RESEARCH REPORT REPORT 1095 2 APRIL 1962 SUMMARY OF THE BATHYSCAPH TRIESTE RESEARCH PROGRAM RESULTS (1958-1960) A. B. Rechnitzer U.S. NAVY ELECTRONICS LABORATORY, SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA A BUREAU OF SHIPS LABORATORY G6OI }4OdeYy/ TAN a n i” i : i i nn THE PROBLEM Conduct environmental studies at great depths in the ocean using the bathyscaph TRIESTE as a research vehicle. Also, modify and improve the bathyscaph for research purposes. RESULTS 1. The dive series of Project NEKTON I proved the practicability of manned vehicle descents for research purposes to the deepest known depths in the ocean. The satisfactory operation of the various vehicular components and the scientific instrumentation under conditions of deep submergence and exposure to high hydrostatic pressure demonstrated the validity of the design principles that have been incorporated in the TRIESTE. 2. The scientific observations and measurements made during Projects NEKTON I and II yielded valuable new data on sound velocity; temperature and salinity struc- ture; water clarity; bioluminescence; the distribution of suspended particles and plankton; water current at great depths; sea floor features; and the general environmental conditions in the deep Marianas Trench. For example, bathyscaph scientists have: a. Found that, in general, measured values of sound velocity at great depths were less than those computed. Sound speed at a depth of 5760 meters on Dive 76 south of the Marianas Trench was about 1555 meters per second. b. Determined the presence of intermittent cur- rents on the deep sea floor, a phenomenon which present physical oceanographic theory has not explained. c. Proved that particulate matter exists to some degree to all depths in the oceans. d. Established that, with proper lighting, water conditions in the deep oceans permit visual observations to distances of up to 60 feet. (This opens up a huge and potentially most important new field for in situ observa- tions--visual oceanography. ) mi e. Discovered such previously unknown facts about the Marianas Trench as that it has a wide flat floor; that currents are not active in it (at least not continuously); that ONAN 301 0040550 e it has little benthic animal activity. Also, determined the nature of sediments in the trench. f. Proved the ability of high forms of life to exist at the greatest ocean depths. g. Obtained data on the distribution of biolumines- cence throughout the water column. At depths of over 2100 meters, bioluminescence appears as single or small groups of flashes; upon ascending to 700 meters the number of flashes increases rapidly (as much as 1000 times); at shallower depths bioluminescence remains high until "washed out" by daylight penetration. h. Discovered that the submarine part of Guam is a thin coral cap on a massive volcanic structure having only a scattered veneer of sediments; discovered also that the island arc-trench structure of which Guam is a part has not subsided to any great extent. i. Found that the value of acceleration of gravity g was 978. 9331 cm/sec* on the bottom at 2286 meters depth, in comparison with 978.5376 cm/sec* at the surface. RECOMMENDATIONS Provide for increasing the knowledge available to the U. S. of the deep-sea environment. Specifically: 1. Continue and extend deep-sea research with the bathyscaph TRIESTE so as to take full advantage of the unique and proven capabilities of this vessel. Also, modify the TRIESTE to make it even more valuable for scientific work than at present. 2, Establish an enlarged scientific program, involving underwater acoustics and all oceanographic disciplines, for making observations and measurements vertically through water columns and in very deep water. 3. Develop improved acoustic and oceanographic instrumentation for use on the TRIESTE and on future deep submersibles. 4, Develop a deep submersible research craft more versatile than the TRIESTE. 5. Evaluate the usefulness of deep submersibles as platforms for acoustic detection equipment and naval ordnance. ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION The work described was performed under S- R004 03 01, Task 0528 (NEL L4-2) from December 1958 to July 1960. The report was approved for publication 2 April 1962. Special acknowledgement is due the team members who participated in the arduous NEKTON I and II projects. They were responsible for the success of an historical event. The author also wishes to thank Dr. G. H. Curl, LT Don Walsh, USN, and LT L. A. Shumaker, USN, for their critical review of this manuscript. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION... page 7 SUMMARY OF DIVES MADE BY BATHYSCAPH TRIESTE (1958-1960)...8 SEA FLOOR STUDIES.. 20 Water Currents on the Sea Floor...10 Geology and Biology of the Sea Floor..d1 ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS. . .32 Sound-Speed Measurements. . .32 Sonar Tests...33 GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS... 33 VISUAL OBSERVATIONS IN MIDWATERS... 34 Bioluminescence...34 Water Clarity. ..42 Daylight Penetration. ..43 Marine Biology. ..45 WATER TEMPERATURES IN THE MARIANAS TRENCH... BIOLOGICAL FOULING OF TRIESTE...51 CONCLUSIONS, . . 56 RECOMMENDATIONS... 5& REFERENCES. ..59 BIBLIOGRAPHY... 61 49 TABLES 1 Measurements of sound speed, temperature, and salinity from TRIESTE... page 32 2 Bioluminescence observations... 36-40 3 Observations and measurements of daylight extinction... 44 ILLUSTRATIONS 1 Location of dives made off San Diego... page 12 2-3 Marine fauna on floor of San Diego Trough at 4100 feet. ..15,16 4 Location of dive descents off Guam and in Marianas Trench...17 5-7 Sea floor in Guam area, showing ''black pebbles’ and exposed bedrock...19-21 Living whip coral attached to sheet of bedrock...?2 Sea floor at 18, 150-foot depth, showing evidence of biological activity. . .24 10 Sea floor at 18, 900-foot depth, showing exposed bedrock and sediment cover...27 11-12 Sea floor at 8350-foot depth, showing bottom ripple marks and artifacts... 29-31 13-15 Prototype multiple plankton sampler...46,47 16 Prototype ambient pressure water and plankton sampler... 48 17 Curve of sea water temperatures obtained by resistance bridge... 50 18 Biological fouling on Italian paint...52 19-20 TRIESTE painted with Amercoat 85 and 33, before and after fouling... 53,54 21 TRIESTE painted with vinyl red formula 121... 55 SHA ; Ae h ian ri Ht i : y it i) Ta i‘ d eA Wa it i, I Me Set ea Wa atin Ce INTRODUCTION Following the purchase of the bathyscaph TRIESTE by the Office of Naval Research in the spring of 1958, the vehicle was transported to the U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, California. Reassembly of the craft was accomplished at the Naval Repair Facility, San Diego, by early October 1958. The first dive of the TRIESTE in the Pacific was made on 20 December 1958 off Point Loma, San Diego. The diving schedule was then interrupted by a modification program which included the acquisition of a new sphere designed to permit safe dives to 36, 000 feet. All dives made in the spring (Nos. 51-56) and fall (Nos. 57-58) of 1959 were performed to test and evaluate the modified float, hardware, and equipment to be utilized in the Marianas Trench dives. Project NEKTON I,a series of dives in the vicinity of Guam, began in 1959 and continued into early 1960. This series yielded three new depth records for a manned vehicle--a technological breakthrough of significant im- portance--plus the acquisition of valuable environmental data. Project NEKTON II dives, which were also conducted in the Guam area, took place during June and July 1960. These tests were concerned with: 1. Precise determination of the velocity of sound throughout the maximum water column. 2, Determination of the temperature and salinity structure of the water column. 3. Water-current measurements. 4, Light penetration, water clarity, and biolumines- cent measurements. 5. Observations of the distribution of organisms in the water column and on the sea floor. 6. Marine geological study of the trench environment. 7. Engineering tests of equipment at great depths. 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However, rather accurate measurements of low velocities can be easily made using the bathyscaph. Suspended particles illuminated by the strong external light source of the bathyscaph can be readily seen by the strong Tyndall effect. When the craft is oriented at right angles to the prevailing current, these suspended particles serve as reference points that drift along with the current. A simple determination of velocity is made by measuring the time required for the particles to traverse a 10-cm path, the internal diameter of the window. Current vel- ocities below 10 cm per second are easily measured. Observations off San Diego at depths of 700 to 1000 feet revealed conditions to be highly variable from dive to dive. On Dive No. 52, current velocity was found to be between 3.3 cm per second and 5 cm per second (0. 