural conclusion is that their blood was more or less intermingled. Formerly, in Aberdeen and Angus the breed embraced a variety of colors as well as the difference in size. Some were brindled (dark red and black stripes alternatel}'); others were red; some brown; and a few ' ' silver-colored yellow. ' ' But systematic breeding has relegated to the back ground all shades of color, excepting the black. These cattle, as now found, are large, scarcely inferior in weight to any in the countr}'. At a casual glance they seem smaller than the average shorthorn, but when the lever of the scale is examined the dif- ference is less than what at first sight it was thought to be, and often- times the lever causes all differences to disappear. The Abeideen- Angus cattle are lengthy, deep, wide, even porportion- ate, and very cylindrical. The head of the polled male is not large and is handsome, and it is neatly set on the neck; the muzzle is fine; the nostrils wide; the eyes mild, large, and expressive; the poll high; the ears of fair size, livel}^ and well covered with hair; the throat clean, with no development of skin and flesh beneath the jaws, which are not heavy; the neck quite long, clean and rising from the head to the shoulder-top and surmounted by a crest. In the Paris Exhibition it carried off every single honor for which it was entitled to compete, and in the British show yards, both fat stock and breeding, it has attained a leading position. In a strictly butcher's point of view, it has very seldom to yield to any other race of cattle. Its superiority over other herds, for the butcher's purpose, lies mainly in the excellent quality of beef, and in the high percentage of dead meat to live meat. The carcass is usually lined with fat of the finest quality, while in the density and quality of the carcass itself this breed can easily claim first place. Some place the small Devon breed alongside if not even with the Aberdeen-Angus, but that is the only breed that will yield so large a percentage of dead meat to live weight. This breed is vSpecially adapted for crossing with short-horns. Indeed the very best beef-producing animal in the world is a cross between a short -horn bull and a polled Aberdeen- Angus cow. CATTI.E. 2S3 The Galloways. The cattle that are now known as the Aberdeen- AugUb were originally quite universally called the Gallowaj-s. They, according to many authorities, originated in the Lowlands in the extreme south-eastern part of Scotland, taking their name from the ancient king- dom or province of Galloway. They have for man>' years been bred and improved in Aberdeen and Angus, and have gradually taken unto them- selves a " new name." The Devons. This race of cattle is divided into two classes, and are called in England, North Devons and South Uevons. The South Devons are somewhat larger, coarser, and less thought of than are the North Devons. Our description shall be confined to the North Devons as they are the ones the have been most largely introduced into America. Some authors claim that this breed of cattle were known in England at the time of the invasion of Caesar, 55 B. C, They have characteris- tics that have never been produced by any other breed or by the inter- mixture of any other breeds. This would seem to prove that they date far back to an ancestry, unlike any of the other strains of blood. They have been the object of careful breeding for centuries, and dur- the past century no grade of cattle has received greater attention. They bear the distinction of being the only breed of cattle in which it is impossible to detect infusion of the blood of other breeds. Efforts have been made to improve them "as Devons" but as j^et no foreign blood has been found that adds to their excellence or beauty. Their breeders for centuries have been men of rare judgment and sagacity, and have been very painstaking, and to this fact must be attributed their purity of blood and great perfection. The Devons are of medium size. A full grown ox will tip the scales between fourteen and sixteen hundred. The bulls will weigh from ten to twelve hundred, while the average cow will weigh about nine hun- dred. When fatted, they of course will weigh considerably more, these weights being the average weight for animals in ordinary condition. Description. The Devons have a head that is rather short, with a slightly dishing face, that gracefully tapers toward a fine, clean, yel- low muzzle. Their eyes, which are sorrounded by a ring of yellow or orange colored skin, are bright and prominent. Their horns which are cream colored with black tips, may be considered as rather long for the size of the animal, but they are graceful in their setting. The ears 284 CATTLE. are lively in action and well set. Their necks are clean and without dewlaps, and are on a level with the head and shoulders. Their fine, open, shoulders are on a level with the back, and slant somewhat like the shoulders of a horse. Their neck-veins are smooth and full, and their full briskets project well forward. Their arms are delicate and the leo;s below the knees are small and terminate in a brown and some- what striped hoof. Their backs are straight from the shoulders to the root of the tail. Their ribs form the framework of a full chest and as they set well back toward the hips, they gi\'e the belly a snug and neat ENGLISH DEVON BULL- appearance. Their hi]:)S are wide and on a level with the back. They have full loins and their thighs are well fleshed, the lo ver pa:t thin and tapering toward the hock. The s^iace between tlie thighs is well let down and open. Their tails are tapering and end with a brush of white hair. They are invariably of a cherry red, and the skin under the hair is of a rich cream color. The hair is silky and lays in waves over most of the body. As a Beef Animal. For the fineness of its flesh and the delicacy of its flavor, the Devon is not surpassed by any variety of cattle. In growth and size it matures nearly as soon as the famous short-horn, and yields under good feeding nicely marbled, (lean and fat intermixed), fine CATTI^B. 285 grained, juicy meat. They are good feeders, fatten quickl>-, and the quality of their flesh is such that American butchers always prefer the Downs for their market. They are not large animals, but their flesh is laid on in the choicest parts. In America their small size seems to be their great objection, hence the animal is not largely bred. They would prove profitable in hilly and mountainous sections, where the large, heavy cattle find it diffi- cult to gather the grasses. DEVON HEIFER, "jENNY," IO562. As a Dairy Animal. The Devon does not give a large amount of milk, but the quality is first-class, yielding per gallon almost as much butter as the Jersey. Originally they perhaps produced more milk than tliey do at the present time, for the breeders of this valuable breed of cattle worked toward a finer form, and heavier carcass, or the best beef laid on in the most profitable parts. She is fairly well fitted for a dairy cow, if bred in that direction, for she is easy to keep, has a good disposition, and is easily managed. Her udder is small, soft and tidy, and is well covered with silky hair, and her clean, tapering teats are easily drawn. 286 CATTLB. As a Wofking; Ox. "For his inches" there is no other horned beast that can draw so heavy a load. He is not so large as the Here- fords and many other cattle, but his great strength, moderate size and activity makes him of special value on light, sandy soils, and on hilly roads. On the road and at the plow they are equal to the ordinary duties, and they will cover a mile or turn a long furrow quicker than the slow walking, heavier breeds. The Ayrshires. Ayrshire is the finest dairy county in vScotland, and extends along the Firth of Clyde and the North Channel. This is the former home of the Ayrshire cattle, but how they originated is a matter of dispute; all that is certainly known about this now valuable breed is that in 1730 there was no such breed in Ayrshire, or in that vicinity. But we leave its origin to be fought over by historians, know- ing that even if able to trace out its ancestry it would not add any qual- ities nor enhance its value as a milk cow. As a Dairy Cow. Mr. Alton, who is considered the best of au- thority on the Ayrshires, has the following to say regarding their quali- ties as a dairy animal : "The excellency of a dairy cow is estimated by the quantity and the quality of her milk. The quantity yielded by the Ayrshire cow is, con- sidering her size, very great. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an average quantity. * Three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. This would amount to more than eight hundred fifty gallons; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, six hundred gallons per year may be con- sidered as the average quantity obtained annually from each cow. The quality of the milk is estimated by the quantity of butter or chee.se that it will yield. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound and a half avoirdupois, of butter. An Ayrshire cow may be reckoned to yield two hundred fifty-seven English pounds per annum, or about- prized by those who have adopted them for dairy purposes. Red Polls. These cattle have for many years been extensively bred and used for both dairy and beef production, in the county of Norfolk, in England, and have been known for many years as Norfolk Polled Cattle. There were hornless cattle in Suffolk County which adjoins Norfolk, but these cattle, like those of Norfolk, originally were of all shades of color. The breeders of both counties .succeeded after nearly a half a century of careful attention in giving them uniformity of color, but those of Suffolk bred toward a "dun" color and the.se cattle for years were known as "'Suffolk Duns;" while the breeders of Norfolk bred towards a handsome red, and these are to-day the "Red Polls." The Red Polls are of medium size, and are a very handsome red. They are hardy and thrifty; fatten easily; mature early; very quiet dis- position; easily handled; good milkers; (equal to Aynshires); fawn-like head and limbs; and a well rounded form. Their flesh is of best quality. These cattle closely resemble the renowned Devons, and if it were not for the fact that they are without horns, it would not be a hard stretch of imagination to believe them Devons, even if size and characteristics were taken into consideration. A mature steer will reach sixteen or eighteen hiuidred pounds gross weight and they make very profitable beef cattle. As a dairy cow, and in this particular they are of most value, she is a fine, well-formed animal with a good development of the milk produc- ing faculties. Her udder is broad and shapely, and the teats well spread. With good feeding and care the average "Red Polls" will yield thirty to forty pounds of rich milk per day, and of course since th^ milk is rich there will be a good amount of butter produced. 292 CATTLE. It is considered b}' many to be of threat advantage to have a breed of polled cattle because they can not injure other animals by the \ icious use of the horns. Those dairymen who object to cattle with horns can by procuring a pure-bred "Red Poll" effectually breed off the horns of his calves. A large percentage will be without horns owing to his strong blood. These animals have a herd book of their own and are being imported into this country in considerable numbers. They have arrived at the point Avliere all the large and well established cattle-shows and agricultiu'al fairs are offering premiums for best animals of this variety, equal in amount to those paid for other breeds. The Holsteins. The introduction and distribution of cattle was very nuich the same as the coming of the inhabitants. Certain portions of our land were held by the Spaniards, and to this day in the native cattle of that section will be found some of the chifacteristics of the Spanish herds. The English brought their short -horns and the Dutch settlers of New York brought their first cattle from ILjlland. These cattle for many years followed the Dutch settlers along the Hudson and up the Mohawk, and they became the chief stock of those sections. This breed of cattle has been greatly improved since 1800. Their native country is largely given up to the dairy interests, and it was but natural that the animals that gave the inhabitants their income should receive special care in development. The greatest points of excellence are their milking qualities, coupled with large size, and a very compact massive frame, capable of making good beef. The oxen are very strong animals, and they can be turned into profitable beef at the end of a couple of season's labor. They are almost invariably black and white in color, spotted, pied, or mottled in picturesque inequalities of proportion over the body, no two cattle being marked alike. The horn is short, and the hair short, fine, and .silky. The lacteal formations in the cow are wonderful, thus giv- ing them prominence in the dairy. This breed is not well known to the cattle breeders ana grazers, and as they become better known they will without doubt become important factors in the dairy interests of our country. CATTI^B. 293 To give an idea of what the}' will produce, we append an account of a herd which was imported into this country in 1861. "A four years old bull girts seven feet ten inches; his length is eight feet seven inches; height, four feet eleven inches; weight, twenty- four hundred sixt^'-live pounds. The four imported cows, each seven years old, have an average weight of thirteen hundred twcnt>--fi\-e pounds. The weight of a past two 3'ears old heifer is twelve hundred forty potmds. A past yearling heifer weighed nine hundred sixty pounds; and the weight of six calves, at an average of eight months, reared in the usual way, without forcing, was an a\-erage of five hundred seventy-six pounds each. The milking quahties of the breed may be judged by the following memoranda: one of the imported cowr, when six }'ears old, dropped a calf on the 15th of May, weighing one hundred and one pounds; and from the 26th of May to the 27tli of July, by a careful and exact record, gave four thousand eighteen pounds fourteen ounces of milk. The largest yield in any one day, was seventy-six pounds five ounces, (35^ quarts.) In ten days she gave seven hundred forty-four poiuids twelve ounces, or an average of nearly sevent}'-four and one-half pounds per day. She gave a good flow of milk during the season, continuing to the 24th of May following, and on the succeeding day dropped twin heifer calves, which weighed one hundred fifty-five pounds. The amount of cream produced from this cow's milk, in a vessel specially prepared for measuring it, produced twenty-two and seven-tenths of the milk, as tested by an accurate examination. The nutritive qualities of the milk were also tested by a thorough chemical analysis, and found to be excel- lent. It was also rich in its caseine, or cheese making properties. Six days' milk of this cow were .set for cream, and the produce was seven- teen pounds fourteen ounces of good butter — -nearly three pounds per day; and it is claimed by her owner that she is not the very best cow of the herd. These results show not onl}- the remarkable productions of the cow, but the accurate and pains- taking care of the proprietor of the herd, in testing their ability at the pail. Of what the food given to the cow was composed, we are not informed We are to presume, however, !t was of the best, as every cow should have, to test to the utmost, lier lacteal faculties. Within the last twenty-five years large importations of Holstein, or, as some now term them, Friesan cattle have been made into the United 294 Cattle. States, chief!)' or altogether for milk production. Hundreds of them in herds, more or less in numbers, are kept in several of our Northern and Western States, \vitli decided approval by their owners and propagators, as superior milk-producers. Although about equal to tnem in size, they lack the rotundity and fullness of the short-horn in snaoe, are coarser in the bone, less graceful in outline of anatomy, larger consumers of forage, yet no doubt compensating for this latter demand in the full flow of milk they yield. As a beef-producer the Holstein steers may be said to be yet on pro- bation. It is doubtful whether they will rival the most approved fiesh- making breeds which are bred and grazed on the broad stock farms of our country, in early maturity and profit in feeding. Their entire structure and development tends solely to their lacteal joroducts, in which they have proved a remarkable variety of their species. In this high quality they will no doubt prove a successful acquisition for the produc- tion of milk in our large city and town markets as well as to more or less extent in the dairies of our country. They have already acquired a firm position as an approved variety in our cattle culture. ' ' HOW TO JUDGE A GOOD COW. In shape the cow should have a long, finely-formed head ; long, thin neck ; rump nearly on a line with the back-bone ; broad quarters ; long udder, from back to front ; and large veins underneath the belly, and downwards, from the loins and thigh to the udder. When seen in front, the body of a good milker should present the appearance of a blunted wedge, the apex of which is the breast and shoulder. Seen from behind, she should present a square, well spread shape. Seen sideways, she should be lengthy, but not lanky. The thighs should be rather thin, but broad, well spread, so as to give plenty of room for the udder. The teats should be moderately long, straight, and equal distance from each other. The two front teats, should be well apart, and the direction of all four should be downward. The skin is considered by many a true index of the milking properties of the cow. To indicate a good milker the skin should be soft and flexible on all parts of the body, especially the back ribs and on the rump bone. CATTLB. 295 SPECIAL IINFORI^IATIOIS. Sore Teats, Cracks and Warts. When teats become sore and crack, caused by sucking or improper milking use the following ointment : Vaseline 1 ounce. Balsam of tolu 5 grains. Sulphate of zinc 5 grains. When warts are troublesome, clip them off with sharp scissors and burn their roots with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done previous to parturition. White Lotion. The surface of wounds of horses and cattle should be dressed twice a day with the following lotion. A bottle of this should always be on hand to aid in heal- ing and disinfecting cuts and wounds: Acetate (sugar) of lead i ounce. Sulphate of zinc 6 drams. Water i quart. Mix lead and zinc in quart bottle, put on half the water, shake till dissolved, then add remainder of water. Wounds. The first consideration in dressing a wound is cleanliness. Sponge the wound with a two per cent, solution of carbolic acid. Never bring sponge in contact with wound, but wring out just above the wound and let the water trickle over the injured part. Then dress with "White Lotion." In cool weather dress with Oxide of zinc ointment 4 ounces. Compound tincture of benzoin .. 2 drams. Mix thoroughly and keep the box securely covered. Proud Flesh. If this appears do not interfere with it until after the acute stage of inflammation has passed. Then if it continues treat with a solution of sulphate of copper (blue stone or blue vitriol) and water. Caked Udder or Garget. This congestion generally disappears in two or three days It is greatly hastened by the sucking of a hungry calf, and the kneading it gives the udder with its nose. Strip the udder carefully four or five times a day. and if necessary to ward off or allay inflammation bathe with warm water for twenty minutes at a time, every time the udder is stripped. See Mam- mitis. Mammitis. This differs from the above, as it is not a disease of parturition, but is caused by injury to the udder, exposure to cold or wet, or overfeeding. Oftentimes only one quarter may be affected. Feed the animal sparingly, foment the affected part as above, and if the animal has general fever, give every four hours ten drops of tincture of aconite or belladonna. Horn Distemper. There is no such disease known among the veterinarians. What is generally called "Horn Distemper" is Dyspepsia or Indigestion. Give the animal a laxa- tive in a quart of gruel. Epsom or Glauber salt 12 ounces. Gentian i ounce. Ginger i ounce. After the laxative has operated, if the appetite is irregular give one-half ounce of gentian, night and morning. The method of splitting the tail and putting in salt and pepper, or pouring some drug in the ear, or boring the horn and putting in any substance whatever is cruel and unscientific. If the animal has simple "cold in the head " steam the same as described on pa'ge 25, under Steaming. 296 CATTm. Casting the Withers. This is the result of the womb failing to contract after calving. The womb is turned outside in and protrudes through the vagina and hangs from the vulva. The womb is easily distinguished from the protruding vagina by the presence over its surface of a large number of mushroom-like bodies, each two or three inches in diameter and attached by a narrow neck. The following illustration will wnable this condition to be readily recognized. -^^m If the eversion is only partial or even complete, if taken before the womb be- comes gorged with blood or inflamed, it is often easily returned to its normal position. Place the cow so that she stands one foot higher behind than before. Strain- ing should be checked by pinching the cow's back. Take a sheet, and having it held by two men, sustain the everted womb and slowly raise it to the level of the vulva. Sponge clean with cold water, and finally it may be sponged over with laudanum or with a weak solution of car- bolic acid (i dram to i quart of water). The closed fist having been greased with vaseline may now be planted in the rounded part of the largest horn and pushed so as to turn it back within itself and carry it on through the vagina, the other hand being used meanwhile to as- sist in pushing the different masses in succession within the lips of the vagina. If the straining cannot be stopped by pinching the back, it may be checked by giving two ounces of laudanum or one and one-half ounces of chloral hydrate. Fifteen to twenty minutes are usually sufficient to cause the return of the womb, provided straining is prevented by pinch- ing the back or otherwise. Retention of the womb is the next point, and this is most easily accomplished by the means of a rope truss. Take two ropes one inch in diameter and eighteen feet long, and double each of them. Lay them so that one bend lies above the other about eight inches, the double ends extending in opposite directions. Twist each end of the one rope twice about the other so as to form an opening when drawn tight. Tie a strap or rope or use a horse collar around the neck, and a surcingle about the body. Place the rope truss on the animal so that the opening left in the rope will surround the vulva, the two ascending ropes on the right and left of the tail, and the descending ones down inside the thighs, one on each side of the udder. See illustration. Extend the ropes under the body and tie to the surcingle and collar. Those on the back should be twisted about each other and also tied to the surcingle and collar. These ropes should be drawn so tightly that the rope ring is made to press firmly all around the vulva without risk of getting out of place. This should be worn for several days. Variations of the ring about the vulva are found ina nar- Cattle. 297 row triangle of iron, or leather put around a piece of wood cut to the right shape, these devices being held in place by ropes fastened to the surcingle and collar same as above. Milk Fever. This disease while peculiar to the cow, seldom attacks any of the common stock, and is chiefly confined to the improved and highly fed animal. It occurs only at or near the lime of calving. The blood is extremely dense. The red corpuscles are reduced in size. If water is added to blood, reducing its density, ..he cor- puscles increase in size, but if salt is added to blood, increasing its density, the corpuscles decrease in size; hence the smallness of the corpuscles prove the density of the b'ood. This disease never occurs with the first calving, rarely m the second, and usually after easy calving in which there has been but little loss of blood, proving that ab- straction of blood is demanded, provided the animal is seen before going down. From four to six quarts may be taken. As the blood is withdrawn its place is taken by liquids drawn from all parts of the body, and thus the blood is diluted. Give the animal plenty of water to drink. It is a good practice to give a strong dose of purgative medicine as follows: Epsom salts 2 pounds. Carbonate ammonia J4 ounce. Nux vomica J4 dram. Injections of warm water (three quarts), with soap or oil. may be beneficial. Ice water or bags of ice on the head are of great value in cases where the horns, ears, and head are very hot and the eyes red and swollen. In such cases large and frequent doses of tincture of aconite (20 drops every four hours) are indicated. Keep the head of the cow, tied above the level of the body by passing a rop« over a beam above. If the body is very hot wrap the whole body in blankets saturated with cold water. Cases often recover rapidly and are a surprise. A cow insensible only a few hours before is found up and eating. Others recover more slowly and require careful attention, and restricted feeding followed by a daily dose of saltpetre and nux vomica for several days. " For such fatal disease prevention is of far more consequence than treatment. Among the efficient preventives may be named a spare diet for a week before calving and at least four days after. A free access to salt and water is most im- portant, as the salt favors drinking and the water serves to dilute the rich and dense blood. A dose of epsom salts (one to two pounds) should be given twenty- four hours before calving is due, so that it may operate at or just before that act. In case calving has occurred unexpectedly in the heavy milker, lose no time in giv- ing the purgative thereafter. If epsom salts are not at hand use saltpetre (one ounce) for several days. If the udder is greatly engorged before calving it may be milked for several days before, and should be not less than thrice a day after. A hungry calf is a good auxiliary, but for a very heavy milker the new-born calf gives but very imperfect relief, and must be supplemented by the hand of the milker. Daily exercise is also of im- portance. In summer an open shed or shady grove is better than a close, stuffy stall. A rich pasture (clover especially), in May, June, or July, is to be carefully avoided. Better keep the cow indoors on dry straw with plenty of salt and water than to have access to such pa>stures. It is safest to avoid breeding again fronr a cow that has once suffered." 29^ CATTLS. DISEASES OF CATTLE AND THEIR REMEDIES. Almost all the diseases of cattle, arise either from exposure to wet and cold weather; from their food being of a bad quality; or deficient in quantity; or from being changed too suddenly from poor, unwholesome keep, to rich pasture. Cattle in their native state are almost free from diseases, but man, breeding with some particular object in view, has often weakened the constitutions of the breed, and that, together with their manner of feed- ing and care, make them liable to disease. The following general facts are appended to show the class of food and the manner of feeding that may cause disordered digestion and other diseases. Coarse, fibrous hay overtaxes the digestive powers, irritates the mucous surface of the stomachs and bowels, and may cause an inactive condi- tion of the stomachs, or may lead to d3'sentery from its effect on the bowels. Timothy haj^, while good feed for horses, when fed to cattle that do not have much exercise, will lead to constipation. Hay fed to cattle should contain clover on account of its laxative effect, because this will aid in keeping the bowels in a natural condition. Fineh^ ground food, such as corn-meal and middlings, should not be fed alone. They form in large balls in the stomach and resist the action of the digestive fluids, often causing very severe attacks of indigestion. Feed all finely ground grains on cut hay. Hay badly cured or often exposed to rain while drying, is innu- tritions, and naay produce inflammatory diseases of the stomach and bowels. Krgot in hay, will produce gangreen of the extremities. If there is a suspicion that there is ergot in the hay, feed roots to the cattle, as they counteract in a measure the effect of the ergot. Rusty straw and musty oats will produce disease if fed to cattle. Smut on corn diminishes its nutritive qualities and cattle fed on it lose in weight, .sometimes ending in inflaunnation of the fourth stomach, Frozen turnips and potatoes produce dangerous attacks of indigestion when eaten by cattle. Grass wet by cold dew or rain, or covered with hoar-frost, is danger- ous to cattle. Eating in excess in luxurient pastures will produce indigestion. GATTI^E. 299 Therefore when cattle are first turned into such pasture, let them remain only a short time each day, until they have become accustomed to the richer and more tempting herbage. Too cold or too warm water may lead to weakened digestive organs. Ice water, or very cold water often produces cramps in the fourth stomach. Mixing salt in the focxl is not considered expedient, as more may be given than the animal demands, thus causing undue thirst. Better have rock salt within their reach, so that the}' can get what nature demands. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Stomatitis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by cattle eating some irritating substance, by eating acid plants, or little vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with indigestion, constituting wdiat is termed aphtha. Symptoms. The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when it is examined the surface of the tongue and other parts of the mouth will appear red and inflamed. When young animals are affected with the form of disease termed aphtha small red elevations will be observed on the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the mncous membrane raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated surfaces, which are exposed by the shedding of the white patches of epithelium. Treatment. When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condi- tion of the nuicous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to .syringe it out several times a day with four ounces of the following solution : alum, one ounce; water, two pints. When the edges of the tongue and other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers, these should be painted over once a day with the following solution until the affected surface is healed : iodoform, .sixty grains; ether, one ounce. When indigestion is associated with an ulcerated condition of the mouth, that disorder re- quires separate treatment. Sore Throat or Pharyngitis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the jjharynx. It is frequently associated with laryngitis and bronchitis, and sometimes with pleurisy. 300' CA'TTI^B. Sytnptotns. The muzzle is dry, tlie saliva dribbles from the corner of the mouth; the animal either does not swallow, or swallows with dif- ficulty; occasionally the liquids which it attempts to take come back in part through the nostrils, and the animal holds its neck in a stiff, straight position, moving it as little as possible. The ej'elids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal occasionally grinds its teeth. When it attempts to eat hay or grass, after masti- cating the food the animal drops it out of its mouth, as if to avoid the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied on the pharynx externally, and tries to prevent such pressure being applied. Causes. Pharyngitis is produced by a sudden cooling of the surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a cold rain. • Treatment, The throat should be syringed three times a day with an ounce of the following solution : 1^ drams Nitrate of Silver. 1 pint Water. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea, oatmeal and water, should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist of soft food, such as bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in them. The upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws should be well rubbed once a day with the following liniment : 4 ounces Aqna Ammonia, (Stronger), 4 ounces Olive Oil. 4 ounces Oil of Turpentine. Under the above treatment the inflammation of the throat will gradu- ally subside and the animal will be able to swallow as usual in five or six days. During its treatment the sick animal should be kept in a com- fortable stable. Choking". This accident usually happens from attempting to swal- low toe ^arge an object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, or an apple or pear, though in rare cases choking may occur from bran, chaff, or some other finely divided food lodging in and filling up a portion of the gul- let. This latter form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals that are greedy feeders. Symptoms. The symptoms will vary somewhat according to the part of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is located. In most cases there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs CATTLB. 301 frequently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. These symp- toms, however, are not ahvays present. Pharyngeal Choke. It is always advisable to put a gag in the animal's mouth, and while the head is held in a horrizontal direction by two assistants to pass the hand into the pharj'nx, and when any foreign body is found in .the pharynx to withdraw it gradually and steadily. When the substance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet pressure should be made by an assistant in an upward direction while the oper- ator passes his hand into the pharynx, and if the assistant cannot by pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet the operator may by passing his middle finger above and partly behind the substance, grad- ually slide the object into the pharynx and then withdraw it by the mouth. Cervical Choke. The presence of an obstructing substance in the cer\'ical portion of the gullet may be ascertained by pa.ssing the hand along the left side of the neck, when a hard and painless swelling will be found to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases we must endeavor by gentle and persevering pressure with the thumb and two next fingers to slide the obstructing substance gradually upward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the animal a wine- glassful of olive oil before the manipulations described are commenced. When the substance has been brought into or nearly into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, the tongue drawn partially forward with the left hand, and the right should be passed forward into the pharynx so as to withdraw the obstruction. When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet and then by gentle and persevering pressure to endeavor to separate and divide the mass and then to work it downward toward the stomach. This will be assisted by pouring small quantities of oil and water down the animal's throat. It is not advisable to use the probang to push down any soft material such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses and renders firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its particles or elements together, so that it forms a solid, resistmg mass which can not be moved. In some cases the foreign body can not be dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipulating that part externally. In such an event we must resort to the use of the probang, or if the foreign body is lodged in that part of the gullet which pa.s.ses through the thorax or chest, there is no way of removing an obstruction so situated except by using 302 CATTLE. the probang. Before passing the probang a gag is introduced into the aininal's mouth, and the gag should have an aperture at each end from which a strap passes and is buckled at the back of the head below the horns. The i")robang should then be oiled, and the head and neck being held in a straight line b}' two assistants, tlip tongue nuist be partly drawn out of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof of the mouth into the pharynx and then into the gullet, through Avhich it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and continuous pres- sure must be emploj-ed, under the influence of which the agent will generally in a short time pass into the stomach. A probang is a flexible instrument, and adapts itself to the natural curvature of the gullet, so that if it is used cautiously there is not much risk of injury. Hoven, Tympanites, or Bloating. This disease is character- ized by swelling of the left flank, and is caused by the formation of gas in the rumen or jxiunch. (See Manikin of Cow). Causes. Tympanites may be caused by any kind of food which pro- duces indigestion. When cattle are first turned into young clover they eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results; turnips, potatoes, and cabbage may also cause it; middlings and cornmcal also frequently give rise to it. An excessive quantity of any of the before- mentioned foods may bring on this disorder; or it may not be due to excess but to eating too hastily. Sometimes the quality of the food is at fault. Grass or clover wet by dew or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings on tympanites; frozen roots or pastures covered with hoar-frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When food has been eaten too hastily, or when it is cold and wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed and the food contained in the paunch ferments, during which process large quantities of gas are formed. The same result may follow when a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the passing up of gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate until tympanite results. Symptoms. The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as iu well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of the backbone, and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a drum- LiKK sound. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, and is evidently di.stressed. If relief is not obtained in time it breathes with difficulty, reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls down and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may CATTLR. 303 become so great as to prevent the animal from breathing, and in some instances the case may be compHcated by rupture of the stomach. Treatment. In urgent cases the trocar should be used immediately, for when the distention of the stomach has l)ecome extreme there is no trj'ing the remedial effect of medicine. The trocar is a sharp-pointed instrument encased in a sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the tro- car freer. In selecting the point for using the trocar, a spot equally dis- tant from the last ril:), the hip l)one and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae must be chosen. (See Manikin of Cow). Here an incision about three-quartei's of an inch long should be made through the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar being directed down- ward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust into the paunch. The sheath of the tocar should be left in the paunch as long as any gas con- tinues to issue from it. If the canula or sheath of the tocar is removed while gas is still forming in the paunch and the Wft flank becomes con- siderably swollen it ma}' be necessary to insert it again. Observe the canula closely, and if gas is found to be issuing from it, do not remove it. In order to be certain on this point, place the palm of the hand about two inches above the mouth of the canula, when, if the gas is issuing, the current of gas can be felt coming against the skin. It is occasionally necessary to keep the canula in the stomach for several hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should be passed round the neck of the canula immediately below the projecting rim, and then be passed round the animal's body and tied in a secure knot. The rim surrounding the mouth of the canula should be in contact with the skin. When the canula is secured as described it may remain in the stomach over night. It is sometimes necessary to keep it in that posi- tion for two daj's. But whenever the person in charge of the cow is satisfied that gas has ceased to issue from the canula it should be removed. The canula is only to be employed in extreme or urgent cases, though everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle will realize that he has saved the bves of many animals by its prompt appli- cation. When the tympanic animal is not distressed, and the .swelling of the fiank is not great, it is best to resort to the administration of in- ternal medicine. Two ounces of aromatic spirits of annnonia should be given every half hour in a quart of cold water, or half an ounce of chloride of lime ma}' be dissolved in a pint of tepid water, and the dose repeated every half-hour until the bloating has subsided. It is generally 304 CATTLB. necessary to give a dose of purgative mediciae after bloating has sub- sided, as animals frequently show symptoms of constipation after attacks of indigestion. When the bloating is not too great gentle walk- ing exercise will facilitate the removal of the gas. Indigestion of the Third Stomach. This has been called Grass Staggers, Dry Murrain, and Wood Kvil. The fact that there has been so many different names applied to this disease indicates that those who have written concerning it are by no means agreed as to its nature and cause. Among sjanpathetic writers, howev^er, there seems to be a general agreement that the seat of the disease is in the third stomach, as they have followed one another faithfully in describing that part as the sole seat of trouble. Causes. Want of exercise predisposes to this disease, or food which is coarse or indigestible may after a time produce this condition. Food which possesses astringent properties and tends to check secretion may also act as an exciting cause. Food in excessive quantity may also lead to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very likely to appear toward the end of protracted seasons of drought, therefore a deficiency of water must be regarded as one of the conditions which favor its development. Symptoms. Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue coated, mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and smelling badly, dullness and fullness of the flanks. It is also frequently stated that on pressing the fist below the short ribs on the right side the third stomach will be found as a hard sort of mass in that situation. The disease may in some cases assume a chronic character in addition to the foregoing symptoms; slight bloating or tympanites of the left flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort, and each alter- nately hot and cold; rumination ceases; the usual rumbling sound in the stomach is not audilDle; the passage of dung is almost suspended; and the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. The patient falls away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by one frequently finding it lying down. When the animal falls into this weak and exhausted con- dition the disease frequently terminates fatally. Occasionally the brain becomes disordered, no doubt from the de- ranged condition of the stomach reaching the brain through the reflex action. There is weakness and an unsteady gait, the afflicted animal does not appear to take notice of and will consequently run against ob- stacles. After a time it falls down and gives up to violent and disordered CATTLE. 305 movements. This delirium is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death ensues. Treatment. Aromatic and demulcent draughts should be given to produce a soothing effect on the nuicous lining of the stomachs and to promote digestion. Two ounces of chamoniile flowers should be boiled for twenty minutes in a quart of water, and the infusion on cooling should be given to the affected animal. This should be repeated about three times a day. When constipation is present the following purga- tive niaj- be administered: sulphate of magnesia, one pound; Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce; powdered ginger, one pound; powdered nux vomica, one dram; fluid extract of belladonna, half an ounce. The different powers contained in this prescription should be stirred up in two quarts of lukewarm water, then the fluid extract of belladonna and the dose administered. After this purgative has acted, if there is a lack of appetite, and the animal does not ruminate regularly, give the following tonic and antacid preparation to promote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in such cases: powdered gentian, three ounces; powdered bicarbonate of potash, three ounces; powdered ginger, three ounces; powdered capsicum, one ounce. Mix and divide into twelve powders. Give one of these powders, shaken up with half a pint of whiskey aud a pint of water, three times a day before feeding. The diet must be rather laxative and of a digestible character after an attack of this form of indigestion. Food should be given in moderate quanti- ies, as any excess by overtaxing the digestive functions may bring on a relapse. Colic, or Indigestion from Cold Water. This disorder is pro- duced by drinking copiously of cold water, which arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the other stomachs, and also of the bowels. It is frequently observed in working oxen dur- ing hot weather. Causes. It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at once. In fact he usually drinks slowly, and as if he were merely tasting the water, letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouth- ful. He drinks much less in proportion to his size than the horse, and when fed on green food or at pasture he may pass several daj-s without drinking. It would, therefore, seem to be contrary to the habits of the ox to drink largely. But we find that during hot weather, when he has been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he drinks a large quantity of cold water he is immediately taken with a very severe colic 306 CATTLB. It often affects milch cows quite severely in \Yinter, when they are let out of a warm stable to be watered. Cows which are fed largel)- on dry hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in pre- cisely the same manner. But the secretion of milk in the cow is usually much diminished after such attacks. In such cases they are seized with a chill or fit of trembling before the cramps come on. Symptoms. There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accu- mulation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after the animal has swallowed the water there can not be any doubt as to the exciting cause. Cruzel, in speaking of the treatment of this disease, says it is customary among French farmers to walk or even trot the ox up and down, and that as a result of this treatment the water passes from the fourth stomach into the bowel, from which it is soon j^assed off not much changed, except that it is slightly colored by the substances with which it has come in contact in passing through the bowel. Diarrhea then appears to be a favorable termination of this affection. Treatment. The treatment above descrilied should be adopted in a modified form. It is obviously dangerous to trot an animal whose stomach and bowels are largely distended with water, but it aj^pears rational to walk the animal about for ten minutes before administering medicine, as this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In many cases the walking exercises and the diarrhea bring about a spontaneous cure of this disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and pains of the stomachs persist, give one ounce of sulphuric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, shaken up with a pint of warm water, and to repeat the dose in half an hour if che animal is not relieved. In an emergency when medicine is not to be had, half a ])intof vhisky may be substituted for medicine, and should l^e given mixed with a pint of warm water; or a table-spoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in the same way as the remedies already mentioned. I/OSS of Cud. It is very common among farmers, when a cow or ox is ailing, to say that the sick animal has lost its cud. If it is meant that the animal does not ruminate or chew the cud, and that it con- sequently must be sick, no fault can be found with the expression. In most cases, however, the remark is not intended to convey the idea that the animal does not ruminate, but that the loss the cud is a disea.se in itself. Loss of cud is a symptom of suspended rumination, and is not a disease, and shows that the animal's digestive functions are CATTLE. 307 not performed as regularl}' as usual. It is a symptom of a great many diseases, and when its existence is detected, it should lead the observer to try and discover other symtoms, so that on those he may base a correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal suffers. Diarrhea. This results either from increased action of the muscu- lar coat of the intestines, an muisuall}' liquid state of their contents, or, generally from both of these conditions combined. Causes. The exciting causes of diarrhea may be thus arranged: Irritation of the intestines by food taken in excess, or of improper (pial- ity, and this especially applies to soft, watery, green, food; excessive secretions, especially bile; impure water and water drunk in excess; mechanical congestion of the intestinal vessels; acute or chronic inflam- mation of the bowels. It may be a symptom of other diseases which de- pend on the presence of an animal poison in the blood, as may be ob- served in Texas fever and contagious pleuro-pneumotiia. Causes of a more general character, viz.; exposure to changes of temperature, either excessive heat or cold ma}' produce it. Symptoms. The animal is dull, places its feet well under the body, arches its back, and shows thirst. Passages from the bowels are fre- quent, at first consisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they become vvater}^ and offensive smelling, and may even be streaked with blood. Frequently this malady is accompanied by fever, great de- pression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate in death. Treatment. When the disease depends on irritating properties of the food which has been supplied to the animal it is advisable to give a mild purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secre- tions of the bowels are irritating an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and half an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in a quart of linseed tea and given to the animal three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. When there is debility, want of appetite, no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges from the bowels, then an astringent may be given. Eor such cases we have found the following serviceable: 6 ounces Powdered Galls, 2 ouuces Powdered Qentian. Mix and divide into twelve powders. Three times a day give one of these powder until the passages present a natural appearance. Each 3o8 CATTLE. powder should be mixed with a half pint of whiskey and a pint of water When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized by the presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such disease must be applied. Dysentery. This disease begins with inflammation of the mucous membrane of the colon, though the disease may extend to the caecum and sometimes to the rectum. It is also popularly known in this coun- try by the names of bloody flux and red murrain. Causes. Feeding cattle on ha}' which has been made during a wet season, musty oats, or any forage which is largely infested with parasitic growths. Ha)' or coarse grass containing a large proportion of woody fiber, pastures which have been inundated, and the vegetation growing on low, marshy, localities may set up irritation of the mucous membrane which terminates in dysentery. Water containing a large proportion of organic matter maj' also occasion this disease. The passages or excreta of animals suffering from the disease are to be regarded as contain- ing an infective element, and should immediately be disinfected, burned, or buried. Symptoms. The animal eats slowly, ruminates less frequently than when in good health, and walks slowly. Sometimes there are indica- tions of colicky pains. As the disease advances, the animal ceases to eat and ruminate, the muzzle is dry, the e3'es sunken, the cough rough, and the skin dry and adherent or hidebound. The bowels act regularly and the passages are thin, black, colored or grayish; the passages then become frequent, fetid, and are streaked with blood. This disease does not rim a rapid course, and when it proves fatal the mucous membrane of the bowels will be found thickened and reddened at some parts, show- ing ulceration at some other points, and on some portions of its surface covered with a layer of mucus. Treatment. When symptoms of dysenterj^ are first observed, a pound of sulphate of magnesia should be mixed with four quarts of tepid water, and then two drams of sulphuric acid should be gradually added to this mixture. This should be given at one dose, and it is important that it should be administered at an early stage of the disease, as it not only serves to remove irritating materials from the bowels, but it has an astringent and sedative effect on the mucous surfaces and lessens the congestion. The food should be soft and easy of digestion, and may consist of grass, lioiled or pulped roots, and nutritive drinks, such as linseed tea, hay tea, etc. When the purgative before mentioned has CATTLE. 309 unloaded the bowels and stomachs to some extent, the following powder should be given three times a day, mixed in a quart of linseed tea : powdered ipecacuanha, one ounce and a half ; powdered opium, half an ounce; mix and divide into twelve powders. When the foregoing pre- paration is not found effectual, oil of turpentine may be given in half- ounce doses three times a day in a quart of new sweet milk, and among other remedies which may be employed we may mention sulphate of copper, which should be given in dram doses, combined with twenty grains of opium and mixed with at least a quart of linseed tea. Nitrate of silver may also be given in ten grain doses mixed or dissolved in a pint of distilled water. These latter remedies are especially efficacious in their effect on the ulcerations on the surface of the intestine, but it is not advisable to use them in an early stage. Whatever remedy is employed in treating dysentery, it should be given mixed in a consider- able quantity of liquid, as in this way it brings the medicinal agent in contact with a large portion of the mucous surface of the diseased bowel. In addition to the treatment recommended, the diseased animal must be kept warm and comfortable, and great attention must be paid to its gen- eral comfort. "White Scour in Calves. Sucking calves are subject to a form of diarrhea known as white scour, gastric catarrh or diarrhea, and indiges- tion. Causes. Calves which suck their dams are not frequentlj^ affected with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indiges- tion. Calves which are separated from their dams and which receive considerable quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract tlws form of indigestion. Calves fed on artificial food, which is sometimes used as a substitute for milk, also frequently contract it. Symptoms. The milk which passes into the fourth stomach be- comes curdled and acts as an irritant on the surface of the stomach and bowels, so that a catarrhal condition of their mucous surface is set up. The passages have a thin, yellowish white appearance and become very frequent. The calf becomes dull, whisks its tail as if in pain when- ever there is a passage from the bowels, loses appetite, becomes weak, and unless the disease is checked, dies in a few days from exhaustion. Treatment. The calf should have from one to two ounces of castor oil and a table-spoonful of laudanum. A mild dose of purgative medi- 3IO CATTLE. cine is given to remove the curdled milk from the stomach and bowels. The object of the subsequent treatment is to allay the irritation of the stomach and bowels and to restore the digestive functions. We recom- mend the following to be compounded and divided into twelve powders: powdered rhubarb, one and one-half onnces; carbonate of magnesia, three ounces. One of these powders should be given four times a daj'; each powder to be shaken up with two wine-glassfuls of new milk, to which two tea-spoonfuls of whiskey should be added. A little fresh milk should be given five or six times a day, or the calf allowed to suck about six times a day, but the quantity should be limited. In appl>'ing treatment the mother should always be examined as to the condition of her health, diet, etc., as the disorder may sometimes be traced to some disease or mismanagement affecting the mother. Inflammation of the Bowels, or ^Enteritis. Inflammation of the bowels must be held to signify in a general way inflammation of all parts of the mucous membrane of the bowels, though in some forms of what may properly be termed enteritis, we find that the mucous, muscu- lar, and serous coats of the bowels are involved, while in other cases only a limited portion of the mucous membrane of the bowel is affected. Causes. This disease occurs at all seasons of the year, but most frequently at times when there are great variations of temperature. Hard and long-continued work may operate as a cause in the case of oxen. Eating such food as musty hay and oats, forage containing acid plants, the leaves of trees infested with caterpillars, grass which has commenced to ferment after cutting, dusty hay, and grass covered with hoar frost may also give rise to enteritis. Drinking copiously of ice- cold water may also produce it. Exposure to a cold, damp wind or any influence which suddenly chills the surface of the body may operate as a cause. Symptoms. Dryness of the muzzle, diminished appetite, partial or total cessation of rumination (see Eoss of Cud), .symptoms of colic which are indicated by restlessness. The animal lies down and gets up fre- quently, looks round at its flank, raises its tail, paws with its front feet, and strikes with its feet at the abdomen. After a time the symptoms of acute pain subside, and the animal lies down, but does not appear to be free from pain, turns its nose around on the flank and does not eat nor ruminate. When injections are given they are soon ejected from the the bowel, the passages are dry, glistening, and coated with mucus. CATTLE. 311 Gas is frequenth- passed, frequent attempts to urinate are made, but only a small quantity of urine is passed at a time. Enteritis comes oii suddenly and usually runs a rapid course, death taking place in four or five hours in fatal cases. When the animal has not been long exposed to those conditions which produce the disease, recovery may take place in a comparatively short time; in exceptional cases, however, when the acute stage of the disease has subsided it may assume a chronic and lin- gering form. Treatment. When the animal is seen at an earl}^ stage of the dis- ease it should be bled to the extent of from two to four quarts. The age and condition of the animal mnst of course be taken into consideration in estimating the quantity of 1 lo )d which should be abstracted. Half- ounce doses of laudanum should be given several times a day, mixed in a quart of linseed tea. Constipation. Constipation is rather to be regarded as a symptom of disease than a disease in itself. We frequently obser\-e it in a partu- rition fever, in that form of indigestion which is termed impaction of the third stomach, and as a result of gut-tie, invagination, twisting and knotting of the bowels. In order to remove the constipation the treat- ment must be applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves sometimes suffer from constipation immediately after birth, and the meconium feces that accumulate in the bowels before birth is not passed, as is usualh' the case in calves. The cause of the disorder is supposed to be that the dams of such calves have been fed too exclusively on dry food before the calf's birth. In such cases give an ounce of castor oil shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best food to prevent a recurrence of the constipation, as it contains a large amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in its effects. Intestinal Worms. We may state that cattle are less infested with intestinal parasites than au}^ other specie*: of domestic animal, and that it is rarely necessary to apply treatment for the removal of those para- sites. Two different kinds of tapeworm and four species of roundworm: have, however, been found in the intestines of the bovine species. Ar examination of the passages is the only certain method of determining the existence of worms in the bowels. Treatment. To remove the tapeworms give an ounce of oil of male fern three times a day in a pint of milk for three days in succession, and then on the fourth day give a pint of castor oil. For roundworms give 312 CATTLB. two drams of sulphate of iron three times a daj', mixed in a httle oats and middhngs, and after continuing treatment for three days give a pint of castor oil as before described. Oil of turpentine may be given in doses of one ounce with milk, or santouine in dram doses in feed, to be followed by an oily purgative as described. In treating calves, which are more apt to be infested with worms than full-grown cattle., reduce the doses to one-fourth or a third. Jaundice, the Yellows, or Congfestion of the I/iver. When jaundice exists there is a yellow appearance of the white of theej^es, ana of the nnicous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect of the skin may also be observed in animals which are either partly or altogether covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a symptom of disease and ought to direct attention to ascertaining, if possible, the cause or causes which have given rise to it. A swollen condition of the mucous membrane of that part of the bowel called the duodenum may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the orifice of the biliary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or torpid condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intestine may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the symptoms of Texas fever and depends on the congested condition of the liver existing in that disease. It may also arise from the presence of parasites or gallstones iu the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of bile. It may also arise from injury to the nervous system imj)eding the func- tions of the nerves supplied to the liver, and checking or diminishing the secretion of bile. This form of jaundice is, so far as we know, un- known in cattle. The conditions under which jaundice most commonl}^ calls for treatment are when cattle have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such a time there is an excess of nutritive ele- ments carried into the blood, which is associated with increased fullness of the portal vein and hepatic artery. When continued high feeding has produced this congested state of the liver, the functions of that organ become disordered, so that a considerable portion of the bile, instead of being excreted and passing into the intestine is absorbed by the hepatic veins. Symptoms. This disease occurs most frequently among stall-fed cattle. Pressure along the margin of rhe short ribs on the right side produces pain; the appetite is poor and the animal show^s hardly any in- clination to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow; the urine has a yellow or brown appearance; the animal lies CATTLE. 313 down much and moves with rekictance, moans occasionally and has a tottering gait. The ears and horns are alternately hot and cold ; in cows the secretion of milk is much diminished, and that which is secreted has a bitter taste ; sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough and pre- sents a dull, stupefied appearance. Treatment. In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the portal vein and liver. For this purpose we recommend the administra- tion of the following dose: sulphate of soda, sixteen ounces; fluid ex- tract of taraxacum, half an ounce. The sulphate of soda is dis.solved by stirring it up in two quarts of tepid water. The extract of taraxacum is mixed in with it, and the mixture should be administered at one dose. When a purgative effect has been produced, a dram of sulphate of cin- chonidia, half an ounce of flu 1 extract of taraxacum and an ounce of spirits of nitrous ether may be shaken up in a pint of water, and given night and morning for several days in succession. This treatment may be assisted by giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet should be laxative and moderate in quantit}', and may consist of coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass in the season and hay in moderate quantity. Inflammation of the I/iver, or Hepatitis. This is a more ad- vanced stage of the disease already described. Hepatitis is frequently restricted to a special part of the liver, and the rest of the organ outside the area of inflammation may continue comparatively healthy. The gland cells are the seat of inflammation, and the formation of an abscess or abscesses is a usual result. Symptoms. The symptoms are somewhat obscure, and their real significance is frequently overlooked. This may be accounted for by the fact that only a part of the liver is affected and that by the continu- ance of congestion in that organ the affected parts gradually undergo those changes which are characteristic of inflammation. The most prominent symptoms are yellowness of the white of the eye and of the membrane lining the mouth; the appetite is poor; the body presents an emaciated appearance, but there is frequently fullness at the lower part of the abdomen. The gait is weak, and the animal lies down more than usual, and while doing so frequently has its head turned round resting on the side of its chest. Treatment. Half a pound of sulphate of soda and half an ounce of fluid extract of taraxacum should be mixed with two quarts of tepid 314 CATTLE. water, and this should be given night and morning until a relaxed condi- tion of the bowels is produced, as the object is not to cause a strong pur- gation, but a laxative effect which should be continued for some days. The diet should be similar to that which has been recommended in speaking of congestion of the liver. After the treatment with laxatives has been continued for several days, a dram of sulphate of cinchonidia and a dram of nitro-muriatic acid should be shaken up in a quart of cold water, and this dose should be given three times a day until the animal has regained its strength. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed in well once a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it should be applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to six inches in front of the last one, and from the backbone to twelve inches on the right side of it. Extreme heat and pasturing animals on low lying ground are conditions favorable to the production of this disease. Dropsy of the Abdomen or Ascites. In this disease there is a serous or watery effusion in the cavity of the abdomen. Causes. When old animals are worked and fed on innutritions food the}' become what is termed anaemic; or, in other words, their blood be- comes impoverished and dropsy is a common result of such treatment. An innutritions and insufficient treatment will produce the same effect in young animals. The exposure of cattle to sudden changes of temper- ature and the chilling effect of cold and wet acting on the skin may de- velop this disease. It is one of the results of peritonitis, and may also arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver, such as is of com- mon occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in large numbers. When dropsy depends on disease of the liver it develops very grudually, and this may also be said in regard to it when its occurrence is asso- ciated with an insufficient amount of nutriment having been supplied to the animal. Symptoms. A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its lower part, while the flanks become hollow; pallor of the mucous mem- brane of the mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite, and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface of the abdomen with the fingers a dull sound is produced. If the hand and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as possible, on mov- ing the hand from one side to the other, the fluctuation caused by the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt. Treatment. The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases where we have merely to deal with anaemia (the bloodless state) arising CATTLK. 