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George Davidson
1825-1911

Professor of Geography
University of California

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LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OP LIVERPOOL,

TO MEMBEKS OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE,

WHO MAY BE DESIROC

0r

at Smtue,

IN

FURTHERANCE OF ZOOLOGY.

LIVERPOOL :

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY,
BY T, BRAKELL, 7, COOK STREET

1862,

OFFEKED ON THE PART OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

\>

OF LIVERPOOL,

TO MEMBEKS OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE,

WHO MAY BE DESIROUS OF USING THE ADVANTAGES THEY ENJOY

0r tu r0m0ti0tT 0f

IN

FURTHERANCE OF ZOOLOGY.

LIVERPOOL :

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY,
BY T. BRAKELL, 7, COOK STREET.

1869,

»w

Ull

OFFERED ON THE PART OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF LIVERPOOL,
TO MEMBERS OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE,

Who may be desirous of using the advantages they enjoy for the
promotion of Science, in furtherance of Zoology.

INTRODUCTION.

THE science of Natural History necessitates two methods of
investigation. One method is the study of the external and
internal characters of natural objects, their peculiarities,
resemblances and differences. The other is the study of their
manners and habits ; the conditions under which they are
found ; and their distribution over the earth and seas.

The first method requires closet study, and may be most
effectually pursued by the stay-at-home naturalist ; the second
can only be followed where the living objects themselves are
to be found. Given the supply of specimens, the one may be
carried on within the walls of a Museum ; the other can only

* On the proposal of the Secretary, and in furtherance of the views developed
in the paper at page 46, " On the Opportunities of advancing Science enjoyed by
the Mercantile Marine," a sub-committee was appointed to draw up some hints
which might be useful to such merchant officers as were willing to make good
use of their advantages for promoting Zoological investigation. The sub-com-
mittee consisted of Dr. Collingvvood, Mr. T. J. Moore and Dr. Walker. To these
were subsequently added the Eev. H, H. Higgins and Mr. I. Byerley. To
Mr. Moore was intrusted the task of preparing a paper to be put into the hands
of such persons as were likely to avail themselves of such hints, and the follow-
ing suggestions were adopted by the Committee, and ordered to be printed in an
Appendix, and further circulated among Members of the Mercantile Marine.

be completely accomplished by observation in every land and
every sea, at every season, and during many years.

The second method may be independent of the first, but
followers of the first are almost entirely dependent for their
very material on the contributions made by the followers of
the second, or by less intelligent providers of specimens.
Unquestionably every student should cultivate both methods
as far as circumstances permit, but in an inverse proportion
to his advantages for pursuing one, will generally be his facili-
ties for following the other.

The closet student with his books and microscopes and
other advantages, can profit to the fullest extent by the labours
of his predecessors and contemporaries. He can carry on
investigations into new fields of discovery and bring to light
previously hidden laws of structure or even of development,
— studies requiring long and close application and the examina-
tion and comparison of specimens from widely distant parts of
the world. As a rule he must limit his acquaintance with
living nature to the inhabitants of his native country, to
hurried observations of those met with in a brief summer
tour, or to the "cabined, cribbed, confined" specimens in a
menagerie or aquarium.

The field or ocean naturalist on the other hand, if devoting
himself exclusively to his science, revels in the contemplation
of the habits, manners and instincts of created beings in any
and every part of the world ; yet if a collector, and an ardent
one, he cannot attain such a close acquaintance with the
internal structure, or even with the development, of anything
like the number of animals of widely different kinds and
widely distant countries as can his brother of the closet. How
much less can he do so if from professional or other duties he
is prevented from devoting more than a portion of his time to
the study of nature ! Yet though the closet and field
naturalists cannot be independent of each other, each class

may derive many and great benefits from the observations and
labours of the other. Owen could not have studied so long
and so closely as he has done the bony frame-work of animals,
if he must himself have gone to New Zealand and sought for
that single and very imperfect bone from which, being sent to
him, he first made knosvn the fact of a race of birds of gigantic
size and remarkable character having formerly existed in those
remote islands, and pointed out so accurately the kind of bird
it must have been, that subsequently, when bones of other
parts in considerable numbers, and ultimately a complete
skeleton, were discovered and brought to England, his deduc-
tions were fully and incontestably proved.*

On the other hand, had the discoverer of this bone himself
sought to solve the problem of the kind of animal to which
it had belonged, it would have required vast research, in
comparing various parts of skeletons of very various kinds,
and a long study of the value and significance of seemingly
trifling modifications of form and structure, to have approxi-
mated at all to a solution of the question.

Take another illustration. Everybody has seen, not only
in museums and the shops of dealers, but on the mantel-
piece and side-table, the shells of the Pearly Nautilus, shells
which for beauty of lustre and elegance of form are unsur-
passed ; while their chambered structure evinces important
differences in the living inhabitants from those of all other
shells. These shells are so plentiful as to be sold for a few
shillings only ; and two or three species are known to exist ;
while the extinct species, of which fossil remains are found,
often very perfect and beautiful, may be counted by hundreds.
Yet though the recent shells have been long known and im-

* The bone referred to was a thigh bone broken off at both ends, fully
described and figured in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London,
for 1839. Subsequently several distinct species have been made out by Pro-
fessor Owen from bones collected in New Zealand, all fully described in later
volumes of the same publication.

ported in such abundance, the animals which formed them
remained almost unknown to naturalists until the year 1829-
Previously, the animal had only been very imperfectly figured,
and still more imperfectly described, by a Dutch naturalist in
the 18th century, who had seen a living example. Cuvier
never saw a specimen of the animal, though greatly desiring
to do so. He prophetically said it would never gladden his
eyes, and they were closed in death, though but only a few
days (?) when the first specimen reaching Europe was sent to
Paris for his inspection. Subsequent critical examination
served to establish the existence of a character of the highest
importance, that of the possession by the Nautilus family of
double the number of gills found in any other family of the
class of animals to which it belongs, thus placing in a still
stronger light the difference in structure and relationships of
the numberless fossil species, for long periods, so abundant
upon the earth.

Both these notable instances show how greatly even the
most advanced closet student depends for most important
material upon those who may be called, for distinction's sake,
field naturalists ; how greatly the latter may aid the former ;
with what a rich return in knowledge they may be repaid ;
and what a flood of light may result from the combined
labours of both.

Again, the natural history of any class of animals cannot
be fully known until all the different species thereof are
ascertained ; how long each species has existed on the earth
or in the waters ; how widely it is distributed through the
same ; its habits, whether migratory or stationary, solitary or
gregarious ; its mode of reproduction and course of develop-
ment ; its seasonal and other changes ; its food and mode of
obtaining it ; its haunts ; its powers of offence or defence ;
the length of life of individuals ; and numerous other par-
ticulars. Only in proportion as these various facts are cor-

rectly ascertained of individual species, is it possible to arrive
at correct conclusions relating to any larger group of animals,
and to elucidate the great laws of animated nature. Much
has already been done in this direction, but very, very much
more remains to be accomplished.

The very first step and the foundation of all subsequent
generalizations is the correct determination of the different
Jcinds, or species, of animals ; — and this is by no means so
easy a task as might at first be supposed. Some species
approximate to others so closely as to require careful exami-
nation to distinguish them : others vary so much as to neces-
sitate the comparison of many specimens before all their points
of difference can be ascertained. Among large animals species
may generally be recognized without much difficulty ; but very
frequently, and particularly among minute objects, the closest
examination and comparison with descriptions and drawings
are necessary ; while often the assistance of students of the
particular tribe of objects must be sought as indispensable.

Scarcely inferior in importance to science is the knowledge
of the range of species, to what extent, great or small, they
are distributed over earth or seas. Indeed Agassiz, one of the
greatest Naturalists of this or any other age, goes so far as to
assert that " every new fact relating to the geographical distri-
bution of well known species is as important to science as the
discovery of a new species. Could we only know the range
of a single animal as accurately as Alphonse de Candolle has
determined that of many species of plants, we might begin a
new era in Zoology. It is greatly to be regretted,- that in
most works containing the scientific results of explorations of
distant countries, only new species are described, when the
mere enumeration of those already known might have added
invaluable information respecting their geographical distribu-
tion. The carelessness with which some naturalists distinguish
species, merely because they are found in distant regions,

8

without even attempting to secure specimens for comparison,
is a perpetual .source of erroneous conclusions in the study of
the geographical distribution of organised beings, not less
detrimental to the progress of science than the readiness of
others to consider as identical, animals and plants which may
resemble each other closely, without paying the least regard to
their distinct origin, and without even pointing out the
differences they perceive between specimens from different
parts of the world. The perfect indentity of animals and
plants living in very remote parts of the globe has so often
been ascertained, and it is also so well known how closely
species may be allied, and yet differ in all the essential
relations which characterize species, that such loose investiga-
tions are no longer justifiable."

It is important to observe that in cases of close identity,
real or apparent, between animals, accurate observation of
their respective habits and other circumstances connected with
their life-history will frequently materially assist to a right
conclusion.

From the foregoing observations the following conclusions
may be drawn :- — That the knowledge of Natural History may
be largely promoted by those " who go down to the sea in
ships," by the collecting of specimens, whereby new kinds of
animals may occasionally be obtained ; by recording the time
when, and places where they occur, thus adding to our know-
ledge of their distribution ; by observing their habits and
mode of life, thus filling up many a blank page in the history of
animated beings, and often assisting materially in elucidating
their true relations to other animals ; while occasionally it
may happen that specimens, or information relative to habits,
may be preserved, of animals which may, in no long time,
become extinct, as have several large species of birds during
the last 20 years, as the great Auk, (probably) the Philip
Island Parrot, the Didunculus, &c., and perhaps the Moa of
New Zealand.

