LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,

ClOLOGY
LIBRARY

SUPER - ORGANIC
EVOLUTION

and the Social Troblem

BY

DR ENRIQUE LLURIA

WITH A PREFACE BY

DR D. SANTIAGO RAMON Y CAJAL

TRANSLATED BY

RACHEL CHALLICE

AND

D. H. LAMBERT, B.A.(OxoN.)

LONDON
WILLIAMS & NORGATE

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN
1910

i

..KY

LIBRARY
G

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Note

OWING to the lamented death of Miss Eachel
Challice, the greater part of this work has
been translated, and the whole translation
revised, by D. H. Lambert, B.A.

211892

Preface

DR LLURIA has been so good as to class me as an
expert in matters of sociology, and has invited me
to express my opinion on the present work, which
treats of the anthropological causes of the so-called
social question.

Such a request places me in considerable
difficulty, since, not being conversant with the
science created by A. Comte, and developed by
H. Spencer, I have studied very little, or rather I
have not had time to study, the moral and in-
tellectual evolution of man, considered in relation
to society and the State. A worker bee of the
great human hive, I have confined myself chiefly to
gathering honey in the garden of Nature, in order to
build my small individual cell, leaving others, with
the eagle's vision and powers of concentration, to
trace the perspective and found the philosophy of a
common labour, marking the future routes of the
human swarm.

But, as in the present case my silence might

vii

vili PREFACE

be interpreted as want of respect, I accept the
proffered honour, explaining, without dogmatising
or arrieres pensees, my individual impressions on
the doctrine elaborated by Dr Lluria, and the
solutions, still very remote, of the terrible social
problem.

I am entirely in accord with the critical part of
this book. The author has abundance of reasons
for declaring that present humanity has contemptu-
ously severed herself from Nature, occasioning this
systematic and perpetual violation of the laws of
evolution by initiating inequalities and torturing
pain and misery.

The social man of to-day, corrupted by his un-
healthy worship of capital, represents a strange
mixture of civilisation and barbarism. He thinks
and feels, apparently, like a Christian, but he acts
like a citizen of the aristocracy of the ancient in-
human republics. The sphere of his intelligence
has enlarged as much as that of his will has
decreased.

More attached every day to a sense of justice,
present society presents the sad and paradoxical
spectacle of a world upside down; above, sit
enthroned and honoured vice and laziness ; below,
struggling with hunger and pain, the toilers and
helpers — the brains, that is, that, as Spencer
would say, sharpened by necessity, sovereign

PREFACE IX

moulder of the mental clay, have best adapted the
internal dynamic relations to the external. Hence
the inevitable decadence and weariness of the
human race ; since highly strung organisations,
worn out by overwork and misery, lose their
power of originating, or leave behind a miserable
posterity decimated by disease ; whilst, on the
other hand, the drones, the unadaptable, the poor
in spirit, surfeited with pleasure, produce a robust
offspring, thus perpetuating the dead-weight of the
social machine.

For civilised man, therefore, the principle of
the selection of the fittest does not hold good,
nor does the better cast prevail in the struggle for
existence ; on the contrary, as Dr Lluria shrewdly
remarks, adaptation adjusts itself to an artificial
extra-organic condition quite unknown to the rest
of the animal world, and an inexhaustible cause
of weariness, retrogression, and false organisation
— for instance, the acquisition and enjoyment of
capital with the sole view of guaranteeing the
perpetual sloth of the few and the incessant in-
crease of the parasites of labour. So that the
human species, eternally oscillating between
destitution and superfluity, anaemia and plethora,
becomes something strange and incomprehensible ;
a kind of fool, cursed with the monomania of con-
demning others to hunger in order to procure for

x PREFACE

themselves the overwhelming satisfaction of suicide
from satiety.

Equally with the author, I agree that the only
legitimate capital, anthropologically considered, is
the human organism and the forces of nature,
factors of production which cannot harmonise with
justice and the law of evolution unless collectively
sustained and directed. The earth for all, the
natural energies for all, talent for all : this is the
fair division of future society. It is, then, according
to Dr Lluria, highly important to re-establish man
according to the law of evolution ; to apply capital,
diverted to the enjoyment of a few, to the common
store ; to continue, in fine, as Cdnovas would say,
the biological history of the human race, wearied
of the selfishness and injustice of three thousand
years of civilisation.

But is it possible ? If it is more than a sweet,
flattering dream, how can it be realised ? Will the
man in power, duly expropriated for the common
good, resign himself to mediocrity ? Will not the
deeply rooted prejudices of a dethroned aristocracy
and the utilitarian instinct of the slave-driver
arm his enraged hand? And if these dangerous
longings for ill-regulated ease have to be forcibly
repressed, will not the society of the future be
threatened with new wars of class with class, with
the consequent ruinous waste of men and weapons,

PREFACE xi

and the inevitable overwork of the better sort?
And even on the fascinating hypothesis that calm
may be re-established and the world converted into
a vast workshop controlled by love and moderation,
how shall we prevent the sexual instinct, acting
without foresight or restraint, from flooding the
world with millions of hungry mouths as a terrible
charge upon society and a constant danger to the
general peace ? And if, after all, Malthus's theory
prove true ? What will our future statesman do
with the excess of population when, with America
and Africa glutted with European emigrants, there
remain no virgin soils to plough, no mines to be
exploited ?

And turning our attention to the march of civil-
isation itself, will not the aurea mediocritas, to
which society aspires, enervate the mental faculties,
.undermining the energy for scientific investigation ?
Will not collective capital be timid, and lack the
dash, on romantic and supreme occasions, of
individual capital? Will glory, the passion of
philosophic and scientific genius, prosper in the
grey and subdued atmosphere of the commonweal ?
When injustice is banished, will not the best spring
of the mental evolution of humanity perhaps have
ceased to act? Pain is itself a great moulder of
character, and incites to heroic deeds. When
misery and misfortune are reduced to a tolerable

xii PREFACE

minimum, will not the sublime abnegation of heroes
and the mighty genius of the pioneers of science
descend to the same level?

All these torturing doubts and questions are
answered by Dr Lluria in a system highly
sympathetic and inspiriting. This is our interpre-
tation of it : —

Present production, the work of a hungry and
uneducated minority, is deficient as regards the
necessities of the race. Divorced from the natural
laws, our brain evolves but poor and most inade-
quate results. And, as an inevitable consequence
of the poverty of nutriment and the rigorous
overworking of the majority, is produced moral
and physical suffering, physiological misery, the
degeneration of the species, and, in the moral
sphere, hatred of class and discontent.

But such a deplorable state of things cannot last
for ever. A time will come when science wiH
illumine the conscience and elevate the mind. And
then, when, having banished the fetish of capital,
man has incorporated himself with the laws of
evolution ; when, having scrutinised and exploited
the forces of Nature, the cosmos labours for
ourselves, setting in motion an endless number of
machines, and manufacturing articles at ridiculous
prices ; when, having discovered the secret of
chemical synthesis, the engineer of the future

PREFACE xiii

elaborates, without competing with the earth, the
seed, gluten, albumen, sugar, and fat, utilising for
the purpose the living force of the solar ray or some
form of natural energy ; when leisure well earned
permits the universalisation of science and art, and
all can taste the ineffable harmonies and beauties
that palpitate in the lap of Nature ; when, in fine,
redeemed by solidarity and love, we all feel within
us the waves of one and the same vital current,
sister-cells of the same body, — what meaning
will attach to the words " rich and poor," " master
and slave," " happy and unfortunate " ? What will
it matter then that love multiplies the species
without end, or that a blazing sky and a barren
earth are niggard of their gifts? Full of energy
and alertness to take action against all kinds of
cosmic accidents, there will be the human brain,
exalted by its faithful adaptation to the mechanism
of the world, generously offering us new and saving
inventions. Ours, too, will be the treasure of the
inextinguishable solar ray, which science, emanci-
pated perhaps from our old, worn-out nurse, the
earth, will be able to turn and adapt to the produc-
tion of shining fruits and golden ears. Who fears
the exhaustion of the solar force, of the movement
of the wind, and of the seas, of the cataracts of
the mountain gorges, of the sovereign power of
thought ?

xiv PREFACE

Proud and encouraging ideal, that may perchance
one day be changed into a living, palpitating
reality !

Let us believe that its coming is at hand ; for in
this base world only what is earnestly hoped for
and expected is capable of realisation.

Setting aside the doctrine and the luminous
horizons that its author reveals to us on evoking
with prophetic vision the future society, disdainful
of individual capital and addicted to the worship of
Nature, there are in this book many suggestive
ideas and conceptions which, even separated from
the fundamental thesis, have a peculiar value and
brilliancy, like jewels set in an artistic crown.

One of them is assimilation of life to a rhythm,
to a system of waves comparable in principle to
the palpitations of the ether or to the most
complete order of relations marked in the tables
of Mendeleef and Sir W. Crookes.

At first sight the idea seems obscure arid even
difficult of conception ; but reflecting upon it, one
discovers luminous facets and most interesting
points of view.

Because, in brief, life represents a complex
system of forces, of vibrations in ascending pro-
gression. Like an orchestra successively rein-
forced, organisation begins with the mono-rhythmic

PREFACE xv

note of the infusorium, and ends with the grand
symphony of the mammal, in which millions of cell-
voices take part. And when the volume of sound
of the organic orchestra reaches its highest note,
again rises the enchanting refrain of the germ,
that is, the simple cadences of the ovule, starting
from which the melody develops with a crescendo,
ever more complicated, until arriving again at the
fullness of the modulations and motives of the
organisation of the adult.

In no organic apparatus do we find this rhythmic
character in greater relief than in the cerebral
instrument. Our mind is nourished on waves
gathered from all parts of the cosmos, and its
principal mission consists in classifying, combining,
and reflecting them, with reference to their
origin. Perceptions, ideas, the spoken word, even
muscular contraction, what are they, in their
ultimate analysis, but palpitations of heat, of light,
of chemical energy, of electricity, etc., transformed,
refined, and converted into other palpitations more
subtle and spiritual? Like a lens of singular
virtue and power, our nervous system gathers all the
noises and minute tremblings in the world, in order
to concentrate them, now in the splendid form of
an idea, now in the flame of will and of passion.

If viewing the animal series as a chromatic scale,
as a symphony executed by natural forces that,

xvi PREFACE

after forming the brain, play upon the nervous
fibres like the wind on the harp, is an interesting
conception, no less so is the attempt to explain the
inheritance of the qualities acquired by the trophic
influence of the nervous system.

Certainly the attempt is somewhat premature.
We are in want of anatomico-physiological data to
prove how an organ made perfect by adaptation to
the conditions of its environment can so influence
the brain that the latter in its turn modifies the
germinal cells. Nor are there wanting savants
like Weissman who roundly deny the trans-
missibility of the acquired characteristics, imputing
all to the chance elements of variation and natural
selection. But, in fine, if the arduous problem has
not at the moment obtained a complete solution, it
is something to know that our ideas and feelings
exert an influence, by means of the great organ of
sympathy, upon the nutrition of the glands and the
molecular architecture of the germinal cells. At
all events, the aim is a tempting one, and if science
ultimately confirms this principle (the action of the
nervous system upon the molecular adjustment of
the nucleus and the protoplasm), the nerve theory
of the inheritance of acquired qualities will replace
the arbitrary hypothesis of Darwin, Haeckel,
De Wries, and others on such an interesting
problem.

PREFACE xvii

Full of enthusiasm, too, is the song that Lluria
sings of the indefinite perfectibility of the brain, of
this vital organ, eternally young, that we all have
within us. The former slave of cosmic forces
which sculptured, with painful minuteness, the
network of its associated passages, the human
brain is destined one day to become the tyrant of
that same natural energy to which it owes its
appearance. Certain it is that the senses, the too
narrow windows of the soul, have broken the
continuity of the scale of ethereal vibrations,
obliging us to select only the most useful for the
increase and prosperity of the species ; but equally
so is it that, by a wise compensation, our cere-
bral cortex, exquisitely plastic and creative, has
succeeded in filling with ideas and inventions the
gaps in the diminishing sensory register. What
are the instruments of science, the microscope and
the telescope, the galvanometer, and the photo-
graphic camera, the screen of the radioscope, and
the resources of analytic chemistry, but retinas and
complementary apparatus, perceived from afar, in
virtue of which human ingenuity, correcting Nature,
enters into possession of all the palpitations of
cosmic energy ?

I have done ; for it is not my intention to sully
with inapposite commentary the diverse and
seductive themes which, with abundance of erudi-

xviii PREFACE

tion and sound criticism, are unrolled by Dr Lluria
in his beautiful work, written, I may remark, with
clearness, brightness, and suggestion, and with a
mastery of thought and calmness of judgment
which might be the envy of many well known in
the world of philosophy and social science.

8. R. Y CAJAL.

Contents

CHAP. PAGE

PREFACE ......... vii

1. INTRODUCTORY ........ 1

2. GENERAL ADAPTATION 18

3. GENESIS OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . . . . 31

4. PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF THE NEURONA . . 41

5. OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION . . . 69

6. PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 84

7. HEALTH AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF MECHANICS . . 120

8. NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION — PSYCHIC

SELECTION 147

I. NATURAL SELECTION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR

LIFE 147

II. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION 164

III. PSYCHIC SELECTION 168

9. THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES AND CONCEPTIONS OF

EQUALITY 171

10. HEREDITY ... 182

11. MEDIUM 219

xix

Super-Organic Evolution

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

THE ideas set forth in this book are only an experi-
ment, and they are only notes which I hoped to
have enough time and peace of mind to extend
with necessary amplitude. Time passes : the
pressing things of life do not decrease, and I long
to give to the world the thoughts which are my
most earnest convictions. I have always considered
the existence of a humanity eternally unhappy as
an incomprehensible thing, and I have rejected this
monstrous injustice from childhood.

I am, and I shall always be, an imperturbable
optimist, and this has given rise to the trend my
spirit has taken for some time past.

In Nature organic life obeys harmonious laws
which represent relations constantly realised in
definite and exact proportions ; humanity forms

1

2 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

part of this organism ; therefore, if man is an excep-
tion, it is because he has infringed natural laws.

As the error of this course is evident and
notorious, it is important to ascertain how the
fundamental principles of Nature are infringed.

Full of this idea, I set to work to find the key of
the problem, and my imagination soon got on the
track. " The inheritance of humanity," I said to
myself one day, ' ' is Nature, natural forces. Capital
or money is but a limited resource, and it does not
confer joy on man as a whole." But this statement
did not satisfy me without a justification. It was
necessary to justify and prove it, and so I went on
seeking. My profession as a doctor brought me to
the consideration of the relation existing between
an organ and its function.

I read what Spencer says on this subject. How-
ever, it did not satisfy me ; on the contrary, it gave
me another idea.

x/ Intelligence is a function of Nature, and the brain
its intermediary organ. It was then that I under-
stood that the socialism of the world and its
instruments of industry could have a legitimate
basis ; and what appeared a more or less platonic
aspiration could be explained in a positive form,
and the inheritance of man could be increased by
humanity through the socialism of Nature. My
conviction was fortified more and more by seeing

INTRODUCTORY 3

how the newest and most daring aspirations of
modern philosophy could be justified.

Darwinism caused a great change in religious
and philosophical ideas : polemics became strong
and heated. Virchow accused Darwinism of lead-
ing directly to socialism. The German Darwinists,
including Haeckel, protested vehemently. From
the reasoning brought forward by both sides it was
clearly evident that, if transformism were given its
due weight, the relation it bears to the social
science was certainly not taken into account. It
is surprising that the great Herbert Spencer did
not discover the relation existing between the
two, as all his philosophy leads directly to the
new and much-wished-for social condition. In
his theory of evolution this worthy philosopher
arrives at super-organic organisms ; but on apply-
ing the law of evolution to humanity, an organism
of this kind, he does not arrive at fixing the precise
conclusion to which his own ideas ought to have
taken him.

In the admirable study which he makes of the
intelligence, considering it as a natural, logical, and
exact consequence of what he calls " the law of
correspondence or concordance," it is shown that
intelligence is a product of natural laws. This
chapter sets forth, in my opinion, the ruin of the
present conception of property, and shows what

i

4 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

ought to be the future ideal — that Nature is the
inheritance of humanity. It is through not having
logically evolved this deduction that Herbert
Spencer has not solved the great social problem.
And the notion of property as it has been in
vogue for centuries is so rooted in the brain of
men, it has formed so many grades of associations
and systems of associations in the cerebral nucleus,
that the powerful mind of the great thinker, weary
with the superhuman effort of his intellectual life,
could not break with the old bonds. This shows
the enormous work which is necessary for other
minds of minor capacity than that of the great
English philosopher to break loose from the routine.

When we think of this complex organism which
goes on developing in such a systematic and
laborious way to rise from protoplasm to man,
when we see the intelligence in this, and Spencer
shows us the correspondence which exists between
the formation of the human brain and this same
evolution, the mystery seems to vanish, and instead
of being a blind and capricious force, Nature
legitimately acquires its own conscience, and, in a
word, intelligence is Nature incarnate in man.

We see that human super- organism has to
follow the same laws which presided over the
process of all organisation in its perfecting, and

INTRODUCTORY 5

that the same law which made man from a uni-
cellular organism has to be followed by humanity
to arrive at unlimited or limitless perfection, which,
in the ultimate term, is the production of the
greatest concordance of the external with the in-
ternal of which Herbert Spencer speaks. Then
this era of peace and justice of which all men
dream nowadays will be realised.

It is easily understood, and it has been repeated
a thousand times, as it is the supreme aspiration of
sociology, that a change in the economic basis of
life, property, would immediately involve a complete
transformation of actual society, and all institutions
from that of the family to the State would be trans-
formed.

The true basis of the family of the future will be
love, which is the natural medium of selection in
the human species.

Woman has a great part to play in the perfection
of the race. She will work for progress more than
man, because she, with the instinct of maternity
and the feeling of responsibility, which are keener
and deeper than in man, will be the one to found
the race of the future.

All societies have liked to enslave woman,
ignoring her true significance ; and present society,
like that of the past, not only persists in its error,

6 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

but sacrifices, spoils, or corrupts women. By
changing the economic basis of property for the
effective intellectual one of love, the transformation
will be marvellous.

Nothing will remain of the State ; its institutions,
its administration of justice, its armies on sea and
land, etc., will all disappear completely, because
they are a natural consequence of a state of things
which requires the support and equipment of force.
The only authority which will remain will be that
of the master in the most complete sense of the
word, being the one who has the authority of
intelligence. " Superior " men will be those who
enjoy this privilege, because only the most perfect
brains can fulfil the function of being true explorers
in the road of truth. They will go forward in the
conquest and dominion of Nature to prepare and
facilitate the task for others.

Religions will continue for a long time, because
they will go on transforming, like the Christian
religion in North America.

On the day that religions have no more money as
a means for transactions with their gods, morality
will improve religions, and by degrees theogonies
will go on being integrated with the new morality
which will carry with it the society of the future,
viz. the cult of truth and beauty.

INTRODUCTORY 7

These ideas will conflict very much with the
present prevailing prejudices, and it is natural
that they should do so. How can it be admitted
that man should obey other motives than that
of money ? How will it be believed that a morality
will exist which will dignify man to the point of
being useful to his like solely for the satisfaction
of being so ?

The suggestive power which a morality, however
false it may be, exercises upon a man is proved by
the sentiment of honour and love for one's country
making nations arm themselves to the teeth for the
despoliation of each other, especially the weakest
ones.

It is of no import that the Christian religion says
in one of its finest precepts : " Love your neighbour
as yourself," because society is organised in such
an absurd way that men have to deaden their
consciences, and so it is not a rare thing to see
ministers of a religion of peace implore the support
of a God who is all love for the more effective
destruction of the neighbour for whom pardon is
asked every day.

All this could not be more absurd and ridiculous,
and yet it is seen as a common fact. The power of
the suggestion of morality is so forcible in man that
not only does it impel him to irrational things, but
it leads him to be in a constant state of apostasy in

8 SUPEH-OKGANIC EVOLUTION

one of the precepts of the same religion, and this
without any rebellion of his conscience.

And in fact this could not be otherwise, as it is
a logical consequence of a monstrous social organ-
isation. It requires such a strong lesson to show
that, if man is capable of sacrificing his life and his
conscience to contradictory or immoral principles,
what would not the conduct of the same man be
were he educated in a morality of pure reason and
positive science ?

Eoutine is to the intelligence what inertia is to
the brute body. The victims of this human calamity
are countless, and the more so as the majority of
noble men whose ideas illuminated the path of
truth have been rewarded with martyrdom.

However, from the time of Copernicus, who
combated the geocentric theory (showing that the
earth is not the centre of the universe), until
Darwin overthrew the anthropocentric theory,
routine lost much of its resistance. Copernicus
had to wait patiently till the Church let him publish
his work, and under the form of a philosophical
inquiry. What a humiliation ! At last, after-
thirty years, Copernicus saw his work printed, but
it was on his deathbed. However, he had the
good fortune to escape the pious theologians of
his day.

What that great man must have suffered in

INTRODUCTORY

having to conceal his ideas and not being able to
fight for them must have been horrible. A man
who discovered the marvellous movement of the
stars, and had to hide his emotion at the final
salvation of his work !

The ideas of Copernicus impelled Galileo to the
sacrifice of abjuration, and helped Bruno to the
honour of dying for them.

Darwin, whose work raised a storm of protests
and keen polemics, had the immense satisfaction
of having his triumph during his lifetime. Pasteur
had a sharp and hot struggle, but his victory was
as rapid as it was complete. The struggle against
routine is terrible, because it has an organic origin
which is difficult to destroy ; and for the better
understanding of the mode of annihilating it the
following words of the eminent Eamon y Cajal on
this subject should be read : —

" If the suggestions of teachers and parents are
dictated by prejudices and false ideas about science,
religion, conduct, etc., they establish exclusive and
abnormal connections between certain groups of
cells, cerebrales, in the brain of the child, and the
psychological result will probably be a routine of
thought, a contempt of science, excessive credulity,
a longing for the marvellous, and other' vices of
thought as grave as they are difficult to uproot.

"An education based on positive ideas, whole-

10 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

some and generous feelings, an impartial conception
of science will lead men to the perfection of physio-
logical associations of the cerebral neuronas, and
the result, when arriving at the adult age, will be
a man of wholesome judgment, free from prejudices,
and especially prone to the study of arts and
sciences.

" Given the defects of our education, there are
few brains whose cellular architecture has not
been somewhat deformed, or whose natural associa-
tions have not manifested signs of mental aber-
ration. Even in superior minds the spirit of
sect, the absence of impartiality, and an excessive
appreciation of their own merits are very common.
But the consequences of a defective and exclusive
education are most apparent in political, religious,
and literary sects. Every political, philosophical,
and artistic school produces in its adepts a style of
association of ideas, judgments, and reasonings so
exclusive and limited that it is impossible not to
attribute it to the special and systematic connec-
tion between various groups of nervous corpuscles.

"These modes of intercortical association re-
peatedly adopt contrary forms which determine
manifestations as opposed to each other, as material-
ism and spiritualism, realism and romanticism,
socialism and individualism, etc. When such
associations, systematised and formed during youth,

INTRODUCTORY 11

arrive at the robust stage expressed in political,
religious, and philosophical convictions, be they
true or false, they cause a real cerebral state, and
to attempt to change them is like trying to alter
the anatomy of the encephalus or to change a
personality. It is certain that the brain of a
positivist does not function like the brain of a
spiritualist, and the physiological differences which
distinguish the two forcibly imply structural
difference, which could only be overcome at the
cost of much time and hard contra-suggestive
labour. For the protoplasmic and nervous expan-
sions are as slow in forming and establishing
new associations as they are reluctant to withdraw
or change them."

This fine paragraph seems to exhaust all that
can be said on routine.

I am impelled to the publication of these remarks
by the constant spectacle of human pain and sad-
ness ; the perennial tragedy of life, the dramas of
misery whose cries of woe echo through the press
of all nations; the chronic and dreadful but im-
placable misery to which millions of victims succumb
in silent neglect ; the infinity of children who die
for the want of every kind of care, and who, having
come into the world, have to submit to the pauperism
which prematurely cuts short their lives ; and the

12 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

penury of poor old people exposed to the greatest
of all misfortunes, that of being unable to gain
their living.

The war between Russia and Japan, in which
thousands of men were killed, made me sad at
heart, for penalties and sacrifices were imposed on
an infinity of families, and innocent beings were
orphaned, and all without anything definite coming
of it.

Hunger and misery, more terrible than wars,
continue their devastating course. All these
pictures of life are not only painful but barbarous,
albeit they take place in countries which consider
themselves civilised. Hence my surprise at seeing
how the just aspirations of socialists and anarchists,
who wished their arguments to figure in an
assembly united under the auspices of science,
were received at the Congress of Freethought
at Rome.

Why these protests ? I do not understand ; I
cannot conceive that among modern scientific men
there can be one capable of considering the great
social problem as foreign to Nature. Neither can
we believe that men convoked in the name of
positive science and who have studied the heavens
can refuse to recognise the legitimate right of
sociology to redeem man.

INTRODUCTORY 13

Just as terrestrial magnetism attracts the com-
pass from north to south, so the human conscience
also has its magnetism which attracts it to
happiness.

At present the legitimate desire of man for
happiness has reached the stage of indifference,
when it must be cultured and directed in order
to facilitate the evolution of that force which
is as irresistible as the force of magnetism
itself.

The danger of the situation consists in the
problem not having been stated ; and yet the desire
to improve things is so intense, misery has so
stimulated the will of some men, that the paroxysm
of their anxiety gives rise to social phenomena of
terror and violence. Kesponsibilities ! It is still
very early to speak of them, but the responsibility
falls particularly on many men of science who have
not understood the theory of evolution, giving it,
for example, such a false and iniquitous interpreta-
tion as the struggle for existence — a dreadful dis-
tortion of the natural course of ideas. The false
interpretation of this law is the more to be lamented,
as it seems to justify and support all those abuses
with the prestige of a scientific argument, whilst
the right interpretation of this same law would
dissipate the shadows which envelop the social
problem. This meanness of spirit is inexcusable

14 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

in those who dedicate themselves to the investiga-
tion of truth.

I am also impelled to hasten this publication by
the desire of presenting the vision of this ideal
world to the minds of those whose exaltation leads
them to extremes.

I prosecute this attempt, to show that this world,
hitherto sunk in sleep, can be stirred by other
shocks than those of violence. I want to call the
attention of the investigators of the solution of the
knotty social problem, that they may note how
Nature herself offers a sure and expeditious road
by which the highest ideals have ready access, are
legitimatised and developed.

The social question has one solution. Who can
doubt it ? I know that this will seem Utopian to
most people, but I turn to men devoid of prejudice,
who are concerned for human misery and the fate
of those who hunger and thirst for justice, I address
those who wish to bring consolation and hope to
the pariahs of life, and I tell them that, if not they,
their children, will dwell in this anxiously looked
for land of promise. To those who are seriously
occupied with this question 1 may be allowed to
say that the solution of the social problem is contained
in the law of evolution.

I also hasten to publish these notes because in

INTRODUCTORY 15

the struggle between capital and labour the triumph
of the former will accomplish no satisfactory result.
The responsibility is not that of capital or
capitalists ; the evil lies in the social organisation.
Society lives in profound error as to property.
It has chosen the paltry medium of money instead
of the grand inheritance of Nature, which belongs

to it by right, confirmed by the theory of evolution.

$

The reasons before set forth will excuse the
abruptness of these simple remarks, as I have not
the necessary time to arrange a methodical book,
rich in doctrine and facts. Being doubtful of
finding another occasion, I resign myself to
publishing them. One thing, however, consoles
me, and that is, that, if I am not mistaken, the
law of correspondence which rules the intelligence
will lead thousands of brains to see the same
connection which I have noted between the theory
of evolution and sociology, and this series of
correlations would be my final and strongest
confirmation.

These notes are a programme of the association
of my ideas on sociology as derived from the theory
of evolution, and I hope to prove : —

That humanity should follow the same law of
evolution as that which is seen to extend from the

16 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

sidereal world to man. The theory of Kant and
Laplace gives an idea of a cosmogony starting from
a primitive nebula. Lyell justified the doctrine of
the periodic evolution of the world, thus destroying
the theory of the cataclysms of Cuvier ; Lamarck
and Darwin proved the evolution of the vegetable
and animal world ; and Herbert Spencer, by a
summary of all these evolutions, founded the great
system of positive philosophy, only that on arriving
at social evolution, instead of applying the same
principles, he turned aside from the evolutive
system, and did not see an aberration of evolution
in humanity due to capitalism.

I will divide this programme into two parts. In
the first I propose to show how the social organ-
ism is in complete disaccord with the theory of
evolution. In the second I will prove how it is
possible that a society organised according to
the laws of the said theory becomes susceptible of
a rapid and indefinite development.

Humanity will be able to advance its most
natural and noble aspiration, which ought not to
be relegated to one of many insoluble problems
like the squaring of a circle, albeit the immense
majority of men think differently. Ossip Lourie
says : " To live is to aspire to happiness. The
desire of happiness exists in man like the principle
of life."

OFTHE

UNIVERSITY

OF

\lNTRODUCTORY 1 7

Sociology requires the law of evolution in order
that it may take its place in the great monist
philosophy, being hitherto a dislocated member
for want of legitimate solutions. The day when
sociology arrives at perfection, in realising its
aspirations in the domain of positive science, will
complete the synthesis to which the human under-
standing aspires, and the great monist conception
will have realised its unity.

The masters to whom I am most indebted are
the great English philosopher Herbert Spencer, and
the illustrious Spanish neurologist Don Santiago
Ramon y Cajal.

CHAPTEE II

GENERAL ADAPTATION

WHEN monistic philosophy studies separately
astronomical, geological, biological, and socio-
logical evolution, it is done to facilitate the work,
and not because the evolutions are in any way
different from each other. All these divisions are
integrated in the main evolution of the cosmos —
there is only one evolution, as there is only one
energy.

The blood which circulates through our veins,
and the energy which thought represents, form one
unity with the cosmic forces.

Crude matter, as well as live matter, are both
the product and adaptation to the medium. There
is no solution of continuity between the pheno-
mena of organic and inorganic substance — all is one.
That which changes is the form ; but the virtue,
the essence, of the thing is the same ; they are dis-
tinct phenomena of a single energy.

The same unity which exists between force and

18

GENERAL ADAPTATION 19

matter also exists between organ and function.
The priority of the former or the latter is often
discussed, but when the question is propounded
in that form it is not satisfactorily answered ;
the confusion arises through only denning its
mental representations, instead of denning the
thing itself.

Organ and function are two entities which exist
separately as mere abstractions of the intelligence,
but in Nature they are one. We say this to enable
our readers more fully to realise the extent of the
theory of adaptation. Instead of organ and func-
tion we ought to speak of organisation, and then
the two concepts are represented as a unity, for
it is much easier to follow their modifications when
they are considered as one thing, obedient to one
and the same impulse, than as a duality which does
not really exist, and only complicates the interpre-
tation. Let us lay aside all these arbitrary divisions,
which .were established when the solidarity of
phenomena was not known, and the classifications
could not be other than purely abstract. Thus the
terms force and matter are still used, even by those
who, like Louis Biichner, proclaim the unity of these
two terms ; and people also speak of physics and
chemistry, and biology and sociology ; and all these
divisions increase the confusion and retard the
spread of the monistic theory.

20 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

All this is due to the old form of metaphysic,
which accepted as real phenomena what are only
mental representations. In these cases, says
Bosnier, physiology and psychology do not keep
step, and the result is that philosophy falsifies
itself. Giving due weight to all that is real and
positive in Nature, we see that from the inorganic
to the most transcendental there is only a change
in the rhythm of the science of energy ; that one
form of energy always transforms itself into an-
other form of energy ; that the organisation with its
forms and structures is a unity rooted in the bowels
of the universe, and ending, as we now know,
in the intelligence of man. Light, colours, sounds
are distinct modes of vibration, parts of this
rhythm, this universal harmony which rises from
the inorganic world to a state of consciousness in
our brains. The energy which regulates adapta-
tion in live beings, like all the factors of evolution,
does not originate in the same organic substance,
for this energy is derived from the great principles
of general mechanics. The initial impulse which
obliges biological evolution to transform itself into
beings which progress from the simple to the com-
plex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous,
is not an essential force peculiar to organic sub-
stance, for this force would not exist if the earth
did not form an integral part of the cosmos.

GENERAL ADAPTATION 21

If it were possible to isolate the earth from the
rest of the universe, life would be immediately
extinguished on our planet, just as an electric light
goes out with an interruption of the current, and
the earth, having lost its equilibrium and declined
from its orbit, would disappear in space. It is not
possible to conceive of a change of energy without
a concomitant change of matter. The organisation
goes on because it is an essential condition of the
force — the continuity and the persistence of the
rhythm to which it is subject. When the sun and
the other planets were in a state of primitive nebula
no organisation was possible, by reason of the great
diffusion of matter.

The transformation of a part of the nebulas into
sun argues a great integration of matter and a
great concentration of energy. In the same way,
when the substance which has to form the brain
is floating in space it has the minimum of strength ;
but from the moment that this substance in-
tegrates and organises itself — to form the brain of
an Aristotle, for example — it acquires an extra-
ordinary energy. The virtue of the force is in
proportion to the quantity, quality, and structure
of the integrated matter.

22 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Organic Adaptation

The initial movement of the organic adaptation
has its origin in the same cosmic energy ; it is a
chapter of the total evolution of the universe.
The correspondence with the external medium, or
the adaptation of organised beings, is the most
constant phenomenon of life. When plants and
animals change their climate they change their
adaptation. If the adaptation takes place, the
animal or the plant goes on living ; if not, it dies.
The entity that is not capable of adapting itself,
the organisation which is not mobile enough for
this constant work of adjustment, disappears.
Animals and plants that live on land or water
represent a perfect correspondence with the medium
in which they have been evolved. The lungs and
the heart of man are adapted to atmospherical
pressure, and there are persons who are much
upset by a slight change in this same pressure ;
the ascent of high mountains is not supportable by
everybody, and going up in a balloon any consider-
able height may not only produce vertigo but
haemorrhage, for want of equilibrium between the
internal and the external pressure, which causes an
accidental failure of adaptation.