315 from insufficient diet the nse of tonics and diuretics, at the same keeping the skin warm, will bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid con- tained in the abdomen. One of the following powders should be mixed with the animal's food three times a day; or, if there is any uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with syrup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's tongue with a flat wooden spoon: carbonate of iron, three ounces; powdered gentian, three ounces; powdered nitrate of potash, three ounces. Mix and divide into twelve powders. The administration of purgatives which promote a waterj^ discharge from the mucous surface of the bowels, also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdomen. Large doses should not be given, but moderate doses should be administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on the bowels for some days. To attain this end the following may be used: sulphate of soda, eight ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; mix in two quarts of tepid water, and then give at one dose. DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. Peritonitis. Peritonitis may be divided into certain varieties, ac- cording to its mode of causation: (i) Traumatic, when the disease arises from wounds penetrating the abdomen; (2) Idiopathic, when the disease arises from exposure to cold and wet. The second variety of peritonitis occurs chiefly among working oxen, and it may here be mentioned that in those animals the membrane which lines the abdomen and covers the outer surface of the bowels is apt to become congested by sudden chill- ing of the skin, which empties its rich network of small blood-vessels to a large extent, so that the blood must accumulate in some part of the interior of the body. Causes. When a working ox has been warmed up and is sweating during hard work he may have to stand some time exposed to cold wind or to a cold wind, which soon chills the surface of his body. When cattle are driven through rivers or into ponds, so that their bodies become wet, and they afterward lie on the ground when the air is cold, such exposure may produce peritonitis. Wounds penetrating the abdomen may also cause it. Symptoms. A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies down, but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its bead towards its belly 3l6 CATTLE. and lows plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no appe- tite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs are placed well under its body; pulse small and hard. The evacuations from the bowels are dry and hard. If this disease is complicated by the presence of inflammation of the bowls the pain is more severe anC the animal is more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the earl}^ stage of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse and tension of the left flank are symptoms the presence of which should enable one to reach the conclusion that peri- tonitis exists. Post-mortem Appearance. The membrane lining the abdomen and covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less extent, and there is usually considerable serous or watery fluid collected in the abdomen. Treatment. When we have to do with the traumatic form of peri- tonitis, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with direc- tions before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that which follows: peritonitis resulting from castration or from pariturition fever must also be treated in connection with the special conditions which give rise to it, as the general treatment of this disease must be modified to some extent by the exciting cause. The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when prac- ticable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which are maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body. The wet blanket must be changed as it cools, the object of treatment being to warm the surface of the body and to determine as much blood to the skin as possible. When the matter of clothing the body has been attended to the aim of treatment must be: (i) to obtain rest for the affected parts; (2) to subdue inflammation and fever; (3) to sustain the animal's strength. The first indication is to give a dose of laudanum or powdered opium. An ounce and a half of the first or a dram of the second may be given in a pint of tepid water, and if the pain is not per- ceptibly allayed the dose should be repeated in two hours. It is danger- ous to give purgatives in peritonitis, as they stimulate the movements of the bowels, increase the suffering, and aggravate the disease. Tincture of aconite should be given in ten-drop doses every two hours for the pur- CATTLE. . 317 pose of reducing fever and inflammation. Curzel strongly recommends bleeding for this purpose, but it should only be applied when the pulse is strong and when the animal is in good condition, and it should be borne in mind that it cannot have any beneficial effect, but the reverse, if inflammation has existed for two days. The diet should consist of laxative food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic form the diet should be nutritious, such as hay, corn- stalks, linseed cake, grass, etc., and iodide of potassium should be given in dram doses dissolved in a pint of water three times a day. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. I^aryngitis — Sore Throat. Laryngitis consists of an inflamma- tion of the mucous membrane lining the larynx. It may be either a primary or a secondary disease, complicated or uncomplicated. In the majority of cases it is due to some form of exposure, a sudden change from warm to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold storms. It may also arise from inhaling irritating gases. It may be the result of external violence. In an acute attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of the temperature, pain on pressure over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of coughing, difficult and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dilated, the nose extended, and the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked difficulty in swallowing. Treatment, This consists of fomentations and hot applications over the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard, or other forms of counter irritation, ma}- be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the suffering ani- mal. In this disease medicines should be given as far as possible in the form of electuaries (soft solid), on account of the difficulty of degluti- tion. Large drafts of medicine have a tendency to produce violent spells of coughing, and in this way retard recovery. The subjoined formula for an electuary will be found to answer the purpose in ordinary ceases: chlorate of potassium, pulverized, eight ounces; fluid extract of bella- donna, two ounces; powdered opium, one ounce; powdered licorice root, eight oimces; syrup, sufficient quantity, and mix. At frequent inter- vals place a small table-spoonful of the mixture on the tongue or back teeth. Or the following may be used instead: 3l8 CATTLK. Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts. Mix. Rub an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily swal- low. Warm sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea, and the like, are the most suitable substances. If suflfocation is threatened during the course of the disease tracheotomy should be performed with- out delay. When the disease assumes a chronic form strong counter irritation is indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following oint- ment may be used: biniodide of mercury, one part; lard, six parts. Mix. In some cases it will be found necessary to repeat the above application. Pleurisy. This disease consists of an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest cavity and enveloping the lungs. It rarely occurs as an independent disease, but is generally complicated with pneumonia. It may be circumscribed or diffused, unilateral or double. It arises from exposure to cold and wet, as with pneumonia and bron- chitis. It occasionally is caused by a penetrating wound. Symptoms. In the first stage there is great pain, due to the dry and inflamed surfaces of the pleura rubbing together. This gives rise to the friction murmur. The temperature ranges from 104° to 105° F. The pulse is small, quick, frequent, and hard. The respirations are abdominal, the breathing being taken in short jerking inspirations and emitted in long expirations. The cough is sharp, suppressed, and pain- ful. Treasure in the intercostal spaces gives rise to pain, the animal flinching and giving a grunt. The muzzle is dry and hot, the mouth slim}^ and secretions scant. The symptoms increase in severity as the disease advances, and in the second stage effusions are poured out into the thoracic cavity. The pulse becomes soft and remains frequent and small. The elbows are turned out, and the animal has a diagnostic grunt. On percussion a dull sound as high up as the fluid has risen in the chest, and on ausculation there is absence of all respiratory murmur below this line. Treatment. Give the same general care as recommended in bron- chitis or pneumonia. lu the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of effusion give the following three times daily: tincture of digitalis, one CATTI^K. 319 ounce; iodide of potassium, thirty to sixty grains; mix. Apply strong counterirritaut to chest and put seton in dewlap. If collapse of the lung is threatened a surgical operation is sometimes performed, termed para- centesis thoracis, which consists in puncturing the chest cavity and drawing off a part of the fluid. The instruments used are a small trocar and canula, which are introduced between the eighth and ninth ribs. Draw the skin forward so that the external wound may not correspond with the puncture of the chest, to prevent the entrance of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal gets immediate re- lief, but it is generally only temporary, as there is a tendency for the fluid to accumulate again. Pneumonia. This is an inflammation of the lung substance. It is divided into three different forms, viz: first, croupous; second, catarrhal; and third, intestinal pneumonia. The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. It mostly follows congestion of the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic origin. Symptoms. In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature, usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are quick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard. Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The nose is hot and dry; the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy; the coat is staring, and the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually diminished in quantity, high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal stands with the forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration. In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two de- grees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide apart and the elbows turned outwards. If it assumes the recumbent position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are more or less sus- pended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal has a haggard appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this period. The extremities are hot and cold alternately : and no sound on ausculation will be heard, except it be a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On percussion dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating consohdation- The lung has now assumed a liver-like appearance. 320 CATTLE. In the third stage, if the disease is going to terminate favorabl}-, the cough becomes loose; the animal improves; the appetite returns, and the symptoms above detailed rapidl}' subside. But if, on the other hand, resolution is not progressing, the lung substance is broken down, is heavy, and will sink in water. In fatal cases the breath has a pecu- liar fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears, and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is imperceptible. On ausculation, when suppuration is taking place and the lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling sound caused by the passage of air through pus, will be heard. Treatment. Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are essential in connection with the medical treatment. The probability of cure depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well as on the intensity of the inflammatory process. In the early stage, when the fever is high, give febrifuges. If the pulse be strong and full, aconite (Fleming's tincture, two to five drop.s every four or five hours) may be given for a short time, but should be discontinued as .soon as the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a valuable drug in the hands of the intelligent practitioner, but my experience leads me to believe that not infrequently animals are lost by its injudicious use. For in many febrile conditions it is positively contra-indicated, owing to its action upon the heart. In a plethoric animal, with a strong bounding pul.se, bleeding may be resorted to instead of administering aconite. If the bowels are constipated give calomel, one to three drams, which acts as a cathartic and a febrifuge, In the .second stage diffusible stimulants are required, viz: .spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; spirits aromatic ammonia, one ounce. Mix and give in gruel three times daily. If the above is not at hand, give an alcoholic stimulant. Half a pint of brandy or whisky may be given in a quart of gruel three times daily. In some cases carbonate of ammonia, two to five drams, has been found beneficial. Most practitioners apply counterirritants exter- nall}', such as mustard plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment or cantharides. Bronchitis. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. When a primary disease it is generally the result of what is commonly known as ' 'catching cold. ' ' It may be secondary to or complicated with many of the diseases of the re.spiratory system. It may also be caused by breathing irritating ga.sses, or by the introduc- tion of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which sometimes result CATTLE. J2I from injudicious and careless drenching when the larynx is in a tem- porarily relaxed state. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided ac- cording to the seat of the inflanmiation into bronchitis proper, where the large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis, where the smaller tubes are affected. Symptoms. Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally 104° to 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful, and the expiration is prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency, and is hard. A characteristic and painful cough is present, but it is spas- modic and incomplete. Treatment. The animal .should be placed in a light, well ventila- ted box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Avoid violent purgatives. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In the early stages give three times daily, a draft composed as follows: 2 drams Extract Belladonna, 4 fluid ounces solution Acetate of Ammonium, ^ pint Water. In the latter stage of the disease substitute the following formula, which may be given twice daily: 3 drams Carbonate of Ammonium, 2 fluid ounces solution of Hydrochlorate of Strychnine, 1 fluid ounce Spirits of Nitrous Ether, ^ pint Water. In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours: 1^ ounces Spirits Nitrous Ether, 2 ounces Spirits Aromatic Ammonia, 2 drams Powdered Camphor. The food should be light and nutritious. Bronchitis is liable to assume a chronic form if not properly treated in the earliest stage. Remedial treatment is of little value when the disease becomes chronic. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. Bloody Urine. This is also called Red Water, Moor-ill, Haema- turia, and Hsemaglobinuria. It is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above all on damp, inidrained lands, and under a back- ward agriculture. It is sitnply bloody urine or hsematuria when the blood is found in clots, or when under the microscope the blood globules 322 CATTLE. can be detected as distinctly rounded, flattened discs. It is smoky urine — haeaglobinuria— when no such distinct clots nor blood discs can be found, but merely a general browning, reddening or blackening of the urine by the presence of dissolved blood-coloring matter. The bloody urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hsemaglobinuria) is usually the result of some general or more distant disorder in which the globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring matter dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and of the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood, and the ele- ments of blood, escape into the urine, albumen is always present, so that there is albuminuria with blood-coloring matter superadded. If due to stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually passed, and may be detected in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid is caught. If due to fracture or severe sprain of the loins it is likely to be associated not only with some loss of control over the hind limbs, and with staggering behind, but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail. The blood- stained urine without red globules results from specific diseases, Texas fever, anthrax, and from eating irritating plants (broom, savin, mer- cury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak shoots, ash, privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or resinous plants, etc.). The May bug or Spanish fly taken with the food or spread over a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar action. Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the affection in some subjects. Among con- ditions which act by the direct destruction of the globules in the circu- lating blood may be named an excess of water in that fluid ; the use of water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable matter, and containing alkaline salts, especially nitrites, and the presence in the water and food of the ptomaines of bacteria growth — hence the prevalence of ' ' red- water " in marshy districts and on clayey and other impervious soils; hence, too, the occurrence of bloody urine in the advrnced stages of several contagious diseases. Some mineral poisons, such as iodine, arsenic, and phosphorous taken to excess may cause haematUria, and finally the symptoms may be the mere result of a constitutional predis- position of the individual or family to bleeding. Exposure of the body to cold or wet will cause the affection in .some predisposed subjects. The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one. It may be associated with fever or not, with the presence or absence of CATTLE. 323 abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mucous membranes and general weakness. When direct injury to the kidneys is the immediate cause of the disease the urine will be passed often, in small quantity at a time, and with much straining. When there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient nourishment, fever is absent and the red water is at first the oidy symptom. When the active cause has been irritatant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics, and other signs of bowel inflanunation are marked features. Treatment. This will vary according as the cause has been an irri- tant operating on a subject in vigorous health or a malarious poison act- ing on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red- water a smart purgati\-e (one pound to one and a half pounds Glauber salts) will clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the co- existent high fever. It will also serve to divert to the bowels much of the irritant products alread}^ ab.sorbed into the blood, and will thus pro- tect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal supplj^ of wholesome, easily digestible food will be all the additional treatment required. In this connection demulcent food (boiled flaxseed, wheat bran) is espe- cially good. If much blood has been lo.st, bitters (gentian, one-half ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, two drams) should be given for a week. For cases in which excess of diuretic plants have been taken, it may be well to replace the salts by one to two pints olive oil, adding one ounce laudanum and two drams gum caphor. Also to apply fomenta- tions or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one- half pint, or sulphuric acid, sixt}' drops in a pint of water, may also be employed at intervals as injections. In cases due to sprained or frac- tured loins, to inflamed kidneys, or to stone or gravel, the treatment will be as for the particular disease in question. In hsematuria from anaemia (watery blood), whether from insufficient or badly-adjacent rations, or from the poisonous products of fermenta- tion in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially tonic and .stimulating. Rich, abundant, and easily digestible food must be furnished. The different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton-seed) are especially called for, and may be given either ground or boiled. As a bitter, sulphate of quinine one-half dram, and tincture of muriate of iron two drams, may be given in a pint of water thrice a day. In some cases one or two tea-spoonfuls of oil of 324 CATTLE. turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably, bnt quinine and iron are to be preferred. But in this anaemic variety prevention is the great need. The drain- age and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this can be accomplished young and newly-purchased cattle, not 3^et inured to the poisons, must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned only on those which are already drained naturally or artificially. Further, they should have an abundant ration in which the local product of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. Another point to be guarded against is the supply of water that has drained from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as such is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc. , w'hich directly conduce to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters, and supply from living springs or deep wells only. CONTAGIOUS ABORTION. Causes of Contagious Abortion. When an aborting cow is placed in a herd that has hitherto been healthy, and shortly afterwards miscarriage becomes prevalent in that herd and continues year after year, in spite of the fact that all the other conditions of life in that herd remain the same as before, it is manifest that the result is due to con- tagion. When a bull, living in a healthy herd, has been allowed to ser\'e an aborting cow, or a cow from an aborting herd, and when the members of his own herd, subsequently served by him abort in consid- erable numbers, contagion may be safely inferred. Mere living in the same pasture or building does not convey the infection. Cows brought into the aborting herd in advanced pregnancy carry their calves to the full time. But cows served by the infected bull, or that have had the infection conveyed by the tongue or tail of other animals, or by their own, or that have had the external genitals brought in contact with wall, fence, rubbing post, litter, or floor previously soiled by the infected animals, will be liable to suffer. The Scottish abortion committee found that when healthy, pregnant cows merely stood with or near aborting cows the}' escaped, but when a piece of cotton wool lodged for twenty minutes in the vagina of the aborting cow was afterwards inserted into the vagina of a healthy, pregnant cow or sheep, the latter invariably aborted within a month. vSo Roloff relates that in two large stables at Erfurt, without any direct intercommunication, but filled with cows fed CATTLE. 325 and managed in precisely the same way, abortion prevailed for years in the one, while not a single case occnrred in the other. Gaiter finds that the virus from the aborting cow causes abortions in the sow, ewe, goat, rabbit, and guinea-pig; and that if it has been intensfied by pass- ing through either of the two last-named animals, it will affect also the mare, bitch and cat. The precise germs or germ causing abortion have not 3'et been demon- strated beyond question. Twenty years ago Franck, of Munich, drew attention to a chain form of cells (I^eptothrix vaginalis) as the efficient cause. The Scottish Commission have isolated in gelatin cultures five different bacteria obtained from the vaginal mucus of the aborting cow, and Nocard, of Alfort, speaks of a germ existing abundantly between the womb and fetal membranes of aborting cows which was never found in the health}'. Symptoms of Abortion. In the first two or three months of pregnancy no symptoms may have been observed, and unless the aborted product is seen the fact of abortion may escape notice. Some soiling of the tail with mucus, blood, and the waters may be observed, or the udder may show extra firmness, and in the virgin heifer or dry cow the pres- ence of a few drops of milk may be suggestive, or the fetus and its mem - branes may be found in the gutter or elsewhere as a mere clot of blood or as a membraneous ball in which the forming body of the fetus is found. In water the villi of the outer membrane float out, giving it a characteristicall)^ shaggy appearance. In advanced pregnancy abortion is largely the counterpart of parturi- tion, so that a special description is superfluous. The important thing is to distinguish the early symptoms from those of other diseases, so that the tendency may be arrested and the animal carried to full time if possible. A cow is dull, sluggish, separate from the herd, chewing the cud languidly, or there may be frequent lying down and rising, uneasy movements of the hind feet or of the tail, and slightly accelerated pulse and breathing, and dry muzzle. The im- portant thing is not to confound it with digestive or ordinary disorder, but in a pregnant cow to examine at once for any increase of mucus in the vagina, or for blood or liquid there or on the root of the tail; for any enlargement, firmness, or tenderness of the udder, or in dry cows milk, and above all for any slight straining suggestive of labor X^ains. In many cases the membranes are discharged with the fetus; in 326 CATTl.E. Others, in advanced pregnane}^ they fail to come away, and remain hanging from the vulva, putrefying and falling piecemeal — finally re- sulting in a fetid discharge from the womb. According to the size of the herd contagious abortions will follow one another at intervals of one to four or more weeks, in the order of their infection or of the re- currence of the period of activity of the womb which corresponds to the occurrence of heat. Prevention. Weakness and bloodlessness are to be obviated by generous feeding, and especially in aliments, (wheat bran, rape cake, cottonseed, oats, barley, beans, peas, etc.), rich in earthy salts, which will also serve to correct the morbid appetite. This will also regenerate the exhausted soil if the manure is returned to it. In the same way the application of ground bones or phosphates will correct the evil, acting in this case through the .5oil first and raising better food for the stock. The ravages of worms are to be obviated by avoiding infested pastures, ponds, streams, shallow wells or those receiving any surface leakage from land where stock go, and by feeding salt at will, as this agent is destructive to most young worms. The tendency to urinary calculi in winter is avoided by a succulent diet (ensilage, steamed food, roots, pumpkins, apples, potatoes, slops), and by the avoidance of the special causes named under Gravel. Fur- nishing water inside the barn in winter in place of driving once a day to take their fill of ice-cold liquid will obviate a common evil. Putrid and stagnant water are to be avoided. Sudden changes of food are always reprehensible, but much more so in the pregnant animal. I^et the change be gradual. vSo with what is spoiled or unwholesome. In case of prevalence of ergot in a pasture it should be kept eaten down, or cut down with a mower, so that no portion runs to seed. In case of a meadow the grass must be cut early before the seeds have filled. The most dangerous time appears to be between the formation of the milky seed and the full ripening. Yet the ergot is larger in proportion to the ripeness, so that the loss of potency is made up in quantity. The ripe seed and ergot may be removed by threshing and the hay safely fed. It may also be noted that both ergot and smut may be safely fed in moderate quantity, provided it is used with succulent food (ensilage, roots, etc. ) or with free access to water, and salt is an excellent acces- sory as encouraging the animal to drink. Both ergot and smut are most injurious in winter when the water supply is frozen up or accessi- ble only at long intervals. The ergoted seed when threshed out can CATTLE. 327 not be safely sown, but if first boiled it may be fed in small amounts or turned into manure. The growth of both ergot and smut may be to a large extent prevented by the time-honored vScotch practice of sprinkling the seed with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper before sowing. Fields badly afl'ected witli ergot or smut may be practicall}' renewed by plowing up and cultivating, for a series of years under crops (turnips, beets, potatoes, buckwheat, etc. ), which do not harbor the fungus, and ^\hich require much cultivation and exposure of the soil. Drainage and the removal of all unnecessary barriers to the free action of sunshine and wind are important provisions. Other precautions concerning separation horn cows in heat,- a proper construction of stalls, the avoidance of carrion and other offensive odors, protection from all kinds of mechanical injuries, including over- driving and carrying by rail in advanced pregnancy, the exclusion of all irritants, or strong purgatives and diuretics from food or medicine, and the guarding against all causes of indigestion and bloating have been sufhciently indicated under Causes. For protection of the womb and foetus against the various causes of disease available methods are not so evident. For cows that have aborted in the last pregnancy chlorate of potash, three drams daily before the recurrence of the expected abor- tion, is often useful. Prevention of contagious abortion will naturally come within this treatment. Treatment of Contagious Abortion. So far as this differs from the treatment of sporadic abortion, it consists in the free use of germi- cides and disinfectants. 1. Scrape ? id wash the back pait of the stall and gutter and water it with a solution of five ounces sulphate of copper (bluestone) in one gallon of pure water. Repeat this cleaning and watering at least once a week. This should in all cases be applied to every stall where an aborting cow has stood and to those adjacent. To treat the whole in the same way would be even better, as it is impossible to say how many of the cows harbor the germ. This is more needful that in three or four years, if the aborting cow is kept on, she becomes insusceptible and carries her calf to full time. A cow may therefore be infecting to oth- ers though she no longer aborts herself. 2. Dissolve one dram corrosive sublimate, one ounce each of alcohol and glycerine, and shake up in a gallon of water to use as an injection into the vagina and a wash for the parts about the vulva and root of 328 CATTLE. the tail. Being ven^ poisonous, it should be kept in a wooden barrel out of the way of animals or children. Every morning the vulva, anus, the back of hips, and root of tail should be sponged with this liquid, and this is best applied to the whole herd. 3. When an}^ case of abortion has occurred the fetal membranes must be removed by the hand without delay, and together with the fetus de- stroyed by burning, or buried deeply, and the stall should be cleansed and watered with the proper solution. Then the womb should be washed out with one and one-half gallons of corrosive sublimate solution injected through a rubber tube introduced to the depth of the womb and with a funnel in its outer elevated end. This should be repeated dail}^ for a week. In the case of the other cows of the herd one injec- tion of the same kind should be made into the vagina, after which they need only have their external parts and tail washed with the solu- tion daily. As a certain number of the cows will harbor the germ in the womb when treatment is started, it is not to be expected that the abortions will cease at once, but by keeping up the treatment the trouble may be gotten rid of in the following year. As an aborting cow is usually of little use for the dairy, it is best to separate and fatten her and apply treatment to remaining cows. In this as in other delicate manipulations, the stockowner will consult his own interest by employing an accom- plished veterinarian, and avoiding such as have not had the privilege of a thorough professional education. In addition to the above the removal of all manure and contaminated litter and the immediate sprinkling of the surface with the sulphate of copper solution is called for. Drains should no less be thoroughly rinsed and disinfected. Mill ing stools and other implements may be treated in the same way, or with carbolic acid or boiling water. Great care should be taken to guard against bull or cows from an aborting herd or district; streams even may be suspected if there is an aborting herd near by and higher up on that stream. Cows sent to bull from an aborting herd are to be denied, and workmen tliat ha\-e attended on such a herd should be made to wash and disinfect th'jir clothes and persons. Duration of Preg-nancy. From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of pregnancy in the cow is two hundred eighty-five days. A calf born at the two hundred fortieth day may li\e, and a case is reported by Deitrichs of a calf bom on the three hund- red thirty-fifth day, and another ])y the AMERICAN Journal, OF CATTLE. 329 Medical Science as boni on the three hundred thirty-sixth day. It is the general observation that in the majority of prolonged pregnan- cies the offspring is male. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of males between the two hundred ninetieth and the three hundreth days, but strangely enough all born after the three hundredth day under his observation were females. It might be reasonably inferred that while the prevailing tendency is to carry the males overtime, yet that the smaller and comparatively much less developed female sometimes fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far beyond the regular date. DISEASES or THE SKIN CAUSED BY PARASITES. Mange or Itch. This is a disease of a local nature, due to a mite, which induces irritation and incrustation on the surface of the body gen- erally. It is always contagious, requiring for its development the trans- plantation of the parasites or their eggs from the diseased to the healthy animal. This disease is not very common among cattle in this country, while in some countries it prevails as an epizootic. Poor hygiene seems to favor the extension of the disease, and it is claimed that weakened cattle are more predisposed to harbor the parasite than strong, healthy ones. It is also more prevalent in winter than in summer, and in the latter season sometimes entirely disappears. Cattle are afflicted with two varieties of these parasites. They belong to the class (Arachnidse); genera, [Psoroptes (Dermatodectes)] 'which simply bite and hold on to the skin; and [Chorioptes (symbiotes)] liv- ing together in large families, and not piercing further than the cuticle in search of food. Dermatodectes communis, is the most frequent one met in cattle. It lives on the surface of the skin, and gives rise to much irritation by bit- ing. It generally chooses the regions of the the .shoulder and root of the tail for its habitation. From these localities it gradually extends by increase in numbers, causing intense itching and great distress in the affected animal. From the irritation of the skin papular nodules appear, which develop into vesicles filled with fluid aud rupture. The drying of the exuding fluid forms crusts, and these are liable to be followed by ulceration. The hairs may project up through the crust or fall out. In chronic cases the skin becomes thickened and almost insensible, dry, and wrinkled. As it is ea.sy to confountl this disease with eczema, our 330 CATTLE. sole dependeuce for a correct diagnosis rests upon the discovery of the parasite, or, at least, upon positi\'e evidence of contagion The acari can be detected upon the hair and surface of the epidermis by the aid of an ordinary magnifying glass, or they may be seen with the naked eye as minute white points moving about when the infested animal stands in full glare of the sun on a warm day. Treatment. It is of the utmost importance to cleanse the skin, removing crusts, etc., before the parasites can be effectually eradicated. For this purpose use soft soap and water, and give the animal a thor- ough scrubbing, especially in regions where the skin has been rubbed. If the crusts are not all removed by the first washing, apply sweet oil to soften them. They may then be washed off the following day. To kill the mites apply thoroughly with a brush the following mixture. 1 oiiuce Creolin, 1 ounce Oil of Tar, ^ pint Soft Soap, ^ pound Sulphur, 1 pint Alcohol. Wash it off in two days with soap and water. Three or four days later a second application should be made to destroy all remaining acari. It is essential that the stable or stalls where the affected cattle have been should be cleansed and whitewashed, or saturated with sulphuric acid, one pint to three gallons of water. Is after the attack. It is hardly necessary to mention that when an animal is suffering from heat prostration, bleeding should not be resorted to as a remedial measure. The writer is well aware of the fact that they are often slaughtered by butchers to save further trouble and probable loss. DEHORNING CATTLE BY USE OF CHEMICALS. The Farm Superintendent, L. H. Adams, of the Experimental Sta- tion of the University of Wisconsin, makes the following report: "So far as the information of the Station goes, to Mr. John March, of Shullsburg, Wis. , belongs the credit of preparing the first compound successfully used in preventing the growth of horns on calv^es. The preparations sold by Mr. March and also that of Lewis and Benuet, of Bloomington, Wis., have been tried at the Station with satisfactory re~ suits. They were tried on a number of calves at different ages, during the fall of 1889, with a view of obtaining defitJJte knowledge as to the manner and proper age for application. It was found in a majority of instances that the best results were reached when the compound was applied as soon as it was possible to locate the little horn button on the calf's head, which usually can be done when it is but three or four days old. From our experience it would seem that the dehorning compound should be fresh and the con- tents of the bottle well mixed before using; otherwise only partial suc- cess may be reached. The hair should be clipped from about the em- bryo horn with scissors, and the chemical applied with the rubber cork, wet with the fluid and rubbed hard over the button until it has penetra- ted the horn germ. When the germ has hecome soft, having an in- flamed appearance, suffic^f^nt material has been applied. Care should be taken that no iluid runs down the calf's head, for the material is very caustic. In our tests, in several instances, the fluid was applied to but one horn button, the otJior being left untreated. The effect usually was to stop growth of one lior''i. 'vvlirle the other grew naturally. The calves 336 CATTLE. were sold to a farmer not far distant, who agreed to keep them until grown that we might see the effect of the treatment. At two years of age, the left horn to which the compound was applied, had not devel- oped. The right horn developed naturally, while the left side of the head to which the chemical was applied has not only failed to develop the horn, but even the heavy base which grows out from the skull to support it. This failure to develop not only the horn but its natural support, raises the query whether a hornless race of cattle could not be developed by using the dehorning compound for a number of gen- erations. In advertisements of chemical fluids it is often claimed that the appli- cation is painless, but our observations do not coincide with any such statement. The application of a fluid powerful enough to destroy .so large a surface as the button on the calf's head, nnist produce a great deal of pain, and the calves show this by nervous movements of the head and attempting to rub the irritated spot. From our experience in applying the liquid, we believe it should be used on as young calves as possible, since the older the calf grows the more it seems to suffer when the horns are removed. ' ' The question of dehorning all cattle is a question of expediency and must be justified by the expectation of benefit on the part of the owner. The practice has grown popular in many parts of the country. When the operation is performed on cattle where horns are grown, it should be done with a fine-toothed saw, and by sawing the horn off close enough to include a little of the skin and hair around its base. Chapped Teats. These may be caused by anything which irritates them. The powerful sucking of the calf, the sudden chilling of the teat in winter after the calf has just let it go, or after the completion of milking with a wet hand; contact with cold water, or stagnant, putrid water, or with filth or irritants when lying down; slight congestions of the skin in connection with overstocking, and, indeed, any source of local irritation may cause chapping. This may be .slight or extend into great ga2)ing sores and induce retention of milk or ev^en mannnatis. Soothing applications of vaseline, or a combination of equal parts of .spermaceti and oil of sweet almonds, may be applied. If healing is tardy add ten grains balsam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If the irritation is very great, wash first with a solution one dram sugar of lead in one pint of water, and then apply benzoated oxide of zinc ointment. CATTLK. 337 MILKING. Simply drawing the milk from the cow is not the whole process of milking. It is far too common a practice to drive cows into a filthy yard, filled for several inches with mud and drippings, and not a shed for shelter, even in bad weather. Well regulated dairy cows should always be driven into their stables or sheds, and secured in stalls for milking. Thus the animal is under control and secure from annoj^ance from her neighbors. A quantity of water and a cloth should always be at hand to clean the udder and teats before milking. Allow no noise or loud talking, no scolding, nor fret- ting among the milkers. Teach the cows that the milkers are their friends and they will confide in their kindness. USE OF THE SEPARATOR IN THE DAIRY. The separator has gone through the experimental stage, and has been lo thoroughly tested that the results can no longer be considered as sim- ply experiments. Prof. H. H. Wing, of the Agricultural Department, of Cornell Uni- versity has the following to say on this important question: "If we look at the market reports we shall see that butter is classed on the market as "creamery" and "dairy" butter. The first implying that it is butter made up in a factory built for the purpose, from the milk of a greater or less number of individual owners; and the second that is butter made up on the farm from the milk produced on the farm. If we study the reports further we shall find that in general the quota- tions are much higher for the creamery than for the dairy butter; this has given rise to an impression quite generally held that in some myste- rious way tlie butter made at the factory is better than it is possible for butter to be that is made on the farm. Now, this is entirely erroneous. Not only is it perfectly possible to make as good butter on a farm as can be made at a factory, but it is a matter of no great difficulty and does not require an expensive or elabo- rate equipment. Tlie principles that govern the manufacture of good butter are the same in either case. Their observance will result in good butter on the farm just as sure as their neglect will result in bad butter in the factor}'. That this is so is seen in the fact that numerous private dairymen, having recognized these principles, are getting more for their 338 CATTLB. butter, made up in a small way in a private dairy, than is given for the very best grades of creamery butter. Indeed, from the fact that the private dairymen can control the cows, their feed and care and the milk from the time it leaves the cow until the finished product goes to mar- ket, he vShould be able to make a finer and more uniform product than the factory man, who can not control these important conditions. Not- withstanding the possibilities of the case, the facts are, that to-day the great mass of butter made on farms is sold for a less price than that made at creameries. Let us look for a moment at some of the reasons for this condition of affairs. In the first place, there is a large amount of butter made on farms that is not good to begin with, and justlj^ should not bring any more than it usually does. This sort of butter is made where the cows and butter- making are a sort of side issue of the farm, while the milk and butter must await the demands of all the other farm and housework before they receive attention. It is made where the maker is ignorant, careless and dirty. The cows are milked at the convenience of the hired man, and the milk is strained and put into the creamer at some indefinite time thereafter when the hired girl gets ready. Sometimes the cream is re- moved in twenty-four hours and sometimes not for four days. In hot weather the cream gels too sour and in cold it sometimes never gets sour at all. It is churned sometimes at a temperature too low, but often too high, and never twice alike. The buttermilk is not completely removed, salt is added by guess, and it is worked b}' main strength till the dairy- maid gets tired. During the whole process it associates more or less intimately with the cooked and uncooked food in the family pantry, and the wonder is not that it is bad, but that it is so good as it is. Secondly, some farm dairy butter sells at a low price, not because it is in itself bad, but because it is made to suit the maker and not the cus- tomer. A study of the kind of butter liked best in one's market is quite as essential to high prices as a knowledge of the principles under- lying good butter-making. Again a large amount of first-class farm dairy butter is spoiled on the way to market, through contact with poor butter of all degrees, and by association with "choice family groceries" in the cellar of the country store. Another great disadvantage that farm dairy butter has on the market is that it is not made in large enough quantities at a time, .so that the maker can afford to spend time and money in looking up and holding the best class of customers, but must depend upon commission men in CATTLE. 339 the general market. It is in this respect that the creamery justly en- joys a great advantage over the private dairyman, by being able to guar- antee a certain amount of uniform quality regularly. And it is in this way that farmer owning, or only caring to keep a small number of cows, may secure the largest advantage through co-operation in the establish- ment of a creamery. Now, let us look at some of the ways in which the quality of farm dair}' butter may be easily improved. In the first place the dairy work, and particularly the butter-making, must be a distinct department of the farm work. It must be done at the proper time, regularly and system- atically, and it must be done in a place devoted to it and to nothing else. This need not be a separate building, or even a very large room, but it should be carefully fitted with ventilation and drainage and should be so arranged as to be easily and completely washed out and then quickly and thoroughly dried. It should be large enough to hold the churn and butter-worker and the cream while ripening, for with the use of the sep- arator the milk itself, as we shall see presently, need never go to the dairy room. It should not be necessary to say that scrupulous cleanli- ness is the all-important condition of good butter-making, and we will merely pass it over with the hint that cleanliness is a relative term and may not be nearly .so clean as they think. One thing I mar>' perhaps call attention to, and that is the use of steam, not only in removing dirt, but in killing the germs of all those fermentations and putrefactions that cause so much trouble to the butter-maker. Scalding with hot water, particularly as it is usually done, can in no sense take the place of live steam in this respect. Attention to a few general principles in regard to the temperatures at which the various steps in the process are carried on \vill have a great effect on the resulting product, especially so far as the texture of the butter is concerned. These, in brief, are to effect all necessary changes gradually, to hold the temperature in the intervals as uniform as possi- ble, and churn at as low a temperature as will bring the butter in a rea- sonable time. By far the greatest factor in improving the quality of farm dairy but- ter and in lessening the cost of production is the introduction of the centrifugal separator, which has effected quite as great a revolution in butter- making as the introduction of improved machinery has in grain raising. It is the most efficient method known for removing cream from milk. With the greatest care in a deep-setting system at least three- 340 CATTLB. tenths of one per cent, of fat is left in the skimmed milk, and in a shal- low setting system the loss is still greater. With the separator the loss is not to exceed one-tenth of one per cent, of fat, a saving of two-tenths of one per cent. , or two pounds of fat in each one thousand pounds of milk. In a dairy of twenty cows giving twenty-five pounds of milk each a day, this saving would amount to a pound of fat a day, or three hun- dred pounds in ten months. At twenty cents per pound this would amount to $60.00, nearly fifty per cent, of the cost of the .separator. The separator is the most cleanly method of removing the cream. The cream is removed at once from the milk, and the bulk of material that is necessary to hold and guard against destructive fermentations is reduced at least seven-eighths. The milk is thoroughly aerated during the process of separation. There is removed from the milk a certain amount of albuminous matter that would otherwise remain largely in the cream, and which easily undergoes putrefactive fermentation. While the separator may be run by hand, it is found in most cases quite as eco- nomical to use steam power, and the same boiler furnishes steam for cleaning purposes that would not otherwise be available, and the neces- sity for which has already been indicated. It leaves the skim milk in by far the best condition for feeding. It furnishes cream containing a much higher percentage of fat. This renders it possible to churn at a lower temperature, at the same time to more completely remove the fat from the buttermilk. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF MILK. This subject is one of the most important factors that enters mto the dairy life of the average farmer. It is nearly his whole stock in trade; and his success to-day depends upon how skillfully he can manipulate his dairy to increase the flow of milk, while he curtails the cost of pro- duction. And as it is the most salable product the dairy farmer pro- duces, it is of teal interest to him that the milk be kept in proper con- dition until its delivery. The care of milk should begin before it is secreted, for unless started right hidden rocks will be encountered along the dairy pathway that will make the farmer's ledger show up a trial balance on the debtor's side. First of all, he .should have the environments of the stable suitable to the wants of the dear old cow, that has been the mainstay through all CATTLE. 341 the past. It should be well lighted, well ventilated and with a goodly supply of fresh air. free from stable taint, with an excess of litter for bedding, and with nutritious food, the farmer is on the road to success. But to have all the conditions mentioned progress will be slow, unless the injunction which the Good Book records, "Man shall livre by the sweat of his brow," is transformed from the common idea of physical labor to the divine creation — thought; and when we by mental exertion, succeed in starting the sweat upon our brows then it is that we progress and our minds are receptive and improvement begins along the dairy highway which leads us into the avenue of the care of milk. The farmer should be regular about his hours of milking and feeding, be kind and gentle to his stock, and create an affection for them so that when he commences to milk, his peace of mind will not be harassed by a kick in the short ribs and the loss of a pail of milk and several cuss words. When the affection is complete all is harmony. The udder and bag should be neatly cleaned and the milking done with dry hands. As fast as milk is secured it should be carried out of the stable into the pure air or into a room set apart for milk. It should then be carefully strained through several thicknesses to remove at once all dust and filth that have accidently reached the pail, and then should be aerated either by .stir- ring thoroughly or over any of the new styles of aerators now in use, to set free from the milk the gases, foreign odors and animal heat which it contains, and to gradually lower the temperature to a point where de- composition will be arrested and where the changes will be slow; this point is ually reached when the temperature is 55° F. If the night's milk is to be held over until morning for delivery, the cans of milk should be submerged in spring or ice water to the depth of two inches above the cream line or top of the milk in the can. A very erroneous idea seems to prevail that if the can is one-half submerged in water, it will be all right; but such is false, for cream and butter fat of all the component parts of milk is the first to sour and should receive the best care. The cream that forms on the can during the night abov^e the out- side water level will be exposed to the air on top and sides and its tem- perature will be nearly the same as the surrounding air, and were the night warm enough the cream would be sour and the milk sweet. Therefore keep the cream or cream line below the water level on the outside of the can where the changing conditions are normal. Then, when ready for delivery, it .should be placed on spring wagons and pro- perly covered to exclude the heat and cold, and delivered in such a con- 342 CATTLE. dition that its temperature has remained the same during its transit. If these suggestions are followed out the milk shipper, factory and creamery man will have a product that will manufacture up evenly or endure a long journey. Too much can not be said about cleanliness in the care of milk. It is the only rule that will aid in the keeping of milk, and all pails and uten- sils used around milk should be first rinsed in cold water, then washed and thoroughly scalded by water or steam and left in proper condition exposed to air and sunlight. Again, too often the milking and its care is intrusted to incompetent and uninterested parties and the milk is subjected to a sink-or-svvim treatment, which is equal to caring for itself under all conditions, and when it is delivered to be manufactured or shipped it is on the fast road to decomposition, which is the fruitful source of many complaints of poor milk, butter, and cheese. Yet this is the worst evil a creamery man has to contend with and his only weapons of defense are a vigilant eye and a trained nose. And yet with most careful scrutiny, milk will sometimes pass .scrutiny and to all outward appearance be right, and when the crucial test is applied of holding it from forty-eight to fifty- six hours, the taints have grown until the milk is off flavor and rejected. THE AERATION OF MILK. The process of quickly driving out from milk the animal odors and gases, and reducing it in temperature to that point where decomposition is arrested and where the changes will be slow, is called aeration, and the apparatus used for the purpose is called an aerator. Milk thus pre- pared will keep from forty -eight to fifty-six hours even in the warmest weather if kept at a temperature no higher than 55° F. The following description of an aerator and the method of use will give an idea of the general method of aerating the milk. The machines may vary but the principle is the same. "It consists of sixteen thin copper tubes two inches in diameter, tinned on the out.side, sixteen feet . long, arranged one tube above the other, and the ends connected in such a manner that spring or ice water connected to the bottom tube will flow its entire length, come back through the next higher and so on until the top tube is reached, wher« CATTLE. 343 it is conducted to the drain or back to the ice pool to be re-chilled and sent on its circuit route by the use of a rotary pump. The milk is fed into a V .shaped conductor running the entire length of the aerator, in the bottom of which are fine holes that feed the milk upon the tubes, where it spreads out into a thin layer and runs around each tube and drops to the next below until it falls over the last tube, from which it is gathered into small streams where it can be bottled readily by placing bottles in position or the milk can flow into the pan under the aerator and be drawn into cans or vats. You will note that the coldest water is in the bottom tube and the warmest at the top, so when the warm milk flows on it comes in contact with water about 60° F. , and as it passes down it will leave the last tube at 40° F. , if ice water is used, thus in- suring you a sweet milk, free from foreign odors in the main. Fresh milk will not only contain the animal heat, but .such odors as are impart- ed to it through injudicious feeding, unsavory foods, contamination from the stable odor and fine bulk manure that will wend its way through the finest cloth or woven wire into the cans, where it settles and when retailed in the cities the customers will remark, that the "Farmers are feeding buckwheat bran and it comes through whole." All the above mentioned odors, except the last, are in the form of gases which will readily pa.ss off the milk if aerated while warm. If new milk is allowed to set in a can in a pool or in the atmosphere for a length of time the cream will rise and form a close seal over the milk below, and as these gases try to escape the seal they cool and liquify and immediately unite with the milk globules, and no amount of agitation or aeration will free that milk of odor after such treatment. During the hot weather as the milk of the diflferent dairies flow over the aerator there will be a wide difference in the odors the machine gives off, and a most decidedly cheesy odor would be thrown off the night's milk that has been poorly staid with the night before and whose temperature has been allowed to remain above 60° F. all night. Such milk would sour before twenty- four hours old in ice water, and if aerated and iced would last forty-eight hours. If the fanner .sells milk he .should find means of aeration ; whether sold to the creamery men, or .shipped to market, or retailed from the farmer's wagons. One .shipper of aerated milk says that 'during the past year, with its intense heat, I did not have a can of .sour milk returned from New York, and in former years my annual loss in that line would buy an aerator each year.' " E. L. Haynes. 344 CATTLB. SILOS AND ENSILAGE. This subject has been much discussed of late, and the stock-raiser has come to recognize that silos have come to stay, and that if properly built and filled, they will supply a good fodder at a less cost than the plan now commonly adopted. F. A. Converse, a successful farmer of Woodville, N. Y. , has so ably covered the subject that we are pleased to be able to give in his own words the results of his experiments. He thus tersel}' covers the whole subject as to cost and advantages : "I was an unwilling convert, because in years past I had seen silos built costing a large amount of money, and filled with a product I would not feed a decent cow. The ensilage resembled a poor quality of sauer- kraut more than it did a wholesome food. Such ensilage put up from immature corn made bad results, and it was condemned, and rightly too. But conditions have changed, and men have come now to know that ensilage is not only a good food, but it is the cheapest food we can pro- vide for our stock, and, properly cut up, no food is more wholesome, and the farmers of the future will be compelled to use the silo to meet the competition into which he will be forced in the effort to produce milk, butter, or beef at a small cost. In going over the States, I find that the dairymen who are using the silo are able to produce more milk and do it cheaper than they could before the silo was built. This is the universal testimony. Some may ask why so many silos are abandoned. As a matter of fact there are not many silos abandoned, unless the corn crop for some cause failed; or by the whim or prejudice of certain creamery owners or condensed mulk manufacturers, where poor, sour ensilage was used in the past, and as a natural consequence, to protect themselves they had to stop using the ensilage, owing to its poor quality; but where ensilage is properly put up and made from mature corn, the silos have not been aban- doned. As an evidence of the quality and flavor of milk or butter made from ensilage, it is only necessary to state that those who are getting the best for their dairy products, are feeding ensilage. Why is ensilage better suited to cheapen milk production than any other food ? Because it provides us with a succulent food in winter, without which no milch cow can do her best; it can be raised so much cheaper than any of the root crops; and the food-producing power of an acre can be doubled and thribbled over any other crop. The dairyman CATTLE. 345 pursuing the old line of feeding must have about two acres pasture, from two to three acres to raise fodder enough to put a cow through the win- ter, besides the grain she must have, while with corn, one-half acre will supply all she will eat during the six winter months, and then, too, there is no better way to utilize a corn crop than to put it into the silo, for there it is in its most perfect condition for food. There is not only the succu- lence, but the development of the woody fiber in the stalk is stopped at just the stage of growth when it is most valuable in milk produc- tion. Another feature of this question is that the chemical action that takes place in the silo is an aid to digestion, enabling the animal to eat more than she otherwise could digest and assimilate, thus making i)iore milk from a given amount of food than can be made from any other product fed. Ensilage is the only food that will enable a dairy to produce milk as cheap during the six winter months as during the six summer months. The dairyman in the future will be compelled to adopt ensil- age, and the man who has his cows drop their calves in March and April and dries them all in November will be a back number. There is posi- tively no excuse for such practice, allowing the cows to do business only during the summer, and then tending a lot of dirty, lazy cows all winter with no income from them. If merchants should shut up their stores and go out of business for five months in the year, and just keep the store warm and swept out, but not sell anything until spring comes, we would call them fools, but that is just what a great many dairymen are doing, and then wondering why their profits are not larger. Look at this ensilage question in any way, one is forced to accept it as the cheapest food known for stock. The silo system has passed its experimental stage, and in these days no man needs to put up a silo excepting he is to solve the problem whether or not it is cheap food; whether or not it is a wholesome food; whether or not it will pay a farmer, whose bank account is limited, to put one up. All of these points have been decided many times over by dairymen in every dairy State in the Union. This ensilage question is not a craze or a fad. It is an accepted practice that has come to stay. The idea is not new. Silos were constructed in Egypt over twenty centuries ago, and the prac- tice has come down to us with many improvements, until to-day we are forced to accept its utility and its advantages. The dairy cow on the June pasture is at her best, and to keep her at her best these June conditions, both as to food and climate, must be ap- 346 CATTLE. proximated, and the onlj^ successful approximation to June food is the ensilage. Ensilage is a cheaper product than grass, and any animal that will eat grass will eat ensilage and thrive on it. The question is often asked, what sized silo should be built for a cer- tain number of cows? A general rule can be laid down which will answer with unerring certainty this question. Allow one cubic foot space inside the silo as a ration for one cow per day. A cubic foot will weigh about forty pounds, which will be an average ration for a one thousand pound cow. So, taking into consideration the number of cows and the time the animals are to be fed, one can readily find out the size of the silo to build, but bear in mind a silo filled full will settle from one- fifth to one-fourth, and so make calculations accordingly. So for ten cows to be fed six months it would would want a silo 12x12 and 20 feet high, filled 16 feet, and for twenty cows we would need one 12x15, ^^^ 25 feet high, filled 20 feet. For thirty cows a silo 12x21, and 28 feet high, filled 22 feet is needed, and for forty cows it would be necessary to build one 12x28, and fill 22 feet. In a silo of this length it would be better to put a partition through the middle of it. These dimensions are best adapted to the construction of a silo inside the barn in the ba5\ The bottom of a silo should be grouted like the bottom of a cistern covered with small stones put in mortar, two parts sand and one part cement. This will make it air-tight and keep out the rats. If the barn has an under-pinning of mason work, have the inside of the wall flush with the inside edge of the silo; furrow out with two-inch plank from the posts of the barn to within one inch of the edge of the wall; nail these planks together at the corners, and have the first one at the bottom, the next a foot higher, and the rest four to six inches apart to the top of the silo. These girders are put closer together at the bot- tom, on account of the strain being greater at the bottom than at the top. Nail the boards to the edges of these planks. Use rough hemlock inch boards for the siding. Put on two courses, use building paper be- tween the courses, and pay particular attention to break joints. This w ill make a better and cheaper silo than matched and planed boards, because, unless Georgia pine is used, the matched lumber will pull out of the matching from the shrinking and swelling of the boards. I have used a silo made like this for .six years and it works admirably, and I can suggest only one improvement, and that is to cut the corners off, and this could be done very nicely by j)Utting in a piece of plank, cutting off three feet of the square corner, and then boarding right CATTLE. 347 around, gettin.