9

Perfect certainty regarding species, however, is of the
utmost importance. On this one point everything else will
turn. It is, in fact, the exact determination of the thing
spoken of; and unless that determination he correct, any
record of occurrence or notice of hahits will he vitiated.
Astronomical observations, however correctly taken or elabor-
ately worked up, would he of little value, if there were any
douht as to the particular star observed ; so of any notes of
species, if those species be incorrectly named ; unless indeed,
examples of the species accompany the notes.

BUT if this latter be the case, if examples accompany the
notes, all the responsibility for the correct naming of species
may be at once transferred to others better placed for
determining them, either by access to rare or costly books, or
by their familiarity with the particular tribe of animals to
which they belong.

We come then briefly to this : — That large and often
important additions may be made to Zoological knowledge by
members of the Mercantile Marine, by recording places of
occurence, and notes of habits, of such living objects as niay
come under their observation ; but that to be of service, the
animals to which they relate must be determined with the
strictest accuracy, (by no means an easy matter,) or be
accompanied by specimens of the objects spoken of, which will
at once remove the difficulty. Of course the acquisition of
specimens is of itself a great object to Museums, Collectors,
and Students. It is here, however, considered subordinate to
the acquisition of a knowledge of their life-history, — but it
will in fact be found to be almost absolutely necessary to the
imparting of that knowledge.

Let us suppose the case of a Merchant- Captain, or Officer,
really desirous of doing something, however trifling, to add to
our scientific knowledge. A land bird alights exhausted on
the rigging of his ship, far out at sea — unless the bird be

10

captured and preserved, to be produced along with the state-
ment of its occurence, that statement would be of little value,
unless the observer were an accomplished ornithologist, and
had actually handled the bird in order closely to examine and
determine it. Suppose a Squid or a Cuttle Fish be obtained.
The fact (with the lat. and long.,) would be worth recording,
but not unless the specimen were preserved also, unless the
observer were a student of this particular class of animals,
and knew, or could determine from his books, the exact
species ; for the known kinds of these animals are numerous,
while many yet doubtless remain unknown.

So with Fish, with Crabs, Shells, and all other animals ;
unless the observer be a student of these particular kinds of
animals, and able of his own direct knowledge, or from his
general acquaintance with the subject, authoritatively to de-
termine the species from well selected and often rare and
costly books, there and then on board, his notices of them
would be of little value, unless accompanied l>y actual speci-
mens of the things spoken of. But if so accompanied, so
simple a thing as a reference to them by a numbered label,
would at once save him from all trouble and anxiety on this
score, leaving it to his arrival at port, to settle these points by
the aid of others, or to leave that portion of the business
entirely in their hands. This bringing home of specimens in
elucidation of notes and observations need not be a never-
ending matter. Once done, it may not, for that particular
kind, need repetition. One or more preserved examples of a
kind may be kept by the Collector, which once named may
serve for future references, or his observation will become
quickened, enabling him to appreciate and retain a firm
recollection of the particular points of specific distinction.
Very many specimens of high scientific interest, may be
preserved and packed in such a way as to be readily accessible
for reference, without occupying more space, than may easily

11

be spared, even where room is so much an object, as on board
ship. There are of course, small shells, Crustacea, and other
objects of little bulk.

It only remains therefore, to point out the less obvious
methods of collecting ; the chief methods of preservation ;
the most serviceable material for both, and to direct those who
are desirous of further information to some of the most useful
works of reference.

MAMMALIA.

Under the term mammalia are comprised all those animals
which suckle their young, including not only quadrupeds,
ordinarily so called, but also the seals and the more fish-like
creatures of the whale and dolphin kinds. These aquatic
animals are rare in museums, and many species are very
imperfectly known. Instances of their being met with are
well worth recording, and specimens should be preserved
whenever practicable. When it may be inconvenient to save
the skin or skeleton, the skull should at any rate be secured.
Notes of the date and place of capture, and whether occurring
singly or in shoals, as well as of any other circumstances that
may be noticed, should be recorded in a note-book at the
time, or be written on a label and attached to the specimen.

Many of these marine forms are found only in high lati-
tudes, and out of the general course of trading vessels. Such
specimens as may be met with should be made the most of.
The dugongs of the Indian seas and the coast of Australia
are great desiderata in England ; as are also the lamantins of
the West coast of Africa, and the manatees of the West Indies
and the coasts of Guiana and Demerara.

The skeletons as well as the skins of these are much wanted,
and both may be preserved from the same creature. There is but
little skill required in either operation. The skin may easily
be taken off the carcase : as much as possible of the flesh and

12

blubber should be removed, and a mixture of one-third salt
and two -thirds alum rubbed all over the fleshy side of the skin.
When this has been well done, place the skin in a barrel
with a quantity of the alum and salt above and below it, as
well as between all the folds. Turn it and rub it with the salt
and alum daily for four or five days, according to the size of
the animal, in order to ensure its being well cured. After
lying two or three weeks in the brine thus produced, it may
be taken out, sprinkled with more salt and alum, and packed
like a wet hide ; or if more convenient, it may be dried by
exposure to the air. When alum is not to be had, salt alone
may be used.

The above metJiod is applicable to large skins of all kinds.
-To preserve the skeleton, cut off all the flesh from the bones,
but without separating them more than is necessary. Tie
them carefully in coarse strong canvas or sacking, and tow
them after the vessel, or otherwise soak them till the remaining
flesh has rotted off. They should be examined occasionally, in
order to tie up in separate bags the small bones of each limb,
before they become divided and mixed. This is desirable to
save trouble in afterwards sorting them, and to prevent loss.

When the bones are quite clean, white, and free from grease,
they may be dried and stowed away, with a suitable label
annexed. Care should be taken to cut out from the flesh all
the bones, including those of the tongue, &c., and vigilance
exercised that none be lost.*

When circumstances prevent either skin or skeleton being
preserved, the skull may yet be saved, and, if so, should by
all means be secured. The flesh being removed, it may be
cleaned by towing as directed for skeletons. If notes of the
sex, colors and measurements of the animal can be taken, they

*An admirable skeleton of a half-grown Indian rhinoceros, prepared in the
above manner, may be seen in the Free Public Museum of Liverpool ; the skin
of the same animal was also preserved and cured in the manner pointed out
above.

13

will be of value, especially should the species be rare. A
sketch of the relative position of the blow-hole, hump (where
it exists) and of the flippers is desirable in the case of rare
specimens of the whale and dolphin kinds.

Professor Owen, speaking of the National Museum in a little
work lately published by him,* draws special attention to the
large marine mammalia, the whales and seals, and strongly
urges the securing of specimens, as their rapidly decreasing
numbers and more restricted range, owing to the eagerness
with which they are pursued and destroyed for commercial
purposes, point to their speedy extermination. One of the
chief objects of his book is to secure ample space in the
British Museum for the proper display of the skins and
skeletons of these creatures, not only on behalf of the public,
but for " the special student of this least known and most
difficult branch of mammalogy."

Land animals of great rarity and interest, such as the gorilla
of South West Africa, and the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra,
may be lest preserved as follows : — Lose no time in taking off
the skin ; let this be done very carefully. Leave no bones at all
in the skin, nor any flesh. Immerse the skin at once in the
strongest spirit that can be procured, taking care that it gets
well between every fold, and that no part is exposed to the air.
To ensure full contact of every part with the spirit, lift up the
skin occasionally. If possible, after a day or two, draw off
the old spirit, and supply its place with new. Absorption into
the skin is so great, and evaporation, in such hot climates as
these animals are found in, is so rapid, that unless the
spirit be renewed, the preservation may not be thoroughly
effected. Let the barrel be proportioned to the bulk of
the skin, tie the skin in canvas to prevent chafing against
the staves ; put in as much grass or other light material

* " On the Extent and Aims of a National Museum of Natural History, by
Professor Owen. London : Saunders, Otley, and Co. 1862." 8vo. Price 6s.

14

as will prevent all shaking, and Jill the barrel with spirit to
the lung*

The bones of such animals as the above are too valuable to
be left behind. The entire carcase, without separating from
it a single bone, may be exposed to ants, or other insect
cleansers, if properly secured against more powerful depre-
dators ; and when partly eaten by these little creatures, and
partly dried by the sun, a semi-mummy, it may be packed in
a suitable box, until its arrival at home. This was done with
the entire skeleton of the gorilla referred to below, and not a
bone was lost or misplaced. The least possible amount of
labour suffices for this method of preserving a skeleton.

Animals may be preserved bodily in spirit, without any
further trouble than making a small incision in the skin of the
abdomen to allow the spirit access to the intestines — care being
taken that the intestines themselves are not cut ; that the spirit
be strong ; and also that it be, if possible, changed within a
short time for fresh spirit. The only limit to the size of the
animals thus treated is the quantity of spirit that can be
afforded. It is by far the best plan for all small mammalia,
such as bats, moles, mice, &c., and really involves very little
trouble.

For those who may have opportunities of procuring qua-
drupeds, and desire to preserve their skins for stuffing, the
following directions may be serviceable, though an hour's
practical instruction would give a clearer notion of the process
than can possibly be obtained without it.

To prepare and preserve Skins of Mammalia.

The animal to be skinned should be placed on its back, and
an incision made down the middle of the abdomen, care being

* In this manner, a skin of a large gorilla, also in the Liverpool Museum, has
been received in a condition leaving nothing to be desired, far surpassing any
that have been previously imported. If spirit be not available, salt will be the
best substitute.

15

first taken to divide the hair to the right and left, and then to
avoid cutting through the abdominal muscles.