Eyes are an adaptation to light ; animals which

GENERAL ADAPTATION 23

live in darkness have no sight ; and those which
have it may lose it, as happens with a certain
class of crawfish, whose organ of vision gets
atrophied to the point of losing it through living
outside the influence of light.

The sense of sight is extremely curious and
instructive with regard to adaptation, and it is very
important for our object, if one bears in mind that
it is the sense with the most dynamic force, and
therefore it plays a great part in the cerebral
structure and the intelligence.

With regard to the genesis of this sense, Eamon
y Cajal well observes that he is not satisfied with
Herbert Spencer's explanation of the formation of
the eye and its nerves by adaptation and selection
alone. And, in fact, as the first of these authors
says, how is the point of departure of this evolution
to be explained ?

Thus, for example, we do not understand why
the coloured spots or rudimentary eyes of worms
(Turbellaria, Trematodes, etc.) are round, in couples,
and are exactly on that part of the skin which
covers the supra-oesophagic ganglia, and not upon
other corresponding nerve-centres ; or why, in the
course of time, there appeared in front of the
coloured spot and the underlying nerve nothing less
than an epidermic lenticular thickening, whose
radius, index of refraction, etc., seem calculated to

24 SUPEK-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

project a distinct image in the expansion of the
optic nerve.1

The necessity of an explanation emboldens me
to state something which seems to throw light on
this interesting problem. I believe that the situa-
tion of the supra-oesophagic ganglion and its
proximity to the coloured spots have the same
origin, and that they respectively owe their situation
to a phenomenon of phototaxia. The animal
adapts itself according to the light, and the point
by which it most adapts itself is that which acquires
the most activity, the more so when the luminous
phenomena are always accompanied by chemical
caloric action, etc. Thus, the coloured spots and
the aforesaid ganglia retain a relation with each
other, because both are the product of the great
dynamic force in the point where adaptation has
commenced. We have still to explain why the
spots are regular and in couples, but this question
is one with the symmetry of bodies, and probably
the explanation of the one thing will come with that
of the other.

With regard to the lenticular epidermic thicken-
ing, which is the point of departure of the evolution
of the crystal, Cajal implicitly replies by saying
that this lenticular thickening has a radius and an

1 Kamon y Cajal, The Texture of Man's Nervous System and the
Vertebrates, p. 8.

GENERAL ADAPTATION 25

index of refraction which seem calculated to project
a distinct image on the expansion of the optic
nerve.

Light, and light alone, is capable of doing this.
It is that which not only causes the coloured spots,
the first sign of the organ of vision, but, as adapta-
tion, it causes the image to be clearer each time, and
it is this which makes the expansion of the optic
nerve and the coloured spots act simultaneously
in the completion of the work of adjustment or
correspondence. As these spots go on increasing
through the action of the light, so their thickness
is increased ; and having then to withdraw from the
optic expansion, the light, to continue its relation
with it, has to refract in passing through the
lenticular thickness. This refraction has to be
according to the laws of optics, and therefore the
lenticular thickness possesses a radius and an
index of refraction which is that of the lens, and it
always corresponds with the optic nerve, without
which requisite, vision would be impossible.

The organ of sight, like every organisation, obeys
the general laws of mechanics. Attention must be
drawn to the fact that in this sense its architecture
is ruled by the laws of optics, and it is not that
the crystal accommodates itself to these mechanical
conditions of light, but, on the contrary, these
mechanical conditions mould the organic substance,

26 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

the crystal whose differentiation makes it sensible to
light. As the mechanical conditions of Nature are
invariable, the great unity represented by all
comparative anatomy and embryology follows ;
therefore, ontogeny reproduces phylogeny, and all
this organic unity which constitutes the organisa-
tion is the echo, the reflection, the material
reproduction of the great rhythms of natural forces.
Without this invariable unity which is Nature, there
would be no explanation of the phenomenon of
evolution, there would be no possibility of tracing
the sense of sight from that of the most inferior
animals up to that of man. And the human brain
would have no explanation either, if there did not
exist the same elaboration, affiliation, and evolution
of the nervous system of all animals, and if the
psychical neurona or thinking apparatus of man had
not its first representation in the mio-epithelial
nervous system of the lower animals.

Nobody would now venture to deny (because it
is a common conception in positive philosophy) that
all the senses are specific numerical registers of
movements which constitute the sensations, and
that the development of these senses, the accumula-
tion of all these sensations, is that which gives rise
to the development of the brain in such a way that
one feels that without the senses there would be no
brain. Then, if the senses obey the laws of Nature

GENERAL ADAPTATION 27

in their architecture and functions, the brain and
its function reflect the same Nature, and an intelli-
gent man is one whose brain reproduces with the
greatest accuracy the series of external phenomena.
Intelligence is the sublimation of natural laws.
Thus we say that Nature is the inheritance of
humanity, and therefore miseries and egoisms are
absurd, through an error in the social organisation
when it severs itself from natural laws.

Frogs and tadpoles are a surprising case of the
rapidity of adaptation. These animals, when they
are young, live in the water and breathe through
their gills ; then, as adults, they live on terra
firma — their gills get atrophied and they acquire
pulmonary respiration. The metamorphosis of the
frog, by the disappearance of its tail and the
evolution of legs, is very curious and instructive,
as this species of embryology, which takes place
under the eyes of the observer, shows also its
phylogeny ; for its primitive form of a fish, as well
as its respiration by the gills, are proofs of the
transition of fishes into batrachi. It is a pheno-
menon in which man sees evolution in the very act,
when the aquatic vertebrata are changed into
terrestrial vertebrata.

Some years ago the axolotl of Mexico (Siredon
pisciformis), very like the triton, excited great

28 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

curiosity among naturalists. This animal had been
known for some time, and in late years they were
produced in the Jardin des Plantes of Paris. Like
the triton, this animal has also external gills, but it
retains them during its life like other gill-breathers.
The axolotl generally lives and propagates in the
water, but suddenly a hundred of these animals in
the Jardin des Plantes came forth from the water
and lost their gills, so that they were indistinguish-
able from the tadpole without gills of North
America (Amblyostomd), and thenceforward they
breathed by their lungs. In such interesting cases
one can see the sudden transformation made by an
animal of aquatic respiration on its conversion into
an animal of aerial respiration. This rapid transition
is also seen in the larvae of frogs and salamanders ;
they pass from the condition of an animal Avith gill
respiration to that of an amphibious creature with
pulmonary respiration. In the same way, the group
of frogs and salamanders is seen to be akin to the
Siredon in its origin as an animal of gill respiration.
Up till now they have remained in this low stage
of development. One sees how ontogeny can
explain phylogeny, and how the history of individual
evolution explains that of the whole group.1

While treating of the correlative adaptations,
that is to say, the adaptation of an organ necessarily

1 E. Haeckel, Histoire de la Creation naturelk, p. 214.

GENERAL ADAPTATION 29

connected with adaptations of other organs and the
whole individual, it will be interesting to read what
Virchow says, in a pamphlet entitled The Cell and
Woman, which I find quoted by Haeckel : — *

" Woman is only woman through her glands of
generation. All the characteristics of her body,
her soul, her life of nutrition, her nervous activity,
her delicacy, the roundness of her form, the narrow-
ness of her pelvis, the development of her thorax
cavity accompanied by a paralysis in the develop-
ment of the organ of the voice, her luxuriant hair,
contrasting with the finest down which covers the
rest of her body, and finally the intensity of her
feelings, her rapid and accurate perception, her
sweetness, abnegation, and fidelity, and all the
essentially feminine characteristics which we admire
and venerate in woman, all depend on the ovary.
Do away with the ovary, and the virago will appear
in all her horrible imperfection."

This same correlation between the functions of
nutrition and generation is seen in plants. When
a certain quantity of leaves or branches are taken
from them the flowers are more plentiful ; or, on
the contrary, when branches meant to flower are
cut, the green organs of the plant are more
developed.

This is a sort of preparation for the better under-

1 Histoirn de la Creation naturelle, p. 217.

30 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

standing of the chapter on psychical adaptation, and
it must be borne in mind that, though separate
chapters are adopted for clearness, the matters are
not in reality so. It is the same with organ and
function, which are so closely connected that they
cannot be conceived of separately, and they are
united from being identical, even as force is con-
sidered as a function of matter.

CHAPTER III

GENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

TYNDALL says : " I have here a bell-formed glass
bowl placed mouth upwards and supported on its
base. I pass a violin bow across the edge, and I
hear a sound. If I pour sand into the bowl, it
takes the form of a regular figure ; and if I fill
the bowl with water, its surface is ruffled by
beautiful undulations. These waves show that the
bowl, on emitting a sound, divides into four
vibrating portions, separated from one another by
non-vibrating lines." It is well known by analysis
that the different colours which appear in white light
are due to differences in the number of vibrations ;
that is to say, the colours are distinguished from
each other for the same reason as one sound is dis-
tinguished from another in an instrument of music.
It is now known that sound, heat, light,
electricity, and radio-activity are different from
each other because they are diverse modes of
vibrations or movements.

31

32 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

A change of colour in the light suffices for the
modification of all under its influence according to
its genus of movement ; red and blue have entirely
different caloric or chemical effects. The experi-
ments of putting plants during their development
under the influence of different colours are well
known, the same species showing completely
different results under the different conditions.

Matter obeys force everywhere ; every form obeys
some special mode of movement or systems of
movement — so much so that one can say: "The
form is the result of a system of forces."

The cell, the biological unity which can be
considered as the point of departure of the organic
world, is subject to the infinite variety of the
rhythmic movements, for which it has a marvellous
affinity, and these rhythms of an infinite poten-
tiality go on permeating the organic substance and
evolving harmonies more and more complex, until
it arrives at the representation of man in the actual
moment of evolution.

Man is a product of natural forces, and so much
does he depend on them that life without them
would be impossible.

Man is the result of the woof formed by the
different rhythms of Nature, as the figures in a
tapestry are the outcome of the blending of threads

GENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 33

of different colours. Thus, as the figure of a
tapestry depends on each and all of the threads
which form it, so man in Nature depends on each
and all of the natural rhythms. If we drew the
threads out of the picture, the man would disappear,
just as in Nature, if the rhythms which compose
man were stopped, the human personality would
dissolve.

When all the rhythms which give life to a man
are used up in energy, death comes, just as the
figure disappears from the tapestry if we draw out
all the threads from the woof.

Between Nature and man there is a relation of
cause and effect ; it is a system of progressions,
as in music between the initial sound and the
melody ; systems of force in which neither the
man nor the melody has arrived at the limit
of progress, they each having an endless time
for their future.

In the bosom of a mother-solution crystals of
typical forms have birth. Every solution has its
appropriate forms, because its chemical composition
always represents the same system of forces. If
an angle or corner is broken off a crystal, the
broken crystal will reform itself identically if it be

placed in the mother-solution.

3

34 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

If we add this fact, like a thousand others which
can be quoted, to the regular figures which the
sand forms in the crystal bowl on its vibration
with a violin bow, the relation to forces is readily
understood. If the forces were not rhythmical
and constant the figures would not be regular,
nor would they have the consistency of form.
From the lowest organic bodies to man himself,
everything evolves and lives in the bosom of
Nature, like crystals in the bosom of a mother-
solution.

Comparative anatomy, comparative physiology,
and embryology, with their phylogenic and ontogenic
branches, would be incomprehensible without this
harmony and constancy of rhythms.

In a word, the theory of evolution would not
exist, whereas, thanks to these harmonies, all
beings are reproduced with typical forms.

Man and societies can degenerate by falsifying
their natural conditions, but, like broken crystals,
they also reconstruct themselves in virtue of the
constancy and persistency of these harmonic
rhythms in the bosom of Nature.

The cell, the primordial organism, has its form
adjusted to a rhythm, and every rhythm has its
peculiar form, just as every mother-solution has its
crystal form. The cell is in the organic world what
the crystal is in the inorganic, and the phenomena

GENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 35

of karyokinesis in the cells are similar to the
phenomena of crystallisation in the mineral world.
The mechanical phenomena of karyokinesis remind
one of the polarisation which light suffers in
crystals of double refraction, and the curious
molecular dispositions of the included crystals or
microliths.1

In the same way as the cellular organism is
evolved by successive unfoldings, the morula,
blastoid, gastrula, and all the animal world up to
man takes form, and I need not treat of them here,
as they are facts studied and known, and, albeit
not complete, their common descent is indisputable.
Neither is it for this book to show how the skin,
senses, and the whole cerebro-spinal axis are
formed from the ectoderm.

We will, however, treat briefly of the neurona,
which is a newer fact and less known, and above
all because it aids directly in the comprehension of
these points.

We can easily understand that if the forms
of bodies obey the mechanism of natural forces,
the neurona, like all cells and bodies, obeys in
its form the same mechanics ; and thus, as every
vibration and every colour has on its substantia-

1 See Light, by Tyndall, p. 89 ; and Cours de Mineralogie, Lapparent,
p. 333.

36 SUPEK-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

tion a distinct form, the neurona, which is a
distinct cell, will obey a distinct rhythm, and
as rhythms in the course of time and space
go on developing and combining and becoming
more complex, it is natural, also, to think that
the nervous cell, which in its chronological
order is later in appearance, is also the most
complex, as is testified by its composition and
import. It can be affirmed that the neuronas
are the result of the most complex rhythms which
give life to the animal world, but, like every-
thing else, they are in harmony with the universal
mechanics.

The cellular organism, on becoming polycellular
and multiplying its elements, allows a better rela-
tion or concordance with the external. Hence
a better adaptation to the rhythms and the
differentiation follows in increasing progression.
When the polycellular organism becomes gastrula
a marked differentiation is seen between the ex-
ternal covering or ectoderm, and the internal or
entoderm ; the first, in intimate relation with the
external, receives more varied rhythms than the
internal part — hence follow completely different
functions.

In the external covering the life of relation takes
place, and there is the germ which becomes the
skin, senses, nerves, and intelligence of man.

GENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

37

The life of nutrition germinates from the interior
covering, and this in man becomes lungs, digestive
apparatus, nerves, intelligence, etc.

The epithelial cells which constitute the external

FIG. 1.

Ciliated gastrula of Olynthus (chalk-sponge), o, round aperture ;
g, digestive cavity lined by the entoderm (e).

covering of the gastrula are the registers of all the
rhythms, and in the bosom of the infinity of energy
the epithelial cells are a docile instrument which
inscribes in the easy and simple pentagram of its
organisations the primary harmonies of organic
evolution.

38 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

In the gastrula the cells store these vibrations,
whose weak potentiality is diffused through the
whole animal and is fortified by the radiation and
the contiguity of some cells with others. The
constancy and persistency of the rhythm lead to
their narrow limits being overstepped ; the currents
forming the radiations of the movement which is
necessarily spread from every cell cause these to
lengthen their substance for the better transmission
and distribution of the rhythm or incitation to a
distance, and thus the nervous filaments (the
prolongations of the real cellular substance) are
formed by rhythmic impulses of energy. Thus we
see that the origin of the nerve-filament is due to
the constancy and persistence of the inciting cause.
The form adapting itself to the movement is the
result of a system of rhythms, and the neurona,
by its tardy appearance in the organic evolution,
obeys, as we have seen, more complex rhythms.
Its form obeys the resultant of certain determinate
movements, and thus, as we saw how sand in a
glass bowl forms regular figures through the
rhythm of the vibration communicated to the
crystal, so the neurona also owes its form to the
result of the rhythms which it alone can perceive
and interpret.

Nobody can doubt that the lowest animals, like
sponges, polypi, etc., are an effect of the natural

GENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 39

mechanics. Therefore E. Haeckel's theory of the
gastrula, confirmed by comparative embryology,
phylogeny, and ontogeny, shows that the gastrula
stage exists in all animals in the embryonic period,
even if it be momentary ; and thus the animal
descent from the sponge to man is demonstrated
by the great biogenetic law of Haeckel. Thus it
can be deduced that if man has an ancestral claim
to such primary metazoa as sponges, both they
and man are the outcome of the universal
mechanics. Thus, just as in the first period of
animal life in the world the gastrula represented
the future of man, so in the epithelial cell of the
ectoderm of the said gastrula there was represented
in germ that which in time to come was to be the
human intelligence.

But man has a still more elementary origin : the
gastrula is a double line of cells ; it is an enormous
advance if we compare it with the morula, which is
a conglomeration of cells arranged in a spherical
shape ; here one finds no difference between the
internal and the external covering.

The morula is an anterior stage to the blastula,
as it has a more backward place in the cell. This
primitive form is still preserved by the human
species, for the human being rises from the union
of the zoosperm and the ovule. Thus man meets
his ancestors on the very borderland of the in-

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

40 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

organic world, that is to say, in the kingdom of the
protists.

These facts give man a right to be the usu-
fructuary of Nature, as man is one of its functions,
and he alone can continue his evolution under the
same natural laws which lead to happiness.

CHAPTER IV

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF THE NEURONA

THE embryonic history of the neurona, from the
time it appears in inferior animals until it is seen
in man, is what constitutes its phylogeny. In
approaching such a subject in a book of this kind
it is enough to present it in outline, to give a
sufficient idea of how the intricate human brain
proceeds by successive complexities from a simple
element, that is to say, how the concordance of the
external with the internal is verified throughout
the animal kingdom.

On this point Herbert Spencer says : "Physical
or psychical life is a combination of movements,
which correspond to another series of movements
or external facts. By the law of succession they
necessarily coexist internally, they are in in-
dispensable correspondence." In other words, the
human brain is a progressive complex association, a
plastic reproduction of the movements of universal
mechanics.

41

42

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

To understand the genesis of the neuronas, one
must go back to inferior animals like the gastrula
(vide fig. 1). The cells which constitute its
external covering, called ectoderm, are the first
organs of the nervous system. From its direct

FIG. 2.

A, mio-epithelial cells of the actiniaries (coelenterade) ; a, peripheric end with
a cilium ; &, middle part, which contains the nucleus ; c, the deep part of
the cell differentiated by a contractible fibre. B, muscular ectodermic
fibres. (According to 0. and R. Hertwig. )

relation with the exterior they are the first registers
of these special rhythms, which are those which
give to the nervous element its significance. In
virtue of these affinities with the external agents
cells are created, like the red corpuscule of the

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 43

blood for its affinity with oxygen, and nerve-cells,
like the acoustic and optic, which have specific
affinities with sound and light. The epithelial cells
which we have seen forming the external covering
of the gastrula are more differentiated in the
actiniaries (fig. 2). The incitations, or rhythms, of
which we have spoken, and which were received
and stored in the external cells of the gastrula, are
those which give rise to the cells called mio-
epithelial, because, as they register sensations
through their external extremity, they are the
origin of sensation, and oblige the opposite ex-
tremity of the cell to transform this sensation into
action, making it contractible. Therefore sensibility
and mobility seem united in one and the same
element, and hence the name of mio-epithelial cell.

Referring to the ectoderm of the gastrula in
fig. 3, A represents a portion of the epithelium of
an actinia, where one sees how one of the ecto-
dermic cells (ri) is differentiated from its fellows,
and the nerve-branches which start from the body
of the cell are also seen (n).

The other cells, less prone to register the specific
incitations of the external agents, retain their
epithelial form and serve as a support and protec-
tion. This cell is called neuro-epithelial.

Fig. SB represents one of these cells, which have
advanced to a higher grade of differentiation.

44

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

B

FIG. SA.

B, trunk of the epithelium of the actinia ; n, the neuro-epithelial cell some-
what separated from its natural position ; e, cells of support with
vibratory cilia.

FIG. SB.

The isolated neuro-epithelial cells of an actinia (ccelenterade). a, peripheric
end of the cell with its non-vibrative cilium ; &, thick part of the
cellular body which contains the nucleus ; c, base of the cell with its
slender prolongations, which serve to open up communication with
nervous subsidiary cells.

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 45

To understand the differentiation and nervous
progress one must bear in mind how the nerves go
on detaching themselves from the surface of the
animal body. The superficial situation which they
had in the gastrula goes on deepening according as
they advance in the animal kingdom. Nevertheless,
the nerve retains the same relation with the
exterior, because the body of the nerve, as it with-
draws, leaves behind it a peripheral prolongation
which forms future sensitive nerves, whose office is
to carry to the nervous centres the impressions
received externally.

If we study fig. 4, taken from Eamon y Cajal,
and start always from the ectodermic cell of the
gastrula, we shall understand the evolution of that
same cell, seeing that it is deeper according as it
belongs to a lumbar, a mollusc, or a vertebrate.

Recollecting what was said about the genesis of
the eye, it will be seen how the optic neurona goes
on separating itself from the coloured spots, so that
on crossing the light the focus of the epidermic
discs may correspond with the place of the optic
neurona.

From this rudimentary state of the eye in worms
to the sense of sight in man, the optic neurona has
gone on retiring step by step, but leaving new
optic neuronas in every one of these stages, and

46

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

these increase their force according as they establish
fresh connections.

;

FIG. 4.

Progressive concentration of the sensitive cells in the animal series. A,
sensitive nerves of the lumbar ; B, sensitive cells of a mollusc ; C,
sensitive cells of a vertebrate.

In fig. 5, taken from Ramon y Cajal,1 the neuronas
have risen to a more elevated grade of organisation,
and we can easily understand the successive com-

1 Texture of the Nervous System of Man and of the Vertebrates,

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 47

FIG. 5.

Sketch of the sensitive nervous system and motor of a worm. A, sensitive
cells of the skin ; B, direct motor cells ; C, crossed motor cells ; D, cells
of interganglionic association ; E, multipolar motor cells ; G, ramifica-
tions terminating in muscles of the motor neuronas.

48 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

plications through which the nervous system passes.
In this illustration the sensitive neurona appears
completely differentiated from the motor. On the
surface of the animal represented by this picture
we see the sensitive neuronas, A, in direct contact
with the exterior, and the motor neuronas situated
in the middle of the animal.

The sensitive neuronas, which are on the surface,
show by their position that they originate from the
gastrula. The sensitive neurona emits a little
nerve-branch which establishes simultaneously a
communication with various parts of the body, as
we see in the diagram.

The connection and extension of these move-
ments is also aided by the relation which the motor
neuronas, B, have among themselves. The solidarity
continually established between sensation and
movement is evident, and reminds one of the single
neurona when it is sensitive at one end and motor
at the other.

But the problem is made more complex by the
crossed position of the motor neuronas (fig. 5), by
which the solidarity exists between both sides of
the animal. Thus, the number and connection of
the neuronas increase in parallel form with the size
and organisation of the animal. The moment
comes when the continuous emigration of the
neuronas, first the motor ones and then the sensitive,

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 49

ends by their uniting themselves in the centre of
the animal, which is what Herbert Spencer calls
transversal integration. Hence the cerebro-spinal
system originates here, and arrives in man at the
importance it now holds.

The mechanical or functional unity is not lost,
in spite of the progressive division and differen-
tiation of the form ; and this, as we have seen,
is the result of universal mechanics, and in this
case the structure, like the sand in Tyndall's
experiment, keeps its regular forms by reason
of the rhythms which made the crystal bowl
vibrate.

Therefore we say that there is no disputing the
priority of the organ over the function, nor the
former over the latter ; the one being a static
manifestation, the other dynamic, of the same
cause, viz. universal mechanics.

The form of bodies is the resultant of natural
rhythms. The organ is the point of support
which Nature takes to give expression to its
rhythms.

When the heart quickens its beat at some emotion
it moves the circulatory springs to quicken the
circulation of the blood and increase the activity
of the cerebral neuronas in which the emotion or
enthusiasm has rise. The rhythms of natural forces

go on generating the harmonies of intelligence in

4

50 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

the cerebral instrument, in the same way as an
artist draws from his instrument the notes of the
melodious creation of his genius. Nature and
the artist make the marvellous rhythms of the
universal harmony vibrate in the brain or the
instrument.

The relation of the intelligence with Nature is so
intimate and close that we say that the one is the
property of the other, seeing that the intelligence
is a function of Nature, and there exists the same
unity between them as between organ and function.
Strictly speaking, property does not exist, given
that man and Nature are the same thing. Now
that science has shown the perfect harmony and
dependence of all forces, man, the result of those
same energies, cannot live outside the natural laws
as he does in the actual social organisation, but he
has to follow the function of Nature within evolu-
tion, and he thus follows the development to w^hich
it points.

Let us stop a moment here to recapitulate and
deduce, from all that has been said and set forth in
the study of the illustrations, what is the mechanism
by means of which the configuration of the neurona
develops itself and facilitates its evolution up to
the human brain itself.

As we gather from the monistic theory, embry-

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 51

ology, comparative anatomy, and comparative
physiology, and particularly from the works of
Santiago Ramon y Cajal, Kolliker, Van Geuchten,
etc., the nervous tissue of the neurona always pro-
ceeds from an ectodermic cell.

Let us start from the ectodermic cell of the
gastrula. We have seen this cell, being in con-
tact with the exterior, prolong its substance by
forming a little nerve-branch with the object of
connecting the interior of the animal with the
exterior. We will call this the central prolonga-
tion. We have seen that, according as the
animal organisation advances, the ectodermic cell
withdraws from the surface, leaving a nerve-
filament behind it, which maintains its contact
with the exterior. This we will call the peripheric
prolongation.

This state of development of the cell constitutes
a typical form called the bipolar. All the nervous
progress from this form up to the psychic neurona
of man is formed from derivations from it. The
elements which have appeared in different epochs
of evolution present themselves in a chrono-
logical order, which is the same in its phylogeny
and ontogeny, and they are known as : (1)
form, somma; (2) central prolongation, cylindric
axis-, (3) peripheric prolongation or protoplasmic
sprout.

52

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

As our object is to make known these funda-
mental facts in the simplest form, we try to simplify
the ideas and denominations, with the idea of
everyone seeing their supreme importance without
their signification being lost. The bipolar form is

FIG. 6.

Cells of the olfactory mucous membrane of a rat eight days old. e, epithelial cell
or support ; n, bipolar cell (neuro-epithelial) with a superficial end provided
with several free appendices, fine and non-vibrative, a little body, oblong
or fusiform, where a nucleus is lodged ; and, b, a deep expansion which is
continued by a fibre of the olfactory nerve. (According to S. R. y Cajal. )

not exclusive to the lower animals, as it is found in
the mammiferae and also in man.

The illustration fig. 6 represents the type of bipolar
neurona, and it has an important signification, as it
shows that the simplicity of form in the neuronas

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURON A 53

is independent of the complexity of the animal.
In the olfactory sense of man these neuronas have
the same form.

We must keep this bipolar form well before us,
because, as from the ectodermic cell one arrives
easily at the bipolar neurona, by fixing the at-
tention well on this form it is easy to understand
the changes which it goes through until we arrive
at the neuronas in the brain of man.

Cerebral Cortex of the Batrachi. — These animals
are the first in which the cerebral cortex appears
differentiated, which is the point to be dwelt upon,
so that the evolution of these centres should be
understood.

In spite of the jump we have taken in organisa-
tion, it is easy to recognise at first sight the same
bipolar nerves of which we have spoken as a
typical form. The body remains equal (p); its
central prolongation is the same. The peripheric
prolongation, however, appears complicated with a
series of thorns throughout its branches. They
have somewhat the appearance of seaweed ; this
disposition of the cerebral cells is retained by
the peripheric branch till it reaches the neurona
of man.

In the same diagram is a cell of the same
epithelial origin as the neurona, and its object

54

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

seems to be to serve as a support and to insulate
some nerves from others, to conserve the integrity
of the nervous current ; it is a neuroglic cell.

FIG. 7.

Cerebral cortex of the batrachi. e, epithelial zone ; g, cellular zone or zone of
the pyramids ; m, molecular zone ; p, pyramidal cells with their proto-
plasmic branches and their cylindric centre ; c, n, epithelial cell
(neuroglic) with two cilial expansions at its shoot ; o, a large sprout ; t,
branched and directed to the periphery where the top little rough
varicose branches terminate in a conical dilatation (s). (According to
Eamon and S. R. y Cajal. )

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURON A 55

We see how, in the batrachi, the ramifications
of the peripheric prolongation begin to take
form in the body of the neurona (p) (fig. 7),
and how these ramifications are well defined
towards the cerebral surface, and also how the
central prolongation turns to the internal sheath
of the brain.

The cerebral neurona of the batrachi is derived
from a more simple form, which is the bipolar.

The Cerebral Cortex of Reptiles. — Here the body
of the neuronas already begins to undergo modifi-
cation. The superior cerebral physiology of these
animals, compared with the anterior group, is seen
in the protoplasm increasing, and that in the form
most calculated to multiply its contacts, ramifying
as we see in fig. 8, d.

This multiplication of the protoplasm constitutes
a most important differentiation, and its signifi-
cance will be better understood when we arrive at
the study of the neurona in man.

The central prolongation also presents by its
ramifications a modification parallel to the body
and of equal significance, viz. the necessity of
multiplying the contacts so as to establish fresh
functional complexities.

In the central prolongation, C (fig. 8), the first
ramifications appear. The peripheric prolongation

56

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

also presents a novelty in the fact that, instead of
the ramifications taking form at the root of the

FIG. 8.

Cerebral cortex of reptiles. A, molecular superficial sheath ; B, sheath of the
fibres or pyramids ; C, deep sheath molecules or polymorphous corpuscles ;
D, sheath of the white substance ; E, epithelial sheath ; a, b, pyramidal
cells with their protoplasmic branches (p, d), and the cylindric centre ;
e, m, epithelial neuroglic cell. (According to Ramon and S. R. y Cajal.}

trunk, they now take rise in a shoot, as we can see
in the neurona in the same fig. 8.

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 57

Cerebral Cortex of Birds. — The body of the
neurona here makes a marked advance in its

FIG. 9.

Cerebral cortex of birds. A, molecular sheath ; B, sheath of little starred
cells ; C, sheath of large starred cells ; D, sheath of deep starred cells ;
E, epithelium ; a, pyramidal cell with its peripheric (p) and basal (d)
protoplasmic expansions ; the cylindric axis ; c, e, neuroglic epithelial
cells; 7i, s, neuroglic cells of the neuroglic epithelia. (According to
Sola. )

58 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

differentiation (vide fig. 9, p) ; the protoplasmic
prolongations have considerably increased through
their higher grade of evolution.

The central prolongation (fig. 9, c) appears with
its ramifications. The peripheric prolongation
continues with its shoot and its ramifications.

As we shall see by the diagrams, the com-
plexities follow each other in a methodical way.
By the side of this neurona we see neuroglic cells,
which have been perfectly studied in birds by Dr
D. Claudio Sala, who is such a great authority on
these subjects.

Cerebral Cortex of Mammiferce (a rat a month
old). — The trunk appears much more differentiated
here, and with a greater number of protoplasmic
expansions (fig. 10, d). The central prolongation,
with increasing ramifications (fig. 10, c). The
peripheric prolongation in one of the neuronas
(fig. 10, e) is seen with a large sprout whose small
tuft divides near the surface of the brain. By the
side we see some neuroglic cells and the edge
of a small artery.

Human Cerebral Cortex (a child thirty days old).
— Fig. 11 shows us at once the enormous change
this neurona has attained in man. The illustrious
Spanish neurologist Ham on y Cajal calls it the

FIG. 10.

Cerebral cortex of mammiferae (a rat a month old). A, molecular sheath ; B, sheath of
little pyramids ; C, sheath of the great pyramids ; D, sheath of polymorphic cor-
puscles ; E, sheath of white substance ; F, extract of the neuroglic epithelial cells ;
a, 6, little pyramids ; e, a large pyramid with protoplasmic expansions ; d, the cylin-
dric axis ; e, n, neuroglic epithelial cells ; s, neuroglic cell ; v, vaso with three
neuroglic cells. (After S. R. y Cajal.)

60

SUPER-OKGANIC EVOLUTION

FIG. 11.

Gigantic deep pyramidal cell of the parietal circumvolution of a child thirty
days old. c, cylindric axis with its collaterals ; a, dt dentrited basals ;
pt terminal tuft. (After S. R. y Cajal. )

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 61

psychic denomination. The body of the cell shows
the necessity of extending and multiplying its sur-
face. Its wealth in prolongations from the trunk
is extraordinary ; and if we remember that we are
considering the brain of a child a few days old, one
can imagine how important is the increase of pro-
longations in an adult.

The central prolongation is little seen in this
diagram, but it goes on multiplying its ramifica-
tions in consonance with that of the trunk of the
neurona.

The peripheric prolongation appears splendidly
here ; the shoot is very large, and terminates in
the cerebral surface, spreading out into a magnifi-
cent tuft. The diagram explains more than any
description.

Ontogeny

The history of the embryonic evolution of the
neurona in the same individual, the various and
successive phases by which it arrives at a definite
state, is what we call the ontogeny of the neurona.

The study of ontogeny is transcendental, because
the evolution pursued by the human neurona
during the nine months of gestation corresponds to
the phylogenic evolution by which the neurona
passes from the gastrula through the whole animal
kingdom up to man. That is to say, that, as

62

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Haeckel says, " ontogeny amounts to an abbrevia-
tion of phylogeny." The thousands of years which

FIG. 12.

Cellular series to show the evolutive phases through which the pyramidal cell
of the brain passes, a, neuroblastoderm, in which there is a sketch of
the cylindric axis, but without any protoplasmic shoot ; b, commencement
of the protoplasmic shoot and of the ramifications which will form the
terminal tuft ; c, the protoplasmic shoot and the ramifications advance
to a certain development ; d, appearance of the collaterals of the cylindric
axis ; e, formation of the protoplasmic expansions in the trunk and in
the shoot. (After S. R. y Cajal. )

the animal organisation has required to rise up to
man are fulfilled by man in the short space of nine
months.

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 63

Resuming the study of phylogeny in the animal
world, it originates in a cellular organism which
terminates in man ; and the ontogenic evolution of
the same man takes its origin from a cellular
organism like the ovule, so as to terminate its
evolution at the nine months in the child. The
difference between phylogeny and ontogeny lies in
the time in which they take place.