^ the practical benefits of a round silo. The cost of build- ing a silo inside the barn will cost about fifty cents per ton for the amount of ensilage, or the silo for twenty cows would hold about one hundred twenty tons and cost about $60.00, exclusive of work. Build the silo yourself at odd times, and do not expend a cent for carpenter's work. Any man wdio knows enough to run a saw, a hammer and a level can build a silo like these described. If there is not room to build a silo in the barn, the cost of construct- ing on the same plan will be three or four times as great. Seek to have the silo inside the barn, if possible, as it is cheaper, handier, and all things considered, far the best plan. The feeding-door should be con- veniently located and run to the top of the silo, so the ensilage can be fed from the top. Instead of doors use boards that can be 'removed as fa'^t as the mass of ensilage settles, so that all lifting is avoided in pitchmg out. Never put an^-thing in for ensilage but corn, because you can raise three times more in food value than any other crop. Land that will produce a ton of hay per acre will raise ten tons of corn, and land that will raise one and one-half tons of hay will raise fifteen tons of corn per acre. Two and one-half tons of ensilage is worth as much as a ton of ha\-, so to make the producing powers of an acre equal to the corn for ensilage, we would have to raise six tons per acre. My practice of rais- ing corn is this: I follow a three-year rotation, clover, corn, and grain, seeding with eight quarts of clover, two of timothy, mowing the clover twice, then putting it to corn the following spring. During the winter I put the manure on this clover sod as fast as it is made, about fifteen loads per acre. It is plowed in the spring about six inches deep, then rolled and fitted with a spring-tooth harrow thoroughly and marked both ways just three feet. I find it makes very little difference whether the corn is in hills or drills, if the same amount of seed is used, except in the cultivation, it often being desirable to cultivate both w^ays. What is wanted is the largest, earliest variety w'hich will mature in your locality. Never, under any circumstances, put on more than ten quarts of seed to the acre, because we must remember corn is a sun plant, and to properly mature, it cannot be planted thick. Many put in a piece of fodder corn and plant it a bushel or two of seed per acre. I actually met one man this winter in southern New York who said he wanted four bushels to the acre for good, sowed corn. I would rather have a A\indmill than a crop like that, because I could get the wind and water into the animaj 348 CATTLE. much cheaper than b}^ feeding it such corn. It is about ninety per cent, water, and we can't afford to raise water when it is so plenty. No, never, whether for ensilage, fodder corn or field corn, put in more than ten quarts per acre. After the com is planted, put on about three hun- dred pounds of commercial fertilizer made after a general formula, con- taining the fertilizing ingredients in the proportion needed for the corn plant, which is approximately one part of phosporic acid, two parts nitrogen and three parts potash. Put the commercial fertilizer on broadcast rather than dropping it in the hill. I believe that the most critical time in the plant's life is just at the germination period, and when the little rootlets are sent out there is a great deal more plant-food then than is needed, and as the roots grow and extend further out into the soil there is not enough to continue the rapid growth that has started at first, as the roots all feed from the ends and spread out all through the ground. Dropping fertilizer on a hill of corn and expecting the plant to be benefited is a little like a boy expecting to get his dinner while sitting on his dinner pail. As soon as the fertilizer is applied, put on a smoothing harrow and go over the piece. Do this before the corn comes up. After the corn is up, go over it again with a smoothing har- row the opposite way from the first time over. Every five or six days go over the corn until the corn is six inches high; then use a weeder, which will accomplish the same result until the corn is fifteen inches high. This method of cultivating is very important, as it kills the weeds just as they are starting and hoes the field better than it could be done by hand. The time has gone by when you can afford to hoe any cultivated crops by hand. With horses and efficient machinery so cheap the hand-hoe must be relegated to the fear. This surface cultivation not only kills the weeds when it can be done the easiest, but no treatment of the land will conserve the moisture in the soil as will this shallow cultivation. The surface soil acts as a mulch. During a dought there are fields which have become so hard and baked that one could run a hand into the cracks on the crust that has formed, while in the garden the soil was moist and in good shape. What was the difference ? One had the same amount of rain as the other. The garden was stirred frequently by repeated hoeing, while the field was not touched during the drought, so the lesson taught is to stir the soil often in all cultivated fields. An experiment conducted at the Cornell station shows that an acre of land with surface cultivation evaporates two tons less moisture every twenty- CATTLE. 349 fours hours than an acre uncultivated and unstirred. As time goes on and our forests grow less, this retention of moisture in the soil must be carefully looked after. As soon as the weeder is stopped begin with the cultivator. Use some kind so that the depth can be governed. Never put the cultivator down over two or three inches, and two is preferable to three. If necessary to go deep, do it while the corn is very small, for deep cultivation in- jures the roots, and oftentimes one might better be in the house reading the paper than cultivating corn and tearing off the feeding roots, check- ing its growth perhaps to the extent that frost will catch it in the fall. If any of you attended the Columbian Exposition and visited the exhibit made by the department of experiment stations from Washington, you were doubtless surprised to see a corn plant witli the roots washed out so that one could see the relative amount of root growth as compared with the stalk. Major Alvord, who was in charge, told me that it had been determined by careful experiment that there was more superficial area on the roots of a corn plant than there was on the stalk, and he further said in an ordinarily porous soil with the corn hills three feet and three inches apart, there was not a single cubic inch of earth to the depth of four feet that was not permeated with the fibrous roots. This will give us some idea of the harm done by putting our cultivator down six inches deep, thinking that we are doing a grand job. Cultivate as often as necessary. Using a two-horse wheel cultivator, taking two rows at a time. Never cut the corn until it has begun to glaze. Here is where so many have made the fatal mistake of putting up the corn before it was ripe. There is a large increase in all the nutrients between the time of tasseling and the ripening of the corn. An experiment at Cornell showed that the feeding value of corn between corn in the milk and ma- ture com was $14.00 for green corn, and $48.00 for the mature corn. In regard to cutting and filling the silo we must be governed some- what by circumstances. Some farmers dont want a gang of men to rush it through in two or three days; others want to do this way. So far as the keeping of ensilage is concerned, it does not matter whether it is done in one day or in one month, if it is filled continuosly until full. I knew of a man who filled his silo alone; going out and cutting a load, drawing it to the barn, putting the team in tread and cutting the load into the silo. He was six weeks doing it and had good ensilage. Pack the corn into the silo, keep the surface level and thoroughly 35© CATTI^B. tramp, especially' around the sides and in the comers, if they are square. More loss will occur in corners and around the sides than in other por- tions of the silo. When full, cover the ensilage with cut straw or chaff to the extent of two feet, cover with boards or rails, and leave until ready to feed. Certain precautions in feeding are necessary. Everybody realizes that June conditions are best for milk production, and with the silo we approximate the June feed, green, succulent and laxative, so we must have the June climate, or in other words, don't feed j'our cows ensilage unless 3'our stable is warm. Another thing we must take into consideration, and that is, corn grown as I have indicated will have too many ears to make a good ra- tion for a milch cow. The nutritious ratio is about one to twelve, so my practice is to go through the field and pick off about thirty or forty bushels per acre before cutting, throwing them in heaps upon the ground to feed the pigs and horses during the winter. Even then we find it necessary to feed grain with ensilage, and I use bran, malt sprouts, and cotton-seed meal. The grain is fed dry twice a day, on the ensilage. On taking the ensilage from the silo it should always be fed from the top, and not from the end. Go over the whole surface at least once in forty-eight hours, or else the mass will begin to mold. These are essentials I have found necessary to the profitable use of ensilage as a stock food, and while we are learning something all the time about it and its use, nevertheless, any man can follow these prin- ciples, and he will make no mistake. I am often asked if I would ad- vise a poor man, struggling with a debt, to put a silo. I want to say I most emphatically would. It will be a good investment, and as far as the rich farmer is concerned, he perhaps does not need one as much, but it will prove a blessing to any dairyman." Blood lyetting in Cattle. Tie a cord firmly about the lower por- tion of the neck, and the jugular vein (63 on Circulatory system in mani- kin of Cow) will become distended with blood and swell out so as to be easily found and tapped. When sufficient blood has been drawn, loosen the cord. SHEEP HUSBANDRY. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDs! Care, Breeding, and Management. DESCRIPTION OF THEIR VARIOUS DISEASES AND HOW TO CURE THEM. HEEP were raised in the earliest times simply for their pelt, and without regard to their wool. They were theearhest domesticated of any of the wild animals, and this domestication, together with the breeder, has very much changed the character of the animal. At the present time there are no wild sheep known. There are a few that are called wild sheep, but they resemble the goat more than the)' do the sheep. Sacred writers considered the shepherd's occupation a favored one, and God's chosen people had all of their richest attire made of the pro- duct of the sheep. On holidays the Jewish maidens were attired in woolen garments made from the finest, softest wool. To the faithful shepherds, as they were watching their flocks, came the glad tidings of peace on earth, good will to men. The small farmer as well as the large one, is interested in the raising of sheep. When properly understood and managed the}' are as great a source of profit as any of the domestic animals. Wliile the}^ are very tender and require special care, there is no other animal that will better repay the care and kindness in treatment. The diseases and ailments peculiar to sheep are easily cured when understood. The measures and remedies to be adopted are within the reach of every farmer. 352 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. Sheep have attained great perfection during the last few years, and a single sheep has sold as high as $10,000 for breeding purposes. At the present time mutton is in considerable demand as an article of food, and while neither the wool, pelt, nor flesh bring exhorbitant prices, yet there is the fact that every part of the sheep is salable, and sheep rais- ing is as profitable as any other of the various industries of the farm. The perfection to which the sheep has grown as a wool producer, is .shown by the fact that while the number of sheep in the United States has within the past quarter of a century doubled, the quantity of wool pro- duced has quadrupled. Wool. By consulting statistics we will readily understand why the production of wool has been the one purpose which our sheep breeders have had in view. Beginning with the year 1825 we find wool selling at seventy cents per pound, and the average price for twenty-five years from that time was over fifty-four cents per pound. Beginning again with 1850, we find wool selling at an average for the next quarter of a century of over fifty-five cents per pound, and during that time, from July, 1864, until the following spring it sold for one dollar per pound. No wonder breeders were stimulated to produce wool; no wonder they seemed to forget the carcass; and I believe that never in the history of breeding was greater advance made than was made by the breeders of this time who produced the American Merino sheep, which as a wool producer has no successful rival. Beginning again with the year 1875 we find for the next twelve years fine wool sold at an average of only forty-one cents per pound, and from that time to the present the market has drifted downward until now wool has become so low that sheep- raisers are paying more attention to the production of flesh. Mutton. The most reliable market reports, as well as the experi- ence of our best authorities, prove conclusively the following facts : 1. For the past few years mutton has sold at a higher average price per pound than either beef or pork. 2. A given amount or value of food will produce more pounds of mut- ton than of beef or pork. 3. The relative increase in the consumption of mutton is greater than in any other kind of meat. Then in selecting sheep for the farm, remember the demand for a better class of mutton, and secure the best blood attainable for this purpose. SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 353 Selection of the Breed. "But what breed is it best to select? In order to obtain the highest degree of success in any line of business it is necessary to have a clearly-defined idea as to what is to be accom- plished. One should know what kind of sheep the best markets demand and what kind is capable of producing the greatest profit. One of the greatest dangers that will attend the selection of a breed is this : it will be the desire to secure a kind of combination sheep, one at the same time that shall be a typical mutton sheep and a first-class wool-producer. No such a breed of sheep exists in the world at the present time. The (so-called) mutton Merinos are a strong class of sheep and are good wool-producers, but when their carcass is hung up in market by the side of a Shropshire or Southdown they make a poor show.. Why? because the Merino has been bred for generations with the 'one idea of wool-production. Better feeding will make a better fleece, but a better carcass never. The onl}- way to make mutton sheep from a Merino flock is to cross them with rams of the pure mutton breeds and thus breed it away from its present characteristics. It will be far wiser to cross one of the mutton breeds which have been brought to their present high standing by skillful breeding, than to undertake to transform a flock of wool-producers into mutton sheep, an effort that can only re- sult in complete failure. Much has been said and written in regard to the merits of dark-faced breeds, and it is true that in our best markets a dark-faced lamb will readily sell for a half-dollar more than one of the same weight with a white face. Of course there is no merit in a dark face of itself, but sheep with dark faces and legs have been found to possess qualities of carcass which are superior to those found in white-faced sheep. The dark face is simply a trade-mark, which indicates the quality of the goods which accompany it. And right here is the danger. That is, that farmers will pay too great attention to the trade-mark and too little to the qual- ity of the carcass and thus debase the trade-mai;k until it shall stand for naught." — F. D. WxVrd. Advantages of Sheep-raising. "It is a fact, well known by every observing man, that, as a rule, dairy sections are less exhausted and the people more prosperous than grain-growing sections, and the keeping of cows, if properly done, is not only profitable, but actually makes the farm grow better. But not all parts of our State are dairy sections. Although by the extended use of the silo many sections not now keeping cows might do so to advantage, still, there are conditions 354 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. essential to dairying that do not exist in all parts, so all can not be dairymen. To those farmers who can not be dairymen, winter sheep-feeding affords a profitable solution to the problem. It even has advantages ever dairying, in that the farmer need not have the stock upon i;is farm more than from four to six months in a year. He may crowd his farm for all it is worth during summer in growing the needed food, and when winter sets in fill his barn with sheep and turn this food into the three "M's," mutton, money and manure, and do this with a good profit. Of course, there may be an occasional year when the feeder will but little more than "get out whole" after paying for all the food eaten, but there will be other years when he will double his money. So long as one is not a "fortune teller," who can foretell futurity, it will be dangerous bobbing in and out. One maj^ "miss as well as hit," but he who will go into the business to ' 'stick' ' wdll find it an average safe business and at the end of five years will find an average satisfactory profit. In addition, the farm will rapidly grow richer. There is a further reason. One can hire men by the year for almost the same money as for eight months, so that really about all the winter labor will cost will be the board of the men, and more than this, by so hiring we can keep our best men and select the best ones that have worked during the sum- mer for our neighbors, and any man who is kept by the year will be more efficient and valuable than would the same man only hired for the summer months. He comes to feel an interest in the farm and business, and such men are much more desirable. Kind of Sheep to Winter. But not all sheep can be fed with equal certainty of success. If a fold of mature sheep be put in, no mat- ter how judiciously fed, nothing can be added to them but fat. The fact is well established, that while an animal is young and growing the character of the food will determine whether the gain be lean meat or fat, but once the same animal becomes full grown and mature, feed what you may, the weight added will be fat and fat only. The size of muscle may be increased, but it will be by the crowding of particles of fat be- tween the tissues. Another fact must not be lost. Young animals eat, digest and assim- ilate more food in proportion to live weight than older ones, and our profit will depend upon the gain, and the gain comes from food eaten above what is needed to maintain the animal. The kind of sheep to be fed most profitably must be young and thrifty, and should be pf some SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 355 of the mutton or meat-growing breeds, or largely tinctured with that blood. For the reason that cross bred animals are, as a rule, more hardy, quick-growing and early- maturing than any pure breed, it is well to choose cross-bred lambs. Hampshire blood on the one side, prefera- bly that of the sire, (although any of the Down breeds do well), is to be preferred. But from the fact that American Merino ewes are so much more numerous and withal so hard)-, cross-bred lambs from Merino ewes and some Down .sire, Hampshire, vShropshire or Southdown in the order named, are most easily obtained and as good as any. Many feeders make the mistake of putting in lambs too old and heavy. Such lambs are so near mature that they will not make so many pounds gain. In our markets they cost more per pound, and when spring comes they will not sell for enough more per pound to make up for the larger cost when purchased in the fall. If good thrifty lambs of about fifty- five or sixty pounds can be bought about October first, they can be so fed as to get out May first at one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty pounds without fleece, and bring top prices. Quartering and Feeding-. The old way of feeding sheep on timothy hay and corn, and letting them run all over the farm will not do in these days of close competition, and with the people asking for lean, juicy, tender meat. To get best prices, mutton must be such as is wanted by the best customers, and the day when full-grown wethers, so loaded with fat that they could hardly stand up, were paraded through the .streets to attract trade to the .shop of the owner has gone into obliv- ion, never to return. A lamb now weighing forty pounds, lean and toothsome, will sell for more money than one of tho.se three hundred pound fat-covered wethers. It takes food to maintain animal heat, and for all the food which goes to that use the feeders get no return. It also uses up food to enable the sheep to run all over the farm and take that great amount of "exercise," and "exercise" never makes mu.scle or lean meat; it only hardens it. "Exercise," while not adding to the most valuable part of the carcass, really makes that which we have less valuable. What is wanted then is to put the lambs in a good, roomy, well- ven- tilated, warm and dry quarters. Keep them with just as little exercise as is consistent with health, and then feed them all the food of the right kind they can assimilate. If the .sheep feeder wishes to study economy in the construction of his folds, he may build more than one story high. So long as they are sufficiently roomy and well ventilated, and the floors 356 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. are tight, the sheep fed on the upper floor will always do the best. And it is a fact that in a third-story fold the sheep on the top floor will make more gain in the same time than either of the others. As has been hinted, it is lean meat and that which is tender and juicy, that is most desirable to have grown on our lambs. It being an admit- ted fact that the nitrogenous foods tend to the production of lean meat, the lambs should be largeh' fed on those. Among the best, in fact at the head for dry forage stands clover ha)^; early cut, well-cured clover hay is the best of all forage. Bean pods or pea vines are both good and much better than the best timothy hay, but timothy hay, as usually cut and cured, is among the least desirable of all foods. Early-cut, well- cured corn fodder is not bad forage, and bright, barn housed straw will be greedily eaten for one feed per day. For grain, sheep have a great hankering after variety. Constant change is very agreeable to them; in fact after they have been fed on a food for several days, however good, they will ravenously eat what would seem nuich less palatable. But for a stanby, wheat bran, oil meal, corn, gluten meal, oats, peas, and beans are all good, but they should be so mixed or changed from one to an- ther as to stimulate the eating and digesting of as much as possible. Whatever may be fed as forage or grain, no sheep must be expected to do its best or to remain healthy for more than ninety days high feed- ing, without plenty of succulence in their food. Nothing is better for this purpose than good corn silage, having a large amount of grain and well advanced toward ripening when put into the silo. All kinds of roots are good for sheep, and will fill the bill for succulence, but the preference would be ruta-bagas, mangels, and fiat or English turnips in the order named, so far as nutrition is concerned, but counting the ex- pense of production in connection, the list would be reversed, although it is hard to keep the flat turnips in good eating condition after Febru- ary first. But fattening sheep will certainly do better and make more gain when they can be fed both silage and roots each day. They will thrive with only one but will make more gain when having a feed in the forenoon of one and in the afternoon of the other. The succulent not only adds whatever of nutritive value it may have, but helps the sheep digest and assimilate more of the dry food. Besides the succulent food surely makes the meat of the sheep more juicy and tender. One other thing must not be overlooked in the sheep folds. The sheep must have i>lenty of water and that which is fresh and clean. No SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 357 animal is more cleanly, nor is there anj- other that will so quickly refuse to drink water the least dirty or stale. In every pen there should be a separate trough which should always be kept so clean that the shepherd would drink from it, and at least once each day it should be emptied, so as to be sure of having fresh water. Pens should not be crowded, but they should have at least one cubic foot of air space to each pound of live weight of animal, and it is better not to have over twenty or twenty-five in a pen, and these should be so assorted as to be nearly of the same weight and vigor. To a man who will give them the proper care, there is no more pleas- ant or profitable business than winter sheep-feeding, or one that will keep his farm is such a fruitful condition. Value of Different Kinds of Food. Experiments have been carried on at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Wisconsin, to find the results to be obtained as to cost and value of the different kinds of food. An equal number of sheep were weighed and placed in different sheds. The various flocks were fed on different kinds of food, which were carefully weighed. The results seem to prove that oat-straw is a valuable fodder, and that sheep can be maintained at four-fifths of a cent per day, when the following prices prevail: oat straw 15 cents per hun- dred, sugar beets 10 cents per hundred, bran at 60 cents per hundred. To find the cost of keeping sheep it is only necessary to figure the value of the produce at the place where you are located. In figuring out the the result, the cost of preparing the crop for market and taking it there should be deducted from the price for which it is sold. The amounts of food fed to four sheep for eight weeks, equalling the amount fed to thirty-two sheep for one week, or two hundred and twenty-four sheep for one day, were two hundred sixty-two pounds oat straw, seven hundred four pounds of sugar beets, fifty-six pounds of oats, and fifty -six pounds of bran. The result of their experiments were as follows : 1 . Dry fodders and cut corn fodder gave good results, as the ewes so fed were maintained cheaply, kept in the best of health, their fleeces were in the best condition, and after lambing they gave an abundant supply of milk. 2. Oat straw as a fodder for sheep was shown to have a greater feed- ing value than is commonly credited to it. Combined with a small quan- tity of grain and succulent food it offers the best return for carrying breeding ewes over the winter at the least expense. Ewes were kept in 358 ,c;heep husbandry. good condition on a ration consisting largely of oat straw at less than one cent a da>-. The amounts of food left by the sheep were very simi- lar to that left by the cord-fodder; as the ewes left twent)^ per cent, of the corn-fodder and twenty-two per cent, of the oat straw. While it is not proper to recommend an exclusive oat straw and grain ration, (be- cause this is the result of only one experiment) upon this trial alone, yet it proves that oat straw may be uicd with profit, at least when fed with other fodders. 3. While timothy hay is a good dry fodder for sheep, j^et, looking for the best results and closest ecoijomj^ it would be best to give the prefer- ence to oat straw and corn-fodder, where these fodders are available at a comparative price not exceeding that of hay. 4. Corn silage is valuable for breeding ewes, surpassing the other suc- culent fodders used in this experiment in cheapness, by keeping the sheep in good thriving condition, and leading to a good flow of milk. 5. Clover silage, if properly preserved, is a good sheep food. The sheep, after getting used to it, eat it with avidity, and do well on it. Against it is the cost of making and the difficult}' in preserving it. 6. Sugar beets are liked by sheep, but they cannot be said to equal either of the other succulent fodders experimented with. They are apt to induce scouring if fed in quantities of over four pounds, daily to each ewe. A GROUP OF ALGERIANS, SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 359 DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF SHEEP. Our Illustrations. We have been unusuall_v fortunate in ha\nng the extensive collection of cuts belonging to that valuable fanners' pa- per, "The Country Gentleman," placed at our disposal. Through its kindness we are able to give illustrations of the various breeds that have been made from photographs of the living animals, nearly all of them prize-winners. Such illustrations are much more valuable than those drawn by the artist's fancy, making typical sheep of the various breeds according to his ideal. So many cuts of this nature have been placed before the public that the average stock-raiser is at a disadvantage when comparing his animals with those of the artist's fanc5\ Southdown. In the south of England there is a range of low hills known as the "Downs," which have a dry soil, covered with short, sweet, rich, dense grass. These hills, or "Downs," extend from rich cultivated soil in the north, gradually descending southward to the sea. Here the Sussex, or Southdowns were bred, and at the time the breed- ers took them in hand were not very desirable. They were small, had thin necks, were narrow in the fore-quarters, low behind, high in front, razor-backed, and very flat ribbed. Their only point of superiority was the sweetness and excellent flavor of their flesh, which was undoubtedly the result of the excellent character of their pasture. But fifty 3-ears of weeding and constant selection of the best for breeding purposes, im- proved them till they became the first of the short-wool breeds. At the present time the Southdowns hold the position of being the best mutton sheep in the world. At one year of age they dress from seventy to eighty pounds of the very choicest "lamb" in the market. Their fleece, while not heavy, will weigh five or six pounds, and it is in great demand for soft flannels. They make excellent mothers and prolific breeders. These sheep, as now bred, are without horns, and have dark brown or black faces and legs. The body is round and deep, and of medium size, the back broad and le\-el, the thigh full and massive, and the fore-quarters are wide and deep, with a broad breast. It is a good feeder, and the lambs are active and hardy. The South- downs will adapt themselves to any climate and style of farming where they can have good pasture. 36o SHEEP HUSBANDRY. The Southdown ram has no equal as a cross with Merino ewes, as the lambs are held in high esteem by the butchers because they are always plump and tender, and have that much sought- for mark, "blackface." A TYPICAL ENGUSF SOUTHDOWN. Re-engraved from the London L,ive Stock Journal, this portrait of a prize-winning two-shear Southdown ram called "Son of Enterprise," bred by H. L. C. Brassey, Preston Hall, Aylesford, Kent. "An animal of great substance, he has excellent breed chararacter, his head, scrag, and shoulders being of the best, with loin, back, and girth all in proportion, while he has a good fleece." French Merino. About the time of the American Revolution there were selected about a quarter of a thousand sheep from the finest flocks in Spain and these sheep were placed on a public farm near Paris in France, where the effort of improving upon the breed was undertaken. These sheep, selected from all parts of Spain, while possessing marked superiority, nuist have had marked difTerences in them. These differences, by j^ears of very careful breeding, became merged into a breed of sheep much superior to its ancestors, and became known as SHEEP HUSRANDRY. 36 1 the French Merino. The improvement was so successfully carried on that this breed about 1825 became the largest pure Merinos in the world. One feature was their great folds of skin in the neck and a loose skin over the body. 'The French Merino was brought to this country in the "Forties," and a single ram would produce twenty to twenty-four pounds of unwashed wool, while a single ewe would prod'uce fifteen to eighteen pounds. The first of this class of sheep were taken to Hartford, Connecticut, from which place they soon vSpread through the northern states. But they showed tenderness and fell rapidly into disfavor. They do not seem to be fitted for our severe winters and our rough farming, and re- quire more care than most American farmers care to give a flock. The best seemed to thrive and proved profitable, but the inferior ones were good for nothing. Thus they have nearly disappeared from our conti- nent, although since the French exposition there has again come an in- terest in these sheep. While not desirable as a full "bred," yet as a cross with some of our American Merinos they are of value, and even for the pure breed there is a place in our agriculture which it will hold and keep, in spite of its past adversities. It probably will not be in the north where the winters are rigid, but in the belt of our milder climate. The Cheviot. Crossing the boundar}^ line that separates England from Scotland are the Cheviot hills. Here has been bred for ages a variety of sheep which has received the name of its pasture land. They are a very hardy sheep, which originally were small and light-boned. It is a very useful breed, and when fed upon sweet, dry fodder, produces so choice a mutton that it is much sought after by the epicure. The head is without horns, and like the legs, is white. Its face is strong featured and massive, but shows gentleness, with a lively eye. The body is long, and set upon clean, trim legs. Like all breeds that have had the hills and mountains for their home, the fore-quarters are light, but they have heavy hind-quarters and a full saddle. They are a quiet and docile breed, and while as a mountain breed they stand on the top round, the}^ are also a good lowland variety. The Cheviots are good motliers, and the lambs are hardy, spending their whole life on their native hills without shelter, except from very severe storms. They fatten easily on turnips, without grain, and when three years old will dress eight}^ pounds. They .shear on an average five pounds of fine wool, if fed upon a good pasture. It is their wool which has given the name to the famous Cheviot cloths. 362 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. A FINE SCOTCH CHEVIOT RAM. In view of the recent development of the Cheviot interest in this coun- try we give a copy of a cut taken from the Edinburgh North British Agriculturist. This portrait is considered by them "a rare good sheep of this breed," combining all the best points of "The Gentleman's Strain." His name is ''The Percy" and he was bred and is owned by John Elliot, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Scotland. SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 363 A DISTINGUISHED MERINO RAM. This ram Perfection is the property of W. B. Sanger, On August 17th, as a two-tooth he cut eighteen pounds of wool. Last year the av- erage fleece of the flock, breeding extra, and double was fourteen pounds and one ounce. The sire of perfection was Superb III. This noble sheep was pur- chased at the disposal of Hay & Alarkham's Vermont flock. The great feature of Superb III is the evenness with which he is cov- ered from nose to toes wdth a dense and bright fleece of good character and staple, and this is transmitted to his progen5\ The American Merino. This breed is a descendant of the Span- ish Merino, and is less than a century old. It has at the present time come to be the foremost sheep of this class in the world. J. R. Graham an .xtensive sheep raiser on Murray River, Australia, in a report to the government, gave testimony as follows: "Of all imported sheep, those of our first cousins, the Americans are the best. The best rams import- ed into Melbourne of late years were Americans." In 1809 sheep were selling for a dollar per head, but it soon became known that by importation we had gotten the very best sheep in the world. This knowledge started a fever speculation, which together with the war of 18 12 caused wool to advance in price to $2,50 per pound. 364 SHEKP HUSBANDRY. Aud the sheep that in 1S09 sold for one dollar, in 18 14 were valued at one thousand. But the war ended, the fever subsided, and the interest in breeding American naerinos ceased for a time. The American JNIerino is found at the present time in great perfection in numerous flocks, and possesses many distinguishing characteristics. Harrv Stewart in "The Shepherd's Manual" describes them as follows: The Carcass. "The carcass should be plump, medium sized, round, deep, not long in proportion to roundness, the head and neck short and thick; the back should be straight and broad, the breast and buttock full; the legs short, well apart, and strong, with heavy forearm and full twist. This compact figure indicates a hardy constitution, ease of keep- ing, and good feeding properties. Skin. The skin should be a deep rich rose color, thin, mellow, loose, and elastic on the body. This indicates a healthy, well conditioned ani- mal. A pale or tawny skin, indicates impurity of blood, or at least weakness of constitution, and is therefore objectionable. Folds and Wrinkles. These are permissible to a certain extent. The fashion in this regard has doubtless passed beyond the bounds of wisdom, and excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is unsightly and useless, if not worse. In shearing, it causes a waste of time, and gives no adequate return in wool. A deep, soft, plaited dewlap on both ewes and rams, and some slight wrinkles on the neck of the ram, satisfied the early breeders in this respect. While heavy neck-folds on the ram, and short ones back of the elbow and on the rump, are tolerated by breeders at the present time, yet it is simply fashion, and adds nothing to the value of the animal, but on the contrary is dearly paid for in the in- creased cost of shearing. An exception to this may be taken in respect to rams to be used in improving the poor, smooth-skinned native race common on the western plains, in which case a heavy-yolked and much wrinkled ram may be found desirable. The Fleece. A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool, must necessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. 1 >.ie wool of a pure-bred Merino of any value, should stand at right angles to the skin, presenting a dense, smooth, even surface on the exterior, opening nowhere but in those natural cracks or divisions which separate the fleece into masses. These masses should not be small in size, or they indicate excessive fineness of fleece; a quarter of an inch is the limit in this re- spect; nor too large, lest tlie wool be coarse and harsh. The length should be such as, combined with thickness of staple, will give the SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 365 greatest weight of fleece. Medium wool is gencrall}- in greater demand than fine wool, and it is more profitabh- produced. Two to three inches is probably the most desirable length of fleece for profit. A change, however, is taking place in this respect, since the practice of combing Merino wool has become general, and three inches and over is a fre- quently desired length of fiber. It is not desirable to have the face cov- ered with wool long enough to fold up in the fleece. If the eyes are covered with such wool, the sheep is either blinded, or the woc;l must be kept clipped close. The ears .should be small, with a coat of .soft mos.sy hair about half way to the roots, and for the remainder, covered with wool. A naked ear is very objectionable. Evenness in quality in every part of the sheep is very desirable. Hair growing up through the wool on the thighs, the neck-folds, or .scattered through the fleece here and there, is not to be allowed. The wool should be sound, that is, of even strength from end to end of the fiber. It should be highly elastic and wrinkled, curved or wavy. The number of these curls, or waves, to the inch, is not .so much a test of excellence as their regularity and beauty of cur\'ature. A folding back of the fiber upon itself is not so desirable as a gentler curve. Pliancy and Softness. The pliancy and .softness to the feeling in handling is an excellent test of quality, so much prized by manufac- turers, that practiced buyers will sometimes form an accurate judgment of a fleece by handling it in the dark with gloved hands. ' ' Shropshire Sheep. This sheep is undoubtedly the result of a cross between the Cotswold and the "Morfe" sheep. The latter were a sheep that were common in England in the latter part of the last century. The Shropshire vary somewhat, having in some sections the character of a short- wool, while in others it has the character of a medium- wool sheep. The original sheep was horned, and had a black face, was hardy and not subject to disease, and produced about forty-five pounds of mutton to the carcass, and only about two pounds of wool. After a century's breeding, they are now found v.ithout horns; thick necks; small, fine head, with a dark face; a good, round body; straight back; broad, deep breast; and clean, dark legs. They are very hardy, thrive well on a moderate amount of food, are easily and quickly fattened, and at two years will produce eighty to one hundred pounds of mutton. The wool has increased, and weighs seven pounds per fleece. The ewes are good mothers and very prolific 366 SHEEP HUSBANDRY, They are a very satisfactory farmer's sheep, especially where they have to depeud upon pasturage for food. It has a close, well-set fleece, and a hardy constitution, which being combined, help to carry the ani- mal through severe storms and exposure. SWEEPSTAKES SHEARING SHROPSHIRE, RAM AT ROYAL SHOW, ENGLAND Black-Faced Scotch. On the Grampian Hills where Norval's "father fed his flock," a breed now known as the Black-faced Scotch have held undisputed possession for centuries. As civilization improved the Black-faced improved with it. As indicated by the name the face is black and they have a thick muzzle. They have bright, quick eyes, square and compact bodies, broad saddles, and fair qviarters. They are very hardy and able to withstand a great amount of exposure. They herd together and will in severe snow storms become completely covered with snow, in someway digging under the drifts and forming for them- selves a dug-out under the snow. It is said they have been found thus buried under the drifts after twenty days of confinement and the flock all living. In vScotland after a severe storm of this kind, the shepherds Start out to find their flocks which invariably bury themselves in the SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 3O7 snow. They dig in the snow and subsist on the herbage that is left on their heather-covered pasturage. The ewes are excellent mothers, and the lambs are hardy. The flesh of the carcasses which average about sixty-five pounds is of a peculiarl)'' fine flavor. This sheep would thrive and do well in our exposed moun- tain districts, but it is not likely they would thrive in confined situations or in a mild soft climate. Oxford-Downs. This variety, known as oueof the "long-wooled" sheep, is comparatively a new cross-breed, which has come to be favora- bly looked upon. It has appeared in America and is to be found on the farms of several of our most enterprising sheep-fanciers. It. is a cross between a Hampshire-down ewe and a Cotswold ram. The first cross was made in 1830, but was not recognized as a separate class till 1862. The wool is finer and firmer than the Cotswold, and is from five to six inches long. On ordinary feeding, such as is usually given on a mixed farm, it will as a j-earling produce a carcass from sixty to sevent3--five pounds, and shear a fleece of sevxn pounds. By extra care and feeding it will produce much heavier carcasses. At a fat cattle show in London there were exhibited Oxford-downs under two years of age that weighed three hundred pounds each. Rams have sheared nineteen pounds for their first fleece. They have a curly fleece, which is thickly set on a small body. The head is similar to the Cotswold, having a tuft on the forehead, but the face and legs it inherits from the Hampshire-downs, being dark in color. They are found very profitable feeders, and on wet soils have with- stood the winters without being affected with "giddiness" or "water on the brain," that invariabh' attacked the Cotswolds and Southdowns. Hampshire-Downs. Tbis breed of sheep is rapidly rising in favor. The residents of the southern states previous to i860 imported many of this breed of sheep, and they soon became more popular than the Southdowns. But the demands of the residents of the south for food and the raids of the northern and southern armies, caused the Hampshire-Downs to disapper from that section. It is a larger animal than th.e Southdown, and is valuable where a more sizable animal than the Southdown, is desired. It originated seventy-five years ago by a cross between the native sheep on Hampshire "Downs" and a pure Southdown. In this cross the horns of the native disappeared, and his 368 SHEEP nt'SBANDRY. white face was supplanted by the black face of the Southdown. The legs of the native became shorter and the quality of flesh superior. But the nati\-e Roman nose, and the massiv^eness of head, and large size of the animal remained in the new breed of sheep. The lambs of this breed at one year weigh from seventy -five to one hundred pounds. The fleece Vvcighs fu'C to seven pounds, the wool being longer a::d coarser than the Southdowns. The flesh is well flavored and juicy, and the lean meat is not over burdened with fat; causing it to be much sought after by epicures. IMPORTF.n HAMP.SHIKE-nOWN RAM, "THE KARON." The Dorsets. This breed is sometimes called "dog-proof," because both the rams and ewes are horned and are considered able to defend themselves from an attack by these annoying animals. It is a native of the south of England, where it has been bred for SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 369 years and remained intact. It has many characteristics that are consid- ered valuable. It breeds at an early season and weans its lambs while they are 3'oung, and are ready to be served soon after, thus producing two crops of lambs in a year. Many of them produce twins, a Mr. Pit- field, of Bridport, Dorset, England, raised five hundred fifty-five lambs in one season from four hundred ewes. They have long, white, broad faces, with a tuft of wool on the fore- head; the nose atid lips are black; the shoulders broad; the brisket straight back, and deep; and the loins are broad and deep. They have medium length legs, light in bone. 4- ^^ ,1 /■-•■("■. vr A V ■'% ■?M% '3/ ^ '^v,% /f/ \. •nil V ':..'■' -■■'• ' "■• -••'/^- AN ENGLISH DORSET HORN YEARLING RAM The Dorsets are a quiet, docile, hardy breed, and will adapt them- selves readily to varying conditions. They get their growth early, and when fed on turnips alone, at two years will weigh one hundred twenty- five. The fleece is not heavy, but yields about six pounds of soft, clean, white wool. The lambs produce the "lamb's wool" of which babies' underclothing is often made. 370 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. The Dorsets, when crossed with the Southdown, do not produce so many twins, but the lambs will shear about two pounds of very soft, valuable wool. These lambs, when full-grown, are larger than their Dorset mothers, and are a larger and thriftier sheep, with a heavier and finer fleece. They have been imported into this country, and are beginning to attract attention. A LINCOI^N RAM. The I/incoln. This is one of the ' 'long-wool' ' sheep which orig- inated in the rich low-lands of England. These lands, however, were so productive of higli-priced, marketable crops, that the sheep have been driven from their native soil to the uplands. All the other of the well- known "long- wool" varieties have been almost entirely driven out from this low, rich, alluvial soil, leaving the I^incoln almost undisputed pos- session. This breed is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. Full-grown sheep of this variety have dressed nearly one hundred pounds per quar- ter. It is not an unusual thing for yearlings to dress one hundred pounds and shear a dozen pounds of wool. ■ This breed will be called a long-wooled sheep, because the wool, when full grown, often measures nine inches in length. There is a record of twenty-six pounds and six SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 371 ounces having been cut from a fourteen mouths old laml) of this variet}'. The Lincohi requires great care and skillful management. The soil must be rich and produce sweet herbage in abundance. It is not at present the sheep for the general farmer in America, and if it has a place in this country it is apparently only in the hands of a skillful breeder. A fine flock of these sheep has been imported into America and their adaptability to our climate is being tested. A TYPICAL SUFFOLK RAil. The I^eicester. Originally this breed was a large, heavy, coarse animal, with poorly flavored flesh. It had flat sides on a thin carcass, which was large boned. They were poor feeders, lightweight, and they had long, coarse wool, of poor quality. But by a S5'stematic breeding the sheep has changed its character and to-day is found without horns and a white face and legs. Its head is fine and small and has no wool on the poll. It has a deep neck and broad shoulders, a broad, straight, flat back, a large, bright eye, and a deep bod}'. Its legs are clean and the bones are small. The flesh is sweet, but has too much outside fat to be desirable. Its fleece is fine, white, silky, and glossy, and of medium length, weighing six to eight pounds. 372 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. The Leicester as now bred is not a hardy sheep, and requires good care, extra good shelter, and special attention to keep it in a thriving condition. It can not be called a farmer's sheep, and unless improved, will not become valuable to the American farmer, only as a cross to refine the wool of the Cotswold, by a judicious cross. PRIZE WINNING BORDER LEICESTER EWE. The Cotswold. "This breed has become so common in America, and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of new blood that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many excellent flocks are now self-sustaining, and under their American nativity lose nothing of their original excellence. They were originally very coarse animals, with thick heavy fleece, SHEEP HUvSBANDRY. 373 well adapted to their home upou the bleak exposed Cotswold hills. So valuable and staple a breed could not lon^^ remain without improvement. Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage of the limestone covering these hills, favored this improvement, and as the pastures became enclosed, and agriculture improved in character, the flocks improved with it. The modern Cotswold is still capable of enduring hardship and expos- ure, and is at home on all sorts of soils. It produces a large carcass of excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece of valuable combing wool, adapted by its peculiar character for a class of goods of wide consumption, it be- ing in demand for various manufactures from the small matters such as worsted dress braids, up to various kinds of cloth for men's and women's garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is .not un- usual to find sheep of one hundred twenty pounds and over, at a 5'ear old. A full-grown sheep exhibited at a Chri.stmas cattle market in England, dressed three hundred forty-four pounds, or eighty-six pounds per quarter. The weight of the fleece should average eight pounds for a flock of all kinds, and some of our naturalized flocks sur- pass this weight of fleece. The description of a well-bred Cotswold is as follows: the face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of gray or brown deri\-ed from the original stock, ma}^ be found on both face and forelegs. The head is strong and massive with sometimes a Roman nose, without horns, and having a thick forelock of wool upon the fore- head. The neck and forequarters are not so square and heavy, nor the brisket so prominent, as in the best Leicesters; but the hindquarters are square, full, and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body; the flanks are deep; the legs are clean, and of moderate length." — Shepherd's Manual. Cross-Bred Sheep. At the present time there seems to be more money in cross-bred sheep than in full "bred." The wool producing sheep are of slow growth and are slow in maturing. The "mutton" .sheep are great eaters and require the most careful treatment. They have been so highly bred that they have weak constitutions, and are not as good breeders as the farmer would like. By a judicious cross there is still retained the quick growth, early maturity, and the good quality of ttie mutton. The sheep are more hardy, more easily kept, and produce more pounds of marketable mutton at a less cost than the pure "bloods." The most conspicuous crosses are the Cotswold — Merino; the South- down— Merino; the Leicester — Merino; the Cotswold — Leicester; and the Cotswold — Southdown. 374 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF SHEEP AND OTHER USEFUL FACTS. Teeth as an Indication of Age. The sheep has eight incisors or cutting teeth, which are all found upon the lower jaw. The remain- der of the teeth, twenty-four in number, are divided among the upper and lower jaws equally. While there is a general rule as to dentition in sheep, yet there are few breeds that mature early, and what would be correct in judging the ages of one class of sheep, would not be accurate in another. The following are the accepted periods of dentition, and may be found useful in determining the age of a sheep : At one month there are eight temporary front teeth or inclsors, and three temporary molars on each side of each jaw. At three months there will be added a permanent molar to the three temporary ones. At nine months there will appear the second permanent molar. At twelve months the first pair of permanent incisors appear. This is often delayed till about the age of fourteen months. At eighteen months the third permanent molar appears. At twenty-one months there will be four permanent incisors. At twenty-seven months the temporary molars drop out and perma- nent ones begin to show. At thirty months there are six permanent incisors. At forty months all the eight permanent incisors have appeared. Relative Weight of Carcass. The result of experiments iu which sheep were weighed before slaughtering, and the carcass weighed after, showed the value of dressed meat less the caul fat to be a little over one-half the live weight. Ticks on I^ambs and Sheep. Ticks often appear on lambs and sheep late in the spring, and are annoying to the animal and injurious to their constitution. The best remedy for this pest is to dip both the sheep and lambs into water into which coarse tobacco has been steeped, in the proportion of four pounds of tobacco to twenty gallons of water. "When thoroughly steeped add one pound of flowers of sulphur. The liquid should be kept warm while dipping the animals, by adding fresh hot liquid. A temperature of 120° F. is necessary to kill the tick. The liquid that drips from the sheep should be caught and reheated and used again. SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 375 DISEASES COMMON TO SHEEP, THEIR CAUSES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT. Constipation or Costiveness. This is more of a symptom of an approaching disease, than a disease in itself. It occurs occasionally upon flocks going from pasture to dry food. In such cases feed the animals a little linseed-cake meal or some succulent root. If stubborn, give one ounce of linseed oil, and inject warm soap and water. When the costiveness is so severe or of so long standing as to cause the animal to stretch itself and stand with its feet spreading apart, rais- ing its head and cunnng its back, give once a day one tea-spoonful of Flowers of Sulphur, mixed with a small quantity of molasses, which should be put on the animal's tongue to be swallowed. Diarrhea or Scours. The opposite of costiveness. This is likely to occur upon turning sheep to pasture in the spring, or when fed rich succulent green food. This is not dangerous in itself, but may, by re- ducing the strength of the animal, cause complications. A regular sup- ply of salt, careful regulation of food, and the avoiding of sudden changes will usually prevent this symptom of disease. Give two table- spoonfuls of the following twice a day, and if a lamb, about one-half the quantity, Bccording to age : 4 drams Pulverized Ginger, 8 drams Catechu, 2 ounces Prepared Chalk, 1 dram Opium, Mix with one pint peppermint water, and always shake the bottle before using. The diarrhea may be caused by irritating substances in the intestines, and is shown by there being a slimy matter in the passages from the bowels. In this case the treatment should be to remove the irritating matter and therefore a physic should be given, as follows: 1 dram Ginger, 1 ounce Epsom Salts, or, 1 dram Ginger, 2 ounces Linseed Oil. Give the above in gruel. Follow the treatment by a careful nursing and feeding. 376 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. Diarrhea or "White Scours." In the nursing lamb diarrhea takes the form of a liquid discharge of a white color. The milk passes through the body without digestion, and to this condition is given the name "White Scours." This sometimes is caused by the milk of the mother being changed by feeding upon some succulent food. In such cases change the food of the ewe to a more solid and nutritious food. If it comes from a disordered condition of the digestive organs of the lamb, give the following physic : 5 drops Essence of Ginger, 1 tea-spoonful Linseed Oil. As soon as it has operated, give two tea-spoonfuls of the following twice a day : 1 ounce Prepared Chalk, ^ dram Opium, 2 drams Powdered Ginger, 4 drams Powdered Catechu. Mix in one pint of peppermint water. Always shake well before administering. Dysentery. Many people are not able to distinguish the difference between diarrhea and dysentery, yet they are two different conditions and require different treatment. They are often induced by the same conditions but the discharge from the bowels is of a different character. In dj^sentery there is more or less fever according to the severity of the case. The dung mixed with mucus and blood shows that the lining of the bowels is inflamed. The discharge is frequent, lumpy and scanty and has a fetid smell. The voiding of the discharge is attended with pain, causing the sheep to arch its back and moan. The wool often loosens from the pelt after the disease has been running a short time. The treatment for this disease is to first remove the contents of the bowels, together with some anodyne to ease the pain. The following may be given mixed in oat-meal or linseed gruel: 2 grains Powdered Opium, 2 ounces Linseed Oil. Giv^e oat-meal gruel as a nourishment quite frequently during the day, and then follow for several days with daily doses of the following: 2 grains Powdered Opium, 1 dram Ginger. If the bowels do not become regular or are constipated give one ounce of oil every other day. SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 377 This disease is Induced b}' dry indigestible food; impure water; a lack of water; neglected diarrhea: and feeding in a pasture in warm weather; that has been occupied b}- sheep that have had this disease, the sheep taking the poison from the grass that has been contaminated by their discharges. Inflammation of the Bowels. This is not a common disease in this country, but occurs occasionally as the result of continued indiges- tion or bad feeding and bad water in warm weather. The disease makes its first appearance by weeping and redness of the eyes, and a tired and pained expression to the face. There is a lo.ss of appetite and no rumi- nation (chewing of the cud). There is weakness and staggering, swell- ing of the flanks, high fever and difficult breathing. To prevent its spread, if it once makes its appearance, change the pas- ture to high grounds and supply plenty of pure water. It is not conta- gious and only spreads when conditions favor the disease. When the sheep are put back in their old pasture, as a preventi^•e give them salt which has had one ounce each of the sulphate of iron, powdered gentian and powdered ginger mixed with every six pounds. To cure, give an ounce of Linseed or Castor Oil, or Epsom salts, and follow after it has operated with one dram doses of the Sulphite of Soda, twice a day. The food should be glutinous and semi-liquid, such as oat- meal or linseed gruel. Unless the animal is very valuable, it is a ques- tion whether it will pay to attempt a cure in a serious case, as the recovery is slow, and the debility caused by the disease is of itself often fatal. Hoven. This is a disease common to ruminants and as the sheep is one of this class, it, like the others, is subject to the disease. It arises from the forming of gases by the food that is in the first stomach or ru- men. This gas collects in such large quantities that the rumen (paunch) is so distended that it presses forward against the diaphragm and inter- feres with the action of both the heart and lungs. It shows it- self outwardly by a distention of the left side of the abdomen, by which the skin is tightly drawn until it seems in danger of bursting. Treatment. An alkaline that will absorb the gas is the best treat- ment. The best alkaline fluid that can be given is as follows: 1 tea-spoonful Aqua Ammonia, (Hartshorn Water), ^ pint Water. This should be given as a drench. A rubber tube of the proper size should be kept on hand to be used as a probang. This could be forced 378 SHEKP HUSBANDRY. down and the gas could escape through the opening, and the alkaline fluid could also be administered through it. If necessary an opening may be made through the rumen with a small bladed knife if a trochar and canula are not at hand. If a knife is used a goose-quill should be inserted into the opening made, to allow the gas to escape. The alka- line fluid could also be injected through the quill in the rumen by use of a common syringe. The opening should be made at the place where the greatest swelling is apparent. After the gas has somewhat subsided give with a horn, the following: 1 pint Water, 1 dram Powdered Giuger, 2 ounces Epsom Salts. If the gas still continues give a dram of chldride of lime. Cold or Catarrh. This disease is caused by exposure to damp- ness, sudden changes in temperature, or too warm a shed or pen. If your flock is verj' carefully housed and then exposed by open doors, or letting out into the yard, you may look for catarrh. Protect your sheep from chilling rain-storms in winter, give them plenty of ventilation, but no draft of cold air. Partly open sheds are to be preferred to closed ones with open windows and doors for ventilation. Chasing by dogs, or overdriving, thus overheating the animal, is a cer- tain cause for colds. The disease is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, lining the throat, windpipe, and nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It is the same as a "cold" in man. There is a mucus discharge from the nose, caused by congestion of the membrane, and irritation and coughing. Treatment. Give something to stimulate action, as a half tea- spoonful of ground ginger. A small quantity of pine pitch or tar rubbed on the nose, so that the sheep will lick it off, is beneficial. Usually there is a fever and the nose is dry and hot, when it is best to give 1 dram Ground Ginger, 1 dram Saltpeter, ^ ounce Epsom Salts. Mix with molasses and give as a soft mixture. The dose may be mixed with thiu gruel and administered by means of a small drench- ing horn. Be sure and give good nursing and feed on slightly warm mucilaginous drinks, as linseed or oat-meal gruel. SHKKP HUSBANDRY. 379 Bronchitis. This a catarrh or cold that has settled on the air pas- sages in the lungs or bronchial tubes. This inflammation will rapidly spread so as to aflfect the lungs. The cough is more prominent than in a ' 'cold in the head" or "throat." The pulse and breathing are quick- er and there is a fever and poor appetite. Treat same as for Cold or Catarrh, but continue longer and change the dose to the following if the first does not seem to cause improve- ment. 1 ounce Linseed Oil, 1 ounce Powdered Gentian, 1 dram Saltpeter. Mix and give one dose a day for three days, reducing the last day the amount of saltpeter to one-half dram. Keep animal dry and quiet, with plenty of fresh air and pure water. Inflammation of the I' scarce and not so desirable as the black for general purposeSo The black is a fine all-around bird. Their met- alic black plumage makes them a "bird of beauty." The)' are among the best as layers, and can be kept on any soil, are good fowls to hunt for their food, and small eaters. Black Spanisli. This breed is a small eater, a great layer of large eggs, bears confinement well, and formerly merited all that could be said in its favor. It was at one time the most popular of all breeds, but that was before it was ruined by the breeders. The fanciers have bred points, the main one being the white face, until the original bird has lost its strength and become a tender bird. Though bred in this way, it 'is still a good producer of eggs, but the chick- ens are tender and hard to rear, slow in feathering, and the moulting of the full-sized bird seems to be attended with difficulty, and it is not a first-class table bird. There are a few strains which not having been bred for exhibition, retain their old qualities. In these the White face is not prominent, but they are difficult to get. If crossed wnth the Black Minorcas strength will be secured and without injury to the laying qualities. The Black Spanish must be kept warm and in a dry soil. The chick- ens need special care, and the adult fowl during the moulting season requires special treatment. They have bright black plumage, white face, sweeping tail, and black legs. The comb is single, laying over in the hen, but erect in the cock. Hambtirghs. The Hamburghs have the record of being the best laying breed in existence. It is not an unusual thing for the hens to produce two hundred eggs a 3-ear. But as the eggs are small and the fowls do not bear confinement, they are of little use to the general farmer. They are now generally regarded as the fanciers' fowl, because of their great beauty. The cock has a neat head, beautiful plumage, close compact shape, sweeping tail, pure ear-lobes, and a handsome, well- shaped rose comb. The hen is rich in color, sprightly in carriage, and WHITE FACED BLACK SPANISH. 430 POULTRY DEPARTMENT. neat and sauc}'. There are five varieties, the black, the gold penciled, the silver penciled, the gold spangled, and the silver spangled. Of these the most useful are the blacks, being the largest and laying the largest eggs. If this breed is crossed with some other that will increase the size of the eggs, the result will be profitable, provided they are given plenty of room. If confined it needs a very high fence to restrain them, but on a farm where they can run they will do well. A few fowls can of course be kept in a confined position, but where there are sixty or more the}' need room. Under these conditions the Hamburghs are hardy, easy to raise, and non-sitters, and where the niunber of eggs is of more import- ance than the size, they make a very useful fowl. White Plymouth Rocks. This useful bird, which originated in old Massachusetts, is very popular wherever it goes. There are thme varieties; the barred, white and black. Th^ir bodies are large, the full- grown bird often weighing from ten to twelve pounds; their legs are 5'ellow and strong; are fair lay- ers of small eggs, rich in flavor; their flesh is tender and sweet, and they have a good supph' on the breast. They are very hardy, and can be kept on any soil, and bear be- WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS. j^^g ^j,^^^ j^^ ^,g,y ^^.