The length of the incision will depend much on the skill of
the operator. A novice had better make it from the collar-
bone to within a short distance of the vent ; as he gains skill,
a shorter opening will suffice to enable him to remove the
carcase. A small quantity of powdered chalk, or of plaster of
Paris, should be at hand, to be used from a pepper-box in
dusting over and absorbing the blood whenever it may be
troublesome, or endanger the cleanliness of the fur. The skin
may then be removed from either side of the body, as far as
the fore and hind legs, by a careful use of knife and fingers.
The fore legs should be separated from the carcase by cutting
between the shoulder-blades and the ribs ; and the hind legs,
by cutting the integument which binds the head of the thigh-
bone to its socket in the hip. Leaving the separated limbs
for a time, the operator should continue skinning the body
downwards to the tail, the gut being cut through about an
inch from the vent, and the tail cut off at the first joint. The
skin may then be reversed and separated from the carcase
upwards to the neck. Continuing the inversion, the whole of
the neck should be skinned as far up as the skull, when, if
the head be too large to be drawn within the reversed skin
of the neck, as in horned animals, it may be separated from
the skull at the atlas or first joint of the vertebrae. The skin
should then be turned with the hairy side out, and a fresh
longitudinal incision made therein from the chin to a short
distance down the throat, in order again to get at the skull,
which must be carefully and cleanly skinned down to the lips,
taking particular care to cut the ears off close down to the
skull, and to avoid cutting the eyelids and lips. Carefully skin
the lips to the margin and even beyond, so as to leave as great
a portion as possible of the inner skin attached, in order to
preserve the natural appearance of the mouth when the animal

16

shall be ultimately stuffed. The incision down the throat,
however, should he avoided whenever the head can he skinned
and cleansed by drawing it through the neck. This can be
done with all except horned animals. The eyes should be
removed by pushing them in a forward direction out of their
sockets by a flat piece of wood, or the handle of the knife,
and cutting the nerve, when they will be displaced without
much difficulty. The whole of the flesh, tongue, and brains,
should be removed from the skull as cleanly as possible, the
last being extracted from the hole at the base of the skull by
a small wooden scoop, or by enlarging the hole so as to admit
a larger instrument; but this enlargement should be avoided
when possible, because of the injury it causes to the skull.

The fore and hind legs may then be proceeded with, and
should be skinned down to the very hoofs or claws. The
flesh should be carefully removed from the bones of the legs,
but on no account should the bones be cut away ; they should
be left attached to the hoof or claws, and all saved as far as
the shoulder and the hip. The tail may be skinned by baring
the first joint or so, and tying thereto a stout string or cord,
fastening it to a beam, and slipping the remaining length
out of the skin by means of a cleft stick, with a square surface
made to clasp either side of the skinned joint, and smartly
pulling the stick to the end of the tail.

The whole skin should now be examined, and all particles of
flesh still adhering must be carefully removed. The whole of
the inner surface, especially about the lips, eyes, and vent, is
to be well and amply smeared over with arsenical soap, or other
preservative, if this, the most valuable, be not at hand. The
leg bones must be well covered with the preservative, and,
after being slightly wrapped round with tow, or other material,
to prevent them from adhering to the skin, should be returned
within the extremities. The skull, having been well dressed
with preservative, should have its cavities slightly filled out

17

with tow, cotton, or other light material, and replaced within
the skin. The hody may be slightly stuffed out with any light
material at hand, and the ahdominal incision slightly sewn up.
The hair should be well smoothed and cleaned, and any
external part of the skin destitute of hair, touched with the
preservative. A parchment or card label should be tied to one
of the legs, and the date when the animal was killed, locality,
native name, &c., recorded thereon. The skin may be carefully
laid by in some dry and airy place out of the reach of vermin
and insects, and there remain till thoroughly dry, when it may
be placed in a box or chest, care being still taken against the
access of insects, &c., the box should, therefore, be as air-
tight as possible, and some camphor or other drug obnoxious
to insects placed therein.

Great care should be taken in all the above processes not
to stretch the skin, because it is generally impossible after-
wards to reduce it to its former size. The shrinking of a skin
is of little moment, as it can, when damped for stuffing, be
easily pulled out to its former size ; but stretching should be
carefully guarded against.

BIEDS.

In ornithology, members of the Mercantile Marine cannot
do better than take every opportunity of securing such land
birds as may alight on board their vessels while at sea, and
either preserve their skins or put them in spirit, previously
making a slight incision in the abdomen, carefully noting the
latitude and longitude, and the date. Any information that
can be obtained relative to the migrations of 'birds will be
useful. Instances of migratory flocks being seen on the wing
at sea would be worth recording; particularly noting the
latitude and longitude, the direction of the flight, and the
direction and force of the wind. If specimens can be shot
and preserved, the value of the observation will be, of course,

18

very greatly increased, as it would put the identity of the
species beyond a doubt. Opportunities for collecting eggs
and nests of birds will not often fall to the lot of members of
the Mercantile Marine, especially as regards land birds. As,
however, skins are very much more frequently collected than
eggs and nests, the chance of obtaining novelties is propor-
tionally greater, and such opportunities of obtaining them
as may occur should be made the most of.

Great circumspection, however, is necessary. For eggs to
be of value to the ornithologist, it is necessary to be certain of
the species to which they belong. In all cases, therefore,
where it may be possible to capture one or both of the parent
birds, as well as the eggs, it is strongly recommended to do
so. So high a value is placed by modern collectors of eggs
on correct identification, that no trouble is considered too
great which may be found necessary to ascertain with accuracy
the parent birds.

Mr. Alfred Newton, one of the most zealous collectors of
eggs of the day, gives the following advice on this point
in a little pamphlet written by him for the Smithsonian Insti-
tution of Washington, and subsequently published by him in
England*

" The most satisfactory, and often the simplest, way of
identifying the species to which a nest of eggs, when found,
belongs, is to obtain one of the parents by shooting, snaring,
or trapping. But it sometimes, in practice, happens that this
is found to be difficult, from one cause or another, such as
the wary instinct of the birds, or the necessities of his position
compelling the traveller to lose no time, or the scarcity of the
species making him unwilling to destroy the individuals. In
any of these cases, there is nothing to be done but to make as

* " Suggestions for forming Collections of Birds' Eggs, by Alfred Newton, M.A.
Published by Edward Newman, 9, Devonshire-street, Bishopsgate, London.
Price Cd." This little pamphlet is strongly recommended to all those who are
disposed to take a special interest in the subject of which it treats.

19

careful an examination as circumstances will admit, of the
precise situation of the nest, the materials of which it is
composed (supposing that the collector cannot bring it away
with him), and accurately to survey the surrounding locality,
to observe by what species it is frequented ; all the particulars
of which examination and survey should be fully noted down
at the earliest opportunity possible. Should, however, either
or both the birds be killed, they should be skinned, or at
least some characteristic part of each preserved, and duly
labelled, to correspond with the inscriptions subsequently put
on the eggs, and always with a reference to the collector's
journal or note-book, wherein fuller details may be found.

" The collector of eggs is especially warned not to be misled
by the mere fact of seeing birds around or near the nests.
Many of the crow family (CorvidteJ, are great eaters of eggs,
and mistakes are known to have originated from birds of that
kind being seen near nests of which they were certainly not
the owners. Others, such as the Titmice (Paridcp), though
not plunderers, obtain their food by incessantly seeking it,
even in the very localities where many species build. It often
happens, also, that two different birds have their nests situated
very close to one another, and if they be allied species the
collector may be easily deceived."

The best method of blowing eggs is to make a single hole
in the side, and not at either end as is commonly done. The
latter method breaks the outline of the egg, and doubles the
risk of cracking the shell. The former method answers every
purpose, and, when the egg is placed with the hole downwards,
there is nothing to offend the eye. The egg may be blown
by means of a blow-pipe or a stalk of grass. The hole being
being made somewhat larger than the tip of the pipe or stalk,
the contents of the shell cannot but escape when air is blown
in. A rat-tailed file, with a very sharp point, is a very effec-
tual borer for making the hole in moderate and large-sized

20

eggs ; a brad-awl, sharpened to a point, or a three-cornered
needle, will suffice for small ones.

In the very common event of the young bird being more or
less advanced towards hatching, considerable care and dexte-
rity will be required in extracting it. Mr. Newton recommends
gumming on the side of the shell, one over another, a series
of circular pieces of paper (such as would be cut by a punch
for gun waddings), and then slit in several places from the
circumference half way towards the centre, with a pair of
scissors, in order to allow them to be accommodated to the
convexity of the egg. When dry, the hole is to be made
through these, which will add considerably to the strength of
that part of the shell ; and the embryo is to be very carefully
cut up and drawn out by skilful manipulation with the most
slender knives, hooks, or scissors, that can be procured. The
patches of paper can easily be removed by softening them
sufficiently in water. Care should always be taken to clean
the eggs well out, to rinse them with a little water, and to
leave the egg hole downwards until thoroughly dry.

When dry, each egg should be wrapped in a small quantity
of cotton wool, or the lightest substitute available, and all out
of one nest, packed within the nest, if it be saved, or put
together into a chip box. Such box, or nest of eggs, should
be most carefully labelled with the place and time of capture ;
and the name, native or otherwise, of the parent birds, stating
particularly the circumstances warranting the application of
the latter, such as " Parent bird shot on the nest, and sent
herewith, numbered so-and-so." As the small boxes and
nests of eggs accumulate, they should be carefully packed in
a box of larger size, and so as to prevent shaking. Wrapping
each egg separately is far preferable to putting them in saw-
dust, sand, grain, or similar material, as by shaking in
travelling the eggs get to the top, the sand, &c., to the bottom
of the box, and much damage ensues.

21

The following directions for skinning birds may be useful
in the absence of practical lessons : —

To Prepare and Preserve Skins of Birds.