06 and 0.1 knot respectively). On Dive No. 56 at approximately the same location, the current was estimated from motion- picture records to be approximately 0.5 knot. This rela- tively high-speed current had produced 6- to 8-inch scour holes around scrap-iron tubing 4 inches in diameter that was resting on the sea floor. At this time, the bathyscaph rolled gently from side to side while resting on the sea floor, a characteristic never experienced before. Sea pens, 8 to 10 inches long, that normally stand erect were bent over to within 3 inches of the bottom. There was also an indication of ripple-mark formation and suspended particles were flowing rapidly past. The water mass above the sea floor was turbid from the suspended sedi- ment, and visibility was limited to 25 to 30 feet. Hermit crabs in shells 0.5 to 0.75 inch in size were tumbled along the bottom, unable to gain footing for more than an instant. The swimming actions of sablefish were recorded as the animal swam ''upstream.'' During this dive, the operator took advantage of the water currents to carry the bathyscaph across the sea floor. K. V. Mackenzie (personal communication) observed similar current velocities in the San Diego Trough (Dive No. 55) at 4200 feet (estimated 0.5 knot). However, notes by LT Don Walsh reveal variability in current velocity at this location also. He reported no current on Dive No. 53 and stressed the observation by stating that a 15-minute wait was required to allow the sediment to settle following the bathyscaph landing. On the deeper dives in the vicinity of Guam, water currents were found to be less than 1 cm per second (Dive Nos. 61, 70, 75, and 76). At approximately 7000 feet, at locations west of Guam (Dives Nos. 76 and 77) water current appeared to be variable in direction and velocity. However, Dive No. 77 revealed the sea floor sediment to be formed into distinct ripples with a crest-to-crest dis- tance of 18 inches and a vertical amplitude of 0.5 to 1.5 inches. Dlumination was not adequate during these two dives to acquire a good measure of water current velocity. Below 18, 000 feet, water current velocities were virtually nil. The bathyscaph did not reach the sea floor on Dive No. 69 when it descended to 22, 540 feet, so there was no chance to make a current observation. At 35, 800 feet on Dive No. 70, sediment forced into suspension by the landing remained as a dense cloud for the duration of the stay. Geology and Biology of the Sea Floor Ocean dives to the sea floor in the San Diego area were all made either in the Loma Sea Valley or in the San Diego Trough (fig. 1). In the interest of safety, such dives were limited to the relatively level and obstruction-free basins of these areas. The majority of dives were made to permit U. S. personnel to become acquainted with the operational techniques involved and to survey the environ- mental conditions present in these areas, particularly those that could be expected to influence the safe move- ments of the TRIESTE while submerged. In both areas, the sedimentary overburden is predom- inantly olive-green clay-silt. Observations of the Loma Sea Valley, as recorded for Dive 52, are typical for both the Loma Sea Valley and the San Diego Trough, except for the biological constituents occupying each ecological en- vironment. The soft sediment was found to be heavily Il 12 32 45’ DIVE 52 120 FMS | —9——- e DIVE 50 143 FMS e DIVE 56 {28 FMS 30 117° 30' W DIVE 58 99 FMS C) e DIVE 55 x 662 FMS SAN DIEGO 25° 20° 15! 10’ Figure 1. Location of dives made off San Diego. Dots indicate descents. Depths are indicated in fathoms. populated with burrowing worms of several types. Surface- dwelling organisms were represented by several inverte- brate phyla and fishes. All of these influence sedimenta- tion processes through their feeding and burrowing or locomotion. A myriad of invertebrate forms were also observed to occupy the water mass immediately above the sea floor. Certain fishes appeared to be restricted to an area about 15 to 25 feet above the bottom. Microtopographic features such as volcano- shaped mounds, funnel-shaped depressions with a terminal hole, burrow trails, mold depressions, and sculpturing attest to the presence or recent presence of animals. Shell fragments of deceased mollusks were found strewn about the sea floor. Artifacts of man, such as discarded metal, paper, glass containers, and other materials have also been viewed on the sea floor. DIVE NO. 52 Approaching the bottom at 720 feet, the sea floor was first seen at a range of approximately 25 feet. Heavy con- centrations of suspended material and living forms res- tricted visibility to approximately this range. On landing, a small cloud of sediment was forced into suspension by the water displaced around the descending sphere. The cloud was quickly dispersed and carried out of the viewing area by the water current present. A check of the time required for suspended particles to drift across the 10-cm diameter of the inner frustule indicated a water current flow of 5 cm/sec. During the time the bathyscaph was fixed on the sea floor, the suspended matter was seen to include not only inanimate particles but a myriad of bio- logical forms that included medusae, arrow-worms, ctenophores and mysids. Microtopographic relief such as sculpturing, furrow trails, mounds, and depressions appeared at a minimum despite the wide variety of living forms present. However, as the bathyscaph moved across the sea floor, a changing panorama of microrelief was observed that included such features in varying degree and quantity. The largest feature seen was a depression 6 feet across and 2 feet deep. The channel (?) extended beyond the visual range made possible by the external illumination. It was not bordered by levees despite the rather steep slope bordering each side of the long depression. Sediment appeared to be at a maximum angle of repose. However, the condition of the slope indicated a prolonged period of exposure to the velocity of currents present and sedimentation of particles on the sea channel slopes. Artifacts of man observed included two tin cans, an old shoe, and a sheet of newspaper. These artifacts all rested on the surface of the sea floor. Settling into the sediments appeared to be at a minimum. No scouring about the artifacts had been effected by the water current flow present. 14 DIVE NO. 53 The sea floor at 4100 feet (the San Diego Trough) appears to be a grey-green clay-silt. Microtopographic relief features are predominantly the result of biological burrowings and digging activities. Small holes, small cones of discharged sediments, brittle stars, fish trails and sculpturing of the upper 0.25 inch of sediments pre- dominate throughout the area (fig. 2 and 3). Upon landing, a small amount of material was brought into suspension. The bearing strength of the sea floor was adequate to sustain the weight of the bathyscaph. Suspended sediment was carried rapidly out of the viewing area by the water current. Water current velocity was estimated to be less than 0.75 knot. Living forms in the water immediately above the sea floor were abundant and apparently involved a myriad of invertebrate forms. During a horizontal traverse over the bottom using the bathyscaph propulsion system, a half-pint milk carton, numerous brittle starfish, and several sea cucumbers were observed. Ocean dives to the sea floor in the vicinity of Guam were made in the basin west of Apra Harbor and in the Marianas Trench east and southwest of Guam (fig. 4). In contrast to the Mediterranean dive locations and those off San Diego, the sea floor off Guam was observed to be pre- dominantly exposed bedrock with only a thin layer of sedi- ment. Figure 2. A common inhabitant of the San Diego Trough at 4100 feet is the brittle starfish, probably Ophiomsium lymani or Ophiotrix sp. Many such starfish were observed to be buried with only the tips of their arms protruding from the sediments. These are believed to be a species other than those observed on the surface. An unidentified lavender sea cucumber (Holothurian) with well-developed pseudopods moves slowly across the green sediment. Numerous worm tubes are terminated by a palmate-form exposed end (probably achaetopteran). They extend up from the sediments and appear as dark clumps throughout the figure. A puff of sediment is being extruded from a mound in the far background. Numerous lavender and white heads of nontube dwelling worms were also observed but are not recorded by the film. The large starfish, upper right, is the only one seen at this location. 15 16 Figure 3. A sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, rests on the sea floor (4100 feet) within the area illuminated by the mercury-vapor lamp. Brittle starfish and chaetopteran worm tubes are abundant. An unidentified shrimp, lower left, moved slowly out of the illuminated area while the bathyscaph remained in a fixed position. The carcass of the pelagic crab, Pleuroncodes planipes, appears only as a diffuse whitish mass above the two small brittle star- fish, lower right. At one time five sablefish appeared in the illuminated areas. DIVE 73 178 FMS DIVE 74 BOATS SEE DIVE 77, a/ | MS e VERS) YF, R GUAM enous IVE 78 é TSS Se DIVE 63 975 FMS 13° g °DIVE 6I © DINE. 2S 3025 FMS x e fe) DIVE 69¢ es 3757 FMS > : aly Seco rms cep e ENGER ‘ HALL nie ° ° ° c l42E 144 145 146 Figure 4, Location of dive descents off Guam and in the Marianas Trench between the Nero Deep and the Challenger Deep. Dots indicate descent. Depth is indicated in fathoms. We 18 DIVE NO. 60 The sea floor at 4900 feet on the steep slope just west of Apra Harbor, Guam, was a unique area for bathyscaph operations because of water currents and the magnitude of the rugged outcrops. Outcrops were identified as the pre- dominantly exposed bedrock of a regular size and form. Interspersed among the outcrops was an off-white sediment. A conspicuous feature was the ubiquitous distribution of unidentified "black pebbles'' that were strewn about the sea floor (fig. 5): The mantle of sediment overburden appeared to be thin and subject to transfer by water cur- rent. Although not clearly defined, the sediment appeared to be banked against the north (?) slope of the rock piles (fig. 6). The exposed bedrock varied from eroded and partially dissolved masses of bedrock (fig. 7) to relatively unaltered materials, possibly of igneous origin. Although the sediment yielded all appearances of being