^H. They are fair sitters and good mothers. The}' are great favorites and compete with the popular lyeghorns for first place, as a general utility fowl. Dominique. The Dominiques have not become a fowl of general favor. It has many good qualities and would, if it could be procured pure bred, well pay any one who would raise them. They are of Ameri- can origin, and look some like the Cuckoo Dorkin, bvit the Dominiques have a rose comb They are a hard}' fowl; wdll thrive on any ordinary soil; and are good table birds; capital layers; good sitters and mothers, They have the much sought for yellow legs. POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 431 I^anshans. This breed of fowls resembles the Black Cochin, and there is much contention regarding its origin. It was introduced into Hhis country from England. It is an improvement on the Cochin in everything but beauty, since the Langshan is a splendid layer, a fine table bird, not a determined sitter, and a most valuable fowl for general purposes, and the cochin is the opposite of all these. LANGSHANS. The Langshan is a large bird, which has long, slightly feathered legs. It has a single comb standing upright; plumage of a beautiful metalic lustre; very hardy; easily reared; bears confinement; very faithful moth- er; and a fair sitter. It is a very valuable bird, and its beautiful bright plumage makes it very attractive. Dorkings. This is one of the oldest and best preserved of all Eng- lish pure-bred fowls. They are a great table fowl but not great layers. The hens when full grown weigh eight pounds, and the cocks from ten to twelve. Their bones are small and there is great quantities cf flesh on their deep breasts. The birds are tender and while enduring any amount of cold, they caa not endure dampness. 432 POULTRY DEPARTMENT, Classification of the Characteristics of the Various Breeds. We herewith classify for convenience the various breeds under their general characteristics. In selecting a variety for profit, all the circum- stances should be considered. The amount of confinement, the soil, and the care that can be given, are elements that must not be overlooked in selecting the fowls. Then determine whether there is wanted a table fowl, or egg producers or a general-utility breed. A careful study of the conditions and a judicious selection of the stock will be rewarded by profitable results, provided the flock is properly cared for and managed. GOOD LAYERS, TABLE FOWLS, AND SITTERS. Plymouth Rocks, Wj'andottes, and Langshans. GOOD MOTHERS AND SITTERS. Dorkings, Games, Dominiques, Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, and Wyandottes. NON-SITTING BREEDS. Hamburghs, Minorcas, Leghorns, Andalusians, Houdans, and Spanish. TABLE FOWLS. Dorkings, Houdans, Langshans, Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes. ON CLAY SOIL. Avoir Dorkings, Spanish, and Polish. Choose Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Langshans, Game, Andalu- sians, or Wyandottes. FOR VERY CLOSE CONFINEMENT. Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes. THE DISEASES OF POULTRY. Causes. Naturally birds have but few diseases, but there is no doubt bvit that the.se few have been greatly fostered and increased by the system of keeping fowls which is now in vogue. The over-feeding upon rich or unsuitable foods, the over-crowding and confinement, and the keeping upon the same ground year after year, the in-breeding for points, the exposure by sending to shows, have a tendency to make birds subject to various diseases to which they formerly were strangers. It is much better to prevent diseases than to try to cure them aftet attacking the fowl. POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 433 As a preventive of the spread of diseases, where there is a fair sized flock, it is best to destroy the sick bird immediately, provided there is any indication of a contagious disease. It is somewhat difficult to recognize diseases of chickens, as the bodies are covered with feathers, and there are so few ways in which the dis- eases can be determined. Still there are sj-mptoms to be found accom- panying all diseases that may by a little careful examination be discov- ered, and from these it is possible to determine what is the matter with the fowl. Never let a fowl that shows any signs of illness remain for a minute with the flock. Put the diseased fowl in a separate place, where chlo- ride of lime has been sprinkled. It is well in case of contagious disease breaking out in a flock of birds, to well disinfect the grounds and house. If a fowl is seen moping or refusing its food, remove at once. If the illness proves to be a contagious disease, the remainder of the flock may be kept free, and if it is not, certainly no harm has been done. Crop-bound. Occasionally a fowl is unable to pass the food from the crop into the gizzard, and the crop becomes so filled with food that it hangs like a bag in front of the bird. Although the crop is full, the bird will if not relieved die of starvation, because no food will pass into the stomach, so long as the obstruction continues. Tr>^ and soften up the food by pouring some warm milk and water down the throat, and kneading the crop with the hands. If taken in time this usually effects a cure. If it does not, make an incision into the crop, through the skin, and remove the contents with a very small spoon, being careful to remove every particle. Then wash out the crop with warm water, and sew up the incision, first the inside skin, then the outside, with silk or horse hair. Feed the fowl on soft food without water, for a few days and the cure is effected. Gapes. A very common disease of chickens is known as gapes, on account of the constant gaping of the mouth. This is caused by a small worm which gets into the throat, and if not removed by the chicken sneezing or by the hand, the chicken soon dies of suffocation. It is difficult to determine the cause of these worms and where they come from, but it is sufficient for us to know they are there and must be removed. They may sometimes be prevented by applying to the heads of newly-hatched chicks murcurial ointment, but in other cases all efforts to get rid of them are in vain. 434 POULTRY DEPARTMENT. Fumigating with carbolic acid is without doubt the most effectual cure, and where many are affected with it, it is worth considerable trou- ble to save their lives. Another and most common method is to remove the v.'orms by using a small quill feather dipped in turpentine. This is passed into the throat, where it is twisted around and suddenly jerked out, thus removing the worm. Some place the chicks in a box or barrel and dust them with fine lime and ashes, which gets into the throats of the chickens, causing them to sneeze and throw out the worms. In fumigating with carbolic acid or dusting, care should be taken not to carry it so far as to suffocate the young birds. Apoplexy. Birds in fine condition are often found lying on the ground in a helpless condition, unable to move or stand. This is apo- plexy, and is caused bj^ overfeeding, by which is meant not only too much food, but also too rich food, especially the latter. Indian corn is a very rich food, and it has been found to be the cause of this disease in many instances. If there is a death in the flock from apoplexy, take it as a warning that the remainder of the flock are sub- ject to the same disease, and if j'ou would save them reduce the food in quantity and quality. The helpless bird may be saved by bleeding on the under side of the wing and by feeding on light food for some time. Feather Hating. This disgusting habit is seldom found among birds that are free to roam, and even in confinement it is principally found in the Asiatic varieties and Houdans. When the habit is once formed it is very difficult to cure, and it is best to remove any bird found with the habit, and if not valuable, kill it; at the same time try to re- move any cause that may exist. Idleness is the great cause, so give the fowls a chance to run, and some fresh soil, in which has been mixed bone meal. Put a small quan- tity of salt in their food and give plenty of water. The following trans- lation from a French Poultry Journal indicates the measures that are most successful toward breaking up this bad habit : "The cause appears to us, to be attributed to the general discomfort felt by all classes of poultry during the cold weather, and especially the east winds. The poor things, huddled together in a sheltered corner, dare not come out in the open unless at feeding time, and then they never scratch about nor look for insects, grass, or those little nothings which constitute the essential part of their food, and which is found in every run well attended to. Under these circumstances the want of aui- POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 435 mal food has made itself felt, and the opportunit}' and temptation being within their reach, they have pulled at one another's feathers, which they eat with evident satisfaction. The only immediate remedy is to set them at liberty, but as this cannot be done in every case, one has to be satisfied with the means at his disposal. Let them have, several times a day, green-meat. Mix with the soft food, some meat cut up into small pieces. Avoid tainted meat. Renew the sand in the runs, and especially put dry sand under the sheds where the fowls generally dust themselves. Care nuist be taken with a hen, although not picked herself, but alwaj's pursuing the others, to isolate her. One single bird is sufficient to set a bad example. In small runs it is the cock which is generally picked first. Is it from excess of affection, or is it spite and revenge? It is difficult to say. At all events, he seldom resents it, and and allows himself to be plucked without resistance. In this case the best way to protect him, is to rub him over with a sponge dipped in paraffine. In repeating this operation two or three times, at an in- ter\'al of some days, the hens will entirely cease to strip their lord and master. ' ' Cholera. This disease is epidemic in its attacks, and is seldom seen in any other country. It attacks isolated flocks and yards having poor drainage or care, and often nearly depletes them. It is undoubtedly malarial in character; and is very rapid in its action and termination. The poison of the malaria affects the liver, poisons the blood, and causes violent diarrhea. The fowl having this disease appears droopy, weak, in high fever, has rough and draggled plumage, and is very thirsty. Its droppings are of a greenish color. The followdng pill is highly recom- mended : 60 grains Blue Mass. 25 grains Camphor. 80 grains Cayenne Pepper. 48 grains Rhubarb, 6 drops Laudanum. Mix and make into twenty pills, giving one every four hours till they act freely, and when they have acted follow with a tea-spoonful ca.stor oil and ten drops laudanum to each fowl. Diarrhea. This complaint must not be confounded with "cholera," and it can be readily distinguished by a difference in the color of the droppings and the attendant symptoms, w^hich are very marked in a case of cholera. A simple diarrhea can usually be checked by the use of bonemeal as a food. Boiled rice mixed with pounded chalk will often stop it, and if possible to check it by either of these remedies, it is best 436 POUlrTRY DEPARTMENT. to do so. When these remedies are not sufficient to check the disease, give chlorodyne in water as prescribed on the bottle. Roup. This is a very contagious and fatal disease, and when it once gets into a flock is very difficult to get rid of. Especial care is necessary to see that it is not communicated from one fowl to another, and as long as there is a case of roup about the place wash all dishes every day with carbolic acid water, and the houses should be lime-washed once a week. The aifected bird, of course, will be separated from the flock, and as soon as it is positively known that roup is the disease, killed off at once, and very deeply buried. The bird seems to have a cold, but roup is known by the offensive breath, swollen face and eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils. If this attacks a very valuable fowl and it is desirable to try and cure, the following remedies may be successful. Wash the face, nostrils and mouth with chlorinated soda to kill the mucus which gathers there. Give sulphur or charcoal to cure the scrofula symptoms, and copaiba capsules for the cold. Common Cold, or Catarrh. This disease in poultry produces the same symptoms that it does in man, namely: a running at the nose, and a slight swelling of the eyes. It ariees from exposure, and if not attended to, may result seriously. To cure the cold the bird should be kept in a warm place and have doses of copaiba capsules, and be given nutritious food. Bronchitis. Common colds sometimes settle on the bronchial tubes instead of in the head, and the fowls are seen constantly coughing with- out any other signs of a cold. These symptoms are caused by bronchi- tis. Generally all that is necessary to cure is to remove the bird at once to a warm, moist atmosphere. A warm day should be chosen to re- turn the fowl to its former house. If the cold lingers, give one grain of calomel and one grain of tartar emetic each morning till an improve- ment is seen. Disorders of the Kgg Organs. Bad feeding sometimes is the cause of the delicate mechanism by means of which the egg is formed and voided getting so disordered that it can not perform the functions of nature. These organs may be disordered by lack of a sufficient supply of shell- forming material, which results in soft-shelled eggs. Birds that are free to run generally find enough of the shell-forming material, so that they are rarely troubled with this difficulty. Occasionally a hen becomes egg-bound. When this happens inject into the oviduct a little POIILTRY DEPARTMENT. 437 castor or olive oil. Handle the bird carefully, as rough treatment may easily break the egg. Such a circumstance is usually followed by a fatal result. Cramp. Chickens are sometimes seen with their toes curled in, and later are found walking on their knuckles. This is cramp, caused by being upon a clay or damp soil. To cure, place the chicken upon a per- fectly dry floor, and feed on corn-meal with warm milk. Bathe the feet in warm water, rub dry and paint with turpentine. Consumption. This is often an hereditary disease, and when so it can not be cured, but there is a form caused by damp, dark, badly ventilated houses. The bird gradually wastes away, there is a contin- ual mucus discharge from the mouth, and a cough, and the. poor bird soon dies, leaving simply a mass of bones and feathers. If the disease is acquired it may be cured if taken in time. The best treatment is good housing, wholesome and abundant diet, and capsules of cod-liver oil with quinine. Do not breed from any bird that has had the con- sumption, even though apparently cured. Diphtheria. This disease seldom makes its appearance in ordinary poultry yards, being chiefly confined to exhibitions, and the ordinary keeper need not fear the disease except when buying birds. Its indications are, severe cold with high fever, and in the throat white spots are seen filling the glottis. Any bird so affected should be immediately killed, as it is very contagious, and when once it gets into a flock it is seldom driven out without the sacrifice of all the birds. Bumble-Foot. This disease is largely confined to the Dorkings and Houdans. It is caused by a wart-like substance appearing in the ball of the foot, which, if allowed to grow, will cause the bird to become so lame it can not walk. The cause is high perches and constant walking on stone or cement floors. The wart-like substance should be cut out with a sharp knife, and the part touched with nitrate of silver, after which the fowl should be kept on a floor thickly covered with cut straw. If very much inflamed do the foot up in cloths, which should be kept wet with cold water. 438 POULTRY DEPARTMENT. POULTRY KEEPING FOR FARIVIERS. The following paper was read at the Fanner's Institute at vSouth Easton, New York. It is from the pen of O. B. Wilbur, one of the most practical farmers in the country. We give it because of its great value and practical suggestions: " The question, ' Is it profitable for a farmer to engage in the raising of poultry? ' can only be answered by considering many of the condi-. lions under which the farmer is compelled to work, the help which could be depended upon from the other members of the family, the convenience to a ready market, the adaptability of himself or some member of the family to the work of disposing of the surplus product and many of the circumstances which enter into the life of ever}' industrious and hard working farmer's family. The most essential thing contributing to the success of any business is a liking of the person for that business. You can as well expect a person who dislikes the care of horses or cattle to become a successful stock raiser as look for a man who cares little for the fowls to succeed in the poultry business. A love for the work is necessary in this as in any other business. If a person has this satisfaction in caring for his poul- try, there wall be no other part of the farm work which will give him more thorough enjo}'ment than this. The next most important question is, ' Will it pay ? ' There is no doubt some of us present who would enjoy hitching up a high-spirited, mettlesome horse, one which has known nothing of the pressure of a hame collar upon his shoulders, or the fatigue of a hard day's work be- fore the plow, take our little family into the carriage and drive into the village on a pleasant summer afternoon to do our shopping and show our valuable roadster. I haven't the slightest doubt but what this would be exceedingly gratifying to many of us, but I hardly think it would pay the average farmer to keep a horse wdiich is too high-spirited or valuable to do the ordinary routine of farm work. In the same way, it might be suited to our tastes to care for and ex- hibit at the numerous shows, valuable thoroughbred poultry, but this question, ' Will it pay ? ' is the one which interests the most of us in the greatest degree. To the question, ' Will it pay the average farmer to keep poultry in ^ionnection with the almost infinite variety of work which is found upon all general farms,' I answer most emphatically, yes. If the work of POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 439 caring for poultry is as well done as other work, I think there is hardly any other kind of work on the farm which will prove so remunerative. But we can not keep hens and neglect them and expect to realize much profit from them. With proper care a flock of hens on almost any farm might be made to pay clear of all expenses from one dollar to two dol- lars per head, and even more than that in many cases. I had much rather ha\-e invested fifty or one hundred dollars in good laying hens than an equal amount in sheep, hogs or cows. If a man should tell me his fifty dollar cow had turned over to him a clear profit of two hundred dollars in a single season, I should be inclined to question his veracity, but should he or a dozen others say that from their flock of fifty-cent hens they had in the same length of time cleared above all expenses two dollars per head, I should not question them for a moment, but would say, well done; I am glad you have found the secret of success in poultry raising. In the brief time which can be given to this paper, I can only outline a few of the requirements necessary to the successful prosecution of this part of the farm work. The first thifig is a suitable place in which to keep your fowls. One need not necessaril}'- go to the expense of erecting a costly building for a hen-house, although w-ere I to keep onh^ twenty-five or fifty hens, I should prefer to build a good substantial building separate from all others, for a poultry-house, for the reason that so few farm buildings would have a room which could be fitted up suitably for the purpose. In locating a building a dry spot should be selected, if possible sloping to the south, then 3'ou can have your 3'ards south of the house, thus being protected from the cold north winds of winter, and in the spring the warm, sunny days will quickly melt the snow so the fowls can sooner get to the ground and scratch to their heart's content. The plans for building a hen-house are as numerous as the number of people building them, but whatever the details of the plans are, it is necessary to keep in mind that the house must be made comfortable and warm, being free from cracks through which the wind can penetrate, causing an indefinite number of diseases among your feathered tribe. Of the two extremes, little ventilation or large cracks and holes in the wall, I should by all odds choose the former. I tried one winter to keep my house thoroughly ventilated by opening trap doors in the ceiling up into the loft, but I found my fowls were constantly being attacked with sneezing and colds in the head. Since then I have kept the trap door- 440 POULTRY DEPARTMENT. closed, even in the heat of summer, preferring to ventilate from below the fowl's resting- place, and the}' have continued free from disease. In building a hen-house, there is a tendenc}^ among amateurs to get too many windows. Anything like an even temperature can not be maintained when a large part of one side of the house is glass, unless by means of shutters, curtains, or something of that kind. In the daytime when the sun shines, you will have summer weather inside, but at night the rapid radiation through the glass causes the temperature to rapidly fall to a low point, thus exposing the fowls to great extremes in tem- perature. Do not crowd too many fowls into a limited space. The usual rule is to allow ten square feet of floor area for each hen, and I have no doubt but what more money can be made per hen if they are given this amount than if confined to closer quarters. I have, however, considered this question from another standpoint, which is this. Many of us can keep more hens in summer than our house will accommodate in winter, were we to allow the usual ten square feet of space to each hen, so unless we feel like enlarging the house, we must keep less in summer than we wish to, or put more in the house in the winter than the rule will allow. Now, I look at it in this way, that it is the total profit at the end of the 3-ear which we realize that we arc looking after, so if I can make but two dollars per hen by wintering one hundred, it is better than three dollars per head for fifty. I thus prefer to lessen slightly the profit in winter that they may be increased in summer when the hens can run at large and pick up a considerable part of their living. Hens, to do their best, must have the most liberal hand to feed them, and their bill of fare should be almost as varied as that of human bipeds. Perhaps the plan which I attempt to follow in my own case may prove of some interest to 3'ou. Every other morning the first thing I do after I get up is to put a pail of small potatoes in the oven to bake, and by the time we have our chores done and breakfast eaten they are ready to take out and mash. I bake them for the simple reason that at this time in the morning the oven is usually unoccupied, whereas the top of the stove is being used in getting breakfast, so have no chance to boil them without making a separate fire. After they are mashed I add some water or skimmed milk, a small handful of salt, and every two or three mornings a tea-spoonful of Condition Powders, tincture of iron, pow- dered charcoal or half tea-spoonful of cayenne pepper. Experience teaches me just how much water to put in, so that when the meal POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 44I is added, the whole will form a crumbly mass, being neither sloppy nor containing dry meal. The mornings when I do not bake potatoes as a basis for mash , I have soaked over night in boiling water a quantity of clover heads and leaves, which have fallen off the clover hay as it is pitched out of the mow to feed. I have a clover cutter, but as this plan is handier than cutting the whole hay, I have adopted it. The meal of which the mash is made is composed of two parts of corn and oats ground together, two parts wheat bran, two parts wheat middlings, and one part of either buck- wheat middlings or rye shorts and some chopped boiled meat, and frequently to this is added a handful of either oil meal or cotton- seed meal. At noon their food consists either of oats or buckwheat scattered in the wheat chaff which covers the floor about four or five inches in depth. At night the}' are given about all the corn or wheat they will eat. This is also scattered in the chaff, if they have time to scratch it out before they go on the roost, if not, I put it in the trough. I say, about all they will eat, for when they stuff themselves completely full at night their appetite in the morning is not so good as I would wish, and as the morn- ing feed is cheaper than the evening meal, I endeavor to have them have the best appetites, when I can fill them up on good egg-food for the least mone)'. I endeavor to have a constant supply of pure water before them, also a supply of coarse ground bone, ground oyster or clamshells, and — by the way — I much prefer clamshells, for they act partially as grit, besides supplying the lime necessary for the egg-shell and coarse ground charcoal, together with plenty of grit of some kind. Heads of cabbage are hung up in convenient places for them to pick at during the day, and specked apples, beets, etc., are frequently given. I suppose a more varied diet might be given to them, but this seems to agree very well with the constitution of my flock, so I have adopted it. The question is often asked, what is the most profitable breed to keep. To this question I always answer, it all depends upon the fancy of the person keeping them, and the purpose for which they are kept. If a person seems to fancy Cochins, or Brahmas, or Langshans, or any of the large breeds, and wants to raise poultry for market^ the variety which suits his fancy is the one for him, for he will do better with the breed which pleases him, and there is no very great difference in the value of the different varieties, if meat is what they are looking 442 POirLTRY DEPARTMENT. after. In the same way, if you fancy the Spanish, the Hamburg, the Andalusiaus, the Minorcas, or the Liece of glass. An application of strong spirits of camphor will remove almost any varnish or polish from furniture, but care must be taken to allow plenty of time for the spirits of camphor to evaporate before repolishing or varnishing, as the camphor will in- jure the new coat. Resin Polish. The base of this polish is resin, and after the liquids are evaporated there is left a thin covering of very fine resin, which is very hard and gloss)\ 2 ounces Resin, 4 ounces Ether, 12 ounces Alcohol, 2 ounces Balsam Fir, 8 ounces Boiled Linseed Oil. Keep this polish well protected from the air, as it will soon evaporate and leave only oil and resin behind. Simple Polish. A simple and reliable polish that is used to re- move finger marks. 1 pint Olive Oil, 2 pints Vinegar. Shake well before using and apply with a woolen cloth, after which rub vigorously with a dry cloth of the same material, or use a chamois instead. Common Furniture Polish. Where the varnish of furniture has become old and much tarnished use this polish. 4 ounces Shellac, 1 pint Spirits Turpentine, 2 pints Alcohol, 4 ounces Ether, 3 pints Linseed Oil, 4 ounces Ammonia. Mix thoroughly the shellac and alcohol, and then add the other in- gredients. Shake well when using and apply with a sponge. Oil Polish. When there are cracks in the varnish, this polish will fill them and make the surface appear new. 2 pints Linseed Oil, 2 ounces Butter of Ammonia, ^ pint Alcohol. A pint Spirits Turpentine, ^ pint Vinegar. Shake well before using and apply with a woolen rubber, that is a woolen cloth over a smooth piece of hard wood. Finishing Polish. Take one-half pint spirits of wine, two drams shellac and two drains gum benzoin. Put these ingredients into a bottle STANDARD RECEIPTS. 47 1 and keep it in a -u-arm place until the gum is all dissolved, stirring it fre- quently. When cold, add two tea-spoonfuls of the best clear white poppy oil. Shake all well tcgether and the polish is then ready for use. Keep well stirred while using. This preparation is useful for finishing after any of the foregoing re- ceipts; as it adds to the lustre and durability of the polish, and removes any defects left by the latter. It gives the surface a most brilliant ap- pearance. It is used the same as the polishes; but in order to remove dull places the pressure in rubbing must be increased. Olive oil and water, mixed in the palm of the hand, is said to be the best means of polishing pianos and organs. Mix and rub on \ngor' ously with the hand. French Polish. A method largely used in France for imparting to furniture a brilliant and lasting polish is described as follows: a solu- tion is made by beating gum acacia and the whites of two eggs in a mortar until they thoroughly mix, then a half pint each of raw linseed oil and best vinegar are added, together with eight ounces methylated spirits of wine, one ounce hydrochloric acid, and two ounces muriate of antimon3^ To use the French polish properly, only a very small quantity must be used at a time; and it must be applied with a rubber made with a ball of cotton wool covered over with a soft cotton cloth or linen rag. The ball is dipped into the polish, then covered over with the rag, and this dipped into a drop of linseed oil to prevent it sticking to the wood. Use the rubber gently, polishing from a centre in a circular motion. Finish with a drop of spirits of wine on a clean rubber, which will ex- tract the oil. If there is any difficulty in getting polish to "take," rub the wood over first with a rag moistened with a little linseed or olive oil. Re-Varnishing Furniture. When furniture requires re-varnish- ing, it should first be well washed with strong soda water, which will remove every particle of grease. Then wash with soft water into which a little vinegar, (oxalic acid is better) has been put. Try to neutralize the soda. Wipe dry and coat with a good quality hard-drying varnish. When dr}', rub off with a bunch of curled hair, to remove the gloss, and flow on a full coat of cabinet fiinishing varnish. To Kboni^e Pine. The wood is immersed for forty-eight hours in a hot, saturated solution of alum, and then brushed over several 472 STANDARD RECEIPTS. times with a log^vood decoction, prepared as follows: boil one part log- wood with ten parts of water, filter through linen and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is reduced to one-half. To every quart of this add from ten to fifteen drops of a saturated solution of indigo, com- pletely neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub it with a saturated and filtered solution of verdigris in hot, concentrated acetic acid, and repeat the operation until a black of the desired intensity is obtained. It must always be remembered when handling chemicals that great care must be taken to protect the hands. WHITEWASH AND KALSOMINE. Out-Door Whitewash. For the covering of out-buildings or fen ces that have commenced to grow rough from age, the action of the weather, or that need a cheap durable covering, this out-door white wash is without an equal. The zinc and salt hardens the wash and prevents it from cracking. 1 bustel Lime, 4 pounds Sulphate of Zinc, 2 pounds Common Salt. Slack the lime bj' pouring boiling water over it in a closed barrel. Put water enough on to cover the lime about a foot deep. Stir continu- ally until it is thoroughly slacked. A cream color may be made of this wash by adding six to eight pounds of yellow ochre. This can be read- ily applied with a whitewash brush. United States I/ighthouse Whitewash. The keepers of light- houses in the United States were directed by the department of the government having them in charge, to keep the stone and woodwork covered with this whitewash, using it as hot as it was possible. 1 bushel Unslacked Lime, 6 pounds Ground Rioe, 1 pound Spanish Whiting, 2 pounds White Glue. Slack the lime in boiling water then strain and add one-half bushel of fine salt, which has been dissolved in warm water. Put the ground rice in boiling water and boil to a thin paste. Dissolve the glue and the whiting in warm water. Mix and let stand for a week. Stir thorough- ly and heat sufficient quantity to use. Put on with large painter's or whitewash brush. This will last almost as long as lead and oil. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 473 Gloss Whitewasll. This preparation applied in the manner in- dicated, will give a fine, smooth, glossy surface. Mix with thin starch paste, a quantity of the oxide of zinc and ap- ply with a whitewash brush to the sides and ceiling. Then apply a second coat in which the chloride of zinc has been mixed with the paste. Kalsomine. Whitewash is composed of the milk of lime, but this after several coatings would form a thick crust on the walls, which would scale off, so various articles were tried till zinc white mixed with water and glue were found to be the most satisfactory. This combina- tion is named Kalsomine, and has the advantage over common white- wash of being easil}^ colored. One pound of Kalsomine when mixed according to the following will cover about eighty square feet of side wall or ceiling two coats. For ceilings, use: 1 pound White Glue, 8 pounds Zinc White. For side walls to prevent rubbing off, use ^ pound White Glue, 8 pounds Zince White. Soak the glue over night in water and liquefy over the fire next day. Then add more water and the zinc white. If too much glue is added it will be difficult to put on evenly, and it will be more liable to crack and fall off in scales. Varioas coloring matter may be mixed with the Kalsomine to give al- most any shade desired. Brick Colored Wash For Walls. Brick foundations, sidewalls, or chimneys that it seems best to keep the color of the original brick, should have this preparation applied. 2 ounces Cheap Glue, 1 gallon Water, ^ pound Venetian Rod, 1 pound Spanish Brown. Dissolve the glue in water and then add about one-half pound of alum. Heat and add the Venetian red and the Spanish brown ; If too light in color add more red and brown. Fence Wa^h. Slack the lime in boiling water and to each three gallons of the ordinary whitewash add one pound fine salt and one pint molasses. Two coats are sufl&cient. ^^J^^ STANDARD RECEIPTS. TO REMOVE STAINS AND GREASE SPOTS. Ink Stains. There are two kinds of ink stains, aniline and gall- nut. Man^• inks made now are aniline, so it is always best to treat all ink stains first with diluted tartaric acid, increasing its strength until the spot begins to disappear. Should this acid, however, have no effect then treat for ink made from nut-galls. The cloth containing the spot is spread out tightly over a bright, hot, tin plate and rubbed with a hot solution of oxalic acid, using a piece of iron to rub with, such as an iron key. It often happens that in silk goods nothing can be done to remove the stain. Ink Stains on Table I^inen. The best way to take ink out of table linen is to soak the spots in sour milk. Put the cloth in the fresh milk and set it where it will turn sour. The process of souring seems to assist in drawing out the stains. Rub the spots after they have been soaking twenty-four hours in the milk, (provided it has curdled in that time), just as you would wash any spot in water. They will finally be- come very faint and may now be w^ashed out in water, and the first time they are put through the weekly washing the probability is that all traces of the ink stains will have disappeared. Grass Stains. These are very readily removed by moistening with Stannous chloride and rinsing well in water. Fruit Stains. Fruit stains in white goods must be bleached out with Javelle water, (see directions how to make), and well rinsed in clear water. Do not try soap except as a last resort, as it sometimes has the effect of setting the color and rendering the stain difficult to re- move. For colored silks use warm water, Castile soap suds, and ammo- nia. This applies in general to all vegetable stains, including red wine and to red ink stains. An old fashioned way of removing fruit stains is to pour boiling water upon them. This is best done by spreading the section of cloth contain- ing the spot out firmly over a bowl or pan and pouring boiling water upon it from the spout of a tea-kettle. Fruit stains are easily removed fron table-linen by wetting the spots with spirits of camphor befcre being washed. If camphor is not at hand whisky will answer. Acid Stains. Excepting those from nitric acid which are perma- nent, acid stains can be neutralized by the action of an alkali, strong ammonia usually being the most effective. If the stain is fresh and of STANDARD RECEIPTS. 475 1 red color, it will sometimes disappear by moistening it with water and holding over the mouth of a bottle of ammonia so that the fumes may come in contact with it. In general, however, the acid stain should be neutralized by the direct application, drop by drop, of strong ammonia, meanwhile watching carefully the colors of the fabric, so that they may not be injured. Coffee Stains. Coffee stains may usually be removed by moisten- ing the spots and holding them over the fumes of a small piece of sul- phur placed in an iron vessel. Sulphur being an acid, the stained parts must at once be carefully washed with water containing a little soda or ammonia to save the fibre from injury. If a spot is quite small, it may be moistened and held over the fumes of a few sulphur matches. The vapor from burning sulphur will often remove stains that nothing else will affect. But the fabric must be immediately and thoroughly rinsed in every instance. To Remove Paint. Paint and varnish may be removed by using turpentine, gasolene or benzine. On silk, ether gives the best results. Old spots on woolen goods should be covered with olive oil and allowed to remain for several hours; then treat with chloroform. This applies also to all resinous stains. Xalsomine Stains. Kalsomine yields at once to water and acetic acid, though like all stains, even these simple blemishes may be fixed in cloth, if unduly experimented with. Iron Rust. This is removed by holding the spot over a bowl of water to which a little ammonia has been added, and applying with a glass rod, or a small piece of wood, eighteen per cent, muriatic acid. The instant the stain disappears immerse the spot in the water thereby preventing the acid from affecting the texture of the cloth. Before using muriatic acid, it is best to test it on one comer of the fabric. Should you find that it changes the colors, then treat as for ink stains described above. Mildew. Generally speaking mildew is not affected by chemicals, though it sometimes yields to their action. It may best be treated with a stiff paste made by boiling down Castile soap shavings, .spreading a thick layer of this upon the stain and scattering over it some powdered potash. Moisten slightly with water and bleach out on the grass. Javelle Water or Bleaching Compound. Javelle water for bleaching white goods is prepared as follows: place one pound of chlor- ide of lime in an earthen jar having a tight cover and add four and a 476 STANDARD RECEIPTS. half pints of water. Dissolve in a separate vessel twenty- ounce of or- dinary washing soda and pour into the first solution. When cold add two more pints of water, making eleven pints in all. Strain through muslin and allow it to settle and pour off the resulting clear liquid. Candle Grease. Parafine or tallow is best removed with chloro- form, though every housekeeper knows the old trick of ironing over a piece of blotting paper. Grease and Oil. Grease and oil spots in wash goods may be re- moved with soap, ammonia, and water. For silks try first absorption, which is done by sprinkling the spot heavily with chalk or magnesia, placing a piece of blotting paper on both sides and ironing with a warm iron. Many a man who thinks he knows the best way to eradicate this most common of all stains finds that within a few weeks after treatment the garment has an unsightly ring where the spot was. This is due to the fact that when the stain was rubbed and the grease loosened, it, lacking an absorbent, spread itself into the surrounding fabric. This is the right way to remove a grease spot. Take benzine, turpen- tine, gasolene, or best of all, ether, and moisten a large ring around the grease spot, gradually working towards the center; when this is reached immediately saturate two pieces of blotting paper with the spirit, place one beneath and the other above and press with a weight. By this means the grease will be absorbed as soon as dissolved. Care must be taken in the use of ether, gasolene, or benzine, not to bring it near a flame, as the vapors of all three are highly inflammable. HARNESS AND LEATHER. To Preserve Harness. First remove the dirt with a moist sponge. Do not use too much water, nor any soap. No harness gets so muddy that a moist sponge will not remove the dust, if cleaned while the mud is moist. Now give the leather a good coat of lampblack and castor or neat's-foot oil. Then with a good warm soap-suds sponge the harness thorougly removing all the dirt. When the harness becomes dry, rub it over with a mixture of oil and tallow, equal parts, with which has been mixed lampblack or Prussian blue to give it color. Do not use more of this last compound of oil and tallow than is actually necessary, and rub it in thoroughly. I^eather Blacking. Take one ounce of copperas and one and one- half pints of water, and thoroughly mix. This is used by harness mak- STANDARD RECEIPTS. 477 ers and shoemakers for blacking the edges of newly cut leather, or staining places that have become red or "foxy." Water-proof Blacking. A blacking that will not injure the leath- er is most desirable. There is no ingredient in this blacking that is in any way destructive to the fibre. 1^ pounds Beeswax, 3 ounces Linseed Oil, 1^ ounces Prussian Blue, 6 ounces Ivory Black, 1 ounce Copal Varnish, 6 ounces Soft Soap, 1 pint Oil of Turpentine. Mix well together by gentle heating and keep the paste in old tin fruit cans. Uncolored I^eather. Russet lines, shoes, and uncolored leather ma>- be nicely cleaned and made to look almost as good as new, by ap- plying with a sponge a very weak solution of oxalic acid dissolved in water. Old Harness Made I/ike New. Harness after long exposure to the air loses its luster and turns brown, and requires a new coat of blacking. This will not enter the grain, while there is any grease on the surface, and it must be removed by a careful washing in potash water. After drying apply a coating of the LEATHER BLACKING. Then apply a coating of oil to the surface to fasten the color and make the harness pliable. BOOTS AND SHOES. To Make Water-Proof. Melt together equal quantities of bees- wax and mutton suet. While warm rub over the shoe or boot, soles as well as top. To Soften. Leather that has hardened by water may be made soft and pliable by an application of kerosene oil. Neat's-foot oil, well rub- bed in, is the best and most lasting for restoring softness and pliancy to leather, that has become hard. Brilliant Liquid Blacking". A liquid blacking is easily applied and while not so often used on men's shoes, it is always the article ap- plied to ladies' and children's shoes. 1 pound Ivory Black, 1 pint Molasses, 2 ounces Sweet Oil, 1 pint of each, Beer and Vinegar. Rub together the first three, till the oil seems to have disappeared, then add the beer and vinegar. 478 STANDARD RECEIPTS. Oil Paste Blacking. This is made of the same ingredients as the foregoing, only the quantity of beer and vinegar is reduced so that the result is a paste instead of a liquid. CLEANING AND POLISHING. To Clean Copper or Brass. The next time you think you have done with a lemon just dip it in salt and rub your copper kettle with it. You will be surprised to find what a brilliant surface you will obtain if you rub the article instantly with a dry soft cloth. You can polish all brass work by the same means, every stain disappearing as if by magic. If the brass is on furniture in the shape of knobs or ornaments use either powdered whiting or scraped rotten stone, mix with sweet oil and rub on with chamois skin. Cleaning" Brass, i . Rub the surface of the metal with rotten stone and sweet oil, then rub off with a piece of cotton flannel and polish with soft leather. 2. A solution of oxalic acid rubbed over tarnished brass soon re- moves the tarnish, rendering the metal bright. The acid must be wash- ed off with water, and the brass rubbed with whitning and soft leather. 3. A mixture of muriatic acid and alum dissolved in water, imparts a golden color to brass articles that are steeped in it for a few seconds. 4. Put together two ounces sulphuric acid, an ounce and a half nitric acid, one dram saltpetre and two ounces rain water. Let stand for a few hours, and apply by passing the article in and out quickly, and then washing ofE thoroughly with clean rain water. Old discolored brass chains treated in this way will look equally as well as when new. Silver, Keeping Bright and Clean. To clean silver never use a particle of soap on j'our silver-ware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the article more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants clean- ing rub it with a piece of soft leather and the following mixtures: ^ pound prepared Chalk or Whiting, ;|^ ounce Gum Canphor. 1 ounce each of Aqua Ammonia and Alcohol. 3 ounces Benzine. Mix well together, and apply with a soft sponge, and allow it to dry before polishing. To Keep Bright. For the preserv^ation of the lustre of articles of silver or plated ware, when not needed for actual use for a considerable STANDARD RECEIPTS. 479 time, a coating of collodion (to be had at the drug stores), may be em- ployed to great advantage. The articles are to be heated, and the col- iodion then carefully applied by means of a brush, so as to cover the sur- face thoroughly and uniformly. It is used most conveniently when di- luted with alcohol, as for photographic purposes. Articles thus pre- pared exhibit no trace whatever of their covering, and have stood for more than a j-earin shop windows and in dwellings, retaining their white lustre and color, while other pieces not thus prepared became seriously tarnished. To Clean Silver. One of the largest britannia firms in New Eng- land recommends the following to clean silver. ^ pound Sal-soda, ' 8 quarts Water. When at a boiling heat dip the pieces of silver, and immediately wash in soap suds, and wipe dry with a piece of cotton flannel. Silver Polish. There is no better silver polish than the old fash- ioned Spanish Whiting, when moistened and applied with a soft flan- nel and a silver brush. When dry, rub with a chamois and dry whit- ing. To Keep the Stove Bright. Mix the stove blacking with \'in- egar to the consistency of cream, add pinch of sugar, put on with a brush, and polish with old newspapers. It will give a beautiful and lasting polish. To Clean Marble. To clean marble, take two parts of common soda, one part of pumice stone, and one part of finely powdered chalk; sift it through a fine sieve and mix with water; then rub it well over the marble, and the stains will be removed; finally, rub the marble over with salt and water. To Clean Willow Ware. To clean willow furniture which is not varnished, use salt and water. Apply it with a stiff brush, scrub well and dry thoroughly. To Whiten Ivory. Rub with finely powdered pumice-stone and water, and expose to the sun while still moist, placing over it a glass shade to prevent cracking. Repeat the treatment until the proper hue is produced. Keeping a piano open on fine days so the sun's rays will fall directly on the keys, will keep the latter from turning yellow. To Clean Steel. Mix emery powder with linseed oil and form a paste; rub it on with a piece of flannel. Do not let it remain on but at once rub off with emery powder till the steel is bright. Polish with 480 STANDARD RECEIPTS. a leather. If rusty, clean first with fine sand paper, and then apply the emery as instructed. To Clean Glass. First wash well with a soft sponge, using clear water and squeezing the sponge as dry as possible. Then dip the damp sponge in whiting and rub over the surface of the glass. When dry rub clean with a soft cloth. PASTE, GLUE, AND MUCILAGE. Paste, That "Will Keep. Dissolve a teaspoonful of alum in a quart of warm water. When cold, stir in as much flour as will give it the consistency of thick cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps; stir in as much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, and throw in half-a-dozen cloves to give a pleasant odor. Have on the fire a teacup- ful of boiling water; pour the flour mixture into it, stinging well all the time. In a very few minutes it will be of the consistency of mush. Pour it into jars and when wanted for use it can be readily thinned wdth water. I/iquid Glue. First soak in cold water all the glue 3'ou wish to make at one time, using only glass, earthen, or porcelain dishes; then by gentle heat dissolve the glue in the same water, and pour in a little nitric acid, sufficient to give the glue a sour taste, like vinegar, or one ounce to each pound of glue. Water-Proof Glue. One ounce of gum sandarac and one ounce of mastic are to be dissolved together in a pint of alcohol, to which one ounce of white turpentine is to be added. At the same time a very thick glue is to be kept read}-, mixed with a little isinglass. The solution of the resins in alcohol is to be heated to boiling in a glue pot, and the glue added gradually with constant stirring, so as to tender the whole mass homogeneous. After the solution is strained through a cloth, it is ready for use, and is to be applied hot. It dries quickly and becomes very hard, and surfaces of wood united by it do not separate when immersed in water. Glue as Mucilage. Take of isinglass and parchment size, each one ounce, sugar candy and gum tragacanth, each two drams; add to them one ounce water, and boil the whole together till the solution ap- pears (when cold) of the consistency of glue; then pour it into any form you please. If this glue be wxt with the tongue, and rubbed on the edges of paper, silk or leather that are to be cemented, they will, being STANDARD RECEIPTS. 48 1 laid together, pressed slightly, and suffered to dry, be as firmly united as other parts of the substance. Elastic Glue. If glue or gelatine is incorporated with about one- quarter of its weight of glycerine, it loses its brittleness, and becomes useful for many purposes for which it is otherwise unfit, such as dressing leather, giving elasticity to parchment or enameled paper, and for book- binding. Mucilage, i. Put three ounces of gum arable in an earthenware vessel containing half a pint of cold water. If the liquid is occasionally stirred, the gum in twenty-four hours will be dissolved and the mixture ready for use. Cloves will keep it from moulding. 2. Fine clean glue, one pound; gum arable, ten ounces; water, one quart; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water-bath; when entirely melted, add slowly ten ounces strong nitric acid, and set off to cool. Then bot- tle, adding a couple of cloves to each bottle. WAGON TIRES AND FENCE POSTS. Wagon Tires Kept From I^oosening. If this plan is careful- ly followed, tires on wagons will not get loose and require resetting. Use a tin-pan long- and narrow, and deep and fill with oil, setting it on an oil stove. Let the oil come to a boiling heat, and then placing the stove and pan near a post or studding, hang the wheel on a peg put in the post or studding, so that the felloe of the wheel wall run in the oil. Thoroughly soak each felloe an hour. The timber should be dry, as green timber will not take oil. Care should be taken that the oil is not made hotter than a boiling heat or the timber will be burned. Timber filled with oil is not susceptible of injury by water, and is rendered much more durable by this process. Fence Posts. Any sort of timber, v»'hen employed for fence-posts will be more than twice as durable if allowed to become well seasoned before being set in the ground. The durability of seasoned posts may be promoted, so as to make them last for an age, by the application of a heavy coat of coal-tar to the portion buried in the earth, and a few in- ches above the surface of the tar. The ground-end may be put in hot tar and let boil for fifteen minutes. When cool, cover with coal-tar thickened with ground slate or ground brick. The boiling causes the pores to absorb tar. The coating prevents the action of moisture. But such a treatment of green posts would do but very little good and per- haps mischief. The better way is to season the post well before setting 482 STANDARD RECEIPTS. it, and when the post-hole is filled to within ten inches of the surface of the ground, to apply a heavy coat of tar and fill up with earth. As fence-posts always decay near the surface of the ground, it is only nec- essary to protect the post a few inches above the surface, and about a foot below it. The timber begins to decay, usually on the surface of the posts. Therefore, if the surface can be protected by some antisep- tic material, posts will last a lifetime. ANNOYING INSECTS. Kxterminating" Insects. By scattering chloride of lime on a plank in a stable, biting flies are driven away. Sprinkling beds of veg- etables \vith a weak vSolution of this salt effectually preserves them from caterpillars, slugs, etc. It has the same effect when sprinkled on fruit- trees and shrubbery. Mixed in a paste with fatty matter, and applied in a narrow band around the trees, it prevents insects from creep- ing up. Another plan is to carry all the toads you can find to your gardens. They will devour immense number of bugs. A toad will swallow the largest specimen of the tomato worm, though sometimes he will have a hard time of it. Hens, wasps, and spiders are all devourers of your enemies. A com- mon duck will go up and down rows of tomato and potato vines, and pick off the large worms usually found on such vines, as fast it can see them; and they will see a half dozen when a man could not see one> Young turkeys will do the same servnce, though they are not so easily controlled and guided. All fallen fruit is to be picked up once or twice a day, and boiled, and then given to your cattle to be devoured. By doing this it will pay ten times over, and the result of it will be that the next year you will not have insects. To Exterminate Bed Bugs. There are various remedies for getting rid of these annoying insects. The following are the most re- hable. 1 . Put a few drops of oil of cinnamon into naptha and annoint the openings and cracks. Do not take near fire or burning lamp. 2. Two ounces red arsenic, one-quarter pound of white soap, one-half ounce of camphor dissolved in a teaspoonful of alcohol, made into a paste of the consistency of cream. U.se to annoint the bedstead. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 483 To Destroy the Striped Bug. The striped bug on cucumbers and melons may be destroyed as follows: 1 . By a strong solution of hen-house manure — say one peck of the manure to one and a half gallons of water; let it stand twenty-four honrs and sprinkle the plants freely with it after sunset. 2. By sifting charcoal dust over the plants; if repeated three or four times the plants will be entirely freed from the annoyance. 3. Plant a few kernels of buckwheat in each hill of cucumbers or mel- ons, and striped bugs will not trouble the vines. Roach Bxterminator. Borax is one of the best roach extermin- ators. There is something either in the odor or touch of borax which is certain death to them. Purchase it pulverized and sprinkle around the infested places. Red Ants. Sprinkle oil of pennyroyal on the pantry shelves and the ants will disappear. Flies on Horses. As a preventive of horses being teased by flies, take two or three small handfuls of walnut leaves, upon which pour tw^o or three quarts of cold water; let it infuse for one night, and pour the whole next morning into a kettle, and let it boil for fifteen minutes. When it becomes cold it wall be fit for use. No more is required than to moisten a sponge, and, before the horse goes out of the stable, let those parts which are most irritable be smeared over with the liquor — namely, between and upon the ears, the neck, the flanks, etc. Not only the lady or gentleman who rides out for pleasure will derive pleas- ure from the walnut leaves thus prepared, but the coachman, the w^ag- oner, and all others who use horses during the summer. To Keep out Mosquitoes, i. Oil of pennyroyal scattered about m small quantities. This is best sprayed about the room with a per- fume atomizer. 2. Take of gum camphor a piece about one-third the size of an egg, and evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel, and holding it over a lamp or candle, taking care that it does not ignite. The fumes will soon fill the room and expel the mosquitoes. 3. Carbolic acid has recently been successfully used for the extermin- ation of mosquitoes and flies. A small piece of cloth saturated with the acid, was hung in the room, and in two hours the flies had entirely disappeared. In the evening the acid was tried in the kitchen where the mosquitoes were very troublesome, and there it met with the same success. 4S4 STANDARD RECEIPTS. To Prevent Mosquito Biting, i. Dilute a little of the oil of thyme ^^•ith sweet oil, and dip pieces of paper in it. Hang in your room or rub a little on the hands and face when going to bed. 2. Petroleum is a good mosquito bar, if used in this way; a little coal oil is dropped on some raw cotton, the excess of it squeezed out, and the cotton then rubbed over the face and hands. The little pests will not come near. The remedy seems nearl}' as bad as the disease; to those who do not mind the smell of kerosene it will be found to be verj^ useful. To Cure Mosquito Bites. 1 . Apply sweet spirits of nitre to mos- quito bites and it will draw out all the soreness and itching, if the skin is not broken by scratching it. 2. Apply at once a few drops of aqua ammonia, or an infusion of to- bacco, either of which will allay the itching and soreness almost imme- diately. 3. Carbolic acid has also been tried, and with good success, but it should be diluted, to prevent producing a blister. Bee and "Wasp Stings, i. These stings though very painful are not dangerous to a healthy person, unless in the mouth, throat, or eye- lid. The sting of a bee being barbed at the end, it is always left in the wound, and should when possible, be carefully removed. That of a wasp is pointed only, so that they can sting more than once, which a bee cannot do. If, after the sting of the bee is extracted, the wound be sucked, ver}' little inflammation will follow; and if spirits of ammonia be then applied, a prompt healing will result. 2. Common whiting, moistened with water, and applied immediateh', and in a few minutes washed off, will prevent pain and swelling from following the sting of a bee or w-asp. 3. The slice of a common onion rubbed on the sting of a wasp, or, if in the throat, chewed slowly and the piece swallowed, will result in a certain cure. The Bites of Bees, Wasps, Hornets, scorpions, etc., may be instantly relieved by the immediate and free application of spirits of hartshorn as a wash to the part bitten. The part may afterwards be covered with a little sweet oil. Harvest Bug. The best remedy is benzine, which immediately kills the insect. A drop of tincture of iodine has the same effect. Many sufferers prevent the attacks by sprinkling a little benzine over the stockings before walking. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 485 To Destroy Cockroaches, i . Strew the roots of black hellebore at night, in the places infested by these vermin, and they will be found in the morning dead or dying. Black hellebore grows in marshy ground, where it may easily be gathered, or it may be purchased at any drug store. 2. Take pulverized borax, four ounces; flour, one ounce; mix inti- mately and distribute the mixture in cupboards which are frequented by the roaches, or blow it by means of a bellows, into the holes or cracks that are infested by them. 3. Take carbolic acid and powdered camphor in equal parts; put them in a bottle; they will. become fluid. With a painter's brush of the size called a sash-tool, put the mixture on the cracks or places \\''here the roaches hide; they will come out at once. Then kill. Fleas on Dogs and Cats. Fleas are usually brought into the family circles by pet dogs and cats. The oil of pennyroyal wall drive these insects off; but a cheaper method, where the herb flourishes, is to throw j-our cats and dogs into a strong tea made by steeping the penny- royal in water. When the herb cannot be got, the oil can be procured. In this case, saturate strings with it and tie them round the necks of dogs and cats. These applications should be repeated every twelve or fifteen days. To Kill Caterpillars. Boil together equal quantities of rue, wormwood, and tobacco, in common water. The liquid should be very strong. Sprinkle it on the leaves and j-oung branches every morning and evening during the time the fruit is ripening. To. Kill Crickets. A little ginger and water placed in a dish be- fore the fire will attract the crickets, and on partaking of the liquor they will die. The best mode of destroying the insects in their nest is to put snuff into the chinks of the grate. Moths in Clothing and Furs. Either one of the following methods will keep out the moths provided the clothes are put away without any eggs being on them. Put in boxes and paste paper all AROUND THE COVER, making it impossible for them to get in. 1 . Sprinkle allspice berries among the clothes. 2. Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 3. Procure sha\'ings of camphor- wood, and enclose in bags. 4. Procure shavings of cedar-wood, and enclose in muslin bags, which should be distributed among the clothes. 5. An ounce of gum camphor and one of the powdered shell of red ^86 STANDARD RECEIPTS. pepper are macerated in eight ounces of strong alcohol for several days, then strained. With this tincture the furs or clothes are sprinkled over and rolled up in sheets. 6. Carefully shake and brush woolens in the spring, so as to be cer- tain that no eggs are in them; then sew them up in cotton or linen wrappers, putting a piece of camphor gum, tied up in a bit of muslin, into each bundle, or into the chests and closets where the articles are to lie. No moth will approach while the smell of camphor continues. When the gum is evaporated it must be renewed. Enclose them in a moth-proof box with camphor. Furs or woolens put away in spring time, before moth eggs are laid, into boxes, trunks, or closets even, where moths cannot enter, will be safe from the ravages of mothworms, provided none were in them that were laid late in the autumn, for they are not of spontaneous production. Flies, Their Habits and Kinds. Flies are scavengers and eat not only the sweet things and fresh blood, but also things unclean, espe- cially decaying animal substances. With their proboscis, sucking up the juices which by evaporation would contaminate the air, they are very useful indeed, in the houses of slovenly housekeepers. The blue-bottle, or blow-fly, deposits its eggs on animal substances, which are recognized as fly-blows. In a warm temperature they hatch in three or four hours after they are laid, and then are called larvae or maggots. The maggots from three flies will consume a dead horse al- most as quickly as a lion. So voracious are they that they increase in weight about two hundred times in twenty-four hours. The flesh-fly, a little longer than the blow-fly, drops living maggots on dead fish, the maggots being hatched within the fly. The cheese-fly is very small; of a shining black color, with transparent wings and yellow hind legs. It deposits about two hundred or two hundred and fifty eggs into the cracks in cheese, which are developed in- to skippers. The maggots of some species of flies spin cocoons; with others, the skin simply hardens and incases the pupa, or chrysalis. At length the fully developed fly makes its escape by forcing off with its head the chrysalis case. The different-sized flies, are different varieties, and not young and old, as some suppose; for flies never grow to any very perceptible extent. A large pooportion of the swarms of flies hatched during the warm weather of summer are destroyed by the frosts of winter. Only a few that are so STANDARD RECEIPTS. 487 fortunate as to find shelter and warm places escape; and in similar situa- tions, some of them pass the winter in chr.vsalis state, and only hatch out when warm weather returns. The house-fly is a domestic insect, and is said never to be found except in the vicinity of man's present or recent home. To Destroy Flies. House flies are present just in proportion to the dirt and uncleanliness there is in a house. The cleaner the house and surroundings, the fewer flies there will be. Try any of the reme- dies here suggested and be rewarded by a decrease of these annoying pests. 1. They may be effectually destroyed by putting half a .spoonful of black pepper in powder on a teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one tea- spoonful of cream ; mix them well together and place them in a room where the flies are troublesome, and they will .soon disappear. 2. Laurel oil, freely used, the smell of which, although a little strong, is not ver>^ offensive, drives away flies ; and they dare not come near the walls or the wainscots which have been rubbed with it. 3. Flies usually propagate in stables and thej- can be kept away so as to prevent annoyance to the animals or further propagation by scatter- ing about in the stables, sawdust which is saturated with dilute carbolic acid (one part acid to one hundred parts water). A similar application to the kitchen floor will keep them away. Sticky Fly Paper. Melt resin in any vessel over the fire, and while soft add to it enough sweet oil to make it as thick as molasses. Spread upon writing paper with a brush and it will not dry in a long time and is so sticky as to hold fast the legs of any insect attracted to it, or accidentally coming in contact. It may be placed about the house, the pantry or elsewhere, and will soon attract and hold fast ants and other insects. It is also used on table legs, the edges of shelves and other places to prevent the ascent of ants. Strips of this paper fastened close- ly about the trunks of trees, plants, etc., the varnish side out, prevents the ascent of insects. It po.ssesses the great advantage over the ordinary fl)' papers in that it is not poisonous. 4. Put about a quart of water sweetened with molasses in a tin wash basin or smooth glazed china bowls. Set it at evening in a place fre- quented by the bugs. Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that the bugs may have easy access to the top. They will go down in the water, and can not get out. 5. Mix up a quantity of fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such as is used for making molds and ornaments), with wheat flour and a , 488 STANDARD RECEIPTS. little sugar, and distribute on shallow plates and box boards, and place in the corners of the kitchen and pantrj^ where they frequent. In the darkness they will feast themselves on it. After three or four nights renewal of the preparation, no cockroaches will be found on the premises. Moths in Carpets. Wring a coarse towel out of clear water, spread it smoothly on the carpet, iron it dry with a good hot iron, re- peating the operation on all parts of the carpet suspected of being in- fested with moths. No need to press hard, and neither the pile nor color of the carpet will be injured, and the moths will be destroyed by the heat and steam. RATS AND MICE. To Kill or Drive Away Rats. i. Mix some fine plaster of Paris with an equal quantity of flour ; put the mixture in the place infested by the vermin, and a vessel full of water beside it. The rats will devour the mixture and then drink; whereupon the plaster, brought in contact with the water, will become solid, and like a stone in their stomachs, and will cause their death. This method is evidently highly preferable to the use of arsenic, which is always attended with danger. 2. Mix up the following and put on bread or cheese : 3 ounces Sugar. 1 pound Flour, 8 ounces Sulphur. 8 ounces Phosphorus. 3. When a house is infested by rats which refuse to nibble at toasted cheese, and the usual baits, a few drops of the highly scented oil of rho- dium, poured on the bottom of a cage top, will always attract before morning. Where a trap baited with all manner of edibles had failed to attract a single rat, the oil of rhodium caused it to be completely crowded night after night. 4. Mix powdered nux vomica with oatmeal, and la}- it in their haunts, observing proper caution to prevent accidents. 5. (PHOSPHORUS PASTE.) Take of phosphorus one part, liquify it in twenty parts of luke-warm water, pour the whole into a mortar, and add immediately twenty parts of rye meal ; when cold, mix twenty parts of butter melted, and fifteen parts of sugar. If the phosphorus is in a finely-div4ded state, the ingredients may be all mixed at once, without STANDARD RECEIPTS. 489 melting them. This mixture will retain its efficacy for many j-ears, for the phosphorus is preserved by the butter and only becomes oxydized on the surface. Rats and mice eat this mixture with avddity, after which they swell out and soon die. 6. Co\-er the floor near their holes, with a thin layer of moist caustic potash. When the rats walk on this it makes their feet sore. These they lick with their tongues, which makes their mouths sore, and the result is that they not only shun this locality, but appear to tell all the neighboring rats about it, and eventually the house is entirely abandoned by them, notwithstanding that the neighborhood may be teeming with them. 7. Corks, cut as thin as wafers, roasted or stewed in grease, and placed in their tracks ; or dried six)nge in small pieces, fried or dipped in honey, with a little oil of rhodium, or bird-lime, laid in their haunts, will stick to their fur and cause their departure. If a live rat be caught, and well rubbed over with tar, and oil, and afterward let escape in the holes of others, they will disappear. 8. Cover a common barrel with stiff, stout papers, tying the edge around the barrel ; place a board so that the rats may have an easy access to the top ; sprinkle cheese parings or other "feed" for the rats on the paper for several days, until they begin to believe they have a right to the food. Then place a cover balanced near the centre and the rat will fall into the barrel. Have water in the bottom which covers a stone all but place enough for one rat. Then the second rat gets in the barrel, there will be a fight for a place on the stone, and this noise will call other rats to the barrel. Each time a rat gets on the head it will add one rat to the number inside. Mice. These are disposed of in about the same manner as rats. Gather spearmint, peppermint, or any other kind of mint, and scatter it about their holes, and they will forsake the premises. PRESERVING AND SALTING MEAT. To Cure Hams. For each twelve pounds of ham use the following: 2 pounds Common Salt, 2 ounces Saltpetre, ^ pound Bay Salt, ^ pound Brown Sugar. Reduce the solids to the finest powder. Rub the hams well with it. 490 STANDARD RKCKIPTS. Then place tliem iu a deep pan, and add a wine-glassful of good vinegar. Turn the hams every day; for the first three or four days rub theni well with the brine; after that time it will sufl&ce to ladle it over the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should remain three weeks in the pickle. When taken from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for three weeks. Most grocers, dealers in hams, and others, who are particular with their meat, usually take the precaution to case each one, after it is smoked, in can- vass, for the purpose of defending it from the attacks of the little fly, (dermestes lardarius), which by laying its eggs in it, soon fills it with its maggots. This troublesome and expensive process may be altogether superseded bj' the use of pyroligneous acid. With a painter's brush, dipped in the liquid, one man, in the course of a day, may effectually secure two hundred hams from all danger. Care should be taken to in- sinuate the liquid into all the cracks, etc. , of the under surface. This method is especially adapted to the preservation of hams in hot climates. 2. Make the following pickle and let the meat lay in it six weeks: 2^ pounds Sugar, 7 pounds Coarse Salt, 2 ounces Saltpetre, 4 gallons Water. Boil together and put to cool. The above is sufficient for one hundred pounds of meat. 3. To a cask holding, vSay from twenty-five to thirty hams, after pack- ing them closely and sprinking them slightly with salt, let them lie thus for three days; then make a brine sufficient to cover them, by putting salt in clear water, making it strong enough to bear up a sound egg or potato. Then add one-half pound of saltpetre, and a gallon of molasses; let them lie in brine for five weeks. Then take them up and let them drain; then while damp, rub the flesh side and the end of the leg with finely pulverized black, red, or cayenne pepper; let it be as fine as dust, and dust every part of the flesh side, then hang them up and smoke. You may leave them hanging in the smoke house or other cool place where the rats cannot reach them as they are perfectly safe from all insects. To Keep Smoked Hams. Make sacks of coarse cotton cloth, large enough to hold one ham, and fill with chopped hay all around about two inches thick. The hay prevents the grease from coming in contact with the cloth and keeps all insects from the meat. Hang in STANDARD RKC^IPTS. 49 1 the smokehouse, or other dry, cool, place, and they will keep a long time. To Pickle Mutton Hams for Drying. First take weak brine and put the hams into it for two da\s, then pour off and apply the fol- lowing, and then let it remain on from two to three weeks according to size: for each one hundred pounds, take salt six pounds; saltpetre, one ounce; saleratus, two ounces; molasses, one pint; water, six gallons; will cover these if closely packed. Corned Beef, i . Cut up the beef, and weigh and bulk it up, sprink- ling a little salt over it, and let it lay ten or twelve hours, then pack it down in the barrel. To one hundred pounds- of beef take one quart of salt, three and one half pints of molasses, one table-spoonful of saltpetre. Put all this into sufhcient water to cover the beef; boil the pickle, and skim off all the scum, and wdien cold pour it over the beef, and weigh it down. Keep the beef covered with the pickle. 2. Rub each piece of beef very lightly with salt; let them lie singly on a tray or board for twentj^-four hours, then wipe them very dry. Pack them closely in a tub, taking care that it is perfectly sweet and clean. Have the pickle ready, made thus : boil four gallons of soft water with ten pounds of coarse salt, four ounces of saltpetre, and two pounds of coarse brown sugar; let it boil fifteen minutes, and skim it while boiling very clean. When perfectly cold pour it on the beef, laying a weight on the top to keep the meat under the pickle. This quantity is stifficient for one hundred pounds of beef if closely packed. Dried Beef. The good qualities of dried beef as an article of food for the family are not fully appreciated. In point of excellence it is one of the nicest articles, when properly prepared, that we have in our store- room. It is also one of the most economical articles of food; quite a small qantity of dried beef, shaved very fine, and cooked with a nice gravy, will serve for meat for a family at a very small expense. It is so convenient to have; always ready; always acceptable. To people who live convenient to market, it is not of so much importance; but to those, who live at a distance from towns, dried beef is one of the neces- sary articles in our bill of fare. There are several methods of cooking it. Some prefer it cooked with a gravy of water, seasoned with butter, thickened with flour, and per- haps eggs broken in while cooking. Others cook it with crumbs of sausage, frying the sausage first, then adding the beef with water, and thickening with flour. It is also very good cooked with a little sweet 49* Si'AlsrbAfeD liECKitTS. milk and sweet cream, the gravy being thickened with flour; allow it to boil once; that is all the cooking it requires. A dish of dried beef, properl}' cooked, ser\-ed with toast, baked potatoes, and boiled eggs, is a very nice provision for breakfast or a dinner prepared in haste. When loo salt, it can be remedied by soaking, after cutting and before, and adding a little white sugar while cooking, to restore the sweetness lost by soaking. Sugar cured beef is much nicer than that cured with salt alone. To Cure Bacon. The reputation of the Hampshire bacon is owing entirely to the care with which it is cured. The hogs, which are fatted on peas and barley meal, are kept fasting for twenty-four hours at least before they are killed; they are used as gently as po.ssible in the act of killing, which is done by inserting a long-pointed knife into the main artery which comes from the heart. The hair is burned off with lighted straw, and the dirty surface of the skin scraped off. The carcass is hung up after the entrails have been removed, and the next day, when the meat has become quite cold, it is cut up into flitches. The spare- ribs are taken out, and the bloody veins carefully removed; the whole is then covered with salt, with a small quantity of saltpetre mixed with it. Sometimes a little brown sugar is added, which gives a pleasant sweet- ness to the bacon. The flitches are laid on a low wooden table, which has a small raised border at the lower end. The table slants a little, so as to let the brine run off into a vessel placed under it, by a small open- ing in the border at the lower end. The flitches are turned up and salted every day; those which were up- permost are put under, and in three weeks the)' are ready to be hung up to dry. Smoking the bacon is no longer as conunon as it used to be, as simply drying in the salt is found sufficient to make it keep. Those who from early association like the flavor given by the smoke of wood, burn sawdust and shavings in a smothered fire for some time under the flitches. When they are quite dry they are placed on a board rack for the use of the family, or are packed with chaff into chests till they are sold. To Keep Butter Sweet. To every twenty pounds of butter take three pounds salt, one pound loaf .sugar, one-quarter pound pulverized saltpetre; mix and put a layer of butter about eight inches thick; then sprinkle on a light covering alternately, until your cask is full. Pack in air-tight casks. Butter packed in this way will keep sweet for two or three years. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 493 FRUIT AND VEGETABLES KEPT OVER WINTER. To Keep Grapes, i . They must not be too ripe. Take off the im- perfect grapes from the bunches. On the bottom of a keg put a layer of bran that has been well dried in an oven, or in the sun. On the bran put a layer of grapes, with bran between the bunches so that they may not be in contact. Proceed in the same way with alternate layers of grapes and bran, till the keg is full; then close the keg so that no air can enter. 2. In a box first lay a paper, then a layer of grapes, selecting the best bunches and removing all imperfect grapes, then another paper, then more grapes, and so until the box is full ; then cover all with several folds of paper or cloth. Nail on the lid, and set in a cool room where it will not freeze. Use small boxes, so as not to disturb more than enough to use in a week or so. Gi\'e each bunch plenty of room so they will not crowd, and don't use newspapers. Some seal the stem with sealing wax and wrap each bunch by itself, but it is not necessary to go to that trouble. The grapes should be looked to several times during the win- ter. Should any mould or decay, they should be removed and the good ones again repacked. 3. Cut a piece out of a ripe pumpkin or gourd, making an aperture large enough to admit the hand. Clean out the interior of seeds and place the ripe grapes inside, and replace the cover and press it in firmly. Keep the pumpkins in a cool place — and the grapes will be found to retain their freshness for a long time. A very careful selection must be made of the pumpkin, but the common field pumpkin, however, is well adapted for the purpose in question. To Keep Cabbage. vSink a barrel in the ground to within an inch or two of the top, cut off the heads and fill the barrel full, put on a board to keep out water, and that is all the covering that is needed. To Keep Apples, i. Select the best of fruit, and carefully' wrap each specimen separately in paper so that the air cannot pass through, and the time of keeping in a sound and eatable condition can be greatly prolonged. After covering each apple with paper, select a light wooden box and cover it on the inside, or outside, with paper either before or after putting in the fruit, as the case may be. Those persons who are desirous of preserving a small quantity of apples will be amply repaid for their trouble by trying the above experiment. The fruit should not be 494 STANDARD RECEIPTS. disturbed after packing until the box is opened at the time the fruit is to be eaten. 2. Sprinkle a layer of drj- sawdust at the bottom of a box, and then place a layer of apples in it, so that they will not touch each other. Upon these place a little layer of sawdust, and so on until the box is filled. The boxes, after being packed in this way, are to be placed on the wall in the cellar, up from the ground, where they will keep, perfectly retain- ing their freshness and flavor until brought out. 3. Apples for keeping should be laid out on a dry floor for three weeks. , They then may be packed away in layers, with dry straw be- tween them. Each apple should be rubbed with a dry cloth as it is put away. They should be kept in a cool place, but should be sufficiently covered with straw to protect them from frost. They should be picked on a dry day. The}' also keep if packed in dry sand. 4. An excellent method for preser\'ing apples through the winter is to put them in barrels or boxes, surrounding each apple wdth some dry mould or gypsum (plaster of Paris) — not the calcined used for casts, models, etc., — and keep in a dry, cool. outhouse. To Keep Celery. This may be kept in good condition during the winter in a cool, dry cellar, by ha\'ing it set out in earth. When a small quantity only is wanted, take a box and stand the celer}' up in it, placing a little earth about the roots. The farmers who raise quantities of it often keep it in their old hot-beds, standing up, and protecting it from frost. There is no vegetable more relished than this, and every person who has a garden should raise enough for his own use, if no more. To Keep Potatoes from Sprouting-. To keep potatoes intended for the use of the talkie from sprouting until new potatoes grow, take boiling water, pour into a tub, turn in as many potatoes as the water will entirely cover, then pour off all the water, handle the potatoes care- fully, laying up in a dry place on boards, onlj^ one layer deep, and see if you do not have good potatoes the 3'ear round, without hard strings and watery ends caused by growing. Pears Kept Fresh. After they have been allowed to lay on the shelves in the fruit-room, and sweat, they should be wiped dry, and packed in boxes with dry sawdust enough to exclude the air from them. If they were packed in dry sand, they would keep equally as well and perhaps better; but the objection is that ft is difficult to clean them from sand, and they eat gritty when so kept. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 495 TO PRESERVE OR PICKLE EGGS. To Keep 'Eggs Without Spoiling. P'or each twelve quarts of water put in one pint of fresh slaked lime, and one pint of common salt, mix well, fill a barrel about half full of this fluid, then with a dish, let the fresh eggs down into this, and they will settle right side up with care every time, and they will keep any reasonable length of time with- out any further care than to keep them covered with the fluid. Eggs may be laid down in this way any time after June. 2. Dip them into a solution of gun-cotton, (collodion), so as to ex- clude the air from the pores of the shells, or the collodion may be applied with a brush. 3. Keep them at the temperature of 40° F. or less in a refrigerator. Specimens have been exhibited, which were fourteen months old, and still perfectly fresh and sweet. 4. Pack the eggs in a cask wdth the smaller end downward, and fill the cask with melted tallow\ This method is practiced very extensively in Russia and in other parts of Europe, and is generally successful. 5. Apply with a brush a solution of gum arabic to the shells, or im- merse the eggs therein; let them dry, and afterwards pack them in dry charcoal dust. This prevents their being affected by any alterations of temperature. 6. Eggs may be preserved by keeping them buried in salt, or dipping them during two or three minutes in boiling water. The white of the eggs then forms a kind of membrane, which envelops the interior, and defends it from the air. 7. Take of quick-lime one pound; salt, one pound; saltpetre, three ounces; water, one gallon. It is necessary that the solution be boiled ten or fifteen minutes, and when cold put in the eggs, small end down- ward, using a vessel lined with lead, and placing in a cold but dry cellar. 8. Get a good sweet wooden box, put about an inch of salt on the bottom; take sweet grease of any kind, lard or drippings, rub the eggs all over with it and put them, the little end down, in the salt; then spread a layer of salt and then add more eggs. 9. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, when the mixture may be applied with a common paint brush. When dry, pack in bran, points down- ward. Eggs so preserved will keep a long time. When about to be used, the varnish may be washed off. 4g6 g'i'ANbARD RECEIPTS. 10. A Parisian paper recommends the following method for the pre- servation of eggs: dissolve four ounces of beeswax in eight ounces of warm olive oil; in this put the tip of the finger and annoint the egg all around. The oil will immediately be absorbed, and the shell and pores filled up by the wax. If kept in a cool place the eggs after two years, will be as good as if fresh laid. 1 1 . An old sea captain says: ' 'The week before going to sea, on a four months' voyage, I gathered in sixty dozens of eggs for cabin sea-stores, taking special pains to prove every egg of the lot a good one; besides, I bought them of my farmer friends, and know they were all fresh. Then I fixed them for keeping, by taking five or six dozens at a time in a bas- ket, and dipping them about five seconds in the cook's ''copper" of boiling water. After scalding, I passed the eggs through a bath, made by dissolving about five pounds of the cheapest brown sugar in a gallon of water, and laid them out on the galley floor to dry. There I had my sixty dozens of eggs sugar-coated. I packed them in charcoal dust in- stead of salt; I tried salt ten years, and I don't believe it preserves eggs a mite. The steward had strict orders to report every bad egg he should find. During the voyage he brought three, not absolutely spoiled, but a little old. All the others, or what was left of them, were as fresh when we came in as they were when I packed them away." SOAP AND SOAP MAKING. How to Make Soap. Animal fat, such as tallow, is the sub- stance most at hand of all fatty matter for soap-making, although vegetable oils, such as castor, sunflower, olive and other oils, and also resin, are used in soap making occasionally, but tallow being more eas- ily obtainable, and generally at a lower cost than any of the oils above enumerated, is most extensively employed in the manufacture of domes- tic soap. For this purpose the grease after being freed of skin, by boiling, straining, and remelting, is heated to the temperature of boiling wateri and mixed on the fire with a hot solution of either soda, potash, or both' in water called the lye; the whole is gradually transferred into' an iron pot, larger by at least one third than the whole mixture, about one quart of the melted fat being first ladled into it, then as much or more of the hot lye, the mixture constantly stirred on the fire till a sort of creamy matter is formed, the ladling kept on alternately till all the fat STANDARD RECEIPTS. 497 and lye are mixed together; the stirring to be kept up till the mixture boils, some ten or fifteen minutes, according to the strength of the lye employed. Then transfer from the boiler into a form, a tight box, in which muslin has been placed overhanging the box, so that the soap may be afterward more easily drawn out of it for the purpose of drying, or it may be poured in a common wash-tub, previously soaked in water to prevent adhesion to the tub, and there allowed to harden for a few days, from which it is put upon a table, to dry and be cut in bars for use, by means of a wire. To Preserve Soap Grease. Boil all the scraps, rinds, and bones in a weak lye, and the purer grease in clear water. I^et the mixture cool, take off the cake of grease, and strain it. It is well to do this oc- casionally, as you save it; for when kept a long time, impure grease becomes offensive. You must be careful to dry off all the water before laying it away in your grease tub, if you wish it to keep sweet. To Purify Soap Grease. If the grease is very foul in smell, it should be put in a boiler with water, on the fire (about three times as much water as of the grease), and add a tea-spoonfuj of permanganate of potash to each ten pounds of grease, stirring well, and after the mix- ture has cooled a little it is strained through a cloth, and allowed to rest, when the cake of fat is taken out and put in a cool place, or in the pot in which it is to be remelted for transformation into soap. The purpose of the permanganate of potash is to remove the rank odor of the grease, which otherwise would be found in the soap. Soft Soap. I. Take one gallon of soft soap, to which add one gill of common salt, and boil an hour. When cold, separate the lye from the crude. Add to the crude two pounds of sal-soda, and boil in two gallons soft water till dissolved. If you wish it better, slice two pounds of common bar soap, and dissolve in the above. If the soft soap makes more than three pounds of crude, add in proportion to the sal-soda and water. 2. For one barrel take potash, eight pounds; melted and clarified fat, eight pounds. Crack the potash in small lumps, and put it into a large iron pot of three or four gallons capacity, with hot boiling water to nearly fill it. Heat the fat in another iron pot quite hot. Put three or four gallons of hot water in the barrel, previously cleaned and ready for use, and ladle in it alternately the hot fat and hot lye; stir the whole briskly for a while before more lye and fat are ladled in, and gradually ^j98 standard receipts. add enough hot water to fill the barrel; stir again the whole, after each ladle of hot water, till the whole becomes a creamy mass, uniform in its appearance. Allow it to rest for three months in a temperate place or cellar. 3. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of lime in a gallon of cold water, then take off the clear; dissolve a half pound of sal-soda in a quart of water, and mix it with the clear lime-water; one pound of brown soap dissolved in a gallon of water, and then to be added to the clear liquor formed with the sal-soda and lime-water, and this forms the soap. This soft soap is excellent for boiling white linens. It removes all grease that is in them, because it contains an excess of caustic lye. About one quart of it is sufficient for boiling clothes in a ten gallon copper. A quantity of this may be made up for constant use. To Make Good I^ye. Use hickory-wood ashes when possible, but those from beech, maple, or any kind of hard wood, except oak, will answer well. A hogshead, set ujwn an inclined platform, will make a good leach. First in the bottom of the leach pile some wood crosswise of each other, making it a foot high, over this put a piece of of old carpet or straw, put on a few inches of ashes, then a peck of lime, fill with ashes, moistened and tamp down well, making it firmest in the centre. Put on warm water. If the lye is not strong enough to float a potato or egg, put back on the ashes again and let run through till it will do so. Mrs. Gordon's Soft Soap. Shave two and one-half pounds of good white soap and melt in two gallons of soft water, add one and one- fourth pounds of sal-soda and one-quarter pomid powdered borax; when all is melted pour in keg or barrel with ten or twelve gallons warm water; stir in thoroughly two table-spoonfuls strong annrionia; two of al- cohol; and one of turpentine; stir occasionally till cold. This soap is ready for use as soon as mixed. The borax, soda, turpentine or am- monia may be increased if desired. Hand-Made Sal-Soda Soap. It sometimes happens that caustic soda is not within reach, and yet sal-soda is to be had. To transform this material into a suitable lye for soap-making is an easy process; dis- solve sal-soda, say three pounds, in two gallons of warm water; slack in a firkin three pounds of good lime; add to it the soda solution; stir the whole thoroughly with a stick, and add two gallons of boiling water; stir again, and let it settle. To make soap pour off the clear liquor into a clean iron boiler and STANDARD RECEIPTS. 499 place on the fire, and stir into it six pounds of clarified grease, and two ounces of ixjwdered borax. Let it boil slowly till it gets thick and ropy (about ten minutes boiling), and pour it into a tub or tight box, as stated above. Soap thus made is an excellent hard soap for family use; after drying a month or so in a dry-room, and cut into bars, it is fit for use. One Cent a Pound Soap. Soap for family use can be made very cheap and of excellent quality with little trouble by the use of a common article sold in all drug stores. This is lye put up in a concentrated form in small iron boxes holding one pound. These boxes cost about twenty cents, and will make twenty pounds of soap. The plan of proceeding is merely to take a box of this substance, knock off the lid, and throw it into a gallon of boiling water. After standing ten hours the lye will be clear, and must be thrown into a wash-boiler with another gallon of boiling water; w-hen the contents of the vessel boils, add slowly four pounds of any grease and stir well. "When well mixed, the boiler should simmer slowly for four or six hours, and half an hour before taking off, another gallon of hot water may be added, together with half a tea-cupful of salt. The latter is not necessary, how- ever, and if too much is used, the soap is curdled or made short so that it breaks and wastes. When the soap is thought to be done, plunge a case knife in; if the mass drops clear and ropy and chills quickly, it is soap and wuU be firm and hard when cold. Have ready a tub well wet on the bottom and sides; pour the soap in and let it set; in a few hours it will be hard enough to cut out and be as white as snow. This process makes twenty-five pounds of soap; or, by the aid of grease, four pounds; lye, one pound; twenty-four pounds of water; (less four pounds driven off in boiling), are converted into excellent soap. Since the grease is sa\ed from the family waste, the soap has only cost what the Ij-e has come to, and as the loss by drying is only twenty per cant. , twenty pounds of soap can be made for twenty cents. Country Soft or Hard Soap. In most parts of the country it is cheaper and much more convenient to make soap from the lye of leached ashes than from a boughten ' ' 'concentrated lye. ' ' Leach the ashes as suggested, then fill a kettle two-thirds full of lye that will float a potato or egg. Put in the fat in a melted condition, a little at a time, and stir well. When the soap gets to the right consistency (which is found by testing) let the fire out and tlie soap cool. If hard soap is required add salt while hot by handfuls until of proper hardness. 2. A farmers wife give the following method of making soap; "Start 500 STANDARD RECEIPTS. the lye to boiling and then while boiling, if the lye is not strong enough to eat the feather of a quill, boil it down until it is. When it will just eat the feather, let the kettle be a little more than one-third full of lye, and put in grease, skins of the hogs, bacon rinds, meat-fryings, and the like, until the kettle is about two-thirds full. The kettle must not be full, for with the least bit too much fire, over the soap goes. It is bet- ter to put in a little less than the necessary amount of grease. Lye and grease combine in certain proportions; but pass the limit no amount of boiling will take up an excess of grease. It will remain on top hot or cold, and it will be verj^ troublesome; whereas a little too much lye will sink to the bottom when the soap comes. If the proportions are good, a little fire only is required to keep it boiling, and in a few hours it is done. Then take a bucket of weak h'e and let it boil up with the soap once. Tills will not disturb the already made .soap, but will wash the dirt out that was in the grease, and with it settle to the bottom. When the .soap is cold it can be cut out in cakes." A small quantity of salt will help harden, Fluid Soap. Sweet oil seven parts; caustic potash, one part; rose water, sufficient quantity to reduce it to a proper state. Rub the oil, alkali and a few spoonfuls of the water together in a hot mortar until united, then add the remainder of the water as required. Wash-Boiler Soap. Take one pound of .sal-soda, one jDound of yellow bar soap, and five quarts of water. Cut the .soap in thin slices, and lx)il together two hours; strain, and it will be fit for u.se. Put the clothes to .soak the night before you wash, and to every pail of water in which you boil tliem, add a pound of soap. They will need no rubbing; merely rinse them out, and they will be perfectly clean and white. White Hard Soap. To fifteen pounds of lard, or suet, made boil- ing liot, add slowly six gallons of hot lye, or .solution of potash, that will bear up an egg high enough to leave a piece big as a shilling, bare. Take out a little and cool it. If no grease comes to the top it is done. If any grea.se ap])ears, add lye, and boil till no grea.se ri.ses. Add three quarts of fine .salt, and boil up again. If this does not harden well on cooling, add more salt. If it is to be perfumed, melt it next day, add the perfume and run it in moulds, or cut in cakes. Hard Soap. i. Take six pounds of .sal-soda, .six pounds grea.se, and three pounds lime. Thoroughly mix the .soda and lime in four gal- lons of water, pour off from the sediment, put in the grease and boil twenty minutes; pour off and before entirely cold cut in bars. STANDARD RECEtPl^S. SOt 2. Glauber salts has been used to harden soap, which made from in- ferior fats, would otherwise be too soft. This substance (melted on a shovel or otherwise,) added to the soap in the proportion of one pound of the salt to twenty pounds or the soap, is said to remedy the defect, and to make a hard and sound soap out of what would otherwise be too soft for economical use. 3. HARD SOAP WITH LARD. Sal-soda and lard, of each six pounds; stone lime three pounds; soft water, four gallons; dissolve the lime and soda in the water, by boiling, stirring, settling and pouring off; then return to the kettle (brass or copper) and add the lard and boil until it becomes soap; then pour into a dish or moulds, and when cold, cut it into bars and let it dry. 4. HARD SOAP FROM SOFT. Take seven pounds 'good soft soap; four pounds sal- soda; two ounces borax; one ounce hartshorn; one-half pound resin, to be dissolved in twenty-two quarts of water, and boiled about twenty minutes. Whale Oil Soap. F'or the destruction of insects: render common lye castic, by boiling it at full strength on quick-lime; then take the lye and boil it with as much whale oil foot as it will change to soap; pour off into moulds, and, when cold, it is tolerably hard. Whale oil foot is the sediment produced in refining whale oil. How to Test Soap. The value of boiled soaps of course depends greatly on the quality of the materials used. This accounts for the dif- ference in price and quality. The purest materials, such as clean tallow or pure oils, thoroughly saponified, yield the most valuable soaps, cost- ing more per pound, but they are cheaper in the end. A good soap is a perfectly neutral compound, and will in no case injure the most delicate fabrics. The simplest method of testing soap is by tasting. If it is sharp and biting on the tongue, there is an excess of alkali; but if it leaves no unpleasant sensation on the tongue, there is not the least dan- ger that it will rot or otherwise injure clothes in washing. Resin Soap. About fifteen per cent, of resin can be mixed with tallow without injuring the color and firmness of the soap. A larger proportion deteriorates the quality and produces an inferior soap. Some soap-makers melt the resin and tallow together before mixing; better make a separate soap of each, then mix and boil them together thor- oughly for half an hour, and strain through a sieve before filling the frames. Use only the lightest colored resin, if you would have light colored soap. 502 STANDARD RECEIPTS. HOW TO USE CEMENT. Quality of Sand. The sand should be clean, sharp and coarse. When the sand is mixed with loam the mortar will set comparatively slow, and the work will be comparatively weak. Fine sand, and espe- cially water- worn sand, delays the setting of cement, and deteriorates strength. Damp sand should not be mixed with dry cement, but the cement and sand should be mixed thoroughly and uniformly together, when both are dry, and no water should be applied until immediately before the mortar is wanted for use. Proportion of Sand. The larger the proportion of cement the stronger the work. One part of good cement to two parts of sand is allowable for ordinary work; but for cisterns, cellars, and work requir- ing special care, half and half is the better proportion. For floors, the cement should be increased toward the surface. "Water in Concrete. Use no more water in cement than abso- lutely necessary. Cement requires but a very small quantity of water in crystalizing. Merely dampening the material gives the best results. Any water in excess necessarily evaporates and leaves the hardened ce- ment comparatively weak and porous. Concrete in Water. Whenever concrete is used under water, care must be taken that the water is still. So say all English and American authorities. In laying cellar floors, or constructing cisterns or similar work, care must always be taken to avoid pressure of exterior water. Cement will not crystalize when disturbed by the force of currents, or pressure of water, but will resist currents and pressure after hardening only. In still water good cement will harden quicker than in air; and when kept in water will be stronger than when kept in air. Cements which harden especially quick in air ^are usually slow or worthless in water. Delay in Use. Do not permit the mortar to exhaust its setting properties by delaying its use when ready. Inferior cements only will remain standing in the mortar beds any length of time without serious injury. How to Put Down Concrete. When strong work is wanted, for cellar floors and all similar work, the concrete should be dampened and tamped down to place, with the back of a .spade, or better, with the end of a plank or rammer, then finished up with a trowel, thus leveling and compacting the work. Only persons ignorant of the business will STANDARD RECEIPTS. 503 lay a floor or walk with soft cement mortar. All artificial stone is made in a similar way to that described, and, when set, is strong and hard. Stone and Brick Work. In bnildings constructed of stone and brick, the best protection from dampness and decay, and also from the danger of cyclones, is a mortar of cement and coarse sand. The extra cost is inconsiderable and the increased value of the structure very great. Chimneys made in this manner never blow down, and cellars whose foundations are thus laid are always free from atmospheric mois- ture. Cement may also be mixed with lime mortar for plastering and other purposes to great advantage. Effect of Frost and Cold. At a temperature less than 60** F., all good cement sets slowly, though surely, but if allowed to freeze its value is seriously impaired. In cold weather or cold water do not fear to wait for your concrete to crystalize. Damage From Moisture. Good cement in bags or barrels is not injured by age, if carefull}' preserved from moisture. Lumps in bags or barrels of cement are caused by exposure to moisture. They prove the good quality of the cement. The Portland cement made at Warners, New York, is the strongest and best in the world. CIDER, VINEGAR, AND WINES. Cider, How to Make and Keep. Always choose perfectly ripe and sound hand-picked fruit. Apples that have lain any time on the ground contract an earthy taste, which will always be found in the cider. After sweating, and before being ground, wipe them dry, and if any are found bruised or rotten, put them in a heap by themselves for an in- ferior cider to make vinegar. Always use hair cloths, instead of straw, to place between the layers of pomice. The straw, when heated, gives a disagreeable taste to the cider. As the cider runs from the press let it pass through a hair sieve into a large open vessel, that will hold as much juice as can be expressed in a day. In a day and sometimes less the pomice will rise to the top, and in a short time grow very thick; when little white bubbles break through it, draw off the liquor by a spigot, placed about three inches from the bottom, so that the settlings may be left quietly behind. The cider must be drawn off into very clean, sweet casks, and closely 504 STANDARD RECEIPTS. watched. The moment the white bubbles before mentioned are per- ceived rising at the bung-hole, rack it again. When the fermentation is completeh' at an end, fill up the cask with cider, in all respects like that already contained in it, and binig it up tight; previous to which a tum- bler of sweet oil may be poured into the bung-hole. After cider is allowed to ferment until it has acquired the desired fla- vor, it should then be put into clean barrels prepared as follows: dip some strips of rags into melted sulphur, light and hang in the bung- hole and lay the bung loosel}' on the end of the rag. This is to allow the sulphur vapor to well fill the barrel. Tie up a half pint of nuistard seed in a coarse muslin rag and put into the barrel, then put your cider in. Now add a handful of isinglass which "fines" the cider, but does not keep it sweet. The above is the old fashioned way and will keep cider in the same condition as when put into the barrel, if kept in a cool place, for a year. The sulphur vapor checks the fermentation, and the sulphur in the mus- tard seed keeps it checked. Professional cider dealers are now using the bi-sulphite of lime instead of the mustard seed and sulphur vapor. The bi-sulphite of lime is what is sometimes sold as a ' 'preserving pow- der. ' ' It is only another form of using the sulphur. Another method is to add sugar, one and a half pounds of sugar to a gallon of cider and let it ferment. This makes a fermented, clear good cider, but sweet. It lasts sweet about six months if kept in a cool situation. If it is intended to bottle cider, it should first be examined, to see whether it is clear and sparkling. If not it should be clarified. The night before it is intended to be put in bottles, the bung should be taken out of the cask, and left so until the next day when it may be bottled, but not corked down until the day after, because if this is done at once, many of the bottles would break. The best corks and champagne bottles should be used. The bottled stock should be stored in a cool cellar, where the quality will be greatly improved by age. To Can Cider. Cider, if taken when first made, brought to boiling heat and canned, precisely as fruit is canned, will keep from year to year without any change of taste. Canned up in this waj^ in the fall, it may be kept a half dozen years or longer, as good as when first made. It is better that the cider be settled and poured off from the dregs, and when brought to boiling heat the scum that gathers on the surface taken off; but the only precaution necessary to preservation of the cider ^'tAl^bARb RECElf'tS. 505 is the sealing of it up air-tight when boiling hot. The juice of othei fruit can be preserved in the same way. To all tastes not already cor- rupted by strong drink, these unfermented juices are ver^^ delicious. The juice of the grape is better than wine a century old, and more healthy. To Keep Cider Sweet, i To one barrel of cider add one pound of mustard seed, two pounds of raisins, and one quarter pound of sticks, (bark) of cinnamon. 2. When fermentation commences in one barrel, draw off the liquor into another one; straining it through a flannel cloth. Put into the cider three-quarters of an ounce of oil of sassafrass, and the same of the oil of wintergreen; shake up well with a pint of alcohol. 3. Much of the excellence of cider depends upon the temperature at which the fermentation is conducted, and is a point greatly overlooked by manufacturers of this liquor. As soon as pressed from the fruit, it should be strained into sulphured casks and placed in a cool situation where the temperature does not exceed 50° F. If left in the heating sun much of the sugar is converted into vinegar by the absorption of at- mospheric oxygen, and thus the liquor becomes acid and rough. On the contrary', if the fermentation takes place in a cool situation the fla- vor and sweetness is retained. Cider Wine. Let new cider from sour apples ferment from one to three weeks, according to the weather. When it has worked fairlj^ well add to each gallon, one pound of white crushed sugar, and let the whole ferment until it possesses precisely the taste which it is desired should be permanent. In this condition pour out a quart of the cider and add for each gallon one-half ounce of sulphite; of lime, not sulphate. Stir the powder and cider until well mixed, and return the emulsion to the' fermenting liquid. Shake briskly and thoroughl}- for a few moments, and then let the cider settle. Fermentation will cease at once. When after a few days, the cider has become clear, draw off carefully, to avoid the sediment, and bottle. If loosely corked, which is better, it will be- come a sparkling cider wine, and may be kept indefinitely long. Cherry Wine. i. To make five pints of this wine, take fifteen pounds of cherries and two pounds of currants; bruise them together; mix with them two-thirds of the pits, and put the whole of the cherries, currants, and pits into a jug, with a quarter of a pound of sugar to every pint of juice. The jug must be quite full; cover the jug with vine- leaves, and put in a cool place, and let it stand until it has done work- 5o6 STANDARD RECEIPTS. ing, which takes three weeks; then cork and in two months time it may be bottled. 2. Gather the cherries when quite ripe. Pull them from their stems and press them through a hair sieve. To ever}' gallon of the liquor add two pounds of sugar, stir all together, and put it into a vessel that will just hold it. When it has done working cork it ^•ery close for three months, and then bottle it for use. Grape Wine. Take two quarts of grape juice, two quarts of water, four pounds of sugar. Extract the juice of the grape in any simple way; if only a few quarts are desired do it with a strainer and a pair of squeezers; if a larger quantity is desired, put the grapes into a cheese press, made particularly clean, putting on sufficient strength to extract the juice of a full hoop of grapes, being careful that none but perfect grapes are used, perfectly ripe and free from blemish. After the first pressing put a little water with the pulp and press a second time, using the juice of the second pressing with the water to be mixed with the clear grape juice. If only a few quarts are made place the wine as soon ks mixed into bottles, filling them even full and allow to stand in a warm place until it ferments, which will take about thirty-six hours; then remove the skum, cool and put into a dark, cool place. If a few gallons are desired place in a keg or stone jug; but whatever is used must be even full. After thorough working has taken place and the scum removed, bottle and cork tight. Currant "Wine. The currants should be fully ripe when picked; put them into a large tub, in which they should remain a day or two; then crush with the hands, unless you have a small patent wine press, but they should not be pressed too much, or the stems will be bruised, and impart a disagreeable taste to the juice. If the hands are used, put the crushed fruit, after the juice has been poured off, in a cloth or sack and press out the remaining juice. Put the juice back into the tub after cleansing it, where it should remain about three days, until the first stages of fermentation are over, and removing once or twice a day the scum arising to the top. Then put the juice in a vessel — a demijohn, keg, or barrel — of a size to suit the quantity made, atid to each quart of juice add three pounds of the best yellow sugar, and soft water sufficient to make a gallon. Thus, ten quarts of juice and thirty pounds of sugar will give you ten ga.llons of wine, and so on in proportion. Those who do not like sweet wine can reduce the quantity of sugar to two and a half, or who wish it STANDARD RECEIPTS. 507 very sweet, raise to three and a half pounds per gallon. The vessel must be full, and the bung or stopper left off until ferment- ation ceases, which will be in twelve or fifteen days. Meanwhile, the cask must be filled up daily with currant juice left over, as fermentation throws out the impure matter. When fermentation ceases, rack the wine off carefully, either from the spiggot or by a syphon, and keep running all the time. Cleanse the cask thoroughly with boiling water, then return the wine, bung up tightly, and let it stand four or five months, when it will be fit to drink, and can be bottled if desired. All the vessels, casks, etc., should be perfectly sweet, and the whole operation should be done with an eye to cleanliness. In such event, every drop of brandy or other spirituous liquors added will detract from the flavor of the wine, and will not, in the least degree, increase its keeping qualities. Currant wine made in this way will keep for an age. Ginger Pop. i. Crushed white sugar, twenty-eight pounds; water, thirty gallons; yeast, one pint; powdered ginger, one pound; essence of lemon, one-half ounce; essence of cloves, one-quarter ounce. On the ginger pour half a gallon of boiling water and let it stand twenty min- utes. Dissolve the sugar in two gallons of water, pour both into a barrel half filled with cold water, then add the essence and the yeast; let it stand for half an hour, then fill up with cold water. I,et it fer- ment over night, then bottle. 2. One and a half ounces of the best ground Jamaica ginger, one ounce of cream of tartar, one pound of sugar, and two sliced lemons; to which add four quarts of boiling water; and one-half pint of yeast; let it work for twenty-four hours; strain and bottle it. In a week or two it will be ready for use. ^ 3. Water, five and a half gallons; bruised ginger root, one quarter pound; tartaric acid, one-half ounce; white .sugar, two and one-half pounds; whites of three eggs, well beaten; lemon oil, one tea-.spoonf ul ; yeast, one gill. Boil the root for half an hour in a gallon of water; strain and put the oil in while hot ; mix. L,et stand over night, and in the morning skim and bottle. Vinegar. Good cider vinegar is made by placing the cider in a keg, barrel, or hogshead in a warm dry place, leaving the bung out till it has acquired the required taste. Vinegar will lose after once reaching its greatest strength if left to the open air, and therefore as soon as the cider has changed to vinegar of the required strength, the bung should be placed in the keg or barrel. JoS STANDARD RECEIPTS. MISCELLANEOUS. Sweaty Feet. A very good cure for the offensive odor of sweaty feet can be made by mixing one-half dram of saHcyHc acid, one ounce of oxide of zinc, and one ounce of lycopodium. Dust 3'our feet with it several times a day. Hair Falling Out. A good wash for the hair, to prevent it from falling out, is made by mixing one tea-spoonful of salt, thirty grains of quinine and a pint of common whiskey or bay rum. Rub the hair thor- oughly every night. Healing" Cream. This is a good cream, made expressly for rough and dry skins. 1 ounce Spermaceti, 1 ounce White Wax, 1 ounce Olive Oil, 1 table-spoonful Honey. Melt the ingredients and beat them to a cream. Chapped Hands. The nicest preparation for chapped hands is composed of quince seed and whisky. There is no rule as to propor- tion. Put the seeds in a bottle and pour in enough whisky to cover them. As this thickens add more whisky until it is of the right con- sistency. This healing preparation is far superior to glycerine, as it dries off quickly and leaves a most agreeable odor. 1 part Glycerine, 4 parts Pond's Extract of Witch Hazel, 4 parts Water. Put in a bottle and shake well; it is ready for use immediately. It is well to shake thoroughly each time of using. Earache. Ground black pepper placed in a piece of cotton wool and put in the ear (so that no pepper can touch the ear) will often cure severe earache. Tooth-Wash. A good antiseptic tooth-wash may be made of the following: 1 dram Glycerine of Borax, 1 pint Water. Brush the teeth after each meal and just before retiring at night. Tooth Powder. Mix thoroughly equal parts of pulverized borax and orris root, and a little precipitated chalk; a drop or so of rose oil will perfume the powder. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 509 To Remove Tan. A wash for removing tan, and which also makes the skin look fresh is composed as follows: 3 ounces Rosewater. 1 table-spoonful Tincture of Benzoin. Apply to the face after exposure and before washing. Black-Heads. These are caused by inactivity of the skin. In ad- dition to the following, thoughly rub the face with a coarse towel three times a day. 2 drams Lac Sulphur, 1 dram Spirits of Camphor, J ounce Glycerine, 4 ounces Rose Water, First expel the black-heads with a watch key or small tube, then bathe your face with hot water at bed-time, dry thoughly and apply the lotion, leaving it on all night. To Mend Rubber. Dissolve some small pieces of pure rubber, (not valcanized) in warm spirits of turpentine, till as thick as syrup. This forms the liquid cement or liquid rubber which is to hold on the patch. Cut the patch the required size, then with sharp sand paper thoroughly rub both the patch and the boot or shoe. Smear both with the liquid rubber four or five times, each time letting it dry. Then once more cover each with the liquid rubber, and immediately put the patch in place, press downward and see that the edges are well fastened. When dry the article is as waterproof as ever. To Keep Chimneys From Cracking. Put the chimneys into a kettle of cold water or oil and gradually heat till it boils, then let it gradually cool. The chimneys thus treated will not break from the effects of the heat. Weeds in Garden Walks. Put one ounce of pure carbolic acid in eight gallons of water, and apply this solution with a sprinkling pot to the garden or yard walks. This is an effectual method of pre- venting the growth of weeds. Do not apply any stronger than here in- dicated as carbolic acid is a virulent poison, and it might destroy plants outside the walk. In this weak state it will only destroy the smaller plants and the insects around the walk. Black Boards. To make black boards equal to those coated by the patent slating, follow these directions. Take enough shellac varnish to cover the required surface, and add lamp black to color, and a small quantity of the flour of emery to give 5IO STANDARD RECEIPTS. the surface a fine "tooth" to take hold of the chalk. If adding the lamp-black and emery makes it too thick, thin with alcohol. Do not let .this stand in an open can as it will soon evaporate. This is good for slating the inside covers of children's .school books, making them equal to slates. The surface can be written on with a slate-pencil and erased the same as from an ordinary slate. Chimney on Fire. Those who burn wood find that the sides of their chimneys are often covered with soot. This is almost pure carbon and when ignited it forms a very fierce fire. The chimney often takes fire during very dry times and endangers the building. To extinguish the fire, close all the doors and windows and throw a a few handfuls of salt in the stove or fire-place. Salt in burning gives off a gas, charged with chlorine, in which no fire can burn. Remember the salt must be put on a fire, to generate this gas; therefore do not put out your fire in the stove or grate, instead of putting it out, put on the salt and open the draughts. Marking Sheep. Lampblack mixed with strong vinegar will make a paint for marking sheep that will not injure the wool and will last a year. To Keep the Ice-Box Sweet. Keep a small dish of charcoal on one of the upper shelves of the refrigerator, as it is an excellent absorb- ent of odors. It should be changed every few days. To Keep Sweet Potatoes. The chief requisite in keeping dur- ing the winter, sweet potatoes, is to place them where they will be per- fectly dry and not come in contact with each other. To accomplish this pack in chaff, placing the tubers in barrels or boxes. Place these boxes in the attic over the kitchen. There they will remain dry. If chaff is not handy they can be packed in dry sand, or, if neither sand nor chaff is available, wrap each potato in two or three thicknesses of newspaper and place in barrels or boxes perfectly free from moisture. Treated thus they will keep perfectly until spring. If no atttic is to be had, any dry well- ventilated room that does not freeze will answer. China Cement. To mend broken china or glass-ware, soak two drams of cut isinglass in two ounces of water for twenty- four hours; boil down to one ounce, add one ounce of spirit of wine and strain through linen. Mix this while hot, with a solution of one dram mastic in one ounce of alcohol, and mix thoroughly with half a dram of powdered gum ammonia. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 51I lyCngih of Nails. This table is very convenient in estimating the amount of nails required to do a certain piece of work, and the size required. A 3-penny najl is i inch long and there are 550 in a pound. A 4-penny nail is i >^ inches long and there are 350 in a pound. A 5-penny nail is i ^ inches long and there are 230 in a pound. A 6-penny nail is 2 inches long and there are 165 in a pound. A 7-penny nail is 2^ inches long and there are 140 in a pound. An 8-penny nail is 2^ inches long and there are 1 10 in a pound. A lo-penny nail is 2^ inches long and there are 96 in a pound. A i2-penny nail is 3 inches long and there are 55 in a pound. A 20-penny nail is 3>^ inches long and there are 35 in a pound. There are 16 spikes in a pound, 4 inches long. There are 12 spikes in a pound, 4^ inches long. There are 10 spikes in a pound, 5 inches long. There are 7 spikes in a pound, 6 inches long. If a board fence is four boards high and there are six nails in each board, it will take take tw^enty-four nails for each panel. If lo-penn}'- nails are used a pound of nails will build four panels of fence, &c. , &c. To Clean Rusty Plows. Take a quart of water and pour slow- ly into it half a pint of sulphuric acid. (The mixture will become quite warm from chemical action, and this is the reason why the acid should be poured slowly into the water, rather than the water into the acid). Wash the mould-board (or any other iron that is rusty) with this weak acid, and let it remain on the iron until it dries. Then wash once more. Give time for the acid to dissolve the rust. Then wash with water, and where the worst rusty spots are, apply some more acid, and rub those spots with a brick. The acid and the scouring will remove most of the rust. Then wash the mould-board thoroughly with water to remove the acid, and rub it dry. Brush it over with petroleum or other oil, or lard and resin as just recommended, if it is not to be immediately used. When you go to plowing, take a bottle of the acid water to the field and apply it frequently to any spot of rust that may remain. The acid and the scouring of the earth will soon make it bright and clean. How to I/OOSen Nuts. When nuts and screws have become fast from rust, pour on them a little kerosene, and wait a few minutes un- til it becomes soaked with the liquid. When this is done they can be easily started and the bolt saved. 512 STANDARD RECEIPTS. Concrete Door-Steps. Make a box at the door where the steps are wanted just the size and shape of the required steps. Then mix up coarse gravel or Portland cement and make a mortar or concrete, mix- ing in cobble-stones, and fill the boxes or molds. After a time remove the moulds, and place boards on the steps for people to walk over till the concrete has thoroughly hardened. If rightly made, these cement steps will remain hard and perfect, and neither the frost nor weather will injure them. They should be made in the spring of the year, so that they can have the summer and fall to harden in. To Mix Mortar. Take four parts coarse and three parts fine sand, with one part of quick-lime, mix well, using but little water. This makes mortar which soon becomes as hard as adamant; resisting all atmospheric action as durably as the material it unites; and with the addition of a portion of manganese, it will harden under water. To Keep Cellars from Freezing. A good plan to keep out the frost is to take either old newspapers or coarse brown paper, and with a strong size, paste them four or five thicknesses thoroughly to the stone walls of the cellar and to the bare timbers overhead, leaving an air space between them and the floor. It will not be necessary to press the paper down into all the depressions of the wall; every air space is an additional defense against the cold. If this plan is adopted and carefully executed the cellar will be frost-proof, even if it is left unbanked. Iron and Steel Kept from Rusting-. A coating of three parts lard and one part resin, applied to tools of iron or steel, will effectually prevent rust. To Preserve Shingles. Take a potash kettle, or large tub, and put into it one barrel of l3'e of wood ashes, five pounds of white vitrol, five pounds of alum, and as much salt as will dissolve in the mixture. Make the liquor quite warm, and put as many shingles in it as can be wet at once. Stir them up with a fork, and, when well soaked, take them out and put in more, renewing the liquor as necessary. Then laj^ the shingles in the usual manner. After they are laid, take the liquor that was left, put lime enough in it to make whitewash, and, if any col- oring is desirable, add ochre, Spanish brown, lamp-black, etc., and ap- ply to the roof with a brush or an old broom. This may be renew- ed from time to time. Salt and lye are preservatives of wood. It is well known that leach tubs, troughs, and other articles used in the man- ufacture of potash, never rot. They become saturated wdtli the alkali, turn yellowish inside, and remain impervious to the weather. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 513 Shingles Made Fire-Proof. A wash composed of lime, salt, and fine sand or \Yood ashes, put on in the ordinary way of whitewashing, renders the roof much more secure against taking fire from falling cin- ders, in case of fire in the vicinity. It pays the expense a hundred fold in its preser\-ing influence against the effects of the weather. The older and more weather-beaten the shingles, the more benefit derived. Such shingles generally become more or less warped, rough and cracked; the application of the wash, by wetting the upper surface, restores them at once to their original or first form, thereby closing up the space between the shingles, and the lime and .sand, by filling up the cracks and pores in the shingle itself, prevents its warping. Keeping the Moth from Furs. Darkness is all that is neces- sar3\ The "miller," the eggs from which moths are hatched, only moves in the light; the moths themselves work in darkness. Hang the furs in a very dark closet and keep ths doors shut; keep it always dark, and you can have no trouble. But, as closet doors are sometimes left open, the better way is to enclose the articles in a paper, put this in a pillow-case, or wrap around a cloth, and hang it up in a dark closet. Camphor may be placed in the bag as a preventive. Do not take out the furs in June or July to give them an "airing," for then comes the enemy, and it ma}^ be that, in fifteen minutes after exposure, it has de- posited a hundred eggs. If you consider an airing indispensable, give the furs a good switching, and put them quickly back. Remedy for Chafing. Among the annoyances to which fleshy per- sons are subject in hot weather, especially if they walk much, is chafing in those parts where the flesh rubs together or folds. Nothing is better, as a remedy and also as a preventive, than a solution of alum in water. It should be applied with a soft rag at night, before retiring. A piece of alum as large as a hazel nut, dissolved in half a pint of water is sufficient. It will quickly heal and harden the tender skin. In-Growing Toe-Nails. This most painful of the diseases of the nails is caused by the improper manner of cutting the nail (generally of the great toe), and then wearing a narrow, badly-made shoe. The nail being too long, and rather wide at the corners, is often trimmed around the corner, which gives temporary relief. But it then begins to grow wider in the side where it was cut off; and, as the shoe presses the flesh against the corner, the nail cuts more and more into the raw flesh, v;hich becomes excessively tender aud irritable. If this state continues long, the toe becomes more and more painful and ulcerated, and "proud 5 14 STANDARD RECEIPTS. flesh' ' sprouts up from the sorest points. Walking greatly increases the suffering, till positive rest is absolutely necessary. Begin the effort at cure by simple application to the tender part of a small quantity of perchloride of iron. It is found in drug stores in a fluid form, though sometimes in powder. There is immediately a moderate sensation of pain, constriction, or burning. In a few minutes the tender surface is felt to be dried up, tanned, or mummified, and it ceases to be painful. The patient, who before could not put his foot to the floor, now finds that he can walk upon it without pain. By permitting the hardened, wood like flesh to remain for two or three weeks, it can be easily removed by .soaking the foot in warm water. A new and healthy structure is found, firm and solid, below. If thereafter the nails be no more cut around the corners or sides, but always curved in acro.ss the front end, they will in future grow only straight forwards; and by w^ear- ing a shoe of reasonably good size and shape, all further trouble will be avoided. Another method is with a knife, or a piece of glass, scrape the centre of the nail until it becomes almost as thin as the thinnest paper; then cut the nail in the form of a crescent, the convex side being inward. This will compel the sides of the nail to grow outward in the natural way. To Stop I/Caks Around Chimneys. These may be stopped by applying a paste made of tar and dry, sifted road dust. The paste should be lapped over the shingles to form a collar, so as to carry off the water that flows down the side of the chimney. To Keep Out Strong Sunlight. If there is a window in a stable, outhouse, or kitchen, .so situated that the sun's rays in passing into the building is annoying, the glass can be made to keep out the direct rays, as well as if the sash was filled with ground glass, as follows: pound gum tragacanth to a powder, and put it, for twenty-four hours to dis- solve in white of eggs, well beaten. Lay a coat of this on your glass and let dry. Fireproof Wash for Roofs. Slack lime in a barrel which .should be kept covered, and when slacked and thoroughly cold pass through a fine sieve. To every six quarts of this lime add one quart of rock salt and one gallon of water. After this boil and skim clean. To every five gallons of this add, by slow degrees, three-quarters or a pound of potash and four quarts of fine sand. Coloring matter may be added if desired. Apyly with a j^aint or whitewash brush. The wash looks as good as STANDARD RECEIPTS. 515 paint and is almost as durable as slate. It will stop small leaks in a roof, prevent the moss from growing over it, and render it incombus- tible from sparks which might fall upon it. When applied to brick work, it renders the brick waterproof; it lasts as long as pahit, and the expense is a mere trifle. Moss on Roofs. Moss should never be allowed to gather on the roofs of buildings. Shingles will rot fast enough from the moisture held by themselves without aid from that retained by the moss. To re- move, .sprinkle .some fine lime upon the shingles just before a rain, and the moss will 1:)e taken off almost clean. Repeat the lime if necessary just before the next .shower. Awning-s and Tents Made Mildew Proof. As mildew is a plant living at expense of other matter, its prevention requires some- thing destructive to vegetable life, and a kind of varnish to close the pores of the texture of the linen awning, to protect it against the chem- ical influences of the atmosphere and the penetration of the fine root fil- aments of the fungus which has great vitality. Different varni.shes will answer the purpose. It is best first to moisten the linen with a .solution of ar.seniate of potash, which has the special property of preventing or- ganic changes. After drjdng, put on a benzin.e varnish. Carbolic acid has the .same effect, when the cloth is steeped in it; but it may discolor the canvas, and it may be washed out by repeated rains. To Soften Putty. To remo\-e old putty from broken windows, dip a brush or swab in nitric and muriatic acid equal parts, or caustic soda (concentrated lye ) and paint over the dry putty that is fastened to the sash or glass and in an hour the putty will have become so .soft as to be ea.sily removable. To Kill Thistles. Cut the thistles to the ground and cover the fresh cuts with salt. Old brine from the pork, beef, or fi.sh barrel may be used if desired. Offensive Breath. Scarcely anything is more disagreeable or dis- gusting than a stinking breath. Various means have been propo.sed to remove this annoyance, depending principally upon the administration of aromatics, which by their odor might smother it for a time; but these require continual repetition and are liable to interfere with the organs of digestion. The real cause of a stinking breath is either a diseased stomach or carious teeth; when the former is the case, aperients should be administered; and if these do not succeed, an emetic may be given, followed by a dose of salts, or castor oil occasionally. When rotten 5l6 STANDARD RECEIPTS. teeth are the cause, they should be removed; or if this be impossible, they should be kept clean. Dirty teeth often cause the breath to smelL The use of tooth powder should be a daily habit. From six to ten drops of the concentrated solution of chloride of soda, in a wine glassful of spring water, taken before breakfast each morning, will instantly sweeten the breath by disinfecting the stomach. If nec- essary this may be repeated in the middle of the day. In some cases the odor arising from decayed teeth is combined with that of the stom- ach. If the month is well rinsed with a teaspoonful of the solution of the chloride in a tumbler of water, the bad odor of the teeth will often- times be removed. Honing a Ra2jor. L,et the hone be seldom and but sparingly used, and never, unless by frequent and repeated stropping the edge of the razor, is entirely destroyed; use the best oil and be careful to preserve the hone clean and free from dust. Previous to the operation of shav- ing, it will be found of serv-ice, particularly to those who have a strong beard and a tender skin, to wash the face well with soap and water, and the more time is spent in lathering and moistening the beard, the easier will the process of shaving become. Dip the razor in hot water before applying it to the face; use the razor nearly flat, always taking care to give it a cutting instead of a scraping direction. Strop the razor imme- diately after using it, for the purpose of effectually removing any mois- ture that may remain upon the edge, and be careful not to employ a common strop, as the composition with which they are covered is inva- riably of a very inferior quality, and injurious to a razor. The strop should always be of the best manufacture, and when the composition is worn off, it will be found particularly useful to rub it over, lightly, with a little clean tallow, and then put upon it the top part of the snuff of a candle, which being a fine powder, will admirably supply the place of the best composition ever used for the purpose. Washing Stable Blankets. This preparation will be found as useful in the family washing as in cleansing stable clothing. There is nothing that will injure the clothing if directions are followed. This may take the place of the popular Javelle water. Take a quarter of a pound of soap, a quarter of a pound of soda, and a quarter of a pound of lime. Cut up the soap, and dissolve it in one quart of boiling water; pour one quart of boiHng water over the soda, and three quarts of boil- ing water upon the quick-lime. The lime must be quick and fresh; if it is good, it will bubble up on pouring the hot water upon it. Kach must STANDARD RKCRIPTS. 517 be prepared in separate vessels. The lime must settle so as to leave the water ou the top perfectly clear; then strain it carefully (not disturbing the settlings} into the wash-boiler with the soda and soap; then add six gallons of soap ^vater. They must be put in soak over night, after rub- bing soap upon the dirtiest parts of them. After having the above iu readiness, wring out the clothes which have been put in soak, put them on to boil, and let each lot boil half an hour; the same water will answer for the whole washing. After boiling each lot half an hour, drain them from the boiling water, put them in a tub, and ])our upon them two or three pailfuls of clear, hot water; after this they will want but very little rubbing; then rinse through two waters. New Washing- Soda. It has been found that the hyposulphite of soda, which is now manufactured very cheapl}', for the use of photo- graphers, is much better than the common washing soda to wash delicate objects. It attacks neither the skin of the hands nor the objects to be washed, as does the common soda; and at the same time it is an effective bleaching agent, and takes out nian}^ spots better than any other sub- stance. Tender Feet. Wear woolen socks or stockings, and change them frequently. Bathe both your feet and lower limbs in a solution of com- mon salt, a pound of salt to a gallon of water. When spring water is used, add a table-spoonful of carbonate of soda to every pint of water. Use boots or shoes with soft leather uppers, and soles not too thin. Blistered Feet. To cure blistered feet from long walking, rub the feet, on going to bed, with alcohol mixed with tallow. Frost- Bitten Feet. To relieve the intense itching of frost-bitten feet, dissolve a lump of alum in a little water, and bathe the part with it, warming it before the fire. One or two applications are sure to give relief. Cold Feet at Bed-Time. Draw off the stocking, just before un- dressing, and rub the ankles and feet with the hand as hard as can be borne for five or ten minutes. This will diffuse a pleasurable glow, and those who do so will never have to complain of cold feet in bed. Fre- quent washing and rubbing them thoroughly dry with a linen cloth or flannel, is useful for the same purpose. Ink Indicator. Fill one two-ounce bottle with a .saturated solution of oxalic acid, (as much as the water will dissolve) and another with a saturated solution of chloride of lime; label each, then with a little glass rod or wood tooth-pick with smooth end, apply a little of the acid to a 5l8 STANDARD RECEIPTS. blot or ink mark, gently rubbing till the ink is solved; blot the paper; then appl}- in the same way with a separate rod a little of the chloride of lime solution; then a little more of the acid; blot; repeat if necessary. Golden Healer. Melt eight ounces yellow ])eeswax with one pound lard, o\er hot water, and then stir in one oiince camphor gum, till it is dissolved, cool till the hand can be borne on jmn, and then thoroughly stir in one ounce oil organum, and one ounce laudaniun, till all is free from lumps. Keep in covered tin boxes. This makes a very soothing application for wounds and burns. To Prepare and Pickle Tripe. First turn the "pouch" inside out, then sew it up tight, so that no lime can get into it. Have a tub of lime-water as thick as good thick white-wash; let it remain in this from ten to twenty minutes, or until the dark outside skin \vill come off; then put it into clean water, changing three or four times to weaken the lime, so that the hands will not be injured by it; then with a dull knife scrape off all of the dull surface, and continue to soak and scrape several times, which will remove all offensive substances and smell. After this, let it soak twenty or thirty minutes in two or three hot waters, scraping over each time; then pickle in salt and water twelve hours, and it is ready for cooking; boil from three to four hours, cut in strips to suit, and put it into nice vinegar with the various spices, as desired; renew the vinegar at the expiration of one week, and when thoroughly pickled it is ready for use. Grinding- Tools. More than one-half of the wear and tear, and breakage ana bother of dull tools comes from a lack of proper knowledge and practice in grinding. All fine steel is composed of individual fibres laid lengthwise in the bar, held firmly together by cohesion; and in almost all farm implements of the cutting kind the steel portion which forms the edge, if from a section of a bar, is laid in welded to the bar lengthwise, so that it is the side of the bundle of fil)res hammered and ground down that forms the edge. Hence, by holding on the grind- stone all edge-tools, as axes, drawing-knives, knives of reapers, scythes, knives of straw-cutters, etc. , in such a manner that the action of the stone is at right angles with the plane of the edge, or, in plainer words, hold the edge of the tools square across the stone, and the sides will l^e ground .so as to present the ends instead of the side as a cutting edge. By grinding in this manner a finer, smoother edge is set, the tool is ground in less time, holds on edge much longer, and is less liable to nick out or break. STANDARD RECEIPTS. 519 Prepared Fire Kindler. Take one ciuart tar, three pounds resin; melt them; when cool add one gill spirits of turpentine, and mix as much sawdust, with a little charcoal, as can be worked in; spread out while hot on a board; when cold break up in small lumps about the size of hickory nuts. They will ignite with a match and burn with a strong blaze long enough to start the dry wood used as kindlings. To Make Canvass Water-Proof. It is convenient to have a large canvass to throw over a load of furniture or other material that rain would spoil. To make such a canvass water-proof is very easily done. Use: 4 pounds Wliite Lead. 1 jiint Turpentine. ^ ounce White Vitriol, i ounce Sugar of I' length of time. Dead Black Stove-Pipe Varnish. Asphaltum, one pound; lamp-black, one-quarter pound; resin, one-half pound; spirits of turpen- tine, one quart. Dissolve the asphaltum and resin in the turpentine; then rub up the lamp-black with linseed-oil, only sufficient to form a paste, and mix with the others. Apply with a brush. This is also excellent for coal -hods. How to Make Sauerkraut. I^et the barrel to be u.sed be thor- oughly .scalded out; the cutter, the tul) and the stamper also well scalded. Take off all the outer leaves and halve the cabbages, remove the heart STANDARD RECEIPTS. 525 and proceed with the cutting. Lay some clean leaves at the bottom of the barrel, sprinkle with a handful of salt, fill in half a bushel of cut cabbage, stamp gently until the juice makes its appearance, then add another handful of salt, and so on until the barrel is full. Cov^er over with cabbage leaves, place on top a clean board fitting the space pretty well, and on top of that a stone weighing tweh'e or fifteen pounds. Stand away in a cool place, and when hard freezing comes on remove to the cellar. It will be ready for use in from four to six weeks. Elderberry Ink. Place in an earthen vessel some bruised elder- berries and keep in a warm place for three days, then press and filter. The filtered juice is of such an intense dark color that it takes two hun- dred parts of water to reduce it to the shade of dark red wine. Add to ten quarts of this filtered juice one ounce of sulphate of iron,' and the same quantity of crude pyroligneous acid. The ink when first used has a violet color, but when dry is indigo-blue black. Black Ink. Take one-half pound of the dry extract of logwood, and dissolve in one gallon of water. To this add one-quarter ounce of the bi-chromate of potash. The result is a beautiful blue-black ink. This ink should not be allowed to freeze, as freezing will ruin the color. If it flows too freely add a little sugar. Ink Powder, i. Sulphate of copper, one dram; gum Arabic, one- quarter ounce; copperas, one ounce; nutgalls and extract of logwood, fotir ounces each; all to be pulverized and evenly mixed. 2. Sulphate of iron, two ounces; galls, five ounces; gum Arabic, one ounce. Reduce to a powder and divide into one ounce papers, each of which will make one-half pint of ink. 3. Aleppo galls, three pounds; copperas (dry but not calcined,) one pound; gum Arabic, six ounces; white sugar, two ounces; all in pow- der; mix. One pint of boiling water poured on two ounces makes a pint of ink. Japan, or Glossy Ink. In six quarts of water boil four ounces of log^vood in chips cut very thin. Boil for nearly an hour, adding from time to time a little boiling water to compensate for waste by evapora- tion. Strain the liquor while hot; allow it to cool, and make up the quantity equal to five quarts by the addition of cold water. To this add one pound of blue galls coarsely bruised, or one-quarter pound of the best galls in sorts, four ounces of sulphate of iron calcined to whiteness, one-half ounce of acetate of copper, previously mixed with a little of the liquid till it forms a smooth paste, three ounces of poarse sugar, and six 526 STANDARD RECEIPTS. ounces of gum Arabic. Add these ingredients one after another, having the previous ingredient thoroughly dissolved before adding the next. The composition produces the ink usuall}' called Japan ink, from the high gloss which it exhiliits when written with. Blackberry Cordial. To one gallon of blackberry juice add four pounds of white sugar; boil and skim off, then add one ounce of cloves, one ounce of cinnamon, ten grated nutmegs, and boil down till quite rich; then let it cool and settle, afterward drain off, and add one pint of good brandy or whisk}'. Ging"er Cordial. Pick one pound of large white currants from their stalks, lay them in a basin, and strew over them the rind of an orange and a lemon cut very thin, or half a teaspoonful of essence of lemon, and one ounce and a half of the best ground ginger and a quart of good whisky. Let all lie for twenty- four hours. If it tastes strong of the ginger, then strain it; if not, let it lie for twelve hours longer. To every quart of strained juice add one pound of loaf sugar pounded; when the sugar is quite dissolved and the cordial appears clear, bottle it. This cordial is also good made with raspberries instead of currants. Strawberry, or Raspberry Cordial. Sugar down the berries over night, using more sugar than you would for the table, about half as much again. In the morning lay them in a hair sieve over a basin; let them remain until evening, so as to thoroughly drain; then put the juice in a thick flannel bag; let it drain all night, being careful not to squeeze it, as that takes out the brightness and clearness. All this should be done in a cool cellar, or it will be apt to sour. Add brandy in proportion of one-third the quantity of juice, and as much more sugar as the taste demands. Bottle it tightly. It will keep six or eight years, and is better at last than at first. How to Test the Richness of Milk. Procure any long glass cologne bottle or long phial. Take a narrow strip of paper, just the length from the neck to the bottom of the phial, and mark it off with one hundred lines at equal distances; or, if more convenient, and to ob- tain greater exactness, into fifty lines, and count each as two, and pa.ste it upon the phial, so as to divide its length into a hundred ecjual parts. Fill it to the highest mark with milk fresh from the cow, and allow it to stand in a perpendicular position for twenty-four hours. The number of spaces occupied by cream will give you its exact percentage in the milk, without any guess work. If you wish to carry the experiment further, and ascertain the per STANDARD RitCElPTS. 527 centage of butter, set the milk in a large dish, and collect say one hun- dred or two hundred ounces of cream; make your butter in the cream and ascertain the number of ounces of butter you have made. Thus if two hundred ounces of milk produces ten ounces of cream, and ten ounces of cream produces four ounces of butter, it is evident that two hundred ounces of milk will produce four ounces of butter. Good Milk. Milk is a fluid of white, yellowish-white, or bluish- white color, consisting largely of water, and holding in solution or sus- pension butter, sugar of milk, caseine, and certain salts. These sub- stances are found in all unadulterated milk in constant proportions, ex- cept in cases of milk of diseased cows. The sum of the solids, however, varies with the feed, stock and condition of the animal; it should never fall below tweh^e per cent., ranging generalh- between twelve and fifteen percent., the rest being water. The composition may be assumed as follows : ■ Butter - - - - - - 3.60 to 4.8 per cent. Caseine - ... - 2. 80 to 4.2 percent. Sugar of milk - - - - - 4.2 to 4.5 per cent. Salts - - - - - - 0.6 to o.S per cent. Total solids _ - - - 12.2 14.3 There are cases where the solids will rise as high as sixteen and .sev- enteen per cent. ; the butter as high as nine per cent. ; but such milk is never found in the market, being consumed altogether by the owners of the animals. On the other hand, there may be found milk, as in fresh milch cows, where the solids will go down to ten per cent., the butter to three per cent. ; these are the extreme limits, below^ which examine for adulteration. Milk, To Tell When Adulterated. The cheapest and easiest method of adulterating milk is by adding water, and we may readil)' ascertain the exact extent of adulteration by the following plan. If a glass tube, divided into one hundred parts, be filled W'ith milk and left standing for twenty-four hours, the cream will rise to the upper part of the tube, and occupy from eleven to thirteen divisions, if the milk is genuine. Dandruflf. i . Dandruff may be caused bj' wearing close and heavy hats and caps, by the application of oils or dyes to the hair, by confining the hair too closely to the head, bj- excessive brain-labor, by uncleanliness, or by all these causes combined. To effect a cure, wear the hair short, 528 . STANDARD RECEIPTS. let the heacl-<;overing be as light and well-ventilated as possible, avoid all applications of grease or dj-es, exercise the brain less and the body more, and wash the head thoronghl}' two or three times a day in cold water, and fol-ow each washing by a vigorous rubbing with the balls of the fingers. The better the general health is and the stronger the digestion, the less tendency there will be to this disease, as well as to all others. 2. Take carbolic acid, one-half dram; oil of bergamont one dram; glycerine, two ounces; mix; rub thoroughl}' into the root of the hair, and appl}' bay rum freely afterwards; one application will cleanse the hair and scalp as clean as they can be desired. Its use once a week will keep the hair soft and glossy, and will prevent dandruff from forming, besides keeping the scalp healthy and cool. 3. Take a thimbleful of powdered refined borax, let it dissolve in a teacupful of water, first brUvSh the head well, then wet a brush and apply it to the head. Do this every day for a week, and twice a week for a few times, and you will effectually remove the dandruff. To Kill Horse and Sheep Sorrel. This field pest may be erad- icated by the judicious application of either lime or ashes. The souring principle of sorrel is oxalic acid; if this be removed from the soil, sorrel can not grow. I,ime or potash unites with the oxalic acid, forming oxa- lite of lime or potash. These substances are sometimes called sweeten- ers of the soil, from their ability to remove acids from it. Sorrel will never grow on lime soil. Proud Flesh, i . To remove proud flesh put a little alum on the stove and let it melt and boil. As soon as it thoroughly dries, pulverize and put the powder on the part affected. 2. Pulverize loaf-sugar and apply the same as the "burnt" alum. Insects in the !^ar. Let the person lay his head upon a table, the side upwards that has the ear in which is the insect; at the same time let some friend carefully drop into the ear a little sweet oil, or oil of almonds. A drop or two will be sufficient. This will instantly des- troy the insect and remove the pain. Then syringe with warm water. To Extract Splinters. Thorns and splinters finding their way under the skin frequently give very severe pain, and unless removed the aimoyance may be very great, as inflammation will in all probability set in, which is the process nature adopts for getting rid of the cause of irritation. If the splinter or thorn can not be immediately removed (for which purpose a needle will be found in most cases a sufficient surgical STANDARD RECKIPTS. 529 instrument,) linen dipped in hot-water should be bound round the place, or the part bathed in hot water. If inflammation sets in and produces an ulcer, hot water should be applied, and afterwards a flaxseed poultice. To Make Your Umbrella I^ast. Most persons, when they come in from the rain, stand their umbrella.s with the handle upward. They should put it downward; because when the handle is upward the water runs down inside to the place where the ribs are joined to the han- dle, and can not get out, but stays rotting the cloth and rusting the metal until slowly dried away. The wire securing the ribs soon rusts and breaks. If placed the other end up, the water readily runs off, and the umbrella dries almost immediately. Don't Turn Down the I/amp. Many people who use" kerosene oil are in the habit of burning night-lamps, and turning them down as they would gas, not knowing how much mischief they thus do. When the light of the kerosene lamp is turned down low, the combustion is not perfect, and the atmosphere of the room becomes filled by gas pro- duced by partial combustion, and also little particles of smoke and soot thrown off, which are taken into the lungs of the occupants. Air thus poisoned is deadly in its effects, and it is injurious to breathe it. Its consequences are the mysterious headaches, sore throats and lungs, dizziness and nausea. To Split Wood. In splitting wood that has been sawed iuto pieces it is much easier to split b}- slabs than to try and split them through the centre. This means to split off pieces at a time, but a lit- tle from the edge. Wood splits more readily in the direction up from the roots of the tree, than when the blow of the ax is downward. In other words, to split a chunk place it upside down, (contrary to the di- rection in which it grew) before .striking at it. Mildew in Wheat. Dissolve three ounces and two drams of sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, in four gallons of cold water, for every three bushels that is to be prepared. Into another vessel capable of containing from fifty to seventy gallons, throw from three to four bushels of wheat, into which tlie prepared liquid is poured, until it rises five or six inches above the grain. Stir it thoroughly and carefully re- move all that swims on the surface. After it has remained half an hour in the preparation, throw the wheat into a basket that will allow the water to escape, but not the grain. It ought then to be immediately washed in rain, or pure water, to prevent any risk of its injuring the 530 STANDARD RECEIPTS. germ, and afterwards the seed ought to be dried before it is put in the ground. It nia>- l)e preserved in this shape for months. I/itne Deposits in Boilers. Put into the cistern or tank, from which the boiler is fed, a sufficient amount of oak tan-bark, in the piece, to color the water rather dark; run four weeks and renew. This plan is much used, in the lime-stone sections of Ohio, giving general satis- faction. Sprained Ankle. Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt and water, which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of herbs. Keep the foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, and sit with it elevated on a cushion. Live on very low diet, and take every day some cooling medicine. To Make Drying^ Oil. A good drying linseed oil, prepared with- out the usual process of boiling. Mix with old linseed oil, the older you can get it the better, two per cent, of its weight of maganese borate, and heat this mixture on a water-bath, or, if >ou have to work with large quantities, with a steam-bath to ^00° F., or at most 110° F.; you thus obtain a very excellent, hght-colored, rapidly-drying oil; by keeping the mixture stirred, the drying property of the oil is greatly promoted. The rapidity of the drying of the oil after it has been mixed with paint, does not simpl}' depend upon the drying property of the oil, but, in a very great measure, upon the state of the atmosphere — viz., whether dry or moist, hot or cold; the direct action of sunlight, and the state of the sur- faces on which the paint is put. Really genuine boiled hnseed oil, if well prepared, leaves nothing to be desired as regards rapidity of drying, but it is retarded by various substances which are added in practice, among which, especially, oil of turpentine is injurious. Kerosene as Paint. This can be used to great advantage on a farm as a preserver of w'ood. It is not properly a paint. No coloring matter should ever be mixed wdth it. Ordinary linseed oil paint pre- serves wood by forming a coat that excludes the atmosphere from the pores. Kerosene penetrates the wood and excludes the air by filling up the pores. Old barns from which the paint is worn will be much improved by a liberal coat of petroleum. It can be put on with a whitewash brush. The point is to get on as much as the wood will absorb. It is better to go over the work rapidly and then the next day go over it again. For shingle roofs, new or old, nothing is better than kerosene. In making a new roof dip the shingles by the bunch in petroleum until saturated. FRUIT CULTURE. Directions for Budding and Grafting. DESCRIPTION AND HABITS OF THE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT AND HOW TO DESTROY THEM. ERUITS of all kinds are now rai.jed for pleasure and profit, upon the large areas of land as well as in the small garden. There is nothing that better rewards the patient, careful, industrious, per- G) son, for the time and labor spent than in caring for a large or small quantity of fruit bearing plants or trees. A knowledge of how to bud or graft is often desirable. If a neighbor or friend has some very choice variety of fruit and you take a fancy that you want to add that variety to your stock, through his kindness of giv- ing you a few buds or grafts, j'ou can change a tree bearing an unde- sirable variety to a more desirable one, and it will bear fruit in much less time than would a young tree procured of a nurseryman. It is only necessary to be handy with tools and careful and painstaking to be able to succeed at ordinary budding and grafting. A little practice and study will enable even the man of moderate intelli- gence to make a success of this work, thereby saving many dollars as well as improving the fruit upon his farm or garden. Then while lie is walking about his garden or farm, he may see numerous bugs, flies, caterpillars, and various winged insects. If he were acquainted with their habits, he would know whether or not they were enemies to his fruit, garden, or orchard. Through the kindness of the Department of Agriculture we have been enabled to give illustra- tions of many of the common enemies, and the best remedies for de- stroying them. 53' FRUIT CULTURE. Budding. This consists of separating a bud with its root, and a small portion of the bark and wood and in- serting it under the bark of another. The selection must be made from the growth of the season in which the bud- ding is done. In Maryland and Virginia or in the same lattitude budding may be done in June, and the buds will make considerable growth, but as the north is approach- ed the season for budding advances from the tenth of July to the fifteenth of September. Those varieties that mature their fruit early should be budded earlier than late varie- ties. The season for blinding extends over a period of about eight months. Buds can not be kept in good con- dition much over ten days, and even to keep them that length of time it is necessary to strip the shoots (on which are the buds) of their leaves and wrap the shoots in a damp cloth or moss as soon as cut, and then keeping them in a cool cellar among damp sawdust. The buds are found in the axils of the leaves, that is where the leaves are fastened to the stems, and to make budding a success there must in all cases be these condi- tions: 1. The buds must be perfectly developed. 2. The bark of the plant to be budded must be easily separated from its wood. The bud is cut from the shoots by commencing to cut the bark about one-half inch above the bud to 1)e removed, and cutting just deep enough to take a little FRUIT AND WOOD BUDS. of the wood THE INSERTION OF THE BUD. with the bud, so as to care* fully preserve the root of the bud, for if the root is de- stroyed, the bud is useless. The manner of cutting and preparing the stock for the reception of the bud is fully shown in the illustra- tions on this page. FRUIT CULTURE. 533 Select a smooth place on the stock to be budded, that is free from branches, and make two cuts, one across the branch, and the other commencing in the centre of the cross-cut, and running down the branch, forming a T. Carefully raise the bark on the upper corners of the cut running up and down the branch as shown in the illustration. For this do not use the cutting edge of the knife, but the smooth ivory handle of the pruning knife which is prepared for that purpose. Cut this bud square off at the top so as to fit the "cross-cut" and put in the bud as represented. Basswood fibres, or strips of corn-husks should be used to tie up the loose bark, leaving the bud and leaf-stalk uncovered. Grafting. This the most common way of producing a new variety of fruit upon a full or well grown tree. The method most commonly used is to saw oflf a limb, split it through the centre, and at the outside edge so place a wedge shaped scion, containing buds, that the inside edges of the bark will he in communication with each other. The inside edges of the bark must at some point meet, and to insure a juncture the scions are oftentimes slanted out a little, thereby insuring union at one ]x:)int at least. Care must be taken not to have the wedged shaped scion pinched too hard by the limb into which it has been placed. A wedge if necessary should be placed in the centre. Cover the cleft with grafting wax and all is ready for growth of new stock. On very small limbs it is often desirable to place only one scion, which may be done as represented in the drawing, and binding it with narrow bands of corn husks or wax. (A good graft- ing wax is made of four ounces of resin, two ounces of beeswax, and two ounces of beef tallow). The grafts may be cut any time in the mild weather of winter, and kept in moist sand in a cool place till needed. It is not well to attempt to graft a whole tree at once, as the pruning would be too severe. Only graft about one-third of the branches each year. one scion. GRAFTING WITH TWO SCIONS. 534 fRVit- CULfUR^. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLANTS. The Codling Moth. This annoying insect is found in nearl}^ all parts of the United States and Can- ada. The moths appear on the wing about the time that apple trees are in blossom, when the female moth de- posits her tiny yellow eggs on the calyx or eye of the blossom, just as the young apple is forming. It takes only a week for it to hatch, and im- mediately the little worm, beginning at the end opposite the stem, eats through the apple to the core. ^ There are two methods for reduc- ing the numbers of these worms. One is to keep a drove of hogs in the orchard. They will eat the fruit as soon as dropped, and the worm is destroj^ed. Another and more effect- ive remedy is to place cloths about ten inches wide around the. trunks of the trees, about six inches above the ground. These cloths should be examined every few days- and the larvae (worms) destroyed by pressure or dipping the cloths in hot water. Fasten the cloths about the trunk so that the upper edge is very tight around the tree and the lower edge hanging somewhat loo.se. This will give the worm a place to crawl under and form into a chry.salis. Rose Beetle. This insect is commonly known as the rose-bug, but has of late years developed an appetite for other plants be- sides the rose. It is very inju- rious to the grape-vine, the apple, the plum, the peach, and the cherry. As they are naturally sluggish, they can be gathered early in the morning, when ap- ROSE BUG. pearing in large numbers, by THE CODLING MOTH. a. Burrowings. b. Point of entrance. f. Moth with wings closed. g. Moth with wings extended, h . Head of worm. Full grown worm on the apple. FRUIT CULTURE. 535 placinj^ sheets on the ground and shaking the vine or tree. They must be put in boiling water, or placed in a keg and kerosene poured over them, the keg covered so they can not get out, and then set on fire. These pests make their appearance about the sec- ond week in June, the usual time for the blossoming of the rose. The Tent Caterpillar. This insect needs no description, since it is so familiar to every one who ever has owned an orchard, or even a single tree. The perfect insect is a night-flying moth, or miller, and while they are specially fond of the black cherry, they will feed upon the apple, plum, and various forest trees. They usually appear during April or Ma)-, according to the tempera- ture, and are apple tree moth. conspicuous on account of their nest. The eggs ma}^ be found in great clusters on the twigs during the winter and early spring, and should be cut off and burned. The nest should be destroyed early in the morn- APPLE TREE ing or late at evening, while the worms are CATERPILLAR. nearly all in. As the remaining worms which are not destroyed or out on a foraging tour, will repair the nest, repeated removals are necessary. Do not permit a fragment of a nest to remain. Woolly I/OUSe of the Apple. This insect attacks the trunk and limbs of the apple tree and covers itself with a cotton-like covering. The best way to get rid of these insects is to wash the trunk and limbs with soft soap which has been reduced till as thick as paint b}' the addition of sal-soda water. Another remedy is to mix in each two gallons of water necessary, two pounds of fresh lime and one- quarter pound of sulphur. After the lice are destroyed cut away all suckers that are growing at the ba.se of the tree, and also remove the earth and clean thoroughly the trunk of the tree below the surface; then put fresh earth about the roots. Woolly Lice. 536 FRUIT CULTURE. FLAT HEADED BORER a. Larva; b. Chrysa- lis ; c. Portion of body ; d. Perfect insect. Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer. This beetle is of a greenish- black color, with brassy lines above, and shines like burnished copper below. It is about one inch in length, but the worm (larvae) which does all the damage, is much smaller. The grub, which has a very broad, flat head, also attacks the pear, plum, and peach, as well as the apple. As a preventive use the soft-soap treatment rec- ommeded for the "Woolly Louse." As it is often found on the larger limbs, the soft-soap should not be confined to the trunk, but should extend to the larger limbs. Round Headed Apple Tree Borer. The mature insect is nearly one inch long, and has two stripes running lengthwise of its body, separating three of a cinnamon-brown color. The insect flies only at night, hence is seldom seen. It makes its appearance in May, and lays its eggs in June, nearly at the foot of the tree, and the young worms soon bore into the bark. To remove and destroy this pest of the orchards; just before vegetation starts in the spring level the ground, and pack it firmly around the root of the tree, in a circle of ^iiiMkiii& about two feet in diame- Laiva. Chrysalis. Beetle. ter, according to the size ROUND HEADED APPLE TREE BORER. of the tree. Take un- leached ashes and cir-slacked lime in equal parts, well mixed, and apply to the circle thus made, covering the ground all over two or three inches in depth. Then take strong soap suds, or, what is better, a solution of half a pound of sal-soda to one gallon of water, mixed with soft-soa]^ and paint the entire trunk and base of the limbs thoroughly with this mixture. Repeat this operation in the fall of the year, just before freez- ing weather, covering the ground with the mixture of ashes and lime, and washing the trunk and the base of the branches with the solution as above. If the borers have already made an entrance into the tree, the only way to get rid of them is to dig them out by the use of a fine, FRUIT CULTURE. 537 THE AMERICAN PROCRIS. annealed wire, avoiding as much as possible the cutting away of the bark in the necessary preparation for entering the holes. The American Procris. This destructive insect feeds on \nnes in great flocks. When very young the little caterpillars eat only of the tissues of the leaf, as .shown in the illustration, but as they grow older and gain strength they devour all of the leaf excepting the stems. They acquire their full growth about the first of August. They can be destroyed by sprinkling the leaves with London Purple dilu- ted in water, or Paris-green mixed with plaster. White hele- bore mixed with water, a table- spoonful to two gallons is also effective. Grape Vine Culture. In some parts of the country this is one of the most destructive of the ene- mies of the grape vine. Both the beetle and the larvae are great eaters of the grape leaf. The eggs are usually laid on the wild grape, and the perfect insect, the beetle, is the only one found in the vineyard. To destroy these beetles it is only nece.ssarj' to .spread under the vines strips of muslin wet with kerosene. Shake the vines and the beetles, falling upon the cloth wet with kero.sene, will die instantly. Keep the LEAF ATT.\CKKD BY THE GRAPE- cloths well Saturated with the VINE FLEA-BEETLE. oil. It seems to be the odor a. Larvae on leaf; b. Larva enlarged; from this simple remedy that c. Beetle. kills these beetles. 53S J'RtJiT CULTURE. GRAPE VINE BARK LOUSE. Grape- Vine Bark I/OUSe. There is often found on the branches of the grape vine during the month of June, brown scales under one end of which there is seen a cotton Hke sub- stance protruding, which grows in size for a couple of weeks until this cotton-like substance is some five times the size of the scale. These scales are usually found in great abundance and will shortly let out innumerable hosts of lice. These scales should be removed by scrap- ing them off with a knife before the young lice have a chance to hatch and escape. Plum Ctirculio. To annihilate curculio, make a very strong solution of gas-tar and water, so that after standing a couple of days it will be dark-colored, and as pungent as creosote. On the first appearance of the curculio, with a small hand-forcing pump (which every gardener ought to have) give the trees an effectual drenching, and repeat it every three days for two weeks. As a preventive measure, destroy all the fruit as it falls, and this can best be done by allowing your fowls free range from the orchard. Canker Worm. The canker worm, also called the measuring worm, is about one inch in length when full grown, and varies in color from light green to a light browai. It attacks the leaves of the apple and other trees, of w^hich it is a great eater. The w^orms usually hatch about the time the young leaves are coming out from the bud. The female insect has to crawl up the tree to lay her eggs, as she is without wings, and she can be prevented from going up the tree by putting a cloth covered with tar around the tree, near its base, in the very early spring. It is best to put them on in October, and keep them on till the leaves are full grown in the spring. Peach Borer. The best method used to destroy this pest is to bank up to the height of from eight to ten inches, add- ing a little each successiv^e spring. This will prevent the depredations of the peach borer. Another is the use of scalding water. Ivarly each spring scrape around the trees with a large knife on the morning of "washing day." When can the washing is done, take buckets full of boiling suds into the wo orchard, and dash the trees just where the trunks join the ground. i'feUlT CUI.fuiRtt. 55^ this way man}- tlioitsands of these Httle worms are scalded to death. Currant Worms. There are two varieties of the currant worm, one of them native and the other im- ported. Both worms originally were found almost entirely upon the gooseberry, but now attack the currant and gooseberry alike. Our cut shows the larvae at work. There is an effectual remedy for these worms in the powder of white helebore. This powder is of a light greenish-yellow, and should be mixed with water in the proportion of an ounce to a pailful of water, and sprinkled freely on the vines. One application by means of the ordinary sprinkling fc:7 niPORTED CURRANT WORM AT WORK. pot greatly diminishes them in number, and the second will almost complete the job. The perfect insect in both the native and imported varieties are saw- flies. Wood ashes have been applied to the bu.shes when the imported currant worm. dew was on, but while it destroys the worm, it also injures the leaves and the growing fruit. Cabbage Worm. This is in many parts of the country a great pest to the cabbage grower. The butterflies resemble the common 3'ellow butterfly very much and appears about the last of May or the beginning of June. The butterfly deposits its eggs on the under side of the cabbage leaves three or four in a place. The eggs are about one- sixteenth of an inch in length, larger at cabbage butterfly. ^"e end than at the other, and yellow- ish in color. In about ten days after the eggs are laid; there appears greenish worms which are great feeders. The butterflies are lazy and can be easily trapped with a hand net. 540 FRUIT CULTURE. Every one caught reduces the number of eggs. Chickens and turkeys if allowed to remain in the cabbage lot will devour many of the worms. These worms soon form into chrysalids to emerge as butterflies to lay eggs for a second crop of worms. This second crop can be avoided by putting boards, setting them on edge, between the rows, and the worms will attach themselves to the boards and turn into chrysalids. These can then be gathered and destroyed. THE LATEST INSECT DESTROYERS. CABBAGE WORM, a. Larva; b. Chrysalis. Bordeaux Mixture. This is the celebrated mixture which is com- ing into general use among fruit growers : 6 pounds Copper Sulphate. 4 pounds Quicklime. 40-50 gallons Water. Dissolve the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the water. Use an earthen or wooden VESSEL. Slack the lime in an equal arnount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make forty gallons. It is then ready for immediate use but will keep indefinitely. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage it is ad- visable to add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When ap- plied to such plants as carnations or cabbages it will adhere better if about a pound of hard soap be dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, moulds, mildews, and all fungus diseases, Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. This is used for the same purpose as the Bordeaux mixture. *1 ounce Copper Carbonate. Ammonia Carbonate enough to dissolve the copper. 9 gallons Water, The copper suiphate is best dissolved in large bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with water as required. I/Ondon Purple. This is used in the same proportion as Paris green, but as it is more caustic it should be applied with two or three *See page 446 — How to make Copper Carbonate. FRUIT CULTURE. 54 1 times its weight of lime, or wnth the Bordeaux mixture. The composi- tion of London purple is exceedingly variable, and unless good reasons exist for supposing that it contains as much arsenic as Paris green, use the latter poison. Do not use the London purple on peach or plum trees unless considerable lime is added. For insects which chew. Copper Sulphate Solution. This is specially useful for fungus diseases. 1 pound Copper Sulphate. 15 gallons Water. Dissolve the copper sulphate in the water, when it is ready for use. This should never be applied to foliage, tuT must be used be- fore THE BUDS BREAK. For peaches and nectarines use twenty-five gallons of water. Paris Green. This is principally used for insects which chew. 1 pound Paris Green, 200-300 gallons Water. If this mixture is to be used upon peach trees, one pound of quick-lime should be added. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture can be ap- plied WITH PERFECT SAFETY. The action of neither is weakened, and the Paris green loses all caustic properties. White Hellebore. This poison is not so energetic as the arsenites and may be used a short time before the sprayed portions mature. For insects which chew. 1 ounce Fresh White Hellebore. 3 gallons Water. Apply when thoroughly mixed. Kerosene Bniulsion. Kerosene and water are very hard to mix. This mixture should be churned frequently while using. ^ pound Hard Soap, 1 gallon Boiling Water, 2 gallons Kerosene. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene, and churn with a pump for five or ten minutes. Dilute ten to twenty-five times before ap- plying. Use strong emulsion for all .scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant lice, measly bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice, or scale. Cabbage worms, currant worms and all insects which have soft bodies, can also be successfully treated. Cucumber Beetle. This beetle may usually be prevented by dusting the plants with plaster of Paris and Paris-green. 542 FRUIT CULTURE. Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants. PLANT. APPUCATIONS. FIRST. SECOND. APPLE. (Scab, codlin moth, bud moth). BEAN. (Anthracnose). 4 CABBAGE. (Worms, aphis). CARNATION. (Rust and other fungus diseases, red spider). CHERRY. (Rot, aphis, slug). CURRANT. (Mildew, worms). When buds are *Just before blossom vSwelling, copper sul- opens, Bordeaux. For phate solution. *Wheu third leaf expands, Bordeaux. bud moth, Arsenites when leaf buds open. *Ten days later, Bor- deaux. *\Vhen worms or aphis are first seen, Kerosene emulsion. *When rust is first noticed, Bordeaux, Kerosene emulsion, when red spider is first seen. As buds are break- mg, Bordeaux; when aphis appears, kerosene emulsion. *At first sign of worms, arsenites. * *Seven to ten days later, if not heading re- new emulsion. *For rust repeat first in ten to fourteen days. For red spider repeat. When fruit has set, Bordeaux. F'or slugs dust leaves with air- slack' d lime Hellebore. *Ten days later, hellebore. If leaves mildew, Bordeaux. GOOSEBERRY. (Mildew, worms). *When leaves ex- pand, Bordeaux. For worms as above. *T e n to fourteen days later, Bordeaux. For worms as above. GRAPE. (Fungus diseases; Flea Beetle.) In spring when buds swell, copper sulphate solution. Paris-green for flea beetle. *When leaves are one inch in diameter Bordeaux. Paris-green for larvae of flea beetle. I^RUIT CULTURE. 543 Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants. THIRD. .-. APPLICATIONS. . FOURTH. FIFTH. SIXTH. *When bloss- *Eiglit to twelve' Ten to fourteen Ten to fourteen oms have fallen, days later, Bor-:days later, Bor- days later, Bor- Bordeaux and ar- deaux and arsen- deaux. deaux senites. ites. Fourteen days later, Bordeaux Fourteen days later, Bordeaux. *Seven to ten Repeat third in day later, if head- ten to fourteen ing, hot water. Repeat ad. us- ing am. carbonate copper if in bloom essary days if necessary. Repeat second as before if nee- Ten to fourteen if rot appears, Bordeaux. If worms per- sist, Hellebore. Ten to fourteen days later, Am- monical copper carbonate. *Ten days later *Ten to four am. copper carbon teen days later. ate. Hellebore. *When flowers open, Bordeaux. Paris- green. repeat third. (When plants are small use ar senites for worms Twelve days "'f'-Ten to four- Ten to fourteen j. wcivc teen days later 'days later, if anyammonical Bordeaux. copper appears, carbonate. Make Bordeaux. |later applications. disease 544 FRUIT CULTURE. Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants. PLANT. APPLICATIONS. FIRST. SECOND. NURSERY STOCK. (Finigus Diseases). PEACH, NECTAR- INE, APRICOT. (Rot, Mildew). PEAR. (Leaf blight, scab, psylla codliu moth. PLUM. (Fungus diseases, our- culio. POTATO. (Scab, blight, beetles. *Wheii first leaves appear, Bordeaux. *Before buds swell, copper sulphate solu- tion. As buds are swelling copper sulphate solu tion. ^During first warm days of early spring, Bordeaux for black knot. When leaves are off in the fall. Ker- osene emulsion for plum scale. *Soak seed for scab in corrosive sublimate (2 oz. to 16 gals, water) for 90 minutes. *T e n to fourteen days, repeat first. Before flowers open, Bordeaux. *Just before blos- soms open, Bordeaux. Kerosene e m u 1 s io n when leaves open for psylla. *When buds are swelling, Bordeaux for black knot and oth- er fungus disease , Mid-winter, kerosene emulsion for plum scale *When beetles first appear, arsenites. QUINCE. (Leaf and fruit spot). When blossom buds appear, Bordeaux. When fruit has set, Bordeaux and arsen- ites. RASPBERRY, DEW- BERRY, BLACK- BERRY. (Anthracnose, rust). Before buds break, copper sulphate solu- tion. Cut out badly diseased canes. During summer, if rust appears on leaves, Bordeaux. FRUIT CULTURE. 545 Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants. .-. APPLICATIONS. THIRD. FOURTH. FIFTH. SIXTH. Ten to fourteenl Ten to fourteen days, repeat first, days repeat first. *When fruit *\Vhen fruit has set, Bordeaux nearly grown, am cop'r carbonate. Ten to fourteen days, repeat first. *Five to ten days later repeat fourth. *Af ter blossoms have fallen, Bor- deaux and Ar- 1 third, senites. Kerosene emulsion if nec- essar)'. *\Vhen blossoms have fallen, Bor- deaux. Begin to jar trees for cur- culio. Before buds start, kerosene emulsion for plum scale. -'^Kiglit to twelve days later, repeat ^lo days later, Bordeaux. Jar trees for curculio every two t o four days. Ten to fourteen days later Bor- deaux. Kerosene emulsion applied forcibly for psylla Ten to fourteen days, repeat first. Five to ten days later repeat fourth if necessary. Ten to fourteen days later, repeat if necessary. *Ten to twenty days later, Bor- deaux for black knot. Jar trees for curculio. ^- vV' h e n vines are two-t h i r d s grown, Bordeaux and arsenites. Ten to twenty days later, Bor- deaux. Repeat second if necessary. Ten to fifteen days later, repeat third. *Ten to twenty days later, Bor- deaux. *(Orange rust is best treated by destroying the affected plants. Ten to fifteen days later Bor deaux if neces- -;ary. 'i=Ten to twentj days later, Bor- deaux. *Ten to twenty days later, Bor- deaux for black knot. Later ap- plications to pre- vent leaf spot and fruit rot, am. cop- per carbonate. 546 FRUIT CULTURE. How and When to Spray. Farmers and fruit growers are in need of short and concise directions for applying sprays to cultivated plants. Although much has been written on the subject of spraying, the information is so scattered that unless the farmers had hours to spend to find the desired knowledge, it could not be obtained. In the prepara- tion of this table, there has been gathered most important points regard- ing sprays, and the.se have been arranged in such a manner that the grower can see at a glance what to apply and when to make the applica- tions. The more important insect and fungus enemies are also men- tioned, so that a fairly clear understanding of the work can be obtained by examining the foregoing table. When making the applications advi.sed, other enemies than those mentioned are also kept under control. The directions given have been carefully compiled from the latest results ob- tained by leading horticulturists and entomologists, and they maybe fol- lowed with .safet}'. Note. — In this it will be seen that some applications are preceeded by a *, and these are the ones which are most important. The number of applications given in each case has particular reference to localities in which fungus and insect enemies are most abundant. If your crops are not troubled when some applications are advised, it is unnecessary to make an}'. Aphis, the Hop-yard Pest. The best preventive is the destruc- tion of its eggs on plum trees and of all wild plum trees in hop districts. The best remedies for attack are found in kerosene emulsion or fi.sli-oil soaps. The Currant Aphis. The best way to destroy the plant-lice that cluster on the tips of currant or gooseberry' stems is by dipping the stems in, or spraying them with, pyrethrum or tobacco water. This will kill most of them. All may be destroyed by a strong kerosene emul- sion as also its eggs in the autumn or winter if they are deposited on the stems. Undiluted kerosene may perhaps be used with safety. Hop l<0tise. The best known remedies, are spraying the vines on the first appearance of the insect with the kerosene and soap emulsion, or the quassia and soap wash. By the proper use of the above means, seri- ous losses may be averted. Yellow Wooly Bear. This is a caterpillar attacking many garden plants, and is known in the winged state as "the white miller." They should be picked from the plants and crushed, BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. To attack tuberculosis as it exists at present is undoubtedly a most difficult problem, and the conditions which tend to repress or to aug- ment its further dissemination are very complex. No single measure, however sweeping, is likely to be successful. A number of details will have to receive careful attention, and in the end the success will depend largely upon the intelligent watchfulness constantly exercised in various directions by the stock owner. The wide dissemination and the localized intensity of this disease, especially in herds devoted to breeding purposes, will require, above all, concerted action in attempts for its reppression. Though a strictly bacterial disease and introduced into the body only by the tubercle bacillus, which is always derived from some pre-exist- ing case of disease, tuberculosis differs, nevertheless, from most ani- mal diseases in very important particulars. Its unknown beginnings in the body and its insidious march after it has once gained a foothold are responsible for the existence of a large number of tuberculosis animals in all stages of the disease. In the earlier stages, while the disease is still restricted to a single focus, the animal is to all outward appear- ances in perfect health. It is only after the infection has invaded several cavities of the body or produced mechanical obstructions that it becomes manifest. Hence it is difficult for the ordinary stock owner to diagnose and recognize the disease. The tuberculin test is used by veterinarians but it requires the ability of an expert to determine the result. Hence the stockman should never rely on his own ability. The stock owner should carefully and promptly remove from his herd and have examined by competent authority: (i) All animals which show emaciation, with coughing, and any suspicious discharges from the nose. 548 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. (2) Those animals with enlarged, prominent glands about the head (in front of the ears, under and behind the lower jaw), or enlarged glands in front of the shoulder, in the flank, and behind the udder, and all animals having swellings on any part of the body which discharge a yellowish matter and refuse to heal. (3) Animals with suspected tuberculosis of uterus and udder. Disinfection and other preventive measures. — Preventive measures of a general character must still be kept in view for some time after removal of animals affected. These measures partly suffer shipwreck from the fact that it is difficult without tuberculin to recognize even advanced disease during life. Still much can be done to reduce the amount of infection by following out certain general and specific suggestions which the renewed study of the disease has either originated or else placed on a more substantial basis. Perhaps the most important preliminary suggestion to be made is, that the owner of cattle should endeavor to familiarize himself as much as possible with the general nature of tuberculosis, its cause, the ways in which the virus may leave the body of the sick and enter that of the well, and, lastly, the ways in which it spreads within the body. He should make himself acquainted with the peculiar appearance of tuber- culosis growths in the body, and open every animal that dies, so that he may know to what extent his animals are dying of this malady. Wherever possible the services of the skilled veterinarian should be made use of. Sanitary precautions should begin with the removal of diseased and suspected animals. This is the most essential require- ment, for diseased animals are the only breeding places of the specific virus. After the removal of these, attention should be paid first of all to the stables. Here, during the long confinement of the winter months, when ventilation is all but suppressed, we may look for the source of most of the inhalation diseases so common in tuberculous cattle. Even when only a few cases of tuberculosis have been found, the stables should be disinfected by removal of all dirt and the subsequent application of disinfectants. Since tubercle bacilU are more resistant than most other disease germs, the strength of the disinfecting solu- tion must not be less than as given. The following substances may be used: {a) Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), i ounce in about 8 gal- lons of water (one-tenth of i per cent). The water should be kept in BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 549 wooden tubs or barrels and the sublimate added to it. The whole must be allowed to stand twenty-four hours, so as to give the sublimate an opportunity to become entirely dissolved. Since this solution is poisonous, it should be kept well covered and guarded. It may be applied with a broom or mop and used freely in all parts of the stable. Since it loses its virtue in proportion to the amount of dirt present, all manure and other dirt should be first removed and the stables well cleaned before applying the disinfectant. After it has been applied, the stable should be kept vacant as long as possible. Before animals are allowed to return, it is best to flush those parts which the animals may reach with their tongues, to remove any remaining poison. {d) Chloride of lime, 5 ounces to a gallon of water (4 per cent). This should be applied in the same way. (c) The following disinfectant is very serviceable. It is not so dangerous as mercuric chloride, but is quite corrosive, and care should be taken to protect the eyes and hands from accidental splashing: Crude carbolic acid i gallon. Crude sulphuric acid i gallon. These two substances should be mixed in tubs or glass vessels. The sulphuric acid is very slowly added to the carbolic acid. During the mixing a large amount of heat is developed. The disinfecting power of the mixture is heightened if the amount of heat is kept down by placing the tub or glass demijohn containing the carbolic acid in cold water while the sulphuric acid is being added. The resulting mixture is added to water in the ratio of i to 20. One gallon of mixed acids will furnish twenty gallons of a strongly disinfectant solution having a slightly milky appearance. (d) Whitewash is not of itself of sufficient strength to destroy tuber- cle bacilli, but by imprisoning and incrusting them on the walls of stables they are made harmless by prolonged drying. Whitewashing should be preceded by thorough cleaning. The removal of virus from the stables should, furthermore, be pro- moted by the regular removal of manure and by abundant ventilation. Good air has the effect of diluting infected air, and thereby reducing the chance of inhaling dried, floating tubercle bacilli, or at least of reducing the number inhaled. It likewise improves the vigor of the confined animals, and hence increases the resistance to infection. 550 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. Cattle should not be placed so that their heads are close together; each animal should have plenty of room and occupy the same place in the stable at all times. These precautions will prevent the nasal, lung, or vaginal discharges from one animal striking the head or soiling the feed of another. It is true that it is impossible to prevent animals licking each other outside of the stable, but it should be remembered that prevention must begin with the removal of all cases which are suspected of discharging tubercle bacilli. Stables should^ furtherviore, be carefully protected from the expectorations of Jiitviaii beings affected with [consumption) tuberculosis of the lungs. In endeavoring to comprehend the peculiar nature of this disease bear in mind that the virus, /. JAMES BROWN. [Seal.] CHARLES SUMMERS. ) "' ^ -" Affidavit of Bona Fides to Accompany Bill of Sale. County of York. To Wit : I, James Brown of the city of Toronto. in the County of York, the vendee in the foregoing Bill of Sale named, make oath and say : That the sale therein made is bona fide and for good consideration, 572 T.KGAL DKPARTMENT. viz. : five hundred dollars ($500.00), and not for the purpose of holding or enabling- this deponent to hold the goods mentioned therein against the creditors of the said bargainor. Sworn before me at Toronto in the County of York this sixteenth day of I jj^^^^^ BROWN. February A. D. eighteen hundred and nmety-nme. FRANK SMITH, A commissioner for taKing affidavits in the H. C. J. Affidavit of Witness Proving the Execution of the Bill of Sale. County of York. To Wit : I, Charles Summers of the city of Toronto in the County of York, clerk, make oath and say : That I was personally present, and did see the within bill of sale duly signed, sealed, and executed by John Jones and James Brown, the parties thereto, and that I, this deponent, am a subscribing witness to the same, and that the name Charles Summers, set and subscribed as a witness to the execution thereto, is of the proper handwriting of me, this deponent, and that the same was executed at the city of Toronto aforesaid. Sworn before me this sixteenth day of ] CHARLES SUMMERS. February, eighteen hundred and nmety-nine. \ JAMES BROWN, A commissioner for taking affi- davits in the H. C. J. RECEIPTS. It is always best to take a receipt for moneys paid or goods delivered, and while a receipt is not always evidence of payment, yet it throws the burden of proof upon the one who tries to deny its truth. Receipt for Money Paid on Account. $50.00. Toronto, Ont. , Feb. 16, 1899. Received of George W. Witbeck, Fifty Dollars ($50.00) on account. GARDNER MOREY. LEGAL DEPARTMEiNT. 573 Receipt in Full. ).oo. Toronto, Ont., Feb. i6, 1899. Received of Charles Hart, Three Hundred Dollars, in full, for all demands to date. HENRY MURPHY. Law Concerning Notes. 1. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid. 2. A note lost or destroyed can be collected upon sufficient proof. 3. If no time of payment is mentioned in a note, the note is payable on demand. 4. A note is not transferable if the words ' ' or order " or "or bearer ' ' do not appear on the face, or unless it is payable " to the order of" the payee. HOW TO DO BANKING BUSINESS. Deposit Your Money. It is unsafe to keep money about the person or house, on account of the liability of losing it from the pocket. The house might take fire and destroy the money before it could be removed or the money may be stolen by thieves or robbers. It is therefore best to deposit it in some safe bank that is near by. The money can then be drawn out by cheques made payable to the order of the person to whom the money is to be paid, and, as that person has to put his name on the back of the cheque, it is good evidence that the money has been re- ceived. Pay Bills by Cheques. It is a good practice to pay bills by cheques because : — 1. The amount paid is always specified in the cheque. 2. The party receiving the cheque cannot claim that the money has not been paid. 3. The cheque coming back through the bank, indorsed, is evidence that the money has been received by the person to whose order the cheque was drawn. It is always best to deposit your money in the bank and cheque against it. This will show the amount of money handled during the year, and oftentimes be a check upon expenditures. Never make a cheque payable to bearer, for in that case- it is not neces- sary for the party receiving it to put his name on the back, and if lost it can be collected by anyone into whose hands it falls. 574 LEGAL DEPARTMKXT, A cheque is a vvvy convenient way of sending- money in letters. If made payable to the order of the ])erson to whom the money is sent, it cannot be collected by anyone else, even though stolen from the letter. If dealing- with a firm with which you have no acquaintance, it is often well to have the cashier of the bank certify the cheque before it is sent. This is done by the cashier writing- across the face the word ' ' accepted ' ' and signing his name as cashier of the bank. How to Indorse Cheques. Indorsing cheques is done by writing your name on the back. This is j^roperly done by signing the name across the top about one and one-half inches from the end. This is the left end as the cheque lies with its face toward you. Promissory Note. Occasionally it is necessary or convenient to ask for time for the payment of a bill, and there is given a Promissory Note (promise to pay at some specified time). It is generally written in the following form : — ^loo. ToRONTd, Ont. , Feb. i6, 1899. Three months after date I promise to pay to Peter J. Murphy, or order. One Hundred Dollars, at the Canadian Bank of Commerce, for value received. THOMAS A. BURNS. NATURALIZATION PAPERS. Declaration of Intention. An alien must make a declaration under oath, of intention of becoming a citizen of Canada, before a Judge of the Court of Record in Canada, a Justice of the Peace, a Police Magistrate or a Notary Public, or a Commissioner for taking affidavits. This Declaration of Intention may be taken at any time after three years' residence in Canada. The person before whom the oath is taken issues to the alien a certificate, and this certificate is presented in Ontario, to the Court of Oeneral Sessions of the Peace of the county within the jurisdiction of which the alien resides or to the Court of Assize or Nisi Prius during its sittings in such county. If during the sittings of such court, the facts mentioned in such certificate are not controverted or any other valid objection made to the naturalization of the alien, the court, on the last day of such sittings, shall direct that such certificate be filed of record in the court. The alien to whom a certificate of naturalization has been granted is LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 575 entitled to all the rights and prixileocs, and snbject to all the obligations, of a natural born British .subject. Exception. There is, this distinction, however; an alien who has ob- tained a certificate of naturalization in Canatla, but who has by the; law of a foreign state not ceased to be a subject of that state, is not deemed a British subject when he is in that foreign state. A married woman shall, within Canada, be deemed to be a subject of the state of which her husband is for the time being a subject. If she becomes an alien through marriage, she is deemed a statutory alien, and may obtain at any time during widowhood, a certificate of re-admission to British nationality. E\'ery child of a father or mother who has received a naturalization certificate is a British subject. PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. Definition. An agent Is one who acts for, in the name, and by the authority of another, who is called the principal. Theory. The theory of the law is whatever business a man may do for himself, he may employ another to do for him, and whatever is clone for him by his authority, is to be held as though he did it himself. Extent. When we consider the fact that every clerk, laborer, or employee is the agent of the one who employs him, we see how im- possible it would be to conduct business without the medium of agency. There are in the employ of the C. P. Railway some thousands of persons, ' each one of whom is an agent (_to a greater or less extent) of the company. How long could one man run this great railroad if he himself were com- pelled to drive the engine or handle the brake ? Thus we see how every business and every enterprise needs its controlling, its guiding mind, which works through others. How Established. An agency may be established by a person per- mitting another to hold himself out to the world as his agent, by a verbal agreement or written contract ; as little form is necessary to employ an agent, as to hire a common day laborer. But when the agent is to have authority to execute a sealed instrument, as for the conveyance of real estate, his authority must be given under seal. An agency is also often implied from the course of business ; as, for instance, a son who sells goods in his 576 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. father's store, or receives jjaymcnt of bills due him with his knowledge and without objection, is the agent of the father, and may bind him in subsequent transactions of the same nature if no notice is given to the contrary. Principal. The principal is the person for whom the business is to be transacted. Generally every person of legal age and competent to con- tract may act as principal. The principal and not the agent is bound by the agent's acts, so long as the agent does not exceed the authority given him. Liability of Principal to Third Parties. Whc n an Agent acts w ithin the limit of his authority, the principal is liable to third persons, to the same extent as though he transacted the business himself. If the agent violates the instructions given by the principal, the person with whom he is dealing being ignorant of the fact and his act being apparently within the limit of his authority, or if the agent makes a fraudulent representa- tion, the principal will be held liable. The principle of the law is that ' ' when one of two innocent persons must suffer, the one should sustain the loss, who has put it in the power of the wrongdoer to commit the wrong," but in cases of special agency the agent could not bind his prin- cipal to exceed his special authority. If an agent is pursuing the business of his agency, and by his negli- gence or unskillfulness injures another, the principal is liable ; for instance, suppose you are riding on an express train from Toronto to Montreal, you are rushing along with speed that rivals the wind, a care- Jess engineer has his engine standing upon the track of your train, when it ought to have been somewhere else, you go crashing into it, there is a wreck, and you are pulled from the debris only to find yourself a cripple for life. What do you do? Bring an action for damages against the engineer, who is the agent of the railroad company, or do you say to the company itself, I have been injured through the carelessness of your agent, and to you I look for damages ? Should the act of the agent be willful and not in the conduct of the principal's business the agent and not the principal is liable ; to illustrate, I am passing along the street in my carriage and your scr\ant willfully drives against me, the servant alone is liable. But had the act been one of carelessness, you, the principal, would be liable. The Principal is Liable to the Ai^ent for damages sustained by the agent without his own default, in following the directions of his principal. LKC.AL DEPARTMF.XT. 577 Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duly of every ngent is to obey instructions. In cases of extreme necessity the agent may be ex- cused for disobedience of orders ; neither is he bound to obey when told to do an illegal or immoral act. An agent must transact all business in the name of his j^rincipal or he will be personally liable. An agent must not mix his property with that of his principal, so as to make it impossible to distinguish one from the other. Commission Merchiants. A commission merchant is one who sells goods for another, receiving as compensation a certain percentage of the sales, called commission. The commission merchant very seldom dis- closes the name of his principal. He has actual possession of- the goods to be sold, and is bound to take good and proper care of them, such as he would take of his own property of a similar nature. In the sale of goods the commission merchant should observe the in- structions of the i)erson sending the goods to be sold, but, when he receives no instructions, must use his utmost skill and knowledge, and sell for the best prices. It is a common practice for commission merchants to advance money upon goods consigned to them. In such cases they have a lien upon them for all cash advanced, and for expenses and commissions. " Alien on personal ])roperty is a right to hold it against the owner ; ' ' that is the owner cannot take away his goods until he has paid the charges against them. The commission merchant may sell the goods in his pos- session in order to satisfv his claim, but must pay over the surplus to the owner. Note. — i. A seller of goods who accepts, at the time of sale, the note of a third part}-, not indorsed by the buyer, in payment, cannot, in case the note is not paid, hold the buyer responsible for the \alue of the goods. 2. An agreement bv the holder of the note to give the principal debtor time for pavment, without the consent of the surety, discharges the suretv. SPECIAL LAWS BY T. A. HUNT, B. A., Of " Osgood Hall," Barrister-at-Law. Laws relating to rights and obligations arising from own- ership, CONTROL AND CUSTODY OF DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANI- MALS, AND OTHER LAWS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO LAND AND ANIMAL OWNERS. A MAN may have an absolute property in domestic animals, which is not lost by accident or the interference of others. As to wild animals, they belong to anyone, so long as they remain in their wild state, but when captured and brought under the con- trol of the captor, so that they cannot escape, they become the property of the one who captured them. The most obvious distinction which the law regards is that between such animals as are generally seen tame and seldom, if ever, found wan- dering at large, and such as are usually found wild, and at liberty. Deer in a private park, doves in a dove house, and fish in a private pond or tank are property while they continue in actual possession. If a deer or any other wild animal which is reclaimed, has a collar or other mark upon it, and goes and returns at its pleasure, the owner's property still continues. (Amory v. Flynn, lo Johns. 102.) The true point of inquiry in such cases is whether the reclaimed animal has lost all intention or disposition to return, and if it has, it may then be said to have regained its natural liberty. A qualified jjroperty may also exist with relation to wild animals by reason of their inability to remove from the land where they are, as in the case of young birds which are hatched in nests in a man's trees. " A qualified property in wild animals may be obtained by a person so confining them that they cannot escape and regain their natural liberty." (2 Blackstone's Commentaries, 391.) Property in this class of animals is acquired only by possession. Mere LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 579 pursuit is not sufficient to constitute such possession, though the animal be kept in sight, the pursuer must, by wounding or securing the animal, or otherwise, have deprived it of its natural liberty, and brought it within his control. Thus where N wounded a deer and followed the track until night and resumed the pursuit in the morning, but the deer, after running six miles with N's dog in chase, was killed by B. Held, that it had not been de- pri\-ed of its natural libert}-, so as to gi\'e N any property in it. So, wild fowl which have been tamed, are subjects of property, not- withstanding they are temporarily astray, if they have not regained their natural liberty as wild. So, bees are regarded as animals fcnc nalura\ but, when hi\-cd and reclaimed, a qualified property may be acquired in them. Bees living in a state of freedom shall be the property of the person disco\cring them, whether he is or is not the proprietor of the land on which they have established themselves. If a swarm of bees leave a hive an owner can retake possession of them, even if they settle on the land of another, but he must first notify the owner of the land where they have settled, and compensate him for damages. If the owner of a swarm does not follow them, any other person may, and such person may take posses- sion of them unless the owner of the land objects. ( R. S. O. 1897, Cap. 117.) In case of domestic animals and reclaimed wild animals the owner has the right to use anv of the remedies which the law provides for the re- covery of personal property illegally taken or detained from the owner. So, the owner of such an animal has a right of action for damages if one should, either intentionally or negligently, injure, maim, f)r kill such an animal. Not only the owner, but one who is in po.ssession of an animal under an arrangement that renders him accountable for it, or for injury to it, may sue to reco\'er for any lOss or injury done the property while it is in his possession. In such a case the person in possession is treated as the owner, and is entitled to all the rights of an owner. So, the owner may recover for accidental or intentional injuries, as where a dog, followed by his master, was pursuing a fox, and was acci- dentally shot by another party who claimed to ha\-e shot at the fox. but accidentally killed the dog, the owner was entitled to damages. Where a horse trespassed on the premises of a neighbor of the owner 580 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. and injured his crops, and was pursued by the neighbor and his dog, and injured, the owner of the horse was held to be entitled to damages for such injuring. (Bigelow on Torts, 6th Ed. 230. ) Where animals when trespassing are killed in a wanton, malicious, and deliberate way, exemplary damages may be recovered. Injuries inflicted upon animals by negligence entides the owner to an action for damages against the one causing the injury, as where the owner of a horse allowed it to stray (through negligence in not repairing a gate) into a neighbor's field and it kicked the neighbor's horse, the owner of the injured horse was held entided to damages. In another case a man planted on his own ground, a yew tree, which in time grew and spread its branches over the plaintiff's ground. A horse ate it, and was poisoned. The owner of the tree was held liable for the loss. Nor has a party the right to entice by food, voice, or other means any domestic or reclaimed animal away from the possession of the owner and bring it under his control. For such conduct the owner has an action for the value of the animal so obtained, and the party committing the wrong may be prosecuted criminally for larceny. In the Northwest Territories the registered cattle brand \~. prima facie proof of ownership, and, therefore, any wrongful marking or branding of cattle with intent to defraud is a conversion of the cattle, and indict- able. Any person branding the stock of anf)thcr without his consent shall pay three times the value of the animal. It is the duty of every person who sells stock to another party to brand such a stock with a vent brand, which \ent brand shall not, in any case, be placed in such a position as to obliterate or efface the original brand, and where any such vent brand shall have been printed as above, it shall h^ prima facie oxx^QViC^ of sale or transfer. Every person recording a brand shall also at the same time record and register his \'ent brand. The owner of any recorded brand may, by writing, transfer the same to any person who may record the transfer, and the transferee shall ha\-e there- after all the rights of the person who first recorded it. Hiring a horse to travel a certain distance, and driving the horse a greater distance, or to another place than the one agreed upon, is such a conversion of the horse that an action will lie by the owner. Where a horse is driven a greater distance than that for which it was hired, the owner may ratify the wrongful act by accepting compensation for the extra distance tra\eled. LEGAL DEPARTMEXT. 58 1 In relation to injuries of persons or property by domestic animals, the following- propositions arc sustained by the courts of Ontario : — The owners of domestic animals are generally not liable for the inju- ries they may do to property or persons of others, so long as they are rightfully in the place where it is alleged that the injury or mischief was done, unless it be shown that the particular animal doing the injury was vicious and was accustomed to do, or had an inclination to do, the mis- chief complained of, and that these facts were known to the owner of the animal before the injury occurred. It* is not absolutely necessary to pro\e actual or positi\c knowledge on the part of the owner in order to establish liabilit)-, but if the owner has seen or heard facts relating to the viciousness of the animal which would ordinarily satisfy a man of pru- dence and caution, that the animal was liable to do mischief of the char- acter complained of, it would place him under obligation to secure the animal in such a manner as to prevent the injury, and he would be lia- ble if he did not so secure it. The rule is different with reference to vicious wild animals which have been tamed, such as lions, tigers, and the like, for he who keeps them is liable without notice, on the ground that such animals are fierce and dangerous by nature. The owner or keeper of animals viciously disposed or of mischievous habits, of which the owner had previous actual or implied notice, is bound at his peril to keep them at all times, and in all cases, properly secured, and is responsible to any one who, without fault on his part, is injured by them. At common law the rule is that every man is bound to keep his ani- mals within his inclosure at his peril, and that he is liable in damages if he fails to do so, and they escape to the property of others and do in- jury, whether such property be fenced or not ; unless the trespass is com- mitted upon property through defects in fences which the owner of such property is bound to maintain. Every unauthorized entry by animals upon the land of another is a trespass, whether the land be inclosed or not. If domestic animals are wrongfully in the place where they do mischief, the owner is liable, though he had no notice that they were accustomed to do so before. As where oxen break the plaintiff's close and kill his cow, the owner of the o.xen will be liable to damages, without proof that he knew they were accustomed to gore. 582 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. Adjoining owners and occupants of lands are each required to main- tain their portion of the division fence, and where injuries are occasioned by domestic animals escaping through defects in that portion of the fence that the complaining party was under obligation to maintain, he cannot recover for such injury. Indeed, he maybe liable for injuries which may have resulted to the animals thus escaping, if shown to be the proximate result of his negligence. Where there is no division fence, each owner or occuparit must keep his animals upon his own side of the line. Where there is a di\ ision fence, and it is divided, each adjoining owner must see to it that his part of the fence is suitably maintained. Where there is no division of the line fence, and either party refuses to make a diA'ision, then the law of Ontario provides a summary method for a compulsory division of the fence, and, when thus divided, the parties may be compelled to build and maintain it. THE KEEPING OF DOGS Perhaps there is no species of domestic animals in relation to which controversies more frequently arise than in relation to dogs. The fol- lowing propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts : — An owner of lands may drive off trespassing animals with dogs, and will not be liable unless they are vicious and unnecessarily bite and lacer- ate animals. One keeping a vicious dog with knowledge of its propensities is re- sponsible for injuries done by it. Negligence, in the ordinary sense, is not an element of the cause of action. Nor is contributory negligence a defense. To constitute a defense it must be established that the injured person brought the injury on himself. A person who keeps upon his premises ferocious dogs, and is aware of their dangerous and vicious propensities, is liable for injuries to a licensee even though they had never before bitten anyone. And a tres- passer is not without rights. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 310, 4 Bing. 628.) A servant may maintain an action against the master for injuries re- ceived from his employer's dogs, though informed of the dog's vicious disposition, where it had been the custom to tell the servant when the dog was loose, for the servant assumes, on entering such employment, only the risk consequent upon keeping such a dog, which is fastened except LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 583 when the servant is othenvise notified. He docs not take the risk of being bitten when the dog is negligently left unfastened. (Mansfield \-. Bad- delev, 34 L. T. 696.") The doctrine of the non-liability of the master to the servant for inju- ries of a co-servant cannot be invoked to shield the owner of a ferocious animal from liabilities for injuries to the servant occasioned by negligence of a fellow servant in not properly fastening the animal, or of not giving notice of the animal being loose. The owner of a ferocious animal is not relie\-ed from lialMlity for in- juries inflicted by it through slight negligence or want of ordinary care oh the part of the person injured. To constitute such a defense acts must be proved, with notice of the character of the animal, establishing that the person injured voluntarily brought the injury on himself. (Cur- tis V. Mills, 5 C. & P. 489. ) ' ^ No action lies for an injury arising from the defendant letting loose a dog in his premises for their protection at night. (Brock \-. Copeland, I Esp. 203.) The owner of a dog known by him to be ferocious, is liable, unless the person injured voluntarily incurred the danger with a full knowledge of its consequences. (Sarch v. Blackburn, M. and M. 505.) The owner of a vicious dog which is kept properly chained and under restraint is not liable for injuries sustained by a person voluntarily com- ing within its reach for the purpose of becoming familiar with it by feeding. Merely showing that the dog was of a savage disposition and usually tied up, and that the owner promised to make pecuniary satisfaction to the plaintif?, is not sufficient proof of the owner's knowledge of the vicious disposition of the dog to make him liable. (Beck v. Dyson, 4 Camp. 198.) If the owner of a dog appoints a servant to keep it, proof of the serv- ant's knowledge of the dog's ferocity is sufficient proof of the knowl- edge of the master to make him liable. (Baldwin v. Casella, L. R. 7 Ex. 325-) A man can only keep a fierce watch dog for protection of his grounds and house at his peril, and an innocent person coming there, bitten by such a dog, may recover. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 316.) It is not necessary to show an actual previous bite to enable a plaintiff to recover. It is enough that the dog, to the owner's knowledge, has 584 LECiAL DEPARTMENT. evinced a savage disposition and straining at his chain. (Worth v. Gill- ing, L. R. 2 C. P. I.) At common law, the dog is considered a tame, harmless, and docile animal, and its owner not responsible for any vicious or mischievous act he may do, unless he had a previous knowledge of mischievous or vicious propensities of the dog. By statute in Ontario, municipalities have power to pass by-laws as follows : — 1. For restraining and regulating the running at large of dogs, and for seizing and impounding dogs running at large contrary to the by-law, and for selling the dogs so impounded or any of them at such time or times and in such manner as may be directed in that behalf. 2. For killing dogs running at large contrary to the by-laws. 3. For imposing a tax on the owners, possessors, or harborers of dogs. It is also provided that in every municipality in Ontario an annual tax may be levied upon the owner, possessor, or harborer of each dog. Spe- cial provision, however, is made for an owner of a kennel of pure bred dogs which are registered in the Canada Kennel Register. A ten dollar ($10.00) tax is all that shall be levied. The owner, possessor, or harborer of any dog shall, when required by the assessor, furnish a statement in writing of the number of dogs owned or kept by him. If he neglects or refuses to do so, or gives a false state- ment, he shall be liable to incur a penalty of five dollars. The money recei\-ed as taxes on dogs, by the municipality, consti- tutes a fund for satisfying any damages arising in any year from dogs killing sheep or lambs within the municipality ; the residue forms part of the general assets of the municipality. It is further enacted that any person may kill : — 1. Any dog which he sees pursuing, worrying, or wounding any sheep or lamb. 2. Any dog without law^ful permission in any inclosed field on any farm, which the owner or occupant finds giving tongue, or terrifying any sheep or lamb on such farm. 3. And (with certain restrictions) any dog which any person finds straying between sunset and sunrise on any farm whereon any sheep or lambs are kept. With reference to acts of other vicious animals, the following proposi- tions may be regarded as settled by the courts : — LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 585 One letting a vicious horse to hire is bound to inform the liircr of its vices. In the absence of proof that the animal alleged to be \icious had done mischief similar to that complained of, or was by habit or nature of an ungovernable temper, or that the defendants had knowledge or notice that the animal was unruly, or had done similar acts, the owner is not liable, unless the vicious act occurred while the animal was trespassing. The defendants' horse having injured the plaintiff's mare by biting and kicking her through the fence separating the plaintiff's land from the defendants' . Held that there was a trespass by the act of the de- fendants' horse for which the defendants were liable, apart from any question of negligence on their part. (Ellis v. Loftus Iron Co., 44 L. J. C. P. 24.) And if a horse, through the neglect of the owner in not keeping the fence properly repaired, strays out and injures a horse on an adjoining farm, the owner is liable. (Lee v. Riley, 18 C. B. N. S. 722.) But where a horse straying on a highway, without apparent reason, kicked a child, it was held, independently of any question of negligence on the owner's part, that in the absence of any proof of knowledge of a vicious disposition, the latter was not liable. (Cox v. Burbidge, 13 C. B. N. S. 430. ) The liability for injuries occasioned by a vicious animal extends to the case of a married woman who permits her husband to harbor such an animal upon the premises owned and occupied by her, she having knowl- edge that it was being kept there. (Shaw v. McCreary, 19 O. R. 39.) The owner of a vicious horse is not held liable to a servant employed to drive it with notice of its vice who is injured by a kick from the horse. (Yamouth v. Frame, 19 O. B. D. 647.) INCREASE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Of all tame and domestic animals, the brood belongs to the owner of the dam or mother. (Broom's Commentaries on the laws of England. Vol. 2, p. 587. Lewis' Edition of Blackstone, 391.) An interesting case is given in the New Brunswick law reports which decides that a mortgagee under a mortgage upon li\e stock is entitled to the increase of stock, and a purchaser of the increase takes it sub- ject to the mortgage. 586 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. The facts of the case were as follows : — The plaintiffs were the grantees, and one H the grantor in a bill of sale which specified certain property conveyed, and contained the fol- lowing clause : ' ' And all property owned or to be owned bv me, and including all renewal stock or stock to be purchased by me. ' ' H subsequently acquired possession of a horse and colt. The colt was the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill of sale. The horse was bought in for H at a sale had at his direction to satisfy a lien which he claimed for keep. H made a formal delivery of the horse and colt to the plaintifTs, stating that he delivered them to be held on the terms of the bill of sale, but H always retained the actual possession. The defendant (the sheriff) seized and sold the horse and colt under the execution against H and the plaintiff claiming that the property was not his brought action to recover same. , Held that the colt, being the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill of sale, passed to the plaintiffs. (Nicholson v. Temple, 4 New Bruns- wick, R. 248. ) CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. By the Municipal Act (R. S. O. 1897, c. 223, s. 540) it was enacted that municipalities shall have power to pass by-laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals as follows : — For preventing cruelty to animals, and for preventing the destruction of birds, the by-laws for these purposes not being inconsistent with any statute in that behalf. By Chapter 172, Revised Statutes of Canada, it is enacted that every one who wantonly, cruelly, or unnecessarily beats, pounds, illtreats, abuses, overdrives or tortures any cattle, poultry, dog, domestic animal or bird, — or who while driving any cattle or other animal is, by "negli- gence or ill usage in the driving thereof, the means whereby any mischief, damage, or injury is done by any such cattle or other animal — or who in any manner encourages, aids, or assists at the fighting or baiting of any bull, bear, badger, dog, cock, or other kind of animal whether of domestic or any other nature, shall, on summary conviction before two Justices of the Peace, be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, or to imprisonment for any term not exceeding three months with or with- out hard labor or to both. Anyone building, making, maintaining, or keeping a cock pit on LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 587 premises occupied or belonginjr to him, shall, on a similar conviction, be liable to the same penalty. Railway companies are forbidden to carry cattle, etc. , for a longer pe- riod than twenty-eight consecutive hours without unloading them for rest, food, and water for five consecutive hours unless prevented by storm or other una\oidable cause. The foregoing does not apply, however, when catde are carried in any car or vessel in which thqy have proper space and opportunity for rest and proper food and water. The Canadian Criminal Code also makes the maliciously poisoning, maiming, etc. , of animals, a criminal ofiense. DISEASED ANIMALS. By chapter 273, Revised Statutes of Ontario, it is enacted : — Where it appears to any person that any horse or other animal is diseased, such person may notify any Justice having jurisdiction in the municipality, and the Justice, if in his opinion there is reasonable cause therefor, shall forthwith by writing, under his hand direct a competent veterinarian to inspect the animal alleged to be diseased. The vet- erinarian on receiving such instruction, shall, with all practicable speed, make an inspection and report his opinion in writing to the Justice. Where it appears to a veterinarian that any horse or other animal is diseased, he shall forthwith notify the owner or other person in charge of the animal, and shall also give notice to the Justice having jurisdiction as aforesaid. After the owner or other person in charge has received notice from a veterinarian that an animal is diseased, it shall be unlawful to turn out, drive, or lead, or to cause such animal to be turned out, driven, or led through any place where it may be brought into contact with or to be in any danger of transmitting disease to other animals, until it has been determined by the court of summary jurisdiction as hereafter provided, that the animal to which the notice relates is free from disease. The Justice, upon receiving the report of a veterinarian that an animal is diseased, may at once issue his order to a constable, directing him to seize and detain such animal, and cause the same to be kept in some place where it will not be brought in contact with or be in danger of 1^88 LEGAL IHiPARTMENT. transmitting- the disease to other animals, until the case has hetn deter- mined by the courts. The Justice, on receiving- from any veterinarian a notice that an animal is, or appears to be, diseased, shall forthwith issue a summons directed to the owner, or other person in charge of the animal, requiring him to appear before a court of summary jurisdiction, at a time and place to be specified in such summons, to show cause why the said animal should not be destroyed. In case it appears to the court of summary jurisdiction, by the evidence of one or more competent veterinarians, that the animal is diseased, the court shall make an order for the killing and burying or burning of such animal within twenty-four hours, and, in default thereof, may impose a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, and a further sum of fifty dollars for every twelve hours thereafter until the sam^ is killed or burned, and all the penalties so imposed shall be applied to the use of the municipality. The council of any municipality may indemnify the owner of any animal killed or destroyed under the provisions of this act for the loss sustained by such owner. Every person haA^ing in his possession or under his charge an animal which is, or appears to be, diseased, respecting which no notice has been given as aforesaid, shall, as far as practicable, keep such animal separate from other animals not so diseased, and shall, with all practicable speed, give notice to a veterinarian of the existence, or supposed existence, of the disease. Upon receipt of such notice, the veterinarian shall proceed as in the other cases. No owner or other person in charge thereof shall turn out, lead, or drive any horse or other animal, knowing such horse to have been kept in the same stable with any diseased animal, or otherwise expose to con- tagion or infection, in, upon, or through, any place without a license from a veterinarian first had and obtained, or without other order from the court in that behalf. Any person obstructing a veterinarian or constable acting in execution of this act, may be seized and detained until he can be taken before a Justice, to be dealt with according to law. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act, respecting which no express penalty is pro- vided, shall, on conviction, be liable to a penalty not exceeding one hundred dollars. The Dominion Parliament has also passed an act known as "The LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 589 Animal Contagious Disease Act." The provisions of this act apply, of course, to the whole Dominion. It enacts as follows : — Every cattle or farm stock owner, and e\-ery breeder of or dealer in catde or other animals in Canada, shall, on perceiving the appearance of infection or contagious diseases among the catde or other animals owned by him, or under his special care, give immediate notice to the Minister of Agriculture at Ottawa of the facts discovered by him as aforesaid. E\-ery person who neglects to comply with the provisions of the pre- ceding section shall forfeit his claim to compensation for any cattle or other animals slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this act, and every person maliciously or fraudulently concealing the existence of infectious or contagious diseases among cattle or other animals shall incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars. Every person who turns out, keeps, or grazes, any animal, knowing such animal to be infected with or laboring under any infectious or con- tagious diseases, or to have been exposed to infection or contagion in or upon any forest, wood, moor, beach, marsh, common, open field, waste land, roadside, or other undi\ided or uninclosed land, shall, for every such offense, incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars. Every person who brings or attempts to bring into any market, fair, or other place any animal known by him to be infected with any infectious or contagious disease shall incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars. Every person who sells, disposes, or passes of? or ofTers or attempts to sell any animal known by him to be diseased as aforesaid, or the meat, skin, hide, horns, hoofs, or other parts of such an animal, shall incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars, whether such person selling or offering for sale as aforesaid is the owner or not. Every person throwing or suffering to be thrown into any river, stream, canal, navigable or other water, or in the sea, within ten miles of the shore, the carcass of an animal which has died with disease or which has been slaughtered as diseased, shall for every such ofifense incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars. The Governor in Council may from time to time cause such animals as aforesaid to be slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this act, the ^■alue of the animal to be determined by the Minister of Agri- culture or by some person appointed by him. Compensation may be withheld in whole or in part whenever, in the opinion of the Minister of 590 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. Agriculture, the owner or person in charge of the diseased animal has been guilty of an offense against this act. The (lOvernor in Council may from time to time prohibit the importation of horses, cattle, or other ani- mals, or of flesh, hides, hoofs, horns, or of hay, straw, fodder, or other articles from any place or places for such period as he deems to be neces- sary for the purpose of preventing the introduction of any infectious or contagious diseases among animals in Canada. Every company and every person carrying, for hire, animals to or in Canada shall thoroughly cleanse and disinfect in such manner as the Gov- ernor in Council may direct, all steamships, steamers, vessels, boats, pens, carriages, trucks, and vehicles used by such company or persons for the carrying of animals, and the Governor in Council may cause such steamer to be detained in such place as to him seems meet until it is so cleansed and disinfected. Provision is also made for subjecting animals to quarantine, the sepa- ration of diseased animals, the purification of infected places, the prohibit- ing or regulating the holding of markets, fairs, exhibitions, or sales of ani- mals, the declaring a market, yard, steamship, etc., to be infected, the slaughtering of the animals as provided by the act, and for the requiring of proof that the horse or other animals being imported have not been brought from any place or locality where any contagious or infectious disease is existing. WARRANTY OF THE SOUNDNESS OF ANIMALS. WHAT CONSTITUTES SOUNDNESS. Local custom and usage, as well as circumstances of each case, deter- mine the meaning of the word sound, when it is applied to the sale and warranty of horses, sheep, and cattle. The general rule implies the absence of any disease in the animal at the time which actually decreases its value or its natural usefulness. There was a great difference, formerly, among judges, as to what consti- tuted a breach of warranty of soundness, whether the disease must be temporary or permanent in its nature. The law in Ontario follows the English rule, which seems logical and reasonable, and that is : — Any infirmity which renders an animal unfit in any degree for present use, is unsoundness. In the case of Elton v. Brogden, 4 Camp. 281, it LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 59I was pro\ed that the horse was lame at the time of sale, but the defend- ant undertook to pro\e that the lameness was of a temporary nature, and that the animal had become sound. The presiding- justice said : " I have always held, and hold now, that a warranty of soundness is broken if the animal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him which ren- dered him unfit for present service. It is not necessary that the dis- order should be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a cough he is unsound, whether that proves temporarv or mortal. The horse in question ha\'ing been lame at the time of sale, when he was warranted sound, his condition subsequently is no defense to the action." This doctrine has long been followed in Ontario and some of the other provinces. Oliphant in his work on horses says : ' ' We may define a horse to be sound when he is free from hereditary disease, and in the possession of his natural and constitutional health, and has as much bod- ily perfection as is consistent with his natural formation. The rule as to unsoundness is, that if, at the time of sale, the horse has any disease which actually does diminish the natural usefulness of the animal so as to make him less capable of work of any description, or which in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness of the animal, or if the horse has, either from disease or from accident, undergone any alteration of structure that either actually does at the time or in its ordinary effects will diminish the natural usefulness of the horse, such a horse is unsound. This rule applies to cases of disease and accident which from their nature are only temporary, it not being nec- essary that the disorder should be permanent and incurable. The horse suft'ering from acute disease such as fever, inflammation, etc.,, would be beyond dispute unsound during the time he is affected by them. A vice is a bad habit, and a bad habit to constitute a vice must either' be shown in the temper of the horse so as to make him dangerous or diminish his natural usefulness, or it must be a habit decidedly injurious to his health. (Scholfield v. Robb, 2 M. & R. 210.) Whether a certain thing renders a horse unsound depends on circum- stances. For instance : if a horse had a slight pimple on the skin, it would not amount to an unsoundness, but even if such a thing as a pimple were on some part of the body where it might have the effect of impair- ing its natural usefulness, as, for instance, on the part which would pre- vent the putting a saddle or bridle on the animal it would be different. 592 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. The question of vice or soundness is purely a jury question, and in judging of it the jury must consider whether a horse warranted sound was at the time of dehvery unfit for immediate use to an ordinary person. Lameness, temporary or permanent, constitutes unsoundness. The law in regard to temporary disease is laid down in the following case : On the trial of an action on the warranty of a horse, where evidence was very contradictory, but a witness of the defendant's admitted that he had bandaged one of the fore legs of the horse, but not the other, because the one was weaker than the other. Lord EUenborough used practically the same words as in the case of Elton v. Brogden cited above. ' ' To constitute unsoundness, it is not essential that the infirmity should be of a permanent nature. " In a previous case it was said to have been held that a warranty that a horse is sound is not false because a horse labors under a temporary injury from an accident at the time the defend- ant warranted it sound. But the warranty there appears to have been a .qualified one, because, when bargaining, the plaintif? observed that the mare went rather lame on one leg. The defendant replied that it had been occasioned by her taking up a nail at the farrier's and, except as to that lameness, she was perfectly sound. WHAT CONSTITUTES A WARRANTY. It is not necessary that any particular form of words should be used to create a warranty. The word "warrant" may not be used at all, nor the word ' ' soundness. ' ' Thus : The seller of the horse who says he is all right in every respect, or similar words, indicates and expresses a war- ranty. A statement at the time of sale of the horse that the animal is of specified age is a warranty that he is no older, but any statement that he is sound and right, or sound and perfect, will include a warranty. The statement that a horse is well broken might or might not include a warranty of gentleness, and the statement that the horse is sound every way, perfectly gende, would not be a guaranty that the horse is well broken or suitable to plow or do any other particular work. The war- ranty should not be construed beyond its reasonable signification, thus : A bill of sale of one gray horse five years old, which I warrant sound and kind, is a warranty of soundness and kindness only, and the first expres- sion is a matter of description. It is much better, both for the buyer and seller, that the latter states whether he prefers to warrant or not ; because, LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 593 when nothing has been said on that point, a considerable degree of doubt must frequendy rest upon the case, and then it is only by interpreting the expressions used at the time of sale that even an opinion can be formed as to whether a warranty were ever intended. The general rule is that whatever the vendor represents at the time of sale is a war- ranty. Words, however, of expectation and estimate only do not amount to a warranty. The statement by the seller of a horse that " I never warrant, but he is sound as far as I know," is a qualified warranty, and an action for breach of warranty may be maintained upon it by the purchaser, if it can be proved that the seller knew of the unsoundness. (Wood ^■. Smith, 4 c. and p. 45.) If a person at the time of sale says : " You may depend upon it, the horse is perfectly quiet and free from vice," it is a warranty. If the horse is purchased for a particular purpose, and the seller knows of that particular purpose, and declares that the horse is all right, such a statement would amount to a warranty. Representations antecedent to the contract as an inducement to buy are not warranties unless included in the contract. All affirmations made to a buyer as a ground of reliance are warranties. (Stewart v. Jamieson, i M. 525. ) There was at one time a general opinion that a " sound price " given for a horse was tantamount to a warranty of soundness, but Lord Mans- field considered the doctrine to be so loose and unsatisfactory that he rejected it and laid down the following rule : ' ' There must either be an expressed warranty of soundness or fraud in the seller to maintain an action." (Parkinson v. Lee, 2 East 322.) DEFECTS COVERED BY GENERAL WARRANTY. A general warranty is an unconditional undertaking that a horse or any other article really is what the warrantor professes it to be. A general warranty of soundness, however, does not cover patent defects — /. e., defects which are so obvious that the buyer cannot help obser\'ing them, but a buyer who knows of the defect cannot sue the seller on the warranty. On the other hand, a buyer who relies on the warranty, and omits to make a minute examination, is protected against defects, which, though not apparent, may have been detected. In other words : the patent defects which the warranty does not cover, and to 594 LEGAL DKPAKTMENT. which the doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware) appHes, must be so manifest and palpable as to be necessarily within the knowledge of the purchaser, and also such defects as at the time of sale either are or will produce unsoundness. Whether a defect is patent or not is a question for the consideration of the jury. Thus : in the case of a horse which was warranted sound, and was shortsighted from a peculiarity t)f the cornea that induces the habit of shying. Lord Campbell observed that this was not a defect which the purchaser was bound to have observed. Again where an action was brought on the purchase of a race horse, war- ranted "sound in wind and limb at this time," two defects, viz., crib- biting and a splint, were both discussed before purchase. The horse broke down, and on the case being tried the buyer obtained a \erdict. Tindal, C. ]., in granting a new trial, said : "In this case no fraud or deceit can be attributed to the defendant as the horse's defect was mani- fest, the splint not only being apparent, but made the subject of discus- sion before the bargain was made * "-■' ''^ and the learned judge left it to the jury to say whether the horse was fit for ordinary ])urposes. His direction would have been less subject to misapprehension if lie had left it to them, in the terms of the warranty, to say whether the horse was at the time of the bargain sound in wind and limb, saving those manifest and visible defects which were known to the parties." (Margetson v. Wright, 7 Bing. 603. ) Although the loss of an eye is a breach of warranty of soundness which has been laid down, that, " Where one buys a horse upon war- ranting him to ha\'e both his eyes, and he have but one eye, he is remedi- less, for it is a thing which lies in his own cognizance, and such a war- ranty or af^rmation is not material nor to be regarded." But this seems to assume that the eye has entirely disappeared, or has been so obviously damaged that it must lie in the cognizance of the buyer, and nothing is said with regard to loss of sight where there is little apparent injury to the eye, for a horse may appear to the majority of people perfect in his eyes, and yet have lost sight of one or both. If a person purchases ahorse, knowing it to be blind, he caimot sue the seller on a general warranty of soundness, although he warranted the ani- mal to be sound in every respect. (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P. 610.) Where a buyer suspects some defect and wishes to examine and tr\ the horse for it, but the seller objects and says, " I will warrant him," LECiAL DEPARTMENT. 595 he is liable for the defect. For where an action on the case was brought when a horse warranted sound had turned out "shoulder-tied" it was contended that an action would not lie because the defect was visible. But Sir Henry Montague, C. J., said : "This was the ground, that the plaintiff wished to have ridden the horse," but the defendant said, "I will warrant him sound," and Nov, J., said, "That is the distinction, where the defect is visible." (Dorrington v. Edwards, 2 Rol. 188.) In the United States a general warranty was held to extend to patent defects, where access to the horse was prevented by the seller by means of a trick, the buyer being unaware of the defect. This is un- doubtedly correct, as the maxim, caveat eftiptor, would not apply to such a case. ( Margetson \-. Wright, 5 M. & P. 610. ) But to warrant a thing that may be perceived by sight is not good. (Bailey w Merrell, 3 Bulst. 95. ) DEFECTS WHICH CONSTITUTE UNSOUNDNESS OF HORSES. Glanders, corns, bone-spa\-ins, blindness, or any organic defect, back- ing when a confirmed habit, biting when dangerous, crib-biting, affecting the health, have been held by various courts to constitute unsoundness. Bad formation which does not produce disease or lameness at the time of sale is not usually considered unsoundness. WATER RIGHTS. E\-ery owner of land upon a natural stream of water has a right to use the water for any reasonable purpose, if it does not interfere with similar rights that are \ested in the owners of the land above, below, or beside him. He may take water to supply his dwelling or water his land, or for the use of his cattle, may use it for manufacturing purposes, such as running water wheels or supplying steam boilers, so long as the amount taken does not injuriously affect the volume, but it is the mere privilege that goes with the land and not of the water itself. If the stream is very small and does not supply water more than enough to answer the natural wants of the different owners living on the stream, no one of them can use the water for free irrigation or manufacturing, thereby depriving the other owners of its use. But for domestic purposes or watering the stock he would be justified in consuming all the water. Chief Justice Shaw states the general doctrine as follows : "Every person through whose land a flowage of water courses, such person has a right to the 596 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. benefit of it, as it i)asses through his hind, to all useful purposes to which it may be applied, and no proprietor of land on the'same water-course has a rio-ht to prevent it from flowing through his premises, or obstructing it in passing them, or to curb or destroy it." DIVERSION OF WATER. E\'ery person who owns land situated upon. a stream has the following rights: First, to the natural flow of the stream; second, that the stream should continue to run in its natural channel; third, that it should flow upon his land in its usual quantity, and in its natural place; fourth, that it should flow off his land upon the land of his neighbor in its accustomed place, and at its usual level. These rights he has, and cannot be deprived of them, so the owner of property should not make a change in the flow of the stream that would materially injure any other owner situated upon it, or interfere with the stream flowing as it is its wont to flow, or he will be responsible for the damage it will occasion. Of course these rights are subject to the privilege of each owner to make reasonable use of the water while it is passing through his land. A diversion of the stream may be made by the owner of the land if it is returned to its natural channel before it leaves his premises. Diversion of Water Beneath the Surface. If the owner of land without any intention of injuring his neighbor, and while making use of his land for any lawful purpose, cuts of? hidden currents, though he de- stroys altogether the use of water which has no Ansible course, but has been accustomed to flow into the land of his neighbor, an action cannot be maintained against him for the diversion or stoppage of such water. He may, therefore, drain the land, dig a well, open and work a mine, al- though by so doing he may cut off the supply of water of the springs and wells in his vicinity. But where the course of a stream is well known, and it leaves the surface at some point and flows for a distance beneath the surface, then emerges again, the owner of the land lower down upon the stream has the same right as he would have if the stream remained en- tirely above the ground. MILL PRIVILEGES. A person who has a natural stream of water flowing through his land, has a right to use the water for mills, provided he does not cut off the water from those living down the stream, and he is not liable for an ac- LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 597 tion for using and obstructing the water for liis mill ; for which it appears that the dam is of the size that is adapted to the capacity of the stream and quantity of water usually flowing therein, and that his mode of using the water is not unusual or unreasonable, and is in accordance with the general custom of the country in the case of dams upon similar streams. In Ontario laws have been passed for the erection of mills by authorizing the owners and occupants through summary proceedings, to take land of other persons, by paying such damages as may be legally assessed. POLLUTION OF WATER. Every owner of land through which a stream of water flows has a right to the use of the water in its natural state, and is liable if lit' renders the water unwholesome, or unlit for purposes for which it is used, unless he has acquired, by grant or otherwise, an adverse right against the lower or adjoining owner. Erecting cess-pool or depositing manure or obnoxious substance near the stream would be such a wrong. An action for damages is not the only remedy for the unlawful pollu- tion of a stream. The party thus wrongfully interfering may be restrained by an order of any court having jurisdiction. EASEMENT. When a land owner places a house on the line of his lot, and eaves project upon his neighbor's land, as to throw the water from the roof thereon, it is an encroachment upon the neighbor's lot to the extent, at least, of the projection. One adjoining owner cannot legally subject the lands of the other adjoining owner to the drip from the eaves of his building. LAND BOUNDED ON NAVIGABLE AND UNNAVIQABLE WATERS. By the common law of England, the proprietor of each bank of an unnavigable stream is considered as, prima facie, the proprietor also of half the land covered by the water. In the case of a navigable river, the bed of it, so far at least as the tide of the sea flows, prima facie, belongs to the crown. The owner of the land abutting on a tidal navigable river has, jure ^gS LEGAL DEPARTMENT. naturcc, a riijht of access to and from the stream wholly distinct from the rio-htof navigation, which he enjoys in common with the rest of the pub- lic. There is no distinction in particular between riparian rights on the banks of navigable, or tidal, and those of non-navigable rivers. In the former case, however, there must be no interference with the public right of navigation. (Lyon \-. Fishmongers' Co., i App. Cas. 662.) SURFACE WATER AND DRAINAGE. The water which flows upon the surface of the land, not gathered in ponds or streams of running water, is usually designated ' ' surface water." It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between surface water, as such, and running water, and perhaps the best way to distinguish it is to ascertain what a running stream is. Where there is a channel or canal which is made by a general contour of the surrounding land from which the water is collected into one channel, it may be natural or artificial, it flows, however, in a definite channel, ha^'ing a bed and sides, and usually discharges itself into some other stream. The water need not flow con- tinuously therein, as there are many large rivers which are sometimes dry, but they have a well-defined channel. The owner of the land has a right to the surface water which runs in no definite channel, and he may prevent its flow into a neighboring stream, thus : If there are two fields adjoining each other, one lower than the other, the owner of the upper field has a right to the water that flows on his land ; he need not let it flow' off from the same on the land below. The owner of the lower field has the right to erect an embankment to stop the water from the upper field from flowing upon it. But the owner of the upper field has not the right to divert the flow of water from its natural channel and cause it to make a new channel on the lower ground, nor can he collect into one large stream waters usuaUy flowing off into his neighbor's fields by several streams, and thus increasing the rush upon the lower field. The law has always recognized a distinction between the right of the owner to control the surface water which falls or collects on his lands, and his right to con- trol water of a natural water course ; the owner of the land is admitted to have an absolute property in the surface water before it lea\'es his land and becomes a part of a definite water course, and he may appropriate it to his own use or get rid of it in any way possible, provided he does not collect it and cast it in a body upon the proi)rietor below him to his injury. (Ostrom v. Sills, 24 A. R. 526.) Li£t;AL DKPARIMENT. EMPLOYER AND LABORER. 599 There is a cliftercncc in somi' respects between a ])erson employed to work upon a farm, or as a domestic servant, ami a ])crs()n employed to work in a factory. The laws of the country have reouhited the number of hours per day for many kinds of labor, but between the former laborer and the farmer the hours of labor rest whollv u])()n contract, express or implied. The laborer is bound to render the ser\ices and the farmer to pay the price agreed upon, or the value thereof, if no arrangement is made as to the price. It is essential that the parties ha\-e the legal capacity to make a contract, otherwise the contract could not be enforced, thus : If a boy under age hires for a specified time at ? fixed price, he is not bound by his contract, but may abandon it at any time, although he cannot recover on his contract, yet he can recover what his ser\'ices are actually worth, and that without any deduction for damages for his breach of contract. If there is no fixed period of employment agreed upon, the period of notice or warning is to be governed by the wages or custom of the trade, profession, or business. If there is no special agreement as to price, the employer must pay a reasonable \alue for the services, depend- ing on the current rate of wages for similar ser\ice at the same time and place. Contracts for More than a Year. Contracts for services which could not be performed within a year, must, by the statute of frauds, be in writing in order to be legally binding. In Britton v. Rossiter, ii Q. B. D., it was held that a contract to serxe for one year, the service to commence on the second day after that on which the contract was made, \\-as a con- tract not to be performed within a year, and was within the fourth sec- tion of the statute of frauds. The agreement need not be in one writing ; it may be contained in several documents which refer to each other, and which do not recjuire verbal evidence to show that they in fact refer to each other. (Cawthorne V. Cordrey, 13 C. B. N. S. 406. ) If an oral contract is made to employ a laborer for a year, and the contract may not be completed within the year, it is binding. But if the performance of such contract is to commence at some future day it can- not be enforced, yet it seems that an oral contract in which a laborer was hired for a year, to begin the next da\', is \alid. Enticing a Laborer Away from His Employer. When a person is 600 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. employed to labor on a farm or do any work, and the person entices, hires, or persuades the laborer to leave the services during the time of employment, the person who employs the help has the right of action for recovery of damages against the person who enticed the laborer away, and for all inconvenience and losses thereby suffered by the employer. But attempting to entice a laborer away, unless damage is. sustained, is not actionable, nor can an action be sustained for inducing a laborer to leave the employer's services at the end of the time for which he was hired, even though the laborer had no intention of leaving. Abandoning Service without Cause. When a laborer is hired for a dehnite time, and before that time expires he leaves without cause, or the consent of the employer, the laborer cannot recover any part of his wages, because the contract is entire and performance is a condition prec- edent to a right of recovery. If a man agrees to work a year for another for a specified price per month, and by the terms of the agreement he is to be paid each month's wages at the end of each month, he may sue for and recover his wages at the end of the month. Abandoning Service for Cause. While the laborer has the right to abandon service for cause, if the cause is sufficient to render the contract voidable, he can collect his pay, yet he should not leave for trivial causes. If the employer is to furnish board and lodging to the laborer as a part of his contract, and he is not furnished with wholesome or suiificient food, or suitable or comfortable lodgings, and the employer treats him improp- erly bv assaulting him, the laborer is justified in leaving. Being com- pelled to work on Sunday, other than do the necessary farm work, such as care of live animals, or the domestic servant in the house to prepare the meals, and properly care for the milk, or any act of the employer that is contrary to good morals, preventing reasonable comfort, safet}-, and health, or that would injure the reputation of the laborer, would justify the employed to abandon the service. Harsh language to the laborer, and a difificulty with a co-laborer, would not justify the laborer in leaving. It is a question for the jury to decide whether the laborer had a reason- able excuse for leaving the service, and the burden of proof lies upon the laborer, who must establish the fact. There are a great many instances in which the laborer is justified in leaving the employer, but they could not all be enumerated here. In every case where there is good cause the laborer may leave and compel the farmer to pay for the time that he has actually worked. Farmer Liable on Laborer's Contract. Any contract made by the laborer in the course of his employment, about the farmer's business, is binding upon the farmer, provided it is within the scope of the authority conferred or implied from the employer's conduct. Thus : A house- maid is engaged to work about the house, she is in the habit of purchas- ing the family's supplies, and she buys such supplies in the name of the farmer, the farmer is compelled to pay for them, even if she has no order LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 6oi to buy, and was in so buying defrauding her principal, and obtaining goods for herself, i)r()\'ided this was or had been the custom about the employer's place. But if a man is employed in farm work, and is not connected with the household work, and never been i)ermitted l)y the farmer to make any purchases, he could not bind the farmer by going to the store and buying goods simply because he was a laborer and pretend- ing to have authority. If he has the authority and has purchased goods at a certain place, the employer will be bound by his acts, unless he notifies the parties from whom he had formerly purchased that he will be no longer responsible. But the laborer who so purchased without the consent or directions of his employer is criminally liable. Liability of Employer for Injury Committed by his Employee. Where the employee is working within the scope of his employment, even though the farmer does not authorize, or even know, a laborer's act, he will be held responsible for any injury accruing through the negligence, fraud, deceit, or even willful misconduct of the laborer. Discharging for Cause. Before the employer can discharge his laborer, there must be a sufficient cause to discharge the employer from liability for future wages, or justify the dismissal ; there must be, on the part of the laborer, either willful disobedience of the lawful orders, or immoral conduct, or habitual negligence. To illustrate an instance of the first : If, where the farmer ordered the laborer to go with his team a long distance just as dinner was ready, and he refused to go until after he had had his dinner. But in most cases, where the misconduct is slight and is the first of?ense, there is a strong tendency to excuse the laborer. Still, willful disobedience of the lawful command, as well as insulting language used by the laborer, is generally considered good ground for discharge. If the laborer is immoral, or habitually drunk, or embezzles, or commits fraudulent acts toward his employer, his dismissal would be justifiable. Unwarranted absence, or neglect in discharging his duties, thereby causing loss or injury to his employer, would justify the same course, even though the laborer did not intend to cause damage. Dismissing Laborers. If the master should, without just cause, turn a servant under a monthly contract away without notice, the latter would be able to recover a month's wages beyond the arrears. Liability of the Laborer to the Farmer for iVlisconduct. If the laborer by negligence, carelessness, or misconduct in doing the work, or executing orders, causes loss to the employer, or if a third person has re- covered damages from the employer because of the acts of the employee, the employee will be liable to the farmer and he must also pay for prop- erty willfully broken or damaged. Termination of Services. If the service is dissolved at the expira- tion of the term for which the person is hired, either by mutual consent, by the death of either party, or by the employed being unable to per- form his duty on account of some permanent disability, the farmer must 6o2 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. pay for the services rendered up to the time of the termination of the services, and, in case of death, personal representati\es of the laborer are entitled to reco\-er from the employer what the ser\-ices were reasonably worth. BOUNDARIES AND FENCES. Under the laws of Ontario, every conveyance of land must be in writ- ing, and this conveyance should accurately describe the land intended to be conveyed, so that its boundaries from the deed may be correctly de- termined, and so clear and comprehensive that the parcel conveyed may be distinguished and separated from all other land. If the description is hopelessly uncertain, the conveyance will be void, and no title will pass. The boundaries are usually determined by monuments, courses, distance, and quantity of land conveyed. The monuments will control courses and distances, and courses and distances will control the quantity of land. This, howe\'er, is not the in\-ariable rule ; natural monuments, naturally permanent, are the most reliable, such as trees, streams, ponds and lakes, beaches and shores, and also walls, fences, streets, and highways are regarded as reliable monuments. Frequently an adjoining farm is referred to as a monument in the description of the land conx'eyed, and monuments consisting of stakes and stones, when placed, will control courses and distances. The general rule is where land is described as bounded by a stream which is non-navigable, the center of the stream is the line, and when described and bounded on the bank or the shore of the stream, then the bank or shore is the boundary. If the stream is navigable, in which the tide ebbs and flows, the boundary is high-water mark on the shore. In those places in which there are large navigable rivers in which the tide does not ebb and flow, the boundary line is held to be low-water mark ; in either case the upland proprietor has a right as appurtenant to his land to erect wharves and piers extending to low-water mark, or into the channel of the stream, subject to the supervision of the government for the benefit of the public, and as an appurtenance to said lands, the owner has a right to a passageway to and from the main channel of the river. Lands bounded by arms of the sea run only to high-water mark. Where land is bounded by a highway or street, where the crown or municipality does not own the bed of the road and the description in the deed is "bounded on," "running along," "bounded by the highway," and the like, the boundary line is the center of the highway. If the land is described as bounded by the side of the street, or if there are words in the description indicating an intent to exclude the soil of the street, then the near edge of the roadway will be the boundary. If a highway is referred to as the boundary, the actual line, as the road is laid out, will be taken as the true line of the street. In Ontario highways are vested in the crown or municipality. LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 603 action for damages resulting to his own lands, crops, fruit trees and shrubbery thereon, caused by the cattle of the adjoining owners pass- ing over or through such defective fence. The law authorizes the electors of a town to declare by resolution what shall be regarded as a lawful division fence. It is also provided by the statutes of the State of New York that railroad corporations and lessees of railroad corporations shall maintain fences on the sides of the road of the height and strength of the division fences as required by law, with openings and gates or bars therein, at the farm crossings of such railroad for the use of the proprietors of the lands adjoining such railroad, and shall also construct, where the same has not already been done, and shall hereafter maintain cattle guards at all crossings suitable and sufficient to prevent horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, from getting on to such railroad. So long as such fences are not made or are not in good repair, the corporation or the lessees, or the persons in the possession of the road, shall be liable for all damages done by their agents or engines or cars to any domestic animal escaping thereon because of such failure. When made and in good repair, they shall not be liable for any such damages unless negligently or willfully done. A sufficient post and wire fence of requisite height shall be deemed a lawful fence within the provisions of this section, but barbed wire shall not be used in its construction. Every adjoining land owner who, or whose grantor has received compensation for fencing the land of land taken for a railroad, and has agreed to build and maintain a lawful fence along such line, shall build and maintain such fence. (Sec, 32, Chap. 565, Laws of 1890.) OVERHANGING TREES. A person owning a tree growing near a boundary line, though the roots extend into the land of an adjoining owner and derive nourish- ment therefrom, is the property of the owner of the land upon which the trunk stands, and such owner is entitled to the fruit produced upon the branches overhanging the adjoining lands. If force should be used by the adjoining owner to prevent the owner of the tree from reaching over and picking the fruit from the overhanging branches, he would have a right of action against the party so interfering with him. Hoffman V. Armstrong, 48 N. Y. 201, is a case where a lady whose father owned 604 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. some fruit trees stood upon the division fence and undertook to pick some cherries from the limb of a tree which hung over a neighbor's land. The neighbor forbade her taking the cherries, but she con- tinued picking them and he attempted to prevent her by force, and did her a personal injury, for which she recovered a judgment of $i,ooo. If it falls from the overhanging tree on to a neighbor's land, it still belongs to the owner of the tree, though he might be liable for trespass in going upon a neighbor's land to gather it. In such action the recovery cannot include anything more than the actual injury to the premises upon which the owner of the fruit entered without permission. Branches overhanging the boundary line may be cut off up to the line, but belong to the party who owns the tree, and the person cutting them off, if he use them, will be obliged to pay such owner for them, A tree standing upon a boundary line, so that part of its trunk is upon each side of the line, belongs to the adjoining owners in common, neither is at liberty to cut the tree without the consent of the other, nor to cut away a part which extends into his land if by so doing he injures the common property. (Dubois v. Beaver, 25 N. Y. 123.) The ownership of land includes everything beneath and above the surface, with the right to the enjoyment in such a manner as he may see fit so long as such use does not interfere with a similar right which belongs to his neighbor of enjoyment of his lands. An adjoining owner has not the right to maintain upon his lands a nuisance which would pre- vent an adjoining owner from the enjoyment of rights which belong to him. One owner may be restrained from keeping swarms of bees so near the division line as to interfere with and prevent the proper use and enjoyment of the lands of the adjoining owner. A person may plant shade trees upon his own lands, cover them with a thick forest if he desire, and the owner of adjoining lands, though he may have a house near the boundary line, has no right of action against the owner of the trees if the house of the adjoining owner is made damp and unhealthy thereby. Trees Poisonous to Animals. — The owner of a farm is liable for damage caused by a tree that is poisonous to animals, where the branches hang over the division line and poison cattle or sheep upon the adjoining land; but if cattle break through the fence, which belongs to the owner of the cattle to build and maintain, and escapes to poison- ous trees which are distant from the boundary line, and are injured LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 6o$ thereby, the owner of the land is not liable because the cattle are wrongfully upon the premises. In New York it is provided by statute, Chap. 501, Laws of 1892, that it shall be unlawful for any person knowing or willfully to keep any plum, cherry or other trees infected with the contagious disease or fungus known as the " Black Knot." And every tree so infected is declared to be a public nuisance and may be destroyed by order of the commissioner appointed under the act, and whenever any person own- ing or in possession of any such trees shall neglect or refuse to comply with the order of the commissioner directing him to destroy the same within the time specified in the notice, he may be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding ten days-, or both, in the discretion of the court, and any justice of the peace in a town or city in which said offense shall be committed shall have jurisdiction thereof. The Law in Regard to Manure. — Asbetweengrantor and grantee, lessor and lessee of farm lands, manure made upon the premises from the produce raised thereon goes with tlie land as a part of the realty, and is not personal property. This is upon the theory that it is necessary that it should so remain in order to maintain the productiveness of the soil. Judge Eastman, in Plummer v. Plummer, 30 N. H. 558, states the law in that State as follows: "It must be regarded as settled in this State, that between the grantor and the grantee, all manure made in the ordinary course of carrying on the farm, and which is upon the place at the time of sale and conveyance, would pass to the purchaser, unless there be a reservation in the deed; and that it makes no differ- ence whether it is in the field, in the yard, or in heaps around the house, or under cover, it belongs to the land and passes with it like fallen timber and trees, and loose stones lying upon the surface of the earth, and like the wooden fences erected upon the land and the material of such fences when placed upon the ground for use or accidentally fallen down." This is the law in the State of New York. In New Jersey, it was held in Ruckman v. Outwater, 4 Dutch. 581, to be personal property and not to pass with the real estate. The rule is different where manure is made in a livery stable, village lot, or in any manner not connected with agriculture, or made from products not produced upon a farm, nor made in connection with its cultivation or occupancy as a farm. In such case the manure belongs 6o6 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. to the person producing it, and he has a right to dispose of it as he pleases, the same as any other personal property. Escaped Cattle Upon Adjoining Premises When Driven Along THE Highway. — While the owner is driving cattle along the highway and they escape to the adjacent lands, and the owner of the cattle pursues them and drives them off as soon as possible, such an entry upon the premises is but an involuntary trespass for which the owner of the cattle should not be liable. (Rightmire v. Shepard, 36 N. Y. St. Reporter, 768; The Tonawanda R, R. Co. v. Munger, 5 Denio, 255; z Waterman on Trespass, sec. 872. BARBED-WIRE FENCE. The statutes of the State of New York provide, Chap, 755, Laws of 1894, that " Barbed wire cannot be used in the construction of any division fence constructed or built after September ist, 1895, unless the person, association or corporation desiring to use such material, shall first obtain the written consent of the owner of the adjoining property that it may be used." Any person, association or corporation who shall construct or build a division fence contrary to the provisions of this act, or who shall maintain such fence after so constructing or building the same, shall forfeit and pay to such adjoining owner or other person occupying such adjoining property treble damages for all injuries occasioned to him thereby. In the case of Rowland v. Baird, 18 Abb. N. C. 256, it was held that a barbed-wire fence erected upon or near the division line is calculated to cause serious injury and damage to the animals of the adjoining owner, and is a nuisance rendering the owner liable for such injury. In the case of Rooney v. Aldrich, 44 Hun, 320, it was held: The owner of a farm is liable for injury to animals upon an adjoining farm by reason of his agent's negligence in the construction of a wire fence, which he, according to agreement, was bound to maintain. " A person is not liable in damages for building a high fence on his own land which darkens his neighbor's windows, and this without regard to his motive." (Pickard v. Collins, 23 Barb. 444.) GLOSSARY. Ab-lac-TA-tion. a weaning or cessation from suckling. Ab-do-men. The part of the body below the diaphragm, which con- tains the stomach, liver, and intestines. Ab-IvU-tion. Washing or cleansing the external part of the body. Ab-nor-mal. That which is not natural nor regular. ' Contrary to nature. A-BOR-TION. The casting of young before the proper time. If the young is cast at a time previous to full foetal development, yet is capable of living, it is called a premature birth. A-bra-sion. a wearing away by contact or rubbing, as rubbing off the surface of the skin, often producing galls. Ab-rupt. Quick, sudden; an abrupt turn or twist in the intestines may cause strangulation of the parts. Ab-scess. a swelling and its cavity containing pus or matter. A cav- ity containing pus. Ab-sorb-ent. In anatomy those glands and vessels which imbibe or suck np liquids, as the lacteals. In medicine any substance that ab.sorbs either liquid or acid. As absorbent cotton, used to take up and hold the liquid produced by blisters, and chalk and magnesia used to absorb the acid in the stomach. A-CHO-Li-A. A deficiency of bile. A-CID. Sour, sharp, or biting to the taste. The last fermentation before the putrid. A-ciD-u-LATE. To make slightly sour, as with lemons, vinegar, or any other acid. Ac-rid. Very sharp, pungent, biting, irritating, as the strong acids. A-CUTE. Severe, sharp. In diseases, those which run a course and end; in contra-distinction to chronic. Ac-TUAL Cau-ter-y. The production of an immediate effect, by sear- ing or burning with a hot iron. In contra-distinction to the effect of escharotic (blister) as a caustic application. 6o8 GLOSSARY. Ad-he-Sive. Sticky, tenacious. A plaster used to stick to the edges of a wound and hold them in position is called an Adhesive Plaster. Ad-i-pose. Matter, membrane or tissue. Usually applied to the fatty tissues of the body. Ad-ju-vant. a substance added to a prescription to aid the operation of the principal ingredient. Al-bu-men. An essential constituent of animal bodies. The white of an egg is nearly all pure albumen. Ax-i-MEN-TA-RY Ca-nai,. The tube or passage through the body to convey the food. It consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, (stomachs in ruminants) small and large intestines. Al-ka-li. a substance that neutralizes acids by uniting them. An alkaline substance will turn red litmus to blue. Al-TER-a-tive. a remedy that changes a morbid condition of the functions into one of health. A medicine that restores healthy functions without sensible evacuations of the bowels, or other sen- sible secretions. Al-ve-o-lar Pro-cess. The part of the maxillary bones into which the teeth are inserted. Am-ni-ot-ic lyiQ-uiD. The fluid surrounding the the foetus in the womb. The amniotic sac is the sac containing the fcEtus. An-ES-THET-ic. That which produces insensibility to pain. Chloro- roform, ether, opium, etc. An-EU-rism. a soft pulsating, hollow tumor, containing blood arising from an enlargement or rupture of the walls of an artery. When in the brain it causes paralysis. An-o-dyne. Any medicine that eases pain, as a narcotic or opiate; anything that soothes disturbed functions and feelings. Ant- AC-ID. A substance that neutralizes acids. In medicine a remedy for ascidity of the stomach, often called an absorbent. An-TheIv-min-Tic. a medicine used to destroy or expel worms from the body. An-thrax. a malignant pustule or carbuncle. It is also used to des- ignate an infectious disease of sheep and cattle. It may be trans- mitted to man by means of sores on his hands or body coming in contact with the spores of the disease. An-TI-dote. a remedy to counteract the effect of poisons, or of any- thing noxious taken into the stomach. GLOSSARY. 609 An-TI-SEp-Tic. Anything that counteracts or prevents putrefacation or decay. There are spores in the air that attack wounds and cause rotting or putrefaction. Antiseptic surgery uses apphcations to prevent these spores from hving in the wounds. An-ti-spas-mod-ic. Medicines that reheve spasms, such as cramps and convulsions. A-NUS. The posterior opening of the ahmentary canal, through which the excrements are expelled. A-OR-TA. The great artery which carries the blood from the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs; the main trunk of the arte- rial system. A-PE-Ri-ENT. A medicine that gently moves or opens the bowels; sim- ply a laxative, Ar-o-mat-ic. a plant, drug, or medicine characterized by a fragrant smell, and usually by a warm pungent taste, as ginger, cinnamon and spices. As-CAR-i-DES. A parasitic worm often occuring in the human intes- tines also in the domestic animals. As-Ci-TES. Dropsy of the peritoneum. A collection of serous fluid in the cavity of the abdomen. As-PHYX-iA. Apparent death or suspended animation; the condition which results from drowning or inhaling irrespirable or poivSonous gases. See Carbon-monoxide. As-siM-i-LA-TiON. The changing of nutriment into the fluid or solid substance of the bod3% by the processes of digestion and absorption, whether in plants or animals. As-TRiN-GENT. A medicine or other substance that produces contrac- tion in the soft organic textures, and checks the discharges of blood, mucus, etc. Au-Ri-CLES. The two chambers of the heart into which the blood is re- ceived and transmitted to the ventricles, from which it is forced through the arteries to the various parts of the body. Aus-CUL-TA-TiON. An examination by listening either directly by ap- plying the ear to the parts of the body, as the chest or abdomen, or with the stethoscope, in order to distingui-sh .sounds recognized as a sign of health or disease. Bal-sam-ics. Medicines employed for healing purposes. Soft, sooth- ing, mitigating remedies. 6lO GLOSSARY. BiL-iA-RY. Relating or belonging to bile. Biliary calculus, a gall-stone or a concretion formed in the gall bladder or gall ducts. Blis-TER. a thin bladder on the skin, containing watery matter or serum. It may be occasioned by a burn or other injury or by a vesicatory. Also applied to the plaster of Spanish fly or other mat- ter used to raise the blister. Bou-GiE. A long, flexible instrument, that is introduced into the urethra, esophagus, etc., to remove obstructions or keep the duct open or to enlarge it. Bright's Dis-ease. An affection of the kidneys usually inflammatory in character, and distinguished by the occurrence of albumen and renal casts in the urine. Named after Dr. Bright of London who first described it. Bron-chi. The plural of bronchus. The bronchi consist of two pri- mary subdivisions of the trachea or windpipe. Bron-chi-al. Pertaining to the bronchi. Bronchial arteries, branches of the descending aorta that accompany the bronchi in all their di- visions. Bronchial cells, the air cells terminating the bronchi. Bronchial tubes, usually applied to the secondary and other sub- divisions of the bronchi. Cal-cu-li. Any solid concretion found in any part of the body, but most frequently found in some hollow organ that acts as a reservoir. Calculi in the stomach, often found in miller's horses, and biliary calculi, found, in gall bladders and bile ducts, and urinary calculi, found in the kidneys and bladder. Can-nu-la. a small tube of metal, wood, or India rubber used for var- ious purposes, especially for withdrawing liquids and allowing gases to escape. It is usually accompanied with a trocar, a sharp pointed instrument which just fills the opening of the tube. After insertion the trocar is withdrawn, which allows the liquid or gas to pass through the hollow tube. Cap-il-LA-ry. a minute thin walled vessel, which holds both arteries and veins. In these minute vessels the blood gives off its oxygen which unites with the carbon of the surrounding tissues forming carbon-dioxide, thus producing heat. The blood thus being changed from arterial to veinous (red to blue). Here is also deposited the nourishment that unites with the various ti.ssues causing them to be renewed, and from these organs the blood receives the waste ma- terial of tissues. GLOSSARY. 61; Car-bon-Di-ox-ide. The result of the union of oxygen and carbon in complete combustion. Two parts of oxygen uniting with one part of carbon. It is the gas which is found in wells and mines, and is produced and given off by burning of kerosene and oil lamps. It is also given off from the lungs while breathing. It is colorless gas, slightly he?vier than air, and will produce suffoca- tion and death if the air contains a large percentage of the gas. Large lamps and oil-stoves burning in a room, require a large amount of ventilation to keep the air pure. Car-bon-Mo-nox-ide. This is also a union of carbon and oxygen, but is formed as a product of partial combustion, as when the dampers of a coal stove are closed and not enough oxygen is supplied for complete combustion. It is seen above the coal in a blue flame. It will penetrate even iron, is poisonous and very dangerous. Avoid closing the dampers in the stove pipes as this often causes it to pass out into the room during the night, causing the sleeping persons to be- come asphyxiated. Ca-ri-es. Ulceration of the bone. A process in which the bone is car- ried away in pieces, in contra-distinction to Necrosis in which it dies in masses. Car-min-a-tive. a medicine especially an aromatic which tends to expel wind from the alimentary canal or to relieve colic, griping or flatulence. Ca-rot-id Ar-TE-RIES. The two main arteries of the neck, by which the blood is conveyed from the aorta to the head. They are divided into the right and the left. Cat-a-plasm. a soft and moist substance applied externally to some part of the body; a poultice. Ca-Tarrh. Any inflammatory affection of any mucous membranes, in which there are congestion, swelling, and an alteration of the secre- tions, as catarrh or cold in the head, catarrh of the stomach, catarrh of the bladder, etc. Ca-thar-tic. a medicine that promotes discharges from the bowels, a purge; a purgative of moderate activity. Cath-e-TER. The name of various instruments for passing into mucous canals, especially applied to the tubular instrument to be introduced into the bladder through the urethra to draw off the urine. Caus-Tic. Any substance which, when applied to flesh of animals will burn, corrode, or destroy it by chemical action; an escharotic. 6l2 GLOSSARY. Cau-TER-y. a burning or searing of morbid flesh, with a hot iron, or by apphcation of a caustic that will burn, corrode or destroy the animal tissue. Also applied to the iron or agent used in cauterizing. Cer-E-bro-Spi-nal. Pertaining to the central nervous system, con- sisting of the brain and spinal cord. Chol-a-gogue. a medicine that promotes the discharge of bile from the system. Chrox-ic. a disease that is of long continuauce or progresses slowly, in distinction from an acute disease which speedily terminates. Ci-CA-TRix. The part that forms over a wound or break in continuity and completes the process of healing. It subsequently contracts and becomes white, forming a scar. CLYS-TER. A liquid injected into the lower intestines; a rectum injec- tion; an enema. Co-LON. The part of the large intestines which extends from the caecum to the rectum. CoN-GES-TiON. An overf ullness of the capillary and other blood-vessels, in any locality or organ. CoN-STi-PA-TiON. A state of the bowels in which the evacuations are infrequent and difficult, or the intestines become clogged with waste matter. CoR-RO-SiVE. Medically it is those substances which act either directly by destroying the parts or indirectly by causing inflammation and gangrene. Coun-TER-Ir-RI-TA-Tion. To cause irritation in one part to relieve disease in another. De-COC-Tions. An extract of the virtues of a body obtained by boiling it in water. Deg-LU-TI-Tion. The act or process of swallowing food; the power of swallowing. Del-E-TE-RI-ous. That which is hurtful, noxious, destructive, or per- nicious. Liable to do injury. De-mul-CEnts. Substances usually of a mucilaginous or oil}' nature. Supposed to be capable of soothing an inflamed membrane. Gum Arabic, glycerine, and olive oil are demulcents. Di-A-PHO-RET-ics. Those that increase the insensible perspiration. They differ from Sudorifics as the latter increases the sensible per- spiration or sweat. OLOSSARY. 613 Dis-CU-TiENT. Medicine that serves to disperse morbid matter. Any remedy' that serves to scatter a swelhng or tumor or any coagulated fluid of the blood. Dis-IN-FEC-TANT. An agent that chemically destroys infectious, con- tagious or deleterious matter. Di-u-RET-ics. A medicine that increases the secretion of urine. ^-LEC-Tu-ARY. A medicine composed of powder or other ingredients mixed with honey or syrups. E-MA-ci-A-TED. The state of being reduced to an excessively lean con- dition. Wasted away in flesh. Em-brv-o. The young of an animal in the womb, or more specifically, before its parts are developed and it becomes a foetus. ' Em-men-a-gogue. a medicine that that promotes or hastens the men- strual discharge. En-te-RI-tis. a inflammation of the intestines. Ep-i-GLOT-Tis. a lidlike cartilage that closes over the glottis while food or drink is passing through the pharynx. It is open except when pressed back or down in the act of swallowing. It is only found in mammals. Ep-i-The-li-um. The superficial layer of cells lining the alimentary ca- nal and all its appendages, all glands and ducts, blood vessels and lymphatics. It is often used to include the epidermis and it is sometimes restricted to the alimentary canal. Ex-uc-TA-TiON. The act of belching or gulping wind or gases from the stomach. Es-cha-rot-ic. a substance that produces a dry slough, crust or scab which separates from the healthy part of the body, as that produced by a burn or the application of caustics. Ex-AC-ER-BA-TiON. A periodical increase of violence iu a disease, as in remittent or continuous fever; an increased energy of disease and painful action. Ex-CRE-MEXT. Matter separated and thrown off from the body; that which is cast out of the animal body by any of the natural organs which serve to carry off waste matter. Used with special reference to alvine discharges; dung. Ex-PEC-TO-RANT. A medicine that tends to promote discharges of mu- cus from the lungs or throat. Ex-u-DA-TiON. The act of discharging through pores or incisions; as moisture, sweat or other liquid matter. fil4 GLOSSARY. Hec-tic. Habitual; constitutional; having reference to slow waste of animal tissue as in consumption. IIem-or-rhage. Any discharge of blood from the blood vessels, caused by their rupture. Hem-or-rhoids. Livid and painful swellings formed by the dilation of the blood vessels around the margin of, or within, the anus, from which blood or mucus is occasionally discharged; commonh- called piles. IIe-pat-ic. Relating to the liver; as hepatic artery; hepatic diseases. In anatomy hepatic duct is any bihary duct, which carries or con- tains bile, but especially used with reference to the duct that carries the bile from the liver to the cystic and common bile ducts. Her-ba-ceous. Of or pertaining to herbs; having the nature, textures or characteristics of an herb. He-RED-i-TARY. Descended or capable of descending from an ancestor. Transmitted or capable of being transmitted, as a constitutional quality or condition from an ancestor to its progeny. Her-nia. a protrusion, consisting of an organ or part which has escaped from its natural cavity, and projects through some natural or accidental opening to the cavity. Also called rupture. Her-pes. An eruption of the skin, taking various narnes according to its form, or the part affected; especially, an eruption of vesicles in small distinct clusters, accompanied with itching as seen in shingles and ring- worm. Hy-dra-goguE. a medicine causing a watery discharge of the bowels. Hyp-not-ic. Any agent that produces, or tends to produce, sleep; an opiate; a soporific; a narcotic. Hy-po-der-mic. Having reference to the application of remedies under the skin, by means of injection. I/ACH-ry-mal. Pertaining to, or secreting, tears, as, the lachrymal glands. Pertaining to the lachrymal organs; as, lachrymal bone; lachrymal duct. Lac-TA-Tion. A giving suck; the secretion and yielding of milk by the mammary glands. F^-CES. The excrement that passes out of the body through the anus. It is the waste matter of the food not taken up by absorption as it passes along the alimentary canal, and other waste matter formed during digestion. Feb-ri-fuge. a medicine serving to mitigate or remove fever. GLOSSARY. 615 Fet-id. Having an offensive smell; stinking. Fce-Tus. Also spelled Fetus. The young or embryo of an animal in the womb or in the egg; often restricted to the latter stages in the development. The term embryo being applied to the earlier stages. FuN-GUS. A low class of plants of which plant rust, mold, smut, and mildew are examples. In medicine a spongy morbid growth, or granulation in animals, as the proud flesh of wounds. Gan-gli-on. a mass or knot of nervous matter, including nerve cells, usually forming an enlargement in the course of a nerve. Also ap- plied to a globular, hard, indolent tumor situated on a tendon. Gan-grene. a term formerly used only with reference to, mortifica- tion of the soft tissues, which have not advanced so far as to pro- duce complete loss of vitality; but now applied to mortification of the soft parts in any stage. Gas-Tri-tis. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach, sometimes extending to the muscular coats. Ges-TA-Tion. The act of carrying young in the body from time of conception to birth. It varies very widely in the different animals. Glot-Tis. The opening from the pharynx (the back part of the mouth) into the larynx or into the trachea. The opening is pro- tected by a cartilage called the epiglotis which closes when food or liquids pass over it on their way to the stomach. Gran-u-la-Tion. In anatomy, it refers to the small, red, grain-like prominences which form on the raw surface of wounds or ulcers, and are the efficient agents in the process of healing. GuT-TER-AL. Of or pertaining to the throat; formed in the throat; re- lating to or characteristic of a sound formed in the throat. I-CHOR. A thin, acrid, watery, serous discharge from an ulcer, sore, wound, etc. Il-E-um. The last and usually the longest division of the small intes- tine; it commences at the end of the jejunum and ends at the large intestine. In-a-ni-tion. The condition of being empty; a want of fullness as in vessels of the body; hence an exhaustion from want of food, either from partial or complete starvation; or from a disorder of the di- gestive apparatus producing the .same effect. In-CI-sors. The teeth in front that are sharp and used in cutting^ and biting off the food. 6 1 6 GLOSSARY. In-fec-TION. This term is often used in a definite and limited sense of the transmission of affections which are transmitted without direct contact of individuals or immediate application or introduction of the disease, in contradistinction to contagion which implies trans- mission by direct contact. In-flam-ma-tion. a morbid condition of any part of the body consist- ing in congestion of the blood vessels, with obstruction of the blood current and the growth of morbid tissue. It is shown outwardly by redness and swelling, attended with heat and pain. In-GES-Tion. The act of taking into the alimentary canal. In med- ' icine it refers to that condition in which the food is clogged or re- mains without passing on in its natural course. In-oc-u-la-Tion. The communicating of disease to an animal in health by inserting contagious matter in the skin or flesh. In-TER-cos-tal. Between the ribs; pertaining to, or produced by, the parts between the ribs. IvAR-ynx. The expanded upper end of the windpipe. It is connected with the pharynx by an opening, the glottis, which in mammals is protected by a lidlike epiglottis. IvAX-A-TivE. Having the effect of loosening or opening the intestines, and relieving from constipation; opposite of astringent. See Cathartic. IvE-siON. A hurt; an injury. Any morbid change in the exercise of functions or the texture of organs. Leu-COR-rhcE-a. a discharge of a whitish, yellowish, or greenish viscid mucus, resulting from inflammation or irritation of the membrane hning the genital organs of the female; the whites. Ivig-A-TURE. A thread or string for tying the blood vessels, particularly the arteries to prevent hemorrhage. lyiTH-ON-TRiP-TiC. Having the quality or used for dissolving or destroy- ing stone in the bladder or kidneys. A lithontriptic remedy or agent, as distilled water. L,i-THOT-o-MY. The operation, art, or practice of cutting for stone in the bladder. LuM-BA-GO. A rheumatism or rheumatic pain in the loins and the "small of the back." Lym-phat-ic! Having reference to the absorbent vessels, which carry lymph and discharge it into the veins; lymph duct; and lymphatic duct. GLOSSARY. 617 Ma-lig-nant. Tending to produce death; threatening a fatal issue. Malignant pustule, a very contap^ious disease transmitted to man from animals. It is marked by great exhaustion and is usully fatal. Called also Carbon and Anthrax. Me-dul-LA Ob-lon-ga-ta. The posterior part of the brain connected with the spinal cord. It controls very largely respiration, circu- lation, swallowing, and other functions, and is the most vital part of the brain. Me-tas-TA-sis. The change in the location of a disease, as from one part to another. Mu-cus. A viscid fluid secreted by mucous membranes, which it serves to moisten and protect. The Mucous membrane lines all the cavi- ties which open externally; such as the mouth, nose, lungs, iutes- 4;ines, urinary passages, etc. Nar-cot-ics. Drugs which in medicinal doses, relieve pain and pro- duce sleep; but which in poisonous doses, produce stupor, coma, or convulsions, and when given in sufficient quantities produce death. The best examples are opium, morphine, belladonna, and conium. Nau-se-a. a sickness of the stomach accompanied with a desire to vomit; squeamishness of the stomach. Ne-phrit-ic. a medicine adapted to relieve or cure diseases of the kidneys. Nephritis : an inflammation of the kidneys. Neu-ras-the-nia. a condition of nervous debility supposed to be de- pendent upon impairment in the functions of the spinal cord NoR-MAL. According to an established form, rule, or principle; con- formed to a type, standard, or regulai form; performing the proper functions; not abnormal, but regular and natural. CS-DE-MA. A swelling from effusion of fluid in the cellular tissue be- neath the skin or mucous membrane; dropsy of the subcutaneous cellular tissue. Ol-fac-to-ry Or-GANs. The organs that are connected with the sense of smell; as the olfactory; the olfactory cells. O-MEN-TUM. A free fold of the peritoneum, or the one serving to con- nect viscera, support blood vessels, etc. Oph-thal-mi-a. An inflammation of the membrane or coats of the eve or of the eyeball. Or-Throp-ncE-a. a morbid condition in which the respiration can be performed only in an erect posture; by extension in the use of the word any difl&culty, of breathing. 6l8 GLOSSARY. Os-si-FY. To form into bone; to change from a soft animal substance into bone, as by the deposition of lime salts. 0-VUM. The transparent mass of cells formed of protoplasm from which develops a new individual like the parent; an egg, spore, germ, or germ cell. Pal,-pi-ta-tion. a rapid pulsation; a throbbing; especially an abnor- mal, rapid beating of the heart, as when excited by violent exer- tion, strong emotion, or disease. Pan-a-ce-a. a remedy for all diseases; a universal remedy; a cure-all, hence a relief or solace for affliction, Pa-pil-la. Any minute nipplelike projection; as the papilla of the tongue. Par-a-cen-te-sis. The perforation of a cavity of the body with a tro- car, aspirator, or other suitable instrument, for the evacuation of fluid, pus, or gas. Pa-ral-y-sis. Either complete or partial loss of voluntary motion with or without loss of feeling. Par-ox- YSM. The fit, or attack, of a disease that occurs at intervals, or has decided remissions or intermissions. Pec-to-ral. Relating to, or good for, diseases of the chests or lungs. Per-i-car-di-um. The double baglike fold of serous membrane which incloses the heart. The inner layer that is closely adherent to the heart is called the cardiac pericardium, the outside layer is called . '^e parietal pericardium. Per-i-ne-um. The region which is included within the outlet of the pelvis, and is traversed by the urino-genital canal and the rectum. Per-i-os-te-um. The membrane of fibrous connective tissue which closely invests all bones except at the articulating surfaces. Per-i-to-ne-um. The smooth serous membrane which lines the cavity of the abdomen or the whole body cavity where there is no dia- phragm, and turning back surrounds the viscera, forming a closed or nearly closed sac. Inflammation of this membrane is called peritonitis. Phag-e-den-ic. Pertaining to, having reference to, a canine appetite. Refers to a medicine used in the treatment of phagedena. Phl,eg-mat-ic. Used in reference to those animals or functions of ani- mals that are not easily excited to action, or passion; cold; dull; sluggish; heavy. ?hlo-gis-TIC. Inflammation; belonging to inflammation and fever. GLOSSARY. r 019 Ple.thor-,c. Having a full body, characterized by an excess of Mood ■ Te^i'i r . ?.' '""' °' '"^ '>-^'^» "*» 'he blood exceeds a' healthy standard in quantity. Pleu-^ra The smooth double "serous membrane which closely covers the lungs and the adjacant surfaces of the thorax Pleu-ri-sv. An inflammation of the pleura, usually accompanied with eyer pan. difficult respiration, and cough, and with exudation nito tne pleura cayity. PxEU-MO-xi-A. Inflammation of the lung tissue, associated with ca- tarrh and evidences of inflammation of bronchial membranes lZ^^^. '^ "^T^^" '^'f^' instrument for removing an obstruction from the esophagus. A four foot piece of rubber hose greased makes an excellent probang for cattle Prog-xo-^bis. The act or art of foretelling the course and termination or a disease. Proph-y-lac-Tic. a medicine which preserves or defends against dis- ease; a preventix-e. Modern methods pay much more attention to prophylactic, anaesthetic, and disinfectant treatment than formerly thus often being able to prevent the spread of very contagious or infectious diseases. Pt , v-LiSM. Salivation or an excessive flow of saliva. Pul-mo-na-ry. Of and pertaining to the lungs; affecting the lungs PUR-GA-TivE. A medicine having the power or quality of separating or carrying off impurities. A very active cathartic. Pus. The yellowish white opaque creamy matter produced by the process of suppuration. If absorbed into the system in quantities It produces blood-poisoning. Rec-Tum. The terminal part of the large intestine. So named because It was supposed by the old anatomists to be straight. Re-frig-er-ant. a. medicine or an application for allying fever, or the symptoms of fever. Re-solv-ent. That which has power to disburse inflammatory or oth- er tumors; a di.scutient; anything that aids the absorption of effu.sed products. Ru-BE-FA-ciEXTS. An external application which produces redness of the skin. That which irritates but not blisters. Sal-i-va-ry glands. The glands situated in front of the ears (par- otid), and under the lower jaw bones (sub-maxillary), and under the tongue (sub-lingual), which .secrete the .saliva. They occur in pairs, one of each kind on each side. 620 GLOSSARY. San-a-tive. Having tiie power to heal; curative; healing; tending to heal; sanatory. SciK-RHUs. A cancerous tumor which is hard, translucent, of a gray or bluish color, and emits a creaking sound when incised. ScRO-TUM. The bag or pouch which contains the testicles, the organs in which the semen is generated. Sed-.\-tive. a remedy which allays irritability and irritation; and irri- tative activity or pain. Se-ROUS. Applied to membranes which line and surround centres of the body which do not open directly with the surface. Si-AL-o-GoGUE. A medicine that promotes the secretion of .saliva by the salivary glands. SiN-A-PiSM. A plaster or poultice composed principally of powdered mustard seed or containing the volatile oil of mustard seed. It is a powerful irritant. Slough-ixg. The dead master separating from a foul sore; the dead part separating from the living ti.ssues in mortification. SpE-CIF-ic. a medicine that exerts a peculiar influence over any part of the body; preventing or curing diseases by a peculiar adaptation and not on general principles. Sto-mach-ic. a medicine that strengthens the stomach and increases its action. Notice the difference between this word and stomatic. Sto-mat-ic. a medicine for diseases of the mouth. Stran-gu-ry. a painful discharge of urine, drop by drop, produced by spasmodic mu.scular contraction. Su-dor-if-ic. a medicine that increases the action of the sweat glands, thus producing sweating. Sup-pu-ra-Tion. The act or process of generating pus. Syn-co-pe. The state of fainting or swooning. Loss of consciousness owing to a sudden arrest of the blood supply to the brain, the face becoming pallid, the respiration feeble and the heart's beat weak. Ten-don. A tough insensible cord, bundle or band of fibrous con- nective tissue uniting a muscle with some other part; a sinew. Tes-ti-cles. The essential male gential glands which secrete the .semen. Tet-an-us. A painful and usually fatal disease, resulting generally from a wound, and having as its principal symptom persistent spasm of the voluntary nmscles. When the muscles of the lower jaw are affected it is called Lockjaw. GLOSSARY. 621 TiNCT-URE. A solution of medicinal substances in alcohol, usually more or less diluted; spirit containing- medicinal substances in so- lution. Alcoholic solutions of volatile .substances are usually calleil "Spirits." Tra-che-a. The windpipe; the passage for the breath from the larynx to the lungs. Tre-mor. a trembling; a shivering or shaking; a quivering or vibra- tory motion; as the tremor of a person who is weak, infirm, or old. Ul-cer. a sore in any of the soft parts of the body, discharging pur- ulent matter, found on the surface, especially one of the natural surfaces of the body; a sore discharging pus. Um-bil-ic-al. The cord which connects the foetus with the placenta, and contains the arteries and veins through which the blood circu- lates to the young; the naval-string. Urea, a very soluble crystalline substance extracted from the blood by the kidneys and the chief constituent of the urine of mam- mals. U-RE-TER. The duct that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder. U-RE-THRA. The duct that conveys the urine from the bladder to the surface. U-TER-us. The organ of a female mammal in which the young are de- veloped previous to birth; the womb. Va-gi-xa. The canal which leads from the uterus to external orifice of the genital canal or to the cloaca. Ver-mi-fuge. a medicine or substance that expels worms from animal bodies; an anthelmintic. Ves-i-CA-TIXG. Raising little bladders or blisters upon the surface; in- flaming and separating the cuticle; blistering. ViR-u-LENT. That which is extremely poisonous^ or venomous; very active in doing injury. Vi-Rus. Contagious or poisonous matter, as of specific ulcers, the bite of snakes, etc. The virus of diseases is now regarded as a micro- scopic living vegetable organism which multiplies (within the body) and, either by its own action or by the associated development of a chemical poison, causes the disease. Vis-CE-RA. Especially u.sed with reference to the organs contained in the abdomen, or below the diaphragm. 622 GLOSSARY. VoL-A-TiLE. Substances which affect the smell with pungent or fra- grant odors, as musk, hartshorn and essential oils, are called vola- tile substances, because they waste away on exposure to the atmos- phere. Alcohol and ether are called volatile liquids because they easily pass into the state of vapor. VUL-NER-A-RY. That which is useful in healing wounds; adapted to. the cure of external injuries. VuL-VA. The external parts of the female genital organs; sometimes used to designate the opening between the projecting parts of the external organs. ^^Y-MOT-ic. Pertaining to a certain class of endemic, contagious, or sporadic affections which are produced by some organism acting on the system like a ferment. FOUL IN CATTLE. This disease is often found in Tuberculous cattle, and if the cause for the same is not apparently one of the following it should be viewed with suspicion. It is never contagious among cattle. Causes. The inflammation found between the claws or toes, and sometimes extending entirel}' around the bulb of the heels, may be due to an overgrowth of the claws producing an inward pressure same as an ingrowing nail on a man ; or it may be caused by accumulation and drying of mud, or gravel, or stable filth between the clefts of the foot. It is most frequently found in the hind feet, though all four maybe affected. Symptoms. The animal limps in walking and, upon examination of the foot, fever is found. The coronet and soft parts of the foot between the clefts are swollen, which sometimes spreads the clefts apart to a considerable degree. If not discovered in the early stages of the disease, it may have advanced to the softening or sloughing of the internal mem- brane. If neglected and deep abscesses have formed and pus burrowed imder the horny wall, treatment will be difficult and recovery slow. Treatment. In the earlier stages of the disease, a good cleansing, clean stabling, and laxative food, with the following application will usually remedy the evil. First, thoroughly cleanse the foot, being sure that all foreign substances are removed from between the hoofs, then apply a .strong carbolic acid solution (one ounce to a pint of w^ater). If deep .sloughing has taken place thoroughly cleanse and poultice with warm linseed, boiled carrots, or boiled potatoes mashed and mixed with a little oil to keep damp. After the fever is abated, apply the above car- bolic acid .solution and place a wad of oakum or cotton smeared with pine tar between the clefts. This can be held in place by taking a strip of cloth about three inches wide, and passing the middle between the clefts and then after winding about the hoof tying the ends. If pus burrows under the horn its course may be followed and the horn pared away until the bottom is reached. INDEX. THE HORSE. Abscesses, Acute and cold 126 Abscesses, Description of 125 Abscess in the Pharnyx 54 Acute Abscesses 126 Acute Glanders 159 Acute Nephritis. 123 Action of the Heart 94 Action of the Kidneys 114 Afraid to have head handled 103 Age of a Horse 255 Air-cells , Location of 74 A Keeper of Animals 23 Albuminoids, Poisoned by 119 Alimentary Canal 49 Alteratives, How often to give 43 American Treatment 212 Anaesthetic , 41 Ankles, Cocked or knuckled 177 Ankle, Knee, Fetlock and Foot 169 Anthrax 142 Anthelmintic 41 Antiperiodic 41 Antiseptics, For what used 26 Antiseptics, How to use them 27 Anodyne 41 Anodynes, Giving every hour. ...... 43 Arachnoid 102 Arsenic Poisoning. 57 Arteries, Diseases of 98 Arteries, Description of 94 Arteries, Inflammation of 98 Ascariasis or Mange 232 Asthma, Broken Wind or Heaves ^9 Atropia, Sulphate of 110, 111, 112 Auscultation, Description of 82 Autumn Mange 236 .•\zoturia or Anazoturia 119 Bad Kicker, How to Cure 32 Balky Horse 30 Ball, How to give 33 Ball, How to make 34 Bandages, To apply 28 Bars of the Upper Jaw, Bruised 52 Bedding, Best Kinds of 24 Beets as a food for Horses 40 Bee, Wasp or Hornet Stings 234 Biliary Calculi or Gallstones 69 Bladder, Location and description 114 Blisters, How to apply 26, 162 Blisters, Preventing scars 29 Bloodly Flux or Dysentery 65 Bloody or Coffee-colored Discharges. . . 65 Blood Spavin and Thoroughpins 202 Bloody Urine or Hsematuria 122 Blood-vessels, Function of 94 Blue Bottle Fly 233 Bolting the Food 59 Bone Spavin 198 Bots eating through the Stomach 59 Bots-larvae of the GJad-fly 58 Bowels, Apoplexy of large 66 Bowel discharges liquid and offensive.. 65 Bowels. Inflammation of 66 Box-stall, How constructed 24 Brain, Divisions of 102 Brain, Inflammation of 103 Bran Mash, How to make 25 Bran, Value of as food 39 624 INDEX. Bread Mash, How to make 25 Broken Wind, Asthma or Heaves 89 Bronchitis, Chronic 83 Bronchi described 74 Bronchial Tubes, Inflammation of ... . 82 Bronchial Tubes, Description of 74 Bronchitis 82 Bronclio-Pnenmonia 89 Broncho-Pleuro-Pneumonia 80 Bruise of the Frog 184 Bruises or Contused Wounds 128 Burning for Lampas, Condemned. ... 52 C;ilculi in the Stomach 57 Calk Wounds, How to treat 179 Canker of the Foot 193 Cannon Bone 170 Capillaries, Action and Situation. .. . 95 Cardiac Enlargement 98 Carrots, Excellent for sick horses 40 Casting a Horse 28 Catarrhal Fever or Distemper 138 Catarrh or Cold iu the Head 75 Cerebellum, Functions of 102 Cerebro-Spinal-Meningitis 108 Cerebrum, Functions of 102 Cerebitis, Brain structure inflammation 105 Cerebro-Spinal division 101 Cervical Clioke 54 Chaflf as a Food for Horses 38 Chafing by Harness 129 Changes in Urine 115 Chemical Re-action of Urine 116 Chest, Disease of 79 Chigoe of the Gulf Coast 234 Chicken Lice on Horses 235 Choking, How it is often caused. ..,. . 54 Chronic Catarrh .... 76 Chronic Cough 90 Chronic Cough Cured by Carrots 40 Chronic Farcy 155 Chronic Glanders 157 Chronic Inflammation of Kidneys .... 121 Circulatory Organs, Diseases of 93 Circulatory System, (Plate III). Cleansing Stall and Clothing 25 Clothing, For Winter and Sammer ... 24 Clubfoot, Description of 175 Cocked Ankles or Knuckling 177 Coffin Bone 170 CoS"ee-colored or Bloody Discharges. . . 65 Coffin Joint 171 Cold in the Head or Catarrh, ...... 75 Cold Abscess 126 Cold Water Bathing of the Leg 25 Cold Distemper, Abscess in.... 125 Colic, the Various Kinds 71 Colic, Syiuptoms and Treatment 60 Colic, Percentage afl'ected and die 71 Collar or Saddle Galls 129 Color of Urine 115-116 Copperas as a Disinfectant 27 Corn as an Exclusive i'ood 40 Corn may Produce Indigestijn 40 Corn on Cob 40 Corns, Causes and Prevention iSo Coronet or Small Pastern 170 Coronary Band 172 Corrosive Sublimate, as an Antiseptic. 27 Common Error of Feeding 38 Common Names for Medicines 48 Concussion 208 Congestion of the Lungs 84 Congestion of the Skin 231 Contused Wounds 128 Contused and Lacerated Wounds... . 129 Contracted Heels 190 Constipation or Costiveness 63 Costiveness or Constipation 63 Cough, Cause and Kinds of 81 Cracked Heels or Scratches 228 Cramp of the Hind Leg. 107 Cranial Nerves 102 Crooked Foot 175 Curb 163 Cudding the Food 50 Cutting Teeth 50 Curing a Balky Horse 30 Death of Horses by Colic 71 Decayed Teeth 51 Density of Urine 116 Deodorizers, For what used 27 Dermis or True-skin . . , , , ,...,.. 227 INDEX. 625 Detecting the seat of Lameness 225 Diabetes Mellitus or Glycosuria 116 Diabetes Insipidus or Diuresis 1 IS Diaphragm, Where situated (Plate I). Diarrhea, How to treat 64 Diastole 94 Diaphragm, Rupture of ^ 91 Differeuce between Meningitis & Rabies 105 Digestion of two kinds 37 Digestive Apparatus (Plate I). Digestive Organs 49 Disinfectants, For what used 27 Disinfectants, List of . . , 27 Diseases of the Teeth 50 Distemper or Strangles 138 Divisions of the Heart 94 Diuresis or Diabetes Insipidus 118 Doses according to Age 43 Doses and effects 44, 48 Dover's Powder 124 Drugs aud Medicines 41 Drum-like sound when struck 62 Dura Mater 102 Dvsentery or Bloody-flux , 65 Eubolics, How often to give 43 Effect of Drugs 41 Electric Shock 112 Electuaries, How to give 32 Elephantiasis • 100 Encephalitis or Inflammation of Brain. 103 Endocarditis, Inflammation heart lining 9(3 Endocardium 95 Enlargement of the He^rt 98 Enteritis or Inflammation of Bowels. . . 6(J Epizooty, Piiik-eye or Influenza 131 Ether and Laudanum for Colic 61 Examination of the Urine 116 Excessive Secretion of Urine 118 Exhaustion 2n(J Exhaustion Caused by Heat 106 Explanation of Effect of Drugs 42 Extensor Pedis 171 External Evidences of Disease 163 External Medicines 44--48 Extracting Teeth 52 Farcy or Glanders 151 Farcy Buds, Wrongly named 144 Faulty Formation 175 Favus or Honeycomb Ring Worm 237 Febrifuges, List of common 43 Feed Oats after Hay 37 Feeding after Hard Work 38 Feeding and Care 36 Fever, Description of 146 Fetlock, Ankle. Knee, and Foot 169 Fetlock Joint 171 Fetlock, Sprain of 180 First Requisites 24 Finishing Touches 251 Fistula 238 Flat Feet, Description of 175 Flaxseed or Linseed, Ground 40 Flea or Pulex 234 Flesh-fly 233 Flexor Pedis Perforans 171 Flexor Pedis Perforatus 171 Flies 233 Floating the Teeth 51 Fly-blow 233 Flux or Superpurgation 65 Food Colic, How Caused 71 Food for a Sick Animal 24 Foot, Knee, Fetlock, and Ankle 169 Foot Mange 235 Founder or Laminitis 205 Foundering the Horse by Water 36 Frog, Bruise of 184 Frog, Description of 172 Fresh Water, Always within reach. . . 25 Frost Bites 179 Frothy Food Through the Nose 53 Gad-fly, when it attacks the Horse — 58 Gall Bladder 68 Gall-stones or Biliarj-calculi 69 Galls caused by Collar or Saddle 129 Galls and Bruises 125 Gamgee's funnel for injections 32 Ganglia or Nerve Centers 101 Gastritis, Its symptoms 67 Gastric Concretions 67 626 INDEX. Gastric Digestion 49 Gas in Stomach 56 General Advice 35 General Treatment, Brain Inflammation 105 Giving Medicine 32 Glanders or Farcy 151 Glossitis or Inflammation of Tongue. . . 53 Glycosuria or Diabetes Mellitus 116 Gorged Stomach 55 Grades of Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis. . 109 Grain, Best kind to feed 39 Grass, the natural food 40 Grease 241 Gripes or Cramp Colic 60 Growing Stock to be fed on Grass 40 Grubs in the Skin 233 Guttural Pouclies 79 Gullet, Its Diseases 54 Gut-tie or Twisting of the Bowels 64 Haemoglobinnria or Azoturia 119 Haematuria or Bloody Urine 122 Hairs, Description of 228 Hand-rubbing the Legs 25 Head, Diseases of 75 Heart-beats represented in the Pulse. . 95 Heart, Description of 91 Heat Exhaustion or Sunstroke. 106 Heart, Functional diseases of 97 Heart, Its position (Plate I). Heart, Inflammatory diseases of 95 Heart, Organic diseases of. 97 Heaves or Broken Wind 89 Hide-bound Horse 59 High Blowing not Roaring 78 Hippuric Acid 115 Holding Horse to give Liquids 34 Holding Head one-side wlieu Chewing. 51 Honeycomb Ring-worm .. 237 Hoof, Description of 172 Hoof, How to soften the Horn 26 Hornet, Bee, or Wasp Stings 234 Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts 230 Horse lying flat on his side 62 Hot Water Bath. Its temperature 27 How to give Medicine 32 Hydrophobia or Rabies 105,111 Hypertrophy of the Heart 98 Icterus, Jaundice or the Yellows 68 Itch or Mange Insect 235 Impaction of Large Intestines 62 Indigestion, How caused .... 59 Inflammation from Galls and Bruises. . 125 Inflammation of Lining of Mouth 53 Inflammation with Pustules 144 Influenza, Pink-eye or Epizooty 131 Ingestion of Food 20'3 Injections, by Gravity 32 Injection, per Rectum 56 Injection, Quality at a time 61 Inosite or Muscle Sugar 117 Inosuria or Saccharine Diabetes 116 Interfering . 176 Interfering (non-conformation) 204 Intercostal Rheumatism or Pleurodynia 91 Internal Medicines 44, 48 Intestinal Worms 69 Intestinal Digestion 37 Intestines, Diseases of 60 Intussusception or Invagination 64 Invagination or Intussusception 64 Irregular Teeth 61 Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus 68 Jigger or Chigoe 236 Joints 170, 173 Kidneys, Inflammation of 121, 123 Kidneys, Shape and location of 113 Killing by Kindness 56 Kinds of Food 37 Knee, Fetlock, Ankle and Foot 169 Knuckling or Cocked .-^nkleb 177 Lacerated and Contused Wounds.... 129 Lamiiiitis or Founder 205 Lameness. IIovv to detect 225 Lampas, IL)\v to cure 52 Large lute.stines. Impaction of 62 Larynx, De.scription of 74 Laryngitis, or Sure Throat 77 Lateral Cartilages 173 Lead Poisoning 57 Lice or Pediculi 234 Linseed as a Food 40 Linseed Mash, How to Make 25 INDEX. 627 Liquids, How to give 34 Liver, Diseases of 68 Liver, Inflammation of 68 Lock-jaw or Tetanus 110 Loss of Oats Fed 37 Lumbricoid, Large Worm of tlie Horse. 60 Lungs, Apoplexy of 8.5 Lungs, Congestion of 84 Lung Fever or Pneumonia 85 Lungs, Wliat tliey consist of 74 Lymphatic Circulation 93 Lymphatic System, Diseases of 99 Mad Staggers or Meningitis 104 Making a Horse Lie Down 28 Mallenders 165 Mpltose, How turned to sugar 49 Management and Care 23 Mange or Ascariasis 232 Mash, Bran 25 Maslies, How to make and feed 25 Matting of Mane and Tail 237 Meat-fly 233 Medicine, According to Age 41 Medicines, Table of, with doses 44 — 48 Medulla Oblongata, Functions of 103 Meningitis, Spinal 1"8 Meningitis or Mad Staggers 104 Metastasis 207 Molars . 2.55 Mouth, Its diseases 52 Mouth, Swelling of 53 Muco-Enteritis or Apoplexy of Bowels. 66 Muscles, Outside Layer, (Plate IV). Myocardium 95 Myocarditis, or Heart Inflammation.. 95 Nails used in Shoeing 250 Nasal Chambers 63 Nasal Gleet or Chronic Catarrh 79! Navicular Bone . 170 ' Navicular Disease 217 I Nephritis, Acute 123 j Nervous System, Diseases of 101 Nettlerash, Surfeit or Urticaria 230 Never feed Wheat or Rye Chaflf 38 Noise causing Convulsions 104 , Nose, Frothy food throngli 63 Nostrils 73 Oat Chafl' with Cut Hay 39 Oats, New and kiln-dried indigestible. 39 Occult Spavin 198 Oil or Sebaceous Glands 228 Old- writers Mad Staggers 101 Organic Constituents of Urine 116 Our Domestic Animals 23 Over-exertion 206 Over-reaching 179 Paralysis of the Throat 63 Parasites of the Skin 232 Parasitic Pityriasis 237 Parrot-mouth, a deformity 52 Pastern Bones, Large and small 170 Pastern Joint 171 Pediculi or Lice 234 Peditis 214 Percussion, Description of application.. 82 Pericarditis, Inflammation of Heart Sac 96 Peritonitis 67 Permanent Teeth 255 Perspiration, Use of 113 Pharyngitis 53 Pharyngeal Choking 54 Pharynx, Location of 74 Pharynx, Inflammation of 53 Phlebitis, Inflammation of the Veins.. 98 Piles or Hemorrlioidal Veins 99 Pimples or Papules 231 Pink eye, Epizooty or Influenza . . . . 131 Pin Worms 69 Plantar Cushion 172 Pleura, Membrane around the Lungs. . 74 Pleurisy 86 Pleurodynijkor Intercostal Rheumatism 91 i*leuro-Pneumonia ^. 89 Pneumonia or Lung Fever 85 Points of the Horse (Plate V). Poisoning by Arsenic 57 Poisoned by Lead 57 Polar Bear 23 Poll Evil 238 Polyuria or Diabetes Insipidus 118 628 INDEX. Pons Varolii, Functions of 102 Potatoes, Feeding them raw 40 Poultices, Diflfereut kinds 26 Poultices, How to make 26 Poultices, How applied 26 Poultices, With irritants on surface. . . 26 Poultry, Ascariasis on Horse 23.1 Poultry Lousiness of Horse 23.5 Powdered Alum in Water 25 Probang, and how to use t 55 Ptyalin, its effect on starch 49 Ptyalism or Salivation 53 Pulex or Flea 234 Pulmonary Apoplexy 85 Pulse Beats per Minute 70 Pulse, How and where to take 79 Pulse, Peculiarities of 80 Pulse. Very fast, hard and wiry 67 Purifying Water 25 Purgatives causing Founder 207 Purgatives, Every forty-eight hours ... 43 Pustules, Inflammation with 144 Quantity of Water required 36 Quittor 221 Rabies or Hydrophobia 105 — 111 Rarey's System of Throwing a Horse. . 28 Rasping the Teeth 51 Rectum Injection for Staggers 56 Rheumatism 168 Respiration, Kinds of 81 Respiratory Organs 74 Respiratory Organs, Causes for Disease 74 Respirations per Minute 80 Roaring, Causes and Remedies 78 Ringbone, Causes and Treatment 96 Ring-worm or Tinea Tonsurans 236 Rubber Hose as a Probang 55 Rupture of Diaphragm 91 Rupture of the Stomach 56 Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria. . . 116 Saddle or Collar Galls . . 129 Saliva, Excessive amount of 53 Saliva, Its important duty ^9 Salivation or Ptyalism 53 Sallenders 166 Sand-crack ..... 215 Sarcoptes Ascariasis 232 Sarcoptes Equi 232 Sarifying for Lampas 52 Scratches or Cracked Heels 163-228 Screw-worm Fly 233 Sebaceous Glands 228 Sensitive Laminae 172 Sesamoid Bones . 170 Shock from Electricity 112 Shoe and Nails too Large 249 Shoeing 243 Shoeing for a Specific Purpose 253 Shoe of Proper Shape 249 Shoe Properly Adjusted 248 Shoes to be Removed 24 Side bones. Where found 195 Stifle-joint Dislocation ... 107 Sinuses 73 Sitfasts or Horny Sloughs 230 Size of Box-Stall 24 Skin, Its Diseases and Remedies 227 Slings for Horses, How made 28 Slipping of the Intestine , 64 Smooth and Glossy Coat 40 Softening the Horn of the Foot 26 Solid Lumps in Liquid Discharges. ... 65 Sore Throat or Laryngitis -. 77 Sound, Detecting Disease by 81 Spasm of the Diaphragm or Thumps. . 91 Spasm of the Thigh 107 Spasmodic or Cramp Colic 60 Spavin, Cause and Treatment 198 Spinal Cord, Description of ., , . 103 Spinal Ganglia 102 Spinal Meningitis 108 Spinal Nerves 102 Spinal Nerves, Classification of 103 Splint (See Blister) Sponging the Nostrils 25 Sprain of the Fetlock 180 Springhalt (See Stringhalt) 203 Steaming, How it is done 25 Stethoscope b2 Stimulants, How often to repeat 43 Stings of Bees, Wasps, or Hornets 234 Stomach Digestion 37 INDEX. 629 Stomach, Inflammation of lining 57 Stomach of Horse, Very small 38 Sloinach, Rupture of Sti Stomach Staggers SS Stomach, Stimulant for walls of. .... . 5(j Stomatitis, How caused 53 Stones in the Stomach 57 Strangles, Abscess in 125 Strangles, Distemper or Catarrhal fever 138 Straw as a Food for Horses 38 Stringhalt... 203 Study the Symptoms 35 Suflbcating by use of Slings 28 SulTraginis or Large Pastern 170 Siinstroke or Heat Exhaustion 106 Superpurgation or Flux 65 Surfeit, Nettlerash or Urticaria 230 Suspensory Ligament Rupture 185 Suspensory Ligameuv 171 Swelling Back of the Upper Teeth. . . 52 Sweeny 100 System of Circulation (Plate III) . Systole 94 Tape- worm 69 Teeth as an Indication of Age 255 Teeth, the process of cutting 50 Temperature of Healthy Horse 80 Temperature of Stable 24 Temporary Teeth 256 Tendons 171 Ten Pounda of Hay a Day 38 Tetanus or Lock-jaw 110 Thick Wind 78 Thigh, Spasm or Cramp 107 Thoracic Choke 55 Throat, Paralysis of 53 Thoroughpins and Blood Spavin 22 Throwing a Horse 28 Thrush, Description of. 182 Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm. . 91 Time Required for Physic to Operate. . 63 Timothy Hay for Horses 38 Tinea Tonsurans or Ring-worm 236 Tongue, Inflammation of 53 Tongue, Laceration or Abscess 53 Tonics, How often to give 43 Toothache, How determined . . 51 Trachea or Windpipe 74 True-skin or Dermis. ... 227 Trying to Drink by the Hour 54 Tumors on the Gums 50 Turning Horses to Grass each Year. . . 40 Twisting ot the Bowels or Gut-tie 64 Twitching for Giving Medicine 33 Tympanitis of the Stomach 66 Urea, The composition of 113 Uretha, Duct leading out of bladder. . 114 Ureter, Tube from kidney to bladder. . 114 Urine, Examination of . . . . 116 Urine, Excessive secretion of 118 Urinary Organs, Diseases of 113 Urticaria, Nettlerash or surfeit 230 Varicose Veins or Varix 99 Varix or Varicose Veins 99 Vegetable Parasites of the Horse 236 Veins, How differeHt f. om Arteries... 95 Villa, Their functions 49 Volvulus or Gut-tie 64 ■Warts 231 Wasp, Hornet, or Bee Stings 234 Watering after Feeding Condemned. . 37 Watering Horses When Warm 36 Wet Sponges on Head 107 Wheat and Rye as Food for Horses.. . 39 Whistling 78 Wind Colic or Bloat 61 Wind-galls, Symptoms and Treatment. 183 Winter Shoeing 251 Worms, Description of 69 Worms, How to Expel 70 Worms, Intestinal 69 Wounds of the Chest 91 Wounds of the Skin 23« CATTLE. Abdomen, Dropsy of 314 Aberdeen- Angus, Black Heifer. . ... 281 Aberdeen-Angus Bull, "Lindolph". . . 280 Abortion, Causes of Contagions 324 Abortion, Can be cured 328 Aeration of Milk 342 630 INDEX. American Herd Book 273 Ascites or Dropsy of Abdomen 314 Ayrshires 286 Ayrshire Cow " Delia Pender " 287 Bloating, Tympanitis, or Hoven 302 Blood Letting 350 Bioodj Urine 321 Bowels, Inflammation of 310 Bronchitis 320 Casting of the Withers 296 Calves, White scour of 309 Care of Milk 340 Cervical Choke 301 Characteristics of Various Breeds .... 271 Chemicals in Dehorning 335 Chigres or Fleas 332 Choking 300 Climate Adapted to Short Horns 275 Colic from Cold Water 305 Color of Short Horns 275 Constipation 311 Contagious Abortion. 326 Corn for Silos 347 Cud, Loss of 306 Danes Introducing Cattle 272 Dehorning Cattle 335 Devons 283 Devon Heifer "Jenny" 235 Devon "Prize Bull" 284 Diarrhea 307 Digestive Organs 299 Disease of Cattle 298 DropBy of Abdomen 314 Duration of Pregnancy 328 Dysentery 308 Egyptians Worshipping 271 English Agriculture and Cattle 272 English Herd Book 273 English Short Horn 272 Ensilage and Silos 344 Enteritis, or Bowel Inflammation 310 Ergot in Hay 298 Feeding Value of Mature Corn 349 Five Year Old Shorthorn 272 Fleas or Chigres 332 Flesh of Shorthorns 275 Flies and Mosquitoes 332 Foul in Cattle 622 Frozen Turnips and Potatoes 298 Garget 296 Guernsey Cattle 291 Heaviest Beef Cattle 273 Hepatitis or Liver Inflammation 313 Herefords 276 Hereford as a Dairy Cow 278 Hereford as a Working Ox 278 Herefords in America. 280 Hereford Prize Cow " Royal " 277 Horn Distemper 296 Holstein Cattle 292 Hoven, Tympanitis or Bloating 302 How to Judge a Good Cow 295 Inflammation or Haemaglobinuria . . . 321 Indigestion from Cold Water 305 Indigestion of Third Stomach 304 Inflammation of Bowels. . 310 Intestinal Worms 311 Islands South of England 271 Itch or Mange 329 Ixodes or Ticks 331 Jaundice or the Yellows 312 Jersey Bull 288 Jersey Cow 289 Jersey Cattle 289 Judging a Good Cow 295 Laryngitis or Sore Throat 317 Liver, Congestion of 312 Liver, Inflammation of 313 Loss of Cud 306 Lousiness 330 Mange or Itch 329 Milk, Aeration of 342 Milk, How to care for 340 Milk Fever 297 Modern Short-horn 27.J Mouth, Inflammation of Lining 299 Moor ill or Bloody Urine 321 Moors of Spain 271 Mosquitoes and Flies 332 Neat Cattle 271 Parasites on Skin 229 INDEX. 631 Paris Exposition 282 Peritonitis 315 Pharnygitis or Sore Throat 299 Pharyngeal Choke 301 Pleurisy 318 Pneumonia 319 Polled-Cattle of Aberdeen 281 Pregnancy, Duration of 328 Prostration from Heat 333 Red Polls 291 Red Water or Bloody Urine 321 Ring-worm 333 Separator in the Dairy 337 Sliort-horns 272 Short-horn Bull 274 Short-horns Described 275 Silos and Ensilage 348 Skin Diseases 329 Smut on Corn 298 Sore Throat or Pharyngitis 299 Sore Throat or Laryngitis , , . , 317 Stings, Venomous..... 332 Stomatitis 299 Suffolk "Duns" 291 Sunstroke or Prostration from Heat. . . 333 Third Stomach, ludigestion of 304 Ticks or Ixodes 331 Trocar and Canular 303 Tympanitis or Hoven 302 Venomous Stings 332 ■Worms, Intestinal 311 White Scour in Calves 309 Yellows or Liver Congestion 312 SHEEP. Advantages of Sheep Raising 353 Age of Sheep, How to tell 374 A Group of Algerians 358 American Merino 363 Black Faced Scotch 366 Bladder, Inflammation of 381 Bowels, Inflammation of 377 Brain, Water on 382 Bronchitis 379, 392 Castration Characteristic of Breeds Cheviot Clover Silage Cold or Catarrh Congestion of the Liver Constipation in Lambs Constipation or Costiveness Corn Silage , Costiveness or Constipation Cotswold Sheep , Crossbred Sheep Diarrhea or Scours 37J Diving Bladder- worm ' Docking Dog-proof Sheep Dogs, Associated with sheep , . . . Dorsets , Dry Fodder , . ...... Dysentery English Dorset Horn Ram English Southdown Feeding and Quartering • Feet, Diseases of Foot-rot, Contagious Foot-rot, Common French Merino Gad Fly of Sheep ... Gravel, or Common Foot-rot Grub in the Head Hair Worms in Intestines Hampshire-Downs Hoven. How to Feed a Lamb Il flammation of Bowels Influenza Kind of Sheep to Winter. ........ Lambs and their Diseases Lamb, Raising by hand Laurel Poisoning. . .,, Leicester 'Prize Winning" Ewe. Leicester Sheep Lincoln Sheep Liver, Cengestion of . 386 . 351 , 361 . 3.58 . 378 , 380 , 391 375 358 375 372 373 -376 388 367 368 389 368 357 376 369 360 355 382 383 384 360 384 384 384 389 367 377 387 377 379 354 390 387 381 372 371 370 380 632 INDEX. Liver, Inflammation of 330 Loush of the Sheep 385 Lungs, Inflammation of 379 Many Headed Bladder-worm 388 Merino Ram 363 Mutton 352 Oxford-Downs 367 Scab Insect 385 Scotch Cheviot Ram 362 Scours or Diarrhea ... 375 Selection of the Breed 353 Sheep Laurel Poisoning 381 Sheep Raising, Advantage of 353 Shropshire Sheep 365 Southdown 359 Spasmodic Colic 391 Staggers 382 Sufi'olk Ram 371 Sugar Beets 358 Tape Worms 389 Tisks on Lambs and Sheep. 374 Timothy Hay .358 Weaning Lambs 3)1 Weight of Carcass 374 White Scours „ 376 Wool 352 SWINE. Berkshires 394 Blind Staggers 411 Brain, Inflammation of 411 Breeding and Feeding 415 Chester Whites 407 Cheshire 405 Cholera 413 Constipation 412 Curing and Preserving 408 Diarrhea 41 2 Durocks ... 404 Essex Hogs 399 Feeeding and Breeding 415 Hog Cholera 413 Itch or Mange 410 Jefferson County Swine. . . 405 Jersey Reds 406 Large White "Holywell Queen" 406 Lice 412 Mange or Itch 410 Mange Ointment 411 Middle-white Pigs 397 Ointment for Mange 411 Pigs Losing Their Tails 411 Pigs, Sows eating 410 Poland-China 400 Preserving Pork and Ham 408 Prize Litter 402 Small Yorkshires 405 Sows Eating Pigs 410 Staggers, Blind 411 Suffolk Pigs 395 Tally, Pigs Losing. 411 Victorias 403 Warren County Hog. 401 Yorkshire 407 POULTRY. Andalusians 421 Apoplexy 434 Best Table-fowls , 432 Black Minorcas 428 Black Spanish 429 Brahmas 421 Bronchitis 436 Brown Leghorns 425 Bumble-foot 437 Cholera 435 Cochin-China 421 Cold or Catarrh. : 436 Consumption 437 Cramp 437 Crop- bound 433 Diarrhea 435 Diphtheria 437 Dominique 430 Dorkings 431 Egg Organs, Disorders of 436 INDEX. 633 Feather Eating 434 Game . 427 Gapes 433 Good Layers 432 Good Mothers 432 Hamburghs 429 Indian Game 427 Langshaiis 431 Leghorns 425 Miuorcas 428 Non-sitting Breeds 432 Old English Game 42G Poultry Keeping for Farmers 438 Red Faced Spanish 428 Roup 436 Sitting Breeds 432 "White Faced Black Spanish 429 White Leghorn 425 White Minorcas 428 White Plymouth Rocks 430 Wyandotte 423 POTATO. Ammoniacal Copper. 446 Bacterial Blight 444 Bordeaux Mixture 446 Carbonate of Copper, to make 446 Colorado Beetle 444 Diseases of Potato 443 Downy Mildew 443 Early Blight 444 Fungi Affecting Potato 443 Fungous Enemies of Potato 443 Late Blight 443 Leaf-Spot Disease . 444 London Purple 445 Paris Green 445 Potato Scab 445 Prevention of Potato Disease 444 RECEIPTS. Antiseptics 461 Apples, To keep. 493 Bacon, To cure 492 Basement Floors 522 Bed-bugs, To get rid of 482 Beef, Corned ... 491 Beel, Dried 491 Bitter Essence 460 Black-boards, To Make 509 Black heads 509 Blacking, Brilliant liquid 477 Blacking, Waterproof 477 Blacking, Oil-paste 478 Bleaching Compound 475 Blister, Spanish Fly 452 Brick Colored Wash for Walls 473 Butter, To keep sweet 492 Cabbage, To keep 493 Camphor, Tincture of 460 Camphor Spirits 448 Carbonic Gas in Wells 523 Castor Oil 523 Celery, To Keep 494 Cellar Floor, To make waterproof 522 Cellars, To keep from freezing 512 Cement, How to mix 502 Cement, How to use 503 Cesspool Disinfection 464 Chafing, Remedy for . 513 Chapped Hands 508 Chimney on Fire 510 Chimneys, To prevent leaking 514 China Cement 510 Cider, How to make and keep 503 Cider Wine 505 Clothing Catching Fire 466 Cockroaches, To Destroy 485 Contagious Diseases 462 Cordial, Blackberry and Strawberry.. 526 Cordial, Ginger 526 Corn Cure 451 Cough Mixtures 455 — 456 — 457 Cracks of the Floor 468 Cuts and Wounds. 466 Dandruff 527 Dead Surface Paint 467 Deodorizers 465 634 INDEX. Awnings and Tents, Mildew proof. . . . 515 Diphtheria 463 I)irt in the Eye 466 Disinfectants .* 462 Doses AccordiLg to Age 461 Earache 508 Eggs, To-keep from spoiling. 495 Hmetic, Common 454 Emetic, Syrup 454 Essence ol Beef 459 Fainting and Fits 467 Feet, Blistered 517 Feet, Frost bitten 517 Feet, Tender 517 Feet, Cold at bed-time 517 Fence Posts, To preserve 481 Fence Wash 473 Fragrant Odor in Sick Room 465 Fumigation 462 Ginger Pop 507 Glue, Liquid, and Paste 480 Golden Healer 518 Grapes, To keep 493 Grease and Oil, To remove. 476 Grindstones, Use of 521 Grinding Tools 518 Hair Falling Out 508 Hams, To cure 489 Hams, To smoke 490 Harness, To preserve 476 Healing Cream 508 Hive Syrup 456 Honing a Razor 516 Horse Sorrel, To kill 528 Ice-box, To keep sweet 510 Ingrowing Toe-nails 514 Ink, Black 525 Ink, To make powder 525 Ink, Japan or glossy 525 Insects in the Ear 528 Insects, Various kinds to kill 485 Iron Rust * 475 Jamaica Ginger 459 Javelle Water 475 Kalsomine 473 Kerosene as Pstint 630 Knots, To paint over 467 Leather, Blacking 476 Leather, To make waterproof 477 Leather, To soften 477 Leugtn of Nails.... 511 Liniment, Arnica 448 Liniment, Camphor 448 Liniment, Chloroform 448 Liniment, Chilblain 448 Liniment, Good Samaritan 447 Liniment, R'leumatic *447 Lye, How to make 498 Marking Sheep 510 Measures and Equivalents 460 Mice, To kill or drive away. 489 Mildew 475 Milk, How to test 526 Milk, Good 527 Milk, To tell when adulterated 527 Mosquitoes, To keep out 483 Mosquitoes, To prevent biting 484 Mosquito Bites, To cure 484 Moths in Carpets and Clothing 485, 488 Mucilage 480 New Washing Soda 517 Nuts, How to loosen 511 Offensive Breath 515 Ointment, Camphor 449 Ointment, Carbolic 450 Ointment, Cucumber 449 Ointment, Pile 449 Ointment, Tar 449 Ointment, Wonder 449 Old Furniture, To Renew 469 Old Harness Made like New 477 Paints, How to mix 468 Paint, When to 467 Pastes and Mucilage 480 Peppermint 459 Pine, to Ebonize 471 Plaster, Adhesive 451 Plaster, Court 451 Plaster, Strengthening 452 Plaster, Mustard 452 INDEX. 635 Poultice, Charcoal 453 Poultice, Flaxseed and Slippery Elm. . 453 Poultice, Soap 453 Polish, Brass and Copper 478 Polish, Silver 478 Polish, Stove 479 Polish, Furniture 470 Polish, French 471 Polish, Oil 470 Potatoes, To keep from sprouting 494 Proud Flesh 528 Putty, To soften 515 Rats, To kill or drive away 488 Red Ants, To get rid of 483 Roach Exterminator 483 Roofs, Fireproof wash. . . 514 Roofs, Moss on 515 Rubber, To Mend 509 Rusty Plows, to clean 511 Scalds and Burns 466 Scarlet Fever 463 Shingles, To preserve 512 Shingles, To make fireproof 513 Sick Room, How to cool 521 Sinks and Drains 464 Soap Grease, To preserve and purify. . 497 Soap, How to make 496 Soap, Soft 497 Soap, Various kinds of hard 497, 501 Sprained Ankle 530 Squeaking Boots and Shoes 521 Stains, Acid 474 Stains, rofi"ee 475 Stains, Fruit 474 Stains, Ink 474 Stain, Floor 468 Stains, Walnut 469 Sticky Fly-paper 487 Sticky Painted Surfaces 468 Stove-pipe Varnish 524 Stumps, To remove f'20 Sweating Drops 454 Sweaty Feet 608 Syrup, Simple 457 Syruy, Rhubarb . 458 Syrup, Rhubarb and Senna 458 Syrup, Chamomile 459 Tan, To remove 509 Tt-a, Boneset 454 Tea, Sweating 454 Tinware, To mend large holes 524 To Clean, Steel 479 To Clean, Marble 479 To Clean, Willow Ware 479 To Cure a Cold 457 To Remove Paint 475 To Whiten Ivory 479 Tooth Powder and Wash 508 Typhoid Fever 463 Varnish for Tools 524 Varnish, To soften 470 Vinegar 507 "Wagon Tires Kept Tight 481 Wagons, To grease 524 Weeds in Garden Walks 509 Whitewash, Gloss 473 Whitewash, Out door 472 Whitewash, United States Lighthouse. 472 Wine, Cherry 505 Wine, Currant 506 Wine, Grape 507 Wintergreen 459 Worms, Stomach 455 Worms, Pin-worms 455 FRUIT CULTURE. American Procris 537 Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate 540 Apple Spraying 542 Apple Tree Borer 536 Apricot Spraying 544 Bean Blight 542 Blackberry Spraying 544 Bordeaux Mixture 540 Budding 532 Cabbage Worms 539—542 Canker Worms. 538 Copper Sulphate 541 Currant Apis 546 Currant Mildew 542 Currant Worms 539 636 INDEX. Cucumber BeetlW 541 Gooseberry Enemies 542 Grape Enemies 642 Grape Vine Beetle 537 Hop Louse 546 Hop-yard Pest 546 How to Spray 546 Kerosene Emulsion 541 London Purple 540 Paris Green 541 Peach Borer 538 Plum Curculio 538 Plum Diseases 544 Potato Scab 445-544 Rose Beetle 534 Spraying, How and When 546 Spraying, Table of 542-545 Sulphate of Copper 541 Tent Caterpillar 535 When to Spray 546 White Hellebore 541 Yellow Wooley Bear 546 LEGAL DEPARTMENT. Abandoning Service with Cause 599 Abandoning Service without Cause.. 598 Barbed-wire Fence 506 Boundaries and Fences 601 Commission Merchants 577 Contracts 564 Contract for over a Year 598 Corruption of Water 596 Cruelty to Animals 586 Defects Covered by Warranty 592 Discharging for Cause 600 Diseased Cattle 587 Dismissing Laborers 600 Di version of Water 594 Division Fences 603 Driving Cattle along Highway 606 Dogs Frightening Horses 583 Employer and Laborer 597 Enticing a Laborer Away 598 How Service is Terminated 600 Increase of Domestic Animals 585 Keeping of Dogs 582 Killing Trespassing Animals 580-587 Land Bounded by Streams 596 Law in Regard to Manure 605 Liability for Vicious Animals 581 Liability of Servant for Misconduct. . 600 Liable for Servants' Contracts 599 Liability for Injury 600 Line Trees 604 Loaning Horses 588 Mill Privileges 595 Naturalization Papers 574 Overhanging Trees 603 Ownership in Lost Animals 578 Principal and Agent 575 Surface Water and Drainage 596 Trees Poisonous to Animals 604 Unsoundness of Horses 594 Vicious Domestic Animals 585 Warranty of Sou ndness 589 Water Rights 594 What Constitutes a Warranty 591 What Constitutes Soundness 589 What Constitutes Unsoundness 594 Wrong Use of Hired Horse 580 SPECIAL CHAPTERS. Book-keeping for Farmers 562 Bovine Tuberculosis 547 Grain Smuts 552 Glossary 607 Manures 557 «,^ .University of British Columbia Library g/aks DUE DATE y. ^1 tfe'iv ,. ■!' ♦" J ^^^Y ; ■■:%- FORM 3IO -V. .y :I ag ■I -n -■I - 1 U. - -^ ,. AGRICULTURE : FORESTRY LIBRARY pGn' est b i AGRICUL.! Urxt. LIBRARY