Birds, when shot, should have the niouth and vent stopped
up with cotton, wool, or fine grass, and the wounds dusted
with powdered chalk, or plaster of Paris, to prevent any
discharge of blood, or mucus, from soiling the feathers. These
precautions may be repeated when the body is cool enough for
skinning. The feathers being carefully divided to the left and
right, down to the centre of the under surface of the bird, an
incision is to be made from the upper part of the breast to the
vent ; and the skin on either side separated from the flesh by
the fingers, very little aid being required from the knife ; the
legs should be cut from the trunk at the knee-joint, that is,
between the thigh and leg bone in the fleshy part of the leg,
and the skin separated from the body as far as the vent and
tail, both of which must be cut off at a short distance from
their termination. This is, perhaps, the most difficult task in
skinning a bird, and considerable care will be necessary. The
last joint of the vertebrae supporting the tail may be left
attached to the skin to continue its support to the tail feathers,
but all the flesh and the oil-gland must be carefully removed.
Skin the back upwards till the wings are reached ; separate
these at their junction with the body, taking especial care here
not to cut the skin ; tie the mandibles together with a thread
passed very carefully through the nostrils with a fine needle,
so as not to injure the nostrils (which are very delicate, and
possess characters of scientific importance), and leave a double
thread attached somewhat longer than the neck. Draw out
the neck as far as the skull, and skin carefully round this as
far as the base of the mandibles, taking care in removing the
eyes not to puncture, or otherwise injure, the lids ; cut away
the tongue and all the flesh from the skull, and scoop out the
brain, to do which it may be necessary to remove a small

portion of the base of the skull, yet so as not to injure its
contour, or lessen its strength. The legs are now to be skinned
as far as there is any flesh, which must be removed from the
bones, anointed with arsenical soap or oilier preservative,
then slightly wrapped with tow or cotton, and returned to their
place. In a similar way, the wings must be skinned, except that
the flesh from the second joint onward maybe removed through
a fresh incision on the inner side of the wing instead of draw-
ing out the whole length of the bones. Having dressed these
with the soap and replaced them, the skull is to be plentifully
smeared, and its cavities filled with cotton ; the whole of the
skin being likewise dressed with the arsenical soap, is to be
restored to its natural position ; the head drawn back through
the neck by means of the thread attached to the mandibles ;
the feathers carefully smoothed down ; the skin slightly stuffed
with tow or cotton, and sewn up. A neat label having notes
of the following particulars should be tied to one of the legs : —
" Native and other names ; sex, verified by dissection, if pos-
sible ; colour of the eyes, cere, legs, and fleshy parts, before
fading. Date when, and place where killed."

The above notes should always be promptly taken and
attached to each specimen immediately upon being skinned,
in order to insure perfect accuracy. A number may be added
to the label referring to a page in the note-book, wherein all
other particulars that can be obtained should be recorded, as
to habits, food, &c., and to ascertain the latter, the crop and
gizzard should always be examined.

The skin may now be rolled in a strip of paper and pinned
or tied moderately close to prevent the feathers being ruffled,
and then placed in a safe and airy place till dry, when it may
be stored in an air-tight and vermin-proof box or chest, with
other skins, and camphor placed therewith, as directed for
skins of mammalia.

Great care should be taken throughout to avoid cutting,

23

tearing, or stretching the skin, or ruffling the feathers ; and
the beak and nostrils, and the scales of the legs, should be
carefully preserved from injury.

Large-headed birds, such as ducks and woodpeckers will
require an incision to be made down the upper part of the
throat, in order to skin the skull and remove the flesh, for,
it is impossible in these to draw the head through the narrow
skin of the neck, which, as well as all other parts of the skin,
must be carefully kept from being stretched, or it will become
most unsightly, and can never be reduced to its proper size.

Before throwing away the carcase of any rare lird, two
additional preparations may be made of considerable interest to
the ornithologist ; the first, by carefully removing the tongue
and trachea, or wind pipe, cleaning them of loose integument,
placing them in water a sufficient time to soak out the blood,
and then pinning them on a board to dry, or, to prevent the
windpipe breaking, which it is very likely to do, inserting a
slender stick within it, and allowing it to dry thereon ; the
second, by preserving the sternum or breast-bone of the bird,
with all the smaller bones attached to it, the furcula or merry-
thought, the collar and shoulder bones, and the processes
which unite the sternum to the ribs. The flesh should be
removed with care, and the sternum soaked in water slightly
boiled, to remove the blood and flesh, and then dried. Both
should be carefully labelled with the name of the bird to which
they belong, or a reference to it by number. Entire skeletons
of rare birds may be prepared in the same manner as those of
mammalia ; or, when small enough, they may be put whole
into spirit until arrival at home.

REPTILES.

Reptiles of moderate size are best preserved in spirit, a
portion being injected into the mouth and vent. In the largest
of those thus preserved, an incision should be made in the
abdomen to allow the spirit access to the intestines, previously

24

to placing the creatures in the jar or barrel. Specimens too
large to be thus disposed of, as crocodiles and large lizards,
should be skinned according to the directions given for mam-
malia. Tortoises and turtles must have the lower shell cut or
sawn from the upper, at their junction, and cut from the
surrounding skin. The flesh can then be readily removed
from both shells, and the head, neck, and extremities can be
skinned in the usual manner. The application of arsenical
soap, or preservative, must on no account be omitted.

In skinning snakes which may be inconveniently large to
put in spirit, care must be taken to avoid rubbing off or
loosening the scales, as well as to avoid receiving any scratch
from the fangs of such as are poisonous ; the virus retaining
its deadly power after death, and even after long preservation.

The amphibious reptiles, as toads, frogs, newts, salamanders,
&c., which undergo so many, and such remarkable transfor-
mations, should have specimens in all the different stages of
development, from the spawn to the perfectly formed animal,
preserved in spirit ; and if possible, to secure identity, the
different species should be kept in separate bottles, and all the
particulars that can be obtained relating to them should be
recorded in the note-book, especially the date and place of
capture ; and the specimens referred to by numbers marked
on suitable labels.

Many remarkable species of newts and salamanders are
found in Japan, particularly one very large kind — the Sieboldia
maxima — which grows to the length of two feet. This is a
very ugly creature, but very rare in European collections, and
is well worth seeking for and preserving in spirit.

The eggs of reptiles should be preserved. They may be
blown, or put in spirit. Particular care should be taken in
ascertaining and noting the species they belong to, examples
of which should also be preserved, if possible, in order to
make the identification sure.

25

FISH.

In this, more perhaps than in any other class of animals,
may the assistance of members of the Mercantile Marine be
expected. Anybody can catch fish ; anybody can, with little
care, skin and slightly stuff them, and, with less trouble still,
can preserve them in spirit or even in salt. The species are
excessively numerous ; the numbers of some kinds prodigious ;
the forms of many are very remarkable ; and the beauty of
others unsurpassed. Yet fish are rarely brought home by
British collectors. Probably not fifty or even twenty species
could be found at any one time in all the Natural History
dealers' stores in the three kingdoms, while of birds, insects
and shells thousands may certainly be obtained. Need more
be said to commend this interesting class to the attention of
those to whom this paper is addressed ? Even the markets
and those who supply them with fish may most usefully be
put under contribution.

Fish as well as reptiles are best preserved in spirit, and of
this more anon ; but when the specimens are too large to be
preserved they may be skinned. In order to prevent as much
as possible the scales from being rubbed during this process,
it is advisable to use some light thin substance, as old linen
or cotton rags, bladder, sheet india-rubber, or even paper, to
wrap the fish in, to save rubbing and chafing with the hands.
This can be removed by damping when the skin is freed from
the carcase. The incision for skinning may either be made
down the centre of the abdomen, as in quadrupeds and birds,
or it may be made midway along one side of the fish, from the
pec:oral fins nearly or quite to the tail. With broad-scaled
or delicate fish this method has advantages ; the skin of the
side being stronger than that on the belly, it does not so
readily tear when being sown up by the stuffer ; in the case of
delisate fish, and with broad-scaled ones, the loss of a few
scales on one side is of less importance (those on the other
being perfect) than on the median line of the belly.

26

All the flesh, should, of course, be carefully removed, not
only from the skin but from the base of the fins and tail and
from the skull. All these parts should be well anointed with
arsenical soap, or whatever preservative is used instead of ic.
The skin may then be very slightly stuffed with light material,
lightly stitched up, and when thoroughly dry, wrapped in
paper before being packed away, in order to prevent damage
to the fins and scales, which are very easily injured.

A less troublesome process than that of skinning the entire
fish is sometimes followed, namely, that of skinping very
little more than one side of the fish. Make an incision from
the top of the head along the back, keeping slightly on, say,
the right side of the dorsal fin, down to the ta/1 ; continue
this incision from the tail, along the belly, up to t^ie gills. Cut
away this smaller half of the skin and remove the flesh from
the other ; and if the head be large, cut away a portion of the
thickness of this also, but leave the mouth intact. Dress the
larger half of the skin with preservative, pin it on a soft
board, with all the fins, as well as the tail, fully displayed,
and give proper convexity to the skin by lightly inserting
cotton or other soft material between it and the board. When
dry, the pins may be taken out and the board and cotton
removed. When viewed from the side, the absence of the
other half is not noticeable, while all that is really serviceable
is preserved.

Fish are very subject to parasites. These should be care-
fully sought for on the eyes, lips and gills, as well as in the
liver, intestines and stomach, in which also many other crea-
tures, preyed upon by the fish> as smaller animals of its own
class, Crustacea, mollusca, &c., may be found. All these
should be preserved in spirit and carefully labelled with the
name of the fish from which they were taken.

As the colours of fish are always fleeting, and often ex-
tremely beautiful, notes should be taken while the specimens

27

are fresh, and if colored sketches can be made of rare ones, so
much the hetter.

With reference to the preservation of fish in spirits the
following points should he carefully attended to. Before im-
mersion, a slight hole should he neatly cut in the abdomen
without injuring the intestines, and a little spirit, if possible,
injected therein and through the mouth and vent, light plugs
of cotton being afterwards inserted in all three.