skeletal remains of deceased animals, it is possible that a portion of it was from terrigenous sources, particularly the coral fringing reef of Guam. Although landing conditions were obviously hazardous, a bottoming was accomplished among significant rock out- crops (fig. 6). Sediment brought into suspension by the landing rapidly settled to the sea floor or was carried out of the viewing area. The bearing strength of the sea floor was adequate to sustain the weight of the bathyscaph well above the bottom. The penetration of the sphere was esti- mated to be no more than 3 inches. A rock outcrop 4 or 5 feet high of varied form was seen through the observation window (fig. 6). The outcrop material appeared to be pillow lava covered with a thin layer of recently deposited sediments. The crustalbedrock (of igneous origin?) had undergone some chemical and physical erosion (fig. 7). As the bathyscaph drifted across the sea floor, photographs were taken using the external 35-mm camera and electronic strobe light. Biological activity was ata minimum. However, three eels about 3 feet long were observed swimming 4 or 5 feet above the rocky outcrops. They showed little response to the high-intensity lamp illuminating the area. During the bathyscaph cruise across the sea floor, scour- ing was noted to be minimal. A few depressions and the perimeter of 0.5-inch holes were obviously of biological origin, but their occupants were not observed. A single, living ''whip coral'' was noted to be attached to an exposed sheet of bedrock (fig. 8). Figure 5. The scattered distribution of ''black pebbles" was common at 4900 feet. The pebbles are not ballast from the TRIESTE, Diameter of the particles ranged between % inch and = inch. Dive No. 60. 19 20 Figure 6. Approximately 50 per cent of the bedrock at 4900 feet was exposed. Pillow lava appears to be covered with a thin mantle of off-white sediment that includes a ubiquitous distribution of black pebbles. Crustal bedrock that has undergone erosion appears in the right back- ground. Maximum microrelief of rock pile in background was about 4 feet. Water current was observed to be toward the background. However, no ripple marks or scouring are evident. The two white crescents to the left and right of photograph center are photoprocessing faults. Dive No. 60. Figure 7. The sea floor at 4900 feet on the west slope of Guam was approximately 50 per cent exposed basement rock with a thin mantle of sediment. The bedrock was finely sculptured by erosion and dissolution of the softer portions. A partially disintegrated palm frond (?) appears in the lower third of the figure. Dive No. 60. (35-mm electronic flash photograph) 21 22 Figure 8. A living single ship coral is found attached to an unidentified substrate that is either an eroded piece of sheet steel or exposed crustal bedrock. Sprinkled about on the surface of the off-white sediment are small black pebbles. At the lower center a heavy concentration of the pebbles surrounds a depression of biological origin. Dive No. 60. DIVE NO. 61 Man's first direct viewing of the sea floor at 18, 150 feet was achieved on this dive, which brought the manned deep-diving record back to the U. S. Upon landing, the bottom was noted to be uniformly level, but pock-marked with numerous white circular areas on a tawny substrate (fig. 9). Closer examination revealed that biological activity was responsible for these marks. The lighter sub- surface sediment had obviously been brought to the surface by burrowing animals. The sediment had subsequently spread circumferentially about the penetration without creating a mound. The bearing strength of the sea floor was adequate to sustain the weight of the bathyscaph satis- factorily. Maximum penetration was estimated to be no more than 3 inches. Figure 9 illustrates the numerous particles that were present in the water immediately above the bottom. Bio- logical entities and suspended particles above the sea floor were conspicuous and a definite turbid condition existed. The brownish tinge of the sea floor was thought to be caused by the settling of the inanimate materials and organic sub- stances present in the water mass directly above the bottom. The sea floor downgrade slope was evident and esti- mated to be about 1 degree. Upon leaving the sea floor, the observers noted a vertical drop of 4 to 5 feet that inter- rupted the gentle slope to form a "berm" running perpen- dicular to the downslope gradient. Beyond this drop, the sea floor appeared to have approximately the same depres- sion angle. The upper discontinuity of the break in the slope clearly revealed an exposed rock outcrop. Maximum exposure of rock was 6 inches. Evidence of ripple marks or scouring formations was absent. The funnel- shaped depressions and/or volcano- Shaped mounds found at shallower depths and at all loca- tions where bathyscaph operations had been previously conducted were absent. Water current was negligible and apparently had been in recent time insufficient to produce ripple marks or contribute significantly to the alteration of the microrelief. A few pebbles, about 0.5 inch in diameter, similar to those seen at 4900 feet, were scattered irregularly throughout the area. Upon leaving the bottom, it was possible to see that the sphere had been supported during the Pet gunine by a ridge of exposed rock 8 to 10 feet long. 24 Figure 9. The sea floor at 18,150 feet reveals evidence of biological activity, such as the whitish sediment brought to the surface by burrowing animals. The ''pock- marked" light-brown sea floor was noted to slope down- ward slightly to the left. The heavy concentration of suspended matter near the bottom can be noted in the figure. Dive No. 61. DIVE NO. 69 Upon approaching the bottom, the fathometer readings were questionable and, in an attempt to make a ''soft land- ing, '' too much shot was dumped. Consequently the sea floor at 22, 540 feet was sighted only briefly. The dive yielded a new depth record and a test of the craft and its components. DIVE NO. 70 The ultimate in depths--the Challenger Deep--was found by explosive echo- ranging to have a flat- surfaced full plane approximately 0.5 mile wide and 3 miles long. The long axis of the plane was parallel to the Marianas Trench axis. The geographical location of its center was determined by Loran sea fixes to be 11°18. 5'N latitude, and 142°15.5'E longitude. Upon landing, sediment was brought into suspension where it remained for the duration of the 20-minute stay. The sea floor was remarkably white and of extremely fine material. It was uniformly flat and there was no evidence of burrowing animals. Water current was virtually nil. Microrelief was observed to be minimal. However, only the area immediately adjacent to the touch-down point was observed. Near the bottom, a jellyfish approximately 3 inches in diameter was observed pulsating 6 to 8 feet from the sea floor. Just prior to landing on the bottom a red shrimp swam through the cone of light. At the bottom, Piccard reported observing a flat fish "looking like a sole." Since flat fish are vertebrates and teleosts, this demonstrates the capability of high forms of life to exist at the greatest depths. Apparently a satis- factory amount of oxygen and food replenishment exists even there. The previous record depths for fish were about 7000 meters, where they have been trawled by both the Danish Galathea Expedition and by the Soviets from the Vityaz. It is known that certain proteins coagulate at pressures considerably less than those of the deep trenches--for example, a sea urchin egg will coagulate. Hence these great depths might have been entirely without higher forms of life for such barochemical reasons. 25 26 The TRIESTE depth was determined to be 35, 800 feet following calibration tests of the Bourdon tube-type hydrau- lic pressure gauges by the Eastern Standards Laboratories, U. S. Naval Weapons Plant, Washington 25, D. C. Addi- tional calculations of the depth attained were made and offered to the author by Dr. John A. Knauss, Scripps Insti- tution of Oceanography, Dr. John Lyman, National Science Foundation, and Dr. Ernest R. Anderson of the Navy Electronics Laboratory. These calculated values varied from 34, 931 to 35, 805 feet depending upon the calibration data used. The "best value'' for the depth may be a few hundred feet less than the figure 35, 800 used throughout this report. Further investigation of the temperature corrections to the pressure gauges may resolve the differ- ence: DIVE NO. 76 Dive No. 76 was made primarily to acquire sound- velocity measurements. The ultimate depth reached for these measurements was 18, 900 feet. The bottom was obviously bedrock covered by only a thin mantle of whitish sediment (fig. 10). The greater portion of the exposed black bedrock was clearly rounded and appeared encrusted, as if by accretion. Some individual small rocks, also rounded and no more than 2 to 3 inches in diameter were strewn about the sediment cover. The sea floor beneath the mantle of sediments appeared to be a solidified mater- ial with long ridges of outcroppings. The ridges formed at the boundary where a minor drop in the downslope pro- file existed. The bedrock was exposed for long sections at this nominal break in the slope. The slope gradient was esti- mated to be 2 to 3 degrees. From a viewing vantage point 60 feet from the bottom, a distinct ridge of exposed rock extended for more than 100 feet; it apparently ran parallel to the axis of the trench. Isolated clumps of rocks were for the most part flat, about 1 foot in diameter. They protruded out of the bottom about 3 inches. Smaller frag- ments, about 0.25 inch thick and only 2 to 3 inches in diameter were also distributed at random on the sea floor. A few worm tubes protruded out of the sediment. These tubes were approximately 0.25 inch in diameter and 2 inches high. Within the thin sediment mantle, several conical hummocks of sediment with a distinct aperture in Figure 10. Photograph of the sea floor. Dive No. 76. 27 28 the center were noted, but there was no evidence of a bio- logical inhabitant. Upon landing, sediment was elevated into suspension by the displaced water. The majority of the heavy material remained in a suspended state only a matter of seconds and then settled. The remaining material offered an index to the prevailing water current velocity. The current was measured visually to be less than 1 cm per second moving parallel to the ridges of exposed bedrock. The water immediately above the sea floor was clear and virtually devoid of marine life and suspended particles. A coil of material that had formed a 6-foot double S was noted on the bottom. It was apparently a piece of cable. Visual observations of the sea floor at this location were comparable to those made at 18,150 feet (Dive No. 61). A definite sea floor slope of about 1 degree with discontinuities involving abrupt breaks in the slope expos- ing bedrock were present. Bedrock covered with a thin mantle of whitish sediment was noted in both dives. The mantle gave all appearances of being relatively thin. Bearing strength, however, was again adequate to sustain the weight of the bathyscaph and only a modest penetration of the sphere was experienced. DIVE NO. 75 The sea floor at 8530 feet revealed coarse sediment cover of at least several inches. Here well-developed ripple marks were observed. The average crest-to- crest distance of all the ripple marks was estimated to be 18 inches with an amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch (from motion picture footage and fig. 11). Water current at that time was 0.7 cm per second. It appeared that the water current flow rate, which was not oscillatory, would be too slow to form such ripple marks, which were con- tinuous and parallel. They showed no signs of cross- rippling and were well formed, as though of recent origin. No thin layer of dark material was present on the surface. Some dark pebble-like particles on the bottom were scattered at random about 2 to 3 inches apart. The par- ticle size was only slightly larger than the ballast (i.e., estimated to be 4 to 5 mm in maximum width). he & leisure Ilil, ripples. Photograph of the sea floor, showing bottom 29 30 Sediments brought into suspension were observed to drift rapidly past the bathyscaph port. Water particle movement through the illuminated area was at the rate of 0.7 cm/sec. Water flow was perpendicular to the long axis of the ripple marks. An attempt to obtain sediment samples for correlation of water current velocity and the physical dimensions of the ripples was thwarted by the accidental loss of the sampler. There was no evidence of burrowing or benthic organisms. Some pelagic inverte- brates were seen in the water immediately above the sea floor. Suspended inanimate particles were also present, but in such quantities that visibility was not seriously affected. DIVE NO. 78 While this dive was made about sixty miles from Dive No. 75, the materials making up the sea floor sediments at this location appeared to be the same as in Dive No. 795. However, ripple marks here were definitely crossed and deteriorating, A thin mantle of dark substance had settled on the bottom, occluding the clean white sediment observed on Dive No. 75. The bearing strength of the material was comparable to that of the previous sea-floor sediment encountered. Biological life was limited to one starfish and possibly a few tube-dwelling worms. An artifact of man that caused great concern was an unexploded 5-inch projectile that was located directly in the circle of light provided by the bow lamp. Ironically, a beer can was leaning against the base of the projectile. Both objects were supported high on the surface of the sea- floor sediment. There was no evidence of scour or settling of these two artifacts (fig. 12). Water current flow here was very slow and seemed to vary in direction. Poor illumination vitiated any attempt to determine the precise velocity of the current. Figure 12. Photograph of the sea floor, showing bottom ripples and artifacts (projectile and beer can). Dive No. 78. Bil ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS Sound-Speed Measurements sound- speed measurements in situ. Table 1 gives some of the data obtained. TABLE 1. MEASUREMENTS OF SOUND SPEED, TEMPERATURE, AND SALINITY FROM TRIESTE. Sound Speed Meter Dive Depth Latitude | Temperature Salinity No. 1 Number] (meters) (°N) (Go) (~/oo) (m/sec) F a ee 77 25.83 35.01 | 1538.86 77 13.77 34.47 | 1507.79 715 2598% 1.72% Bue lmiaoon 76 5760 12.7 1.44 V6 || HSA, Be *30 minutes later. 32 IN@, 3 (m/sec) 1540. 78 1538. 87 UO, 71D) 1490. 23 1484. 86 1494, 20 1495. 93 1495. 64 In general, the measured values of sound speed at great depths were found to be less than those computed. Measurements for depths greater than 8000 meters would be very valuable to obtain or verify the depth dependence of sound speed. Reference 1 (see list of references at end of report) presents a detailed discussion of sound-speed measure- ments made from the TRIESTE during NEKTON HU. Earlier experiments using the bathyscaph in a similar manner are reported in reference 2. Sonar Tests Dives Nos. 61 and 69 furnished opportunities to test the effectiveness of the AN/SQS-4 and the AN/SQR-8 Mod 4 sonars in detecting and following the bathyscaph on its descent and ascent, while maintaining voice communi- cations through the bathyscaph acoustic telephone and two AN/UQC-1B's. Results are omitted because of classifica- tion. GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS To test the usefulness of the bathyscaph as a platform for obtaining gravity measurements at great ocean depths, K. V. Mackenzie obtained a LaCoste-Romberg Company geodetic gravimeter, model G, to measure the value in situ. This instrument has a range of 6. 000 em/sec® with a sensitivity of 1 x 10 ° cm/sec’. During Dive No. 78, gravity measurements at mid- water were attempted. However, the vertical stability and control were insufficient to permit a satisfactory reading. Success was achieved on the sea floor at a depth of 2286 meters. The value of g was found® to be 978. 9331 em/sec*. This compares with a reference value of g at the Ship Repair Facility, Apra Harbor, of 978.5376 em/sec®. Although this isolated measurement does not contribute significantly to knowledge of the variations of g with depth, it does show the suitability of a manned deep submersible to serve as a stable platform for such delicate instruments. 33 34 VISUAL OBSERVATIONS IN MIDWATERS Bioluminescence Beebe® (1934) using the bathyscaph and Monod* using the French bathyscaph FNRS- 3 observed bioluminescence down to the greatest depths reached (1400 meters). Monod found that the bioluminescence was much less near the bottom. In Project NEKTON I, the bathyscaph descended to the maximum known depth in the ocean (35, 800 feet in the Challenger Deep). During this descent and others made to the bottom at shallower depths, biolurninescence was found to be present at all depths, but was not necessarily contin- uous from surface to bottom. However, the greatest abun- dance of bioluminescence was observed between the base of the sunlit zone (the depth near the surface where the inten- sity of daylight masks out the weak light generated by marine organisms) and 10, 000 feet. The common pelagic and bathypelagic sources of bio- luminescence are found among the protozoans, coelenter- ates, ctenophores, euphausiids, decapod crustaceans, salps, and fishes. Both intermittent and steady lumines- cence can be found among these animal groups. Observations made by lowering bathyphotometers’ and by direct visual observations reveal that deep-sea faunas predominantly display intermittent flashing. Until the work of Clarke and Backus’ very little was known about the absolute magnitude of the luminescent flashes of oceanic animals under natural conditions. Relatively few laboratory studies have been conducted on the subject other than those by Nichols’ (1924) and by Clarke and Backus’ (1956). In both laboratory and sea conditions, the intensity of a lum- inescent flash at 50 centimeters was found to be approxi- mately 0.00005 to 0, 000075 microwatt per cm*. An inherent difficulty in the system employed by Clarke and Backus, or in any cable-lowered photometer, is that it is difficult to determine the distance of the luminous source from the photometer. This problem can be partially re- solved by having bathyscaph observers conduct direct visual observations along with estimates of the intensity. Intensity of a luminescent flash can be qualitatively estimated using the scale employed by astronomers in describing star brightness, a technique readily adaptable to a scientist using the bathyscaph. Distance to the emanating source can also be approximated. Clarke® has, in view of the above problem, considered the light intensity of a given flash of point source in relation to its possible distance from a sensing instrument. His experiments and deductions reveal, as a best estimate, that the maximum possible sensing range of a photometer is about 10 meters. His calculations and conclusions seem correct, as 10 meters represents the maximum estimated distance that such sources can be seen by the human eye from within the bathyscaph. This assumes equal sensitivity between instrumental sensors and the human eye. Virtually continuous observations to determine the presence of bioluminescence throughout the large