In fig. 12, which represents the embryonic period
in a vertebrate, the elements of the neuronas are
found to appear in the same chronological order in
which they showed themselves in the animal or
phylogenic series. In a, we see a periform cell and
an undivided prolongation : this phase is called the
neuroblastoderm of His. In b, we see the peripheric
prolongation ; in c, the peripheric prolongation
extends to the form of a shoot. In d, its trunk
appears with a protoplasmic expansion, the central
prolongation begins to branch out, and the peri-
pheric prolongation prolongs its shoot still more.
In 0, the same features appear much more pro-
nounced.

Fig. 13 represents the ontogenic series after
Kolliker, studied in a human embryo, and one sees
that the progression and differentiation are the
same.

In this sketch (fig. 13) we see three young cells
of a human embryo about 23 centimetres long.

64 SUPER-OKGANIC EVOLUTION

The corpuscule marked by the letter a shows a

FIG. 13.

Young pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex of a human embryo 23 centi-
metres long, a, cells without basilar edges ; &, cell in which these
little teeth begin to evolve; c, cell in which these basilar edges are
fairly developed. (After A. Kolliker.}

shoot and protoplasmic peripheric ramifications
slightly developed, ^but without collateral little teeth

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 65

or basiliary in the cylindric axis. The corpuscule
b shows some protoplasmic expansions at its base.
All the structural elements go on complicating
together with the evolution of the psychic cell, as
we see in corpuscule c.

And for the comprehension of the great psychic
unity in the whole organisation figs. 14 and 15
give a sketch of the olfactory and visual senses
of man.

In these diagrams we see represented all the
types of neuronas which we have seen in the
phylogenic and ontogenic series, starting from
the bipolar type. The structure of these senses
consists principally in the immense multiplication
of the neuronas ; the variation in the form is of
minor importance.

From this structure of the senses in man we
clearly see how they have been formed by the
successive integration and multiplications of the
neurona — as, for example, to start with the eye,
the coloured spots in the worm have become the
perfectly formed optic organ of the human being.
The same causes, light and the external world,
which elaborated the former, are those which gave
rise to the structure of the cerebral centres of smell
and sight, etc., in the human brain, and hence all
cerebral is a reflection of mechanical structure.

66

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY OF NEURONA 67

68 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Neuroglia

The cells of the neuroglia are like those of
epithelial origin. In fig. 3A we see some cells
which serve as a support to the young neurona,
and these, which owe their origin to the ectoderm
of the gastrula, are those that, with a less degree
of differentiation, are known later by the name of
neuroglia.1

In the diagrams with the sketches of the cerebral
cortices of batrachi, reptiles, birds, and mammiferse
we see these neuroglia cells, which, according to
the majority of histologists, constitute the separat-
ing element of the nerve-currents in the brain.
One can conceive that, the more delicate the brain
and the higher it ascends in the animal series, the
more complicated is the neuroglia cell for its adjust-
ment to the morphology and functioning of the
neurona, so as to avoid the infiltration of currents
which would weaken cerebral action.

1 A cell that serves at once to sustain and isolate the neurona.

CHAPTER V

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION

HERE I propose to show, and these points prove,
that man is a product of universal mechanics, that the
regularity existent in crystals in form and structure
exists in a still greater degree in all animals ; that
all organisations from crystals to man would be
inexplicable if there did not exist mathematically
precise universal rhythms which prevail from the
sidereal world to the mechanical cell of organisms
as complicated as that of man. In one word, all
that pertains to the animal world, in the form of
comparative anatomy, phytogeny, and ontogeny,
could not exist without the rhythms of energy, whilst
a few details suffice for the comprehension of the
exactitude and persistence of this mechanical law.

In the cellular division and multiplication we
find a proof of the organic mechanics which, from
my point of view, is much more interesting than
that of crystallisation.

69

70

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The most curious phenomena of cellular division,
called mitosis by Flemriing, and karyokinesis by
Schlezcher, are, to sum them up, the following : —

Every cell is composed of protoplasm nucleus

FIG. 16.

Epithelial cells in course of karyokinetic division of the skin of the larvae of
the Pleuro of the Walti. 1, rest ; 2, reticulation ; 3, coarse reticulation ;
4, reabsorption of the nucleolus and glomerule phase ; 5, ovary liga-
ments ; 6, pins.

and nucleolus. The nucleolus is the little black spot
which we see in fig. 16 (1), at nearly the centre of
the nucleus ; thus, as the girdle surrounding this is
the protoplasm, that and the nucleus give rise to
phenomena more easy to observe in the cellular

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 71

division, which, as we shall see, is a most delicate
proof of organic mechanics.

With fig. 16 we can follow the different

FIG. 16.

Epithelial cells in course of karyokinetic division of the skin of the larvae of
the Pleuro of the Walti. 7, the mother star ; 8, the longitudinal
division (polar view) ; 9, metakinesis ; 10, fixed star ; 11, young ovary ;
12, segmentation of the protoplasm.

phases. In 1, it is the period of rest ; in the
following 2, 3, 4, we notice that a kind of network
appears in the nucleus, and its meshes increase in
size, albeit in irregular form. In phase 5, the
meshes have assumed a uniform shape and calibre,

72 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

and begin to have a much more regular arrange-
ment. In 6, the filament, which appeared united
in the preceding phase, increases in calibre and
divides itself into apparently equal parts in a
species of hooks in the form of V or U.

In phase 7, we see an extraordinary movement,
and not only is it suggestive of the regularity in
the phenomena of crystallisation, but it seems to
me a greater proof of the regularity of the rhythms,
as it treats of a substance of a much more com-
plex composition, and therefore of a more com-
plicated mechanism. In this phase the surprising
phenomenon is the arrangement of all the meshes
which seemed in disorder in the preceding phase,
and now are disposed in a regular fashion round
centre of the cell.

In phase 8, this mechanism is still more in-
teresting, by reason of each of the hooks called
chromosomes initiating a simultaneous unfolding
from which results a double number of hooks or
hemichromosomes.

In phase 9, the single central arrangement is
followed by a double polar movement in which the
protoplasm enters into play in a radiating form
round each of the poles of the cell.

In phase 10, the hemichromosomes appear grouped
round each pole, and as every fork is duplicated we
find that each pole has the same number of forks

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 73

as the primitive cell had, the cell strictly recon-
stituting itself.

In phase 11, the forks have become united by
their extreme points, and thus form one single
filament, and with this reconstitution of the nucleal
filament the division of the protoplasm is initiated
by the circle of the cell.

In phase 12, the filament goes on reproducing
itself in inverse order — 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, which is
that of repose before recommencing the same
phases of mitosis or karyokinesis. This mode of
division is most general in plants and animals.

When we see that these mitotic phenomena
succeed each other incessantly in the whole animal
and vegetable kingdom, and that this mechanism
constitutes a rhythm which repeats itself from the
time the first vegetables appear in the world, we
can understand that in the organic world, which
is infinitely more complex, there exists the same
exactitude as in the inorganic world in the curious
phenomena of crystallisation. As to precision, one
can but wonder at the mitotic phenomena which
succeed each other in the organic world, from the
infinitely small to the precision of the angles and
cubes of the best crystals.

The cells on dividing do not diminish in volume,
but they become equal in size with the substance
that comes to their nutrition, like the phenomena

74 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

of crystallisation in which the crystals take form,
increase, and reconstitute themselves in the mother-
solution ; and the cells, equally, in the medium in
which they take form in Nature, and by virtue of
the rhythms they engender, reproduce the same
form and size in their obedience, like the crystals,
to an unalterable mechanism. And we can repeat
what we said before, that the form is the resultant
of a system of rhythms.

All these phases of cellular division we should
admire if the phenomena of conjugation did not
exist — that is to say, the union of the male and
female cells, which gives great importance and
signification to the phenomena of karyokinesis, and
hence to the universal mechanics. The fecundation
in virtue of which the ovum cell joins with the
spermatic cell is a fact which increases the interest
of karyokinesis. The cellular division generally
takes place as explained, but when it is a question
of formation of a new being, the progenitor elements
present phenomena of an extraordinary importance,
which prove that Nature in the smallest point
ensures the most rigorous numerical exactitude.

The zoospore, like the ovum, represents an
equilibrium of forces, and for the establishment of
the affinity and attraction which leads to union
there succeeds what is called the reduction of

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 75

maturation. Every animal species has in its cells
an equal number of chromosomes, and the male and
female element an equal number of these same
elements.

The most curious thing in these phenomena of
reduction or ripening is that, as in the current
cellular division, the half of the chromosomes result-
ing from the unfolding unite within the same cell
in one of the poles ; in the phenomena of reduction,
on the other hand, as its name indicates, half of the
chromosomes do not unite in the poles, but are
expelled from the cell. The first expulsion is
followed by a second, so that if there are eight
chromosomes they are reduced to two, which is
when the cell is incomplete. This want of equi-
librium is most important, because it is the same
as the male and female elements undergo ; the
spermatic cell and the ovule cell suffer a similar loss
of equilibrium after their reduction.

Reduction in the Ovum (Ascaris megalocephala). —
In this explanation and the plan accompanying it
we see the double division suffered by the ovum in
being fertilised, a division always parallel to that
suffered by the zoospore of the same species. The
parallelism is the more exact, inasmuch as both
eliminate the same number of chromosomes.

The phase 1 of fig. 17 represents the moment in

76

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

which the nucleus has divided its chromosomes into
two equal parts. In this case there are four for
each half. In the karyokinesis which does not
precede the maturation, each of the chromosomes

FIG. 17.

Phases of the process of conjugation and the elimination of the polar
corpuscules in the ovule of the Ascaris megalocephala, according to O.
Hertwig. F, feminine nucleus ; Z, zoospore, or the nucleus derived from
the zoospore ; E, sphere of attraction, a formation of the first polar
corpuscule. Phase 1, the zoospore Z penetrates the ovum ; Phase 2, the
nucleus of the ovule prepares to eliminate the primary polar corpuscule ;
Phase 3, elimination of the first polar corpuscule and transformation of the
zoospore into a nucleus ; Phase 4, elimination of the second polar
corpuscule and transformation of the masculine nucleus into a nucleus in
repose ; Phase 5, approximation of the masculine and feminine nuclei,
each possessing two chromatic meshes ; Phase 6, formation of a mother-
star of the four chromatic meshes, two masculine and two feminine.

would unfold itself to reconstitute the typical cell
of the species of its chromosomes. But the matura-
tion expels these four before the unfolding, as we

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 77

see in phases 2 and 3 ; of these four remaining
chromosomes, two are expelled as we see in phase 4,
and it is at the moment when the half of a cell
acquires affinity for the spermatic cell that its state
of maturation is constituted.

The male element, when it goes in search of a ripe
ovum or one commencing to ripen, obeys the same
affinity, or attraction, which must have according
rhythms, because harmony results from their union.

In phase 1 of fig. 17, we see in Z the male
element at the moment of contact with the female
element. In phases 2, 3, and 4, we can follow as
far as the centre of the ovule, and there, counting
on an equal number of chromosomes to those that
remain in the ovule after its reduction, they wait
for the union with the female filaments, as we see
in phase 5.

Phase 6 represents the moment in which the two
chromosomes, male and female, constitute one cell,
and where the four chromosomes unfold themselves
to the formation of eight nucleal elements, which is
the number of the filaments corresponding to this
complete cell; so that, in virtue of equitable division,
the new cell will have four male chromosomes and
four female chromosomes, and the hooks of both
sexes unite themselves faithfully at both ends.

From this moment the same mitotic phases which
we saw succeed each other in fig. 16 are those

78

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

which give rise to the evolution of the new being.
The attraction of one sex for another, love, the
sentiment which the human race has idealised, is a
case of the universal harmony.

FIG. 18.
Progression of the segmentation cell a up to the morula condition, d.

Morula. — When once the male and female
elements are united, the cell resulting from this
union goes on multiplying itself by karyokinesis, so
that one cell produces two, and then four, eight,
sixteen, etc.; and when there are sufficient to form
a conglomeration, which is like the fruit of the
mulberry tree, this cellular conglomeration is called
morula (fig. 18, d).

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 79

In examining the diagram we easily see that from
the second to the third segmentation, a, b, c, there
exists a fixed law for the arrangement of the planes
of segmentation (O. Hertwig). The planes of
segmentation always cut one another at right angles,
so that they may be of equal size.

As we see, the organic architecture is subject to
exact principles which are understood better every
day, as the intelligence is imbued with the know-
ledge of Nature. When they seem not to be regular,
it is because they are not known, as man has not
been able to penetrate the mechanism which
underlies them.

Blastula (fig. 19). — The pluricellular germ called
morula arrives at the moment when a cavity, called
a cavity of segmentation, begins to form in its
centre. In this cavity appears a liquid which, as
it increases, permeates the cells to the periphery,
until the pressure puts them in a lineal pattern in
the form of a circle. This form is known under
the name of blastula. A number of inferior animals
exist in this arrangement. This vesicle sometimes
presents vibrative cilia which cause a rotary move-
ment in the animal, and is called blastospheric.

Gastrula. — There comes a time when that portion
of the blastula marked with the letters cv bends

80 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

inwardly until it penetrates the blastula's cavity of
segmentation, and puts itself in contact with the
other portion that remains fixed, so that instead of
one cellular stratum there are two. When both
portions are in contact, the embryonic animal form
resulting from it is called gastrula (see fig. 1).

ev

FIG. 19.
ca, animal cell ; cv, vegetable cell ; cs, cavity of segmentation.

" This form has a great importance in embryonic
history, as Haeckel has shown in his celebrated
theory of the gastrula. One finds it, in fact, in all
the great ramifications of the animal kingdom. So
it constitutes a period common to all animals. It is
from this form that the divergence of all the animal
kingdom commences" (0. Hertwig).

Many inferior animals exist in the form of

OTHEllHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 81

gastrula in their adult condition, and it is in
embryonic form in all superior animals, showing
the unique affiliation of all these beings.

Nature has a unity of plan so admirable and so
faithful that the cellular condition of the morula,
blastula, and gastrula, which is found in all beings,
causes the superior animals, mammiferse, and even
man to reproduce them in their embryonic period.
Thus every plant or animal starts from a cell, and
man in the actual moment of evolution passes
through in his period of gestation (nine months)
the same phases, starting from the cell, as the whole
animal kingdom has passed through in periods of
time which imagination and knowledge cannot
fix, but which can be counted by thousands and
thousands of years.

That man of every epoch should believe himself
the end and object of something is easily under-
stood, as much through the limitation of his
perceptions as through a defect of education,
because the education of humanity has consisted
until now in exploring the past ; so we always have
before our eyes a panorama which unfolds itself in
a retrospective state. The great law of evolution
is necessary for man to understand that his actual
form is a moment in evolution, and to call attention
to the future which stretches out as far as the past.

And one should ask : " What perfections does

6

82 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

evolution reserve to the man of the future ? " This
is of great importance, because the longer man
delays penetrating and perfecting himself through
the great teaching which is given by the theory of
evolution, the longer will his pain and miseries
endure.

Nothing is further from my mind than the animal
organisation step by step ; suffice it to observe that
the same regularity which we have noticed up to
now in form and number, is to be discovered
histologically in the body of every animal and man
in every tissue, and in every one of the elements of
these tissues, and in the most varied cells of man.
In every one of them, from the noble psychic cell
to the conjunctive, we can find the affiliation or
series of affiliations which lead us, as in mathematics,
to find its genesis in a single point of departure —
the cell.

All this that has been set forth, from the genesis
of the nervous system up to this point, has no other
object than to establish the bases on which to rest
one of the piers of the bridge by which we contend
we can pass from the universal energy to the super-
organic evolution.

The object before us is to prove that the plan
of unity and mechanism on which Nature proceeds,
whilst legitimatising the law of evolution, making

OTHER RHYTHMS OF THE ORGANISATION 83

a man out of protoplasm, is the only road and the
only mode of getting out of the present absurd
social condition. And, moreover, we want to show
that, as man is a result of universal mechanics, the
intelligence, the function of an organ whose genesis
can be followed from the lowest animals — intelli-
gence, we say, is a function of Nature,

We have said elsewhere that it is impossible to
establish a priority between organ and function,
that they are terms that have become separated
mentally ; but in Nature the unity and coexistence
of both terms are absolute, so that it can be
deduced and enforced that Nature is the patrimony
of humanity, as air is of the lungs.

Man must be freed from these hard and fast
meshes which cripple society too much for the
brain to find its natural expansion in the midst of
the infinity of Nature. The fact of society being
exposed to want of money, which is scarce, so as
to enhance its value, is like an alarm of fire being
given in a theatre full of people, where the insuffi-
ciency of exits inevitably causes a large number of
victims.

CHAPTER VI

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION

MEDIUM, adaptation, selection, and heredity are the
chief factors of this great movement which passes
from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from
the simple to the complex, by virtue of phenomena
which repeat themselves serially, and the advance-
ment of which consists in the aggregation of other
series to these simple series for the formation of
a combined series still more complex. This
mechanism of phenomena arranged in an ever-
increasing progression is called the theory of
evolution.

In proceeding to expound psychic evolution I
come to an extremely important point — indeed,
the crux of the question. When once this is
understood, the application of the theory of
evolution to sociology appears more clear and
complete, as it removes the antagonism that has
been declared to exist between socialism and
positive science, owing to the neglect of even

84

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 85

Herbert Spencer to take account of it. Social
science, the principal aim of which is the happiness
of mankind, is the end of the law of evolution,
both of which find their confirmation and com-
pletion free from contradiction or extenuating
circumstances.

Psychic life starts with the lowest in the animal
scale, and continues to develop until it forms the
intelligence of the human being, contemporaneous
with whose appearance on the earth for a life
mutually interdependent arises the first germ of
the new super- organism — human society.

Psychic and physical life are widely differenti-
ated in man ; the one has almost completed its
evolution, whilst the other, the life of the intellect,
still continues, and is destined to a wonderful
development.

The law of evolution, applied to the psychic life,
will serve to demonstrate, first, how man, through
having severed himself from natural laws, lives in
an absurd state of civilisation ; secondly, that this
very law, when properly applied to society, is the
one that must conduce to man's being perfected
indefinitely.

For this study we must follow Herbert Spencer,
who has probed this delicate subject with the
intuition peculiar to genius : —

" It has been shown that, starting from the lower

86 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

life of plants and rudimentary animals, the progress
of life in the upper species consists essentially in a
continual adaptation between the organic processes
and those which enclose the organism. We have
seen that with complexity of their organisation
there is also an increase in the number, the
extension, the specialisation, and the complexity
of the adjustment of the internal to the external
relations. And, following this increase, we have
passed by gradual transition from the phenomena
of corporal to those of intellectual life." l

With regard to this differentiation between
physical and psychic life, we particularly call the
reader's attention in order to facilitate his inter-
pretation of the law of evolution in its relation to
sociology ; since, although the spirit which under-
lies that law is the same in both cases, not so is
the letter, which is liable to cause confusion.

"With the lower animals, each part of the
organism, if produced by and for itself, as well as
all the vital functions, respond in and by such parts
to external stimulus ; the psychic changes are
almost to the same extent as the physical both
simultaneous and successive. As the nervous
system appears, these psychic changes are visibly
co-ordinated, and a connection between their several
most perfect series is established. And in accord-

1 H. Spencer, Principes de Psychologie, p. 298.

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 87

ance with the gradual completion and perfecting
of these connections, the nervous system forms
correlatively, by fresh interlacings, a single woof
of greater completeness and perfection." l

One now sees how the most rudimentary psychic
life is an adaptation to the external medium, and
how Nature possesses herself of this first trace
of intelligence to mould it to her image, and,
increasing in series ever more distinct and complex,
she rules paramount in human intelligence.

I will continue to quote Herbert Spencer, to
show the notable fact that this great thinker has
not solved the problem, when his whole theory
of the association of ideas should have led him
naturally to such a conclusion. Never has human
brain discovered so close a correspondence with
Nature as is presented by the philosophy of
Herbert Spencer, whose ideas seem to vibrate in
harmony with all the succeeding and simultaneous
series of natural phenomena. Thus his work is
the first of its kind, and the most complete that
any age has produced.

Referring to the differentiation itself, Herbert
Spencer states : — " But this progress is not merely
a progress in the physiological branch of the
matter, but also a progress towards the separa-
tion between physical and psychic action, the

1 H. Spencer, Principes de Psychologie, p. 420.

88 SUPEK-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

first advance of psychic action towards another
series. . . .

" The skin, being the part that is more immedi-
ately sensible to different kinds of external
stimulus, necessarily undergoes a change where
the psychic variations take their origin. This
mutual connection between the internal and
external relations, which constitute intelligence in
all its forms, must take its rise in every case from
the internal action of things upon the organism."

For a positivist these ideas imply an acquaint-
ance with phylogeny, ontogeny, embryology, and
comparative anatomy, which the illustrious philo-
sopher had so fully at his command.

Apropos of this, let us see what E. Haeckel
states : — " Comparing the embryogenic evolution of
the various sense-organs, it is clear that, at the
moment of their appearance, they assume the
simplest form imaginable ; and only by degrees do
they attain their admirable state of perfection,
whereby the sense-organs finally acquire the
very curious and complicated structure of the
organism."1

The same author adds : — " It is easy to under-
stand the extraordinary impression these facts
impose upon anyone who wishes to form a just
idea of intellectual life. All science will undergo a

1 E. Haeckel, Anthropogenic, ou evolution humaine, p. 470.

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 89

transformation when psychology, familiar with these
genealogical facts, adopts them as the basis of its
studies.11

In dealing with the law of intelligence, Spencer
states : — " A correspondence between the internal
and external order implies that the relation
between two states of consciousness answers to
the same relation as exists between the two
external phenomena that have originated it. How
is this correspondence produced ? The two states
of consciousness are produced in succession, and
all the successions are similar, considered as such.
In what, then, will the correspondence consist ? It
consists in this : that the persistence of connection
between the two states of consciousness is in pro-
portion to the persistence of the connection
between the two external phenomena to which
they correspond. The relations between the
external phenomena undergo all gradations from
the absolutely necessary to the merely accidental.
The relations between the corresponding states of
consciousness must consequently undergo the same
gradations in all respects. When the correspond-
ence is complete, that is, when it has reached its
greatest perfection, the various gradations of the
one must each time more closely approximate the
various gradations of the other."

The inference is that the intelligence is a repro-

90 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

duction of natural laws, to which it adjusts itself,
its susceptibility of improvement being intimately
in accordance with this relation. Hence the con-
clusion that Nature is the inheritance of mankind ;
that man, bound to Nature by indissoluble ties, is
completely within her power ; that humanity as a
super-organic organism has but one road to follow —
the law of evolution, a road hitherto neglected.
The progress of humanity is due to their greater
adaptation to the external, and is in exact ratio to
the number and quality of the brains apt for this
work ; one may form an idea of the degree of
psychic adaptation still to be acquired by humanity
by considering the very small proportion of men
engaged in this work of correspondence.

The relation between two states of consciousness
corresponds to the same relation as exists in the two
external phenomena that have originated it. Thus
one understands that, as soon as man applied
himself to the observation of the facts of Nature,
the progress of so-called positive science really
began. To observe a fact and its relation towards
another fact ; to investigate this relation with the
same persistence with which this connection is
carried out ; to see the whole scale of relations of
external phenomena, from the absolutely necessary
to the merely accidental, in order to assign it its

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 91

due proportion in consciousness, — such is the
unceasing work being carried on by psychic
evolution.

The cerebral structure is a true product of this
relation. The nerves acquire their protoplasmic
elongations precisely because, in order to continue
this progression of relations, they must keep
increasing their collateral elongations and adjusting
themselves to external parallelism.

The form of the neurona is a mechanical conse-
quence, in order to produce this parallelism on
which the intelligence depends ; the brain is an
organ of association, provided it be healthy, so
that the series of external phenomena may be
repeated in the brain, just as they are in Nature.
The power of induction and deduction by which
the human intelligence is distinguished resides
entirely in the brain, in which the series of internal
relations is interwoven and virtually formed, and
sometimes one single fact is sufficient to set in
motion the whole series of relations to which the
fact corresponds.

All science is a continual demonstration of such
correspondence. Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, were
brains which perceived by a direct observation of
Nature the series of phenomena by which the
movements of the stars are governed, their order
of succession, and the persistence of these same

92 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

relations, and thus they were able to found a new
cosmogony.

Newton succeeded in fixing the relation of
quantity through which the persistence of these
phenomena exists, and in formulating the law of
gravitation, by which the precise terms of these
relations are established.

Lavoisier, by his celebrated experiment, demon-
strated the indestructibility of atoms, which, on
uniting to form composite bodies, preserve their
individuality, mass, and weight, resulting in a
combination equal to the sum of the weights of
the component parts. From one single apparently
insignificant fact the genius of that illustrious man
contributed to strengthen the parallelism between
the external and internal series.

The simultaneous demonstration achieved by
Mayer and Joule of the mechanical equivalent of
heat served to establish the great principle of the
equilibrium of forces.

The ability to measure the velocity of light and
electricity has served to demonstrate the analogy
between them. Spectral analysis proves to us the
solidarity of the universe and discloses its very
elements.

Lamarck and Darwin showed the inconsistency
of the idea of species, and established the theory
that all animals may have descended from one

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 93

stock. All these data of modern science are com-
bined by H. Spencer, forming a systematic whole
which concentrates up to the present the greater
parallelism between Nature and human intelligence.

A casual fact led to the discovery of the Rontgen
rays, followed by that of the radio-activity of
matter, a fact that for the moment has upset all
surmises, but which, when duly interpreted, that is,
when its real significance has been appreciated,
will mean a further step in advance, namely, the
correspondence between internal and external
order, and will thus forward human progress.

The sum of knowledge embraced by positive
science is still very slender, for very slender also
are the brains whose state of culture allows of the
discovery of these parallel series. In view of the
great disproportion that still exists among human
beings between active and passive brains, one can
understand the state of barbarism in which one
lives, and the great task which is still left for man
to realise, whose need for learning will never be
exhausted.

If the intelligence of a few individuals, whose
life is so small compared with time and space, has,
within the short period during which we have
existed, been able to conceive such great ideas as
those which form science, what will humanity not
accomplish if it devotes its intelligence to the

94 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

investigation of the infinite series of phenomena
and relations which its brain will demand through
time and space ? Whither will the parallelism of
these series conduct it ? What limits will there
be to progress ?

Although Nature is made upof one indefinite series
of phenomena and human intelligence, an adapta-
tion of successive integrations starting from the
lowest grade, the progress of humanity is indefinite.
Accepting the theory of evolution, the perfecting
of human intelligence knows no limits ; this
parallelism, in which the one is a reflex of the
other, must be prolonged indefinitely as time
goes on.

Of Nature we know nothing, or hardly anything;
to claim to read the future, to fix limits to human
affairs, without even knowing the conditions of the
problem, seems to me as great an absurdity as if I
expected my son, just beginning to read, to explain
to me the works of Spencer. All religions and
philosophies have the same original fault of wish-
ing to solve problems without the necessary data.
In his total ignorance, man fancied he knew what
he was, whence he came, and whither he was going.
These are questions for future man, but in a future
still very distant ; then perhaps these questions
may be answered ; at present we must learn, to
enable the men of the future to answer them.

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 95

That intelligence is an adaptation of natural
laws is a fact admitted but little known. Such
importance has the descent of intelligence as a
result of psychic evolution, that Haeckel even
noticed that the application of this knowledge to
psychology would result in the transformation of
modern science.

In order to thoroughly understand H. Spencer's
inductions on this head, we must study the actual
facts, which such an authority on the subject as
the illustrious neurologist Eamon y Cajal made
known to the International Medical Congress in
Rome : —

" In the animal kingdom, the nerve-cell represents
a series of evolutive terms corresponding to the
phases which the neuroblastoderm of His passes
through in the ontology of the mammiferae. . . .
Here, as in other organic textures, ontogeny is a
resume, with slight variations, of phylogeny.

" The following are the evolutive ontogenic phases,
with the phylogenic gradation to which they corre-
spond (see fig. 12) : —

" First Phase : Neuroblastoderm of His. — Is a pear-
shaped cell, of smooth surface, provided with a
single expansion, the cylindric axis, which terminates
within or without the nerve-centres, due to a free
ramification more or less extensive. This prim-
ordial form is represented, as is proved by the

96 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

investigations of Eetzius and Lenhossek, in the
ganglion of the invertebrates.

" Second Phase. — The neuroblastoderm undergoes
modification, showing two kinds of expansions, the
cylindric axis and some protoplasmic appendices,
generally sprung from the initial portion of the
latter. This phase, somewhat modified, constitutes
the permanent morphology of many medullary and
brain corpuscules of fishes and batrachi ; it is
characterised, above all, by the absence of basal
and lateral protoplasmic expansions of the cellular
body. The functional elongation narrows, springing
generally from the protoplasmic shoot, and resem-
bling a protoplasmic stem differentiated.

" Third Phase. — From the inside of the neuro-
blastoderm, as well as on its sides, spring new
protoplasmic expansions, which ramify repeatedly.
The nervous cell acquires consequently a starred
or pyramidal form. The majority of the nervous
elements of the encephalus and medulla of birds
and mammiferse correspond to this morphological
type, which represents the last ontogenic stage of
the neuroblastoderm.

" From this explanation one sees that during the
ontogenic development appear forthwith the chief
or direct passages (cylindric axes and their free
ramification), and later the collateral or indirect
passages. In the differentiation of the phylogenic

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 97

species of neurona arises an order probably parallel
to that which phylogenic evolution shows us : at
first the motor and sensitive apparatus (cells of the
early asta and bipolar spinal cells with their direct
passages) ; later is differentiated the apparatus of
association (elements of the cords or funicular cells
of the medulla and brain) ; and of all systems of
association, the cerebral, which is the most modern
phylogenically considered, is also the last to appear.
Such must have been also the order of function of
the central nerve -apparatus in the phylogenic series ;
the first invertebrates endowed with a distinct
nervous system only had to possess sensitive and
motor passages connected with one another by
direct cylindric axes ; further, the collateral expan-
sions would shoot out, and the associating passages
would be opened (similar funicular cells of the
medulla by which a single sensitive impression
could excite the co-ordinated actions of the motor
nerve-corpuscules). "

From these comparative studies Cajal draws the
following most important conclusion : —

"There exists, then, one nervous system, the
sensory and sensitive (peripheric ganglia), which
has terminated its development by differentiation,
increasing only by extension ; and another nervous
system, the cerebral, which continues its progress
in the animal series, as well by extension or

7

98 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

multiplication of its cells as by their morphological
differentiation."

From all these questions, as interesting as they
are instructive, and without which sociology would
have no possible raison d'dtre, one draws a conclu-
sion of paramount value : The brain of man still
continues its psychic evolution. The mere enuncia-
tion of this suffices for it to appear as a revelation
rich in its consequences; the brain of man is
still in full course of evolution ; the neuronas
and their cerebral cortex are not only increasing
in number and extent, but are also becoming
perfect by differentiation. This fact, deduced
from embryology and comparative anatomy, from
phylogeny and ontogeny, awakens a new world
of ideas.

All the fancies of religions, philosophies, and
even poets with regard to the intelligence are a
mere bagatelle ; the future of man has a limitless
horizon. Nature abandons not her* work, nor has
she exhausted all her resources. In the need to
adapt the internal to the external, she follows a
consistent and tenacious elaboration, and in this
extraordinary progress she will not only augment
the number of elements, but will improve their
form ; the number of collaterals will grow, and
with these the number and extension of the asso-
ciations, allowing always a greater complexity,

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 99

in order to follow the parallelism with the
external series.

But this is not all ; there remains still the improve-
ment of the substance of the histo-chemical
composition, not only of the nervous cells, but of
all the elements that contribute to good cerebral
architecture ; healthy, sound histo-chemical com-
position augments the precision and virtue of the
cerebral energies. And such a constant perfecti-
bility gives an idea of a future that appears like a
dream, since man will attain in science, in art, and
all applied studies a prodigious progress compared
with the social state of the present time.

When the facts relating to the descent of the
nervous system are known, it is useless to discuss
this or that mode of demonstration : there is but
one, that which secures the greatest adaptation of
the intelligence to natural phenomena ; this method
being founded on observation and experiment.
There can be no other ; firstly, because this is
obtained from a knowledge of psychic evolution,
from the first animal to man ; secondly, because it
aims at the adaptation of the intelligence to Nature.
It is the only means of progress, the only road that
leads to the truth.

Furthermore, in order to appreciate the great
light that is shed from a knowledge of the structure
of the human brain, and to interpret history posi-

100 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

lively, Cajal thus sums up the conditions which
chiefly, or more or less exclusively, influence mental
phenomena : —

" Firstly, the number of nerve-cells of the cortex.

" Secondly, the variable development of the
collateral and terminable protoplasmic expansions
of the cylindric axes.

" Thirdly, the correlative proportions of the
corpuscules of association in front of the sensitive,
sensory, central, and psychomotor ones.

"Fourthly, the way in which the medullisation
of the nervous fibres is shared, since, the greater
the covering of the mielina, the better the isolation
of the currents.

" Fifthly, the relative abundance of interstitial
cement, which probably is intended to impede the
diffusion of the nerve-movement.

" Sixthly, the variable number of neuroglic cells,
whose office appears to be to separate the nerve-
fibres, to avoid contact and filtration of currents.

" Seventhly, the state of the reticulum or inter-
cellular woof (still very little known).

" Eighthly, the existence of perturbations or
modifications more or less lasting in the chemical
combination of the cells and interstitial cement.

"By this we mean only the anatomical condi-
tions of the grey substance; but it is clear that
they may also influence the absolute or relative

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 101

vascularity of the encephalus, the quality of the
nutritive plasma, the amplitude of the peri-vascular
lymphatic sheaths of the grey substance, and even
the state of the vasomotor innervation, by means of
which is regulated the quantity of blood that pene-
trates into each encephalic region through the
solicitation of the will and the influx of the
attention."

The attentive study of these grand conclusions
illuminates the history of humanity and explains
the alternations of civilisation and decadence.
Such contrasts, which may be explained as a
natural and necessary consequence of progress, as
a species of cyclic movement, obey other laws, and
the explanation of yesterday, and even of to-day,
is completely gratuitous. This flux and reflux in
civilisation are inadmissible as an essential condi-
tion in it ; that would be tantamount to ignoring
or denying the spirit of the law of evolution. From
the first protist to man, evolution has always
followed an ascending course, all the more rapid,
the greater the differentiation in the organisms.
Why should humanity have these oscillations ?

Organisation in this case follows rather a uni-
formly accelerated movement, as it starts from the
law of consistency of form, with regard to simplicity
of structure ; whilst, the higher the organisation,
the more rapid the adaptation. Therefore, in

102 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

society, super-organic organism, the rapidity of
change will be greater than in any other. So that
the progress of humanity, when once it has found
the true path, will not only be free from alterna-
tions, but proceed with greater speed. The de-
cadence of humanity as an organism cannot be
admitted until our planet begins to decline in its
evolution, and until then we need not think about
this reflux, which would be unique and definite.

When Ramon y Cajal made known the conclu-
sions quoted in the last paragraph, the seventh, of
supreme importance, excited the widest interest, as
it deals with the reticulum or cellular woof, which
was then little understood, although the clever
neurologist was tracing by experiment and observa-
tion the modifications which the body of the neurona
has necessarily to undergo, according as it is in a
state of activity or repose.

The philosophic spirit of Ramon y Cajal suc-
ceeded in discovering the collateral terminations
of the cylindric axis, looking for them, not, as Golgi,
in man, but, knowing well the law of evolution, in
the lower mammiferse in embryology and ontogeny ;
for in animals of small size it was easy to discover
at the edges the terminations of the collaterals, or
rather to come upon their development in the
embryonary period, and thus show the very im-
portant datum of the independence of the neurona.

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 103

Eeturning to our subject, we were saying that
to the philosophic mind of Kamon y Cajal is due
the recent discovery or interpretation of the
reticulum of the neurona. This reticulum is formed
of small neurofibriles. Let us see what account
Dr Azoulay gives of this discovery and the inter-
pretation :—

"The authors who, until now, have dealt with
the small neurofibriles, have always thought that
their reticulum was immobile, that it was a ques-
tion of a fixed apparatus incapable of transformation.

"This view is untenable; the neurofibrile
reticulum cannot be more variable, whether in its
normal or pathological state. Facts demonstrate
this better than any preconceived idea."

Variations during the Normal State. — Let us first
consider the observation of Senor Cajal and his
assistant Tello during the normal state :—

" Being anxious to ascertain the aspect of the
neurofibrile reticulum in lizards, Senor Tello
destroyed a few of these little animals during last
winter, with the view of studying their nervous
system by Cajal's method.

" Great was his surprise when, contrary to all
his anticipations, he found in the cells only a very
small number of neurofibriles, so compact that,
with a slightly more powerful microscope, he could
easily distinguish them. These neurofibriles, separ-

104 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

ated from one another by very clear spaces, pre-
sented, moreover, in some places a slight increase
in bulk. Senor Tello discovered, then, a fresh
appearance of neurofibriles in the vertebrates, and
this appearance differs considerably from that till
now observed in the mammiferse.

" Some time after, always in winter, it occurred
to Senor Tello to find out what influence might be
caused to the nerve-fibres of the lizard on cutting
its tail. After the operation the animal, which
was then hibernating, awoke suddenly and
manifested the greatest excitement. He killed
it in this condition, and its marrow was examined,
always by the Cajal method. This time the result
was still more extraordinary — the neurofibriles
were numerous and extremely delicate. There was
no increase in their volume, and the separating
spaces had in great measure disappeared. The
appearance offered was almost identical with that
of the neurofibriles of a rabbit or some other
mammifera (fig. 20).

" This naturally arrested the attention of Cajal,
under whose direction these experiments were
being conducted. 'Whence comes this change?'
it was asked. ' Why are the neurofibriles of the
lizard, when intact, so few and so compact \ Why,
when the lizard is mutilated and excited, are they,
on the contrary, so numerous and delicate ? '

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 105

"Kamon y Cajal resolves these complicated
questions. He recalls that the lizard is a
hibernating animal, and this reminder makes the
matter clear to him.

" The thick, rarefied neurofibriles which Sefior
Tello discovered, and which he thinks are character-
istic of the lizard, are not so, from this point of
view. They characterise only his winter state ;
things correspond to the state of somnolence,
inertia, sleep, and reflect the state which the lizard
assumes during the cold of winter. But no sooner
does spring come, together with the heat and
excitement that it produces, than these thick and
scanty neurofibriles disappear, to make room for
others finer and more numerous.

" One could not wait for spring, which was still
far off, to know whether the facts would justify
the hypothesis. An artificial spring, therefore,
was arranged ; the lizards were placed in a stove
of 37° Cent, and left for a few days. This sufficed
to reanimate and excite them. They were killed,
and their marrow examined by Cajal's method
and system. The hypothesis was immediately
verified ; in fact, everywhere the neurofibriles,
endlessly interlaced, were very delicate and some-
what granular ; innumerable secondary filaments
in uniting them crossed the vast desert spaces
during the winter state. Besides, the cells them-

106

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

selves seemed to have increased their volume, as if
their activity had attracted towards them a greater
amount of nutritive juices. There was, however,
no sensible change in the relative position of the
terminal masses of the pericellular nests, as, during

FIG. 20.
a, nerve in activity ; &, nerve in repose.

the state of hibernation, they are in contact with
the membrane, always ready, so to speak, to
transmit to the cell the impressions received.

"Fig. 20 gives an idea of these surprising
changes. The motor cell b is in the winter state

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 107

•

of repose ; on the right the cell similar a is, on the
contrary, in an artificial state of activity.

" A single experiment may very well be deemed
insufficient. It was therefore repeated by again
placing the lizards in the stove for from one to
three days, but this time at 25° Cent. The result
was the same.

" Being now certain of the phenomenon, inquiry
was made as to the least duration of time in the
stove necessary for the winter neurofibriles to
transform themselves into active filaments. This
duration was found to be an hour at most.

" Other hibernating animals, e.g. snakes, were
subjected to the same experiments, and the
neurofibrile frame of their cells underwent similar
transformation.

" When the spring at length arrived, the lizards
revived spontaneously and were killed. There
was only in the cells of their marrow the tangled
reticulum of innumerable fibre filaments.

"The demonstration was therefore complete."

When one sees clearly how a brain — that is, the
substance whose active power depends solely and
exclusively on the whole psychic activity — can be
changed in the quantity and quality of its delicate
elements, and that its state of integrity depends
in the last resort on a phenomenon of nutrition,
there is no further need to explain these changes

108 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

of civilisation, nor the other much more delicate
history called by Taine "the philosophy of art."

Nothing more explicit could be desired.

A change of pressure or composition in the
blood is all that is needed, a modification in the
amount of heat, or in the amplitude of lymphatic
sheaths which cover the grey substance, for a
brain to lose its integrity, and thereby the virtue
of which it is capable. It is enough that the
mielina or that the interstitial cement should
modify the histo -chemical conditions, or be badly
distributed, for the nerve-currents to cease to be
fully transmitted and diffused throughout the brain,
ideas thus losing their precision, their energy ;
Nature no longer having therefore a faithful
substance to register her phenomena in the same
series and tonality in which they are produced,
the parallelism, the concordance cease, and, as
the human intelligence has lost contact with its
true guide and motor, society degenerates.

The mens sana in corpore sano of the Romans
meant nothing else than this. People in perfect
health practised every virtue ; arts, industries, and
science flourished, because the mens sana enjoyed
its fullest completeness, as it preserved its integrity
and its relation to the external medium, the pro-
pelling energies of which were registered clearly
and precisely in the brain. When mankind, on

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 109

the other hand, ceased to be healthy, from want of
nourishment or some irregularity shown by a loss
of strength, a want of balance, degeneration made
its appearance, and with it all human miseries ; the
brain lost its completeness, and, unable duly to
repair its strength, ceased to be susceptible to the
external stimulus, separating itself from the real
and leading to the era of visionaries, as happened
during the long dark period of the Middle Ages.

" The work of human intelligence," says Taine,
" like the work of Nature, is only to be explained
through the medium."

And in fact, when the medium improves, men
become more healthy, the conditions necessary for
cerebral activity are realised, a better contact is
established between Nature and the brain, and a
phenomenon such as electrical induction takes place,
and hence the astounding impulse manifested by
nations under these conditions. The human brain
when sound has forces still more wonderful than
the lately discovered power of radio-activity ; the
intelligence must possess some of these wonderful
properties by which phenomena are registered in a
series uniform with that of the natural laws, and
by means of which, when the substance on which
the intelligence is based is kept in a healthy state,
the forces of universal mechanics are diffused
throughout the human brain, in order to impart to

110 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

it its energies. And if the structure and material
of the brain change their composition, whether
through less pressure in the circulation or loss of
purity in the blood, or that, owing to this change
in the plasma of the blood, some of these cerebral
elements, such as the neuroglia, the mielina, or the
intercellular cement, are altered, these properties
will disappear, and the intelligence no longer
realises the phenomenon of induction or radiation,
losing its equilibrium and its size. The mens sana
in corpore sano will not exist, and the period of
decadence will arrive, with all its physical and
moral miseries.

The history of humanity proves how much time
has been wasted through want of a careful system.

In the civilisation of the extreme East, the
Chinese were writing their annals forty centuries
ago, and 2200 years before Christ the emperor Yu
had obtained a knowledge of the writing of his
nine Chinese provinces, while the peoples of India
have left striking proofs of civilisation in their
philosophy and religion.

The civilisations of the Mediterranean peoples
are even finer examples, as being better known,
for proving the flux and reflux of a civilisation
which has aimed at a foundation based on natural
law. If Egypt, Chaldea, Phoenicia, Greece, and
Rome have decayed in their civilisation, it was

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 111

because they first deteriorated in their cerebral
organisation, through adopting conditions contrary
to a good and normal civilisation, not through being
a consequence of this.

Civilisations decay owing to the changes that the
brain undergoes, because men violate the normal
conditions of life.

Kenan, speaking of the invasion of the Roman
Empire by the barbarians, says :—

" I believe that if the Empire had had in the fifth
century the great men of the second century, and,
above all, that if Christianity had been more
centralised in Rome, as it became in the centuries
that followed, it would have been possible to
convert the barbarians to Roman civilisation before
or at the time of the invasion, and thus the
continuity of civilisation would have been preserved.
It was quite within the bounds of possibility for the
Middle Ages never to have existed, and the civilisa-
tion of Rome to have continued uninterrupted. If
the Gallo-Roman schools had been sufficient in one
century to educate the Franks, humanity would
have saved ten centuries."1

The continual wars, the licence of Roman
manners, were changing and debilitating the
citizens ; their brains were becoming disorganised,
and on the arrival of the barbarians it was not

1 Renan, Avenir de la Science, p. 391.

112 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

possible to assimilate a civilisation that had no
cohesion or controlling force, since, except in
name, it no longer existed.

We find equally convincing and even more
delicate the deductions drawn from the study of
the philosophy of art, and we may refer on this
point to Taine's remarks on the development of
painting in the Low Countries : —

4 'Here, as everywhere, art interprets life; the
talent and taste of the painter change at the same
time and in the same sense as public manners and
sentiments. Just as every geologic revolution has
its fauna and flora, so each transformation of society
has its ideals. . . .

4 'The fourteenth century is the heroic and
tragic period of Flanders ; at that time there lived
artisans like Artevelt, who were at once tribunes,
dictators, captains, who met their death on the
battle-field or by assassination ; civil and foreign
war succeeded one another ; city fought with city,
state with state, man with man ; there were in
Ghent 1400 murders in one year; energy was so
keen that it survived all ills, and supplied the
needs of all forces. . . .

" In this human effervescence the richness and
abundance of provisions and the habit of individual
action excited courage, unrest, audacity, insolence,
and all the excesses of overwhelming brute force ;

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 113

among these weavers existed great men, and where
men exist the arts are not slow to appear.

"Then, as in Florence, about the year 1400,
power was welcomed, and society became organised.
Here, as in Italy, about 1400, man abandoned the
ascetic habit to take an interest in Nature, and to
enjoy life ; he began to taste the joys of strength,
health, beauty, and joy. Everywhere the spirit of
the Middle Ages began to change and disappear."

Let us dwell upon Taine's words : Art interprets
life. Here art means psychic life ; and life, physical
life, the animal existence. The parallelism is
evident, and includes a fact which, for the educa-
tion of humanity, must not for a moment be lost
sight of. When nations reach one of these periods
of physical and psychic prosperity, it is because
they have an abundant nutriment, which renders
possible a more healthy, regular, and intense
existence ; that is to say, when the medium
supplies man with abundant or sufficient substance
to repair his losses by good nourishment, man can
steadily develop the virtues of which he is capable.

The blood needs all the aliment necessary to
recuperate man with all his energies, and when this
is the case, appears the mens sana in corpore sano,
and so the brain, receiving a rich recuperative
plasm, preserves the integrity of all its nervous
elements, and thus at last the adaptation of the

8

114 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

external to the internal is rendered possible ; since
man, then receiving inspiration from Nature,
conceives great systems of philosophy, or realises
great works of art.

But again Taine writes: "The talent and taste
of the painter change at the same time and in the
same sense as public manners and sentiments."

And in proportion as the nations enjoy this state
of material prosperity, all their members will enjoy
also the mental balance which constitutes the
psychic medium in all that relates to art. In the
physical there is also an intimate relation between
the external and internal, all the more important
that without this completeness in the physical the
other completeness in the psychic is impossible.

In speaking of the causes that tend to the
development and explanation of a work of art,
Taine cites the medium that surrounds the artist
or the group of artists of the age : " This family of
artists is understood in a wider connection than
the world that surrounds it, and whose taste is in
accordance with its own. The habits and condition
of the spirit of the age are the same in the public
as in artists ; there are no isolated individuals.
It is their voice that we hear now across the distant
ages ; but amidst their voices that surprise and
come vibrating towards us, we recognise as a
murmur and a sweet whisper the infinite and mani-

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 115

fold voice of the people that was singing in unison
with them. It is this harmony that has made them
great. Thus it had to be ; Phidias, Ictinus, the
men who reared the Parthenon and Olympian
Zeus, were, like the other Athenians, poor citizens
and villagers educated in the palaestra, wrestling
and exercising themselves as gymnasts, accustomed
to deliberate and vote in the public assembly, with
the same habits, the same interests, the same ideas,
the same beliefs ; men of kindred race, education,
and language ; so that in all the important circum-
stances of life they were similar to those who
watched them."1

I might continue to cite paragraphs and texts in
which the evidence proves how the human intelli-
gence is an adaptation to Nature ; I might appeal
to the psychology of Spencer, which could not be
more explicit on this point. But it would be
tiresome, and lengthen greatly this work, to under-
take to prove that which in science is an accepted
fact. Starting from this certain positive basis,
what I wish to call your attention to is the applica-
tion which is logically deduced from it, namely,
that Nature is the inheritance, the property, the
riches, and the happiness of mankind ; that present
ownership, which the philosophy of right cannot
explain or authorise satisfactorily, is incompatible

1 H. Taine, Philosophie de VArt, p. 5.

116 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

with happiness. It is on this new conception of
property that one bases the argument and solution
of the great social problem. Property thus under-
stood will be the keystone of the new social edifice.

Now I know that I shall be told that this is not
new, that the abolition of capital has long been
proposed. My proposal merely tries to legitimatise
this aspiration, in availing myself of the law of
evolution, giving it greater value by endeavouring
to show that it is a logical consequence, and the
only one to which modern science leads.

When once this conception of property is
admitted, my task will be very simple ; and, in
applying and interpreting the law of evolution
according to its spirit rather than its letter, I shall
aim at presenting to society a state of indefinite
perfectibility, in which man will be able to satisfy
his noblest and highest aspirations. It will enable
me at the same time to prove that war between
capital and labour is utterly futile; that, in the
antagonism between them, labour will end by
destroying capital, after a long sanguinary struggle,
and will in the result fail to attain the coveted
ideal, since the contest is initiated on a wrong
basis. The road to be followed is the broad path
indicated in positive science by the law of evolution,
since the organisation that has made man out of a
protist is the only one capable of rescuing present

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 117

society from the chaos in which it lives, and leading
it to the desired land of promise.

It is plain that, by following the dictates of
Nature, the threatening and difficult conflict that
is presented to us would end peaceably so soon as
men were convinced that they are disputing for
possession of a remedy that is no cure; that the
other road is easy, expeditious, and more suited to,
and worthier of, mankind ; that in pursuing this
road all the artificialities that now compose the life
of the State will, by degrees, be submerged, with-
out noise, without shock, and amidst the most
profound indifference. Man will separate, calm
and content, from the present state of things, on
abandoning a social condition absurd and miser-
able. I am all the more certain that the solution
of the conflict will be peaceful, in that I affirm that
some of those who to-day are owners of vast wealth
will help so far as in them lies, when convinced
that there can be another social organisation better
than the present : philanthropists have always been
a power in a world. Men have been divided into
classes, not because some are good and others bad,
but because present organisation inevitably leads to
that position, and produces all the lamentable
injustices for which it is alone responsible. The
antagonism of class is not essential to man, though
it is essential to his archaic civilisation.

118 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

From what I have said on adaptation, I think I
have sufficiently proved that the future of humanity
is not subject to the caprice of anyone, but that
there exists an irrefragable law which has made
man out of a conglomeration of matter, and this
same law, sooner or later, will have to be followed,
in order that man himself may attain the state of
happiness that is his legitimate aspiration. Psychic
adaptation would be the best possible corre-
spondence between Nature and intelligence. This
adaptation would again place man in the right path
for the accomplishment of the law of evolution.

Having explained what has preceded, I can now
sum up the facts of psychic life as follows :—

In the lowest beings already appear physical and
psychic life, although very slightly differentiated ;
but both become capable of differentiation as we
ascend the animal scale, until attaining their highest
degree of differentiation in man. On his appearance
upon the earth, the intelligence, the result of
successive psychic adaptations, continues to create
fresh series, to amplify those existing, and to
associate some with others, in order to give rise to
more complex and distinct intellectual complica-
tions. The brain has progressed, increasing the
number of its neuronas, and, just as the neuronas
become distinguished by new powers of perfect-
ing themselves which complete a new progress,

PSYCHIC ADAPTATION 119

individuals, by ever-increasing differentiations, help
to integrate a super-organic society more perfect
every day. So that we can establish the following
analogy : — The neurona is to the individual psychic
evolution what man is to the super-organic social
evolution. The great evolutionary law attains to
the social organism by the same road and by the
same processes of adaptation common to all beings.
The more numerous the psychic element — in this
case men — the more exact, the more complex, the
more distinct, and the more differentiated and co-
ordinated the human intelligence.

This prodigous evolution has no limits, no more
than has Nature herself. It cannot be stated to
what point of progress the super-organic organism
will attain in a state of growth ever continuous and
every moment more extended. By the law of
correspondence, the organic substance, by virtue of
its admirable plasticity, registers all these perfec-
tions, and by its adaptation and differentiation the
organic substance continues to integrate all the
external in human consciousness.

CHAPTER VII

HEALTH AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF MECHANICS

HEALTH, that is, individual soundness, presupposes
organic and psychic adaptation — the mens sana in
corpore sano.

The perfect correspondence of mechanical, chemi-
cal, and biological laws with the natural laws, is
what makes man healthy.

When humanity lives in a normal medium, the
adaptation of its chemical and biological organisa-
tion must be more stable than in any other,
whether crystal, plant, or animal, from the means
upon which man relies in order to effect this
correspondence.

Health must be man's normal condition ; if not,
he is not living in a normal medium, but in one in
which the order and precision of natural law have
been changed. An egg, in order to develop the
germ it contains, requires not merely a particular
number of days but a suitable temperature, without
which its development is not possible. Human

120

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 121

health also requires favourable conditions in the
medium. Nature does not alter her laws, which
are immutable, and health, which is a consequence
of them, must also be unchangeable ; therefore, if
Nature has fixed principles, man alone is responsible
for his own ills. Health has so great an importance
in the evolution of humanity, that without it there
can be no regular progress ; every being that changes
its normal state through having lost its adaptation
to natural laws is degenerate, and, therefore,
selection and heredity cannot take place, and so
the process of evolution in man is retarded. A
sick humanity is a drag upon progress, if not a cause
of regression. A civilisation like the present,
which so changes natural laws as to make man an
exception, is an absurdity.

Nature has made man healthy ; society so under-
mines his constitution that it ruins his health.

Every organisation is due to definite combina-
tions, and this fact is easily proved in the case of
crystals, for example, the symmetry of form being
a consequence of exactness in the chemical
combination. In plants and animals there exists
the same fixity of chemical combination and form :
see the elements of which flowers are composed,
how they have the same number of sepals and petals,
or rather of stamens and pistils ; how the leaves
are arranged in each species in a peculiar way. In

122 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

animals, count the number of vertebrae or of ribs,
or the number of bones in the interior of the ear,
in the hand or the foot. Note, too, the breeds that
preserve purity of blood, what a strong resemblance
separate specimens have in the spots on the skin,
or in the designs on the feathers, in the conforma-
tion of the body, in the whole and in detail, and
even in characteristic traits.

In man, in whom health would be the normal
chemical state, and in whom these conditions should
be observed with greater precision, the contrary is
the case ; on which account, as we said above,
society ill-treats human organisation to the point of
denaturalising his biological conditions.

If we pass beyond the frontiers of organisation,
scrutinising beyond, where matter, combining in
definite and concrete proportions and forms, pro-
duces crystals, plants, animals ; beyond all this
concrete world of settled forms we find the same
definite laws or rhythms of force, some of which
man has been able to discover, and will go on
discovering daily, in virtue of the relation that
exists between Nature and intelligence.

The Pythagorean forecast, in which number ruled
the universe, evolved the theory of the unity of
physical forces, to be to-day converted into the
current application of universal mechanics to all
orders of life.

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 123

All forces are correlative harmonic rhythmic
vibrations, which are mutually transformed into
simple relations in the numeric series expressive
of universal harmony.

Sound, light, heat, electricity, mechanical work,
chemical affinity, constitute forms of universal
energy equivalent to one another, and can, in the
majority of cases, be weighed and measured.

We can study in special treatises the mechanical
equivalents of heat, of work, of chemical reaction ;
and though the series is not complete, ever ex-
tending with new discoveries, it is none the
less certain that man has been enabled to fix
the definite proportions of the majority of these
rhythms.

The law of gravity continually attracts matter in
direct ratio to its mass, and inversely as the square
of the distance.

For the so-called chemical forces, Lavoisier dis-
covered the simple numeric relation formulated in
his law : The weight of any combined bodies is equal
to the sum of the weights of their components.

No less simple is Dalton's law of multiple
proportions : Whenever two elements are combined
in variable ponderable quantities, if we take as a
fixed quantity that of one of them, that of the other
then becoming variable, the quantities of the varying
body are multiples or submultiples of the others.

124 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

This law, which is the foundation of the atomic
theory, is proved by this simple example, among a
thousand others that could be given.

Oxygen and hydrogen form two combinations,
namely, water, H20; secondly, peroxide of hydrogen
H202.

In the first, two atoms of hydrogen are united
with one of oxygen, and the respective weights
are: —

Two atoms of hydrogen = 2
One atom of oxygen =16.

In peroxide of hydrogen or oxygenated water :—

Two atoms of hydrogen = 2
Two atoms of oxygen = 32.

No less in harmony are other physical laws, as
those of volume and pressure in gases, as formulated
by Mariotte ; that of the invariability of angles in
the chemical crystallographic species ; the electro-
chemical laws of Faraday, and equilibria between
electric unities.

To end these mere examples, the development of
which would take me very far, in carrying me
beyond the scope of the present work, I will close
with a readily comprehensible example in acoustics.

In music, the harmonics are subject to numerical
rhythmical proportions. Starting from the funda-
mental note "do," composed of 128 vibrations, and

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 125

considering it as unity, we get the following
result :—

PRINCIPAL HARMONICS PRODUCED FROM ONE SOUND

Vibrations ??* ?G 789 10 Harmony

Chord Chord

1st. The 128 fundamental vibrations — the most
perceptible — " do."

2nd. The note 2, which, having twice the number
of vibrations, will give consequently 256 vibrations ;
that is, the upper octave " do."

3rd. The note, or 256 + 128 = 384 vibrations, the
product of which gives the fifth from the octave of
note 1, or " sol."

4th. The note 4, or 384 + 128 = 512 vibrations,
which produce the fourth from note 3, or the second
octave of note 1, a second " do."

5th. Note 5, or 512 + 128 = 640 vibrations, pro-
ducing the third above note 4, that is, "mi."

Whence comes the first perfect chord, do, do, sol,
do, mi.

Then come the notes 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, increasing
each time the same number of 128 vibrations, that

126 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

is, the coefficient 1, which give the series of
notes sol, si flat, do, re, mi, succeeding one another
at ever closer intervals (minor thirds and seconds),
and producing, by the suppression of notes 2, 4, 6,
8, 10, a perfect chord, similar to that which results
from the notes 1,2, 3, 4, 5, with the difference of
an octave between them.

It is seen that everything in Nature is subject
to exact laws, everything in Nature represents
elements of energies which combine in fixed
numerical proportions, as fixed and precise as are
invariable the angles in crystals of the same species,
the designs on the feathers of birds or the spots on
the skins of animals, and hence the harmonics in
music, and the exactitude of the law of gravity.
This same exactness should be found in man, but
is not, as his social conditions prohibit it. These
conditions of regularity in the human species would
establish his complete health. But, on the contrary,
of all animals, man is the most subject to illness to
a depressing extent ; and of animals, those which
suffer most are those which are most associated
with man.

The symmetry of form in crystals must be
represented in animals by the regularity of their
chemico-biological formation, which is what governs
also the symmetry of plants and animals. Which
leads to the following conclusion : — Man represents

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 127

a definite chemical combination, is a harmonic
rhythm, or rather, he should be. Human physiology
is subject to the laws of chemical mechanics, and
these, in their turn, are subject to the great
principles of force. Man receives from Nature his
chemical composition, more complex than all others ;
but, in virtue of the same general principles, he
must be of the same exactness as that of the best
crystal, plant, or animal, or, as it were, of that of
some physico-chemical law upon which he most
closely depends ; thus diseases, whether constitu-
tional or infectious, are the natural consequences
due to the worst conditions of existence. Diseases
are changes that humanity has acquired in its
chemico-biological relation, from its habitat in an
unsuitable environment. We may say that it is a
false chord in biological harmony.

Man has studied the improvement of his flowers,
his garden growth, and his animals, and in con-
sequence he has forgotten to improve himself.
This, though an absurdity, has its explanation,
namely, that man, in his present civilisation, cannot
adapt himself to the natural conditions of life, as
he is subject to economic conditions which are
incompatible with the former. There is no social
class, from the richest to the poorest, that concerns
itself with the betterment of its species. What a
sad condition that of man, who, having succeeded

128 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

in selecting his potatoes, his calves, his dogs and
horses, cannot perfect his own offspring ! For the
unhappy children who are born monsters, those
directly responsible are the parents, and indirectly,
society as it is constituted. It is a sad statement,
but far sadder is the fact.

No illnesses, whether infectious or constitutional,
ought to exist, and yet their victims are counted
by thousands. Cancer, tuberculosis, and typhus are
terrible afflictions, for which nothing but palliatives,
of no use, are offered ; it is the vine-leaf offered to
satisfy the public conscience.

Can we be unaware that bad economic and
sanitary conditions bring with them physiological
misery, and that they are the chief cause of the
development and propagation of the tubercular
bacillus ?

What are the academies and all these medical
and hygienic congresses then doing ? Why do they
not denounce, and exercise prohibitory action?
Because we must all agree on one point, namely,
that directly medical science points out the causes
that originate the evil, and shows the means of
avoiding it, there is no excuse for any class, not
even the pretext of economic conditions, to justify
such criminal delay. The life and health of the
citizens are riches, and the money that is employed
in diminishing mortality has profitable returns, for

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 129

health augments the well-being and material
prosperity of the country ; the continual refrain of
the economic question is to unmask ignorance and
apathy, and the former constitutes the real crime
of outraged humanity (lese humanite).

There are European peoples who have succeeded
in reducing considerably their mortality, as Turin,
for instance, which has from 45 per 1000 decreased
to 11 per 1000, and Havana, which has just reduced
its mortality from more than 40 to 17 per 1000.
True, this has cost money ; but the moral and
material benefit vastly outweighs the sacrifice. In
the island of Cuba, which is now one of the best
examples of a model sanitation, they have, in less
than three years, quite stamped out the terrible
yellow fever as well as the small -pox, and have
diminished the mortality of tuberculosis by one-
half.

We say nothing of the moral duty of govern-
ments of watching over the public health, this
being an obligation to be observed without any
kind of restriction ; but unfortunately a State that
has no stimulus beyond moral obligation is very
rare, only existing indeed among highly civilised
nations. We therefore instance economic rather
than moral pressure, certain that it is the only one
that is regarded, despite other hypocritical excuses.
Savages delight in decking themselves with feathers

9

130 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

and bright-coloured cloths ; they wear necklaces,
and even nose-rings, but are not seduced by in-
tellectual gifts more useful to the individual and
the race, because they do not shine so much.
Between the psychology of some States and that of
savages, it is only a question of degree, and evolu-
tion is the same — first sensory, then intellectual or
moral.

In presence of these data, what idea have those
countries whose mortality is so great as to be
criminal ? What excuse, if any, do they allege ?
The State cannot excuse itself with economic
conditions, for civic life provides muscles for agri-
culture, industry, and even for the defence of their
countries. So the State cannot screen itself behind
a want of resources without perpetrating an
absurdity ; it cannot allege ignorance, for here are
the facts and means of which other cities and
nations have availed themselves to obtain such
beneficial results, and against positive facts no
discussion is possible. So if neither want of
resources nor ignorance can be pleaded, we are in
a position to accuse the State that submits to a
mortality above the average of the crime of Use
patrie. All the medical academies and all the
medical congresses that refrain from denouncing
these facts fall short of their lofty mission.

Starting from the principle that we live in a

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 131

Christian civilisation, whose moral is, " Love thy
neighbour as thyself" we arrive at an absurd con-
clusion, which I propose to prove.

Admitting that those who perish miserably are
our neighbours, and that it is more logical to give
bread to the hungry than to reduce him at the point
of the bayonet when maddened by despair ; consider-
ing that it is better economy to bring the Mauser
into action — among Christian and unchristian
people — than to fulfil the great duty of human
solidarity, it is clear that we arrive at the following
conclusion : This civilisation is not Christian, since
it does not love its neighbour as itself; otherwise, it
does not know what it is saying, or rather it does not
know what it is doing. But, as it can hardly be
granted that a society should contradict its moral
principles solely for the pleasure of violating them,
and as it can equally less be admitted that a
rational being should delight in being in continual
contradiction with himself, I gather that the in-
evitable conclusion is that present civilisation is
absurd, and that if we accept these consequences,
such as they are, it is because, day by day, there
are none better to be found, when we hear many
persons say, though with the best wishes: "All
this is very sad, but there is no remedy"

To better understand the relation of health to
the general laws of mechanics, and how it is ruined

132 SUPER-OKGANIC EVOLUTION

by social organisation, let us examine some cases of
experimental medicine that are highly instructive.

There exist some animals, like the hen, that are
insusceptible to carbuncle. It was thought that
this immunity was due to its higher temperature
compared with that of man. Pasteur carried out
a very simple experiment in order to show that the
amount of heat might influence this immunity.
He placed a hen with its claws constantly bathed
in cold water, until he obtained a lower tempera-
ture ; this once obtained, the carbuncle was
developed and the hen sickened. The experiment
appeared conclusive. Gibier, however, made with
the frog, an animal also indisposed to carbuncle, a
similar experiment. In order to raise the frog's
temperature, he placed it in a bath at a temperature
of 35° Cent., and under these conditions the animal
lost its immunity, and was susceptible to the car-
buncle bacillus.

Canalis and Morpurgo have made hens and
pigeons lose their immunity, but in a different
manner, to which we especially call attention,
namely, by means of hunger. Submitting the
creatures, the subject of the experiment, to a
prolonged fast, the hens and pigeons also ended by
being victims of those terrible bacteria ; and, note
well, under normal conditions these creatures are
entirely immune.

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 133

White rats are also indisposed to this same
infection ; but subjecting them to fatigue, these
little animals lose their immunity. Charron and
Roger placed them in special cages, which obliged
the rats experimented upon to be always moving,
with the result that these little animals became
victims, like the previous ones, to the carbuncular
bacteria.

From these examples I think we can understand
the relation health maintains with the general
principles of mechanics, more especially with one
of the thermo-chemical laws of Berthelot : The
amount of heat that is released in any reaction is
the measure of the sum of the physical and chemical
labour produced by it. Thus stated, the problem
seems to us far clearer and simpler, and more in
harmony with the spirit of modern biological science,
which can admit no other laws than the general
laws of mechanics. The hen in its normal state
represents a chemical combination, definite and
concrete, that admits of no disintegration on the
part of the infectious agent ; in making the said
bird lose its normal temperature one causes it to
lose a great amount of heat. Well, then, according
to the law of equilibrium of forces, this amount of
heat lost by the hen presupposes an equal loss in
chemical and electrical affinity, etc., and indeed
we may say even in radio-activity. As all these

134 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

energies, which are transformed by virtue of that
same law of equilibrium, are the sum of the physical
and chemical labours of reaction, the inference is
that a change has necessarily been produced in the
cellular chemical mechanism of the hen, equivalent
to the quantity of heat transformed. In this
change in the equilibrium of the chemical
mechanism lies the loss of immunity.

In the case of the frog the problem is the same ;
on raising the animal's temperature one upsets all
the chemistry of its cells, since it is not possible
to change the temperature in a chemical, and
above all a chemico-organic, compound, without
exciting a corresponding change in its molecular
dynamics.

Humanity, in the absurd social regimen that it
suffers, is like the hen in Pasteur's experiment, or
the frog in that of Gibier, or like the hens, pigeons,
and rats in the other experiments ; that is, men
lose forces which alter their definite chemical
combination, so as to render them thereby
susceptible to every kind of disease.

Living beings are machines with the property
of transforming potential energy (nourishment)
into useful force (life).

Let us suppose a chemical combination, N, of
an animal, say a hen, as in the experiment cited,
or rather man, in whom we are interested ; but in

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 135

either case the formula N is typical, as are all
natural laws, and composed of various elements
(A, B, C, D). This formula of a sound individual
has a dynamic value perfectly balanced ; so that,
supposing it to be a mechanical work equivalent to
100, distributed so as to transform a quantity of
potential energy (nourishment) into living energy
of a useful output of 75, and 25 of residue, the
result will be that so long as he is in this true
balance, man will preserve his health. All this
must follow a regular routine, whilst the animal or
the man lives in a normal medium — that is, one
in which solid and liquid nourishment have the
required consistency, and in pure air, and in which
the human machine does not do violence to its
system of forces ; in this way only will equilibrium
be maintained in formula N.

Bearing in mind that the chemical formula N
aims at transforming potential energy into living
energy, it will be easily understood that if the
solid, liquid, and gaseous aliments, that is to say,
the potential force, change, formula N will perforce
have to be modified, and its mechanical equivalent,
instead of 75, will be 60 (for example), and the
residues 40; and consequently there will be an
alteration in the normal formula, which will come
to be N' (A', B', C', D'), having a less output in
useful force and an increase in the residues.

136 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

This want of equilibrium in the output, with a loss
of useful force and an increase in the residues, is
the source of all the diseases called constitutional ;
the more so that the formula N' (A', B', C', D'), on
increasing the residues, alters their quality also,
which, from the very fact of their not being normal,
is toxic. Arthritis, with its derivatives, gout,
rheumatism, obesity, diabetes, etc., originate from
the change of the chemical mechanics of the
formula N.

The importance of constitutional diseases is all
the greater in that, by avoiding these, the distribu-
tion of infectious complaints would be impossible.

Dr Eoux of Lyons, and other illustrious patho-
logists, prove that it is not possible to admit the
classical division of microbiology into saprogenous
and pathogenous bacteria. The former, until
recently considered innocuous, acquire virulence
under certain conditions and become pathogenous.

The series of each of these, as well as a detailed
acquaintance with their vital conditions, are not
wholly known, as we are at present obliged to
substitute the above-mentioned classification for
the latter more sensible one and better suited to
the facts, namely, pathogenous and non-patho-
genous bacteria.

The important question of the specific cause of
each disease seems to be at present less absolute,

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 137

but, as we have intimated, no less interesting. Let
us note the following considerations : —

" The doctrine of the specific agent, so brilliantly
supported by Trousseau, founded on typhoid fever
in the works of Eberth, Gaffky, Chantemesse, and
Widal, admits of some modifying circumstances.

"Microbiology enters upon a new phase in
demonstrating the presence in the natural cavities
of sound individuals of microbes capable of con-
version into pathogenous, such as the microbes of
suppuration, pneumonia, and diphtheria. If the
investigations of Messieurs Rodet and Roux (of
Lyons) are confirmed, that is, if it is shown that
Eberth's bacillus is only a modification of the
bacillus which habitually lives in the bowel, one
cannot consider contact by water as the sole cause
of typhoid ; it will be necessary to admit cases in
which the bacillus of the bowel has acquired its
virulence in the human organism, whilst depending
upon modifications in the internal environment.
Now, then, is it not well known that excessive
fatigue is one of the factors that greatly influence
the internal organism? It may be alleged, then,
that an individual undergoes, under the influence
of auto-intoxication from excessive fatigue, such
modifications that at any given moment he may
become a victim to the Bacterium coli. Thus
would be explained the different morbous series

138 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

that have been observed, series which lead from
the simple touch of fever to the most characteristic
typhoid."1

What is the origin of infectious diseases ? Do
they reveal their origin in the external medium
or in the human organism itself? Facts, in the
majority of cases and in diseases peculiar to man,
appear to leave no room for doubt that in many
cases the origin of the diseases that afflict man
resides in man himself.

Microbes dwell inoffensively in the sound man,
because the normal state of the secretions so
requires it ; but if wrong conditions of existence
succeed in altering the chemical action, or the
normal formula, the change which of necessity this
causes the medium — man — to undergo, alters the
normal state of these microbes and renders them
virulent. This is what would result, according to
Rodet and Roux, with the Bacterium coli-comune
on producing typhoid ; and this is what occurs
in pneumonia and diphtheria.

The microbes that produce pneumonia and
diphtheria may live normally in the mouth of a
man, being completely harmless. But it may
happen that some changes in the medium or in the
subject so alter his chemical composition as to
modify also the secretions of the glands of the

1 Bouchard, Pathologic generale, p. 480.

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 139

mouth. This chemical disturbance of the medium
in which the microbes of pneumonia and diphtheria
and others live carries with it a modification of
these kinds of microbes in order to adapt them-
selves to their new conditions of life, and in them
resides the acquisition of properties which give
them virulence, and which may produce pneumonia,
for instance. In a sound individual, in the fullest
acceptance of the term, such things do not happen ;
but there are many who, though apparently robust,
are not healthy, as they have an organic disorder,
as happens with all arthritic subjects. If, among
these, causes supervene which increase the arthritic
tendency, as excessive fatigue, moral depravity, or
some other depressing cause, it may happen that
the liquids of the mouth undergo the changes
necessary for the microbe of pneumonia, which
till then lived harmless, to acquire the virulence
which converts it into the terrible agent of pneu-
monia. Take also into account that, when these
circumstances occur in the case of an arthritic
subject, not only are the juices of the mouth
changed, but also all those of his organism, which
increases predisposition to it, and aggravates the
consequences.

What happens with the microbe of pneumonia,
diphtheria, suppuration, etc., may be applicable to
all infectious agents that are normal organisms

140 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

whilst man lives in sound health, but as soon as
he changes his chemical conditions, the adaptation
of these micro-organisms to a different chemical
medium of health invests them with conditions of
virulence, whence many infectious diseases are
derived. Thus would result a complete dependence
between infectious and constitutional states, the
avoidance of the latter being the best way to
combat the former.

Well now, just as the infectious agent depends
on the chemical change in the medium — man — and
he in turn on his social medium, it will not be
possible to expel infectious or constitutional ail-
ments until the economical regimen is changed
from the inverse to the reverse.

It is sufficient to deprive the hen of heat to
render it susceptible to the disease. This happens
to man every day. A cooling in healthy individuals
produces no effect, because the phenomena of
vascularisation repair the alteration produced by
the cold ; but in arthritic subjects, that is to say,
rheumatic, gouty, diabetic, obese, neurasthenic
individuals whose chemical formula has lost its
fixity, whose cellular chemical constituents are
therefore less stable, a cooling will actually alter in
them their formula N. This alteration consists
in the consequent elimination by the cellular
chemicals of products that are not normal, or

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 141

which, being normal, increase their production
until they are noxious — for instance, the excess
of uric acid, that which gives rise to rheumatic
phenomena from its accumulation in the system.

Any loss of heat, which is also a loss of force,
represents an equivalent alteration in the chemical
mechanics, an alteration that will reveal itself in the
blood under the form of a toxic product, propor-
tional to the alteration of the chemical work. Such
a momentary loss of heat without compensation
will suffice to upset the formula N7 in a rheumatic
person, and the kind of variation in this case will
produce a great quantity of uric acid, which will
alter all the secretions, and hence that series of
disturbances of the mucous membrane which may
give rise to both bronchial and intestinal catarrh,
or to nephritis, according to the individual organic
conditions or susceptibilities. It is equally clear
that the uric acid accumulates in the articulations
or the muscles, producing the pains peculiar to
rheumatism. Here may be originated the vaso-
motor phenomena to help the organism to recover
its equilibrium ; but as uric acid paralyses them,
hence follow congestions which may vary from
simple pulmonary hypersemia to pneumonia.
What is said of rheumatic subjects applies also to
gouty, diabetic, and others.

Let us take the experience of hunger. Here the

142 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

problem is essentially the same ; to deprive the hen
of strength by subtracting heat, or by withholding
of nourishment, is in substance the same thing.
The waste of energy which the sole fact of living
presupposes is equivalent to an equal consumption
of energy, which is what must repair the loss of
nourishment ; if this is excluded, as in the experi-
ments of Canalis and Morpurgo upon hens and
pigeons, it is equivalent to a loss of energy, just as
when they are deprived of heat through cold water.
Animals thus deprived of nourishment will continue
to live, first, on the organic accumulations, such as
fat ; then, when these are exhausted, their own
chemical composition will have to supply strength
in the form of heat, affinity, electricity, etc. ; and
these essential energies in the hen cannot proceed
from any other part than its own biological chemicals
of formula N, and this waste of energy presupposes
an equal transformation of matter by alteration of
the chemical formula, which will make possible the
development of some disease or even death. Were
it not so, the law of the equilibrium of forces would
not be true. Its application to individuals who
undergo excess of fatigue and live under bad
hygienic conditions, and to those who do not eat
sufficient food and suffer chronic hunger and its
consequences, is perfectly clear, and needs no
comment.

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 143

Let us examine the experiment as to fatigue.
Charron and Eoger, subjecting white rats to
excessive fatigue, succeeded in depriving them of
their immunity.

Let us not forget that in all these experiments
the point is to get animals to contract a disease
from which they are normally immune.

In this case, as in the previous ones, the matter
reduces itself to an alteration in the chemical
mechanics through loss of energy ; there is an
excessive amount of waste and a loss of repair,
from which results a disorganisation in the normal
biological formula, which formerly adjusted the
balance of waste and repair; and all that is
required to upset this equilibrium is to open the
door to infectious diseases, among them tubercu-
losis, the victims of which are annually counted by
thousands.

I cannot stop to detail case by case the thousands
of times that the right of humanity is thereby
violated ; but whenever the air is impure, the
water undrinkable and scarce, the nourishment
insufficient or unwholesome, and where there is an
abuse of human powers, then a crime is committed
entailing an immense responsibility.

It is incumbent upon society, the State, and
above all the medical faculty, to intervene, but
unfortunately the time is still far off to which

144 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Micbelet referred in requesting that medicine should
mean "justice and morality."

In the investigation of the subsoil through the
unhealthy slavery of the miner, in the life of the
poor agriculturist and field labourer, in workshops,
in the main unsanitary, in the life of cities where
abound whole districts the dwellings of which are
hotbeds of infection, and in the majority of towns,
small and great, where hygiene does not exist, is to
be found an everlasting conspiracy against the
health of man. Want of air and light, scarce or
bad food, as well as excessive labour and fatigue,
are so many more factors that vie with one another
in altering the natural laws that should combine for
the well-being of humanity.

Bear in mind the conditions that, according to
Eamon y Cajal, contribute to proper mental
function, and with what facility they may be dis-
turbed, not forgetting that the nervous cell is the
grand element, the origin of all psychic energy, and
we shall understand how monstrous is the present
state of society, subjected to an environment so
arbitrary and brutal as is its economical condition,
the sole base of the social edifice. Thus is human
personality destroyed and denied the possibility of
accomplishing its evolution.

The progress of humanity consists in the pre-
dominance of the psychic quality ; but this require-

HEALTH AND THE LAWS OF MECHANICS 145

ment can only be realised on condition of the
individual integrity of the mem sana in corpore sano.

The alteration of the nervous centres is subject
to the same general laws as mechanics, and the
slightest alteration in them is sufficient to modify
their structure, and, consequently, the whole of
their psychic life, whence are derived the changes
that include the imbecile, the criminal, and the
madman. All this is a consequence of present
social organisation, because on interfering with the
equilibrium of the organic chemical condition of
the nervous centres there arises at once an altera-
tion in the reticulum of the neurona, or rather the
mielina of the nerve-tubes, or rather that of the
interstitial cement ; an alteration in the quality of
the neuroglia, whose rule is the isolation and
maintenance of the different nervous unities, or
rather the fulness of the cerebral circulation ; in a
word, there arises the loss of mental balance, with
all its sad consequences to the individual, the
family, and the race.

Society is responsible for the health of the body
and of the intelligence. Nervous, constitutional,
and infectious diseases are so many more causes
for the dissolution of the human species, which
would disappear were it not that this, like all
matter, is subject to the endless impulse of
universal energy. It matters not that humanity

10

146 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

commits the insane folly of self-destruction; the
infinity of force renews it without cessation, and
man lives and multiplies in spite of his misery.

Humanity continues in virtue of the same energy
that converts the grub into a butterfly, that
develops the embryo in the bird's egg, that gives to
plants their flower, and to the trees their fruit ; the
same energy that makes the water burst forth from
the fountain, and lets loose all the terrors of the
tempest.

Health is a case of the harmonious adaptation of
the general law of mechanics.

CHAPTER VIII

NATURAL SELECTION — ARTIFICIAL SELECTION —
PSYCHIC SELECTION

/. Natural Selection and the Struggle for Life

WHEN we reflect upon the great effort represented
by an organism in its constant improvement, due
to the general laws of matter ; when we consider
that this organism extends to form one whole with
the organic world, whence all elements are derived ;
when we learn from the fruitful teaching of Lyell
the periodic evolution of the earth; when we
picture to ourselves how the latter spins along its
ellipse with bewildering velocity ; when we recall
the perfect balance to which our little world is
subject, we perceive the enormous amount of
energy that impels us, the infinite power that holds
us ; and it seems the most natural thing that on
this earth, thanks to universal mechanics, there
should arise the chemical combination of man — a
rhythm, in fine, of this indefinite harmony of force,

147

148 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

that, since the cosmos, continues to impel something
reserved and internal, that attains to-day its
maximum of progress in the human form, pre-
carious it may be, but whose outlook is immense,
in view of a boundless past and an illimitable
future.

The whole theory of evolution in our planet
is a very small part of this science of universal
energy.

Medium, adaptation, selection, and heredity are,
as it were, slight indicators that perhaps mark the
tonality or beat ordained by time, in which this
irresistible force is being developed.

Thus considered, let us see what is the value of
natural selection, called by Darwin struggle for life.

Let us not forget that the theory of terrestrial
evolution takes its origin from universal mechanics.

One of the things that has caused so much
confusion and abuse is the somewhat unfortunate
term given by Darwin to natural selection, as the
struggle for life. This expression is so graphic and
concise, and appeals so easily and widely to general
imagination, that it was stereotyped immediately,
absorbing and summing up, for most minds, the
whole theory of evolution. So it happens that
from a somewhat unhappy phrase, from that which
was only one element to illustrate a theory, arose
a series of errors, a false interpretation, which

NATURAL SELECTION 149

reduces the whole theory of evolution to the
struggle for life.

Apropos of this, I have selected some para-
graphs from a letter addressed by Darwin to
E. Haeckel on the 8th of October 1864 :—

" In South America, three classes of phenomena
made a great impression upon me : First, the way
in which species closely related succeed and replace
one another as one journeys from north to south.
Secondly, the proximity of relationship of the
species that inhabit the islands of the South
American littoral, and those of this continent, a
fact that caused me as much surprise as the great
variety of species that live in the Galapagos
Archipelago close to hand. Thirdly, the close
relations that unite the toothless mammals and
the rodents of that epoch with the extinct species
of the same family. I shall never forget my
surprise on disinterring some remains of a gigantic
armadillo similar to that of the present day.

" Reflecting on these facts and comparing them
with others of the same order, it seemed possible
that the different species that preserve their relation-
ship may very well have descended from a common
ancestral form. But for several years I have
been unable to understand how this form could
also have adapted itself to such different conditions
of life. I applied myself to the systematic study

150 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

of domestic plants and animals, and after a time
I perceived perfectly that the most important
modifying influence lies in the free choice open
to man in selecting individuals for the propagation
of species.

" Having often studied the mode of life and
habits of animals, I was prepared to form a just
idea of the struggle for life, being acquainted
already, from my geological studies, with the
vastness of bygone periods.

"Having read, therefore, by a happy chance,
Malthus's work, The Principle of Population, I
conceived the idea of natural selection." *

The title struggle for life is suggested by
Malthus's theory of the law according to which
aliments increase in arithmetical and animals in
geometrical progression, and therefore a great
number of those born are destined to die from
want of nourishment. This law, however, offers
great contradictions.2

Natural selection in the theory of evolution is an
incentive that facilitates the predominance of this
or that form, and the means of securing the victory
to the most suitable, and, in the last resort, is a
mechanical problem, for of two or more systems of
conflicting forces the more powerful must prevail.

1 E. Haeckel, Hist, de la Creation naturelle, p. 119.

2 Ibid., p. 144.

NATURAL SELECTION 151

Without these general conditions of force, tending
to evolution, what would become of natural
selection, deprived of the faculty that organic
matter has of adapting itself to its medium ? What
would become of natural selection itself, without
heredity ?

Adaptation, selection, and heredity are the factors
by which every organism is developed, and they are
in intimate and direct dependence upon another
great factor, medium, which in turn is bound to
universal energetic. So that there is an immense
difference between what is really the struggle for
life, as one of the elements of evolution, compared
with the enormous preponderance which usually is
gratuitously ascribed to it.

The struggle for life of itself would be nothing,
had it not, as inseparable complementary com-
panions, adaptation and heredity; and these, in
their turn, would not exist without the general
laws of mechanics, which include equally crude
matter and live matter. And this, which is
commonly the key that claims to explain even
social phenomena, passes on to a third term, as it
depends not only on the cosmic environment, but
is also subordinated to adaptation and heredity, and
in its last term to the rhythms of force, from which
start all initial energies.

Note the case of the Mexican axolotl, quoted

152 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

in " Adaptation," p. 27, in which these animals
suddenly, without the intervention of any kind of
struggle for life, change from aquatic, as they were,
to terrestrial beings. I do not think there is a
better example for explaining evolution and the
relative insignificance of the struggle for life ;
wherefore I insist that the law of evolution is the
same universal energy, and thus we can understand
its true significance in each case.

This must not be forgotten, in order that we
may not be led away by an argument of scientific
nature but exaggerated form, for which, in the first
instance, was responsible the phrase struggle for
life, which is far from being comprehensive.

As the wrong interpretation of the law of the
struggle for life has been much abused, and in
order to illustrate my explanation, I will cite an
example, the analogy of which will make my mean-
ing clear.

A watch contains a number of parts that unite
in forming a connected system to make the
hands move. In order to set in motion the entire
connection, one requires the initial force of the
metal spring, the elasticity of which sets the
watch going.

Applying the analogy to the domain of evolution,
we may consider that the connected system is in
this case the medium, adaptation, selection, and

I

NATURAL SELECTION 153

heredity, needing also, however, for its motion an
initial force, that of energy.

Well, then, in this tout ensemble of evolution, we
will call one of the parts which go to form the
system the struggle for life.

The progress of mechanical industry allows the
watchmaker to perfect and adjust the system of
connections, and to suppress or substitute one part
for another more simple, lighter, and more precise.

In the system of evolution something similar
may occur. Whilst the animal world cannot
differentiate its psychic element sufficiently for man
to make himself intelligent, this part of the con-
nection which we have agreed to call struggle for
life works in the system of evolution ; but when
humanity becomes intelligent and begins to practise
artificial selection, as horticulturists and cattle-
breeders have done for some time past, even before
Darwin came upon natural selection, mistakes are
no longer possible, since it is easy to understand
that natural and artificial selection are the same
part of the connection taking part in evolution :
the one, coarse, brutal, and unconscious, peculiar
only to the brute; the other, the same part
polished by the work of the intelligence, that
knows how to render it more precise and delicate.

The important thing, then, in sociology is not the
struggle for life, but, on the contrary, natural

154 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

selection. Till now this last has only been tried
with flowers, vegetables, and animals, because
natural human discrimination has not extended
further.

To complete the analogy of this instance, we will
say that without the initial force there would be
no starting either of the struggle for life in the
brutes nor artificial selection for the man of the
future ; just as the watch would not go without the
elasticity of the spring.

We think, therefore, that we can understand the
true value of the law of the struggle for life, which
is only a complementary, never a principal, factor,
much less, as has been claimed, an essential one.
The tragic aspect of this law, and its analogy to the
struggle for life as far as concerns the human
element, were the reason that the economists and
writers on social science have allowed themselves
to be led astray, and even ventured judgments and
commentaries that do not apply to the biological
meaning of the struggle for existence.

The first generic idea of the theory of evolution
was held by Lamarck, who considered that all
plants and animals descend, by successive develop-
ment, from one simple ancestral form.

But note that, before Darwin spoke of the
struggle for life, as a means of natural selection,
man already practised what is called artificial

NATURAL SELECTION 155

selection, and in such a manner that the means
used by horticulturists and cattle-breeders for the
improvement of their stock was what chiefly sug-
gested the celebrated law to the clever English
naturalist, as he himself intimates in his letter to
Haeckel. The knowledge of how a gardener, a
horticulturist, or a stock-rearer obtained in a short
time species that differed from one another through
newly acquired conditions much more than the
natural species, taught Darwin that in Nature
things would proceed on similar lines, although not
so exactly, since man obtained a greater difference
in an infinitely shorter space of time. Hence it is
inferred, too, that the operation of artificial selec-
tion is much superior to the natural one, the
struggle for life; that man disposes or accumulates
his resources so that he does, in a comparatively
short space of time, what Nature needs an un-
limited period to perform. In a word, the selec-
tion created by man is very superior to natural selec-
tion, and the struggle for existence is a great spring
in savage Nature, but always an unconscious means,
and one that disappears before the efficacy of selec-
tion manipulated by man with the same object.
Darwin studied the problem of natural selection so
completely, with such wealth of data, and succeeded
in showing that selection is a complement to adap-
tation and heredity, that his ideas triumphed, and

156 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

with them the theory of evolution. To give to the
struggle for life a preponderance over the other
factors of evolution is an error of conception and
interpretation that gives rise in sociology to per-
verse and inadmissible conclusions.

The struggle for life only remains in force until
man appears, and is a factor that does not count
when civilisation begins. To claim the existence
of a law with resources inferior to those employed
by man to improve plants and animals, is to demon-
strate so complete an ignorance of the subject as
to provoke the derision of horticulturists and cattle-
breeders. What can we say, then, of those who
would apply the said law to man himself? It is
quite incomprehensible that economists and their
followers should mean that man makes use of a
means of selection, of the principle of the struggle
for life, which is an inferior method, solely to im-
prove his pigs and garden stuff.

Organisms are perfected with all the greater
rapidity the greater their differentiation. Thus
man is more rapidly perfected, and humanity, as
a super-organic organism, is incomparably more
capable of perfection than all other beings, and all
the more readily that he is infinitely more differ-
entiated. Japan is an eloquent and convincing
example of this truth.

Humanity is still the theatre of a mean and

NATURAL SELECTION

brutal struggle, which perhaps may have some
analogy with the struggle for existence in Nature ;
but it does not centre, however, as in evolution, in
an indefinite perfection, that crowns its work with
man. In the battle that is set on foot in human
society, the result is not improvement, it is deteri-
oration ; its aim is not happiness, it is money ; and
as this is a restrictive means of enjoyment, one
places man in the same situation as the wild beast ;
one makes him a selfish barbarian, or a coward and
hypocrite, since, like the beast, he has to scent his
prey, not knowing whether in future or to-morrow
he will find his rations. So that natural selection,
which in Nature is a means of improvement, in
reaching man, in society is converted into an energy
for ruining what he has done, which is an absurdity.

As one sees, it is only a shallowness of conception
that has confounded what in Nature is a means of
selection, the spirit of which was surmised by the
sagacity of the great naturalist Charles Darwin,
who gave it the name of struggle for existence, a
law which they claim to apply improperly to social
phenomena.

Psychic life guarantees physical life ; intelligence
assures animal life.

Plants or animals have a very limited correspond-
ence with the external medium. The brute, by
instinct alone, limits its relation to the atmosphere

158 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

and to a small portion of time and space ; the
animal consumes for itself, but produces nothing
for itself in return, the moment of necessity
arriving when its resources will be exhausted.
In man the case is very different, since with
intelligence his action extends considerably over
time and space. Besides, the law of correspond-
ence of the external to the internal, much more
perfect in man than in animals, makes him the
lord of Nature ; he disposes of his natural forces,
and constructs machines with which he multiplies
his power indefinitely, and natural science offers
him energies such as radio-activity. To sum up :
man consumes as a unit, but has the productive
power of a thousand. How can we thus think of the
struggle for life ? Can we compare the unconscious
capital which the brute has at his disposal in
natural selection, with the boundless capital —
natural forces — placed at the service of man through
his intelligence ? Would not inquiry have been
made of Malthus or his followers, now that his
famous law has been the point of support of the
pseudo-economists, in order to justify the un-
justifiable? If sustenance increases in arithmetical,
and animals in geometrical progression, in what
progression does the intelligence increase, and the
resources it creates ? What is the meaning of
intelligence? When will men understand the

NATURAL SELECTION 159

meaning of what they carry on their shoulders?
The perfecting of man consists in the perpetual
improving of his intelligence, and this can be done
only by a wise and methodical application that
secures the correspondence of the internal to the
external. Of what use could an unconscious force
such as the struggle for existence be to humanity \
Of only one : to justify its continuance in barbarism.
There are other contradictions, truly puerile.
I refer to what in natural selection is included in
the struggle against climate, inclemency, cold,
storms, rains, or drought, and a thousand circum-
stances in which is brought into play, as one of
the many factors, what we have agreed to call the
struggle for life. It is man who can best support
all climates ; he is the only animal that has been
able to adapt himself for life from the equator to
the poles; considering man as an organism, and
comparing him as an animal with all other animals,
the advantage lies with man ; but to stop at this
sole comparison, forgetting the significance of
intelligence, would be to incur an error like Malthus.
Man conquers the inclemencies of climate, not
only through being able to adapt himself to them
better than all other animals, but chiefly because
his industry provides him with shelter against the
rigours of cold, rain, etc. The proof of this is that
it is not the healthiest countries that have the best

160 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

climate, but the most intelligent, that is, those in
which industry hygienically applied favours the
life of man. There are temperate zones, enjoyed
by nations like Spain and Turkey, in which the
climate seems ordained to form the life of man
under better conditions than in cold and moist
climates, as is the case in Sweden and Norway ;
and yet quite the contrary is the case, since the
latter have less than half the mortality of the former.
Then, the struggle for existence is all the less applic-
able in the matter of climate since the proof is to
the contrary — the worse the climate, the greater
the vitality. Nature affords us, thanks to intelli-
gence, every possible means of resisting inclemency ;
but, on the other hand, society does not give us the
means, resources or money, to protect ourselves
against their severities. Human beings killed by
misery, hunger, unhealthy conditions do not fall
victims to the struggle for life, but to social organ-
isation, which is more stupid than selfish.

Economists are the chief culprits in this matter,
with their senseless application of the struggle for
life, because, being ignorant of the spirit of the
natural laws, they have taken capital as synonymous
with nourishment or feeding-grounds, and thus,
subject to a limited means, such as money, a struggle
of humanity, similar to that of the struggle for life
in Nature, is possible.

NATURAL SELECTION 161

There is another essential difference that brings
into relief the great antagonism this law implies
when applied to sociology. In animals and plants
it is a factor in their improvement, and therefore
has its justification, and the end of its operation is
to assist the appearance of man upon the earth.

In society, as it is organised, it constitutes the
only, or at least the primordial, end of life, the
accumulation of wealth. This is the key that opens
all doors, and with that view all intelligences are
awakened, all incentives are aroused. Thus,
according to the law we are discussing, a selection
will be made ; but when applied to the amassing
of wealth, perfection will only be attained by those
best adapted to that end. That this neither is nor
should be the final aim of man upon the earth, all
the world knows ; but of all those very persons
who have succeeded in amassing capital and who
live and die victims to their efforts, being as
unfortunate as the rest, and leaving an unlucky
offspring — Maudsley says that the sons of men
who have made great fortunes by dint of sacrifices
and fatigue are degenerate, the miserable issue of
those who are now called heirs of weariness,
afflicted with neurosis, a disease in direct conflict
with the selection that the struggle for existence
implies.

On the contrary, the law of evolution teaches us

11

162 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

that the formal object of humanity is constant pro-
gress ; that this is only acquired by the best adapta-
tion of the intelligence to Nature, in which man
has an inextinguishable treasure for the increase of
his well-being, and that in this progress will be
found true happiness.

To resume, Darwin's so-called struggle for life is
not a law applied to man, for it is not possible that
intelligence for its development should make use
of an unconscious expedient, and one that man
does not use even for his animals. For man by his
method of artificial selection commands much more
easily the plastic nature of organic matter, giving
to animals the fat, the flesh, or the bone that they
require, according to the needs of trade ; and he
changes or modifies at his whim the primitive form,
obtaining types as different as those of the thorough-
bred racehorse, with its special anatomy and
physiology, and the Suffolk punch, which is quite
another type. With dogs he has obtained as
much — veritable marvels of form and fitness beyond
the wildest fancy. It is therefore an absurdity to
think that the struggle for life is a principle applic-
able to humanity, when man in this case triumphs
over Nature.

In wild animals the struggle for existence is an
incentive to favour the survival of the fittest, but
this incentive loses much of its importance when

NATURAL SELECTION 163

one remembers that the initial energy resides
already in the organism as its essential condition,
and that, without this activity which binds it to
the universal mechanics, the influence that at
stated times urges the creatures to the struggle for
life would be impossible. The famous law is a
factor of value only in the rude state, and that as
an element, though not the chief one, in the
system of evolution. From all this one infers that
far greater weight has been given to the principle
of the struggle for life than it really possesses, and
that it has been much abused in interpreting it,
and wishing to apply it to humanity, since Darwin
only thought of animals and plants in a primitive
state, and as impelled to what man performed by
artificial selection.

I have shown that the part that is attributed
to the struggle for existence in society is due to the
analogy to which we assimilate the wish to consider
money as synonymous with nourishment or feeding-
ground; and that, as both are limited terms, the
struggle for the possession of money is analogous
to the conflict maintained by animals for their
feeding-grounds, with the sole and chief difference
that what serves to help in animals their improve-
ment or selection, for want of a better, in the human
species turns out quite the contrary, because in this
case money is not such a method of selection ; on

164 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

the contrary, the wish to prove the prevalence of
this law in sociology would be tantamount to ignor-
ing its spirit.

Natural selection has its initial force in the
science of universal energy.

//. Artificial Selection

This selection alone has importance in these
points, namely, that it may be better understood
how man manipulates the plastic nature of live
matter, and in what way he changes its form
and structure, in obedience to a fixed plan
and aim.

I will cite some cases in which one sees clearly
how man modifies the form and substance of
animals when and as he wishes, increasing or
diminishing the skeleton, muscles, or fat, or rather
increasing the length and quality of the wool, and
in others the quality of the milk, and still more,
modifying even their moral conditions.

The breed of Mauchamp sheep has an origin
that proves to what extent man can avail himself
of artificial selection. On an estate of Mr Graux,
at Mauchamp, where a flock was being reared, a
sickly, misshapen ram was born ; but it had as a
set-off a fine, silky, long fleece. The owner under-
stood the full importance of this fact, and took the

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION 165

greatest care of that specimen. Having reached the
suitable age, he used it for breeding purposes, and by
successive skilfully selected pairings he succeeded,
after several years, in obtaining a healthy flock,
but with the same excellent wool of that sickly,
rickety ram.

Robert Bakewell,in Leicestershire, was the creator
of the breed of Dishley sheep. He reduced the
carcase of this sheep, and in exchange increased its
flesh and fat considerably, so that when one of
these animals falls it is necessary to raise it.
They add to these qualities, acquired artificially, a
great propensity for fattening, that is, they attain
the maximum development in the shortest possible
time.

In the Durham breed of cattle, the brothers
Colling have achieved the same result, obtaining
veritable flesh-making machines.

The thoroughbred horse is a wonderful creation —
all the more if compared, as an artificial production,
with those already cited. Here selection has been
entirely on opposite lines ; in it the two extremes
of the breed of cattle on the one hand, and the
single -hoofed animal on the other, are represented.

Thus it is demonstrated how life yields to
modification by the hand of man to form two kinds
of energy, in one of which figure the flesh-pro-
ducers, in the other, specimens of great speed.

166 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The dog offers another clear proof of the same
problem.

Take the following apropos of moral conditions :
Lord Oxford had some greyhounds that would have
been excellent had they possessed the necessary
energy and staying power ; and to give them these
qualities it occurred to their owner to cross them
with the bulldog. The result of this crossing was
that at the seventh generation the greyhounds re-
covered their lost form, and besides gained the
pertinacity of the bulldog.

On this point Victor Meunier says as follows : —
" Thus pertinacity is given to a breed of dogs, as to
a breed of sheep fine silky wool, or as a breed of
cattle is deprived of its horns. An animal can be
shorn of its moral qualities as a plant of its
essential principles. The former, as the latter, are
obtained in a pure state, by isolation, separation
from the mass of matter in which they are. Eeal
extracts are obtained : extract of energy, extract
of perseverance ; the desired effect is furnished and
obtained. Has science produced anything more
wonderful ?

"I do not wonder so much at the fact as the
future that it promises." l

I take these cases of artificial selection as
demonstrating how man might attain self-selection,

1 Selection et perfectionnement animal.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION 167

taking into account that organisms are rendered
more perfect, and in a shorter time, the greater
their differentiation. And let it not be forgotten
that man was, is, and will be the most perfectible of
all animals.

Natural and artificial selection receive their
impulse from the same energy that causes a simul-
taneous renewal of all vegetation in the spring, and
natural selection lost all its importance when
civilised man began to practise artificial selection.
As for psychic or intellectual selection, it is enough
to enunciate it to understand that it does not exist,
and never has existed, but that it is the selection
of the future.

Consequently, it follows that Nature has practised
and does practise natural selection ; that man
employs artificial selection for plants and animals ;
but, on the contrary, psychic selection is entirely
to be initiated, it being an absurdity that man has
devoted himself to improving his kitchen garden
and his cattle, and has done nothing whatever for
his own selection.

Social organisation, past and present, is what is
called a false evolution, that is, has no possible
development or solution, and, deviating from natural
laws, constitutes an absurdity. Man is an excep-
tion to all biological laws ; he has not the organic
adaptation that allows of his complete enjoyment of

168 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

health ; neither does he manifest psychic adaptation,
since he has only lately begun to study Nature and
to understand that intelligence is the result of
conformity with natural facts. Man cannot, there-
fore, put into practice the law of selection or the
law of heredity, which are natural consequences of
adaptation, due to his having deviated from the
natural course of things, and to the fact that, the
present conception of property not being a natural
law, its finality and true significance in nature are
changed, and there arises the series of monstrosities
and absurdities that we all see and condemn.

///. Psychic Selection

It is enough to enunciate it to understand that
it does not and cannot exist : psychic selection
requires, in the first place, psychic adaptation, and
that this may continue to be selected and trans-
mitted by heredity, the individual must be healthy.

Society has never concerned itself with the
rational cultivation of the intelligence, for until
lately it was ignorant of cerebral structure and
physiology. Imbeciles, criminals, or madmen are
cases that denounce the stupidity with which man
deals with the noblest of his faculties. These are
cases that ought not to be, and will not exist
when society is established on a normal basis.

PSYCHIC SELECTION 169

Men of genius should not be considered simply
as exceptions, but, on the contrary, as a witness of
what intelligence is capable. This is still a virgin
soil, in which everything has to be created.
Remember the opinion of Ramon y Cajal to which
I referred above (p. 96), in which he says that the
human brain is still in full evolution by the progress
of its psychic neuronas, whether in number or
quality, and we shall understand that, if human
ingenuity left to its own resources has accomplished
such wonders, of what would it not be capable
upon the development of all the powers of which
it is susceptible ? Happy the humanity that comes
to see the day when the brain is cultivated by a
proper adaptation, and is selected and perpetuated
by heredity ! This, which for some primitive
brains incapable of the smallest induction appears
a Utopia, is as certain as that by means of the
cultivation and selection of flowers have been
obtained species incomparably more beautiful
than the natural ones.

In the second part I shall deal with psychic
selection as one of the indispensable biological
conditions for the progress of super-organic evolu-
tion ; it will suffice for the present to know that
not only it does not exist, but that in a society
organised like the present such relation is
impossible.

170 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

We shall now better understand what I have
said above, that in sociology alone can one treat
of artificial and psychic selection ; that to interpret
humanity as availing herself of the struggle for life
is a grave error, so far as it concerns the interpreta-
tion of the spirit of the law of evolution.

CHAPTER IX

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES AND CONCEPTIONS
OF EQUALITY

CHARLES DARWIN'S Origin of Species and Charles
Marx's Criticism of Political Economy appeared
almost at the same moment.

The former helped to interpret evolution, with its
law of the struggle for life ; the latter gave the
economic interpretation of history, with its law of
the conflict of classes. One cannot but wonder
that both coincide in the term struggle, impressed
upon their respective laws ; but knowing that the
perusal of Malthus's book gave Darwin his ideal,
the thought strikes one that Marx may have
yielded to the same suggestion. Presumably, too,
the faithful interpretation given by Marx of
economic evolution through the conflict of classes
has influenced in its turn his claim to extend the
law of the struggle for life to sociology, when one
considers that, if Marx's law is accurate in economic
interpretation, Darwin's is not in extending it to

171

172 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

society. Those who have applied it to sociology
have been guilty of a false interpretation.

Nature has a logical mode of procedure which
gives regularity to phenomena, and therefore it is
possible, by examining a series of facts that form
a system, to establish a law. The struggle for life
is inspired or inferred from a chain of observations
of Nature, and therefore is only applicable to
natural causes, but not to present society, in
obedience to an organisation that turns or evolves
entirely upon one base, recognising no law or
natural principle, but an arbitrary principle,
contrary to natural law, as is the case with
capital.

In saying this, and not recognising as a natural
right the right of private property, I am very far
from saying with Proudhon that property is robbery.
I think that, in view of present social organisation,
humanity could not be otherwise than it is, but
that of necessity it must be selfish, a conception
required by the possession of property. Property
is absurd, though it be not robbery ; and legal,
though it be not legitimate. Humanity, that has
for ages accepted private property as natural,
believes in this conception as an article of faith.
Religions, philosophies change, are modified, or
disappear whenever new ideas, fairer or more
logical, can take their place, and this is the

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES 173

meaning of Comte's proposition that everything
that is destroyed finds something to take its place.
Religions and philosophies have succeeded one
another, whereas the economic questions, those
of capital and labour, seem to have in human
consciousness deeper roots, since they endure,
whilst around them gods and genii are born and
die, rule and disappear.

I do not consider that any class has the right to
tell men of this or that religion or philosophy
different from our own that they are liars, because
the ideas that form their social ambient crystallise
or mould the cerebral structure precisely as their
chemical composition modifies the form and
structure of crystals. No ; ideas obey the law of
inertia, as rocks, and if humanity does not advance
or prosper, it is because the number of inert brains
is very much greater than the active ones, and the
balance inclines always to the side of the greater
weight. Revolutions spring up and inevitably
triumph when ideas, the force of some brains,
overcome the inertia of some and the indifference
of the mass. The progress of humanity is in
direct ratio to the force of ideas.

The economic question has resisted the shocks
of time and revolution, because the formula of the
future has not been established. If the economic
question is as ancient as the world, sociology, on

174 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

the other hand, is a science of yesterday, because it
is a branch of the science of biology, as this is, in
its turn, of the physico-chemical sciences, and it
was necessary that the former should progress that
the latter might follow.

Sociology has not yet had time to be integrated
in the great law of evolution. Neither A. Comte,
the true founder of sociology, nor H. Spencer, who
has completed the best synthesis, has succeeded
in interpreting this new science as a stated theory,
simply because their brains could not dissever
themselves from the dead-weight which the con-
ception of property, accumulated during so many
years, represents in the human intelligence.

I do not think more can be said than what
Marx has stated, as to his criticism on capital, nor
that human aspirations will find their solution with
the capitalist or collectivist system ; I have there-
fore asserted, in reference to this period of evolu-
tion, with which all this economic organisation is
concerned, that it is a false evolution, like some
that exist in biology, and that they will ultimately
disappear, when the time arrives when their con-
ditions are inadaptable to their surroundings.
• " Other false groups," says Laloy, " are those
which, after rising to a fixed organic level,
return to the state that their ancestors had long
abandoned. We have already quoted the example

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES 175

of snakes that lost their paws, having to return to
creeping. Others, mammals, suited to a terrestrial
existence, have again lived in water, by undergoing
more or less serious modifications, while preserving
their lungs; such are the web-footed (seals and
walrus) and the cetacea (whales, cachalots, etc.).
The former are marine butchers united to real
butchers by means of Lutra vulgaris"1

The economic conditions of life have divided
men into shepherds and warriors, patricians and
plebeians, burgesses and proletariat — that is,
divisions dependent on the age and ignorance ;
from which it happened, and happens, that the
lesser part of humanity lives at the expense
of the other part; whence arises a very natural
antagonism, that constitutes the conflict between
classes. This antagonism is not the fruit of per-
version but of the errors of the age, and if they
have not been remedied before, it is not for want
of will, but because we were not, and are not,
acquainted with the mode of accomplishing this
change ; and proposals up till now are vague and
confusing, as no clear image exists of the society
of the future.

But on the day when such a vision shall exist,
the day when the majority of mankind will be able

1 Dr Laloy, devolution de la vie, p. 223.

176 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

to perceive what it is and how it can be effected,
then, just as one religion has substituted another,
and one philosophy another philosophy, to our
present misery will succeed a happier state. To
improve, and to free oneself from such misery,
is a constant longing. Scepticism and pessimism
are due to the painful expectation of times dreamed
of but unrealised ; but humanity desires nothing
else but guidance towards a new life, and in its
eagerness for happiness to arrive at a better
solution.

On saying this, we must not forget what has
already been said in the Introduction apropos of
routine, namely, that there will be a great number
of brains in which the peculiar ideas they inherited
from their ancestors never allow of their reaching a
conception of a situation differing from the present,
because the associations formed by the proto-
plasmic elongations of the neuronas are still invari-
able, and it will not be possible for them to form
another chain of associations in order to adapt new
ideas. It is useless to rely upon these brains, not
from ill-will, but from lack of ability to adapt
themselves.

This, far from being an inconvenience, will be an
advantage, since they will be accepted only by
those possessed of an appropriate temperament or
education; that is, there will be a selection, the

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES 177

selection of disinterestedness and that of the most
active brains.

In the society of the future the man who obeys
no other motive but that of his own dignity, and
who cannot feel the solidarity of the organisation
under which he lives, so far as to take advantage
of nothing that does not redound to his own
gain, will be a superfluity, and will constitute a
stumbling-block. He is quite content with present
society, and it is useless to convince him. For
that of the future he would be a hindrance and a
source of disturbance.

When capital disappears, the conflict of classes
will disappear also.

Men cannot be equal in intelligence, nor in taste
or ability, and in these differences progress chiefly
is found, since the different conditions will cause
the formation of new organs in the super-organic
organism, in order to assist progress by differentia-
tion, which is a biological law of all organic pro-
gress ; thus there will be painters, sculptors,
musicians, writers, as well as chemists, physicians,
engineers, naturalists, etc.

What may be admitted scientifically, and will no
doubt happen, is that man, in time, when really
healthy, will attain a degree of intelligence of a
very high order, and that intelligences, generally

considered, will approximate one another in value ;

12

178 SUPER-OBGANIC EVOLUTION

that then the organisms of the engineer, musician,
painter will be more differentiated from their
respective advance in each of these lines ; and thus
what man will have gained, on the general intel-
lectual plane, will be differentiated by his especial
aptitudes being still more pronounced : the painter
will be a better painter, the musician more musical,
the engineer more expert, and the intellectual level
will be rising indefinitely.

So that, if difference in intellect or ability is a
necessary means of progress, there will be, however,
another condition that will make men equal, in
order to feel more thoroughly their solidarity,
namely, education.

Politeness must rise to the level of art ; in a
society in which there is no restraint but that of
one's own or another's dignity, respect for others
must be absolute, and relations between individuals
must be those of perfect courtesy, which is the
artistic part of education. Scrupulous cleanliness
of person and care of dress must form part of a
sound discipline, the sole condition upon which
men can and should be equal, and one which, after
economic distinctions, will eliminate class dis-
tinctions. This is the more easy to understand,
that we see every day persons of humble station
who, by their bearing and manners, seem to be a
privileged class ; and, on the contrary, persons

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES 179

who by birth should be models of correctness are
by no means so. There are other arguments which
are too obvious to allege.

Whilst psychic adaptation will help to make
men every day different, and to carry on the work
of selection according to their capabilities, education
will every day make them more equal and united.

I cannot define, nor does it concern us to know,
why the claim is advanced for the social equality of
the mankind of the future : it seems to me such
statements are made and repeated without anyone
taking the trouble to reflect upon them. Some
superior spirits, naturally scandalised by such a
Utopian idea, speak of this equality, but go no
further than to pass slight comments upon it. The
claim or statement that men can, or should be, or
wish to be equal, is as great a physical impossibility
as the impenetrability of bodies. Men never will
be equal, as that represents different stages in the
development of force at different points of time and
space. It is impossible that men of southern and
northern parts should be equal ; the man born by
the sea-shore will not be the same as he who is
born at the top of a mountain, since, inter alia, this
assumes a different mode of life, of sustenance, of
scenery, etc.

And remembering what has been said of psychic
adaptation, how could it be possible that in the

180 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

infinite variety that Nature presents homogeneity
among men is conceivable ? Nature, becoming ever
better known and revealing herself under new and
varied aspects, must lay under contribution all
human brains, as one, in order to deposit a note
of her infinite harmonies in each separate part of
thought — a note that will be different according to
time and space ; that the note of day will not be
that of night, that of to-morrow the same as that of
yesterday, that of yesterday and to-morrow as that
of to-day.

Cerebral structure yields to and combines with
the model of Nature, as water to the form of the
vessel that holds it. The progress of human society,
as we shall see elsewhere, consists chiefly in the con-
tinually increasing differentiation of intelligences,
which will imply a greater correspondence with
the external. By the ever- widening differentiation,
however, of mankind I do not mean that they
are therefore any less consolidated, but, on the
contrary, will feel more united, since the same
solidarity that exists in the natural laws will exist
in their own consciousness, the outcome of such
laws.

Intelligence will end by adapting herself to
Nature, allying herself to, and even confounding
herself with her, as our planet is surrounded and
impregnated by the atmosphere that encloses it.

THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES 181

The human species will be more uniformly
beautiful in form, but infinitely more varied in its
adaptability, and ever more One, until there is only
one feeling and loving being on the earth across
the bounds of time and space, perceiving all vibra-
tions of the ether, to translate them into ideas, the
supreme law of our nerves.

Economic conditions are not limited to producing
the conflict of classes, but, as we have seen else-
where, change the health, at their will ; hence come
other divisions, which, like the former, recognise
the same origin. Thus there are strong and weak,
stout and thin, tall and short, happy and sad,
intelligent or imbecile, criminal or mad, tuberculous
or arthritic, etc. ; and this great variety is due to
the changes which every loss of strength imposes
on formula N, causing its degeneration and devia-
tion from its normal equilibrium.

When the economic question disappears as the
basis of present society, then men will be healthy,
organic and psychic adaptation will be fully realised,
and man will reproduce the harmony of the natural
laws without one single exception.

CHAPTER X

HEREDITY

WHEN the sea is calm one sees in the sand near the
shore the same undulations that ripple the surface
of the water, that in its turn reproduces the
undulation of the air that strikes and blows upon
its surface. We cannot test the undulations of the
air, these not being sensible to the touch ; but their
impression on the water or the sand is readily
perceptible by the organs of vision. Here sight is
an amplification and complement of touch, just as
the microscope enlarges the power of vision.

In the same way every organism, crystal, plant,
or animal reflects, like the sand of the sea, the
impression that the indefinite rhythm of universal
mechanics makes on every organic substance. Men
cannot perceive the rhythm of this mechanics any
more than the rhythm of the undulations of the
air on striking the surface of the water. But as
observation reveals to us in a thousand instances
this concomitance of undulations in sand, water,

182

HEREDITY 183

and air, we cannot doubt its mutual relationship,
any more than we can doubt the relation of the
cosmic medium, in which all rhythms vibrate, in its
relation to organic substance. Organised beings
reproduce the rhythms of indefinite mechanics, as
the sand reproduces the air rhythms as it glides
over the sea. From the infinitely small to man, is
constituted the crescendo of a rhythm.

Our senses unfortunately cannot register all
movements. Thus the sight can perceive only
colours the vibrations of which are capable of being
felt, such as those that come from the red to the
violet, forming part of a great scale of forces,
vibrations, or rhythms that keep increasing from
the red, that represents the heavy waves, to the
violet, that presents the maximum of vibrations
perceptible by actual beings. Beyond the red and
the violet follow other rhythms, which are also
energies, and would be, perhaps, so many other
colours if our sight could perceive them. The
cathode rays represent a rhythm of such rapidity
that it crosses the majority of bodies without being
reflected, and the colours are perceptible, because
their light is reflected.

There exist, then, an infinite number of rhythms
that man cannot directly perceive, although subject
to them. Man, as an apparatus or receiver of
natural energies, has a very limited field of action,

184 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

and therefore the progress of the physico-chemical
sciences has been necessary for man to increase or
enlarge his senses, which he has attained, in the
matter of sight, by the use of the microscope and
by spectral analysis, which allow him to extend
his knowledge of things from the infinitely little to
the infinitely great.

The thermo-electric pile enables man to appreciate
changes of temperature that appear unlikely ; add
the searching powers of chemistry, which is capable
of perceiving and discovering substances even in
infinitesimal quantities. One must consider all
these resources as extensions of man's senses,
thanks to which he has found means of gathering
all these energies in order to marshal and exploit
them, and which, from their being beyond his
sphere of action, seemed foreign to human intelli-
gence. Who supposed some years ago that, among
the multitude of rhythms that exist in the atmo-
sphere, there was one of which man would one day
avail himself in order to transmit his thoughts to a
distance? If this is now only the beginning of
new discoveries, what will be the limit of human
progress ?

Whilst man had no means of observation beyond
his own senses, the world for him was very limited,
and his intelligence, that counted upon no further
resources, was also restricted. The instruments of

HEREDITY 185

physics and chemistry, by narrowing the field of
observation and increasing the registering power of
the senses, have enlarged the intelligence ; and if,
whilst man was ignorant of these resources, his
intelligence could be considered sadly limited, now
that his new means of investigation have no precise
limits, but continue to increase from day to day, we
may affirm that the intelligence of man, his psychic
cells, as Ramon y Cajal calls them, will continue
every day and in the same measure to increase and
register with the greatest precision his relation
with the external ; in the same way errors will be
rectified, and in this indefinite progress we see
neither the goal of intelligence nor the limit of
Nature, and the parallelism or agreement of the
internal with the external will last for an indefinite
time, and with ever-increasing accuracy.

By all these methods human consciousness will
continue to perceive and reflect all the rhythms of
universal mechanics, while Nature reproduces her
organisation, as the sands produce the undulations
of the air as it glides over the water, as the clear
or stormy sky is reflected on the surface of the sea.

In the time of Linnaeus it was thought that the
conception of species, animal or vegetable, was
somewhat invariable and absolute. Linnaeus said :
" There exists a number of species equal to those
that the infinite Being originally created."

186 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Lamarck, Bory de Saint- Vincent, and, above all,
Darwin, who reproduced and made complete the
idea of his predecessors, entirely modified the idea
of species, admitting, according to the theory of
transformism, that all beings come from one simple
ancestral form. To-day the denomination of species
is admitted into natural history as a conventional
and relative value.

In chemistry the same thing is going on with the
so-called elements or simple bodies, which, until a
short time ago, were considered the definitive term
of matter. As things are going, there will soon
happen in chemistry what has happened in natural
history : we shall return to the old conception of
the transmutation of bodies. The transformation
and equilibrium of force includes, as a necessary
corollary, the transformation and equilibrium of
matter, since force and matter form one unity, are
two complementary terms.

Evolution, in coming to consider matter in all its
varieties as proceeding from one and the same
substance, has already its predecessors, as in
zoology and botany before the complete theory of
transformism appeared.

See what Sir William Crookes says of this in
The Genesis of the Elements : —

"When I venture to state that the elements
generally accepted as such are not simple and

HEREDITY 187

primordial, that they are not the offspring of
chance, that they are not an isolated creation, but
have sprung by evolution from simpler materials,
or perhaps from one single species of matter,
I formulate an idea of which it may be said in
the scientific world that it is an idea that has
long been in the air. Some of the most intelligent
chemists, physicists, and philosophers proclaim
explicitly their belief that the seventy elements
now recognised by chemistry are not the columns
of Hercules, which were once thought the limit
of investigation."

Almost at the same moment when Darwin
published his theory of transformism appeared, in
1863, a classification of bodies which may be
regarded as the first attempt to show the continuity
of matter ; that is to say, how one chemical element
differs from another, in the manner of a rhythm,
of something that recalls what we have quoted
apropos of music, in which all the sounds start from
one initial "do," the others being, as it were, a
periodical function of this unity, equivalent to 128
vibrations per second.

To Beguyer de Chancurtois is due the first
attempt in chemistry of a classification of this kind,
which consists in arranging simple bodies in the
increasing order of atomic weight, so that they
describe a screw, which the author calls "teluric

188 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

tornilla." This first attempt was followed by the
table of Mendeleef, which, as the reader will see
further on, is the revelation and hope that we shall
soon see the demonstration that those which are
now known under the name of simple bodies are
the evolution, the rhythmic development of one
single substance — that, for example, which Crookes
indicates by the name of protilus, similar to what
is called protoplasm in the organic world.

Note what A. Etard1 says in reference to the
table of Mendeleef : —

"It is noticed that bodies are ingeniously dis-
tributed in a constant series, but in groups of
seven, forming vertical columns, I., II. , III., IV.,
.... in which the elements present a maximum
of similarity, reproducing the classification in
families of Dumas : Fl, Cl, Br, I, etc.

" Studying the bodies, following the order in
which they are placed in the vertical columns, one
observes that they are characterised by the forma-
tion of a typical oxide. The metals of the vertical
column I., for example, give the oxides of the type
R2O and are, following the order of said column,
Li2O, Na2O, K2O, Cu2O, Rb2O, Ag2O .... These
are the monatomic metals."

The same thing happens in the other columns, in
which all the metals included in each one of them

1 A. Etard, Nouvelles theories chimiques.

HEREDITY
TABLE OF MENDELEEF

189

H'

rfo

*V

R^^

K 0

K 0

R 0

RV

U7

Gl9

B11

C12

A."

o16

Fl19^

ffoe?*

Nt,"

Al*7

Sc"

p3l

s32

Cl"

y.

K39

Ca40

Sc^5

T,48

V51

vr

MnS5N

Te'V'Ni,59

.

<Cu.**

Zn6>

Go7*

Gr"

As"

Se7s

Br"

^

R\>8S

Sr*'

_

2r90

Nt'*

Mo96

K^RK10*!^1

J

'Ag10'

Cd1"

In115

« us

St'"

Te125

I127

^

Cs133

Ba147

La135

Ce1*0

_

__

^

— « _- ,

^>

' -

— _

__

,

.

t-^

^

_

Ta18*

W1*4

— M ^

Os19llrlw?t15*

s

^Au*

Kg40'

Tl410*

p^

Biilb

^j^

^_

-

_^

TKaM

Ur240

^\

J

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

FIG. 21.

combine with oxygen, according to the typical
formula, E2O2, K2O3, R2O4, E2O5, R206,R207 ; that
is, the elements of one and the same column form

190 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

combinations whose power of oxygenation is equal
in each one of them, and continues to increase
regularly from left to right in the vertical columns :
thus, E202, R2O3, R204, R2O5, R2O6, E2O7. The
symbol of each metal bears a coefficient to indicate
its atomic weight, compared, as always, with
hydrogen; thus we see the first metal, lithium,
whose symbol is Li7 ; the seven indicates the atomic
weight.

From one element to another, and following the
columns that are arranged horizontally, there exists
an almost constant difference between the con-
secutive atomic weights. From Li, which is the
first, to Gl, which is the second, there is a difference
of 2 in the atomic weight : Li = 7 to Gl = 9, differ-
ence 2 ; from Gl = 9 to B = 11, difference 2 ; from
B = ll to C = 12, difference 1. From C = 12 to
Az = 14, difference 2 ; and so on.

On the vertical side of the table there are similar
differences. From Li = 7 to Na = 23, difference 16 ;
from Gl = 9 to Mg = 24, difference 15; from fi-
ll to Al = 27, difference 16; from Al = 27 to
Sc = 45, difference 18. But this apparent con-
sistency in differences between the several elements
is not always complete. One part of the table is
subject to a net, formed by regular lines, and
if at the crossing of one of these lines — for instance,
between Ga = 70 and In = 113— there is an un-

HEREDITY 191

expected difference, equal in this case to 43 units,
it is because in this interval one fails to discover
a simple body. When the illustrious chemist
Mendeleef published his table some bodies were
unknown, such as Sc = 45, Ga = 70, and Gr = 72 ;
but he had foretold their discovery in describing their
properties, and having already marked in the table
the appropriate places.

On studying Mendeleef s table one sees, both in
the vertical and in the horizontal order, bodies are
arranged regularly, and each element has systemati-
cally its destined place : this is truly wonderful,
and one understands the great success this table
obtained on presenting all the simple bodies in an
ordered plan. Now, this can only be understood
by the rhythm of force, here quoted to prepare the
reader's mind, so that, by means of an analogy
(since it is not possible at the present stage of
science to give a proof), we may understand that in
organised bodies there also exists a rhythm, and
these beings, like simple bodies, are reproduced
under the same form, because, as in Mendeleef 's
table, they also have their place and rhythm
marked. Simple bodies and all organised beings
are the concrete form, the potential force, the echo,
as it were, of that other living force whose rhythm
they reproduce, as the sands the vibrations of the
air. We regard embryology and comparative

192 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

anatomy as a demonstration of the rhythm that
governs the animal world. Sons are like fathers
because they are notes of one and the same rhythm,
and the rhythms are repeated under normal
conditions.

In spectral analysis are shown the same rhythms,
for not only has each body its lines regularly invari-
able, but in some spectra, as in that of hydrogen, the
disposition of their lines is according to a formula
of perspective.

To further justify what I have said — and what
still remains to be said — I am about to refer here
to the diagram of Sir William Crookes.

This professor says in The Genesis of the Elements :
" I must crave your attention to my diagram, in
which I have slightly modified the primitive tracing
of Professor Reynolds. I have represented the
oscillation of the pendulum decreasing gradually
according to a mathematical law. Moreover, I
have interposed between cerium and lead another
semi-oscillation of the pendulum, which makes the
oscillations more symmetrical and brings gold,
mercury, thallium, lead, and bismuth to the side
where they are completely in harmony with the
elements of the first group.

" The chemical elements are arranged, according
to their atomic weights, on a central vertical axis,
equally divided.

HEREDITY

TABLE OF SIR WILLIAM CROOKES

PARAMAGNETIC. DIAMAGNETIC.

-2 * .2

193

FIG. 22.

" Following the curve from hydrogen along the

zigzag, one notes that the elements that form the

13

194 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

eighth group in Mendeleef s system 1 are situated
around three of the ten nodal points.

" This group is divided into three ternary series :
iron, nickel, and cobalt; rhodium, rutenium, and
palladium ; iridium, osmium, and platinum.

"These bodies are interperiodical, for their
atomic weights exclude them from the short periods
in which the other elements are included, and
their relations with some of the neighbouring
groups show that they are probably interperiodical
on account of this transition state."

This diagram of Crookes is very explanatory, and
discloses the regularity and real function of matter,
which is highly curious and instructive.

Following the course of the screw, starting from
hydrogen, it is surprising to see how the bodies
succeed one another, not only according to the order
which their atomic weight marks out for them,
which is seen in the axis of the screw, but at the
same time keep appearing according to their
atomic values. Thus proceed in order the mon-
atomics ; then the diatomics, triatomics, and tetra-
tomics ; following the curve of the screw, their
atomic values increase, and the triatomics, diatomics,
and monatomics appear, so as to stop, in this flux

1 This group is outside of the said table, and includes Fe, Co, Ni, Ru,
Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, forming three groups that answer to the second, third,
and fifth horizontal columns,

HEREDITY 195

and reflux of atomic values, the monatomics, which
are always in the centre of this movement, from
which spring, on each side of the axis, four columns
that from the centre to the circumference appear
ranged in the order of their atomic values. Note
the original arrangement of those that are positive
and those that are negative bodies, those that are
good and those that are bad conductors of electricity,
the former being on the right, the latter on the
left.

This new aspect of crude matter, subjected to a
periodical working of force, acquires new life and
significance. Comparing this aspect of the in-
organic world with the aspect under which the
organic world reveals itself in transformism, one
better understands the law of evolution. Every-
thing appears as a function of an infinite unity.
The tables of Mendeleef and Crookes recall the
classifications of natural history. In comparative
anatomy and embryology, in phylogenyand ontogeny,
marking the different times and methods in which
the cellular organism comes to be transformed into
human organisms, we seem to see one of the above-
mentioned tables, that of the organic world being
much more mysterious, but no less regular.

And Sir William Crookes adds further: "The
more I study the arrangement of this zigzag curve,
the stronger is my conviction that the man who

196 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

succeeded in discovering its complete signification
would possess the key to one of the greatest
mysteries of creation."

Nature reveals herself as a harmony from the
mechanics of atoms to the mechanics of worlds ;
but human society, the super-organic organism, as
to-day constituted, is an exception to this universal
harmony.

Organisation is a special rhythm of universal
mechanics. From the amoeba to man there is a
force that is ever adapting and rendering itself
more complex ; it is a variable quantity that every
day becomes more constant, ever progressing by
virtue of its dependence upon and relation to the
cosmic environment.

Vegetable and animal organisation has its unity,
its " do/' whence is derived in ever-increasing com-
plexity all this great harmonic organisation, that
passes from organisms the most elementary to
man ; just as in mathematics all the endless com-
binations of quantity are also a function of one
unity.

Let it be noted that, though we speak of adapta-
tion, selection, and heredity, strictly these three
things constitute one single one, that obeys another
still greater, on fixed principles, to which they are
absolutely subject, namely, universal mechanics.

HEREDITY 197

Selection is an adaptation most pronounced, and
heredity is the continuity of the same adaptation :
so that the great problem of evolution is reduced to
two terms, adaptation and medium, which is the
parallelism through which it happens that all
organised beings are the reflex, the echo of natural
mechanics. Without light, sight would not exist,
as without sound there is no hearing. The
bronchial tubes, divided and subdivided in order
that the blood and air may effect the necessary
contact, obey the same principles by which the
roots of trees cross large tracts of land in order to
reach water.

So long as the cosmic medium, upon which the
world in which we live depends, undergoes no
change, as little subject to change will be the
organisation of the bodies that depend upon it, for
they are its natural and direct consequence.

Animals on reproduction repeat the same form
and structure, in the first place because the same
conditions persist in the medium ; because the
parallelism is the same, the rhythm continues,
and they continue as the faithful reproduction of
universal mechanics. Medium and organisation
are two terms that are reinforced by a parallelism
of millions of ages, whose energy obeys the prin-
ciple of continuity and rhythm of force.

Silk, which constitutes a most important industry,

198 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

not only depends upon the worm that elaborates it,
but on the mulberry tree that serves as its nutriment ;
if this tree disappeared, the said worm would dis-
appear, and with it the silk and its industry, and
ladies' dresses would be less attractive. If the
earth approached nearer to the sun, or, on the
other hand, went further away, man would at once
be changed, as well as all earthly organisms, those
only surviving that were able to adapt themselves
to the new conditions ; organisation then perhaps
would immediately reproduce the new forms
peculiar to the new conditions of the medium.
Heredity and adaptation are one and the same
thing ; in each generation the same organisation is
inherited, because the adaptation to the medium is
the same, and both existences are similar, because
they reproduce organic rhythms that serve them as
guide and master.

To regard heredity, selection, or adaptation as
one and the same essential phenomenon, brings
about a simplification and better understanding of
biological phenomena.

All the organisation cannot be formed by a
single being, constituting a single conglomeration,
just because it obeys natural laws, and rhythm
is an essential condition of force. Thus, as each
colour or musical note represents a fixed number
of vibrations, without which the sound would not

HEREDITY 199

exist, nor the light and colours, so beings, on re-
production, obey the rhythm of force, and each
being is a vibration of the rhythm to which it owes
its origin.

Nature reproduces indefinitely plants and
animals just as the sea impels its waves. From
the infinitely small to man, there exist as many
classes of rhythms as of organisms.

Bearing in mind what I have said in speaking
of health in its relation to the general laws of
mechanics, man, in order to live in a normal medium,
will keep the equilibrium of his harmonic cellular
mechanics in consonance with the laws of universal
harmony, and the sons will reproduce the same
equilibrium of formula N as their progenitors, for
they will be the reproduction of the same force,
adjusting itself to the same rhythm.

Man is born, lives, and dies in a limited portion
of time and space, since he represents only one
vibration, like other rhythms destined to vibrate
and die away, being subsequently renewed in the
universal energy.

In the present state of social organisation, among
the members of which formula N (A, B, C, D) is
altered, the children are ever tending to modify
and lose the parent form, until in many cases, as in
certain families, in the third or fourth generation
they are either not reproduced or die off prematurely.

200 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

In such cases it may be said that the rhythm is
broken.

Reproduction is continuity of nutrition — in fact,
the formula N (A, B, C, D) reproduced in another
being, a new vibration of the same rhythm. The
more equally balanced the formula N is, the more
the children are like the parents ; and, on the con-
trary, the children will differ all the more, the less
equally balanced the said formula N.

We may define heredity as the perpetuation in
the children of the formula N of their progenitors.

Charrin says : 1 " If one wishes to explain the
action of nutrition reduced to its elementary phase,
one will note that it consists in the penetration to
the cell itself of the plasmatic principles of aliments,
and of their assimilation in the inside of the cell,
excluding what is useless.

" Well then, the nervous system, that great
dominating apparatus, on distending or contracting
the size of the vessels which form the capillary net,
and producing changes in them, whether in the
pressure or the speed of the current, controls the
presence of elements fit for assimilation and
excludes the harmful ones ; this nervous apparatus
can at its will invite hunger or infect with poison.
Stated otherwise : its nutritive power over the
tissues and their powers of tension may cause

1 Charrin, Poisons de I'organisme.

HEREDITY 201

changes in the skin or in the muscles, in the bones
and cartilages, or accumulate in the blood products
highly necessary, as sugar, having power to retard
or accelerate their consumption."

This paragraph will facilitate our comprehension
of the theory of heredity, and remind us of the
great prominence the nervous system has in the
action of nutrition, not of the tissues, but of the
cells themselves.

In the glands the nerve-endings reach the
glandular cells, and have a direct influence upon
the process of secretion; they can, as Charrin
states, excite hunger or infect with poison according
to the state of the nerve apparatus : thus joy and
well-being give a sound feeling of life, happiness,
and health; on the contrary, serious mental dis-
appointments, the worries and upsets of existence,
in altering the normal state of the nutritive changes
in the cells and the glandular secretions, poison
life and predispose to or aggravate disease.

Observe the curious instances taken from the
excellent work of Dr Marfau,1 which explain the
rdle of the nervous system, and which we quote
also to assist the comprehension of the theory of
heredity : —

" The wife of a rich merchant married her

1 Bouchard, Pathologie generate, "Fatigue et surmenage," p. 509.

202 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

daughter to an aristocrat. After the ceremony the
mother tried to show her affection and thankful-
ness towards her son-in-law ; the latter repulsed
her, drily informing her that he did not relish
such demonstrations of affection, and that she must
keep her distance and not forget class distinctions.
The unhappy woman felt overwhelmed. The
night following she began to feel an insatiable
thirst, and to pass water in large quantities : the
urinal vessels, on examination a few days after,
contained 100 grams of sugar per litre.

" A man, as Ch. Fere* observed, lost in a short
time several members of his family, who died of
consumption; a girl, his child, sickened and also
died; after these griefs he began to get fat, and
from 60 kilos attained a weight of 106."

One sees very clearly from these examples how
the nervous system, the great dominating apparatus,
not only serves for the faculty of thought, but has
in strict dependence upon it all the chemistry of
the cells upon which depend nutrition, and, as we
shall see, reproduction also.

A curious thing that gives us an idea of the
control of the nervous system, and how this holds,
so to speak, the guiding rein, is in observing how
the nerve-fibres terminate inside the glands, and
once within divide and subdivide, in order to

HEREDITY 203

extend their meshes so as to enclose the cells
and keep them under their immediate influence,
communicating to them their mode of working,
increasing, diminishing, or paralysing their working.

Two words only to explain the mode of innerva-
tion in the glands, and see at the same time how
all social phenomena have their origin in biological
conditions, and how it is known that these depend
upon physics and chemistry, to evidence the unity
of the cosmos.

The progress of humanity depends strictly upon
physiology, as the action of the lungs upon the air.

Fig. 23 is taken from a note of MM. E/amon y
Cajal and D. jClaudio Sala y Pons,1 its object
being to demonstrate the nerve-terminations in
the interior of the glands. These authors state :
" After several operations of dichotomy and being
reduced to fine varicose branches they constitute a
tight nerve-plexus around the acini, the very delicate
stems of which touch the outside of the glandular cor-
puscules (fig. 23, a). From the periacinous filaments
start fine little threads which, penetrating into the
separative cement of the epithelium, end freely a
little further off, by means of a granulation (fig. 23, b),

, ! I avail myself of this opportunity to thank Dr D. Claudio Sala
y Pons for his kindness in drawing the figures in this book, and at the
same time to express my gratitude, for his knowledge of neurology has
been of great service to me in completing the chapters relating to the
phylogeny and ontogeny of the neurona.

204

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

an arrangement already pointed out for the salivary
glands by Retzius, Fusari, and Panasci."

There are other authors, spoken of in the
Mnemonic Reference,1 who point to a very close
connection between the nerve- element and the

glandular cells, admitting a substantial union
between the last nerve-fibres and the protoplasm or
nucleus of the glandular corpuscules. Amongst these
authors are included such authorities on the
subject as Pfltiger, Mayer, Paladino, Kupffer,

1 S. Ramon y Cajal and Claudio Sala, Terminations of the Nerves and
Glandular Tubes of the Pancreas of Vertebrates.

HEREDITY 205

Ch. Eonget, and, more recently, Navalichin and
Kytmanoff.

That is to say, the nerve-stems (fig. 23, 6), accord-
ing to these authors, would not terminate as those
represented by the said figure, which are inter-
cellular, but, when once placed between cell and
cell, the dichotomy of the nerve-fillets would con-
tinue passing them into the very interior of the
cell, in order to place itself in connection with the
protoplasm and nucleus ; there would be con-
sequently consubstantiality between the nervous
and glandular elements.

To a certain extent we should conclude that in
the superior animals there exists inside their
tissues the same consubstantiality as is found in the
organic kingdom in the inferior animals, the con-
substantiality of which we have spoken between
the sensitive element and the motor in the actiniarii
(see p. 42, fig. 2). This gives a clear idea of the
unity and solidarity of the different systems in one
and the same organism.

In the case before us it will suffice to refer to the
state of the matter as represented in fig. 23, upon
which there is a consensus of opinion, waiting until
the progress of technical knowledge confirms
beyond dispute the termination of the nerve-fillets
in the interior of the cells.

206 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Every sensation contains a double nervous
current : first, from the periphery of the body to
the nerve-centres; this one, from the direction of
the current, is called centripetal, and, from its
quality, sensitive ; when once this current reaches
the point of its central localisation there is relief,
and from centripetal the current becomes centri-
fugal, and from sensitive, motive. If one of these
currents is missing the nerve-process becomes nil.
The life of the nerve, its importance and delicacy,
can be understood throughout its extent ; knowing
how all external sensations from light, heat,
electricity, degree of moisture, etc. — in a word, all
kinds of rhythms registered and carried to their
respective centres by the sensitive and centripetal
currents — are transformed at the last term (fig. 23, b)
into a peculiar reaction upon the chemistry of each
cell.

This gives an idea of the significance of the theory
of evolution, the relation of the external to the
internal, how the cosmic agents, the universal
energy, dominate the organisation of all beings, and
how every organisation is an echo of the science of
energy, in virtue of that exquisite quality of organic
matter for which all sensation is converted into
action, whether psychical, glandular, or muscular.

The Spanish proverb, "It makes one's mouth
water," is well known.

HEREDITY 207

One of the reactions that nourishment produces
on the palate is to awaken the activity of the
salivary glands. These sensitive nerves advise the
nervous centres, by means of thin centripetal
currents, of the organic irritability produced in
them by the presence of nourishment, and these
centres immediately send to the glands, by thin
centrifugal fillets, an amount of energy propor-
tionate to the sensation received ; a reflex action,
the modus operandi of which is understood on
noting in fig. 23 how the centrifugal nerve-termina-
tions reach the cells, in order to be transformed
immediately on their arrival into chemical work,
the result of which is the secretion of the saliva.

The contact of the aliment with the palate is not
indispensable in order to excite the glandular
activity. The idea is the motive force ; a proof of
which, though it may be deemed trivial, is that the
sight of a toothsome article of food is sufficient to
produce an effect whereby the mental representation,
that is, the idea, which in this case is the initial
energy, may provoke in the sensitive nerves of the
salivary glands the action necessary to increase the
secretion of saliva; and hence the proverb above
mentioned.

We have quoted this example because in the
male and female genital glands the spermatoblasts
and ovoblasts are cells, and, like all the other glands,

208 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

suffer and change under the action of all influences,
cosmic, social, or individual, both in the physical
and moral plane ; and one can understand how
easily are changed the functions of reproduction,
which is a glandular secretion.

Immense are the responsibilities that weigh upon
humanity for having neglected the natural laws.
All its overthrows, its pains, its miseries, and its
crimes are the result of the violation of these laws,
which give as a result a ridiculous, monstrous, and
absurd ethics, and at the same time a sick humanity,
that perpetuates in its offspring its miseries, aggra-
vating and multiplying them.

Between these three terms, the cosmic medium,
the man, and the glands that preside over the
reproduction of the species, there should exist a
complete relation and unity. To break this unity
and dependence is to neutralise the work of Nature,
whose organic beings are wonderful harmonies.
And intelligent man, in whom these harmonies
should converge, brings about the exact opposite.

We can consider the nervous element of every
gland as above stated, and, as the testicle and the
ovary are two glands, we can regard their cells as
spermatoblasts, or rather ovoblasts. Nerve-fibrils
surround them and control them, in order to
communicate to them the kind of nutrition which

HEREDITY 209

suits the individual, that is, to impress on the male
and female germinating cells the formula N (A, B,
C, D). And, as we have already seen in another
place that this formula is, in normal conditions, a
harmonic equilibrium in relation to other harmonic
laws, the repetition of this formula N would be a
natural consequence. If, on the other hand, the
formula has lost its normal application and is N'
(A', B', C', D'), then the offspring will be all the
less like their parents the greater the disproportion
of the cellular chemicals ; that is, when once their
harmonious relation with the natural laws is lost,
the offspring will have a greater tendency to
degenerate and wane.

Iri families that have many offspring there are
some of the same type ; these are born in normal
times. At others it happens that in the same family
there are sons that are unlike ; these must corre-
spond to the periods of ill-health of the parents, or
of struggle, of upset, of worries and difficulties
which unfortunately are so rife in our life, and
contribute to change the normal condition of
formula N, that is, to neutralise adaptation, and
hence heredity.

Of the theories about heredity, the most scientific,
and that which best accounts for the facts, is that
of Hillemand and Petrucci : — l

1 Manuel de pathologic generale, L. Moynac, p. 109.

14

210 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

" According to our views, the nervous system is
not only limited to securing organic solidarity (an
action evidenced by pathology), but its influence is
much more important. According to us, it is the
principal agent of the action that each organism
exercises upon its descendants, or, if you will, of
each individual upon the species, and by its means
the one has influence over the other.

" The heredity of acquired characteristics, conse-
quently of functional adaptations and differences,
suited to each organism, is reduced, according to us,
to one special cerebro-medullar reflex action upon
the germinating cells; by means of the nervous
system are transmitted to this cell all the impres-
sions acquired and developed by the individual.
We conceive that the impressions perceived by the
organism and registered by the cerebro-spinal axis
determine two modes of reflection; one includes
the reflections designed to assure the adaptation of
the organism to changes in the internal or external
conditions of its existence ; the other mode includes
those designed to prepare the adaptation of the
descendants, represented here by the germinating
cells, in regard to these changes. This means that
the modifications of the organism, whatever they
may be, react upon the germinating cells and are
susceptible consequently of disclosing themselves
in the descendants. If these modifications are

HEREDITY 211

advantageous for the preservation of the species,
they are transmitted with their qualities ; just as, if
they constituted phenomena of disease, they would
then represent equally numerous cases of patho-
logical heredity.

" With regard to the manner in which the
nervous system assures the transmission of
characteristics, we believe that impressions felt
and received by the reflex centres of the grey
substance of the brain are transmitted by means
of the centrifugal nervous cords to the genital
centre of the medulla, condensed and concentrated
by it, and finally reflected upon the spermatoblasts
and ovoblasts by the nerve-fillets, which, starting
from this centre, are distributed in the testicles and

ovaries."

Let us recall the paragraphs relating to the way
in which the great dominating apparatus, as
Charrin calls the nervous system, takes part with
marvellous minuteness, carrying its action to the
cell itself, capable, according to normal or other
circumstances, of creating hunger or destroying,
that is, maintaining in a normal and healthy state
the chemical processes of the cell, or, on the other
hand, of throwing them out of gear. When the
individual is healthy the germinating cells, male
and female, receive the impression, the tone of the
nutrition of the organism to which they belong,

212 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

by means of the nervous system, and if the moment
of reproduction arrives they repeat the same
formula N which is peculiar to them. On the
contrary, if the formula N is altered, as the germin-
ating cells receive every moment the impressions
of the organism, the latter will undergo modification,
following the same oscillations as the nervous
system ; and as soon as the moment of reproduction
arrives, if the alteration is not so serious as to have
neutralised the fertilising power, they will reproduce
the same type of alteration in the organism at the
moment of its release, that is, will reproduce the
formula N' (A', B', C', D'), which is pathological
heredity.

Adding these ideas to those explained in the
chapter on health and the general laws of mechanics,
we shall understand that, if the absurd social medium
in which we live alters the organic constitution so
far as to weaken it, the descendants of one sick
generation must be just another sick generation.

The index of organic resistance in man is
enormous ; the aberration that his chemical
mechanism can undergo oscillates within con-
siderable limits, and thus it is explained how
humanity resists so many calamities and outrages.
The disturbance of the formula N' (A', B', C', D')
always tends to recover its rhythm, to return to
its normal state, to the formula N (A, B, C, D),

HEREDITY 213

because organisation will obey these rhythmic
forces which impel the whole of Nature, and these
energies possess enormous powers of tension and
are always ready on the first occasion to recover
their true equilibrium or synchronism with the
rhythms of which they are an echo.

Thus it is explained how man has that surprising
vital resistance, because his powers of tension,
which have been necessary in order to build up the
structure of an organic and intelligent being, are
immeasurable, and only to be compared to the
energies from which they proceed. The force of
tension stored up by the psychic nerve, the
potential energy enclosed in the molecular
mechanism, constituting the substance of each one
of these cells, from the living force of which thought
is derived, is only understood by knowing the close
bond of dependence that they have with the infinite
rhythms of force.

Let it not be thought, then, on expressing these
ideas on molecular equilibrium, that man's health
and resistance are somewhat fragile, but that, on
the contrary, his equilibrium is of immense tenacity
and stability, and the alteration of formula N is only
understood in the presence of the opposition and
violence, the pain and misery to which from time
immemorial the human race is subject.

If man always found in the medium in which he

214 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

lives the forces to nourish and repair his organic
losses, that is, from light, air, all nourishment, and
the necessary medium, he might expend vast energy
without detriment to his health. A sound man is
a great transformer of forces, but provided that
formula N be intact, for then his affinity and
activity would easily transform the cosmic forces
that surround him; but if, on the contrary, the
formula is N', he has neither the same activity nor
affinity as before, and transforms and produces less
force, because formula N' has in its structure less
potential force, produces less living force, but, on
the contrary, more toxic products, that diminish
the vital forces. Weak people in human life are
those in whom the violence of what is wrongly
called the struggle for life has altered the normal
rhythm of nutrition in their progenitors, their off-
spring being weak or wearied heirs.

Here we may repeat that, so long as an absurd
regimen prevails, monstrous consequences must
result.

The economic condition does not choose its
victims only among those who have been disin-
herited by fortune, but also among the moneyed
classes. Money is of so perverse a nature that it
wrecks the most beautiful and natural feelings.

The dramas and tragedies caused by money are
innumerable. Love often prostitutes itself, and in

HEREDITY 215

love the physiological conditions are sacrificed to
the economical, and with them the future of the
family. Money often alters the conditions and
affection between parents and children, brothers
or friends. For money, states declare war, which,
as has been said, has robbery as its object and
murder as its method. But monstrosities are not
merely moral but physical also, and reach all
social classes. Nature is relentless towards those
who trample under foot her laws, and social con-
solidation is so great that often it is the innocent
offspring that condemns social violence. How
often in the streets, in the hospitals, or in families
do we see poor, innocent beings, sickly, weak, and
at times with such deformities that they look like
the grimace by which suffering humanity reveals
the martyrdom of her womb ! Here it may be said
that man is the slave of his own guilt.

Psychic Heredity

We have already seen in psychic adaptation that
it is a reflex of the outside world, and that from
the lowest animal to man the ego has always been
progressing and trying to acquire an ever closer
contact with the external. In this increasing
adaptation present man has not reached his term
of evolution ; he represents only a moment in the

216 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

ascending scale of psychic perfectibility, and counts
upon an indefinite period to continue his progress.

Psychic heredity is the continuation of psychic
adaptation. Healthy parents produce a healthy
offspring, and the latter must necessarily be like
the former, for as individuals they are the product
of one and the same cause, correspondence with
the external. Strictly, heredity is not a fault
essential to the individual, but the healthy child is
the reproduction of the healthy parent, since every
organisation is under the inductive power of Nature,
and represents different periods of the same thing.

We say healthy parents, because the phenomenon
of induction of natural forces on to the organism
can alone engender similar beings when the
organisms are well constituted, that is to say,
when formula N represents molecular equilibrium,
and there can be no further difference between
parents and children than the slight alteration
which a greater adaptation to the external pre-
supposes for a new generation. That is to say, the
psychic progress attained by the parent serves for
the child, who in his turn will produce other
adaptations, from which his descendants will
benefit.

Humanity, considered as a whole, is the repre-
sentation of a force. Each one of its individual
parts or generations marks the fullness of the wave

HEREDITY 217

that constitutes the movement, and which, con-
sidered as a series, is the rhythm of this force.

Those who are born now and become familiar
with the daily use to which electricity is applied
have a great advantage over those who were born
fifty years ago. The man born to-day in a civilised
town and in a large capital (I am, of course, speak-
ing of a healthy individual) has a very great
advantage over one born in an uncivilised country.
The brain of him who lives in an atmosphere of
high culture acquires a large amount of knowledge,
which by its stimulus influences the associations
established by the neuronas among themselves,
and influences also the increase in the number of
the collateral ones, that in their turn extend the
degree of association of some ideas with others ;
and this constant stimulus will in its turn influence
the successive development of humanity, increasing
in successive generations the number of the
neuronas, which is what happens from the inferior
animals to man. The normal difference that must
exist between parents and offspring is that variable
quantity that supposes the greater adaptation to
the external, and which may be acquired from one
generation to another.

Sick parents, or those who have altered the
normal state of their formula N, through over-
fatigue, alcoholic excess, or any other cause, or

218 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

through living in unhealthy conditions, in re-
producing under such conditions establish the
bankruptcy of the family, susceptible, however, of
regeneration if the want of equilibrium has not
passed certain limits, but provided a strict regimen
is observed as regards nutrition and reproduction ;
then the same primitive N formula of the family or
of the individual can be reproduced, that is to say,
when this again recovers its state of greater
equilibrium.

CHAPTER XI

MEDIUM

IN the former chapters we have already stated how
adaptation, selection, and heredity were one and
the same thing, studied separately for greater
clearness ; but provided we do not forget that they
are different periods of one phenomenon ; that is,
selection is the same adaptation, but journeying
towards a fixed end ; heredity is the repetition of
adaptation, which cannot vary, because it is the
reflex of the universal mechanics, and heredity
repeats the same organisation by the immutability
of the laws of Nature. Adaptation and heredity
repeat one and the same organisation, at different
periods, just as selection defines this organisation
by a fixed meaning.

On studying the medium separately we make
another artificial division, for the mutual depend-
ence that exists between the medium (universal
mechanics) and organisation (adaptation, selection,
arid heredity) is very plain. And we come to the

219

220 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

result that, even by reducing the elements of
evolution to two, there exists between these two
the same unity as between an organ and its function.
Thus one sees the dependence and relation of all
the phenomena of the cosmos, and how we have
arrived at the monist conception.

In writing this chapter we shall take into
account the unity of phenomena, and on connecting-
some with others, we shall see the relation of the
cosmic medium, the social medium and man.

If man, the result of organic evolution, depends
on general mechanics, humanity, a super-organic
organism, for the same reason is also governed by
universal laws. Every time that humanity separates
herself from these, she decays or sickens, to again
recover if she approaches normal conditions.

In the future there will arise from this unfor-
tunate humanity a happy one, that, adapting
itself to natural laws, will develop in an indefinite
progression, in which misery and diseases will
be unknown.

Let us recall the experiment of Tyndall, of which
we have already spoken, according to which, on
making a crystal bell to sound by means of a violin
bow, the vibration of the bell arranges the sand in
a regular form ; which means that the vibrations,
whose rhythmic energy induces the symmetrical
form in which the sand keeps placing itself, are

MEDIUM 221

also regular, since they represent a relation of
cause and effect ; the sand arrangement is the
organic expression of acoustic energy.

This pretty experiment enables us to foresee that
in the world everything that has a regular form
obeys an energy, regular also.

Where are these energies and rhythms ?

Cosmic Medium

It is now known that all energies are modes of
movement, different degrees of vibration.

Vibrations have their scale, and, beginning with
the least number of vibrations, we find the musical
sound, which is perceptible when the vibrations
reach 128, which is the ut or initial do (see p. 125).

Light is another mode of vibration, much more
intense than the vibrations that constitute sound.
Colours are vibrations of reflected light, whose
number of vibrations permits of their being per-
ceived by the sense of sight.

We have already seen in another part of this
book (p. 23 ff.) how the crystalline lens in inferior
animals took its lenticular aspect from the fact
that light, on crossing the coloured spots, accom-
modates its index of refraction and its ray to the
law of optics, without which vision would not be
possible.

222 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Let us examine now the scale of vibrations of
the solar spectrum, including the visible and in-
visible part, which is outside the red on one side,
and the action of which produces heat instead of
light, and that which is outside the violet, the mode
of whose vibration does not allow of its appearing
coloured, but which makes itself felt as chemical
energy.

The unity employed is ten-millionths of a
millimetre : —

th

the Wave.

Beyond the red .. . . . 1940 to 734

Extreme limit of the red . . . 734 400

Limit between the red and the orange 647 490
„ between the orange and the

yellow .... 587 558

„ between the yellow and the green 535 590

„ between the green and the blue 492 596

„ between the blue and the indigo 456 675

„ between the indigo and the violet 424 700

Extreme limit of the violet . . 397 756

Beyond the invisible violet . . 397 to 295

— sufficient for our explanation, with regard to
light and sound, in order to make clear our proposi-
tion ; that is, that there exist rhythms, in colours
and sound, of which the senses of sight and sound
are conscious, and other rhythms, like those in the
invisible spectrum, beyond the red and the violet,
that exist, though not consciously perceptible,
but whose influence is positive. As we shall

MEDIUM 223

now see, the number of rhythms that we do not
directly perceive is much greater than that of
the others.

The illustrious astronomer and scientist Camille
Flammarion reproduces, by application, a table in
which the learned English chemist Sir William
Crookes tries to give an idea of the continuity and
unity of the phenomena of the universe. With this
object, let us imagine a seconds pendulum. By
doubling the oscillations in one unit of time, one
obtains the table which will be seen below (p. 224).

In commenting on the table, Flammarion says :
" Starting from the fifth degree, with 32 vibra-
tions per second, we enter the region in which the
vibration of the atmosphere reveals itself as a
sound. There is found the lowest musical note.
If among musical sounds one chooses a very low
one — for instance, the lower octave on the organ-
one perceives elementary sensations, though they
form a continuous whole, a condition indispensable
to produce a musical sound. 'The deeper the
sound,' says Helmholtz, ' the better the ear perceives
the successive pulsations of the air/

" In the ten degrees following the vibrations per
second rise from 32 to 32,768 ; every time the
vibrations are doubled the same note in the upper
octave is reproduced. . . .

"We then reach a region in which the velocity

224

SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

of the vibrations increases rapidly, and the vibra-
tory medium is not the atmosphere but a medium

1st degree .
2 .
3.
4.
5 .

2
4
8
16}
32

6.

. 64

7

198

i . . .

• • • • . A ^O ri i

OK* > Sound.

8 .

. . . . 256 1

9 .

512

10.

1,024

15.

. 32,768

20.
25.

. 1,047,576 1 TT ,
oo KKA Aon f Unknown.
33,554,432 J

30.

. 1,073,741,824 Electricity.

35.

. 34,359,738,368 )

40.

. 1,099,511,627,766 > Unknown.

45 .

. 35,184,372,088,832 )

48.

. 281,474,976,710,656 )

49 .

. 562,949,953,421,312 V Light.1

50.

1,125,890,906,842,624)

55.

. 36,028,797,018,963,968 )

56 .

. 72,057,594,037,927,936 V Unknown.

57 .

. 144,115,188,075,855,872

58.

. 288,230,376,151,711,744 \

59.

. 576,460,752,303,423,488 IYT?

60.

1,152,921,504,606,846,976 f A-Kays-

61 .

2,305,843,009,213,693,952 )

62 .
63 . . .

4,611,686,018,427,387,904 ) Unknown
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 f UnJ

infinitely more subtle, called ether. This is the
region of electric vibrations.

1 Luminous, caloric, and chemical rays, beyond the red and beyond
the violet.

MEDIUM 225

" Then comes a region extending from 35 to 45
degrees, including per second from 34 thousand
359 millions to 35 trillions 183 millions. This is an
unknown region. We are ignorant of the functions
of these vibrations, but it is difficult to admit that
they have no action in the universe.

" Next we enter the region of light, with velocities
contained between 48 and 50 degrees. The sensa-
tion of light, that is, the vibrations that transmit
visible signs, is included within approximately
narrow limits from 400 trillions (red light) to 756
trillions (violet light), less than a degree."

To understand the immensity of these velocities
it is necessary to recall in imagination celestial
velocities and spaces — figures that have something
of the infinite, from which they come.

All these rhythms form part of the cosmic
environment ; their action is constant, invariable ;
everything that exists is in relation with these vast
forces.

If we compare this table of ethereal rhythms
with the tables of Mendeleef (p. 189) and with that of
Sir W. Crookes (p. 193), we find a great and signifi-
cant analogy that needs no comment. Regularity
and harmony increase in the one by the multiplica-
tion of the vibrations, and in the others according
to the atomic weight.

But there is another and, to me, a still more

15

226 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

interesting one for strengthening and making more
comprehensible the monist conception. If we
compare the significance that the atomic weight
has in the inorganic world with the mode of
structure in the organic world, we shall find that
comparative embryology and anatomy are alike the
tables that demonstrate the same periodic function
of organic matter. Everything in Nature, from the
cell to man, from hydrogen to Uranus, from the
vibration that begins to make itself perceptible in
sound to that of radio-activity, continually pro-
claims universal harmony.

Social Medium

Man and society, through ignorance of them, are
exceptions to these laws of harmony — man and
society, the products of harmonious laws, which by
reason of this very organisation should create a
well-balanced social organism, are in complete
discord. Social organisation, like sight and
harmony, is a function of Nature, and happiness
should reign in it.

Humanity, the resume and compendium of all
energies, should have followed in its development
the increasing progression, like everything else in
Nature. On this basis, we said elsewhere that this
flux and reflux in human progress had no raison

MEDIUM 227

d'Stre, but were due to defects of organisation.
The same thing happens to humanity as in the case
of any machine out of gear. These changes of
civilisation, believing them to be caused by a cyclic
evolution, are an error of interpretation, which is
countenanced by such men as J. W. Draper
(History of the Intellectual Development of Europe],
who tries to turn history into physiology, dividing
it into five parts : " ( 1) epoch of credulity ; (2) epoch
of inquiry ; (3) epoch of faith ; (4) epoch of reason ;
(5) epoch of decrepitude/' These are periods
through which individual man passes, and as
humanity presents changes which may be com-
pared to these periods, an analogy has been estab-
lished. But taking heed and considering organisation
as a whole, and as such, humanity, we shall see in
reproduction or heredity that the children are, with
regard to their parents, a form of the rhythm of
force. Humanity, considered as a force, has its
rhythm, and may be compared to the undulations
and vibrations of sound, colour, light, etc. Men or
generations represent units of this great force.
Then civilisations cannot decay, as is supposed, by
regarding as an inevitable law what is the conse-
quence of an evil organisation, because that is con-
trary to all laws. If there are periods in history in
which man decays, it is due to an organisation that
develops on a false basis, and which is a misguided

228 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

evolution, destined to die. On the morrow this
progress will be, like all others, indefinite.
Humanity is not only a rhythmic force, but is
subject to the great laws of energy, continuity, and
persistence.

Money — the curse of so many, even of those who
have it and feel its objections, because they see
every day the anxieties it causes, the inconsistency
and instability that follow as a basis of the family
and of society, the immoralities to which it lends
itself, the vexations it causes to the most worthy,
who turn to suicide as a last resource — money and
property are what change the course of history by
retrograding it; they are the very things that
change man's health ; civilisations decline and fall
for the same reason that man degenerates — from
not finding a suitable medium for his development.
(See " Health and General Laws of Mechanics,"
p. 120.)

The progressive and harmonious development of
the human super-organism requires conformity to
natural laws.

I do not propose to enumerate one single
instance of the infinite ills and sufferings of this
social medium; that these lie in the ambient,
everything proclaims ; every kind of literature, the
novel, the stage, the press, and, best of all, medicine
itself, all this constitutes an inexhaustible arsenal

MEDIUM 229

of pain and crime. My intention was only to try
to explain that the harmonious laws of evolution
cannot be complied with because the present social
environment is incompatible with them.

Cities, as to-day constituted, answer the require-
ments of capitalist ascendancy, and are therefore
incompatible with the society of the future. Of
present-day cities the least than can be said
is that they are ugly, dirty, and foul-smelling.
As for their sanitary conditions, they are a veritable
disgrace, seething cauldrons of human flesh — to say
nothing of the frightful mortality caused by infectious
diseases, such as tuberculosis and typhus.

In order to realise the state of things set out in
another place (" Health and the General Laws of
Mechanics"), it is indispensable for future com-
munities to reconstruct their cities on sanitary
principles, in order that man may live in a perfect
state of health, and be for ever exempt from the
numerous diseases that torment him. Some have
already disappeared, as the black plague, leprosy,
small-pox, cholera, etc., and others are decreasing
as civilisation advances.

Houses and lodgings suffer from the same defect,
and these are hard to eradicate, since they follow
the natural selfishness of private ownership. He
who owns a house or builds it, as a rule fixes the

230 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

amount of rent. The house is not sanitary. Good,
but " What does it matter ? " the owner will say ;
"it brings me in my rent, which is the only
question."

There are places where mortality is criminally
excessive : " What shall we do ? " say the authorities,
with folded arms.

There are cities, districts, houses, hotbeds of
infection, causing the deaths of thousands of our
fellow-creatures. In these cases there are local
authorities that have passed laws and regulations
of health and sanitation ; but these laws cannot be
complied with, for they would entail an amount of
expense injurious to capital. Hence arises a con-
flict, in which the authority fulfils its mission in
taking the side of the stronger.

Manufactories and workshops are guilty of the
same original sin, a point which I cannot stop to
analyse, as this would be mere waste of time.

Suffice it to say that cities and all their buildings
in their present state are the result of an absurd
social organisation, that revolutions should not
rely upon any of these resources of present society,
for they are unsuited to a society based on natural
laws. In a word, the whole of the present social
medium is incompatible with the society of the
future. A new social machine requires new organs.

MEDIUM 231

Man

Knowing that colours are different modes of
vibration, one can understand Dr Eamon y
Cajal's meaning when he says that the senses,
especially the hearing and the sight, are definite
collectors of undulatory movements, and why Max
Nordau calls them registering apparatus.

Hence one can see with all its consequences the
relation between the external and internal, and
that man is a product of universal mechanics.

Let us take the case of a painter : in order that
he may be able to reproduce colour with accuracy
it is necessary that his eyes be good specific
collectors of those different rhythms that constitute
all the varied scale of colours, without which
requirement he will not be able to represent these
colours as they are. A painter will be all the more
accurate in his colours the better his adaptation to
light, that is, the external to the visual centres of
the artist, the internal. To be a good colourist
depends on this aptitude of the eyes to be good
specific collectors of movements.

Man, to be healthy, must live in harmony with
the natural laws ; otherwise he degenerates as an
individual and as a species.

It is established to-day in biological science that

232 SUPER-ORGANIC EVOLUTION

each special cell, the product of one preceding
it, whether epithelial, muscular, or conjunctive,
must always reproduce the same cellular type,
or, in default, one of the ancestral forms, or one to
correspond with one of the forms of its embryonic
period.

According to that, when a tumour, an epithelioma
for instance, develops in an individual, the cellular
elements of which the said tumour is composed
will reproduce one of the ancestral or embryonic
forms that have preceded the development and
formation of the epithelial tissue. Thus regarded,
a tumour is the degeneration of an element peculiar
to the tissue, but in a state of retrogression and
monstrous growth.

Making use of Pascal's simile, who compares
humanity, considered as a great unity, to a man
who is always learning, the closeness of the analogy
will appear still more striking on comparing indivi-
dual men in the social structure with what are cells
in the structure of animal tissue, and one infers
that the unities, man, during the whole of present
history constitute a real serial degeneracy. Men
are still forms of disease, and in different stages of
ancestral retrogression ; but by no means the normal
type man.

Neither man as an individual, nor man in the
vast conception of Pascal, will free himself from his

MEDIUM 233

degeneracy so long as he lives in opposition to the
harmony of universal laws.

Two words more, and I have done.

The social problem does not reduce itself merely
to an economic question, a question of rich and
poor, but it is the most beautiful and profoundly
human of all that need solution.

New ideas, as much dreaded as they are un-
known, far from tending to a retrograde step in
the history of humanity, aim at its indefinite per-
fection and happiness.

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INDEX UNDER AUTHORS & TITLES

Abhidhanaratnamala. Aufrecht, 33.
Acland, Sir C. T. D. Anglican Liberalism,

12.

Acts of the Apostles. Adolf Harnack, 12.

Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion, n.

/Eneidea. James Henry, 52.

Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 50.

Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.

Allin, Rev. Thos. Universalism Asserted, 14.

Alton, E. H. Romans, 32.

Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Contemporary

Evolution of Religious Thought, 14.
Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Idea of God, 13.
Americans, The. Hugo Miinsterberg, 29.
Analysis of Ores. F. C. Phillips, 48.
Analysis of Theology. E. G. Figg 17.
Ancient Assyria, Religion of. Sayce, 14.
Ancient Egyptians, 32.
Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 53.
Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Annotated Texts. Goethe, 39.
Antedon. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Anthems. Rev. R. Crompton Jones, 20.
Antiqua Mater. Edwin Johnson, 20.
Anurida. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Apocalypse. Bleek, 7,
Apocalypse of St John, 37.
Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 12.
Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Pfleiderer, 13.
Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsacker, 6.
Arabian Poetry, Ancient, 34.
Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Argument of Adaptation. Rev. G. Henslow, 18.
Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of, 29.
Army Series of French and German Novels, 38.
Ascidia. Johnstone, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Ashworth, J. H. Arenicola, 46.
Assyrian Dictionary. Norris, 35.
Assyrian Language, A Concise Dictionary of.

W. Muss-Arnolt, 35.

Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 34.
Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 48.
Athanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37.
Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert's, 53.
Atonement, Doctrine of the. Sabatier, TO.
At-one-ment, The. Rev. G. Henslow, 18.
Aufrecht, Dr. T. Abhidhanaratnamala, 33.
Auf Verlornem Posten. Dewall, 38.
Autobiography. Herbert Spencer, 30.
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times, 51.
Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 33.

Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 9.
Bacon, Roger, The "Opus Majus" of, 28.
Bad Air and Bad Health. Herbert and Wager,

56.

Ball, Sir Robert S. Cunningham Memoir, 45.
Bases of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 14, 26.
Bastian, H. C. Studies in Heterogenesis, 43.
Baur. Church History, 7 ; Paul, 7.
Bayldon, Rev. G. Icelandic Grammar, 38.
Beard, Rev. Dr. C. Universal Christ, 15 ;

Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 13.
Beeby, Rev. C. E. Doctrine and Principles, 15.
Beet, Prof. J. A. .Child and Religion, 10.
Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 4.

Beliefs about the Bible. M. J. Savage, 24.
Benedict, F. E. Organic Analysis, 43.
Bergey, D. G. Practical Hygiene, 43.
Bernstein and Kirsch. Syriac Chrestomathy,

Bevan, Rev. J. O. Genesis and Evolution of

the Individual Soul, 15.
Bible. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, 15.
Bible, Beliefs about, Savage, 24 ; Bible Plants,

Henslow, 18 ; Bible Problems, Prof. T. K.

Cheyne, 9 ; How to Teach the, Rev. A. F.

Mitchell, 22 ; Remnants of Later Syriac

Versions of, 37.
Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to. Rev. Jas.

Kennedy, 20, 34.
Biltz, Henry. Methods of Determining Mole-

cular Weights, 43.

Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30.
Blackburn, Helen. Women's Suffrage, 51.
Bleek. Apocalypse, 7.
Boielle, Jas. French Composition, 39 ; Hugo,

Les Mise"rables, 39 ; Notre Dame, 39.
Bolton. History of the Thermometer, 43.
Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 20.
Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, 10.
Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesus, 10.
Bremond, Henri. Mystery of Newman, 15.
Brewster, H. B. The Prison, 28; The Statu-
ette and the Background, 28 ; Anarchy and

Law, 28.

British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 45.
Bruce, Alex. Topographical Atlas of the

Spinal Cord, 43.

Buddha. Prof. H. Oldenberg, 35.
Burkitt, Prof. F. C. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Calculus, Differential and Integral. Harnack,

Caldecott, Dr. A. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Campbell, Rev. Canon Colin. First Three

Gospels in Greek, 15.

Campbell, Rev. R. J. New Theology Ser-
mons, 15.

Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton,43.
Canonical Books of the Old Testament, 3.
Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 41.
Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in,

42.

Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Carlyle, Rev. A. J. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Casey, John. Cunningham Memoirs, 43.
Catalogue of the London Library, 51.
Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 14.
Celtic Studies. Sullivan, 41.
Centenary History of South Place Society.

Moncure D. Conway, 16.
Chadwick, Antedon, 47 ; Echinus, 46.
Chaldee Language, Manual of. Turpie, 37.
Channing's Complete Works, 15.
Chants and Anthems, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and

Canticles. Crompton Jones, 20.
Character of the Fourth Gospel. Rev. John

James Tayler, 25.
Chemical Dynamics, Studies in. J. H. Van't

Hoff, 45.

58 INDEX— Continued.

Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 44.

Cheyne, Prof. T. K. Bible Problems, 9.

Child and Religion, The, 10.

Chinese. Werner, 32.

Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.

Christ no Product of Evolution. Rev. G.
Henslow, 19.

Christian Creed, Our, 15.

Christian Life, Ethics of the, 2.

Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob-
schiitz, 3.

Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of
the. R. Seeberg, 12.

Christianity, Beginnings of. Wernle, 4.

Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R.
Trayers Herford, 19.

Christianity? What is. Adolf Harnack, 5.

Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 46.

Church History. Baur, 7. Schubert, 3.

Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 24.

Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.

Coit, Dr. Stanton. Idealism and State Church,
16 ; Book of Common Prayer, 16.

Colby, A. L. Reinforced Concrete in
Europe, 43.

Cole, Frank J. Pleuronectes, 46.

Collins, F. H. Epitome of Synthetic Philo-
sophy, 28.

Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 20.

Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 7 ;
Commentary on the Book of Job. Wright
and Hirsch, 27 ; Commentary on the Old
Testament. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the
Psalms. Ewald, 7 ; Protestant, 8, 23.

Common Prayer for Christian Worship, 16.

Communion with God. Herrmann, 5, 10.

Conductivity of Liquids, 49.

Confessions of St. Augustine. Harnack, 12.

Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought.
Count Goblet D'Alviella, 14.

Contes Militaires. Datidet, 38.

Conway, Moncure D. Centenary History, 16.

Conybeare, F. C. Apocalypse of St John, 37.

Cornill, Carl. Introduction to the Old Testa-
ment, 3.

Cosmology of the Rigveda. H. W. Wallis,

Creighton, Chas. Cancer and other Tumours,

43 ; Tuberculosis, 43.

Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Schrader, 8.
Cunningham Memoirs, 43, 44.
Cunningham, D. J., M.D. Lumbar Curve in

Man and the Apes, 43 ; Surface Anatomy

of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Cunningham

Memoir, 43.
Cussans, Margaret. Gammarus, 46.

Daniel and its Critics; Daniel and his Pro-
phecies. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27.

Darbishire, Otto V. Chondrus, 46.

Daudet, A. Contes Militaires, 38.

Davids, T. W. Rhys. Indian Buddhism, 13.

Davis, J. R. Ainsworth. Patella, 46.

Dawning Faith. H. Rix, 24.

Delbos, Leon. Student's Graduated French
Reader, 39.

Delbos, L. Nautical Terms, 39.

Delectus Veterum. Theodor Noldeke, 35.
Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible, 9;

Hebrew Language, 33.

Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 25.
Denmark in the Early Iron Age. C. Engel-

hardt, 52.

De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 20.
Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 32.
Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 50.
Dewall, Johannes v., Auf Verlornem Posten

and Nazzarena Danti, 38.
Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel

Harnack, 44.

Dillmann, A. Ethiopic Grammar, 33.
Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 33.
Dirge of Coheleth. Rev. C.Taylor, 25.
Dobschiitz, Ernst von. Christian Life in the

Primitive Church, 3, 16.

Doctrine and Principles. Rev. C. E. Beeby, 15.
Dogma, History of. Harnack, 18.
Dole, Chas. F. The Ethics of Progress, 16.
Driver, S. R. Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22.
Drummond, Dr. Jas. Character and Author-
ship of the Fourth Gospel, 16 ; Philo Judaeus,

28 ; Via, Veritas, Vita, 13.

Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 9.
Early Christian Conception. Pfleiderer, 10.
Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland. Rev.

P. H. Wicksteed, 26.
Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Echoes of Holy Thoughts, 17.
Education. Spencer, 31 ; Lodge, School

Reform, 40.

Egyptian Faith, The Old. Naville, 12.
Egyptian Grammar, Erman's, 34.
Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 47.
Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 44.
Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 47.
Eledone. Vide L.M.B.C Memoirs, 47.
Elementary, Chemistry. Emery, 44.
ElementaryOrganic Analysis. F.E.Benedict,43.
Emery, F. B., M.A. Elementary Chemistry,

Engelhardt, C. Denmark in Iron Age, 52.
Engelhardt, V. Electrolysis of Water, 44.
Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 49.
England and Germany. Erich Marcks, 54.
English Culture, Rise of. E. Johnson, 53.
English-Danish Dictionary. S. Rosing, 41.
English-Icelandic Dictionary. Zoega, 42.
Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 17.
Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. Collins, 28.
Erman's Egyptian Grammar, 34.
Erzahlungen. Hofer, 38.
Espin, Rev. T., M.A. The Red Stars, 44.
Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and

Herrmann, n.

Essays. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 29.
Ethical Import of Darwinism. Schurman, 29.
Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Ethics, Early Christian. Prof. Scullard, 25.
Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Ethics of the Christian Life. Haering, 2.
Ethics of Progress, The. Dole, 16.
Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 33.

INDEX-Continued.

59

Eucken, Prof. Life of the Spirit, 12.
Eugene's Grammar of French Language, 39.
Evans, George. Essay on Assyriology, 34.
Evolution, A New Aspect of. Formby, 17.
Evolution, Christ no Product of, 19.
Evolution of Christianity. C. Gill, 17.
Evolution of Knowledge. R. S. Perrin, 22.
Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, 10.
Ewald. Commentary on Job, 7 ; Commentary

on the Old Testament, 7 ; Commentary on

the Psalms, 7.

Facts and Comments. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 9.

Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D. A Moslem
Present ; Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry, 34.

Farnell, L. R. The Evolution of Religion, 10.

Fertilizers. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis,
50.

Figg, E. G. Analysis of Theology, 17.

First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 30.

First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon
Colin Campbell, 15.

Fischer, Prof. Emil. Introduction to the Pre-
paration of Organic Compounds, 44.

Flinders Petrie Papyri. Cunn. Memoirs, 44.

Formby, Rev. C. W. Re-Creation, 17.

Four Gospels as Historical Records, 17.

Fourth Gospel, Character and Authorship of, 16.

Frankfurter, Dr. O. Handbook of Pali, 34.

Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 26.

Freezing Point, The, Jones, 45.

French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 39.

French History, First Steps in. F. F. Roget, 41.

French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 39.

Fuerst, Dr. Jul. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi-
con, 34.

Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.

Gardner, Prof. Percy. Anglican Liberalism, 12 ;
Modernity and the Churches,

General Language of the Incas of Peru, 40.

Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C.
H. H. Wright, 27.

Genesis, Hebrew Text, 34.

Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 44.

German Idioms, Short Guide to. Weiss, 42.

German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V.
Phillipps, B.A., 41.

German, Systematic Conversational Exercises
in. T. H. Weiss, 42.

Gibson, R. J. Harvey. Codium, 46.

Gill, C. Book of Enoch ; Evolution of Chris-
tianity, 17.

Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld, 55.

Goethe, W. v. Annotated Texts, 39.

Goldammer, H. The Kindergarten, 52.

Goligher, Dr W. A. Hellenic Studies, and
Hellenistic Greeks, Romans, 32.

Gospel of Rightness. C. E. Woods, 27.

Gospels in Greek, First Three, 15.

Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 13.

Greek, Modern, A Course of. Zompolides, 42.

Greek New Testament, 6.

Green, Rev. A. A. Child and Religion, 10.

Grieben's English Guides, 52.

Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi ot

Shiraz, 36.
Gwynn, John. Later Syriac Versions of the

Bible, 37.
Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 48.

Haddon, A. C. Decorative Art of British
Guinea, Cunningham Memoir, 44.

Haering, T. Ethics of the Christian Life, 2.

Hagmann, J. G., Ph.D. Reform in Primary
Education, 39.

Handley, Rev. H. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Hantzsch, A. Elements of Stereochemistry, 44.

Hardy. Elements of Analytical Geometry, 44 ;
Infinitesimals and Limits, 44.

Harnack, Adolf. Acts of the Apostles, 12 ;
History of Dogma, 4 ; Letter to the " Preus-
sische Jahrbucher," 18 ; Luke the Physician,
ii ; Mission and Expansion of Christianity,
3; Monasticism, 12; The Sayings of Jesus,
12 ; What is Christianity? 5, 9.

Harnack, Adolf, and Herrmann, W. Essays
on the Social Gospel, n.

Harnack and his Oxford Critics. Saunders, 24.

Harnack, Axel. Differential and Integral
Calculus, 44.

Hart, Edward, Ph.D. Chemistry for Begin-
ners, 44 ; Second Year Chemistry, 44.

Hatch, Rev. Dr. Lectures on Greek Ideas,
13.

Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M.A., M.D. New
Researches on Sun-Heat, 43.

Hausrath. History of the New Test. Times, 7.

Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Dr. Fuerst,

Hebrew Language, The. F. Delitzsch, 33.

Hebrew, New School of Poets, 35.

Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, u.

Hebrew Story. Peters, 9.

Hebrew Texts, 18.

Hellenic Studies, 32.

Hellenistic Greeks. Mahaffy and Goligher, 32.

Henry, Jas. ^Eneidea, 52.

Henslow, Rev. G. The Argument of Adapta-
tion, 18 ; The At-pne-ment, 18 ; Christ no
Product of Evolution, 19 ; Spiritual Teach-
ings of Bible Plants, 18 ; Spiritual Teaching
of Christ's Life, 19 ; The Vulgate, 19.

Henson, Rev. Canon Hensley. Child and
Religion, 10.

Herbert, Hon. A. Sacrifice of Education, 52.

Herbert, Hon. A., and Wager, H. Bad Air
and Bad Health, 52.

Herdman, Prof. W. A. Ascidia, 46.

Herford, R. Travers, B.A. Christianity in
Talmud and Midrash, 19.

Herrmann, W. Communion, 5, 10 ; Faith and
Morals, 9.

Herrmann and Harnack. Essays on the Social
Gospel, n.

Heterogenesis, Studies in. H. Bastian, 43.

Hewitt, C. Gordon. Ligia, 46.

Hibbert Journal Supplement for 1909, entitled :
Jesus or Christ? 19.

Hibbert Journal, The, 19.

Hibbert, Lectures, The, 13, 14.
Hickson, Sydney J. Alcyonium, 46.

6o

INDEX— Continued.

Hill, Rev. Dr. G. Child and Religion, to.
Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 48.
Hirsch, Dr. S. A., and W. Aldis Wright,

edited by. Commentary on Job, 27.
History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 3.
History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 4.
History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7.
History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 5.
History of the Literature of the O.T. Kautzsch,

20.

History of the New Test. Times. Hausrath, 7.
Hodgson, S. H. Philosophy and Experience,

28 ; Reorganisation of Philosophy, 28.
Hoerning, Dr. R. The Karaite MSS., 19.
H5fer, E. Erzahlungen, 38.
Hoff, J. H. Van't. Chemical Dynamics, 45.
Hornell, J. Marine Zoology of Okhamandal,

Horner, G. Statutes, The, of the Apostles,

36-
Horse.Life-SizeModelsof. J.T.ShareJones,4s;

the, Surgical Anatomy of, 45.
Horton, Dr. R. Child and Religion, 10.
Howe, J. L. Inorganic Chemistry, 45.
How to Teach the Bible. Mitchell, 22.
Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre

Dame, 39.
Hunter, Dr. John. De Profundis Clamavi, 20 ;

The Coming Church, 20.
Hygiene, Handbook of. Bergey, 43.
Hymns of Duty and Faith. Jones, 20.

Icelandic Grammar. Rev. G. Bayldon, 38.
Idea of God. Alviella, Count Goblet D', 13.
Imms, A. D. Anurida, 46.
Incarnate Purpose, The. Percival, 22.
Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 13.
Individual Soul, Genesis and Evolution of.

Bevan, 15.
Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W.

Saleeby, 29.

Indoor Gymnastics, Medical, 48.
Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. D. F.

Schloss, 54.

Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 44.
Inflammation Idea. W. H. Ransom, 48.
Influence of Rome on Christianity. Renan, 13.
Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 45.
Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis.

Leavenworth, 46.

Introduction to the Greek New Test. Nestle, 6.
Introduction to the Old Test. Cornill, 3.
Introduction to the Preparation of Organic

Compounds. Fischer, 44.
Isaiah, Hebrew Text, 34.

Jeremias, Prof. A. Old Testament in the Light

of the East, 2.
Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7.
Jesus or Christ ? The Hibbert Journal Supple-
ment for 1909, 19.

esus. Wilhelm Bousset, 10.

esus, Sayings of. Harnack, 12.

ob, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 27.

ob, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 37.

ob. Hebrew Text, 34.

Johnson, Edwin, M.A. Antiqua Mater, 20;

English Culture, 20 ; Rise of Christendom, 20.
Johnstone, J. British Fisheries, 45.
Jones, Prof. Henry. Child and Religion, 10.
Jones, Rev. J. C. Child and Religion, 10.
Jones, Rev. R. Crompton. Hymns of Duty

and Faith, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and Canticles,

20 ; Anthems, 20 ; The Chants and Anthems,

20 ; A Book ot Prayer, 20.
Jones, J. T. Share. Life-Size Models of the

Horse, 45 ; Surgical Anatomy of the Horse,

45-

Jones. The Freezing Point, 45.
Jordan, H. R. Blaise Pascal, 28.
Journal of the Federated Malay States, 56.
Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and

Zoology, 45, 56.
Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club,

45. 56.
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,

45> 56.
Justice. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 29.

Karaite MSS. Dr. R. Hoerning, 19.

Kautzsch, E. History of the Literature of the
Old Testament, 20.

Kea, the. G. R. Marriner, 47.

Keim. History of Jesus of Nazara, 7.

Kennedy, Rev. Jas. Introduction to Biblical
Hebrew, 34; Hebrew Synonyms, 34.

Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 53.

Kiepert's Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 53.

Kindergarten, The. H. Goldammer, 52.

Kittel, R. History of the Hebrews, 5.

Knight, edited by. Essays on Spinoza, 32.

Knowledge, Evolution of. Perrin, 22.

Kuenen, Dr. A. National Religions and Uni-
versal Religion, 13 ; Religion of Israel, 8.

Kyriakides, A. Modern Greek-English Dic-
tionary, 39.

Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulli-

ken, 47.

Ladd, Prof. G. T. Child and Religion, 10.
Lake, Kirsopp. Resurrection, n.
Landolt, Hans. Optical Rotating Power, 46.
Laurie, Prof. Simon. Ethica, 29 ; Meta-

physica Nova et Vetusta, 29.
Lea, Henry Chas. Sacerdotal Celibacy, 21.
Leabhar Breac, 40.
Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 40.
Leavenworth, Prof. W. S. Inorganic Quali-
tative Chemical Analysis, 46.
Leblanc, Dr. Max. The Production of

Chromium, 46.

Le Coup de Pistolet. Merim6e, 38.
Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C.

Memoirs, 46.
Letter to the " Preussische Jahrbucher."

Adolf Harnack, 18.
Lettsom, W. N., trans, by. Nibelungenlied,

40.

Liberal Christianity. Jean Reville, 9.
Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 21.
Life of the Spirit, The. Eucken, 12.

INDEX— Continued.

61

Lilja. Edited by E. Magnusson, 40.
Lilley, Rev. A. L. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 56.
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs,

I.— XIX., 46, 47.
Lobstein, Paul. Virgin Birth of Christ, 9.
Lodge, Sir O. Life and Matter, 21 ; School

Teaching and School Reform, 40
Logarithmic Tables. Sang, 48 ; Schroen, 48.
London Library, Catalogue of, 51.
London Library Subject Index, 54.
Long, J. H. A Text-book of Urine Analysis,

Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, u.
Lyall, C. J., M.A. Ancient Arabian Poetry,
34-

Macan, R. W. The Resurrection of Jesus
Christ, 21.

MacColl, Hugh. Man's Origin, Destiny, and
Duty, 29.

Macfie, R. C. Science, Matter, and Immor-
tality, 21.

Machberoth Ithiel. Thos. Chenery, 35.

Mackay, R. W. Rise and Progress of Chris-
tianity, 21.

Magnusson, edited by. Lilja, 40.

Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 36.

Mahaffy, J. P., D.D. Flinders Petrie Papyri.
Cunningham Memoirs, 44 ; Hellenic Studies,
32-

Man and the Bible. J. A. Picton, 23.

Mans Origin, Destiny, and Duty. MacColl,
29.

Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L.
Williams, 42.

Maori, New and Complete Manual of, 40.

Marcbant, James. Theories of the Resurrec-
tion, 21.

Marcks, Erich. England and Germany, 54.

Marine Zoology of Okhamandal, 45.

Markham, Sir Clements, K.C.B. Vocabularies
of the Incas of Peru, 40.

Marriner, G. R. The Kea, 47.

Martineau, Rev. Dr. James. Modern
Materialism, 21 ; Relation between Ethics
and Religion, 21.

Mason, Prof. W. P. Notes on Qualitative
Analysis, 47.

Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 26.

Masterman, C. F. G. Child and Religion,
10.

Meade, R. K., Portland Cement, 47.

Mediaeval Thought, History of. R. Lane
Poole, 23.

Menegoz, E. Religion and Theology, 21.

Mercer, Right Rev. J. Edward, D.D. Soul
of Progress, 21.

Merimee, Prosper. Le Coup de Pistolet,

Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W.

Pfanhauser, 47.
Metallurgy. Wysor, 50.
Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon

Laurie, 29.

Midrash, Christianity in. Herford, 19.
Milanda Panho, The. Edited by V.

Trenckner. 35.
Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf

Harnack, 3.
Mitchell, Rev. A. F. How to Teach the

Bible, 22.
Mitchell, Rev. C. W. Refutation of Mani,

Marcion, etc., 37.
Modern Greek - English Dictionary. Kyria-

kides, 39.
Modernity and the Churches. Percy Gardner,

12.
Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James

Martineau, 21.

Moisson, Henri. Electric Furnace, 47.
Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining.

Henry Biltz, 43.

Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 12.
Montefiore, C. G. Religion of the Ancient

Hebrews, 13.
Moorhouse Lectures. Vide Mercer's Soul of

Progress, 21 ; Stephen, Democracy and

Character, 25.

Morrison, Dr. W. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Mosheh ben Shesheth. S. R. Driver. Edited

by, 22.
Moslem Present. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh,

B.D., 34.

Miinsterberg, Hugo. The Americans, 22.
Muss-Arnolt, W. A Concise Dictionary of

the Assyrian Language, 35.
My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 9.
Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 15.

National Idealism and State Church, 16 ; and

the Book of Common Prayer, 16.
National Religions and Universal Religion.

Dr. A. Kuenen, 13.
Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Dr. A.

Reville, 14.
Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto,

22.

Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 39.
Naville, Prof. E. The Old Egyptian Faith,

12.

Nestle. Introduction to the Greek New Test., 6.

New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H.
Brody and K. Albrecht, 35.

New Theology Sermons. Rev. R. J. Campbell,
15.

New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt.
Rev. W. L. Williams, 42.

Nibelungenlied. Trans. W. L. Lettsom, 40. _

Nissenson. Arrangements of Electrolytic
Laboratories, 50.

Noldeke, Theodor. Delectus Veterum, 35;
Syriac Grammar, 35.

Norris, E. Assyrian Dictionary, 35.

Noyes, A. A. Organic Chemistry, 47.

Noyes, A. A., and Milliken, Samuel. Labora-
tory Experiments, 47.

O'Grady, Standish, H. Silva Gadelica, 41.
Old and New Certainty of the Gospel. Alex.
Robinson, 24.

62

INDEX— Continued.

Oldenberg, Dr. H., edited by. Dipavamsa,

The, 33 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 37.
Old French, Introduction to. F. F. Roget, 41.
Old Testament in the Light of the East.

Jeremias, 2.

Oordt, J. F. Van, B.A. Cape Dutch, 41.
Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen's, 49.
Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 46.
" Opus Majus " of Roger Bacon, 28.
Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 47.
Otto, Rudolf. Naturalism and Religion, n.
Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 3.
Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 32.

Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfurter, 34.

Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 35.

Parker, W. K., F.R.S. Morphology of the

Duck Tribe and the Auk Tribe, 44.
Pascal, Blaise. H. R. Jordan, 28.
Patella. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Paul. Baur, 7 ; Pfleiderer, 13 ; Weinel, 3.
Paulinism. Pfleiderer, 8.
Pearson, Joseph. Cancer, 47.
Pecton. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 47.
Peddie, R. A. Printing at Brescia, 54.
Percival, G. H. The Incarnate Purpose, 22.
Perrin, R. S. Evolution of Knowledge, 22.
Persian Language, A Grammar of. J. T.

Platts, 36.

Peters, Dr. John P. Early Hebrew Story, 9.
Pfanhauser, Dr. W. Production of Metallic

Objects, 47.
Pfleiderer, Otto. Early Christian Conception,

10 ; Lectures on Apostle Paul, 13 ; Paulinism,

8 ; Philosophy of Religion, 8 ; Primitive

Christianity, 2.

Phillips, F. C. Analysis of Ores, 48.
Phillipps, V., B.A. Short Sketch of German

Literature, 41.

Philo Judaeus. Dr. Drummond, 16.
Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 28.
Philosophy of Religion. Pfleiderer, 8.
Picton, J. Allanson. Man and the Bible, 23.
Piddington, H. Sailors' Horn Book, 48.
Pikler, Jul. Psychology of the Belief in

Objective Existence, 29.
Platts, J. T. A Grammar of the Persian

Language, 36.

Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 46.
Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag,

49.
Polychael Larvae. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs,

47-
Poole, Reg. Lane. History of Mediaeval

Thought, 23.

Portland Cement. Meade, 47.
Pray, Dr. Astigmatic Letters, 48.
Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 24.
Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 51.
Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry. Shaikh Faizul-

lah-Bhai, B.D., 34.

Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 2.
Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 58.
Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 28.
Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 29.
Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 48.
Prolegomena. Reville, 8.

Protestant Commentary on the New Testa-
ment, 8, 23.

Psalms, Hebrew Text, 34.

Psychology of the Belief in Objective Exist-
ence. Jul. Pikler, 29.

Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 30 ; Out-
lines of, Wundt, 32.

Punnett, R. C. Lineus, 46.

Qualitative Analysis, Notes on. Prof. W. P.

Mason, 47.

Ransom, W. H. The Inflammation Idea, 48.
Rashdall, Dr. Hastings. Anglican Liberalism,

12.

Ray, Prof. P. C. Hindu Chemistry, 48.
Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of

M. Comte. Herbert Spencer, 32.
Re-Creation . Rev. C. W. Formby, 17.
Reform in Primary Education. J. G. Hag-

mann, 39.
Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev.

Dr. C. Beard, 15.

Refutation of Mani, Marcion, etc., 37.
Reinforced Concrete in Europe. Colby, 43.
Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 31.
Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev.

Dr. James Martineau, 21.
Religion and Modern Culture. Sabatier, 10.
Religion and Theology. E. Menegoz, 21.
Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 14.
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G.

Montefiore, 13.

Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 8.
Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria.

Prof. A. H. Sayce, 14.
Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste

Sabatier, 3.
Renan, E. Influence of Rome on Christianity,

13.

Renouf, P. L. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 14.
Reorganisation of Philosophy. Hodgson, 28.
Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 21 ;

R. W. Macan, 21 ; Marchant, 21.
Reville, Dr. A. Native Religions of Mexico

and Peru, 14.
Reville. Prolegomena, 8.
Reville, Jean. Liberal Christianity, 9.
Rhys, Prof. J. Celtic Heathendom, 14.
Ring of Pope Xystus, 54.
Rise and Progress of Christianity. R. W.

Mackay, 21.

Rise of Christendom. Edwin Johnson, 20.
Rise of English Culture. Edwin Johnson, 20.
Rix, Herbert. Dawning Faith, 24 ; Tent and

Testament, 23.
Robinson, Alex. Old and New Certainty of

the Gospel, 24 ; Study of the Saviour, 24.
Roget, F. F. First Steps in French History,

41 ; Introduction to Old French, 41.
Romans. Alton and Goligher, 32.
Rosing, S. English-Danish Dictionary, 41.
Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs and

Monthly Notices, 56.
Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and

Proceedings, 49.

I N D EX— Continued.

Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and

Proceedings, 49.
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions

of, 49.

Runes, The. Geo. Stephens, 55.
Runic Monuments, Old Northern. Geo.

Stephens, 55.
Ruth, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H.

H. Wright, 27.

Sabatier, Auguste. Doctrine of the Atone-
ment, 10 ; Religions of Authority and the
Spirit, 3.

Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 21.

Sacrifice of Education. Hon. A. Herbert, 52.

Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik
Sadi of Shiraz, 36.

Sadler, Rev. Dr. Closet Prayers, 24 ; Prayers
for Christian Worship, 24.

Sailors' Horn Book. H. Piddington, 48.

Saleeby, C. W. Individualism and Collec-
tivism, 29.

Sang's Logarithms, 48.

Saunders, T. B. Harnack and hU Critics, 24.

Savage, M. J. Beliefs about the Bible, 24.

Sayce, Prof. A. H. Religion of Ancient
Assyria, 14.

Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, 12.

Schloss, D. F. Methods of Industrial Re-
muneration, 54.

School Teaching and School Reform. Sir O.
Lodge, 40.

Schrader. The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 8.

Schreber, D. G. M. Medical Indoor Gym-
nastics, 48.

Schroen, L. Seven-Figure Logarithms, 48,

Schubert, Hans von. History of the Church, 3.

Schurman, J. Gould. Ethical Import of
Darwinism, 29 ; Kantian Ethics, 29.

Science, Matter, and Immortality. R. C.
Macfie, 21.

Scott, Andrew. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea,
46.

Scott, E. F. Apologetic of the New Test., n.

Scripture, Edward W., Ph.D. Studies from
the Yale Psychological Laboratory, 30.

Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 44.

Seeberg, R. Fundamental Truths of the
Christian Religion, 12.

Seger. Collected Writings, 49.

Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 48.

Severus, Patriarch of Antioch. Letters of, 25.

Sharpe, Samuel. Bible, translated by, 15.

Shearman, A. T. Symbolic Logic, 30.

Shihab Al Din. Futuh Al-Habashah. Ed.
by S. Strong, 36.

Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H.
Weir, 26.

Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O'Grady, 41.

Snellen's Ophthalmic Test Types, 49.

Snyder, Harry. Soils and Fertilisers, 49.

Social Gospel, Essays on the, n.

Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30.

Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 31,

Soden, H. von, D.D. Books of the New
Testament, 10.

Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 49.

Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 50.

Sonntag, C. O. A Pocket Flora of Edin-
burgh, 49.

Sorensen, S. Index to the Mahabharata, 36.

Soul of Progress. Bishop Mercer, 21.

Spanish Dictionary, Larger. Velasquez, 41.

Spencer, Herbert. An Autobiography, 30 ;
A System of Synthetic Philosophy, 30 ; De-
scriptive Sociology, Nos. 1-8, 31 ; Works by,
30-32.

Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex.
Bruce, M.A., etc., 43.

Spinoza. Edited by Prof. Knight, 32.

Spiritual Teaching of Christ's Life, Henslow, 18.

Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B.
Brewster, 28.

Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Horner,
25, 36.

Stephen, Canon. Democracy and Character, 25 .

Stephens, Geo. Bugge's Studies on Northern
Mythology Examined, 55 ; Old Northern
Runic Monuments, 55 ; The Runes, 55.

Stephens, Thos., B.A., Editor. The Child
and Religion, 10.

Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 44.

Stewart, Rev. C. R. S. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Stillman, T. B. Engineering Chemistry, 49.

Storms. Piddington, 48.

Strong, S. Arthur, ed. by. Shihab Al Din, 36.

Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 24.

Studies on Northern Mythology. Geo.
Stephens, 55.

Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory.
Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 29.

Sullivan, W. K. Celtic Studies, 41.

Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share
Jones, 45.

Symbolic Logic. A. T. Shearman, 29.

Synthetic Philosophy, Epitome of. F. H.
Collins, 32.

Syriac Chrestomathy. Bernstein and Kirsch,

Syriac Grammar. Theodor Noldeke, 35.
System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert
Spencer, 30.

Tayler, Rev. John James. Character of the

Fourth Gospel, 25.

Taylor, Rev. C. Dirge of Coheleth, The, 25.
Taylor, Rev. Dr. J. Massoretic Text, 26.
Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 26.
Ten Services of Public Prayer, 26.
Tennant, Rev. F. R. Child and Religion, 10.
Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 23.
Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 3 ; Re-
ligions of, ii ; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 24 ;

Hebrew Text, Weir, 26 ; Literature, 20.
Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C.

Tischendorf, 26, 27.
Testament Times, New. Acts of the Apostles,

12; Apologetic of, ii ; Books of the, 10;

Commentary, Protestant, 8 ; History of, 7 ;

Luke the Physician, 1 1 ; Textual Criticism, 6 ;
Test Types. Pray, 48 ; Snellen, 49.
Text and Translation Society, Works by, 37.

64

INDEX— Continued.

Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B.

Brewster, 28.
Theories of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ.

James Marchant, 21.

Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 43.
Thomas, Rev. J. M. L. A Free Catholic

Church, 26.

Thornton, Rev. J. J. Child and Religion, 10.
Tischendorf, C. The New Testament, 26.
Tower, O. F. Conductivity of Liquids, 49.
Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 56.
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 56.
Transactions of the Royal Societyof Edinburgh,

56.

Trenckner, V. Pali Miscellany, 35.
Turpie, Dr. D. M'C. Manual of the Chaldee

Language, 37.

Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15.
Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 14.
Upton, Rev.C. B. Bases of Religious Belief, 14.
Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 47.

Vaillante, Vincent, 38.

Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Vega. Logarithmic Tables, 50.

Veiled Figure, The, 55.

Velasquez. Larger Spanish Dictionary, 41.

Venable, T. C. Development of the Periodic

Law, 50 ; Study of Atom, 50.
Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drumtnond, 13.
Viga Glums Saga. Sir E. Head, 41.
Vinaya Pitakam. Dr. Oldenberg, 37.
Vincent, Jacques. Vaillante, 38.
Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 9.
Vulgate, The. Henslow, 19.
Vynne and Blackburn. Women under the

Factory Acts, 55.

Wallis, H. W. Cosmology of the Rigveda, 37.
Was Israel ever in Egypt? G. H. B. Wright,

Weir, T. H. Short History of the Hebrew

Text, 26.
Weisse, T. H. Elements of German, 41 ; Short

Guide to German Idioms, 42 ; Systematic
Conversational Exercises in German, 42.

Weizsacker, Carl von. The Apostolic Age, 6.

Weld, A. G. Glimpses of Tennyson, 55.

Werner, E. T. C. Chinese, 32.

Werner's Elementary Lessons in Cape Dutch,
42.

Wernle, Paul. Beginnings of Christianity, 4.

What is Christianity ? Adolf Harnack, 5, 9.

Wicksteed, Rev. P. H. Ecclesiastical Institu-
tions of Holland, 26.

Wiley, Harvey W. Agricultural Chemical
Analysis, 50.

Wilkinson, Rev. J. R. Anglican Liberalism,

Williams, Right. Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Diction-
ary of the New Zealand Language, 42.

Williams, Right Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Lessons
in Maori, 42.

Wimmer, R. My Struggle for Light, 9.

Women under the Factory Acts. Vynne and
Blackburn, 55.

Women's Suffrage. Helen Blackburn, 51.

Woods, C. E. The Gospel of Rightness, 27.

Woods, Dr. H. G. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Wright, Rev. C. H. H. Book of Genesis in
Hebrew Text, 27 ; Book of Ruth in Hebrew
Text, 27 ; Daniel and its Critics, 27 ; Daniel
and his Prophecies, 27 ; Light from Egyptian
Papyri, 27.

Wright, G. H. Bateson. Book of Job, 27 ;
Was Israel ever in Egypt? 27.

Wright, W., and Dr. Hirsch, edited by. Com-
mentary on the Book of Job, 27.

Wundt, Wilhelm. Outlines of Psychology, 32.

Wysor. Metallurgy, 50.

Yale Psychological Laboratory, Studies from,

32-
Yellow Book of Lecan, 42.

Zoega, G. T. English-Icelandic Dictionary, 42.
Zompolides, Dr. D. A Course of Modern
Greek, 42.

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University of California Library

or to the

NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station
University of California
Richmond, CA 94804-4698

ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS
2- month loans may be renewed by calling

(510)642-6753
1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books

to NRLF
Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days

prior to due date

DUE AS STAMPED BELOW

APR 07 1995

20,000 (4/94)

I 20,000

LIBRARY

211892