Tie to each fish a label of the date and place of capture.
This may be written clearly and distinctly with a good pencil
on stout writing paper, or on card, or best of all on parch-
ment ; or it may be written in ink, which, if allowed to dry
before going into spirit, will not afterwards run. Where
several specimens or species captured at the same time and
place are put into one vessel, it will suffice to put the date
and locality securely to this ; but wherever any information
relative to a specimen can be given, this should invariably
either be affixed to it in full, or a reference to a note be
attached.

Very small specimens are best preserved apart from large
ones, say in pickle bottles. Thin-skinned and delicate fish
should also be preserved apart from large and rough ones. All
fish of any size should be separately wrapped in thin bunting,
calico, or old linen, to prevent the loss of scales, and either
wrapped securely, but lightly, with string, or be slightly sewn
up before immersion in spirit. In order to insure preservation,
it "is extremely desirable, after four or five days, to draw off the
spirit in which the specimens were first placed, and to sub-
stitute fresh spirit. The loss by absorption and evaporation
makes this necessary. The fish, securely and separately
wrapped up after having been in the first spirit, may be packed
in a small barrel. The barrel must be filled, either with
specimens, or with tow, hair, &c., to prevent tossing about ;
then headed up, filled with the strongest spirit obtainable,

28;

rolled, and canted to let all enclosed air escape, then filled to
the bung-hole, and securely bunged up, -with a piece of tin
nailed over to prevent the bung getting loose. In very hot
climates it may be necessary to change the spirit a second
time before closing up. Much will depend upon the heat, the
mass of fish to be preserved, and the strength of the spirit.
Bisk of damage will be lessened by putting fish into three or
four small barrels, rather than into one large one of equal
capacity. To prevent rolling and shaking during the time
specimens are being collected, an India rubber bag, or one or
more bladders, inflated with air, may be, put in with the fish to
keep the barrels always full, and as more fish are put in, a pro-
portionate quantity of air can be let out.

Dr. Giinther, of the British Museum, in some instructions
for collecting reptiles and fish, recently issued by him, recom-
mends for the preservation and conveyance of spirit specimens
the use of square boxes made of strong tin. When jelled with
specimens, the top should be soldered on, and the spirit after-
wards poured in through a hole punched in the lid until every
crevice is filled, when the hole is to be covered with a small
piece of tin and securely soldered. These boxes would have
to be made for the purpose ; they are the lightest and most
compact that can be used, and if made of slightly increasing
sizes, may, until wanted, be packed one within the other.

American naturalists have a modification of this plan. They
use tin boxes with as large a circular hole on the top as can
be made, into which a brass collar fits to receive an iron lid
screwing into it, a washer of leather or gutta percha between,
further aiding in preventing the escape of spirit. The advan-
tage of these cans consists in the facility with which they can
be opened and closed. Empty ammunition cans answer nearly
or quite as well.

When not convenient either to skin fish, or preserve them
in spirit, they may be simply salted. For this purpose, cut

29

them open nearly to the hack ; gut them ; fill them with
coarse salt, and pack them in the same, with the addition of
a little saltpetre.

INSECTS.

The opportunities for collecting and making observations
upon insects will, probahly, he as rare with members of the
Mercantile Marine as those for observing and collecting the
eggs of Birds. Instructions for preserving zoological speci-
mens, however, would be very incomplete without some brief
directions relative to this, the most numerous of all classes
of animated beings.

The most profitable service that can be rendered will be,
whenever opportunity occurs, to inquire into and secure every-
thing illustrating the usefulness of insects to man, with a view
to the possible extension of their good services. The silk-
moths are a case in point. The Ailanthus silkmoth, long
known to naturalists, and for centuries cultivated in China,
was introduced to Europe, in 1856, by the Abbe Fantoni, a
Piedmontese missionary. It is now cultivated largely and
profitably in France, and, being very hardy, is also being
reared in England. More than forty species of silk-producing
moths have been described by naturalists ; but the majority of
the species are very imperfectly known, as to their food, habits,
and transformations. Several of these have only been disco-
vered within the last few years. Five of the new species are
from Japan ; and, as silk-producing moths are widely dispersed
through the East, it is quite possible to render important
service, by procuring examples of the eggs, caterpillars,
cocoons, and perfect insects, of any species known to produce
silk, with samples of the silk itself. A yet greater service
would be performed by obtaining and carefully conveying
home living cocoons, to hatch and breed in this country, and

30

for the last purpose, a knowledge of the proper food-plant is
most essential.*

Next to useful insects, illustrations of those which are the
source of injuries to man will be worthy of attention.

Finally, the habits, transformations, and economy of Insects
generally, are a most profitable field of study, whenever oppor-
tunity may occur, and illustrations of these are well worthy
of preservation.

Butterflies, moths, and other delicate insects, may be killed
with chloroform, with the vapour of ether, by holding them
in the steam of a kettle, or by dipping, a needle into a solution
of oxalic acid, and piercing therewith the chest immediately
behind the head. Butterflies may be killed also by pinching
them smartly with the finger and thumb under the wings, but
this is a very rough method, to be avoided when other means
are possible. Very large moths should have the body opened,
the contents removed, and replaced by fine cotton. Moths,
butterflies, &c., should be pinned between the wings, with
slender pins of suitable length, and stuck in air-tight book
boxes, lined with cork ; or on shallow trays, lined with cork or
pith, and fitting into an air-tight chest; camphor, or other
similar drug, being placed in each box or tray, in muslin,
or other light material, to prevent minute depredators com-
mitting havoc amongst them, which they will not fail to do,
unless great care and watchfulness be exercised. Great care
should be taken to fasten the camphor beyond all chance of
becoming loose.

Beetles may be killed instantaneously by immersion in

* For fuller particulars on this subject see a shilling pamphlet, by Lady
Dorothy Neville, on the " Ailanthus Silkworm." Published at 162, Fleet-street ;
and " Notes on the Silk-producing Insects of India, and its adjacent countries,"
by Mr. F. Moore. Published in " The Technologist," for July, 1862.

A prize of 1,000 francs is offered by the Societe Imperial e Zoologique d' Accli-
matation, at Paris, for the acclimatation in France, or Algeria, prior to December,
1866, of any new species of moth, producing silk fit for industrial purposes. The
Acclimatization Society of London is also desirous of aiding in the naturalizing
in England of silk-moths, or other creatures likely to prove serviceable.

31

lolling water ; they should afterwards be dried on a cloth, or
blotting paper, and either pinned through the right wing- ease
and arranged in boxes or trays, as above directed for moths,
&c., or be put in small numbers into little chip or pill-boxes,
with a little cotton to keep them from shaking. Beetles, and,
indeed, all insects, except moths and butterflies, may be put
into spirit, which will cause immediate death, and preserve
them as long as it retains its strength, to secure which, fresh
spirit should be added before putting a bottle in store. Spiders
and caterpillars are most easily preserved in spirit, but can be
preserved dry by puncturing the abdomen, squeezing out the
contents, filling it with sand and letting it remain till the skin
becomes sufficiently dry, when it may be shaken out, and the
specimens pinned.

Pins of various sizes, suitable for insects, may be obtained
of Messrs. Edelston and Williams, Crown Court, Cheapside,
London, and of Mr. Edmondson, Basnett- street, Liverpool.

Insect boxes, lined with cork, may also be procured of Mr.
Edmondson, in Liverpool, and in London, of Mr. Cook, 513,
New Oxford-street, from whom all other necessary entomo-
logical apparatus may be obtained. In the absence of boxes
specially prepared for insects, rough ones, which will answer
the purpose of conveying specimens safely home, may be made
as follows : — Cut into slices about a quarter of an inch thick
any good bottle corks and , bungs that can be obtained, and
glue them in rows, at suitable intervals, in any shallow boxes
or trays that can be made to shut perfectly close.

SHELLS AND MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.

The following excellent instructions for collecting specimens
of this very numerous and important class of animals have
been extracted from a little work published by the late
William Swainson, and approved by Dr. Gray : —

" Land Shells may be got most plentifully early in the

32

morning, especially in rainy weather, on shrubs and grass ;
the smaller kinds under moss — in the hollows of bones — under
stones — in the crannies of the bark of trees, or under the moss
at their roots — by the sides of ditches, and in other moist
places.

" Fresh-water Shells are to be sought after in quiet inlets,
on the sides of rivers, lakes, brooks, and canals ; in ditches
and ponds which are constantly full of water, and not disturbed
by cattle or other means, and on the weeds and other vege-
tables which grow in them. To collect them, a net or tin
spoon, pierced with holes, is required. The double shells, as
mussels, and such like, however, mostly live on, or under, the
mud.

" The Marine Shells are very numerous, and, according to
their genera, inhabit various places.

" The cavities and surfaces of the rocks on the sea-coast
afford periwinkles, limpets, sea-ears, mussels, &c. The two first
kinds must be severed from the place to which they adhere, by
swiftly passing a knife between them and the rock. If such
of the large stones as are moveable are overturned, many sorts
will be discovered sticking together on the underside ; and a
great variety may be found on the sea-weeds, especially after
a gale, when many of these plants are thrown up by the waves.

" Such sand-banks and coral-reefs, as are for the most part
overflowed by the tide at its lowest ebb, abound with thorny,
and other oysters, &c.

" Under the sand and mud, often to the depth of two or
three feet, live many various tribes of cockles, and other
double shells, many of which spout up the water, or sink the
surface of their beds by which they may be discovered ; and
here also, and in swamps, elephant's teeth, and other tubular
shells are to be met with, the animals only of which are above
the surface of the mud.

" Several kinds live on the sea-shore, about low water mark,

33

immersed in holes which they scoop out -within chalk, lime-
stones, wood, &c., which must be broken or split to discover
the enclosed shells. Pieces of the bed might be saved with
the shells in them.

" But trawling and dredging in deep water afford the best
'opportunities for collecting rarities, as among the rubbish, sea-
weeds, &c., which come up in the net, many curious sorts of
scallops and other shells are to be got, which are not to
be found near the land.