water column have been made during ascents of the TRIESTE (Dives Nos. 61, 76, 77, 78). Results are shown in table 2. It appears that bioluminescent flashes are normal at great depths and do not necessarily require tactile stimulation by a source such as the moving bathyscaph. Although Dietz° reports that if is an advantage to have the eddy current behind the bathyscaph, as during the ascent, because this stimulates organisms to luminesce; subsequent observations have revealed that this contributes only modestly to the flashing rate. A burble or knuckle of water does follow behind the bathyscaph on the ascent and this usually does elicit a small increase in the the amount of biolumines- cence. As the maximum ascent rate of the TRIESTE is never more than 2 meters per second, the water current activity behind the bathyscaph is relatively slight. The quantity of bioluminescence remained substantially the same for conditions of descent and ascent. Exceptions noted were the breakup of strings of point flashes and en- tanglement of medusae in the external rigging of the TRIESTE during ascent. It is well known that tactile stimulation will elicit significant increases of biolumines- cence in surface ‘burning water.'' (However, dropping of ballast, which should be a potent tactile stimulus ina limited area, resulted in little bioluminescence. ) By analogy, the concentration of bioluminescence at any one time rarely exceeds the number of stars that can be seen in the heavens ona clear, dark night. Evidence of virtually incessant flashing in the viewing area was observed by Piccard (personal communication) in 1956. 35 36 TABLE 2). BIOLUMINESCENCE OBSERVATIONS. DIVE NO. 61 (DESCENDING AND ASCENDING) Depth (feet) (Uncorrected gauge readings) 4200 4800 & 9400 6000 6900 to 10, 500 12F 300 13, 800 17, 400 A TAO) 18, 000 18, 450 Approximately 1 flash per 1/2 meter®. Usually single points. One fairly large disc- shaped object with numerous points of light. Amount of bioluminescence remains approximately uniform. Bioluminescence much reduced; only isolated points observed. Virtually no bioluminescence present. Single point, water virtually clear of suspended material. No bioluminescence observed since 12, 300 feet. Release of ballast incites no bioluminescence. Amount of suspended material has increased to a high quantity. Particles reflect white. Most are inanimate. Size average 1/8 inch, two are 3/8 inch. One pteropod observed. One mysid. Considerable amount of material in water. Isopod (?), white, 1/2 inch, swimming while in vertical position. Pelagic annelid, Tomopteris sp., 2 1/2 inches, 1 inch wide including parapodia, body 1/2 inch or less. Two pteropods. One mysid, 1 inch long, resting quietly in suspended animation, 1 1/8 inch medusa. 18, 540 Amount of suspended matter has approximately doubled over what it was earlier. Many of the particles appear to be about 1/4 inch in diam- eter and very light in color. Nearly white. One mysid, one Tomopteris. 18, 600 Sea floor clearly shows the presence of burrowing organisms. White patches mottle the tawny sea floor, and represent sediment brought to the surface by burrowing animals. One mollusk shell, similar to 4strea_ of shallower water; 2 inches in diameter at the base and about 1 1/2 inches high. Water current virtually nil. 18, 600 (On leaving the bottom. ) One mysid, one Yomopterise 18,150 One Tomopteris. 15, 300 Some bioluminescence; four sustained greenish-white flashes. Observation followed by a period of no biolumines- cence. 15, 060 Two bursts of bioluminescence that remained evident until the bathyscaph passed away from the object (30 sec- onds). 13, 500 Three greenish-white flashes. 12, 600 Two flashes. 7200 A number of pieces of bioluminescence observed. One unit appeared asa cluster until it was broken into fine pieces in the turbulence of the bathy- scaph. Perhaps it was a siphonophore. Several other points of light evident. 38 Depth (feet) 18, 920 10, 840 10, 350 10, 300 9760 9270 9075 8830 8780 8185 7990 7341 7495 7346 7100 6900 DIVE NO. 76 (ASCENDING ONLY) Euphausiid or crustacean. Visibility MOptorsOpfeet? Ten small white flashes. One flash - none between 10, 800 and 10, 400. Four flashes. Six flashes. One 15-second duration flash. Flare-up of flashes. Quantity increas- ing. Five or six of 30-second duration. 200-foot interval, none; then four to five. One sustained big mass of light. Adequate to permit viewing of grating inside antechamber. Strings of bioluminescence being broken up in burble. Too many to count. Four- inch chain. Big points of 30-second duration. Much suspended matter. Continuous bioluminescent flashing. Slight decrease. Water temperature, 3 6 (Co Short chain that appeared to be a fish with lights on. Many other small points. String broken up. Increase. Double of amount at 8000 feet. Full sky density. Some first magnitude. About same density. Several appear as three points in a cluster. Increasing. Novoid periods. Full sky. 6600 6180 5900 5500 5300 4800 4250 4100 3600 3000 2150 2000 1500 1150 1000 Broken animal. Bioluminescence not as bright as isolated flashes. Weaker lights are about one-third intensity of first magnitude star. Majority second magnitude. No change. Short periods of no flashes. More breakup. A single 60-second sustained glow. Ballast release caused no excitation. Increasing. Marked increase since 5500 feet. Tenfold increase over 6600 feet. 100-200 points present at all times. Water temperature 5.0°C. Same as above. Bright points increasing slightly. Same as above. Bright points increasing slightly. Twofold increase over 4000. Detect contrast color of hull fittings. Bright bioluminescence still visible. Bioluminescence detectable over ambient sunlight. Magnetic value clearly white now. Dark red paint appears black. No longer possible to see biolumines- cence due to daylight. 39 40 Depth (in feet) 620 640 800 1070 1100 1125 1140 7000 5500 4800 4600 to 4400 4000 to 3500 3000 3000 to 2800 2500 2150 2000 1400 DIVE NO. 77 (DESCENDING ONLY) Few faint points. Organisms transparent in searchlight. Several small black fish 4 inches long; silver blue, dark circle around eye. Numerous animals. Occasional flash. Jellyfish 1 1/2 inches long, 3/4 inch wide. Hint of daylight. Very little biolumines- cence. Long yellow unidentified pelagic worm. Ballast release excites three flashes. A phyllasome larva. DIVE NO. 78 (ASCENDING ONLY) Few isolated points second magnitude. 0 to 4 points in total viewing area. Moderate increase. Long period of blackness. Increasing; one-fourth full starry sky. Patchy. One-third full starry sky. Continuous stream of light sources. Continuous stream. Second magnitude brillance. Continues about same. Increasing patterns of light. Small circles, 1 inch in diameter. Periphery dotted with small points of light. First magnitude increasing as is second magnitude. Strong swimmer. Big flashes. Exceed first magnitude star brilliance. Arrays of off and on lights. The observation was published in more subdued working in a report by Piccard and Dietz?°® which stated that, 'with the lights extinguished in deep water, a small point of bioluminescence was seen every few seconds.’ At this time, a situation comparable to ''burning water'' was also seen at the surface. Attempts to identify the emitting sources have been made. Illuminating the area with the external lights has revealed either no discernible source or only heavy con- centrations of suspended matter. The majority of light sources are presumed to be protozoans that are too small for the human eye to resolve. The only color of bioluminescence observed during the descents of the TRIESTE has been greenish-white, although other luminescent colors are known to be present in marine organisms. Most descents with the bathyscaph have been to the sea floor. It is of interest to note that although benthic mem- bers of the several phyla are known to possess biolumines- cent species, no benthic bioluminescence has been observed. These benthic forms include sea pens, nemertean worms, chaetopteran worms, and coelenterates. Water Clarity One of the intriguing phenomena revealed during bathy- scaph dives has been the prevalence of marine ''snow."' Particles in the water are easily detected if exposed ina beam of light. As the scatterers are made apparent by such a source, a Tyndall effect can be created. Bathyscaph observers have only a qualitative index of the amount of material present in this ''snow.'' The identity of these suspended materials is still poorly understood. However, they are believed to be largely inanimate. They are distributed throughout even the largest known water column in the ocean. During a bathyscaph traverse of a water column or a lowering of photometric device, suspended materials have been found to vary in quantity. Analysis by Jerlov’? of data from several deep oceanic locations indicates that there is definite particle stratification that suggests a means of identifying water mass movement. His determination of 41 42 variability has been confirmed by observations from the TRIESTE. Although particles are conspicuous in the ''Tyndall beam'' of the external lamps, there has been little evidence to suggest that they are alive. It is highly probable, of course, that the particles are of microscopic size and beyond the resolution of the human eye. Despite the con- spicuousness of these particles during deep water observa- tions, the water was still relatively clear compared with surface coastal water. Kalle?“ and others have noted that in sea water water- soluble pigments of yellow color are present. This yellow substance has been found in the ocean as well as in coastal waters. However, it has not been observed on bathyscaph dives. Deep water has nearly the clarity of clear oceanic surface water. On one occasion, the author and another observer were able to see the sea floor at 5678 meters clearly as it was illuminated by the outside lights at a maximum range of 60 feet. The observations were made both approaching the off-white bottom and later as the ascent commenced. By contrast, in the highly productive waters off the San Diego coast visibility may be reduced to less than 25 feet. However, three TRIESTE dives made in virtually the same location off San Diego on different dates revealed that there can be significant difference in the quantity of suspended matter present on different days. These varia- tions are obviously due to the horizontal transport of material and organisms into the area by deep water currents. On one occasion, the water was a puree of suspended par- ticles and living forms, primarily chaetognaths, cteno- phores, medusae and mysids. As the majority of these animals are clear and relatively transparent, they did not reduce the maximum range of visibility as much as might be expected. Observations made during several dives of the bathy- scaph FNRS-III revealed the presence of a crystalline clear layer near the sea floor. In no instance has this observation been duplicated by the TRIESTE dives either in the Mediterranean or in the Pacific. Water clarity near the sea floor in deep water is reasonably adequate to permit good photography and clear observations. On Dive 56 (in Loma Sea Valley) an appre- ciable flow of sediments immediately adjacent to the bottom was noted. A relatively strong current was present of approximately 5 centimeters per second. This flow was adequate to tumble shells inhabited by hermit crabs along the bottom; fishes were noted to swim ''upstream"'; sea pens, normally rigid and vertical, were swept over to an angle of approximately 45 degrees. In the Mediterranean, clouds of suspended matter passed through the illuminated area as the bathyscaph remained in a fixed position. These were probably gener- ated by fishes grubbing in the sea floor sediments. On two occasions, fishes were observed to stir up the sediment apparently in search of food, such suspended clouds were noted to drift in a fixed direction at 1 centimeter per sec- ond. Daylight Penetration Visual observations from the bathyscaph TRIESTE indicate that daylight penetration down to 600 meters (maximum) can be expected in clear ocean water. Table 3 compares these results with those obtained by other investigators either through direct observation or by the use of cable-lowered bathyphotometers. Reasons for the extinction of daylight at 600 meters or less during bathyscaph dives are supplied by Clarke and James'* who conclude from their examinations that ocean waters contain suspensoid and filter-passing materials that are effective in increasing absorption, so that sea water is always less clear than pure distilled water. Such suspensoids have been almost invariably observed above and below the depth of daylight penetration on each bathy- scaph dive. During 1957, Jerlov and Piccard** descended 600 meters in the Mediterranean with the TRIESTE for the purpose of measuring daylight penetration. Unfortunately, malfunctions of the photometric equipment made it impos- sible to obtain light-level readings to the maximum depth obtained. This dive represented the only specific attempt with the bathyscaph to obtain photometric readings con- currently with visual observations of daylight extinction. 43 "TLSUIUML Wotj Suotyeatasqo [ensi, *AYLATY -ISU9S [TeNSTA BSeaTOUL 0} 9Tayds ULY}IM SUTJYST] penpqns pes “TLSUIUML Worj SuoTyeAtrasqo [Tenst, “A LSAHIYN AL WOTJ uoTyeATaSQqoO TenstpA ‘TIL-SUN4 UWLOIJ SUOTJEATASQO TeNST A "oy eUITIS | *SUOT}EATaSGO S,9qa0q U}IM Sj[nSet o11yaWIojoYyd S,ays1e[D jo uOSTIeduiod UO paseq a}eUITIS | ‘juawidinba Sutsuas -1Y4ST] pasa ‘ UOT}OUT} -x9o jUsITAep Jo SuOT}eATasqo [TeENSTA JOSIIp eas -doep S417 SMUVINGY 009 (PTBIITq) -GZG (Z32TC) -00¢ OST -OEP 00L 08S -0¢S OP 66S (SHUA.LAW NI HLddqd) LHDITAVG AO NOILONILXG JIZUYIIY pateddtg Jazjyuyoey pue preootg ‘2191q 5 AINY pue PpaeddIg ‘“Satag [cree | hee ae (S)HGAUASAO eH=ha-9) ABf) UedUCIIOIIPIIN UBIUCIIALIPIIN TesnjtI0g Ho (OOTY O}LENg jo UJION) deeq uosuorg (petjtoeds jou ease ‘stoyem Ieato AT9/) eas OSSses1es (epnulieag JJO) Bag ossesies VadvV “NOILONILX@ LHOITAVG JO SLNAYWAYNSVAW GNV SNOILVAYHSEHO '§ AIEaVL 44 Supplemental data on this subject from French bathy- scaph operations are also lacking. This is probably be- cause the French have had unusual success with their underwater illumination system. In lieu of measuring light penetration, they have concentrated on obtaining information about plankton distribution and the quantity of suspended particles in the water. Preparation for the daylight penetration observations by the author in the Mediterranean’ ” (1957) included a reduction of ambient light within the sphere and a short dark adaptation period. Only a minimum amount of light was used within the sphere for operating the craft. This precaution was supplemented by the use of a tight-fitting rubber face mask with glass removed, which excluded all ambient sphere light when the front edge of the mask was held firmly against the hull of the sphere around the window. External illumination was not employed during the descent until after the extinction of daylight was ob- served. Dark-adaptation time on this dive was limited to that required to reach depth after the start of the dive (about 30 minutes). To extend capability for visual detection of daylight penetration, an investigator should have a one- hour dark- adaptation period. Marine Biology During the 1958-1960 bathyscaph diving program, a variety of habitats were encountered. Within the Loma Sea Valley, a fauna of fishes and invertebrates was encountered that varied with time and space both on the sea floor and in midwater. Temporal changes were striking. Invertebrate populations in particular were noted to vary tremendously in species, quantity, and distribution, The extreme variability in this area appears to be caused by variations in water mass movement. There are significant differences in species occupy- ing the region of the Loma Sea Valley (about 800 to 1000 feet) as compared to the San Diego Trough (about 3600 to 4200 feet). The San Diego Trough fauna is dominated by brittle starfish, tube worms, holothurians, and sablefish. The sea floor fauna in the Guam area was depauper- ated. Living organisms were found to be abundant down 45 46 to 10, 000 feet. Suspended matter, yet unanalyzed as to animate and inanimate constituents, may contain many forms too small to be recognized without optical magnifica- tion. Sampling has been limited due to sampler failures. However, prototype sampling devices are under develop- ment and test (fig. 13-16). Biological entities and their remains appear to con- stitute an important interference factor in the propagation of sound through long deep-water paths. It is planned to explore the effects of these organisms on sound propagation using equipment carried aboard the TRIESTE. Figure 13. Prototype multiple plankton sampler. Twenty individual samples are selected on command by remote control and held in storage under sea water until removed for analysis or preservation. Water is pumped through standard plankton netting by an ambient-pressure- compen- sated 6- or 12-volt de motor-driven propeller located in a stainless steel cover at the apex of the conical shroud. Beneath the conical shroud is the prototype system wherein a set of standard lead-acid batteries were compensated to ambient pressure. = Figure 14. Another prototype multiple plank- ton sampler. Ten individual samples are se- lected on command by remote control and held in storage under sea water until removed for analysis or preservation. Water is pumped through standard plankton netting by an ambi- ent-pressure-compensated 24-volt dc motor- driven propeller located in a stainless steel cover below the acrylic plastic sampling unit. An ambient pressure compensated solenoid, located upper left, is used to release sampling discs into the storage position. Additional sampling units can be easily added to the "stack'! of ten shown. Figure 15. End-on view of sampler of figure 14. Polyethylene bottles serve as reservoirs for the electrically non-conducting fluids used to compensate for ambient sea pres- sure and to prohibit the entry of sea water into the electrical circuits. This sampler was successfully operated to depths of 18, 900 feet. Power for the motor was taken from the pro- totype system used for operating standard lead-acid batteries at ambient hydrostatic pressures. 47 48 Figure 16. Prototype ambient pressure water and plankton sampler. This unit is adaptable to bathyscaph or cable- lowered use. A single water and filtered plankton sample can be acquired by remote control. Pressure within the chamber can be maintained up to a maximum pressure of 1000 psi. Closure of the apertures can be effected either mechanically by messenger or by an electrical solenoid. Two viewing ports and openings for internal lighting are available for viewing the contents while under pressure. Exchange of water after closing can be effected in the laboratory through high-pressure gates located on each end of the pressure vessel. WATER TEMPERATURES IN THE MARIANAS TRENCH Above a deep trench, a unique characteristic of the water column is the adiabatic increase of the temperature. Wurst! ® (1929) has shown that a slight increase in temper- ature can be anticipated below about 3000 fathoms. At this depth a minimum temperature level occurs for water masses of constant salinity. The temperature profile obtained during bathyscaph Dive No. 70 (fig. 17) shows this minimum temperature level followed by a gradual increase as the bathyscaph descended. The recorded temperature values were acquired using a resistance bridge. The accuracy of this bridge and its calibrations were not adequate to permit the values to be considered absolutely precise. The temperature at 3100 fathoms on Dive No. 76, as determined by a reversing thermometer, was 2.12 + 0. Og> C, A chart reading of 2.3° C at the same depth in the same dive was recorded. 49 TIME 1300 1400 {500 1600 1700 2.0 4.0 6.0 DEGREES CENTIGRADE DIVE 70 J? DIVE 76 fi fe a t / / I U 1000 BATHYSCAPH ASCENT CURVE DIVE 70 2000 FATHOMS WwW ° ° ° 4000 5000 6000 [Figure 17. Sea water temperatures obtained by a resist- ance bridge, illustrating adiabatic cooling at mid-depths. Absolute accuracy of recorded values is not intimated by this curve. BIOLOGICAL FOULING OF TRIESTE Fouling of the exterior of the bathyscaph within San Diego Bay has been spectacular and a nuisance (fig. 18). Profuse growth of O0belia, Tubullaria, barnacles, tube- forming worms suchas Spirorbis, and even the young of the giant kelp Macrocystis have formed dense fouling covers to the extent that the paint was no longer visible after afew weeks. It is of interest to note the preferential settling of the organisms on the white painted surface rather than on the blue band. The first antifouling white paint, Amercoat 85 and 33, was applied following the March-April 1959 overhaul of the TRIESTE (fig. 19). This paint was also fouled ina short time (fig. 20). As indicated by this photograph, the exposure to high hydrostatic pressure and low temperature during the bathyscaph dives had no apparent detrimental effect on the living organisms; Dives 53 (to 4100 feet) and 55 (to 4200 feet) applied pressures of over 1800 psi to the growing organisms. Prior to the initiation of NEKTON I, a standard stock antifouling paint, vinyl red formula 121, was substituted for the white paint (fig. 21). Good antifouling characteristics were noted. However, biological growth in Apra Harbor is always negligible. Controlled tests with Laminar X-500 conducted off the NEL pier indicated that this paint would be a good antifouling covering for the craft. However, following two months' immersion in 1961, the craft was again heavily fouled and now requires weekly cleaning by divers. 51 52 4 oo e ANN Figure 18. Biological fouling on Italian paint after 4 months' immersion, November 1958 - March 1959. Figure 19. TRIESTE painted with Amercoat 85 and 33. 53 54 Figure 20. Biological fouling on Amercoat 85 and 33 after 2 months. The fouling showed no apparent changes follow- ing exposure to reduced temperatures and marked pres- sure increases to over 1800 psi. Figure 21. TRIESTE painted with vinyl red formula 121. 55 56 CONCLUSIONS 1. Oceanic environmental research has been success- fully conducted to the maximum known depth in the oceans using a manned vehicle, the bathyscaph TRIESTE, 2. The validity of the concept of sending man and machine as a team into the depths for oceanographic re- search has been proved by successful scientific observa- tions and measurements of water clarity, bioluminescence, water currents on the sea floor, gravity, sound velocity, water temperature, sea-floor studies, and other facets of marine biology, marine geology, and physical oceanography. 3. Observations at the sea floor using the bathyscaph lead to several important conclusions: a. The presence of currents along the deep-sea floor of sufficient magnitude to cause the coarser sediment to form ripple marks had been previously noted by deep- sea camera studies. Inasmuch as no current measurements can be made during camera studies, it was not known whether these were intermittent or continuous currents. The bathyscaph observations have confirmed the presence of these deep ripples, and have further established that the current present in the area at the time was not strong enough to cause the rippling. The currents are therefore intermittent. The presence of such deep currents hereto- fore unknown (before camera and bathyscaph studies) is an important oceanographic phenomenon which, at present, physical oceanographic theory cannot explain. b. The TRIESTE has found abundant evidence of biological churning of the bottom. The marked variance and dispersion of these minor features has been especially augmented and compared to sea floor photos. ec. An important contribution was made to knowl- edge of the topography and structure of the sea floor by the dives off Guam which demonstrated that the submarine part of the island is a thin coral cap on a massive volcanic structure having only a scattered veneer of sediments. This not only demonstrated the actual structure, which was previously unknown, but also showed that the island arc- trench structure of which Guam is a part has not subsided to any great extent. d. Important contributions were made to studies of the topography and structure of the great trenches of the Pacific in the diving into the Marianas Trench. Echo sounding does not show the configuration of the floor along the axis of these trenches because of the broad-beam of the sounders, the depth of water, and side echoes. Asa result of the TRIESTE program, it is now known that the trench (and probably others) has a wide flat floor; that currents are not active in it (at least not continuously); and that it has little benthic animal activity. Furthermore, the nature of sediment in the trench was ascertained. The sediment of the trench previously was known from only one small sample taken by the HMS CHALLENGER in 1952, and in another portion of the Trench. 4. Other conclusions are: a. Particulate matter exists to some degree to all depths in the oceans. b. Water clarity in the deep oceans generally permits observation from the bathyscaph to distances up to 60 feet, when lighting conditions are suitable. A new arc for in situ observations on ''visual oceanography"' is indicated. c. For the bathyscaph observer, extinction of daylight in the ocean generally occurs at approximately 600 meters. d. At depths of over 2100 meters, biolumines- cence was observed only as single, or small groups of flashes. Upon ascending to 700 meters, the number of flashes increased rapidly as much as 1000 times. At shallower depths bioluminescence remained high until "washed out" by daylight. Dt 58 RECOMMENDATIONS Provide for increasing the knowledge available to the U. 5S. of the deep-sea environment. Specifically: Ih Continue and extend deep-sea research with the bathy- scaph TRIESTE so as to take full advantage of the unique and proven capabilities of this vessel. Also, modify the TRIESTE to make it even more valuable for scien- tific work than at present. Establish an enlarged scientific program, involving underwater acoustics and all oceanographic disciplines, for making observations and measurements vertically through water columns and in very deep water. Develop improved acoustic and oceanographic instru- mentation for use on the TRIESTE and on future deep submersibles. Develop a deep submersible research craft more versa- tile than the TRIESTE, Evaluate the usefulness of deep submersibles as plat- forms for acoustic detection equipment and naval ord- nance. REFERENCES 1. Mackenzie, K. V., ''Sound-Speed Measurements Utilizing the Bathyscaph TRIESTE, '' Acoustical Society of Americal Journals v.33, p. LIV3-11llopAusustylo6n 2. Mackenzie, K. V., ''Formulas for the Computation of Sound Speed in Sea Water, '' Acoustical Society of America. Journal, v.32, p.100-104, January 1960 3. Beebe, W., Half Mile Down, Harcourt Brace and Company, 1934 4, Monod, T., ''Sur un Premier Essai d'Utilisation Scientifique du Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. 3, '' Academie des Sciences, Paris. Comptes Rendus, v.238, p.1951- 1953, 17 May 1954 5. Clarke, G. L. and Wertheim, G. K., ''Measurements of Illumination at Great Depths and at Night in the Atlantic Ocean by Means of a New Bathyphotometer, '' Deep-Sea Research, v.3, p. 189-205, 1956 DEAT TN 6. Clarke, G. L. and Backus, R. H., ''Measurements of Light Penetration in Relation to Vertical Migration and Records of Luminescence of Deep-Sea Animals, '' Deep- Sea Research, v.4, p. 1-14, 1956 Reelin (ee Nachos HE slau aniae Brightness of Marine Lumines- cence, '' Science, v.60, p. 592-593, 26 December 1924 8. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Reference 58- 32, Quantitative Records of the Luminescent Flashing of Oceanic Animals at Great Depths, by G. L. Clarke, June 1958 9, Dietz, R. S., ''1100-Meter Dive in Bathyscaph TRIESTE, '' Limnology and Oceanography, v.4, p. 94-101, January 1959 1@, PIGceual, SJ. eral IDEs) 1B, Soy “Oceanographic Observa- tions by the Bathyscaph TRIESTE (1953-1956), '' Deep-Sea Research, v.4, p.221-229, 1957 11. Jerlov, N. G., ''Maxima in the Vertical Distribution of Particles in the Sea, '' Deep-Sea Research, v.5, p.173- 184, 1959 SAL ST ICT OR 59 60 12. Kalle, K., ''Zum Problem der Meereswasserfarbe, "' Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie, v.66, p.1-13, January 1938 13, Clarke, Go Land James, H. Raw laboratom Analy sis of the Selective Absorption of Light by Sea Water, " Optical Society of America. Journal, v.29, p. 43-55, Febru- ary 1939 14. Jerlov, N. G. and Piccard, J., 'Bathyscaph Measure- ments of Daylight Penetration into the Mediterranean, '' Deep-Sea Research, v.5, p.201-204, 1959 15. Clarke, G. L., ''On the Depth at Which Fish Can See, " Ecology, v.17, p. 452-456, July 1956 16. Péres, J. M., J. Picard et M. Ruivo, ''Résultats de la Campagne de Recherches du Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III, Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique, no. 1092, 25 Febru- FEW al DOS fas alge Meade Hae oR ORAL 17. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 941, The 1957 Diving Program of the Bathyscaph TRIESTE, by A. B. Rechnitzer, 28 December 1959 18. Wurst, G., ''Schictung und Tiefenzirkulation des Pazifishen Ozeans, '' Berlin. Universitat. Institut fiir Meereskunde. Veroffentlichungen Ser A: Geographisch- Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, Heft 20, February 1929 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bernard, F., Densité du Plancton vu au Large de Toulon Depuis le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III," Bulletin de 1'Institut Oceanographique, no. 1063, 11 July 1955 Bernard, F., ''Zooplancton vu au Cours d'une Plongée du Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. II] au Large de Toulon, "Académie des Sciences, Paris, Comptes Rendus, v.240, p.2565-2566, 27 June 1955 Bernard, F., ''Plancton Observé Durant Trois Plongées en Bathyscaphe au Large de Toulon, '' Académie des Sciences, Paris. Comptes Rendus, v. 245, p. 1968-1971, 25 November 1957 Botteron, G., ''Etude de Sediments Recoltes au Cours de Plongées Avec le Bathyscaphe TRIESTE au Large de Capri, Lausanne Université. Laboratoires de Geologie, Géographie Physique, Minéralogie et Paléontologie, Bulletin 124, 1958 1 Comité pour la Recherche Océanographique au Moyen du Bathyscaphe TRIESTE, Le Bathyscaphe et les Plongées du MRE SHEE LISS Oo by_d elcarde Oa Dietz, R. S., ''Deep-Sea Research in the Bathyscaph TRIESTE, " The New Scientist, v. 3, April 1958 Office of Naval Research London Branch Technical Report ONRL-71-55, Bathyscaphe TRIESTE, by R. 8S. Dietz, 1955 Dietz, R. S. and others, ''The Bathyscaph, " Scientific Aeron CEng Wo LOE, joo SS Sa, “Svonmill Ie lays) Dubard, P., ''Ma Plongée en Bathyscaphe, '' Le Figaro, 10 November 1954 Furnestin, J., ''Une Plongée en Bathyscaphe, '' Revue des Travaux l'Institut Péches Maritime, v.19, p. 435-442, 1955 Houot, G., ''Le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. 3 au Service de l'Exploration des Grandes Profondeurs, '' Deep-Sea Research, Wo As WoPatl-ag®, 1958 ; Houot, G. et Willm, P., Le Bathyscaphe a 4050 m. au Fond de l'Ocean, Editions de Paris, 1954 61 Kamper Ean Vi vand iS oden tiem iver "Submarine Illumination and the Twilight Movements of a Sonic Scattering Layer, '' Nature, v.174, p. 869-871, 6 November 1954 Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 956, Evaluation of the Control Characteristics of Bathyscaph Ballast, by R. K. Logan, 11 February 1960 Maxwell, A. E., ''The Bathyscaph - A Deep- Water Oceano- graphic Vessel, Pt. 1: A Report on the 1957 Scientific Investigation with the Bathyscaph, TRIESTE," U. S. Navy Journal of Underwater Acoustics, v.8, p.149-154, April 1958 Monod, T., Bathyfolages, Plongées Profondes (1948-1954), Rene Julliard, Paris, 1954 Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 1030, Investigation of Window Fracture in Bathyscaph, by J. C. Thompson and others, 20 March 1961 Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 1063, Evaluation of External Battery Power Supply for Bathyscaph TRIESTE, by L. A. Shumaker, 18 August 1961 Péres, J. M. et Picard, J., "Observations Biologiques Effectuées Avec le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III," Académie des Sciences, Paris. Comptes Rendus, v.240, p.2255-2257, 6 June 1955 Péres, J. M., ''Trois Plongées Dans le Canyon du Cap Sicié, Effectuées Avec le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III de la Marine Nationale, '' Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique, no. 1115, 28 March 1959 Péres, J. M. and Picard, J., ‘Observations Biologiques Effectuées au Large de Toulon Avec le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III de la Marine Nationale, '' Bulletin de 1'Institut Océanographique, no. 1061, 14 June 1955 Péres, J. M., ''Trois Plongées Dans le Canyon du Cap Sicié, Effectuées Avec le Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. III de la Marine Nationale, '' Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique, no. 1115, 28 March 1959 Pérés, J. M. and Picard, J., ''Nouvelles Observations Biologiques Effectuées Avec le Bathyscaphe F, N. R. S. Ill et Considérations sur le Systeme Aphotique de la Mediter- ranée, '' Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique, no. 1075, 9 March 1956 Piccard, J. and Dietz, R., Seven Miles Down, Putnam, 1961 Piccard, A., Earth, Sky and Sea, Oxford University Press, 1956 "Resultats Scientifiques des Campagnes du Bathyscaphe F. N. R. S. II--1954-1957, "' Annales de l'Institut Océano - graphique, v.35, p.237-341, 30 December 1958 Rechnitzer, A. B. and Walsh, D., ''The U. S. Navy Bathy- scaph TRIESTE, 1958-1961, '' Tenth Pacific Science Con- gress. Proceedings, 1961 Trégouboff, G., "Sur l'Emploi de la Tourelle Submersible Galeazzi pour des Observations Biologiques Sous- Marines & Faibles Prof ondeurs, '' Bulletin de l'Institut Océano- graphique, no, 1070, 1 December 1955 Trégouboff, G., ''Prospection Biologique Sous- Marine Dans la Région de Villefranchesur- Mer en Juin 1956, " Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique, no. 1085, 18 September 1956 Trégouboff, G., ''Prospection Biologique Sous- Marine Dans la Région de Villefranchesur-Mer au Cours de l'Année 1957, I, Plongées en Bathyscaphe, " Bulletin de l'Institut Océano- graphique, no. 1117, 25 April 1958 San Francisco Naval Shipyard Design Division Investigation Report 7-61, Operational Safety for the Gasoline System on Bathyscaph TRIESTE, by A. C. Wong, 23 April 1961 63 ie eu ee an eM, la ie Moe UD Bain dae ae fi us Pai beats he oe ahh ‘ aT ia. x ; i) " LAY eg NG eas ore i As fy We 9) “CaIMISSVIONN St preo SIUL (2-bT TAN) 8250 ¥SXL ‘10 £0 400U-S ‘gq “W ‘Jezyuysey ‘I ALSEINL sydeoshujeg * aa “AAIAISSVIONN 5! pres STUL (2-%T TAN) 8250 ASBL ‘10 £0 FOOU-S ‘@d ‘yw ‘tezuysey = 'T ALSGIUL “2% sydeoskyjeg “T *pezeijsuoulap alam ‘ALSAIUL 24} Jo satdroursd ustsap ayy jo Ayrptyea ay} pue ‘sasodind youeasad 10} syjdap yeai3 0} sjuaosap aToTyaa pauueul jo Aytyiqeotjoead ayy, “youary Seuetsrep daap ay} ut asouy Sutpnyour suorjztpuod [eyWsauuOITAUa [elouad pue ‘Ssainjeaj IOOT} eas ‘syujdap yeaid je JUatINO tazeMm ‘uo}HUETd pue sapotpzied papuadsns Jo uotynql4}SIp ‘aouaosautuNjorq ‘ainjzon43s Ayrurpes pue ainzetadura} ‘Aj190[aA punos uo eyep Mau aTqenyea papraté apeul S}UaWaINSeaUl pue SUOT}EALaSgO IIFIjUaTIOS ey, “aT2TYar yoreasad & Se GLSAINL udeosdyzeq ay} sutsn syjdep pajuap -adaidun je payonpuod aiam Satpnys [eyusUuTUOITAUS eBaStapuy) ddgIdISSVIONN “2961 Idy z ‘deg saazyuyoay ‘@ “vy Aq ‘(0961-8S61) SLINSAU WVUDOUd HOUVASAY , ALSAINL, HAdVOSAHLVE AHL AO AUVWWNS S601 wodeay Azoyetogey souo01j03a1q AACN *pazerjsuoulap alam ‘ALSAIUL 243 Jo satdtoursd ustsap ayy jo Ayrprtea ay} pue ‘sasodind yoieasai 103 syjdap yeard 0} Sjuaosap apotyaa peuueUL jo Aypiqeotjoeid ayy, “Yyousary, seuetrep daap au} ut asouy Sutpn[oUut SuOT}Ipuod [e}UaUIUOITAUA [e1aued pue ‘Seinjeaj 100Tj eas ‘sujdap jeard ye JUaTINo Jazem ‘uo}HUeTd pue sapotpred papuadsns jo uotynqtajzstp ‘aouaosautumyorg ‘ainyzons3s AqUTTeS pue aunjesaduray ‘Ay190[aA punos uo ezep mau atqentea papraté apeul gUaWIaINSeaUl pUE SUOT}EALASGO OTJTUAIOS aYL “aTITYSA yoreasad & Se ALSAIUL ydeosdyjeq ay} sutsn sujdap pajuap -aoaidun 32 pajonpuod atam Satpnys [ejUauUOITAUa eastapuy) ddgI4ISssvIONn "2961 Itady z ‘deg szazyuyoay ‘@ ‘v Aq (0961-8561) SLTNSAU WVvuDOUd HOUVASAUY ,,ALSAIML,, HAVOSAHLVE AHL JO AUVWINAS S601 wWodey Azoyetogey sotuosjoatq Aaen “GAIAISSVIONN St pzeo STUL (Z-bT TAN) 8250 HS¥L ‘10 £0 FOOU-S ‘q ‘y ‘Jazyuyoey ‘T GALSAIUL “2 sydeoshyjyeq ‘1 “GHIGISSWIONN St preo STULL (2-bT TAN) 8250 HSEL ‘10 £0 POOU-S ‘a ‘W ‘dezyuyey ‘T GLSAIUL “2 sydeoskyjyeg “T “pa}eijsuowap alam ‘ALSAIML 4} Jo satdtourid ustsap eyj jo AyIptteA ay} pue ‘sasodind yoieaseit 10} syjdap year3 0} syuaosap a[oIyaa pauueUl jo Aytpiqeonoeid ayy, “youaty seuetiey daap ay} ut asoy} Sutpnour Suot}Ipuod [ejUauIUOLtAUe [elauad pue ‘sainjea} 1001} eas ‘syujdap jear3 }e Juatano 1ajem ‘uojyued pue sapotpied Papuadsns jo uorljynqta}sIp ‘aouaosautunyjorq ‘ainjontj3s Ayturpes pue ainjetaduia} ‘A}1D0TaA punos uO ej}ep Mau aTqeNT[eA papraré apeUL S]UsWIaINSeaUI pue SUOTJEATaSgO SIFtjUaTOS aYT “eToTyaA yoieasal & St ALSAINL Udeosyjeq ay} duisn sujdap pajuep -adaidun ye payonpuod atam Satpnys [e}uauTUOIIAUa eaStapus) daldISssvIONO “2961 tidy z ‘deg ‘aazyuyoay ‘@ “vy 4q ‘(0961-8S61) SLIMSaU WYuDOUd HOUVASAY , ALSAIUL, HAVOSAHLVYE AHL AO AUVWWNS S601 wWodey Aroyesogey sotuosjoatq AACN > payerjsuowap alam ‘ALSAIME 243 Jo Satdroutid ustsap ay} jo Ayiptyea oy} pue ‘sasodind yoieasai 103 syjdap yeais 0} SjuaoSap a[dIyeA pauueUl jo Ajtpiqeotjoeid ayy, “Yyouery Sseuetiey daap ay} ur asoyy dutpnpout Suot}Ipuoo [e}UsWIUOITAUA [e1auad pue ‘Sain}eaj IOOTJ vas ‘sujdap jea13 je JUaTIND 1ayeM ‘uOzHUETd pue Saporped papuadsns jo uotjnqi4jSIp ‘aouaoSeutun{orq :ainjontj}s Ayturpes pue ainjyesaduia} !A4j1007aA punos uO e}Ep Mau aTqenTeA papraté a@peul SJUaUIaINSeaU PUE SUOT}EALASGO IIFI}USTOS ay, “9TOTYaA yoreasal & St ALSAIUL udeosdyzeq ay} dutsn syjdap pajuap -aoaadun }e payonpuod aiaM Satpnjs [eyuewUOITAUa eaStapuy) ddgIdIsswIONN “2961 Itdy 2 ‘deg -zazyuyoay ‘gq “vy 4q (0961-8561) SLINSAY NvUDOUd HOUVASAU , ALSAIUL,, HAVOSAHLVE AHL AO AUVINWNAS S601 Wodey Asoyesogey sowosjatq Aven INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST Bureau of Ships Code 320 Code 335 Code 360 Code 688 Bureau of Naval Weapons DLI-3 DLI-31 (2) RuUDC-2 (2) RUDC-11 FAME-3 Bureau of Yards and Docks Chief of Naval Personnel Pers 11B Chief of Naval Operations Op-O7T Op-73 (2) Op-O3EG Chief of Naval Research Code 416 Code 418 Code 463 Code 466 Commander in Chief, Pac Flt Commander in Chief, Lant Flt Commander Operational Test & Eval. 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