" Many shell-fish may also be procured by baiting a wicker
basket, open at the ends, but gradually narrowing inwards,
like a mouse-trap. It should be baited at night, and let down
from the vessel when at anchor. The refuse of fish or animals
will answer as a bait.

" If a bundle of straw is tied tight at one end, with a piece
of meat in it, and is sunk to the bottom, many shell-fish, &c.,
will be found in it, if it is raised with the loose end uppermost.
There should be a weight at the end to keep the straw down.

" A common swab sunk to the bottom will bring up many
shells and corals.

" If the intestines of a fish are examined, many beautiful
small shells will be found in them, and be easily separated
after they have been for a few days in a bucket of salt-water.

"If the mud brought up by the anchor is examined, very
fine shells will frequently be found in it, particularly in the
eastern seas ; the lead also brings up shells.

" The natural skin or epidermis peculiar to many kinds of
shells, should not on any account be taken off; nor should the
shells be touched with any corroding acid, as it spoils them.

" Shells that have been exposed on the sea-shore to the
effects of sun or water, lose their colour, and are rarely worth
collecting.

" It is particularly requested that no shells maybe rejected,
because they are common-looking, or ugly, or small."

84

The simplest method of killing the animals of shells is to
pour lolling water upon them, which causes immediate death.
The animals of univalve shells can then be extracted with
a long bent pin, or a piece of fine wire, hooked at the end.
Care should be taken to remove every particle of the animal
matter of all except the very smallest kinds, and when there is
a shelly lid or covering (operculum) to the mouth of the shell,
this should be carefully put in again when dry.

Bivalve shells, as mussels, &c., must have the animal
matter removed with a knife, and the two shells tied together ;
otherwise, when dry, they will gape, and be unsightly, and
liable to break. The shells, when thoroughly dry, should be
wrapped or packed in cotton wool, or soft paper. Very small
ones may be put together in pill-boxes, or small phials, with
a little cotton, to prevent shaking. All captured at one time
and place should be packed together, and carefully labelled
with the locality, conditions under which found, as, " under
stones," " among moss," &c. ; and (where they have been
obtained by dredging) the depth in fathoms, and the nature
of the bottom, whether sandy, muddy, or rocky, should be
particularly named. These last particulars are of the highest
importance, not only in the study of recent conchology, but
also to the geologist, as affording him hints as to the condi-
tions under which similar kinds found in a fossil state also
existed.

It is very desirable to preserve some of the specimens of
shells with the animals within them in bottles of spirit, as it
is only from the animals themselves that their true nature
and relations can be accurately ascertained, as shown in the
instance of the Nautilus, before spoken of. The specimens
so to be preserved should be put in alive, as the spirit itself
will speedily kill them.

Beside the animals bearing an external shell, there are
whole families belonging to this class in which the shell is

35

concealed within the substance of the creature, as in slugs,
cuttle-fish, and squids; or is altogether wanting, as in the
highly interesting nudibranchs, or naked-gilled molluscs.
These should be zealously and carefully collected and pre-
served in spirit : the small kinds in tubes or bottles of
corresponding size, and labelled as already directed.

There are very many highly interesting molluscous animals
which are found floating on the surface of the sea. These
should be collected by means of a net consisting of a ring of
iron, or a strong wooden hoop of a barrel, having a bag about
eighteen or twenty inches deep, made of bunting. Three pieces
of cord, about twenty inches long, should be tied to the ring at
equal distance, and the ends tied together to a long line, with
which the whole should be towed from the boat or ship on the
water, so as to skim its surface. The net should be frequently
examined, and the captures, however minute, put into small
phials of spirit, and labelled with the date, and latitude and
longitude.

Gulf- weed should be closely examined for specimens of these
floating molluscs, which are great prizes to conchologists.*

CKUSTACEA.

All Crustacea (lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c.) are lest pre-
served in spirit, which, of course, immediately kills them.
Specimens too large for this method should have all the flesh
carefully removed. Access to it may be obtained by removing
or loosening the upper shell in crabs, in lobsters, cray-fish,
&c. ; an incision may be made for this purpose down the
middle of the under side. The claws must be taken off at the
joints to extract the flesh if it cannot be removed by cutting
through the integument on the inner side of the joints. If
taken off, they must be carefully replaced. The whole of the

* Those persons who have the slightest inclination for studying shells should
possess themselves of a copy of Woodward's " Manual of Mollusca," published by
Weale, 59, High Holborn, London. Price 6s. Od. This most admirable book
is a library of itself upon the animals of which it treats.

36

shell should, subsequently, be immersed in spirit for a short
time, or else be anointed internally with arsenical soap, to
prevent the attacks of insects. This class of animals is very
numerous, and will well repay collecting and studying. The
small kinds, however minute, should be assiduously sought
for and preserved.

ANNELIDS, OK WOKMS.

Under the lowly designation of worms are included a con-
siderable variety of creatures, which, though less frequently
studied and collected, perhaps, than any others, a,re well worthy
of attention. Many are really very beautiful when seen in a
living state. The nereids, which burrow in sand or mud,
when swimming reflect brilliant iridescent tints, and make
their way through the water by a series of most graceful
curves, which no one who is fortunate enough to see them can
fail to admire. So little are they sought after, that though
beautiful specimens, a foot in length, are to be found buried
deep in the shores of the Mersey, they are almost as little
known as if they inhabited the antipodes ; and the exhibition
of specimens in the Aquaria, at the Free Public Museum,
never fails to elicit the admiration of all who see them. Other
members of the tribe form tubes of sand and shell, by means
of their flexible and extensive feelers, working like so many
miniature elephants' trunks ; other kinds spread out beyond
the leathery tube in which they live, a beautiful spiral disc,
like a plume of delicate feathers, which they instantly retract
on the slightest alarm ; others, again, form calcareous tubes,
the mouth of which they close against all intruders by a most
exquisitely contrived stopper. These are examples of a portion
only of the numerous class of Annelids. They are to be sought
for under stones, or buried more or less deep in sand or mud ;
their whereabouts being generally betrayed by some orifice, or
depression, or by castings thrown up out of their holes. Those
which burrow must be dug for with a spade or three-pronged

37

fork, deeply and quickly, or they will evade pursuit. Immer-
sion in water to cleanse them is necessary to display their
beauty. Those forming hard tubes generally attach them to
shells, stones, &c. All these creatures can only be preserved in
spirit ; and those kinds forming tubes should be preserved in
them undisturbed ; or at least some example should be so saved.
It is not always easy to prevent the animals slipping out ;
when they do so, the tube should be put into the bottles with
them.

STAR-FISH AND SEA URCHINS, SEA ANEMONES

AND ZOOPHYTES, ACALEPHS OR JELLY

FISHES, CORALS AND SPONGES.

With the exception of the Jelly Fish, which are best secured
by the towing net, while swimming near the surface, all the
above creatures are to be procured by searching along the
shore at low tides, and by the use of the trawl and dredge.

Star-fish may be preserved dry ; very small kinds without
any other preparation than a brief immersion in spirit. All
large Star-fish should have the flesh removed. To do this,
cut from the mouth to the lip of each arm, on the under side,
with a pair of scissors stout enough to divide the internal
frame-work. With a bluntish knife, the fleshy matter
may then be easily removed from the centre and from each
arm. Soak the skin in spirit, but very briefly, for fear of loss
of color, and pin out the specimen on a piece of soft-board
and place it in the sun, or before a fire, or in a strong current
of air, so that it may dry rapidly. When thoroughly dry, fold
in thin paper.

Echini, or Sea-urchins, are more difficult to preserve dry,
especially those with very large spines. The flesh must be
removed through the mouth on the under side ; cut the skin
surrounding this, and scoop out the flesh/ but leave in the
loose internal framework. Soak in spirit for a short time, and
drv as above.

38

Specimens of as many kinds as possible of Star-fish and Sea-
urchins should he wrapped up separately and preserved in
spirit, dried specimens being insufficient for the examination
of all parts of their structures.

Sea Anemones are difficult to preserve satisfactorily. If
possible, cut away with a hammer and chisel a small, piece of
the rock to which they are attached ; place them in salt-water
until they expand; then suddenly transfer them to spirit while
so expanded. When dead, it will be well to fold each speci-
men that is so attached in linen, to prevent damage from
chafing, rendered more probable than i^sual by the piece of
adhering rock.

Allied to the Anemones, though very much lighter and more
graceful in form, are those beautiful, delicate, little, slender
shrub-like objects so familiar to all who visit the sea-coast at
low tides, where, though not frequently met with attached to
the rocks, they are yet found in great abundance left in heaps
by the receding tide. Careful examination will show to the
naked eye, in many cases, that these objects are serrated like
the teeth of a .saw. The use of a pocket lens will reveal
the fact that each of these serrations is a little cavity, and if
placed under a microscope, in a little water, when fresh from
the sea, each cavity will be found to have its own tiny occu-
pant, whose structure and movements it will be most interest-
ing to watch. A few observations like these will enable any
person not previously familiar with these little creatures, to
distinguish them from sea-weeds, with which they are not
seldom confounded by ordinary observers. These zoophytes
should be carefully collected and preserved. For this purpose,
preference should be given to those found attached at the base,
to rocks, stones, &c. These will be alive. They should be
carefully removed from whatever they may be fixed to, and
plunged immediately into small phials of spirit, which, if
neatly done, will generally result in the little occupants being

39

killed protruding from their cells, thus affording the best means
of examining them, when living specimens cannot be obtained.

When procured by the dredge, it is less necessary to restrict
one's self to rooted specimens, as those brought up will
probably be living, having been torn from their hold by the
dragging of the dredge. Many of these objects are very
dwarfish in size ; minute specimens, therefore, found on small
stones, shells, &c., should be saved, and may be put, shell and
all, in spirit.

The Acalephs, or Jelly-fish tribe, vary greatly in size, from
that of a pea, to monsters of a foot or two in diameter. They
can only be preserved in fluid ; and of fluids, spirit is most
generally available. Into this they should be placed as soon
as possible after capture ; the small specimens, which should
be carefully sought for, chiefly by the towing net, being put
into bottles of proportionate size.

Corals, especially the smaller kinds, and in seas where they
are neglected, are well worth collecting ; and the preservation
in spirit of small specimens, or fragments of large ones, fresh
from the sea, with the animal attached, is worth attempting.
Of sponges, there is a very great variety ; and but little labour
is necessary in order to their preservation. They should be
carefully packed in soft material when dry.

It is most important that all the various kinds of specimens,
here alluded to, should be fully and accurately labelled with
the time and place of capture, and any additional information
that can be gathered should either be added to the label, or
entered at length in the note-book.

DIATOMACE^E, AND OTHER MINUTE OBJECTS.

The following instructions are drawn up by the Society of
Microscopists of Manchester. The objects to which they
relate are exceedingly numerous, both in individuals and
species. They will well repay the trouble of collecting, and
of any time that can be devoted to their study. A small

40

microscope will be of great service in examining them, and
will prove a never- ending source of interest and delight.

" These minute forms are found in all waters, but the most
interesting species are those found in salt water, especially
shallow lagoons, salt-water marshes, estuaries of rivers, pools
left by the tide, &c.

" Their presence in any quantity is always shewn by the
colour they impart to the aquatic plants and sea-weeds to
which they are found attached, and if found on the mud, which
is very frequently the case, they impart to it also a yellowish
brown colour approaching to black brown if in great numbers.

" This brownish pellicle, if carefully removed with a spoon
(without disturbing the mud) will be found very pure. Capital
gatherings of Diatomacea3 might be obtained by carefully
scraping the brown-coloured layer from mooring posts, and
piles of wharfs and jetties.

" In clear running ditches, the plants and stones have often
long streamers of yellowish brown slimy matter attached to
them, which is generally diatomaceous.

" When found in large quantities on the mud, the layer is
often covered with bead-like bubbles of oxygen. This often
detaches them from the bottom and buoys them to the surface,
where they form a dense brown scum, which is blown to lee-
ward in large quantities, and presents the general appearance
of dark-coloured yeast.

" In this form it may be collected in abundance, often quite
free from particles of sand and other impurities.

" Good and rare species have been obtained from the sto-
machs of oysters, scallops and other shell-fish inhabiting
deep water.

" The sea-cucumbers (HolothuridaJ found so frequently
in southern latitudes, ought to contain many species.

" These animals might be simply dried and preserved just
as found, and the contents of the stomach afterwards obtained
by dissection.

41

" The Noctilucse, which cause the phosphorescence in the
sea, are diatom-feeders, and may be caught in large quantities
in a fine gauze towing-net.

" The Ascidians, found attached to oyster shells and stones
from deep water, have yielded excellent gatherings.

" The Salpae, often noticed in warm, latitudes floating on
the surface of the sea, and assuming chain and other like
forms, ought to be bottled up for examination. These Salpae
are well-known diatom-feeders.

" Deep sea soundings ought to be preserved, especially from
great depths, and are often exclusively diatomaceous. Sea-
weed from rocks ought to be preserved, especially the smaller
species, and if covered with a brown furriness, so much the
better.

" Very rare species have been found in immense quantities
in the Arctic and Atlantic regions, by melting the 'pancake
ice> which is often found discoloured of a brown tint in con-
sequence of the great numbers of these minute beings.

" The sea is often observed to be discoloured by brownish
patches. The discoloured water (or 'spawn,' as it is called)
should be collected, filtered through cotton-wool, and the
brown residue preserved.

" When a fine impalpable dust is observed to be falling at
sea, it ought to be collected from the folded sails and other
places where it lodges. This may yield Diatomacese which,
from the method of collecting, would be highly interesting to
examine.

" The roots of the various species of Mangrove (Rhizophora)
which form impenetrable barriers along the salt-water rivers
and estuaries in the tropical parts of Africa, Australia, the
Eastern Archipelago, &c., are found frequently covered with
a brown mucous slime, said to be very rich in Diatomaceae.

" When the Diatomacese are collected from any of the
above-mentioned sources they may be at once transferred to

42

small bottles, or the deposit may be partially dried and
wrapped up in pieces of paper or tinfoil. When placed in
bottles, a few drops of spirits added will keep them sweet.

" In all cases it is essential to keep the gatherings separate
and distinct, and that the locality whence obtained be written
on each package.

" All shells and stones from deep water which are covered
with sea- weed ought to be preserved, as affording interesting
and little known species. The rougher these are the better,
and on no account ought they to be washed."

Soundings (especially if brought up with soap instead of
fatty matter) may very readily be preserved by sticking them
on to pieces of paper, with a memorandum of the date, depth,
and latitude and longitude, &c. Ordinary envelopes will
answer very well for the purpose, as the soundings when dry
may be put either on the inner side of the envelope or be
attached to a separate piece of paper and slipped in like a
letter.

The sea-cucumbers, ascidians, salpse, &c., mentioned above,
should be assiduously collected for their own sake, as well as
for the reasons here given.

TKAWLING AND DEEDGING.

In water not too deep for the use of a trawl, large numbers
of marine animals of all kinds, fish, Crustacea, shells, star-
fish, &c., &c., may be most readily obtained. Large collec-
tions may be made in a short time and with little trouble.
Trawling is therefore strongly recommended.

For procuring small specimens, such as would escape
through the wide meshes of the trawl, a dredge is most
desirable. Indeed for deep water this only is available for
collecting ground specimens. Dredging is therefore also
most strongly recommended.

Dredges may be procured in Liverpool of Mr. Edmondson,
Basnett Street, or of Mr. Finchett, Button Street, White-

43

chapel ; and in London of Mr. Highley, 74, Dean Street,
Soho.*

As the special object in dredging is to procure specimens
from the sea-bottom, a quantity of mud and sand is often
brought up. A small brass sieve is therefore requisite, by
which to sift the minute specimens from the mud, &c., by
pouring water through the sieve. The specimens so obtained
may be put into small bottles of spirit and labelled with the
depth in fathoms from which obtained, nature of the sea
bottom, and lat. and long., as before directed.

Where the sea-bed is covered with coral, large masses may
be detached by means of a strong drag-hook, and many living
creatures may be found sheltered and hiding between the
branches. These should be carefully extracted, put in bottles
of spirits, and labelled accordingly.

Whenever opportunities occur of examining the sea-leach
and the shores of tidal rivers, they should be made the most
of. Proceeding thither as the tide goes out, and working
gradually clown to extreme low water-mark, a great variety of
specimens may be obtained which are not to be procured
either by trawling or dredging, as different depths of the sea
bottom have their own peculiar kinds of living creatures. All
stones and pieces of rock that it is possible to move should
be turned over, as creatures of all kinds either attach them-
selves to the under side, or bury in the sand or mud beneath.
Wherever there is any depression in the sand, &c., some
living creature is probably buried beneath ; but, as many of
them burrow very rapidly or already have deep holes excavated
into which to retreat on the first symptom of danger, con-
siderable dexterity and quickness are necessary to secure them.

* It is difficult to give instructions for making a dredge without having a
wood-cut illustration to refer to. Those who may not be able to procure one
ready-made will find a good figure and description in Woodward's " Manual of
the Mollusca," (before referred to) at pages 428 and 429, together with other
information most useful to dredgers, and one or more dredges can always be seen
at the Liverpool Free Public Museum.

44

All possible search should be made as the tide recedes, and
the lower it falls the richer and rarer will the harvest of
specimens generally be. Wrack, and sea-weed of all kinds,
should be examined for specimens lurking therein. A
basket with wide-mouthed bottles, and a spade to dig for the
animals which burrow, are necessary accompaniments when
hunting the shore and beach.

SPIEIT SPECIMENS.

As repeatedly mentioned in the preceding pages, it is ex-
tremely desirable, at least once, to change the spirit in all
bottles, jars, &c., in which specimens are preserved, in order
to make good the loss by absorption and evaporation. Con-
siderable care is requisite in finally fastening up the bottles,
as bungs in particular are often made of inferior cork. The
following method is recommended by Mr. Wm. Stimpson, late
naturalist to the United States' Expedition to the North
Pacific Ocean, as having been adopted for all his smaller
vessels with eminent success. Take some ordinary calico or
linen, soak it in common bees' wax melted by the fire, and let
it dry. Cut from this a circular piece, put it over the mouth
of the bottle, and drive it in tight with the cork or bung. Cut
a larger piece, and tie it tightly over the cork and the head of
the bottle. The wax will adhere sufficiently to prevent any
further escape of spirit. The same gentleman also recom-
mends the use of plaster of Paris for effectually closing large
jars. Some kind of lid or cover is necessary, but upon this a
little plaster of Paris, mixed with water, may be easily run,
and it will dry immediately and form a perfectly air-tight
covering. Care of course should be taken to prevent it getting
in among the specimens.

Glass bottles containing spirit specimens may be easily and
safely packed by wrapping them well with hay or other soft
material, and then in paper. In this manner they can be
stowed away (corks uppermost) in a box or chest without fear
of damage.

45

AQUARIA.

The establishment of an Aquarium on hoard ship may
appear at first sight to he difficult or impossible. Really it is
not so, at least on a small scale. Glass globes, such as are
ordinarily used for gold-fish, answer very well for this purpose
Take a circular piece of wood an inch thick ; to this attach
four small cords of twelve or fourteen inches long, bind their
loose ends to a metal eye, place a globe on this stand within
the four cords, hang it to a hook in the cabin ceiling, and it
will swing as safely as a lamp. In this way globes of the
kind above-named, containing living specimens, have been
conveyed four times across the Atlantic by Capt. Mortimer in
the ship "Florida," without being broken or damaged. A
double object may be attained by the establishment of small
aquaria of this kind : they afford the opportunity of closely
studying various interesting living objects, and of importing
them to England.

With the multitude of ships and steamers constantly
arriving in our ports, and the quickness of their passage as
compared with former times, it is not a little surprising that
so few living exotic creatures have been imported by this
method, either for purposes of naturalization or to supply the
demand for interesting specimens for aquaria.

One or two hints may be useful to those disposed to make
an attempt. Never try to briny more than two or three
specimens, and these of small size, in a single globe. Three
fish as large as minnows would be quite as many as could live
long together in such limited space. Hang the globe in the
coolest part of the vessel, in a shady place. Strong light and
warmth are very prejudicial. Draw off with a clean siphon,
or other means, a portion of the water, daily if possible, and
supply its place with more. A little fine sand, washed free
from anything that will obscure the water, may in the outset
be put in the bottom of the globe, or, instead of sand, a little

46

extremely fine shingle may be used. This affords opportuni-
ties for groping and hiding which many creatures indulge in.

The floating shell-fish of the ocean, shell-fish of other kinds,
small crabs, &c. ; and small specimens of the numberless,
beautiful species of fish, beside more minute objects, would
afford ample material for study, and would be received with
delight in England.

To import large specimens it will be necessary to keep them
in a bucket, or barrel, with plenty of air playing over it, a
daily change of water, and a shady situation.

Frequent change of a portion, at least, of the water in the
globe aquaria will generally afford sufficient nutrition for
their occupants. If, however, feeding should be necessary, a
minute crumb or two of ship -biscuit may be dropped in the
water occasionally, for fishes. For crabs, prawns, &c., a tiny
piece of fish may be placed in the water for half an hour ; but
on no account should food of any kind be allowed to remain,
as it will contaminate the water more than any other cause.
Specimens that may die in the aquaria should, for the same
reason, be immediately removed. The best criterion of the
well-doing of an aquarium is the state of the water. If this,
when undisturbed, is quite clear, all is as it should be. If it
be at all obscure or discolored, it should be immediately
changed.

METHOD FOR COLLECTING AND STUDYING
DESIRABLE.

In order to make the most profitable use of such time and
labour as may be expended upon the subjects referred to in
these pages, it is strongly recommended to those who are at
fill earnest in the matter, to determine upon some method of
conducting their researches. It is not to be expected that any
persons will attempt to study deeply or collect largely, all the
classes of animals that have been here referred to. Some
more restricted plan will be generally necessary ; and it will

47

be better, probably, in every way, that the attention should be
directed chiefly to one branch of the subject ; though not
necessarily to the entire exclusion of all others. For instance,
fish maybe made the principal object -of attention. What-
ever time may be available for scientific pursuits, may be
devoted chiefly to the capture and study of this class of
animals. All those met with on any one voyage, may be
noted, information obtained relating to them, and possibly
several specimens preserved. A list may be made out to-
wards the end of the voyage ; and the notes copied, with
references given to such specimens as have been obtained. If
the names are not known, they can be referred to by numbers.
Search might be made, while at home, in Natural History
books in public or private libraries, to obtain the scientific
names, and to learn what is already recorded about them ; the
assistance of some naturalist may be obtained, or the paper,
as it is, might be submitted to some Natural History society ;
if in Liverpool, to the Literary and Philosophical Society.
Or the sailor student, if sailing again, or continually to the
same port, may continue his observations and add to his notes
and his specimens ; or even if sailing to other countries, the
same class of animals may continue to be the objects of his
attention.

By such means as the above, he is certain, sooner or later,
to accumulate valuable knowledge, which, if published, can
scarcely fail to aid in the furtherance of science ; and to lead
him to do this is the great object for which this paper is
prepared.

Another method may be suggested. A captain trading
regularly to one port may very properly extend his observa-
tions to many or all the classes of animals to be met with in
his repeated voyages ; and in time his list of specimens
observed and captured, and his notes thereon, cannot fail to
be of interest to naturalists.

48

In fact those scientific publications which, are devoted to
the furtherance of Natural History, contain a large proportion
of papers such as would result from either of the above
methods.

The pleasure which is invariably experienced in the study
of natural objects would be considerably increased by such
methodical working. When a man is able to add a fresh
species to his list, it is done with no small amount of satis-
faction ; and the monotony of a dull voyage cannot but be
considerably relieved by such an occurence. Moreover in
comparing the list of his own captures in any particular class
of animals, with the published lists of species known to exist,
he will, not fail to find in it many deficiences. This will lead
him to search more carefully, in order to obtain the species
that are wanting ; and he will probably succeed in obtaining
many which otherwise he would never have met with. In all
probability a few will still be lacking, and he will be led to
take a deeper interest in studying the distribution of species
the limits of their range, and the conditions essential to their
existence. No more appropriate or more interesting subject
of research can be taken up by the Mercantile Marine.

USEFUL ELEMENTAEY BOOKS.

" The Animal Kingdom" of Baron Cuvier. Edited by Dr.
Carpenter and J. O. Westwood, Esq. Orr and Co.,
London, 1854. 1 vol., large octavo, £l Is.
This work contains a general and connected account of all
classes of the animal kingdom.

" The Pictorial Museum of Animated Nature." Cox, London.

2 vols., folio, £1 16s.

This work contains nearly 4,000 woodcuts, which alone
would suffice approximately to name large numbers of animals,
whether vertebrate or invertebrate.

" The English Cyclopaedia." By Charles Knight. Natural
History Division. 4 vols., price £2. Bradbury and
• Evans, London, 1854—1856.
This goes more fully into the scientific characters and groups

49

of animals than either of the above. It is a most useful and
valuable work.

Woodward's " Manual of the Mollusca." Weale, London,
1856. 1 vol., 12mo. Indispensable to all collectors
of shells. Price 6s. 6d.
Darwin's " Naturalist's Voyage round the World." Murray,

London. 1 vol., 12mo, 9s.

A charming book, which cannot fail to fascinate and instruct
all who read it, and to inculcate habits of observation.

" The Microscope and its Eevelations." By W. B. Car-
penter, M.D. Churchill, London, 1856. 1 vol. 12mo,
12s. 6d.

Most serviceable to all who use the microscope, and study
the objects to which it is applicable,

" Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia : Birds," by W. Swainson.
2 vols. 9s. "Fishes, Amphibians, and Keptiles," by
the same. 2 vols. 9s.

These volumes will be found very useful for the particular
subjects on which they treat; though the writer's theory of
arrangement has few followers. For the most generally
adopted arrangement of fish, see

" Encyclopedia Britannica," 8th edition, vol 12, 1856,
article Ichthyology. The two parts containing this
can be had for 12s.

" Natural History of the European Seas." By Messrs.

Edward Forbes and Godwin- Austen. Van Voorst,

London, 1859. 12mo, 6s.
A suggestive book for Mediterranean voyagers.

AIDS FOE COLLECTING.

The following simple outfit will enable any one to make
large collections of specimens : —

A dredge.

A towing net.

Glass bottles, such as empty pickle and preserve bottles ;
the wider in the mouth the better.

Smaller glass bottles, such as homoeopathic bottles, or
bottles of similar size, made out of glass tubing, and fitted
with corks.

One or two pairs of small forceps, for picking up minute
objects.

50

Pill boxes of various sizes.

A good supply of spirit.*
Ditto salt.

Alum will also be useful for large skins.

Arsenical soap, 3 or 4Fbs., for skins of quadrupeds, birds,
reptiles, and fish.

Bees-wax, calico, and plaster of Paris.

A pocket lens, for examining small objects.

A small microscope would be a most useful addition, well
repaying the cost, by the greater power it gives of examining
the most minute specimens.

Bottles made from glass tubing are exceedingly serviceable
for the isolation and preservation of small' specimens. They
may be had of Mr. Evans, Cleveland square, Liverpool. Very
neat bottles, of a larger range of sizes, are made from glass
tubing expressly for naturalists, by Mr. Wadsworth, 17,
Upperhead row, Leeds, and will be found extremely useful.

Pill and chip boxes may be procured from Mr. Jackson,
dealer in druggists' sundries, Cleveland square, Liverpool.

RECIPE FOE ARSENICAL SOAP.

Camphor 5 ounces

Arsenic, in powder 2 pounds

White soap 2 pounds

Salts of Tartar 12 ounces

Lime, in powder 4 ounces

Cut the soap in thin small slices, as thin as possible ; put
them in a pot over a gentle fire, with very little water, taking
care to stir it often with a wooden spoon : when it is we]l
melted, put in the salts of tartar and powdered chalk. Take
it off the fire, add the arsenic, and triturate the whole gently.
Lastly, put in the camphor, which must first be reduced to
powder in a mortar, by the help of a little spirits of wine ; mix
the whole well together. This paste ought then to have the
consistence of flour paste. Put it into glazed earthen pots,

* Methylated spirit, of full strength, answering every pin-pose, may be pur-
chased, free of duty, at certain druggist's and other shops, at a cost of about 4s. to
5s. per gallon.

51

taking care to put a ticket on each, labelled " POISON." The
three first ingredients in the above recipe may be used if the
others cannot readily be obtained.

When it is to be used, put the necessary quantity into a
preserve pot, dilute it with a little cold water, or, better still,
with spirit, rub it with a small brush until it has the consistence
of cream ; cover this pot with a lid of pasteboard, in the middle
of which bore a hole for the handle of the brush.

This preparation is the most generally used for the preser-
vation of skins of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fish, and is
to be freely applied with the brush, immediately after skinning,
on the fleshy side of the skin. As it is a troublesome and
unpleasant task to make up the prescription, it is advisable to
get it done by some trustworthy druggist.

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

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m.l2,'43 (879os)

Manufactured by

6AYLORD BROS. Inc.

Syracuse, N. Y.

Stockton, Calif.

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY