A Survey of National Trends in Biology. Ed-
ward J. V. K. Menge. xi + 156 pp. $2.00. The
Bruce Publishing Company. 1930.

This is a series of lectures surveying national
trends in biology based upon replies to question-
naires sent to leading biologists of various nations.
The lectures were prepared for the National Uni-
versity of Cordoba and for the Sociedade de
Medicina e Cirurzia de Rio de Janeiro.

The author gives a very brief account of the
development of the various fields of biology,
some of the outstanding present day theories, and
their effects upon our philosophical conceptions of
living organisms. The treatise has a decided
philosophical atmosphere and emphasizes the bar-
renness of the idea that a living organism is
nothing more than a series of chemico-physical
phenomena of the various elements of protoplasm
and of the morphological units of the organism.
It reads well and in interesting.

C. L. PaRM ENTER.

Reviewed
Augus

t 2)^, 1931

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A SURVEY OF

NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

SAj

A Survey of National Trends

in Biology

By EDWARD J. v. K. MENGE, Ph.D., Sc.D.,

Director of the Department of Animal Biology in Mar-
quette University

A Series of Lectures Prepared for the \

i

National University of Cordoba \

and for the
Sociedade de Medicina e Cirurgia do \

Rio de Janeiro {Brazil)

and Delivered at the National Uni- \

versities of Cordoba (Argentina), :

Montevideo (Uruguay) , and Santiago \
(Chile), and for the Sociedade de

Medicina e Cirurgia of Rio de Janeiro j
during August and September, 1927

THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY
MILWAUKEE

Copyright, 1930

EDWARD J. MENGE

Printed in the United States of America

IN APPRECIATION OF THEIR FRIENDSHIP AND
HOSPITALITY, THIS LITTLE BOOK IS DEDI-
CATED TO THE FOLLOWING EXTRAORDINARY
SOUTH AMERICANS

MARCELINO HERRERA VEGAS
Argentina's most distinguished medical man

FRANK R. PASMAN
Dynamic personality of Argentine medicine

BENITO SORIA

Official scientific representative to foreign lands of

Argentina's oldest University

GUILLERME V. STUCKERT
Cordoba's distinguished biochemist

JOSE PIZARRO
Scholarly Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Cordoba

LUCAS SIERRA
Most outstanding of Chile's gifted surgeons

yiCTORINO ALONSO

Most kindly of scientific philanthropists

CARLOS PORTER

Foremost entomologist of all South America

JUAN NOE

Chile's energetic physiologist

O. FONTECILLA

Able Chilean scientific editor

ALEJANDRO MANHOOD
Forceful director of the world's most interesting dental school

JUAN POU ORFILA
Philosopher Dean of Uruguay's National Medical School

CARLOS ENRIQUE PAZ SOLDAN

Outstanding Peruvian hygienist and scientific editor

JOSE MENDONCA
Dean of Brazilian Surgeons

NASCIMENTO GURGEL
Gifted President of the Sociedade de Medicina e Cirurgia
of Rio de Janeiro

and that remarkable scientific family

OLYMPIO DA FONSECA

Embodiment of Brazilian culture

and his two gifted sons

OLYMPIO DA FONSECA, FILHO

Traveling Representative of the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz

and

FLAVIO DA FONSECA
Microbiologist of the new Sao Paulo Medical School

f^/* ^->^ v\<^^

4^'

PREFACE

Due to a number of discussions with the late Professor
Wm. A. Locy, America's foremost historian of biology,
the writer had begun a survey of contemporary biological
literature some years back. It was but natural, therefore,
when two invitations were extended at almost the same
moment, ( 1 ) by the editors of a new encyclopedia for an
article on Modern Progress in Biology, and (2) by the
University of Cordoba to deliver a series of international
lectures at a number of South American universities, that
the material already collected should be extended and
woven into a connected whole.

As the lectures were to be presented to an audience com-
posed of faculty, students, and the general public, it was
felt necessary to begin the series with the introduction
here given. This, primarily, so that the coordination, the
correlation, and the interrelationship of the efforts of
many workers in many lands could be better appreci-
ated— a coordination, a correlation, and an interrela-
tionship that alone can bring forth a perfect product of
any science. And in biology, the health, the happiness —
yes, the very life of each of us depends upon this product.

After the survey of the literature had been made, letters
containing a number of questions were sent to the heads
of departments of biology and zoology in every university
in the world outside of the United States, and some

vii

viii PREFACE

twenty in the United States. The letters were written in
English, German, French, and Spanish, thus permitting
each recipient to write in whatever medium he found best
suited to express himself freely.
The questions asked were :

1. What do you consider the most important work done
in biology generally, and in your country particularly,
during the past thirty years? Why? {a) From a purely
scientific point of view? (b) From the point of view of
service to humanity?

2. What biological problems have been solved during
that time ?

3. (a) In what specific fields have most of the biolog-
ical workers been employed? (b) What gave the impetus
which brought about the interest in that specific field ?

4. What do you consider the most fundamental prob-
lems of biology today? Why?

5. What in your opinion is the position of the ablest
biological workers of your country in regard to vitalism
and mechanism?

6. What work in biology, if any, has had sufficient in-
fluence actually to change the life of your people in
any way, in politics, education, philosophy, psychology,
religion, etc.?

7. What matters, not specifically asked for in the above
questions, do you think should be covered in an article
giving a biological survey of our generation?

It will be noted that none of the questions could be

PREFACE ix

answered with a simple yes or no. The questions were put
so that there would be no suggestion of any "wished-for"
answer in order that the correspondents express only what
each wished to express.

In view of the fact that answers were received from
every region of the world, in which Minerva lists even a
single university, excepting the Philippines, China, Egypt,
South Africa, and the Balkan Peninsula, the summary
and classification of these answers, plus the opinions and
findings extracted from a general survey of the biological
literature of this generation, can truly be said to represent
a real cross section of present-day biological thought.

The responses were so numerous and generous and so
much more complete than I had expected, that the sim-
ple thanks I can here accord, is by no means in keep-
ing with what these men deserve. I therefore wish to
extend to them not only my personal thanks, but that of
my South American audiences as well, who were loud in
their praise of these men.

Most of the lectures have already appeared as separate
articles, both in English and in Spanish, in such journals
as The Quarterly Review of Biology, The Journal of
Social Psychology, La Clinica of Santiago de Chile, and
in various specialized Reviews of this and other lands.

Edward J. v. K. Menge
Marquette University,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
January, 1930

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface vii

CHAPTER

I. Introduction 1

II. Facts and Findings 20

III. A Cross Section of Present-Day Biolog-

ical Thought 48

IV. Provocative Biological Theories ... 72
V. Outstanding Biological Work and Work-
ers 92

Bibliography 124

Index 147

37SS4

XI

T!|>.

\.

*^ ■-l^^C^

A SURVEY OF NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Senor Rector, Senores Decanos, Senoras y Caballeros:

Permit me to extend to you the greetings of Marquette
University, whose representative I have the honor to be,
and to express the hope that this beginning of an intel-
lectual exchange between the North and the South Ameri-
can universities, may lead to a better understanding and
appreciation of the work that each of us is doing.

I also bring to you the personal greetings and good
wishes of one well known to all. Dr. Franklin H. Martin,
Director-General of the American College of Surgeons.

It had ever been a dream of mine that some day I
might visit the second-oldest university in either of the
Americas — that of Cordoba — whose very name carries
with it visions of history and of romance. But I did not
dream that out of a clear sky an invitation would be
extended to me — the first, you tell me, extended to a
North American — to speak from this platform and in
this room, hallowed for more than three centuries by its
association with history and learning. If I can but give

1

2 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

to you, when delivering these lectures, a portion of the
pleasure which I have had in preparing them for you and
in coming to you, I shall be well repaid.

The historian must always refer and defer to what
others have said. The philosopher must show that logical-
ly a definite result follows from a given set of events, and
then must use this result as a basis for his next step in
proceeding. All such reasoning, however, is extremely
vague to the average man — entirely too abstract. And,
what the average man does not understand, he feels in-
stinctively is either erroneous or worthless, or that it is
some catch affair which will result in his undoing. Thus,
he will blindly accept everything from those whom he
considers his superiors, or he will ignore everything that
he thinks those in power are using to weaken an already
wavering hold on positions and responsibilities attained
by him during the last century. He has learned just
enough, as Lamartine has aptly pointed out, to be seri-
ously influenced by logic, but not enough to know soph-
istry when it is presented to him.

The scientific man has a great advantage over the his-
torian and the philosopher, in that he need not carry
volumes with him to prove a statement. He works with
the very subject matter and standards of measurement
used daily by everyone in some degree — his senses. The
scientist's discussions and findings are stated in a lan-
guage understood by everyone, to a certain extent — the
statement of what he actually sees, and hears, and feels.

INTRODUCTION 3

Science, therefore, has become the touchstone of the
man in the street — his watchword of all that will bring
him not only the comforts of life, but the satisfaction of
absolute certainty as to how to obtain happiness. How
far from the truth such an idea happens to be, we all
know, for happiness is a matter of the spirit, and has
little if anything to do with wealth, position, power, learn-
ing, or science. But we must never forget that an idea
once held is just as powerful as a driving force, whether it
is true or not. Science is the lone magic word to the
average man; and when experiment after experiment is
presented to show that always, under the same conditions,
identical results are obtained, he is impressed. He under-
stands that it must be so, even if he cannot understand
its use nor to what the various interpretations given these
findings may ultimately lead.

If he cannot understand this simple language of experi-
ment and observation, he is excluded from the field of
human understanding.

Science aims to control nature, and to prophesy the
event or events that will follow on the performance of a
very definite act or a combination of acts.

I like that definition of science best which calls it the
"checking up and getting rid of one's prepossessions."

It is often said that men formerly took all their facts
from authority, but that now they have attained such
mental heights that they seek facts only at first hand.
While it may be admitted that many facts were taken

4 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

on authority in the past, we must not forget that all mod-
ern fads, whether in medicine, politics, or religion, are
the result of accepting interpretations on the authority
of modern interpreters, just as men of the past accepted
authority of facts.

For facts in and of themselves are worthless; it is
what they mean that counts, and meanings are always to
be found only through a logical, philosophical interpreta-
tion of whatever facts may be at hand. Such facts must,
of course, be obtained from actual experimentation ; that
is, by demonstrating that identical results are always
forthcoming, when the same act or combination of acts
is performed.

It is interesting to compare the work done in the scien-
tific laboratory with that of the photographer. The efforts
of each certainly show a striking similarity, for are we
not really trying to present a picture to the world ? There-
fore, with the photographer, we must:

1. Clear away all that is unimportant.

2. Choose a subject.

3. Have the proper perspective; that is, have the rela-
tionship of everything about the subject in proper form,
so as not to unduly stress any one point. In other words,
we must see that we have taken everything into con-
sideration. We must be sure that no other branch of
science has points and conclusions which may destroy
our own, since, if a single exception is found in science,
it destroys the law.

INTRODUCTION 5

4. Have sufficient light to make the subject stand
forth so as to be seen clearly. This implies a proper
background — a background built up in the study of
science by ascertaining what has gone before, and what
causes have produced the particular historical soil upon
which the seed of men's ideas have been able to grow.
In other words, we wish to have all the facts that can be
found, so as to throw the subject under consideration
into the full glare of day. Shadows should be excluded
as much as possible.

5. See that the subject is in focus, which means that in
any given case, it must stand forth in bold relief. It must
not fade away in the distance and become blurred by
prejudices or desires. No vagaries of thought must be
permitted. Our reasoning must be clear and definite. Our
whole system must be built up philosophically and
logically.

6. Decide upon how large an opening we are to allow
our lens; that is, within what narrow limits we are to
discuss the subject under consideration.

7. Decide upon the length of time for the exposure,
which, in a scientific treatise, means that we must know
that sufficient time has elapsed to make our experiment
valid and positive.

8. If we read of the results of others, take into con-
sideration the temperamental make-up of the individual
writing as well as of ourselves and other readers who later
are to pass judgment thereon.

fao/-^ ^^*^ *^'^'"\^\

6 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

In the fields of chemistry and physics, for example,
using two nonbiological sciences, one is very definitely
limited to certain specific substances and to the laws of
force, light, heat, and electricity. In biology, dealing as
it does with everything that is living or pertains to life,
there is practically no limit to one's field of endeavor.
Whether we think of the great North American chewing-
gum industry or the price of cotton and coffee, everything
which comes to mind in connection with such topics is
in some way involved in the subject of biology, for life
means everything that grows and moves, and develops
from the inside outward. Life includes all the plant and
animal world. Within its boundaries, the range of investi-
gation may run from a study of the diseases of plant
crops and the parasitic enemies and diseases of your herds
of cattle, to the length of life allotted to yourself and
family. Every step is determined by a biological law ; and
to learn that law and apply it, is the great fundamental
object of every biological worker, from those who spe-
cialize in entomology and plant pathology to human
medicine.

What a tremendous difference the efforts of such work-
ers have made upon the entire world may be judged by
a few examples. As several writers have pointed out, the
downfall of the classic civilization of bygone days was
undoubtedly due to the malarial mosquito. Epidemics
of the past, breaking out in times of war, have completely
changed history.

Many archaeologists hold that yellow fever was the

INTRODUCTION 7

cause of the downfall of prehistoric American civiliza-
tions, while a number of writers are convinced that an
unprecedented era of progress is now facing Latin Amer-
ica, due primarily to the conquest of that dread disease.

If the world had had biological workers years ago
who were able to prevent cancer, so that the father of
William II had not died within three months after
ascending the German throne, all Europe might have
been different from what it is.

Biological workers may rightfully claim to have in-
fluenced the world a thousandfold more than rulers and
warriors, for this latter group has largely been given to
destruction, while the work of the biologist aims to be
constructive. Generations now unborn will profit by his
work. His efforts become increasingly interesting and
vitally important, and, being concerned with life in all
its ramifications, his field is inexhaustible.

The combined and coordinated efforts of a great many
separate workers, scattered through many lands, usually
are necessary to bring a scientific idea to full fruition.
This is well shown in the work on tjrphoid fever, a dis-
ease of especial interest to you who have so many typhoid-
endemic centers.

Huxham, as long ago as 1737, described the difference
between typhoid and typhus fevers, although it took
nearly a hundred years before a careful study of the actual
lesion (not the external symptoms) brought forth the
true difference and relationships of the two. Wm. Gerhard,
of Philadelphia, established this difference and relation-

8 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

ship in 1837. Then, in 1880, Carl Joseph Eberth, professor
of histology and pathology in the University of Halle-
Wittenberg, described the bacillus typhosus which he
found in the tissues of patients who had died of typhoid
fever. In 1884, George Gaffky, professor of hygiene in
Berlin, succeeded in growing these bacteria in a pure
culture.

In 1888, Chantemesse, professor of hygiene in Paris,
and Professor Widal, of the department of pathology in
the same city, inoculated mice with typhoid bacilli, which
had first been killed by heat. The mice became immune.
In 1892, these men were able to produce immunity in
guinea pigs and rabbits. Professor Brieger, the hydro-
therapist of Berlin, Professor Kitasato, the pathologist of
Tokio, Professor Wassermann, the experimental therapist
of Berlin, and Professor Bruschettini confirmed previous
results.

In 1894, Pfeiffer, a German physician, and Kolle, the
bacteriologist in Berne, Switzerland, used antityphoid
vaccination in the human body. Two years later. Sir
Almroth Wright of London, began a systematic vaccina-
tion of human beings on a large scale, and in 1899 Chante-
messe of Paris, vaccinated the personnel of his hospital.

In 1900, two Russians, working in Paris, Metchnikoff
and Besredka, produced the disease in apes experimen-
tally, thus establishing the final proof of the relationship
between the germ and the disease. From that time onward,
control measures were possible.

INTRODUCTION 9

In fact, the principles thus established by a host of
workers in many lands, were successfully applied to anti-
cholera vaccinations by Haffkine, a pupil of the great
Louis Pasteur, in 1894, thus overcoming another dread
terror of humanity.

These results were obtained from dealing with things
we can see and handle — that really come under the
senses. But what are we to say about other nonseeable
things we know exist, though we cannot bring them
under our limited spheres of sense?

Under this heading one may mention those colors,
such as the infra-red and ultra-violet rays which no
human eye can see, but which we can prove actually
exist in any physical laboratory. If we turn these rays,
invisible to man, upon a group of brown ants, they imme-
diately sense them, for they scamper away hurriedly.
How do these ants sense that which we cannot? We do
not know.

Such experiments, however, show us why men come to
some interesting and remarkable conclusions which would
otherwise be extremely difficult to understand.

From such findings, the late Professor A. D. Darbishire^
came to the conclusion that there must be a great many
colors which the human eye cannot see, and many sounds
which the human ear cannot hear. Therefore, just insofar
as we accept any plausible physical theory which fits into
every angle of our mind, should we be the more suspicious
of it. Such a theory may fail to take into account the thou-

10 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

sands of things which must be considered if all the facts
are to be known, yet which never can be known, because
of the limitations of the human senses and the human
intellect.

Professor William Wundt, the first man in the world
to open a psychological laboratory, came to the conclu-
sion that "animals never think and humans but seldom."
This conclusion was drawn from experiments akin to the
following :

If we put a glass tube into the duct from the parotid
gland of a dog (this is the gland which swells when one
has mumps ; it also pours out the secretion which makes
the "mouth water"), we can count the number of drops
of secretion which come forth normally in a given time.
If we now allow the animal to smell a piece of meat, the
secretion comes forth in the same manner but with in-
creased rapidity. Suppose, then, we take a small amount
of hydrochloric acid and place it under the tongue. The
secretion increases to the same rate as it did when the
dog smelled meat. If, now, we blow a whistle some twenty
times at the precise moment the acid is placed under the
tongue, thereafter we only need to blow the whistle to
obtain the same result. The association of whistle and
acid has become so strong and so thoroughly connected
that one has the same effect as the other. But if the tone
of the whistle is changed, the same result will not be
produced.

Such experiments prove that even so complicated and

INTRODUCTION 11

supposedly conscious an action as recognizing a tasty
food can, in a short time, become nothing but a mere
mechanical and associative action.

"Yes," you may say, "we can understand all that, but
why experiment on individual cells, and on one-celled
animals; what good to humanity can one hope to find
there?"

I think the most satisfactory way to acquaint the non-
biological listener with the underlying reasons for experi-
mental work on such individual cells of the body and on
one-celled organisms, is to show how such work changes
our whole conception of the treatment of disease in both
the physical and the mental realms. I quote the words of
Dr. Stephen Smith, an eminent psychiatrist of the genera-
tion just passed. He says :

"The lessons which the illustrations of the anatomy
and physiology of the nervous system teach, have a wide
application to our treatment of the dependent classes. We
learn that the mental attributes of every person depend
ultimately upon the physical state of the cell, over which
we have almost absolute control in its individual and col-
lective capacity. If its texture is feeble from heredity or
disease, we may make it strong by nutrition, exercise,
pure air, and medication; if it is undeveloped, we can
develop it by applying appropriate stimulus and suitable
nourishment; if it is unduly developed and overactive,
we can reduce it to a rudimentary and inactive state by
removing every form of stimulant and reducing its nutri-

12 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

tion; where neither the regulation of the stimulant nor
the nutrition accomplishes our purpose, we can rely upon
specific remedies.

"The logical and inevitable conclusion is that, if we
thoroughly understood the exact function and the func-
tional relations of all the cells of the nervous system, we
could, beginning with the child, control in a large meas-
ure the development of his character, and in the adult,
modify existing attributes by stimulation of one class of
nerve cells and the repression of another to any extent
that we desire. Nothing can be more thoroughly practical
than the application of the proper remedial measures by
which the equilibrium of these centers is secured."^

It also should be said that while Dr. Smith discusses
here only the nervous system, every additional fact
learned about the individual cell brings us just that much
nearer accomplishing the desired results. And as the one-
celled organism must perform all the functions of life
that man performs with his highly specialized organs,
composed, in turn, of individual cells, there is no place
that one may hope for more biological light to be thrown
on all the activities, normal and abnormal, physical and
mental, of man, than through the knowledge gained by
experimental work on these lowly organisms.

One of our leading scientific insurance investigators^
of the ills of human kind, tells us that every conceivable
form of influence that can possibly shorten human life
is contained in the following eleven categories:

INTRODUCTION 13

1. Heredity: always influential and sometimes definite-
ly and hopelessly limiting the life span.

2. Infection: acute or chronic, by bacteria or para-
sites— probably the most potent cause of disease, old
age, and death.

3. Poison: from within or without; drugs, occupational
poisoning, endocrine (glandular), or other disturbances
releasing poisons or interfering with their elimination or
destruction; protein sensitization.

4. Food deficiency: general, as in a lack of sufficient
food; or specific, as in a lack of some particular food
substance — mineral, vitamin, amino acid, regulating
food, and so forth.

5. Food excess : general, as in overeating ; or specific, as
in excessive consumption of meat, sugar, or starches.

6. Hormone deficiency: as in endocrine, or other or-
ganic deficiencies. Hormone deficiency is probably the
greatest immediate factor in limiting the life cycle. It
implies a lack of some substance or group of substances
whose function is to stabilize the tissues in a state of
health.

7. Hormone excess : as in the opposite state of endocrine
overactivity.

8. Physical trauma: an obvious factor in life destruc-
tion, yet even physical overwork is not so often the cause
of organic strain or injury as was formerly thought. The
yielding organ is probably already damaged by infection
or poison.

14 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

9. Psychic trauma: this is becoming more and more
thoroughly understood. While there, too, we must look
for underlying physical insufficiencies, inherited or ac-
quired, it is no doubt true that the psyche may become so
profoundly injured as to react upon the physical state
and shorten life. Fear, grief, and emotional excess are,
however, more destructive than mental effort or mental
work.

10. Physical apathy: lack of muscular effort and faulty
muscular development are justly charged with degenera-
tive effects.

1 1 . Psychic apathy : this is evidently the cause, as well
as the result, of failing physical powers ; lack of interest
in life induces physical apathy with its attendant evils.

You will notice that every one of these eleven catego-
ries refers only to a production of the individual cells or
an injury to the individual cells.

But the biologist is not working only to overcome dis-
ease and add a few more years to life. When someone was
hurrying that great Chinese statesman, Li Hung Chang,
along so that an especially fast train could be caught, he
stopped dead still to ask why they had to catch that
particular train to begin with, and when told that they
would thus save ten minutes, the whole wisdom of the
Orient came forth in his query, "What are you going to
do with the ten minutes?"

"To the biologist the measure of success in living is the
accuracy with which living things fit themselves into

INTRODUCTION IS

their environment. How thoroughly have they taken con-
ditions and turned them to their advantage?"

"In man this signifies not only the taking advantage of
things as they are, but in shaping and directing these
and creating new conditions and circumstances for his
welfare."*

So in the economic world, all the physical progress and
all the physical comforts that modern civilization has
given us are the direct result of applying laws found in
the scientific laboratory. All wealth is not produced by
labor, as the ignorant believe, but is the product of brains ;
labor is productive only when guided by intelligence.

In fact, science emancipates labor. Bagehot is one of
a growing school of thinkers who has pointed out that
slavery was essential to progress in the early stages of
civilization, as it was only through enforced labor of the
many that the few could obtain the leisure to think, and
if that thinking by the few had not been done, all would
have been destroyed.

At present in the United States, as Dr. Little has
pointed out, "the supply of available energy is equivalent
to sixty man power for every man, woman, and child."
But, he adds, that "while there is now leisure for all to
think, the millions prefer the movies."^

It is not labor, but the trained intelligence of scientific
men which has made all this power available. No more
do we have at regular intervals the seven lean years and
the seven fat years that Joseph foretold in Egypt.

16 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

President Coolidge said not long ago : ''Everything that
flows from the application of trained intelligence and in-
vested capital is the result of brains. The man of trained
intelligence is a public asset. We go forward only through
the trained intelligence of individuals, but we, not the
individuals, are the beneficiaries of that trained intelli-
gence: in the very nature of things we cannot all have
the training, but we can all have the benefits."

The great principles and fundamental laws which make
possible scientific progress can never exist through mere
labor, nor through the politician, but only through that
trained intelligence which can read the book of nature
correctly. Here, there is always something new and im-
portant for the discerning eye.

Make a list of the contributions to the welfare of man,
and see how practically all were made by the so-called
upper and middle classes, or precisely those whom the
social revolutionist always wishes to destroy first, though
he owes everything to them,

"One may recall that Lavoisier was guillotined by a
republic that had no need of chemists; that Priestley
was driven from his sacked and devastated home; that
LeBlanc, after giving the world cheap alkali, died in a
French poorhouse ; that Langley was crushed by ridicule
and chagrin in his last days. A month before the war, who
could have believed that within a few years the Fifth
Estate in Russia would be utterly destroyed, and that in
Germany and Austria it would exist at the very edge of

INTRODUCTION 17

starvation. What has happened there may happen again
elsewhere, if the intelligence of the world does not assume
and hold its proper place in the direction of national and
world affairs.

"In the preface to his recent Lehrbuch der Photo-
chemie, Professor Plotnikow has written: 'Home and
property were pillaged by bands of idle Russians who used
my library for cigarette papers. Hunger, misery, want,
and personal insecurity, often approaching fear for my
life, were the constant accompaniment of my labors.' "^

Professor Cockerell says in this regard :

"Surely mankind has not deserved the services of its
benefactors if we judge by the way it has behaved.

"Yet this is by no means the worst of it. Children, old
and young, often react to some delicate toy or instrument
by smashing it at once. Sometimes they use it to smash
other people. So it has happened that gifts of science have
been wantonly misused, and we sometimes wonder
whether our species will not eventually exterminate itself
as a result of knowing how. Thus with enormous increase
in the means of production, with facilities of transporta-
tion undreamed of a few years ago, with marvelous con-
trol over disease, we still have war and greed, to which
these great services are actually made to minister.

"We must all admit that the remedy for this state of
affairs does not lie wholly in the scientific realm. Without
a sense of human values, for which mechanistic science
has no justification, we can attain no real virtue. Ulti-

18 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

mately, all payments have to be made in the bank of
consciousness, the operations of which can only be super-
ficially described. Nevertheless, as a horseman desires to
have a good mount, so we desire the means of riding
through life without being trampled underfoot. Science,
if asked, will provide this mount, at least if given suffi-
cient notice ahead. Yet we, on our part, must learn to
ride."«

But it must not be forgotten that the scientist, too, has
obligations toward his public. Dr. Lewellys Barker speaks
in no uncertain terms,^ as did also Dr. Pritchett, President
of the Carnegie Foundation, a few years back, on the mat-
ter of calling every paper published, scientific. Dr. Barker
speaks particularly of medicine and dentistry, but his
words may be applied to a good many other fields of work.
Speaking of this "pseudoresearch," he says :
"The general haste to rush into print with results that
are not sound is harmful to both the public and the less
well-informed practitioners. The intellect and imagination
of the research worker should be of high order, and the
work should be under the direction of experienced investi-
gators. The mistakes of work so executed will be fewer
and less serious than those of workers of less ability and
experience. The face of the medical professions generally
should be set against pseudoresearch that is irresponsibly
undertaken and is inaccurately conducted. It is a degra-
dation to science and misleading to the public that the
true scientist tries to serve."

INTRODUCTION 19

Every faction in the world's social order either praises
or blames science for contributing the coin with which the
physical purchases of life are made, and the scientist is
obliged to admit that both are right.

But, let us not forget that the scientist can only furnish
the coin. That it will take a long time for the world to
learn to buy judiciously, is not his fault. Neither is it his
fault that many counterfeit coins are in circulation and
that altogether too many people really believe the worse
product the better. His work is to increase the quantity
and the quality of the coin used, so as to make more and
better purchases possible. Training mankind how to buy
and where to buy is the work of the sociologist, but even
his work is dependent upon a thorough understanding of
values, and values fall into two leading groups. The one
group is physical, and an understanding of physical
values is attained through the universities and the great
scientific teachers; the other lies in the pathway of the
spirit, and spiritual and moral values rest with religion.
Physical science can but present a motive. It lies with
religion to furnish the obligation.

^Darbishire, A. D., An Introduction to a Biology, 1927.

-Smith, Stephen, Who Is Insane? 1916.

^Fisk, Eugene Lyman, "Prolonging Human Life," Yale Review, July, 1920.

*McClung, C. E., "The Contribution of Biology and Its Application," Science,
March, 1927.

^Little, Arthur D., "The Fifth Estate," Science. Oct. 3, 1924.

^Ibid.

•'Ibid.

sCockerell, T. D. A., "Duty of Biology," Science, April 9, 1926.

^Science News, "Cooperation Between the Medical and Dental Professions,"
Science, May 14, 1926, p. xii.

CHAPTER II

FACTS AND FINDINGS

With the approaching centenary of the first successful
attempt at manufacturing an organic product in the labo-
ratory, it is but fitting that the eyes of scientific men
should scan the century, take pride in the marvelous
progress of the biological sciences, search for the causes
of failure, and evaluate experimental evidence and philo-
sophical interpretations. It is further fitting that we
should know what the contributions of men of all lands
have been, lest we fall into the common error of non-
scientific men — that of assuming that because a problem,
a fellow worker, an emphasis, or a philosophy of life is
close at hand, and thus considered important by friends
and coworkers, it therefore takes precedence over all the
remaining universe.

The history of science during the nineteenth century
has been written so well by those who have preceded us
that it would be presumptuous on my part to try to im-
prove upon it. Little, however, has been written regard-
ing our own generation, or the work of contemporary
men. Consequently, this lecture will be confined to a
statement of what the ablest workers in the biological
sciences believe to be important and well worth while.

20

FACTS AND FINDINGS 21

Yet, here again, the field has become so vast, the work
so varied, and the contributions so numerous, that one
may well throw up one's hands in dismay, especially when
it is noted that the editors of Biological Abstracts have
listed forty-seven major subjects under which to classify
the work of biologists.^ And each of these forty-seven
major subjects has usually at least one or more subhead-
ings of branches of biology in which men are specializing.

If Johannes Miiller, as it is often stated, broke down,
mentally, trying to keep abreast of the literature on
physiology about the year 1857, when physiology had just
come into existence during his lifetime, how can any one
person, now, when thousands upon thousands of papers
are being published annually, even approach success in
such a plan ?

I do not believe that anyone can do so successfully, nor
do these lectures make any claims toward furnishing
even an approxim.ately complete answer. We can but
attempt to form a nucleus which may be of service to
others interested in the pathway biology is now following.
It will be a starting point that will give the future his-
torian of biology some threads with which to weave his
tapestry, which threads the ablest present-day biologists
consider of exceptional import.

These same distinguished scientists, leaders in their
respective branches of biology from every country of the
world where even a single university has been established,
will, however, speak for themselves. I shall not evaluate.

22 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

but merely attempt to state the case and so produce a
living document at least of interest to the younger work-
ers in the field.

Just fifteen years ago, C. S. Minot, of Harvard, then
Exchange Professor at the Universities of Berlin and
Jena, delivered six lectures on "Modern Problems of Biol-
ogy" at the latter institution.^

The six problems discussed were :

1. The New Cell Doctrine

2. Cytomorphosis

3. The Doctrine of Immortality

4. The Development of Death

5. The Determination of Sex

6. The Notion of Life

Today, at another foreign university, another North
American professor reads a paper on a similar theme — "A
Survey of National Trends in Biology" — dealing with
the problems of biology as they appear to the biologist of
all nations fifteen years later.

It is undoubtedly true that science should know no
political boundaries, and that as biology is a science, it
should be international. However, one need be in corre-
spondence with but a very few biologists to find that while
biology may be international, biologists certainly are not.

The answers to the letters mentioned in the Preface,
reflected the same national feeling that one would find
in men whose training, or lack of it, is not expected to

FACTS AND FINDINGS - 23

help them control their emotions or render impartial
judgments on matters that come before them.

As the answers continued coming in, a great temptation
presented itself to change the title from "A Survey of
National Trends in Biology" to that of "The Psycholog-
ical Reactions of Biologists," but a calmer judgment pre-
vailed.

Political, religious, educational, and traditional bounda-
ries are so much a part and parcel of the human individual
that, try as he will, he can never avoid being influenced
by them.

One letter was filled with the bitterness of life because
of his country's partition, leaving but an insignificant
group of hillocks, as the writer put it, which men now
force him to call by the name of a country, for centuries
great and glorious. He no longer feels he has a Father-
land. For him, his country has ceased to exist. Another
breathed of hope and looked with patriotic enthusiasm
to a wondrous future following the birth of a new Father-
land whose racial and national ambitions have had to lie
dormant almost since time immemorial.

Let us note in what specific fields of biological endeavor
the majority of experimenters have been working during
our generation, and what it was that gave impetus to
such work.

While all nations had many men employed in various
departments, such workers find themselves in certain

24 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

more or less specific fields in their respective lands, due
to geographical conditions rather than political bounda-
ries. For instance, one finds Canada and the Scandinavian
lands with vast coastal lines always interested in fisheries
and all that relates to them. But we shall let the Nor-
wegian biologist, Hjalmar Broch, speak for himself:

"A survey of the biological works in Norway in many
respects shows that geographical conditions play a pre-
dominant part. On the one hand, we are situated in the
periphery, and we see how 'moves' prevail in theoretical
studies. During the first years of the century the cytologi-
cal mania which had already culminated in Central
Europe, also made its way to our university, and gradu-
ally faded away again some time after it had played out
its predominant part in Germany. Then studies of hered-
ity made their way northward, and are at present a la
mode to a degree that every student of biology finds it
his duty to bestow a tinge of this on his theme, however
far the latter in reality may be apart from the field of
heredity investigations. In many cases we can trace this
mania backward to the rise of certain leaders of little
originality who wish to be a la mode, so as to get a place
among the real leaders of the epoch.

"There is, however, one field of biology that runs like
a real thread through the history of Norwegian biological
science — the ocean. From the earliest times, our nation
has been a nation of sailors and fishermen, and it was from
the beginning but natural that the attention of Norwegian

FACTS AND FINDINGS 25

biologists should also be roused by the sea, the country
having a coastal line of more than 3,000 kilometers,
whereas its breadth is in most part quite small.

"The great traditions given by such zoologists as Johan
Ernst Gunnerus, Michael Sars, and Georg Ossian Sars,
have naturally put their stamp on Norwegian biology, and
the most important biological contributions are naturally
connected with marine research."

Likewise in Canada, considering biology as it applies to
economics and industry, we find that the most important
effort mentioned is the cooperative development by the
Canadian universities of economic fisheries research, in-
cluding the formation of the Biological Board of Canada,
and the establishment of marine laboratories. Saunder's
work on Marquis wheat has made ''millions for Canada,"
and better still, it has created the atmosphere of economic
adjustment of plants and animals to northern environ-
ments. The production of Marquis wheat, a pure example
of the older selective breeding, was the direct response
of a practical-minded man to solve a particular Canadian
or northern-American problem of high yield and short
season.

In the United States and in other countries, where many
new types of plants have been imported, an international
exchange of both useful and deleterious insects has been
made. Entomological work of ascertaining "which is
which" and trying to bring back that much-needed bal-
ance in nature which keeps plants in good health and

26 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

growth, also has been pursued. Many insect pests flourish
in their new homes because those particularly predaceous
and parasitic insect enemies which ordinarily keep them
in check, are not imported with them. But an interesting
work has grown up in finding what these insect enemies
are and importing them.

In connection with work of this nature, one can show
how some of the larger animals may be and are conserved
by an international cooperative union in this study. Kel-
logg^ calls attention to the fur seals of the Pacific, which
were rapidly approaching extinction on account of unre-
stricted killing on the high seas as well as on their breed-
ing grounds in the Pribilof Islands, when international
agreements made in 1911 among Great Britain, Russia,
Japan, and the United States saved them as a species and
at the same time allowed a reasonable taking of skins.

This geographical aspect is also prominent in the report
of the last meeting of French scientists.* Due to economic
conditions, the Colonies must be developed; President
Alfred Lacroix particularly stressed the part that science
must play in the development of Tunis, Algeria, Morocco,
Senegal -Niger, Guinea, the Congo, Indo-China, and other
regions under French control. In fact, this year's meeting
of the French association is to be held in Constantin, Al-
geria. Even Dr. Voronoff, the gland surgeon, has passed
from human gland transplantations to work on farm ani-
mals, with a view toward producing heavier sheep bearing
more wool. And Australia, a very few years back, spent

FACTS AND FINDINGS 27

something like $600 per man^ to bring a group of scien-
tists to its shores, hoping that some of her own particular
problems would and could thus be solved.

Nearly all biologists consulted, thought that the eco-
nomic side of their science was of considerable, though
by no means of greatest, importance, and by this term
some included everything in the way of human relation-
ships. In fact, the term "human biology" is used by sev-
eral, as referring to the relations of man to his environ-
ment ; that is, to the way biology is applied to economics,
to medicine, to education, to sociology, and to psychology.

In the United States, biological workers have been em-
ployed probably chiefly in experimental general biology,
and in genetics, in embryology, cytology, tissue culture,
and in general physiology.

In genetics, the impetus came through the work of
Mendel, Weismann, and Roux in European countries, and
in the United States through that of Wilson and Morgan.

J. Stanley Gardiner, of Cambridge, holds that history
fertilizes the scientific soil, and that there is a consider-
able correlation of science with any profound disturbances
which cover wide areas. Thus:

"China for 6,000 years has altered very little, and
shows little advance. Our great advances in Europe are
correlated with (1) the dominance of Spain and the pro-
found wars in the sixteenth century ; (2) the Cromwellian
and other troubles in Europe of the seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries; (3) the Napoleonic times and its

28 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

great advance ; (4) 1850 with its revolutions or attempted
revolutions, and (5) the last twenty years has been a time
of great unsettlement and difficulty ; where we are going
now, I do not know. I expect we are in the stodgy period,
but in forty or fifty years we may have a world cataclysm
which will stimulate people afresh."

A general survey of the literature on biology of the past
thirty years demonstrates that the earliest investigators
by no means always had enough facts at hand on which
to build their speculations, but one may add that such
lack of facts by no means lessened the output of specu-
lation. However, an amount of good work was done, so
that one really did obtain more exact anatomical and
physiological data, especially in cytology and neurology.
Much of the advance in the latter subject was due to the
excellent work of the Spaniard, Ramon y Cajal. Consider-
able promotion and dissemination of biological knowledge
through various periodicals then took place, which, in
turn, stimulated general interest enough so that provi-
sion was made for specially equipped laboratories.

But merely extending knowledge a step further is not
developing science. Breeding homing pigeons that could
cover a given space with ever-increasing rapidity did not
give us the laws of telegraphy, nor did breeding faster
horses bring us the steam locomotive. The so-called im.-
provements of the microscope pertain to improving the
stands that hold the lenses. Until a new principle of optics
is discovered, the microscope remains what it is.

FACTS AND FINDINGS 29

One can say of all other fields of work what the late
E. W. Scripps said of the ocean : "Why, of course, every-
thing anybody can learn by investigating the ocean and
the organisms that live in it will be useful to somebody
in some way, some time." But the real advance in science
does not come from merely extending what we have, but
very often from uncovering a slightly hidden something
that we are permitted to use, and to work out some gen-
eral law or principle from this. The problem is not, as
Morgan says, "to discover how many kinds of structures
exist, but whether there are common principles that run
through them all. If there are no such principles, then we
are indeed headed toward chaos."^

Applying this thought to his particular work, he con-
tinues :

"Although we have not gone very far in our analysis,
there is encouragement to go on. If one takes the cell
division in all its diversity, we shall not get very far by
studying all the many variations resulting from slight
differences in the structure of eggs of every species, but
we shall really have succeeded in accomplishing something
worth while if we find a few simple physical principles
involved in that cell division."

And so, too, one must not place credit for any given
finding in the wrong place. As already mentioned, several
writers have pointed out that chattel slavery was quite
necessary in one state of civilization if men were to make
any progress and have any assurance of even an imme-

30 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

diate success in their varied efforts. Then, too, it was not
abolished because humanitarianism abhorred it, but be-
cause another type of civilization was brought about by
the invention of the steam engine, which made it pos-
sible to sustain civilization without slavery. So, too, mod-
ern democracy did not evolve from any interest in the
brotherhood of man, but because discovery and explora-
tion opened up entirely new channels into which men's
lives could flow and lead an independent and self-reliant
existence.

Now let us examine the biological literature and the
letters received to see what the biological world considers
important. One is struck immediately by the practical
agreement of the biologists of all nations as to what is
important and what has been done, during the past
quarter of a century, that is of lasting value.

One finds that after almost a half century of experi-
mentation with just one idea in mind — that of finding
new angles by which to demonstrate evolution — a sigh
of relief went up that other fields had finally been opened.
Yet, paradoxical as it may seem, the finding of the very
factors which opened new fields had its rise in the dis-
covery, or rather rediscovery, of a piece of work which,
in turn, was the cause of producing another theory of
evolution; namely, De Vries' theory of mutation. The
rediscovery and verification came about, simultaneously,
by De Vries in Holland, Correns in Germany, and Tscher-
mak in Austria, and consisted in making known the out-
standing work, by patient experiments, of Johan Gregor

FACTS AND FINDINGS 31

Mendel. Mendel's work was actually done in a preceding
generation, but as it remained unknown until our own,
and as it has exercised the profoundest influence on all
biological work since 1900, it deserves a place in this
survey.

Mendel pointed out that definite numerical results were
to be obtained in crossing peas, which he explained by
two simple hypotheses — that of segregation and that of
independent assortment.

The first of these is now accepted as a ''law" having
a very wide application. All later discoveries in the field
of heredity and genetics rest upon that law. It is, as
Morgan says, "a broad generalization based on numerical
data, and allows us to predict with accuracy the outcome
of a given solution."

Practically all those biologists whose opinion was asked,
were unanimous in putting the experimental work on
genetics and heredity in the foremost rank of this genera-
tion's achievement.

Mendel's second hypothesis applied only within certain
limits that can be accurately stated, but both hypotheses
hold very definitely for the cases he studied and for char-
acters of the majority of plants and animals studied since
then. However, much knowledge has been added in the
way of additional facts, so that we now speak of a "link-
ing" and a "crossing over" of certain characters, and with
such equipment added, we apply the laws over a much
wider field than Mendel did or could.

Much of the difficulty of early workers in any new field

32 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

is that they are unable to formulate a question so as to
get an intelligent answer, and much of the objection and
faultfinding regarding Mendelism is probably due to this
same fact.

Any new idea thrown into the biological arena would
not only cause great numbers of men to follow experimen-
tally the lead thus given, but the lesser leaders would be
inclined to break into new paths, also, though usually into
closely related fields. So we find papers on genetics and
heredity with emphasis on variation appearing one after
another, and almost simultaneously, others on behavior
and physiology. This work on physiology concerned itself
primarily with the reactions of mature organs, and did
excellent work for "medicine." But not long afterward
others drove the problem further back, and the question
of how the organism arose in the first place, was given a
niche in the gallery of experimentation. However, this be-
ginning of embryology was largely descriptive, accounts
being written merely of what was seen. From this descrip-
tive work, in turn, real experimental embryology was
born. Now, men such as William Roux and Hans Driesch,
began destroying or removing parts of the early embryo
to ascertain what would happen.

Roux's single pioneer experiment of note consisted in
killing one of the first two cells of the dividing egg of a
frog. The remaining half produced only a half embryo.
Driesch, on the other hand, found that with one-half egg

FACTS AND FINDINGS 33

of a sea urchin destroyed, the remaining half developed
into an entire organism. Driesch finally showed that the
apparent difficulty lay in the physics of the various eggs
used for the experiment. In some cases the usual method
of egg division caused one portion to be heavier than
another and thus to sink into the surrounding nourish-
ment. When the heavier part was removed, the lighter
portion received but little or no nourishment, and, conse-
quently, could not develop. If, however, one used an egg
such as that of the sea urchin or even of the frog, and
placed it so that nourishment was forthcoming, then each
portion of the egg would result in a completely formed,
but often somewhat smaller, animal.

Driesch finally came to the conclusion that to him, at
least, there was always something over and above what
the laboratory could find in the development of a complete
organism from such separate parts. He and his followers,
therefore, took the stand that satisfactory explanations
are more likely to come from an investigation of the
essence of life than from any purely embryological and
physiological experimentation in the laboratory.

Here was a parting of the ways. Many sought to retrace
their steps and to start anew. Thus some became inter-
ested in behavior, and from behavior of the entire higher
organisms, or parts of those organisms, there was the in-
evitable tendency to go farther and farther back. If all
life was but the working out of actions and reactions of

34 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

masses of cells, and cells, in turn, were composed of proto-
plasm, it was but logical that one should study proto-
plasm. This was not only a fruitful field for an analysis
both physically and chemically of the substance of proto-
plasm itself, but of the behavior of the single-celled plants
and animals, which, being actual living organisms, must
have within their single cell the answer to the riddle
of life.

Physics had won first place in the sciences for four
reasons: (1) it accepted the uniformity of nature, (2) it
insisted upon exact measurements, (3) it concentrated
attention on the regularities that underlie the complexities
of phenomena as they appear to us, and (4) it emphasized
the importance of crucial experiments.

It was but natural that physiology should try to do with
organs what physics did with inanimate material. Thus
the study of mere reactions came into being, so that first
we wanted to find out the actual chemical make-up of the
material with which we were working, and then how it
would react to all manner of stimuli as a whole or when
certain portions were eliminated. From the grosser experi-
ments, there was a resort to finer ones, and here a single
organism was taken and subjected to all manner of "indig-
nities" to see how this particular thing would react under
very particular and definite excitations. And here again,
biological workers landed in the same type of ctd-de-sac
in which Driesch had landed.

As J. Arthur Thomson says, "The chemical-physical

FACTS AND FINDINGS 35

formulations do not actually describe what we see and
know. If complete, they would afford a ledger of all the
chemical and physical transactions that go on in the body,
but that would not describe the organisms' apparently
unique qualities as an integrated living individuality, such
as the power of enregistering its experiences within itself
so that subsequent behavior is influenced. As science is at
present, it is necessary to use special biological categories
describing the life of the organism — notably its growing,
reproducing, developing, varying, endeavoring. For iso-
lated transactions in corners of the body, the chemical-
physical description may suffice, but not at present for
anything like behavior.""^

Let us retrace our steps for the moment to the birthday
of a single little fruit fly in 1910, which happened to be
born with white eyes. We find this seemingly insignificant
animal the chief factor in furnishing an impetus toward
a study of heredity and genetics, which has brought forth
what many biologists consider the nearest approach to the
solution of any biological problem yet presented.

The impetus this solitary fruit fly gave to the study of
heredity and genetics, has brought us to the belief that
each chromosome is made up, in turn, of a chain of sepa-
rate particles which we call "genes," because it seems that
they are the very basis on which the genealogy of the
individual rests.

Maybe each chromosone has thousands of these genes,
and probably no two are alike. The individual plant or

36 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

animal is the product of the activity of all the genes to-
gether, while heredity is the result of the shuffling of these
genes in each generation.

Quoting T. H. Morgan, who is the outstanding Ameri-
can in this field of work :

"In several plants and animals we can refer these genes
to particular chromosomes, and in one animal at least,
about four hundred genes have been placed. On the
assumption of their relative positions with respect to one
another, we can predict what the numerical results will
be in inheritance for some four hundred different charac-
ters. The theory justifies itself in that it allows one to
predict the outcome in terms of numbers for all these
four hundred characters whose genes have been located.

"The genes divide when the chromosomes divide, and
collectively their division is what we see when each
chromosomal rod splits throughout its length. It is the
genes that come together with extraordinary precision,
which implies probably that we are dealing with events
of a molecular order. We can go no further until physics
has furnished us with a key to unlock these extraordi-
nary events."^

Boveri's work on the mechanics of cytology must not
be left unmentioned at this point.

So far we have discussed the work on cytology, genetics,
and heredity, embryology and regeneration, and physiol-
ogy with its subheadings of physics and chemistry. One
should not forget the exceptionally interesting and valu-
able work on tissue culture outside the body of the indi-

FACTS AND FINDINGS 37

vidual in which they originally grew, done by Ross G.
Harrison and Alexis Carrel. These men were able to take
individual cells and groups of cells and keep them alive,
in apparently good health, quite outside of their usual
habitat.

The work on the possibility of artificial parthenogen-
esis by Yves Delage and Jacques Loeb also belongs in
this field. A mere pricking of the frog's egg with the point
of a glass or platinum needle, and then washing the egg
in blood, will produce fatherless frogs. In other cases, a
chemical or physical change of the water in which the
eggs are placed will cause unfertile eggs to develop.

Baltzer's work with the green worm of the Mediter-
ranean and the North Seas seems to show that sex may
be determined by either environment or food, or a com-
bination of both, for he was able to produce intermediate
sexes by merely shaking from their usual position, those
which would ordinarily have become males, and forcing
them to grow in a foreign medium.

The work of H. S. Jennings on the behavior of the
lower organisms seems to demonstrate some ''purposive
behavior" even in animals of a very low level. Such ex-
perimental work as having a brainless starfish attack and
conquer an equally brainless, but none the less formid-
able, sea urchin may throw much light on some future
experimental psychology.

Closely akin to this type of experimentation is that of
the various "tropisms" — the name given to those ''en-
grained constitutional obligations to adjust the body so

38 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

that the two sides, it may be the two eyes, ears, or nos-
trils, are equally stimulated" to secure a physiological
equilibrium.

"Thus the young eel or elver goes straight upstream,
the male mosquito finds the buzzing female, and the moth
flies into the unnatural stimulus of the candle. Somewhat
higher is the persistent way in which newly hatched
loggerhead turtles make for the open horizon, as Profes-
sor G. H. Parker has shown, which usually and happily
means finding the sea."^

Finally, one may add the work done in comparative
psychology, and the attempt to show what effect the
''mental" has had in determining the path of evolution.

In this connection, also, should be mentioned the work
of Robert Chambers in developing a technique of micro-
scopic dissection, which opens up a field yet unexplored,
and that of Professor Pregl of Graz, who has done out-
standing work on the ultramicroscope and developed new
methods in microanalysis.

From an agricultural point of view, a valuable answer
has been found for such questions as "How can we, even
by an importation of many different types of plants and
animals, each susceptible to differences in temperature,
clime, soil, moisture, and disease, keep that particular
balance in nature which modern transportation is continu-
ally upsetting, by importing with such plants and animals
those particular parasites, which will keep or again bring
back that particular balance in nature so much needed,"
by the workers in applied entomology, well represented

FACTS AND FINDINGS 39

by such men as L. O. Howard, who furnished some most
stimulating answers.

In biochemistry, the paper of Hopkins and Willcock,
Amino Acids in Metabolism, in 1907, foreshadowed the
very important discovery of vitamins. It showed that some
accessory food factors in the growth of an organism can-
not be chemically analyzed.

Indirectly correlated with this field in its scientific
aspects is the work of Dr. Allen on the Artificial Culture
of Marine Plankton Organisms. His study showed that
organisms require, when developed artificially, chemically
pure solutions to be sensitized by natural waters before
they can live and breed in them.

The work on vitamins, the discovery of their production
in relation with sunlight, etc., is of great concern not only
to the health of man, but of considerable practical utility
in connection with the production of his food supplies.

Under biochemistry one should certainly mention what
J. Arthur Thomson considers one of the great milestones
in biology — the discovery of a "glutathione" by Sir F.
Gowland Hopkins in 1921. This is an organic substance
widely distributed in plant and animal cells which acts
as an "oxygen transporter," that is, as an intermediary
between the oxygen of the air and the food materials of
the tissues. Its biological importance is due to the fact
that "this transporter and liberator of oxygen accounts
for the energy-yielding combustions that take place at a
low temperature within the living cell. It explains how
the cell burns and yet is not consumed."

40 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

D. Keilin's discovery of the cell pigment '^cytochrome,"
which has something to do with the control of oxygen
within the cell also should be mentioned.

Finally, Professor Baly's discovery of artificial photo-
synthesis should not be forgotten. Baly's work made pos-
sible the forming of organic compounds, such as formal-
dehyde, from water and carbon dioxide, which process, in
turn, formed sugar.

Nearly all biologists placed the work on endocrines
among the most notable achievements of this generation.
Thomson says of these powerful factors in the lives of
all organisms, that they are chemical messengers which are
like ''keys that open certain doors and close others, and
they exert a regulative action on many of the functions of
the body, securing their orchestration or correlation."

The discovery of this chemical integration "has changed
the whole face of physiology. Biologically regarded, the
hormones, such as adrenalin and thyroxin, enable the
biologist to understand not only everyday events such as
the cat's hair standing on end before the intruding dog,
but the changes that come in adolescence when hormones
from the reproductive organs saturate throughout the
body, and activate the growth of the stag's antlers, the
swelling of the frog's first finger, and scores of other
adolescent novelties."

The most spectacular work in preventive medicine,
which really belongs in this century, because real effective
proof of its working out was not forthcoming until 1900
or thereafter, is that of the discovery of how malaria and

FACTS AND FINDINGS 41

yellow fever are carried, followed by the exceptionally
effective methods used in applying this knowledge in
those regions where the disease was always a source of
dread and death. A Latin American, Carlos Finlay, was
really the pioneer in yellow-fever work, and your own
Oswaldo Cruz, saved the lives of untold millions by his
intelligent application of the principles that Finlay and
Reed discovered.

One might add the discovery of diphtheritic antitoxin
to the list of outstanding medical discoveries that were
ushered in at the moment when the nineteenth century
was giving way to the twentieth. No longer ago than 1893,
where records were kept, some 58 out of every 100 diph-
theria cases ended in death. After 1895, with the discovery
of antitoxin, there were less than four deaths in every
hundred diphtheria cases, provided, of course, that the
antitoxin was injected shortly after the onset of the
disease.

With typhoid fever, the change in fatalities is even
more amazing." During the Boer War, (1899-1900), with
only approximately 208,000 soldiers engaged, there were
57,683 cases of typhoid with 8,022 deaths, while only
7,781 men were actually killed in battle.

Only sixteen years later, on the great Western Front
during the World War, with approximately 1,300,000
British, there were in all only 7,500 typhoid cases of
which 266 resulted in death. This typhoid comparison is
of especial interest because the French did not use the
methods employed by the English during the first sixteen

42 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

months of the war, with the result that their reports show
96,000 cases of the disease, of which 12,000 resulted
fatally.

One should mention here, also, the discovery of insulin
by Banting, which is of far-reaching medical import. The
story of this piece of research, which ultimately culmi-
nated in the discovery of insulin, according to a corre-
spondent, had "a long background of trials as between the
known facts of sugar reduction in the body, the immediate
necessities of diabetic patients, the existence of corrective
substances in the pancreas, and above all, the clinical
failure of gross pancreatic secretion. It was the idea of
utilizing pancreatic material before the normal, external
secreting cells had developed in the young, coupled with
some highly practical knowledge of domesticated animals,
that gave Banting his opportunity."

F. d'Herrelle's discovery of the bacteriophage, the
enemy of germs, a "parasite upon a parasite" and not a
chemical something, also is considered of possible impor-
tance for the future. Then, too, the extremely important
and almost exhaustive researches of Maud Slye upon
over 50,000 mice, has demonstrated at least one thing in
regard to cancer — that both resistance and susceptibility
to that dread disease are hereditary in the animals
studied.

With this little summary of the outstanding biological
work of our own generation, we may pass on to what
problems the biologists themselves feel have been actu-
ally solved during this period, and try to ascertain

FACTS AND FINDINGS 43

what they consider the most important problems still
unsolved.

All are agreed that no problem has been fully solved,
but that, nevertheless, much light has been thrown upon
a good many points of interest which will prove valuable
for workers of the future in continuing from where we
of this generation have left off.

It may afford the layman an interesting insight into
the mind and thought of the biologist to read a letter such
as this:

''You ask my opinion as to the most important biolog-
ical problems of our age! I must confess that I find it
utterly difficult to give an exact answer: Any biological
problem is of importance, none is superfluous or even of
subordinate importance; that is, if you think of biology
as a whole and not only as an aid to industry, etc. Biology
is a building that needs every one of its stones — if you
take any one of them away the entire building will fall
into pieces again. Every biological investigation is of
equal importance; i.e., if it is not worked out or followed
out into caricature. Only history can, in the long run,
decide and estimate with certainty the sound kernel of
each 'mode' — every 'mode' is bound to be driven into
caricature, when its adorers take the last steps into that
cul-de-sac, where every mania soon or later comes to an
end. Choose whichever instance you will, systematics
and classification, phylogeny, cytology, physiology, hered-
ity, etc., you will, in every case, find that students of biol-
ogy at last put their heads into the cul-de-sac and cannot

44 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

get further until they are pulled out by some other partial
discipline. The side path was passed by unheeded, be-
cause they could not and cannot look in more than a
single direction — most biologists have only small hori-
zons. To every age, the problem or problems will seem to
be of greatest importance where some of the great per-
sonalities of that special epoch casually are leading
others."

More than one writer speaks of the "fads and fancies"
which have taken hold in biology at various times, and
these men call attention to the fact that we have but to
examine the scientific journals to see the successive waves
of contributions on tropisms, artificial parthenogenesis,
cytology, spermatogenesis, regeneration, genetics, tissue
culture, endocrines, etc., which have come and gone. There
seems to be some one stimulus for such work, which springs
from some particular discovery that promises a way out
of the mechanistic dilemma, that is, which promises some
light on a mechanistic explanation of living phenomena.
INIany then start work on a problem and pile up appar-
ently stronger evidence, only to find themselves at sea
more than they were before. That particular problem is
then dropped, and work is begun on another, followed by
the same result. This procedure necessitates intensive
work which leads to quick results, and has its advantages,
of course, but instead of following the problems out with
some degree of finality, it gives up and another fad is
followed.

Back of all experimentation, the impetus seems to come

FACTS AND FINDINGS 45

from a belief that in the physicochemical explanation lies
the only mode of approach to an understanding of life
itself acceptable to the modern man.

Let us then, at this point, try to find what modern biol-
ogists consider the most fundamental problems of the day.

Again there is practical unanimity.

1. The nature of life. That is, does living organic sub-
stance differ from the inorganic? While this problem is
far from being solved, it seems that the recent work on
bacteriophages and the filterable viruses is pushing our
horizon to a much lower level.

2. The discovery and constitution of protoplasm, and
its manner of operation.

3. The problem of the causes of variation, which may
in turn be stated as the mechanism of differentiation and
the mechanism of evolution.

4. Cancer research. Cancer is ravaging humanity con-
tinuously to a greater extent, and practically nothing is
known of either its origin, its control, or its cure.

5. The relation of genetics and environment. Important,
because so many human problems are affected by genetics,
such as disease, sociology, etc.

6. Disease. Is its predisposition really hereditary or
is it environmental ? Is any defect really hereditary, or is
it induced by environment ?

7. Criminality. Is it an heredity defect, or is it environ-
mental in its origin? These are decidedly important
human problems. Even immigration is affected by the
answer.

46 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

8. So-called superior and inferior peoples or races. Are
t±iey really such?

9. Economic entomology. Particularly emphasized be-
cause of the growing importance of many species of in-
sects. The interference with the balance of nature converts
many insects into potential or actual enemies of man and
his products. An enormous amount of work needs to be
done in this field.

All agree that the work done on genetics and heredity
and in their related fields of physiology and biochemistry
has greatly extended man's knowledge of the mechanism
of inheritance and the relation of inheritable units to
definitive characters, resulting in the development of the
organism. They also agree that they have thrown consid-
erable light on sex differences and the determination of
sex, while the work on the ductless glands has thrown a
light on personality and human biology. But these studies
also cause us to withdraw our former idea that heredity
was everything and environment nothing.

What has really been demonstrated by this work may
be summarized as follows :

1. That heredity is an orderly process, obeying certain
very definite laws.

2. That environment is coequal with heredity. What
part each plays is still to be solved, that is, in any given
instance, something may be the product of environment
or of heredity, but the question of which is the more im-
portant can be studied only in the individual case.

3. From the philosophical side, that genetics is the

FACTS AND FINDINGS 47

single experimental criterion of evolution, and hence of
biological philosophy. Its findings have, therefore, forced
the withdrawal of science from the welter of speculation
into which it had fallen, by establishing experimental
tests for the various claims. And finally,

4. That genetics permits a better valuation of many
problems of disease, of insanity, of feeble-mindedness,
and of various individual and social problems.

^(1) Biography, History and Bibliography; (2) General Biology; (3) Evolu-
tion; (4) Cytology; (5) Genetics; (6) Biometry; (7) Ecology; (8) Animal Be-
havior; (9) Physiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics; (10) Colloids, Surface
Tension, Permeability, etc.; (II) Enzymes and Catalysts; (12) Electrolytes and
Ions; (13) Light and Heat; (14) Electricity, X-Rays, and Radium; (15) Oxida-
tion and Reduction; (16) Methods and Apparatus; (17) Blood and Body Fluids;
(18) Nutrition, Metabolism, Growth, etc.; (19) Digestive System and Secretions;
(20) Respiration; (21) Endocrinology; (22) Kidney, Urine, etc.; (23) Repro-
duction and Lactation; (24) Environmental Responses; (25) Sense Organs; (26)
Nervous System; (27) Motor Apparatus; (28) Vascular System; (29) Pharma-
cology; (30) Pathology; (31) Immunology; (52) Filterable Viruses, Bacterio-
phage, etc.; 0^) Parasitology; (34) Bacteriology and other Microbiology; (35)
Economic Entomology; (36) Economic Ornithology; (37) Animal Production;
(38) Argonomy; (39) Horticulturer (40) Forestry; (41) Pharmacognosy
and Pharmaceutical Botany; (42) Systematic Botany; (43) Morphology and
Anatomy; (44) Paleobotany and Paleozoology ; (45) Vertebrate Anatomy,
Histology, and Physical Anthropology; (46) Embryology; (47) Systematic
Zoology.

2Minot, C. S., Modern Problems of Biology, 1913.

^Kellogg, Vernon L., "On International Biology," Bui. Pan-American Union,
December, 1925.

^Science News, "The French Association for the Advancement of Science,"
Science, August 13, 1926.

''Ritter, Wm. E., "The Australian Meeting of the Pan-Pacific Science Congress,"
Science, March 28, 1924.

^Morgan, Thomas Hunt, "The Relation of Biology to Physics," Science,
March 4, 1927, p. 219.

'Thomson, J. Arthur, "Biology," Encyclopedia Britannica, (13th Ed.)

^Morgan, Thomas Hunt, op. cit., p. 216.

^Thomson, J. Arthur, op. cit.

^"President's Address, Report of the Ninety-Second Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, 1924.

CHAPTER III

A CROSS SECTION OF PRESENT-DAY
BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT

Now we approach the most interesting question of all :
In what way, if any, has the work of biologists influenced
the life of a people, philosophically, educationally, eco-
nomically, socially, politically, and religiously?

In our discussion up to this point, we have found a prac-
tical unanimity. It is true that individuals have consid-
ered some finding, probably just on the borderland where
we did not yet know its exact significance, of sufficient
worth to be included in a list of matters of note, while
others felt that the evidence for its inclusion was not quite
sufficient. As a whole, however, there was little difference
of opinion, and when there was it was always due to an
attempted explanation or interpretation.

Since we shall have to deal with explanations or in-
terpretations in this lecture, one is not astonished to find
biologists themselves at considerable variance with one
another. In this part of our survey, one runs the entire
gamut of possible explanations, from that of the writer
who flatly and with decided finality insists that biology,
as such, never has, does not now, and never can influence
anything or anybody, to the one who insists with the
most enthusiastic avowal, that every advance the world
has made, is making, or ever can make, must always, in

48

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 49

the final analysis, rest upon the findings of biology and
biologists.

On the positive side we find, from our survey of biolog-
ical opinion, that the most outstanding and important
findings of biology which have influenced mankind are
summarized under the following headings :

1. Medicine and general health, especially through the
study of parasitology and disease prevention. In this con-
nection, one must not forget the remarkable results ob-
tained in the practical fields of medicine from such studies
as those made on malaria, yellow fever, typhoid fever, and
diphtheria, to mention only a few.

2. Bacteriological and parasitological findings applied
to commercial processes, and insects and plant control,
which, in turn, affects the entire food supply of man.

Closely connected with this latter work is that of ap-
plied genetics. Here questions like the following find
their answers:

"How can we breed those types of plants and animals
which will thrive best, and present those characteristics
we desire in our own particular region of the world ?"

"How can we make disease-resistant plants and
animals?"

"How can we make the waste places of the earth
become of value to man?"

"How increase the yield of crops?"

"How can biology be brought to advance the work of
the agriculturist, the cattle breeder, etc.?"

50 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

Thinking of matters of this kind, Professor Gardiner
says:

"Our knowledge of vitamins and their production has
undoubtedly changed the lives of people in this country
(England) very profoundly; its association with the
knowledge of feeding and growth in animals and plants
has influenced the development of agriculture on every
side."

The effects "are reflected in politics and education.
Scientific biology is at the base, and stimulated the de-
velopment of fisheries not only in Western Europe, but
in your own country (United States) as well ; the basal
work and the stimulators were university men of science,
not people paid by the state."

3. The beginning of a so-called human biology in which
the developments and findings of comparative psychology
assist us toward a better understanding of human
relations.

In this regard. Professor G. H. Parker holds that:

"Modern aspects of animal activities in relation with
genetics will serve as a basis for understanding human
life in a way in which it has never been so completely
understood heretofore. The biological attack on this ques-
tion is probably the most fundamental that has ever
been made."

Here one must consider the application of these find-
ings to sociology at large. One of the outstanding ques-
tions which confronts us and requires an answer which
the biological psychologist alone can give, is:

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 51

"What and why were certain variations and modifica-
tions allowed to persist which could not have persisted
without some social shield?" Here, too, must be placed
those newer findings and interpretations resulting from
the study of endocrines and their relation to the emotions.
This is a second fundamental problem of human biology,
and one which as yet is scarcely understood, but never-
theless is bound to influence most profoundly much of our
present and future interpretation of all things psycho-
logical and sociological.

4. Organic evolution; a subject mentioned by practi-
cally every writer. Professor B. A. Bensley says in this
regard :

"I do not believe that the larger effects of biological or
other scientific study can be of greater or different con-
sequence in one country than another. I think we would
have to admit that organic evolution and its historical
setting have made not only the greatest difference to
humanity, but also that no other single issue including
the entire industrial development of the world, has been
so important. Organic evolution ought to have been one
of the minor issues — historically the stage was not set
that way."

5. To the four preceding headings, Professor Conklin
adds a fifth: the noninheritance of acquired character-
istics, a biological factor with a vast influence on account
of its wide ramifications in almost every walk of life.

On the negative side, we may quote one correspondent
who reviews the matter thus:

52 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

"To my mind the greatest achievement of biology,
which is at last being realized, is negative: that science,
when placed in any sort of straight- jacket (of precon-
ceived theory), leads into blind alleys."

This fact is instanced in the following cases :

1. In embryology, the mistake of interpreting all phe-
nomena of development as ancestral indications is now
generally admitted. All this is well shown by the writings
of such men as T. H. Morgan, Wheeler, Jennings, Ritter,
and a number of others.

2. In genetics, the work of Jennings, Conklin, Morgan,
and others has shown that environment and heredity stand
on an equal basis. Heredity is not the all-powerful influ-
ence formerly taught, and environment nothing. Both
are coequal.

3. Physiology cannot achieve results by ignoring anat-
omy. A structure functions only in relation to an environ-
ment (internal or external). Physiology, by disregarding
anatomy and ecology has proceeded no whit further from
the position Goethe criticized in Faust a hundred years
ago with the words,

"Wer will was lebendiges beschreiben

Sucht erst den Geist heraus zu treiben.
Encheiresin naturae nennts die Chemie
Spottet ihrer selbst und weiss nicht wie.'^
Organisms cannot be understood by studying the anat-
omy, the environment, or the functions alone. There must
be interdependent study. The same writers mentioned
above also have written on this matter.

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 53

4. "Mechanistic evolution" is a straight-jacket for ex-
perimental work. "Emergent evolution" permits mental
freedom. However, if the writers on this theme permit
themselves to go on logically, it will drive them directly
into the philosophical position of the neoscholastics. Evo-
lution is not an automatic thing, but an intelligently
guided phenomenon. One thinks of the names of Lloyd
Morgan, Ritter, Lovejoy, and Noble, especially in this
regard.

5. Too much time, beginning with Darwinism, has been
wasted in useless speculation. Even now, too many biol-
ogists are spending time in speculating, instead of apply-
ing the experimental facts to their pet theories. Biological
philosophy must be fitted to the facts, not facts to
preconceived notions. This, too, is being realized by
such men as Jennings, Morgan, Wheeler, and a host
of others.

6. The line of human descent leads away from the apes,
rather than toward them. That our primitive ancestors
had a mind, hence intelligence, is revealed by additional
human discoveries ; wherever man has left traces besides
his own bones, those traces show the workings of an in-
telligence. These same traces show that the "cave man"
of popular fancy never existed : the cave man is an extra-
ordinarily intelligent man, endowed with a mind ; one who
had a religion, believed in a hereafter, honored his dead,
had a knowledge of handicrafts, and who practiced various
arts (painting, sculpturing, modeling, carving, etc.). Os-
born recently remarked in this regard, "Man is the most

LulLISi'^AR YJ

54 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

incomprehensible thing of this world; and in man the
mind is the most incomprehensible thing of all." There is
no transition between him and other animals ; even his
so-called nearest relatives show not the slightest trace of
intelligence.

The intellectual man really seeks philosophical progress.
As one correspondent puts it :

"Philosophical progress is the nearest thing to what our
nature seems to demand — perhaps one might say an up-
to-date religion. I would say that all demonstrations, espe-
cially geological, paleontological, or in general, truly
historical, that will yield facts rather than sympathetic
theories, will be important but accessory. Some are tired
of evolutionary work, others think the picture is not yet
plain enough to satisfy.

"I would, therefore, place in order of importance, first
the demonstration of chemical homologies and sequences
in living protoplasm. I believe they will provide a coun-
terpart and largely an explanation of the ramifications
of morphological modifications. Second, the primary na-
ture of living protoplasm. These two are related, but I
think there is no doubt that the sticking point in biolog-
ical philosophy is the origin of life."

We find the biologist's spirit depressed by the fact
that the intellectual phases of scientific progress enter so
slowly into the actual life of humanity. Whatever influ-
ence biologists may wield on the political, social, and
even religious thought of the day seems to come through

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 55

some more or less practical applications, as only that
very small, more highly educated portion of the public
ever can approach a true conception of the scientific phi-
losophy of the time. As Professor McClung, wistfully
puts it:

"At a time when science is proclaimed the chief reli-
ance of organized society in securing perpetuation ; when
through its ministrations, human life is materially
lengthened, made more effective and enjoyable; when
the uncertainties of existence, and the terrors of the un-
known are yearly being reduced in significance, then we
witness the paradox of vicious and unreasoning assaults
upon the methods and conclusions of science by legisla-
tive enactments to cripple its progress and limit its
teaching.

"It would seem from all this that science is in our day
and generation, but not of it. This is no doubt largely
the fault of scientists who have ever been inclined to
become absorbed in their pursuit of knowledge and to
manifest little concern with the use that is to be made
of it."^

Certainly nothing is added to the intellectual probity
and honesty of scientific men, when some of our most
important publishing houses print editions of biological
texts in which every reference to evolution is deleted,
just to please the less intelligent regions of the country.
Such a procedure is especially bad when everyone knows
that both author and publisher believe things quite dif-

56 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

ferent from what their textbooks imply. If scientists will
cast aside what they really believe and are supposed to
hold dear, merely to sell a few extra copies of their pub-
lications, why should one expect nonscientific minds to
believe that science leads to truth?

Peabody has recently said:

"The popular conception of a scientist as a man who
works in a laboratory and who uses instruments of pre-
cision is as inaccurate as it is superficial, for a scientist is
known not by his technical processes, but by his intellec-
tual processes; and the essence of the scientific method
of thought is that it proceeds in an orderly manner to-
ward the establishment of a truth."^

Yet how far short of that ideal even a most eminent
man, in such a supposedly absolute science as mathe-
matics, may fall ! Consider the case of M. Michel Chas-
les,^ one of the leading geometricians of his time. Be-
tween the years of 1861 and 1870, he bought more than
27,000 manuscripts forged by a man with meager educa-
tion, who must have worked many hours daily for long
years to complete so many. These manuscripts contained
hundreds of letters from Pascal, twenty-seven from
Shakespeare, hundreds from Rabelais, many from New-
ton, Louis XIV, from the Cid, and from Galileo. There
were letters from Sappho, Virgil, Caesar, St. Luke, Plato,
Pliny, Alexander the Great, and Pompey. There was
even a letter from Cleopatra to Caesar, a note from Laza-
rus to Peter and a pleasant little missive from Mary
Magdalen to the King of the Burgundians.

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 57

Every one of these letters was written on the same
kind of paper (not on parchment), and all were written
in French. One can appreciate a nonscientific writer's
comment upon this case :

"Remember that these manuscripts were eagerly pur-
chased and their authenticity warmly defended by one
of the leading geometricians of his time, and then be-
lieve, if you can, that development of the mathematical
faculty has anything to do with reasoning power, or even
common sense."

When we speak of men still living, or but recently
passed away, in whose disciples the fires of emotional
desire for credit loom large, matters of importance to the
real advancement of science are too often confused with
a mere matter of priority, so that, as Metcalf has pointed
out, the more valuable work is usually overlooked or for-
gotten. To this same idea, J. M. Aldrich contributes the
following :

''Criticism is usually a generation behind publication,
so that the poorest work may stand, as we often see, for
twenty or forty years before it is completely revised,
^loreover, in North America at least, the ablest men are
quite likely to be the very ones to succumb to the higher
rewards of administrative and economic work, and so
fail to make the contribution of which they are capable."*

And finally, in the matter of psychological reaction of
scientists, Poincare has called attention to the compari-
son of Gallic and Anglo-Saxon genius.

"Characteristic of the one is a feeling for form, for sym-

58 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

metry, for logical completeness, for finality ; characteris-
tic of the other is the feeling for substance, development,
function, change. For the one, truth lies in the result ; for
the other, in the process. One is represented by the de-
ductive, the other by the inductive type of mind."

The one type of mind holds that there is a possibility
of finding an exact correspondence between the thing
itself and our idea of that thing, which means absolute
truth insofar as that one idea is concerned at least. The
other holds that there is no such thing as absolute truth
or falsehood of any theory or observation but, that as
scientists, it is our duty to weigh carefully all the chances
for truth and error, place each in its proper position, and
thus improve the way. Professor Beach, speaking for this
group, puts it like this :

"It is important to recognize the fact that scientific
laws are not proved by perfect corroboration of measure-
ments. The proof of any law is of negative character. Not
even the law of gravitation, nor the law of the conserva-
tion of energy is proved by positive demonstration. The
probable truth of any proposition is assumed from the
inability to disprove it. Whence it follows that there is
nothing more fundamental to the correct understanding
of the science of physics, or indeed of science in general,
than the interpretation of measurements according to
the theory of probabilities and a rational discussion of
the inherent errors."^

While H. B. Torrey, speaking of the influence that

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 59

modern scientific thought has had on philosophy,
adds:

"Science has progressed in the biological sciences by
abandoning a faith in final causes for a faith in the hypo-
thesis that works, by draining off every stagnant suspi-
cion of ultimateness in explanation, in the light of the
conviction — the product of experience — that the ideas
that serve us change with our knowledge of object facts. "^

And I think that he sums up well the ideas on this
matter of the average biologist in the three following
paragraphs :

"For one who seeks a basis of criticism for a contri-
bution to science, three obvious tests may be applied.

"L It may contribute new facts.

"2. It may contribute a formulation of old facts.

"3. It may contribute a new idea that, in the presence
of facts, may lead to a new point of departure for explora-
tions into the unknown.

"If then, one were to apply these tests to what seem
to me to be the two most significant developments in the
philosophic thought of today, they might be said to fall,
very roughly speaking, under the second and third cate-
gories. In the former, might be placed the synthetic phi-
losophy of Spencer, an avowedly scientific philosophy
whose essential problem was to formulate the known
facts of science in terms of principles of evolution. This
stupendous project, remarkable alike for the powers of
its author and the wide range of his interests, ended in a

60 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

system of philosophy, into which just enough metaphys-
ics succeeded in creeping to justify the criticism that, in
spite of all good intentions, he had not been able to dis-
entangle himself completely from the habits of thought
to which his critics were happily accustomed.

*Tragmatism distinguishes itself at once from the syn-
thetic philosophy in that it is nonsystematic. Instead of
an interest in a formulated body of knowledge, it appears
to possess an insatiable desire to determine practical
choices. Given a problem of conduct, the solution un-
known; what shall the line of action be? Here one per-
ceives a strictly scientific situation that emphasizes the
practical value of the hypothesis. The problem is to find
a satisfactory path into a new region. And the answer
that pragmatism gives is : trust to luck and your past ex-
perience. The truth,' says James, 4s the hypothesis that
will work.' 'The truth,' says Dewey, if I rightly appre-
hend him, 'is the hypothesis that you can work with.'
There is a suggestion of permanency, of stability, of
future significance in the latter phrase that makes it,
to my mind, more felicitous. But I do not care to dwell
on that point. What comes closer to my purpose is to
point out that here is no faith in final causes, here is
no suspicion even of that innocuous phantom, the un-
knowable. Here is no distinction between science and
philosophy — if indeed pragmatists are philosophers, in
spite of the fact that, in one form or another, they fill
several chairs of philosophy now in our universities.
Here is a faith that facts will tell their tale — will in-

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 61

evitably condition the movement of ideas, that one's
imagination content is derivable from one's effective ex-
perience. Here is a philosophy that is working a trans-
formation on the thought of the day. How ? By abandon-
ing the search for lofty peaks of final causation, from
which to triangulate the universe according to logical
necessity; emphasizing ideas that shall not only square
with the facts as we find them, but shall create others."

However this may be the attitude of the average bio-
logical worker, there is another group, none the less able,
whose logic leads them another way.

I cannot help mentioning here a conversation with a
scientific surgeon held a year or two ago. A matter of
surgical procedure was being discussed. The surgeon ad-
mitted the force of his opponent's argument. In fact, he
said, "There isn't a flaw in the reasoning. I accept the
logic of it, and yet, if this happend to one near and dear
to me, I would not follow the dictates of my logic merely
to make a logical conclusion come true."

To me it seems that here is the crux of a vast amount
of conflict in the scientific world. One man will follow
consistently wherever his logic leads him, feeling that he
cannot do otherwise; the other feels that every problem
is to be judged entirely by itself, without relation to the
larger issues of history, philosophy, psychology, logic, in
fact, without regard to all that which has made our entire
background of education and training what it is.

Professor John Dewey, in sketching the development
of the philosophies in various countries, laid heavy stress

62 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

upon the fact that the United States of America had not
given sufficient thought to philosophy/ He added that
"as long as we worship science, and are afraid of phi-
losophy, we shall have no great science except a lagging
and halting continuation of what is thought and said
elsewhere."

We may all be wrong in our interpretations. Let us not
forget that in the time of Columbus the ablest men were
certain that Columbus was mistaken. A later generation
may feel the same toward us. The best we can say in all
truthfulness is that while we may be mistaken in every-
thing we now hold dear, yet, one is more likely to be cor-
rect more often by following the abler men than one is
in following those less able. With this as an interpreta-
tive background, let us continue with a report of our
findings.

The final question in our discussion is that of the
status of the vitalistic and the mechanistic conceptions
of life. What do the ablest biologists in the various
lands hold regarding these two ways of explaining living
organisms ?

Before presenting their answers, let us suggest a pre-
caution to the nonphilosophical hearers. A vote can never
settle anything as to the actual facts in any given case.
All that it can do is to show what the majority hold.

We have seen how proximity to one's own work and to
those who think alike causes an exaggeration of emphasis
on such work and such thought. Scientists, like other
people, are so close to their own work that they are like

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 63

the man who could not see the forest for the trees. A
wider outlook, it is true, is discernible in the writings of
many who are trying to treat the organism as a whole
and not as a mere collection of individual and distinct
parts.

Thus, Vernon L. Kellogg^ holds that, no matter how
the scientist may look at a thing from a purely physico-
mechanical point of view, when he sits back in his chair
in his own home and views his wife and children, some-
how there is a greater gap between their reactions to him
and his to them, than his laboratory findings would lead
him to believe.

Professor Kellogg thus holds with Balzac, that, regard-
less of what the laboratory tells us, humanity will never
accept the implied ultimate of the alchemist who says to
his weeping wife, "Stay, I have decomposed tears. Tears
contain a little phosphate of lime, some chloride of soda,
some mucus, and some water." Is there nothing more to
a tear than this ? Will humanity ever be willing to accept
that analysis? In all probability it will not. Unless the
findings of the laboratory fit in with the findings of hu-
manity as a whole, it will do little good to attempt to
force acceptance of them with any degree of finality.

If, as Wm. E. Ritter says,^ the golden rule has influ-
enced the actions of mankind, it is mighty poor science
which would neglect it in writing the history of man-
kind. It would be like studying the bee and forgetting to
mention one or more of the important traits found. And
so, T. D. A. Cockerell very recently laid emphasis upon

64 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

the fact that mechanistic science can never bring out a
sense of human values.^'' One can, of course, always say
that science shows that the race must be protected, and
that consequently one can work out some scheme of mor-
ality and a sense of duty from that angle — that what
is best for the race and what is best for posterity should
be done. But, doesn't such a scheme only furnish a motive
without any obligation? Suppose I care not a whit for
the race or for posterity, then why should I hold it a
duty to sacrifice even a little convenience for them?

Mankind vaguely reaches out for something positive
in the way of an analysis of duty. Nikolai recognized this
in his Biology of War. The entire volume was written,
practically just to make the point, that something must
furnish an obligation if there is to be any duty. And yet,
astonishing as it may seem, after going over every review
of this book, in every journal written in English (and
there were many reviews) , I cannot find a single reviewer
even so much as mentioning this very thing, about and
for which the book was written.

We seem to find that scientists are of two types : The
one insistent upon remaining quite modest and laying
emphasis upon how little we know about anything; the
other not so modest, who insists upon laying all the em-
phasis on the great progress that has been made.

Even when we dissect Poincare's division of types of
mind into the Gallic and the Anglo-Saxon,^^ we find the
philosopher Schwegler insisting that the Anglo-Saxon
mind is extremely acute, but seldom profound.

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 65

He holds that this latter type of mind can find more
and devious ways down which to travel, than any other
group, but seldom can it stay at one problem until such
problem is plumbed to its very depth.

It matters not whether we accept any of these analyses.
It does matter whether or not we know that they are
there, and that the men who hold them are just as able as
those who hold opinions quite the reverse.

The one type of mind insists upon knowing everything
about a subject; the other wants to know the subject
itself. Let us illustrate. It is conceivable that one might
find a scholar who knew every book and article ever writ-
ten on friendship ; who had taken those who were friends
of each other into his psychological laboratory and found
how they reacted to each other under all and sundry
conditions. In other words, here is a man who knows
more than anyone else in the world on what we may call
the scholarship of friendship, and yet, it is also conceiv-
able that he himself never has known friendship. Know-
ing about a thing, and knowing it, are two different things.

The poet who has sung of

"A sense of law and beauty, and a face turned from
the clod,

Some call it Evolution and others call it God,"
has really a wider understanding of that thing we call
life than have many biologists. For, after all, has he not
in these few lines really described life ? The law of which
he speaks is science, and the beauty he mentions calls
forth the idea of ideals, of character, in fact, of all things

66 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

which make us appreciate life to the fullest, whenever
and wherever it may be found.

Of these outstanding biologists from whom I have
sought opinions, I find but comparatively few who are
willing to go on record as out-and-out mechanists. Most
of them probably feel as the educated people of the
United States feel when prohibition is discussed — that
no one with any intelligence can be a "dry" and no one
with any decency can be a "wet." So many crimes have
been committed in the name of each, that few are willing
to align themselves as partisans. Thus it seems to be with
Vitalism and Mechanism.

Probably the best summary of those leaning toward
the mechanistic side is shown by the statement of one
who said "most biological workers are practical mechan-
ists, though they admit that life may be something more
than Mechanism." Or, by another phrasing it thus : "they
are mechanistic in practice, but agnostic in opinion."

Another adds, "It is always dangerous to make cate-
gorical classifications, but a majority of American biolo-
gists are not disposed to believe in Vitalism, if by that is
meant that there is in living matter some principle en-
tirely different from that found in the organic world;
that is to say, some principle entirely outside the range
of physics and chemistry; on the other hand, I do not
know that these workers would care to be styled "mechan-
ists," because of the rather crude ideas that have come
to be associated with the term."

But the opinion of men who stand at the very heights

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 67

in biology, in America and Germany at least, may be
summed up in this statement :

"Vitalism and Mechanism seem to be antiquated ways
of looking at the problem of organic activity, and will be
replaced by more modern views on this subject. The con-
trast between Vitalism and Mechanism is probably a
fictitious one. An irresistible trend of thought and feeling
in biology, based on the aggregate of positive results
gained in the various subdivisions of technical research
will, I am quite sure, bring about the final disappearance
of the old conflict between Vitalism and Mechanism with
no out-and-out victory for either side.

''This conflict has been due largely to the prevalance
in it of a maximum of speculation and a minimum of
common sense. That many of the structures and activi-
ties of any individual animal are mechanical in the sense
that they act to a large extent according to the prin-
ciples of mechanics is so obvious, that nobody questions
it as long as he thinks and speaks as an ordinary mortal.
Compare the workings of our own limbs with the work-
ing of levers, for instance.

"But even the hard-boiled mechanist never questions
(so long as he remains true to himself just as an every-
day human being) that the individuals in which these
mechanical activities go on are alive — are living; nor
does he hesitate to call the activities vital.

"Now, it is not doubtful, as I see the matter, what it
is, conceptually, that is working most strongly toward
the laying of this old bogy. It is what has been for sev-

68 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

eral decades forcing its way into technical biology under
the name "the organismal" or "organismal conception."
A highly significant thing that is happening at present in
connection with this conception is its almost entirely in-
dependent growth in some half dozen subdivisions of
the biological realm.

"The reach of the conception with its implications,
into the sciences of not-living nature, into psychology,
and into the domain of thought which has for many cen-
turies been supposed to belong exclusively to philosophy,
is certainly immense, though no one yet can tell exactly
how far, or exactly what its effects will be.

"But what some of its most far-reaching consequences
are to be is rather definitely foreshadowed. It will bring
about a much sharper distinction between materialism
and naturalism than has hitherto been grasped.

"Another result closely connected with this will be
the recognition that man belongs wholly, i.e., with no
aspect of his being excepted, to the realm of nature.

"When the most distinctive characteristics of present-
day civilization are viewed in the light of the psycho-
biological matters touched upon here, I believe it must
be concluded that man can never benefit to the full from
the combination of his reason with his aesthetic, his
ethical, and his religious emotions, until he recognizes
these to be part and parcel of himself as a natural being."

And here is another statement:

"The most thoughtful biologists are Vitalistic, or lean
strongly toward it. As a matter of fact, some who call

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 69

themselves Mechanists disprove it by their own writings.
A substitution of words does not convert the vitalistic
phenomenon into a mechanical phenomenon. Several of
our outstanding biologists who call themselves Mechan-
ists, are really Vitalists by virtue of the very arguments
offered in their writings, which in many instances are
mere adaptations of the old scholastic arguments.

''One of the amusing instances of pretended Mechan-
ism is that brought forth in the various articles on
Emergent Evolution. This 'selective behavior' of 'mass
behavior' referred to in these writings, (though the
authors themselves seem to miss this) has presented a
new and one of the most powerful arguments for Vital-
ism as yet discovered ; e.g., any drop of water will have
the same behavior all the world over, when given identi-
cal conditions. One Paramecium, as well as one of many
another organism, does not behave precisely alike to all
others, even under identical conditions. Many drops of
water will still behave alike under the same identical con-
ditions (freezing, boiling) ; but many Paramecia in a
group or mass will behave startlingly different from the
single individual. This is also shown in other species, e.g.,
the hunting of wolves singly and in packs, human beings
under control of 'mob psychology,' etc."

The following letter throws some light on why many
biologists feel that they must adhere to the laboratory
findings exclusively, and not permit themselves to be
drawn into philosophical discussions, even if these latter
may really be of much greater importance to mankind

70 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

than the mere adding of another isolated fact to an
already large store of knowledge. Biologists, as well as
all other laboratory workers, know that we can under-
stand each other fairly well when we confine our speech
to definite scientific terms, but that we usually differ
greatly when we enter into philosophical speculation.
Scientists, therefore, have limited themselves to certain
physically demonstrable methods.

Thus one biologist writes:

''My own observations of other persons' attitudes tempt
me to say that as a rule they refuse to take Vitalism
seriously, and I do not know whether this means that
they have not thought about the possible limitations of
science, or whether, as in so many cases otherwise, they
are ultrapractical as an accidental habit of mind.

"I am afraid many of us are more interesting as experi-
mental animals for psychologists to study than as monu-
ments of truth.

"My own view of this question is : 'Science limits itself
voluntarily to what is reasonably demonstrable, using a
perceptive method with logical extensions.' As scientific
individuals, we have as much right to free and easy im-
agination, superstition, and the like, as anybody else. We
avoid these things for the sake of safety and security to
our field of knowledge. I would think it almost equally
unwarranted to state that either life is mechanism or that
life contains a vital element which we do not or possibly
cannot know. But science itself is a natural development
of the human mind. Physics and chemistry are practical

PRESENT-DAY BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT 71

experiences, and whatever may be present in life, I am
satisfied that so far these sciences have furnished the
only kinds of facts out of which we could get any satis-
faction, on the set basis of being perceptively observ-
able, demonstrable, reasonable, commanding of universal
respect, or of whatever quality scientific men desire to
have as a criterion of truth."

^McClung, C. E., "The Unity of Life," Science, December 10, 1926.

^Peabody, F. W., "The Care of the Patient," Journal American Medical Asso-
ciation, March 19, 1927, p. 877.

^Pearson, E. L., Books in Black and Red, 1923, pp. 10-11.

4.\ldrich, J. M., "The Limitations of Taxonomy," Science, April 22, 1927.

^Beach, Frederick E., "On the Study of Physics," Popular Science Monthly,
1904, Vol. 65, p. 61.

^Torrey, H. B., "Modern Scientific Thought and its Influence on Philosophy,"
Popular Science Monthly, January, 1923.

'International Congress of Philosophy, held at Harvard University, September
13 to 16, 1926.

sKellogg, V. L., "The Biologist Speaks of Life," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 127,
pp. 583-593.

^Ritter, Wm. E., "Darwin's Probable Place in Future Biology," Popular Science
Monthly, January, 1910.

loCockerell, T. D. A., "Duty of Biology," Science, April 9, 1926.

^^Probably nowhere can the difference in the temperament of two peoples be
shown better than in group reactions of the Anglo-Saxons and the Latins, as shown
in the following popular account of understanding and lack of understanding of
each other by Duff Cooper, M.P., in a recent issue of Graphic, London:

"The difference between French mobs and English mobs, and between political
disputes in the two countries was never more vividly exemplified than during the
general strike in England. For ten days England seemed to be on the brink of civil
war — the eyes of the world were turned toward us in the expectation of terrible
developments — and when it all ended, foreigners could hardly believe that not a
single casualty had occurred.

"While it was still in progress, there occurred in Paris some celebration in con-
nection with their national saint, Joan of Arc, an historical figure for whom it
might be supposed that even an anarchist could feel nothing but respect. But riots
broke out, and in one afternoon loss of life and many casualties occurred.

"Meanwhile the strikers in this country were playing football with the police-
men, a phenomenon which so puzzled and therefore exasperated foreigners that
they were driven to explaining it by saying that the English were incapable of
taking even their own revolutions seriously."

CHAPTER IV

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

In this closing lecture, it is fitting that we consider
those provocative biological ideas and theories which,
while they do not fit into the general scheme of our
former discussions, are, nevertheless, of great import in
understanding not only the incentives of future work in
the biological sciences, but in showing us why certain
paths of experimentation and discussion have been chosen
in preference to others.

These ideas and theories, which are considered of great
importance by the outstanding workers of all lands, are :
the Organismal Theory, with some of its attempted ex-
planation such as the Organisationcentrum Theory, the
Axial Gradient (or Metabolic Gradient) Theory, the
Metabolic Theory of Sex, the Theory of Plasmogeny, and
the Theory of Emergent Evolution.

The Organismal Theory. The founding of the cell
theory by Schleiden and Schwann, followed by the histo-
logical work of Bichat, had caused biological workers to
look to the individual parts of the organism, and pri-
marily to the cell, as the source of explanation for vital
phenomena. From about 1890 on, the older conception of
thinking of the organism as a whole again came into its
own. The foremost exponents of this Organismal Theory,
contrasted with the exponents of the Cell Theory as a

12

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 73

source of explanation of living organisms, were C. O.
Whitman, E. B. Wilson, F. R. Lillie, Jacques Loeb, and
more recently, William E. Ritter.

Whitman's The Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory of De-
velopment (1893) initiated the newer conception. He
says in this essay : "Comparative embryology reminds us
at every turn that the organism dominates cell formation,
using for the same purpose one, several, or many cells,
massing its materials, directing its movements, and shap-
ing its organs, as if cells did not exist, or as if they existed
only in complete subordination to its will, if I may so
speak." And again, "The fact that physiological unity is
not broken by cell boundaries is confirmed in so many
ways that it must be accepted as one of the fundamental
truths of biology."

E. B. Wilson followed Professor Whitman's lead with
his essay on The Mosaic Theory of Development (1893).
Then F. R. Lillie in Properties of the Whole (Principle
of Unity), a paper on the development of Chae top terns
(1906), a marine worm, brought additional emphasis to
this theory as shown by the following extracts from
his paper :

"If any radical conclusion from the immense amount
of investigation of the elementary phenomena of devel-
opment be justified, this is : That the cells are subordinate
to the organism, which produces them and makes them
large or small, of a slow or rapid rate of division, causing
them to divide, now in this direction, now in that, and in

74 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

all respects so disposes them that the latent being comes
to full expression. The organism is primary, not secon-
dary ; it is an individual, not by virtue of the cooperation
of countless lesser individualities, but an individual that
produces these lesser individualities on which its full
expression depends. The persistence of organization is a
primary law of embryonic development."

But it was left for William E. Ritter to treat the whole
theory in a most comprehensive and exhaustive manner
in his two volumes entitled, The Unity of the Organism
(1919). I have, therefore, asked Professor Ritter to put
into as few words as possible a statement of the theory
itself and what actually brought it into being. This is
what he says :

"There is no doubt that the theory has been in the
world from the time of Aristotle at least. How much
longer I do not know. When this Greek pointed out that
any object, a couch for example, has certain attributes of
its very own and hence cannot be interpreted on the
basis of the attributes of any other object, even though
these be those of which the object in question is com-
posed, he simply called attention to an item in the mental
technique employed by every working naturalist, no mat-
ter what his field. It is of prime historic importance, I
think, to distinguish between Aristotle the naturalist and
Aristotle the metaphysician.

"My own first arresting glimpse of the knowledge-
getting principle here involved came, as I recall, from
noticing that when the materialists (really elemental ists)

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 75

try to live up to their dictum about expressing their
knowledge concerning wholes 'in the terms of the ele-
ments of the wholes, they have either to leave out entirely
any reference to the attributes of the wholes, or else gra-
tuitously to carry back the attributes of the wholes to
the constituent elements. Water, for instance, expressed
as the 'oxide of hydrogen' expresses nothing whatever of
the attributes of water, and if we try to attach water
attributes to the elements, merely for the sake of recog-
nizing in them their ability to make water, not only do
we do a purely gratuitous thing, but we involve ourselves
in a fog of uncertainty from not knowing anything about
how to distribute the water attributes between two con-
stituent gases. This aspect of the problem of wholes and
elements has been worked out so thoroughly in so many
ways, epistemological, logical, chemical, physico-chemical,
biochemical, and statistical, culminating finally in 'emer-
gent evolution' (G. H. Lewes, C. L. Morgan, etc.) on the
biological side, and 'organic mechanism' (A. N. White-
head) on the nonbiological side, that there seems no alter-
native to our accepting it as basic for all existence to
which our knowledge processes have any access.

"For myself, relying as I do on the natural-history
mode of philosophizing as a methodological concomitant
of the organismal conception, I find it quite satisfactory
to define the conception illustratively by calling attention
to the fact that all bodies, both living and not living,
about which we know anything, furnish evidence that the
elements of which they are composed have latent powers.

76 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

which are brought to actuality in no other way than by
coming into just those relations which they are in when
constituting these bodies. And of all the evidences to this
effect, the most conclusive is that furnished by what I
myself as a rational and emotional being am able to get
from the air, food, and water which I consume.

"It is undoubtedly a great thing that chemistry and
physics have confirmed and greatly extended universal
experience to the effect that without air, water, and food,
growing, playing, and working, feeling, and thinking, in
a word, 'living' is impossible. But so long as these
sciences tell us nothing, or next to nothing, as to exactly
what the portions of external nature that we utilize are
doing to enable us to do these things, they have fallen
exceedingly far short of fully explaining us to ourselves."

And so, as modern zoologists are no longer inclined to
think of an animal as a system composed of individual
minor unities, but think of the entire organism as a real
and complete unity, the point of view resulting has caused
experimenters to apply their efforts toward solving the
problem of how this unity comes to be what it is. In fact,
Professor E. B. Wilson (1923) goes so far as to make the
problem of "organization" an ultimate category which is
to stand beside that of matter and energy. Subordinate
to this general problem of organization is that of control
or regulation of the development of the new individual.

Professor Child, speaking of the organized individual,
defines individuality as follows :

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 77

"In the first place, the organic individual is alive and,
therefore, consists of the complex substances termed in
general protoplasm; second, it is more or less definitely
limited in size ; third, it possesses a more or less definite
morphology, a visible form and structure, which is asso-
ciated in some way with dynamic and primarily chemical
activity ; fourth, a greater or less degree of order, coordi-
nation, correlation, or harmony as it is variously called,
is perceptible in the character of its form and structure
and in the dynamic activities of its constituent parts.
In short, the organic individual appears to be a unity of
some sort; its individuality consists primarily in this
unity, and the process of individuation is the process of
integration of a mere aggregation into a unity, for this
unity is not simply the unity of chance aggregation, but
one of a very particular kind and highly constant char-
acter for each kind of individual."

The problem presented, then, is to try to determine
the nature of the unity underlying individuation, which,
in turn, has developed into the problem of control or regu-
lation of the potentialities of development; a search, it
might be called, for some principle of regulation in a
growing organism.

The Organisationcentrum Theory. Hans Spemann
(1922-24) has brought forth a suggestive idea in this
field, which the Germans call the Organisationcentrum
Theory, a theory resulting from the study of early stages
of organic development. Spemann's experiments, cover-

78 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

ing a period of some twenty years, were performed on the
developing newt. He found, as in other embryonic ani-
mal development, that after the fertilized egg has divided
into a number of undifferentiated cells, the upper cells
grow down and cover the lower. A circular zone of down-
growth is thus formed, marked by a definite rim or lip.
This down-growth begins at one point of the circle (on
what is to become the dorsal portion of the embryo) and
spreads round, gradually, to complete the circle. This
first active region is called the "dorsal lip." Spemann's
reasoning led him to believe there was some causal rela-
tion between this dorsal lip and the beginning of differen-
tiation among the various cells.

In order to demonstrate his theory, he worked out
an interesting technique by which he transplanted a small
portion of the dorsal lip into some abnormal position in
another developing embryo. The result bore out his sup-
position, for not only did the animal which had the graft
made upon it develop its own set of normal organs, but
in addition, it developed a second set in relation to the
graft.

Spemann concluded that the portion transplanted had
some inherent potentiality of growth which had thus
formed what might be called a "secondary embryo." He
again put his conclusion to the test by transplanting a
portion of the dorsal lip of an animal which had consider-
able pigment in it to one which had none, so that the
growth of the two tissues could be observed distinctly.

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 79

And again he found his conclusions substantiated by his
experiments, for not only did this transplanted portion of
the dorsal lip cause a similar growth in an animal of
another species, but strangest of all, the new "secondary
embryo" was made up of the tissue of the animal to which
the graft had been transplanted and not of the tissue of
the graft.

The grafted portion of the dorsal lip, therefore, is
thought of as an inducer of growth and differentiation of
the tissues in which it is placed or among which it is
found. This differentiation is supposed to be determined
by and controlled by enzymelike secretions, not so much
from the individual cells as from certain groups of cells.
It is to these groups that the name of Organisationcentra
has been given.

The Axial Gradient Theory. It seems that the Ger-
manic peoples have been more influenced by the Organi-
sationcentrum idea, while biological workers in England
and a few Americans have found in Child's Axial Gradi-
ent Theory a source of new paths down which to direct
their experimental energies.

The hold that Child's theory (1915) has taken on some
workers, may be gauged by the fact that Professor F. W.
Gamble, in his presidential address before the zoological
section of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science in 1924, not only made this theory the main
thesis of his address, but held that "no more fertilizing
biological idea has been disseminated in the last ten years

80 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

than Child's hypothesis of metabolic gradients. It has
captured the imagination of the younger generation of
zoologists, and is exercising an increasing influence upon
them."

To understand the theory, it is essential to know some
of the observations which led to its formulation. In anes-
thetizing animals, the head region is always more sus-
ceptible to a retardation of metabolic activity than parts
some distance from it. When an animal is killed by high
concentrations of anesthetics, the head always dies first.
In regeneration experiments, where a flatworm, for ex-
ample, is cut transversely into many pieces, practically
all of the cut pieces, with the exception of the head, will
grow a new head from the anterior end. This shows that
each cut piece had the potentiality of developing one or
more heads, but was prevented, while it was part of the
whole, by the inhibitory and regulative action of the
original head.

From these and many other experiments, scientists
have accepted as a fact that not only are the rate and
the intensity of chemical changes which take place in a
growing, living thing different in different parts of the
body, being greatest in the head region and gradually
becoming less as the distance from the head region be-
comes greater, but that the head region dominates the
rest of the body. That the latter part of this statement
is true is demonstrated by such experiments as the fol-
lowing. A piece of tissue quite foreign to another struc-

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 81

ture, such as a piece of embryonic kidney, is grafted into
muscle tissue or skin tissue, and, under the regulatory
power of the nerve fibers connected with the central
nervous system, with its main seat in the head region,
such tissue becomes like that into which it is grafted. In
the flatworm, Microstomum, as the animal grows older,
the head region loses the dominance it formerly exercised,
and a new brain and eyes form about halfway down the
body. This, nevertheless, is still under regulatory control
of the original head region until it breaks away to become
a new individual. The sway of influence of this regula-
tory control seems to follow the track of the nervous sys-
tem, diminishing with the length of the cords, or distance
from the dominant region. The gradation of the influence
of the "head" on the ''body" according to distance, Child
calls the "metabolic gradient." Therefore, as organisms
with a well-defined individuality are always organized
about one, or at most a few, broad lines or axes, the sup-
position that such metabolic gradients determine the na-
ture of the individual has come to be called the Axial
Gradient Theory. As a corollary, it is stated that as a
central nervous system always forms, if the animal devel-
ops far enough, it is to be concluded that the nervous
system is the final expression, both in arrangement and
in mode of action, of the system of metabolic gradients.
Two factors really should be considered in this theory :
(1) that the head is a more or less independent unity;
and (2) that the control which the head exercises over

82 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

the rate and intensity of metabolism causes the structural
and chemical correlation of the rest of the body. From
these deductions, in turn, two further points should be
noted: (1) that as each part of the lower animals, as well
as the early (embryonic) cells and tissues of higher ani-
mals, have the potentiality of becoming what any other
cell or tissue does become, the growth action of such
parts is always positive; while (2) the head region in its
exercise of an inhibitory, coordinative, and regulative
action is negative. In criticism of the theory, one may
quote G. H. Parker, of Harvard University, who, in lead-
ing the discussion of the subject in 1924, at Toronto,
called attention to the fact that even before Child had
brought forth his evidence for the Axial Gradient Theory,
most biological workers had already observed enough
similar results from their embryological work to agree
with Child on his statements of fact, but that the theory
has given no further information than was already known
about why anything does what it does.

The Metabolic Theory of Sex. Another metabolic the-
ory of note is that commonly called the Goldschmidt
Theory (1923). At the moment there is a dispute between
the followers of Riddle and Goldschmidt as to who has the
prior claim for its promulgation. All biological workers
are familiar with Morgan's work demonstrating that the
so-called sex chromosomes are the determiners of sex.
Morgan's explanation is a qualitative one. Goldschmidt
has devised a quantitative theory, sometimes called the

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 83

"metabolic theory of sex." In this theory, sex is deter-
mined by the rate or level at which metabolism takes
place in the embryo. The theory takes no account of
metabolism as such, but simply of the rate of metabolism.
One may probably best suggest the causes which brought
this theory into existence under the following four heads :
(1) Dr. Riddle, of Cold Spring Harbor, performed a
number of experiments with pigeon eggs some years ago
which well exemplified this metabolic theory. The pigeon
lays two eggs, the first one laid always developing into a
male, while the second develops into a female. Riddle
carefully analyzed the eggs and found that the male-
producing egg not only contained less stored food than
the female-producing egg, but that it also contained more
water and, as a consequence, such eggs had a higher rate
of metabolism and a higher oxydizing capacity than the
female-producing egg. (2) Dr. Whitney performed exper-
iments with a rotifer, Hydratina senta, which animal lays
two kinds of eggs, large ones, which develop partheno-
genetically into females, and small eggs, which develop
parthenogenetically into males. It was observed that
when this rotifer was fed green flagellates, it laid small
eggs, whereas when it was fed colorless flagellates it laid
large eggs. (3) Dr. R. Hertwig had kept eggs of frogs for
quite a time before fertilizing them. They thus became
overfilled with water before fertilization. A predominance
of males resulted. Miss Helen King, of the Wistar Insti-
tute, performed a somewhat similar experiment on the

84 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

eggs of toads. She kept them away from water, however.
These eggs, therefore, contained very little water before
fertilization and a predominance of females resulted from
her experiments. (4) Goldschmidt came to the conclusion
that certain substances in the fertilized ovum produce the
two sexes, and that these substances influence the rate
of metabolism. He calls the substance which produces
maleness Andrase, and that which produces femaleness,
Gynase. Goldschmidt's principal experiments consisted in
crossing German and Japanese races of moths. Sometimes
he got males and sometimes all females. At other times,
he was able to obtain all intermediary stages; this, of
course, refers only to so-called secondary sexual char-
acteristics.

One may summarize the differences between the chro-
mosome theory and the metabolic theory thus:

Chromosome Theory Metabolic Theory

Sex is determined at fertili- Sex is determined at an

zation. early stage in the em-

Sex is fixed. bryo.

Cause of sex lies in the Sex can be modified.

chromosome mechanism. Cause of sex lies in the

metabolic rate.

If I understand Goldschmidt correctly, he holds that
in the fertilized egg, after maturation, determiners are
always present in the chromosomes for both characters,
maleness and femaleness, blackness and whiteness, or
whatever the opposing characters from the two parents

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 85

may be. If, for example, a fertilized egg shows an X
chromosome, which, we know from previous experimen-
tation, causes femaleness, a chromosome bearing the de-
terminer for maleness also is present in that same fertil-
ized egg. He holds this statement to be true even though
that chromosome may not yet have been discovered, and
it is the metabolic struggle between the two which de-
termines the sex as well as all other characteristics of
the individual. If the metabolic rate of the X chromosome
is 100 per cent, then a 100 per cent male will result, while,
if the metabolic rate of the X chromosome is but 90 per
cent, then the metabolic rate of the opposing chromosome
(which we may not yet have discovered) is, of course, 10
per cent, resulting in a creature not 100 per cent male.
Such a creature, although a male, will have some female
characteristics. The theory holds thus, that such varia-
tion in the rate of metabolism may continue to a point
where the rate may approximate a 50-50 level. Since,
however, sex has but two alternatives, one cannot obtain
a perfect 50-50-level individual. In characteristics aside
from sex, such a percentage may be possible. The theory
really seems to explain many of the intersexual stages,
and may furnish an explanation of those characteris-
tics which do not seem to obey the Mendelian law of
dominance.

The Theory of Plasmogeny. A. L. Herrera, of Mexico
(1921), not satisfied with seeking a unity in the realm of
living things, has attempted to find a broader unity un-

86 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

derlying both the organic and inorganic worlds. He be-
lieves life to be "infinite movement." He has succeeded
in making what he calls artificial Amoeba and Colpo-
dia — really tiny oil droplets which, when placed in
other liquid media, simulate amoeboid and colpodic
movements.

But, as Professor Buchanan says, in criticism of all
models from which theories of life are adduced, "Caution
must be observed in accepting theories of the organism
derived from the behavior of models, for in attempting
to isolate a single process in this manner, the controls
and correlations that distinguish the living from the non-
living are lost. Obviously, the value of any theory, de-
rived from the behavior of a model, depends on the ex-
tent of resemblance between the behavior of the non-
living system and the facts and characteristics of the
process of the living organism which it purports to
simulate."^

As every laboratory man well knows, living things are,
in their physical relations, subject to all the physical laws
of nonliving things, so that osmosis, surface tension, tem-
perature, light, heat, and a host of other physical laws
are just as operative on living organisms as they are in
the nonliving world. It would seem, therefore, that Herre-
ra has given us but another example of how we can make
some nonliving substances act quite as though they were
living substances, but are we not here obtaining only
another "How"? The eternal "Why" of living reactions

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 87

is as much in the dark as ever, as is also the philosophical
question of "Why" the laws are what they are.

The Theory of Emergent Evolution. The preceding
theories are the work of laboratory men philosophizing
on their respective experimental findings. Now we come
to the work of a philosopher who attempts to bring order
out of chaos in the laboratory world. Only one who has
spent a lifetime in the study of fundamental problems
confronting man in all its modern aspects, philosophical,
psychological, and biological, and who at the same time
is familiar with laboratory findings, could hope to bring
about a valid synthesis and to work that synthesis out as
a unified whole. C. Lloyd Morgan, encouraged by Huxley
in the problem he had set for himself a half century ago,
has built up his theory of Emergent Evolution in such a
way that it has made converts of the greater part of the
foremost American biologists, and they look to this theory
as the solvent of both mechanistic and vitalistic diffi-
culties.

Beginning with the organism, it was noted that a com-
bination of elements forming such organism not infre-
quently brought forth a totally different set of attributes
at different times under apparently the same external con-
ditions. In other words, something not previously known
to be there had emerged. The newly emerged attribute
was potentially there, of course, but Professor Morgan
(1923) set himself to explain how this emergence occurs.

Two fundamental ideas have been emphasized for a

88 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

long time in biological experimentation: (1) analysis of
the environment, and (2) the study of the physics and
chemistry of the substances of living things. To these we
have now added (3) the physical arrangements of both
gross and minute materials in the organisms. At the mo-
ment, therefore, we find many of our biological leaders
emphasizing not only the arrangement, but the varieties
of arrangement and the grouping of the arrangements in
the organism.

H. S. Jennings has probably written most satisfactorily
on the factors confronting us in attempting explanations,
as well as on some of the more outstanding problems that
biologists are attempting to solve. We here follow his
reasoning though not his wording :^

As the properties of atoms depend upon the arrange-
ment of electrons, that of molecules upon the arrange-
ment of atoms, and that of crystals upon the arrangement
of molecules, a great extension of all these arrangements
is contained in the organism. Here the arrangements
have become quite complex and differentiated, forming
the visible as well as the invisible parts of the whole. As
one passes from one species to another, there is an almost
infinite variety of such arrangements. One might call
some of them "systems of structures," and consequently,
the way an organism responds to a stimulus or an experi-
ment of any kind will depend upon its system of these
diverse arrangements.

From an acceptance of such facts, it follows that a

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 89

knowledge and control of the environmental agents im-
pinging upon such organisms, or a mere understanding of
the physics and chemistry of the separate substances of
which they are composed, can never suffice to bring about
a real understanding of what it all means. "The same
materials, under action of the same agents, respond in
most diverse ways, depending on how the materials are
arranged."

Changes of organization take place when the develop-
ing organism is subjected to special or unusual condi-
tions, such as the growing of a head in place of a tail. One
might expect to find here, then, the secret of biology, as
such changes may take place in the grosser as well as the
more minute details of organization. But such changes
all disappear with the individuals in which they appear.
They are not carried on to their respective offspring. Con-
sequently, these things cannot account for the permanent
differences of systems found among organisms, and it is
just the permanent and hereditary diversities which form
the deepest problem of biology.

Since all organisms are but protoplasmic substances,
why is it that some are different from others ? How, and
according to what rules, have these changes occurred?
What is the environment in a given case, and what effect
does it produce on the organism? What are the physics
and the chemistry of the diverse substances of the organ-
ism? How are the diverse substances arranged? How
combined into systems ? What diversity do these systems,

90 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

in turn, form in the various organisms? How do such
systems then respond diversely to the same environment
and experiment ? How does it happen that organisms are
diverse systems of structures and functions to begin with ?
What are the laws underlying the production of these
diversities? Why is the same diversity of characters pro-
duced in two ways — one by environment and the other
by gene differences?

And above all this there is the mystery, not of a part
or of any one part of the organism, but pervading the
whole — the operation of selective elimination with its
complement — selective persistence.

For "in our experimental material, many diverse com-
binations are formed, diverse chemicals, diverse motions,
diverse genes, diverse systems. Experimental conditions
cause the elimination of some of these ; others persist. At
the end, the material before us has changed. Our experi-
mental agent appears to have worked a transformation ;
in fact, it has worked only an elimination."

Failure to take these facts into account is the cause of
much fruitless speculation and discussion.

"Stock is subjected to given environment. After a few
generations, it is found changed ; the change is inherited
even upon the restoration to the usual environment. Be-
hold! We have discovered the inheritance of acquired
characters. And then selective elimination is found lurk-
ing beneath the surface, and we know not what we have
discovered."

PROVOCATIVE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES 91

We must keep our eyes open eternally for the part
that selective elimination plays in the most fundamental
of biological problems — the formation and transforma-
tion of biological systems — "for here it plays the mas-
ter role."

^Buchanan, J. William, "Some Limitations of Warburg's Theory of the Role
of Iron in Respiration," Science, Sept. 9, 1927, p. 238.

^Jennings, H. S., ''Biology and Experimentation," Science, July 30, 1926,
pp. 97-105.

CHAPTER V

OUTSTANDING BIOLOGICAL WORK AND

WORKERS

In a discussion of the theme National Trends in Biol-
ogy, undertaken in this little volume, it is thought advis-
able to devote the final chapter to a summary along
national lines. This will make the work of each nation
more readily accessible to those who seek an extension
of knowledge regarding the individuals and the work
mentioned.

No attempt has been made to have this list all-inclu-
sive. It serves, however, to present a very fair estimate
of the exceptionally noteworthy biological workers of
the various lands, inasmuch as the names and the workers
are judged important by those of their own lands most
eminently fitted to pass judgment — the ablest and best-
known biological workers themselves, who best know the
value and influence of the work of their own countrymen.

The arrangement of the four divisions. The Americas,
Europe, Asia, and Australia and New Zealand, have
seemed the most logical for the purpose intended.

The Americas
Canada

Canadians consider as the most noteworthy movements
in their country :

The cooperative development by the Canadian univer-
sities of economic fisheries research, including the forma-

92

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 93

tion of the Biological Board of Canada and the establish-
ment of marine laboratories, as well as the research fos-
tered, first in marine, and later in fresh-water biology.

Canadians whose work is stressed are :

1. Frederick G. Banting, and (2) John J. R. MacLeod
for their discovery of insulin, which brought them the
Nobel Prize for medicine in 1923 ;

3. R. Ruggles Gates, who successfully demonstrated
the correlation between chromosome peculiarities and
specific characters ; and

4. Charles Edward Saunders, who worked so success-
fully in developing Marquis wheat, which has proved of
tremendous economic value to Canada.

The United States of America

Here the most noteworthy movements mentioned were :
1. The establishment of an International Health
Board, which draws its funds exclusively from the Rocke-
feller Foundation, and which contributed, in the eleven-
year period of 1913-1923, three and a quarter million dol-
lars to international health work, and had, in 1924, four-
teen expert fieldworkers in South and Central America.
It also supports on a fellowship basis, ten South and Cen-
tral American students of public health in universities
and schools of public health in the United States. The
most sensational result of this cooperative work is ^'the
now almost complete stamping out of yellow fever in the
western hemisphere. It is only a matter of further close

94 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

cooperation during a few years, when this dread disease
which formerly ravaged the peoples of North and Central
and South American tropics and subtropics will no longer
be known to them."

2. The establishment of the National Research Coun-
cil organized in 1916 as a measure of national prepared-
ness, but continued after the war to encourage and pro-
mote research work in the physical and biological sciences,
and to encourage the application and dissemination of
scientific knowledge for the benefit of the nation.

3. The establishment by the California Institute of
Technology of a department for biological investigations
in their relationship to the physical sciences.

4. The publication of Biological Abstracts (beginning
with the literature of 1926) under the auspices of the
Union of American Biological Societies.

The individual workers mentioned are:
L Alexis Carrel, who with (2) Ross G. Harrison, has
done exceptional work in isolating and culturing not
only single cells, but tissues as well, outside the body
in which they normally grow. For Carrel's part in this
work and in the suturing of blood vessels, he was made
Nobel laureate in medicine in 1912.

3. C. M. Child, whose metabolic gradient theory has
proved to be an incentive of importance in embryological
speculation.

4. Jacques Loeb, born a German, but did his great

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 95

work on artificial parthenogenesis in the States.

5. Robert Chambers, whose work on methods of micro-
dissection has been of tremendous importance.

6. L. R. Cleveland, whose work on the partnership of
wood-eating termites with infusorians living in the intes-
tines and which are the intermediary that makes the
ingested food digestible, has thrown new light on a
hitherto unexplained phenomenon.

7. E. G. Conklin, whose work, as shown in his Heredity
and Environment in the Developinent of Men, has had a
great influence.

8. L. O. Howard, whose work on utilizing one pest to
control another, is a modern classic in agriculture.

9. H. S. Jennings, whose investigations on the unicellu-
lar organisms is a pioneer piece of work which has con-
tributed much toward an understanding of their move-
ments and "psychic" reactions.

10. C. A. Kofoid, whose work on the reciprocal influ-
ence of the organism to its environment, is of funda-
mental importance.

11. Thomas Hunt Morgan, who ranks as the foremost
worker on chromosomes and their constituents, genes, in
the world.

12. G. H. Parker, whose work on tropisms is quite
fundamental.

13. William E. Ritter, whose work on the Unity of the
Organism, and his insistence on taking everything con-

96 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

cerning the organism into consideration before coming
to a valid conclusion, has influenced the philosophical
biologists profoundly.

14. Major Walter Reed, who did exceptional work on
the malarial mosquito.

15. William Richards, whose work on the revision of
atomic weights and in physical chemistry brought him
the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1914.

16. Edmund B. Wilson, whose profound researches on
the cell have given us a better understanding of that
biological unit than probably the work of any other single
individual.

17. Robert Yerkes, whose work, together with that of
Mrs. Learned and Professor Kohler, on the intelligence
of apes has made a profound impression.

In the field of speculative biology and biological phi-
losophy, one may gauge the direction of the intellectual
drift by the work of such men as :

Arthur Love joy (for a list of whose books and articles
see Bibliography) ;

Edmund Noble, in his Purposive Evolution (1926).

William E. Ritter's The Unity of the Organism (2
vols., 1919).

H. C. Tracy's Toward the Open (1927).

T. H. Morgan, Critique of the Theory of Evolution
(1916), The Physical Basis of Heredity (1919), and The
Theory of the Gene (1926).

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 97

E. G. Conklin's Heredity and Environment in the De-
velopment oj Men (fifth edition, 1922).

Latin America

In these countries, as well as in the Scandinavian na-
tions, Australia, and New Zealand, geographical influence
is immediately apparent. Great areas, but slightly popu-
lated, with practically all pioneer work still to be done,
such as one finds in Mexico, Central America, Brazil,
Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, Co-
lumbia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, contain so much un-
known, interesting, and valuable material, that the few
scientific expeditions sent to those regions have been able
to present but an infinitesimal glimpse of what may yet
be discovered.

As the tropics and the semitropics have, for the most
part, a luxuriant flora and fauna, with an endless variety
of types and forms, undoubtedly many intermediate hosts
of parasites at present unknown, are to be sought here,
which, in turn, are likely to throw light on many unsolved
present-day health problems.

Then, too, in a country where all men must do pioneer
work of some nature, the first consideration is that of earn-
ing one's daily bread, and if any time remains, then, and
only then, is such time applied toward seeking relief from
immediate suffering ; for, in all new countries, the medical
man is the scientist. Specialization cannot come until later.

98 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

Consequently, one notes in these regions an attempt to
classify plants and animals thus far found and described.
Great emphasis is placed on medicinal plants, and so the
first specialization produces botanists, who, from medici-
nal plants, proceed to the study of agriculture. In the bul-
letins of the respective secretaries of agriculture, one may
learn of what is done in these lands.

On the animal side, the problem of animal breeding and
the veterinarian's work in trying to prevent epidemics
among stock, the raising of which is the principal industry
in some of these countries, looms high. This work, too, is
under the direction of the various departments of agri-
culture and of animal husbandry.

The work on animals that affects the health of man is
seen, for example, at the University of Cordoba, Argen-
tina, where at some seasons of the year as many as 200
people daily apply for antirabies treatment. In the hinter-
land of Brazil, great numbers of venomous insects and
reptiles are a constant source of injury to the populace.
It is but natural, then, that the study of such problems is
considered of preeminent importance. Only a few years
ago, yellow fever was one of the dread scourges which sent
shudders down the spinal cord of most people contem-
plating even a visit to the most beautiful city of all the
Americas, Rio de Janeiro ; while the stories of the endemic
centers of typhoid and various tropical fevers kept
many away.

Now Rio de Janeiro, as well as all other South American
cities where the population is sufficiently dense to afford

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 99

a health department, has overcome its yellow-fever epi-
demics, while the endemic centers of typhoid hold little
terror. Snake bites and bites of poisonous spiders no longer
mean death, and territory that was considered absolutely
impossible for man's habitation has become a growing
center of beauty and even of health.

Outstanding as the most spectacular scientific work in
all Latin America is the snake farm of Dr. Vital Brazil,
founded at Butantan, on the outskirts of Sao Paulo, in
Brazil. All other snake farms of the world, every one of
whose founders were students of Dr. Brazil, drew their
inspiration from this remarkable mother institution.

Here one finds as many as 10,000 snakes at one time,
sent in by inhabitants from all regions of the country.
Payment for the snakes is made with little vials of anti-
venin which means so much in the interior of the country
where snakes are many and physicians few.

In the museum on the farm are specimens of all those
types and forms of reptiles and spiders, together with
models of the lesions formed in man by their respec-
tive bites.

Rio de Janeiro has a great research institution, known
as the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, brought into existence by,
and named after, the man who founded it — Oswaldo
Cruz. To him, not only Rio de Janeiro, but all the tropics
owe an everlasting debt of gratitude for changing yellow
fever from the most-feared and from an ever-recurring
epidemic to an almost unknown disease.

The present director of the Institute is Dr. Carlos Cha-

100 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

gas, the discoverer of the parasite which is the cause of
Chagas Disease, named after its discoverer. This tropical
disease, characterized by enlarged glands, anaemia, and
heretofore by death, is no longer invariably fatal.

Dr. Chagas is a man of tremendous energy, and after
what Northerners have usually thought of the enervating
influence of the tropics, one has but to meet their great
men, to find that, as usual, most popular ideas are 100
per cent wrong.

Another man, part and parcel of the Institute, is Dr.
Adolph Lutz, one of the very few South Americans ever
asked to lecture in North America. He was brought to the
United States by the American Philosophical Society to
speak at their Bicentenary Celebration in 1927. The work
of Dr. Lutz covers a period of a full half century, during
which time he has made thousands of investigations on
tropical parasitic forms of life.

Although the Institute is very large and employs several
hundred men, it can furnish only enough sera for the army
and navy. Private institutions of an industrial nature fur-
nish the balance as needed by the medical profession in its
private practice. Dr. Vital Brazil has founded one of these
industrial institutes in Nictheroy, a suburb of Rio de
Janeiro.

In the typhoid endemic regions, typhoid injections are
given only to those who wish them. As these injections are
not compulsory, and as there should be three injections
with an intervening interval of several days, many who

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 101

have had but one or two injections do not return, especi-
ally if they felt any unpleasant sensations after the first
ones. The Brazilians consequently set to work on a new
method of prevention which would appeal to the popu-
lace. They now are experimenting on a method by which
the patient takes capsules containing the preventive sub-
stance internally. Thus far, the results seem to warrant
the belief that this method will become widely used in
the future.

Malaria, also, is ever present in the tropics and the
semitropics. We are accustomed to think only of the
Anopheles mosquito as carrying the disease, but it is in-
teresting to know that the men working under the auspices
of the Rockefeller Institute in Brazil and in the Argentine,
have found several other species which carry the disease.
They have thus added much to our supposed knowledge
of what we had considered a more or less closed chapter
in medicine.

Other diseases requiring immediate study on account
of their prevalence are tropical splenomegaly, chronic
ulcerative processes of the skin, leprosy, and syphilis.
Hookworm is quite common as is also beriberi, dysentery,
and smallpox.

Buenos Aires (Argentina) has a great Biological Insti-
tute which is a part of the National Health Department.
Here, as in the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the preventive as
well as curative work of disease is undertaken. An idea
of the quantity of work performed, and the rapid growth

102 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

of such institutes can be gauged by the fact that but five
years ago the institute needed only 18,000 units of one
type of serum alone, and that in these five years the
amount necessary to supply the demand has increased
more than thirty times that sum.

At the present time, in the physicochemical laboratories
of the institute, under the direction of Dr. Paul Wernicki,
more than 25,000 units of insulin a year are prepared.

This Argentine Institute also prepares antivenin for
snake and spider bites, but such work is rather subordi-
nate to its other biological effort.

At all of the Argentinian medical schools, research of
various kinds is carried on, the pathway down which the
experimentation follows being determined by local condi-
tions. Rosario is an industrial center, therefore one looks
for investigative work peculiar to an industrial region.
Cordoba is experimenting with new antirabies sera and
finding success, for, as stated before, sometimes two hun-
dred people who have been bitten by dogs, appear at this
institution in a single day.

A little to the North of Cordoba is an inland salt sea,
called Mar Chiquita, which their scientists claim has the
greatest concentration of salt of any sea in the world. A
single insect form is the only living organism ever found
in this lake, whose water is made up of 29 per cent salt.

An Argentine worker of the University of Buenos Aires,
C. Jakob, is known the world over for his massive work
on the nervous system, and Bernardo Houssay of the same

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 103

university, is often mentioned in American scientific
papers.

In Chile, the most important work is considered to be
that of their great biologist, Carlos E. Porter, who, for
sixteen years, patiently worked out the complete life his-
tory of Chile's only venomous spider Latrodectos Formid-
abilis. This work was published in 1902. Dr. Porter's scien-
tific contributions are analyzed and evaluated in Biblio-
grafia Chilena Razonade de Ciencia Naturales. He is the
founder and editor of the most comprehensive biological
journal in South America — Revista Chilena de Historia
Natural.

At the University of Chile, Juan Noe's work in physiol-
ogy is considered of great value. He is an indomitable
worker, while A. Lipschutz, of the new medical school in
Concepcion, and late of the University of Elmland, Rus-
sia, is noted for his work on gland transplantation, and
for his gathering into one volume all the known work in
his field of effort.

In Cuba, the work of Dr. Carlos Finlay foreshadowed
all modern experimentation in yellow fever. Dr. Finlay
and Major Walter Reed are to the study of yellow fever
what Ross and Manson are to the study of malaria.

In Central America, Costa Rica is considered by Science
as the most advanced in the natural sciences, for that
country has brought in various eminent workers of other
lands to start their scientists down the newer scientific
paths, and has not only followed their lead but has shown

104 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

their appreciation by the many public honors rendered
them.

In Mexico the work has again centered around the clas-
sification of food and medicinal plants, and agricultural
effort. Professor A. L. Herrera has, however, developed
what he calls a new biological science, named La Plasmo-
genia. He has been able to simulate living organisms by
a number of oil droplets, and from his findings has at-
tempted to work out a philosophy of life.

Europe
Austria

The Austrians, due to the impetus given through the
rediscovery by Erich Tschermak, together with De Vries
in Holland and Correns in Germany, of the work of their
great countryman Johan Gregor Mendel, did a vast quan-
tity of experimental work in general zoology and physiol-
ogy. Side by side with this experimentation, much research
is done in morphology and in systematic zoology. These
latter efforts were developed especially by various scien-
tific expeditions undertaken for that purpose, as well as
by studies carried on with museum materials.

Further intensive studies were made on the ascertain-
ing of new genera and species formation, and finally there
was a search for new evidence which would substantiate
or falsify the findings set forth in the older literature.

The most important names in biology are :

1. Johan Gregor Mendel, who deserves the title of the

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 105

founder of all our modern ideas regarding genetics and
heredity ;

2. Erich Tschermak, whose rediscovery of Mendel's
discoveries brought forth the great impetus for experi-
mental work in Austria ;

3. Eugen Steinach, whose work on gland transplanta-
tion and rejuvenescence has resulted in a world-wide im-
petus along these paths;

4. R. Barany, who won the Nobel Prize in medicine in
1914 for his work in the physiology and pathology of the
semicircular canals of the ear ;

5. Friederich Pregl, whose work with the ultramicro-
scope and his findings of new microanalytic methods
brought him the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1923.

6. Richard Zsigmondy, who became Nobel laureate in
chemistry in 1925 for his extraordinary work on colloids.

7. Anton Handlirsch, renowned for his great work in
entomological paleontology.

Belgium

The outstanding name in Belgium is that of Jules
Bordet, authority on toxins, whose work on immunity and
sera, and on whooping cough made him Nobel laureate
in medicine in 1919.

British Isles

One of the interesting movements taking place in the
British Isles is the establishment of the Empire Market-

106 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

ing Board in London for the purpose of breeding insect
parasites. These parasites will be shipped to all parts of
the Empire, for agricultural purposes, wherever they may
be needed to destroy noxious insects or plants.

Next, as a world influence, was the delivery of the
Gifford Lectures in 1922, at the University of St. Andrews,
by C. Lloyd Morgan. His theme of Emergent Evolution,
published the following year, has brought forth what
many biologists and philosophers consider a veritable via
media that will solve the problems of Mechanism and
Vitalism alike.

The foremost work and workers are :

1. Hardy and (2) Fischer, who showed that the cyto-
plasm had no visible structures, and that the older reticu-
lar, fibrillar, or other appearances described in detail in
the later years of the nineteenth century, are artifacts due
to fixing and staining. Such appearances can be mimicked
in many other substances, such as the white of an egg,
and the same cell will show different structures depending
on the way it is treated. Yet the t)^ical cell remains a
microorganism with all its structures — nucleus with
chromosomes and linin network, etc., mitochondria, chro-
midia, Golgi apparatus, centrosomes, etc. ;

3. Hopkins and (4) Willcock, whose Amino Acids in
Metabolism (1907) foreshadowed the finding of accessory
food factors which could not be analyzed chemically, and
which led to the discovery of vitamins ;

5. Allen, whose work on the Artificial Culture of Marine

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 107

Plankton Organisms showed that organisms require arti-
ficially, chemically pure solutions to be sensitized by nat-
ural waters before they can live and breed in them ;

6. Wm. Bateson for his studies of variation ;

7. Edward C. C. Baly for his discovery of artificial
photosynthesis ;

8. Elliott Smith for his work on the graduated improve-
ment of the anterior region of the forebrain in a series of
animals from the jumping shrew to man.

9. Sir F. Gowland Hopkins for his discovery of gluta-
thione, an oxygen transporter.

10. D. Keilin for his discovery of the widely distributed
uncolored cell pigment, cytochrome, which is of value as
a controller of oxygen in the cell.

11. E. S. Russell for showing in his The Study of Living
Things (1924) that there is an increasing importance of
mental factors as a vera causa in organic evolution.

12. W. Trotter whose Instincts oj the Herd (1919)
throws light on social biology.

13. Sir Francis Gal ton and (14) Karl Pearson for their
work on statistical biological studies.

And the following Nobel Prize winners whose outstand-
ing work in chemistry and in medicine have a more or
less wide biological application :

In Medicine :

Sir Ronald Ross for his work on malaria (1902) and A.
V. Hill (1922) for his work on muscular reactions.

108 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

In Chemistry:

Sir William Ramsay (1904) for his researches in rare
atmospheric gases ;

Sir Ernest Rutherford (1908) for his work on radio-
active bodies ;

Frederick Soddy (1921) for his work on radioactiv-
ity ; and

Francis Wm. Aston (1922) for his work on spectrother-
apy and on radioactivity.

Czechoslovakia

The traditional work of Czechoslovakia has always been
in the fields of anatomy, physiology, cytology, and plank-
tonology. To this must be added the work of later years
on morphology, in heredity, on hormones, and on the na-
ture of tropisms.

Prague, the oldest university of Central Europe and
the only one in Czechoslovakia up to 1882, was, of course,
under Austrian influence, and has become a German uni-
versity. A real national university was opened in 1882,
and only after the war (1919) was the second national
university, that of Brno opened. The Czechoslovakian
youth, therefore, had to gain their scientific training in
secondary schools.

The great names in biology are :

1. J. E. Purkyne (Purkinje), one of the early workers
whose researches led to the recognition of protoplasm, and
who did a vast amount of work on the nervous system ;

2. Beneden and (3) Boveri, known for their work on

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 109

the centrosphere and for that on the composition of chro-
mosomes; the latter especially for his work on the me-
chanics of cytology;

4. The late A. Mrazek, a renowed parasitologist,
for his work primarily on Cestodes, Trematodes, and
Copepods ;

5. The late Ed. Babak, a renowned physiologist, for his
work primarily on respiration and on internal secretions ;

6. E. Studnicka for his work on histology and cytology ;

7. K. Sulc, who founded the theory of intracellular and
hereditary symbiosis, independently of Pierantoni ;

8. The late A. Fric, because of his work as one of the
founders of limnology ;

9. Wenig, for his work on comparative vertebrate anat-
omy; and

10. V. Janda, for his work in general experimental
zoology ;

11. F. Vejdovsky, for his work on cell cleavage ;

12. Nemec, for his work on starch grains in roots which
showed these to be statocysts ; and

13. Radl, for his history of biological theories.

France

The outstanding movements are:

1. The constant insistence upon the need of developing
the Colonies, and some of the late meetings of the French
Association seem to have been dominated with the idea
that only such biological work is important as will assist
in such development; and

110 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

2. The organization of the new Institute of Physico-
chemical Biology for the purpose of studying the physico-
chemical mechanism of life.

The outstanding workers mentioned are :

1. The botanist Noel Bernard, for his work in the plant
world, which is a sort of counterpart of Cleveland's work
in the animal world. Bernard has shown that the germina-
tion of orchid seeds is closely dependent upon the pres-
ence of a partner fungus.

2. Yves Delage, whose work on artificial partheno-
genesis deserves special mention;

3. Louis Pasteur, although belonging to an older gen-
eration, should always be named because his work and
that of his disciples is so far-reaching and ever new ;

4. Baltzer, for his work which showed that a mere dis-
placement of young males of the green worm Bonellia
viridis would cause them to develop into an intermediary
sex form ;

5. F. d'Herelle, for his discovery of the bacteriophage.

The remaining names are Nobel Prize men, whose dis-
tinctive work is the best criterion of what work French-
men emphasize.

6. Henri Moissan, in chemistry in 1906, for his work
on the elements of fluorine and the introduction of the
electric furnace into scientific technique;

7. Vikto Grignard, in chemistry in 1912, for his work
in organic syntheses ;

8. Paul Sabatier, in chemistry in 1912, for his remark-

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 111

able work in industrial and agricultural chemistry ;

9. Charles Richet, in medicine in 1913, for his work and
researches on serum-therapy and for his discovery of ana-
phylaxis ;

10. C. L. A. Laveran, in medicine in 1907, for his work
on malarial fever and on the haematozoons.

Germany

In Germany, the emphasis seems to have been laid on
the biological problems of ( 1 ) the inheritance of acquired
characteristics, (2) the origin of species, (3) the origin of
mutations, (4) animal psychology, (5) embryology and
regeneration, and lately (6) the problem of vitalism which
has led into psychic research.

Vitalism is regarded as a problem of philosophy, and is
supposed to have been handed over to the philosophers
by the biologists, but from the interest displayed by the
biologists themselves, it is safe to say that the handing
over has not been complete.

It is interesting to note that only the Holland and the
Mexican correspondents were outspoken mechanists, while
the Germans, the Americans, the Canadians, and some
English workers looked to Emergent Evolution as a theory
from which great things may be expected. Not one of
these latter was willing to consider himself an out-and-out
mechanist ; neither did the majority wish to be classified
as out-and-out vitalists.

One of the German correspondents has put it in these

112 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

words : Vitalism is considered very important because "it
is the only biological influence on practical life — that is,
the theory of vitalism — for it not only liberates the mind
from materialism in every respect, but also has a decided
effect on morality — on the conduct of man."
The great names mentioned are :

1. Thienemann who, with his school, did a vast amount
of research, as did Kofoid in the United States, on the
reciprocal influence of the organism to its environment ;

2. William Roux, whose interesting separation of the
growing cells in the newly developing embryo inaugurated
a discussion which formed the impetus for much of our
work in modern experimental embryology ;

3. Hans Driesch, whose really remarkable work in em-
bryology and regeneration brought about the parting of
the ways for the modern schools of mechanism and
vitalism ;

4. F. Alverdes, whose Tier Soziologie is a sequel to
Trotter's Instincts of the Herd in England;

5. D. Keilin, now in England, whose discovery of cyto-
chrome is mentioned under workers in the British Isles ;

6. K. von Frisch, whose explanation of the way honey-
bees let others in the hive know of their discovery of
nectar is of exceptional interest ;

7. R. Goldschmidt, whose metabolic theory of sex de-
termination is of outstanding prominence just now.

And here are other names mentioned: (8) Bern, (9)

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 113

Correns, codiscoverer with De Vries and Tschermak of
the Mendelian papers in 1900; (10) Curt Herbst; (11)
Hans Spemann; (12) Rangold; (13) von Ruddenbrock;
and (14) Jakob von UexkulL

Nobel Prize winners were :

In Chemistry :

E. Fischer (1902) for his work on the synthesis of
sugars and proteins ;

Adolph von Bayer (1905) for his work on the synthe-
sis of indigo ;

Eduard Buchner (1907) for his work on the chemistry
of fermentation;

Wilhelm Ostwald (1909) for his work on catalysis of
chemical reactions engendered by the dissolution of elec-
tric currents;

Otto Wallach (1910) for his work and research in in-
dustrial chemistry of the terpenes and oxalines ;

Richard Willstatter (1915) for his work and researches
on chlorophyll and for his theory of color ;

F. Haber (1918) for his work on the processes involved
in the synthesis of ammonia ;

Walther Nernst (1920) for his work on electromotive
chemistry and thermodynamics.

In Medicine :

E. A. von Behring (1901) for his work in serotherapy
and prophylaxis ;

Robert Koch (1905) for his work on tuberculosis;

114 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

Paul Ehrlich (1908) for his researches on immunity;
Albrecht Kossel (1910) for his work on albuminoid
substances and the derivatives of nucleic acid;

0. Meyerhaff (1922) for his work on the transforma-
tion of energy in muscles.

Holland

The work emphasized by the correspondents from Hol-
land was entirely confined to a mention of De Vries' mu-
tation theory and the results of various scientific expedi-
tions described in :

1. Monographs of the Siboga Expedition; and

2. Nova Guinea; Resultats de Vexped. scientif. Neer-
land, (a la Nouv. Guinee. 1917).

The important workers mentioned were :

1 . De Vries for his book Die Mutationtheorie ;

2. Weber for his Die Saugethiere ; and the two Nobel
Prize men;

3. L. H. van't Hoff, in chemistry in 1901, for his studies
on molecular structures, on solutions, and on salt de-
posits; and

4. Willem Einthoven, in medicine in 1924, for his work
with the electrocardiograph in measuring heart-action
currents.

Italy

Here one finds great emphasis on morphology and some
on endocrinology. Nearly all biological efforts have for
their goal some practical application of immediate na-

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 115

tional or local need. The volume summing up Italian bio-
logical history is entitled:

/ Pr ogres si della Biologia e delle sue Applicazioni prac-
tiche consequiti in Italia nelV ultimo cinquantennio . Rome
{1911).

The great names in Italian biology are:

1. Artrom, for his work on the relationship of the nu-
cleus and the cytoplasm, and for his work on chromosomes
and genetics ;

2. Bruschettini, for his work on diphtheria;

3. Celli, (4) Grassi, and (5) Marchiafava for their work
on the malarial parasite;

6. Cotronei, for his work on the experimental morphol-
ogy of the development of the eye ;

7. Enriques, for his work on the reproduction of pro-
tozoans ;

8. Ghigi, for his work in genetics ;

9. Giacomini, for his work concerning the action of the
thyroid gland on the metamorphosis of Amphibia ;

10. Giardina, for his work on the dorsal cord;

11. C. Golgi, for his work on the anatomy of the nerv-
ous system and his studies on the malarial parasite which
brought him the Nobel Prize in 1906 ;

12. Levi, for his work on tissue culture;

13. Pentimalli and (14) Fichera, for their work on
cancer ;

15. Raffaele, Giacomini, Giardina, and Cotronei for
their work on the mechanism of development;

16. Ruzzini, for his work in embryology and for his

116 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

great book, recently published, entitled Fisiogenia ;
17. Silvestri and Berlese on agricultural entomology.

Poland

Although she did her work in France, Madame Marie
S. Curie (nee Marie Sklodowska) is Polish-born, and was
educated in Warsaw. In 1911 she received the Nobel Prize
in chemistry for her discovery of radium and polonium.
She has two unique distinctions, (1) of being the only
woman to be Nobel laureate in any science, and (2) of
being the only person of either sex who has received the
Nobel Prize in two separate fields of learning — chemistry
and physics.

Russia

It has been as difficult to get any reliable information
about Russian science as it is to get it about Russian
politics, but several names are well known throughout
the scientific world and should be mentioned here.

They are :

1. S. Korschinsky, whose mutation theory is best known
to us through the German items appearing at various times
in European papers. His "Heterogenesis and Evolution"
appeared in Natur Wochenschrijt, Vol. XIV, 1899, and
again "Heterogenesis u. Evolution," in Flora, oder Allg.
Bot. Zeit. Erganzungsbd. 89, 1901.

2. Elie Metchnikoff, whose work on immunity in infec-
tious diseases and the prolongation of life, made him No-
bel laureate in medicine for 1908.

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 117

3. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, whose work as discussed in
his The Work of the Digestive Glands (English Transla-
tion, 1902) and his researches on cerebral activity and the
theory of reflexes brought him the Nobel Prize in medi-
cine for 1904. For a good account of his work see M.
Dontchef-Dezeuse Ulmage et Reflexes Conditionals dans
les Travaux de Pavlov (1914).

4. Serge Voronoff, whose work on gland grafting has
made him, together with Eugen Steinach, one of the out-
standing leaders in this field of research.

5. Besredka and (6) Plotnikow should be mentioned
for their work in what may be termed biological medicine.

Scandinavia
Norway

The Norwegians consider the founding of the series
Neue Studien iiber die Reifung der Geschlechtszellen as
an outstanding movement. This series is probably the most
important of all their biological publications.

The great names of Norway are :

1. K. E. Schreiner and his wife (2) Mrs. A. Schreiner,
for their work on the maturation of germ cells, a work
which definitely settled the question as to the conjuga-
tion and reduction of chromosomes, thus rendering a safe
basis for the modern cytological study of the problems
of heredity.

3. H. H. Gran, whose Das Plankton des Norwegischen
Nordmeeres is without question the very foundation of
modern marine planktonology.

118 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

4. Johan Hjort and Sir John Murray, whose Depths of
the Ocean (London, 1912) is significant because it gives
a very valuable account of the important Michael Sars
Expedition of 1910. A new turning point to marine in-
vestigations was given by this work, primarily because
it introduced a new technique, but mostly by its elaborate
discussions of marine problems and its furnishing a new
point of view for marine questions. Hjort's Fluctuations
in the Great Fisheries of Northern Europe is, however,
probably the more important, because this work has been
the cause of a collaboration and a coordination between
biological theory and practice unthinkable a few years
ago. Hjort makes clear just what effect these fluctuations
have throughout all living organisms. He shows how, by
a biological understanding theoretically worked out, we
obtain an understanding of nature that, in turn, is the real
cause of practical application in all those industries which
have anything to do with the handling, raising, or selling
of either the living things themselves or any products
derived therefrom.

Among the older workers are: (5) Johan Ernst Gun-
nerus; (6) INIichael Sars; (7) Georg Ossian Sars.

Sweden

To Sweden we owe the existence of one of the foremost
international institutions of all the world — that of the
Nobel Institute — which gives to deserving scientific men
not only a substantial prize for exceptional work of an

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 119

international character, but what is of greater worth,
makes such men and their work known to the entire world.
It is, in a measure, comparable with only one other organ-
ization that touches the biological world on many sides —
the Rockefeller Institute of the United States.

Among great Swedish biological workers one finds men-
tion of :

1. Einer Naumann, for his work on the reciprocal in-
fluence of the organism to the environment.

2. Alvar Gullstrand, who received the Nobel Prize in
medicine in 1911, for his work on dioptics;

3. S. A. Arrhenius, and (4) Theodore Svedberg, Nobel
laureates in chemistry, the former in 1903 for his ioniza-
tion hypothesis, and the latter in 1926 for his work in
physical chemistry.

Denmark

The Danes are:

1. N. R. Finsen, whose work in applying violet rays
to therapeutics won him the Nobel Prize in medicine in
1903, and

2. A. Krogh, whose work on capillaries made him Nobel
laureate in medicine in 1920.

Finland

The Finns are represented by:

O. Aschan, who received the Nobel Prize in chemistry
for his work on the chemistry of rubber in 1917.

120 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

Spain

When one thinks of Spain from a scientific point of
view, one name that seems to spring forth instantly is that
of S. Ramon y Cajal, one of the world's great leaders of
histological research, especially as applied to the anatomy
of the nervous system. In fact, the Nobel Prize in
medicine came to him and to Golgi in 1906 for this work.
In a recent letter to the author, Professor Ramon y Cajal
bemoans the fact that while the scientific world reads
English, French, and German, the language of the His-
panic peninsula remains an unknown page to scientists.

And one has but to go over his interesting Recuerdos
de mi Vida, a big book of over 500 pages, to realize that
his reproach is not unmerited. The Brazilians and the
Portuguese have the same reproach, for, while workers
in these countries subscribe to and read our journals, we
know nothing of their work and publications unless some
national figure of other lands discovers, usually by acci-
dent, an outstanding worker in fields whose language is
not among the "big three." It was so even with Ramon
y Cajal. Had it not been for the German, W. Krause,
who was so impressed by the young Spaniard's work
that he called his fellow scientists' attention to it, even
this greatest of living anatomists might have remained
unknown to us.

Ramon y Cajal and his students have done so much
work that the reader must be referred to the book previ-

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 121

ously mentioned, now in its third edition, for the hun-
dreds of important findings there recorded.

Switzerland

Switzerland, bordered by Germany, Austria, France,
and Italy, finds its various regions lying closest to each of
these lands influenced by them. Thus, Switzerland has
really no distinctive contribution to offer. It partakes of
all Europe, so to speak. Nevertheless, this little country
has produced two Nobel laureates :

Theodore Kocher in medicine for 1909, for his re-
searches in the physiology, pathology, and surgery of the
thyroid body, and Alfred Werner in chemistry for 1913,
for his work on valence and on chemical constitution.

Asia
India

As with Spain, so with India, there is one outstanding
biological worker known to all the Western World. He is
Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose, whose work on the so-called
nervous system of plants has laid a foundation for enough
experimentation to keep botanists busy for an entire gen-
eration. All of his experimental results are not only inter-
esting, but they show what really can be done by patiently
working out fine and finer mechanisms with which to
experiment.

His outstanding works are mentioned in the bibli-
ography.

122 NATIONAL TRENDS IN BIOLOGY

Japan

Here there are two names known to the Western World :

1. Hideyo Noguchi, whose work has been done mostly
in the United States. He is known for his researches on
snake venoms; for a new method of obtaining pure vac-
cine for smallpox ; for working out a pure cultivation of
s)qDhilitic organisms ; for his microscopic work in infantile
paralysis; for his proving that treponema pallidum is
present in the brain in general paresis as well as in the
spinal cord in locomotor ataxia, and finally, for the intro-
duction of a skin test for syphilis.

For an account of his work see S. Paget's "Noguchi 's
Researches in Infective Diseases," Science, Nov. 21, 1913.

2. Shibasaburo Kitasato, one of Japan's most eminent
bacteriologists, discovered the cause of the bubonic plague
in 1894 and the dysentery bacillus in 1898.

Australia and New Zealand

From this region come two of the best-known biologists
in the English-speaking world, whose great A Text Book
of Zoology has passed through three editions and is still
a standard work of reference. They are William A. Has-
well, of the University of Sydney in Australia, and T.
Jeffery Parker, of the University of Otago, New Zealand.

In this far-off region where there is little opportunity
of intellectual intercourse with the center of scientific
work, each worker is kept busy with teaching and ad-

OUTSTANDING WORK AND WORKERS 123

ministrative duties. Nevertheless, great things have come
from these overworked men.

The work has been mostly along morphological and
systematic lines.

Their best-known biologists, in addition to those just
mentioned are : Leonard Cockayne, whose work has shown
that many New Zealand plants are not species but hy-
brids. This type of work was inspired by the Dutch
botanist Lotsy's visit to New Zealand a few years back.

Then there is Chilton's work on Crustacea, Benham's
on Annelida, Tillyard and Nelson on insects in general,
Philpot on Lepidoptera, and finally W. E. Agar on
Cytology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agar, W. E., Cytology, 1920, The Macmillan Co., New York City.
Aldrich, J. M., "The Limitations of Taxonomy," April 22, 1927,

Science, New York City.
Armstrong, E. F,, Chemistry in the Twentieth Century, 2nd Edition,

1924, London, England.
Barry, Frederick, Scientific Habit of Thought, 1927, Columbia Uni-
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INDICES
Index Biologorum. List of investigators, laboratories and periodi-
cals. Berlin.

Biological Abstracts. A comprehensive Abstracting and Indexing
Journal of the World's Literature in Theoretical and Applied Biol-
ogy, exclusive of CUnical Medicine. Published under the Auspices
of the Union of American Biological Societies. Philadelphia.
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pedia of formulae in the various laboratory sciences and indis-
pensible for all research workers.

INDEX

Subjects

Acquired characteristics, 51, 111

Agriculture, 38

Albuminoid substances, 114

Algeria, 26

America, Central, 103

American College of Surgeons, 1

Americas, The, 92

Ancestors, primitive, 53

Amino acids in metabolism, 106

Anaphylaxis, 111

Andrase, 84

Anglo-Saxon vs. Gallic genius,

57, 64, 71
Animal psychology. 111
Antirabies sera, 102
Apathy, 14
Asia, 121

Australia, 26, 122
Austria, 16, 30, 104
Axial gradient theory, 72, 79
Bacteriophage, 42, 110
Balkan, Peninsula, xi
Belgium, 105
Biochemistry, 39
Biological, abstracts, 21, 94;

medicine, 117; statistics, 107;

success, 14; theories, 109;

workers, 92
Biology, importance of, 43 ;

social, 107
Boer War, 41

Brazilians, 101, 120

Breeding better plants and
animals, 49

British Isles, 105

Brno, University of, 108

Bubonic plague, 122

Buenos Aires, 101

Butantan, 99

California Institute of Technol-
ogy, 94

Canada, 24, 25, 92, 111

Cancer, 45, 115

Capillaries, work on, 119

Catalysis, 113

Categories, biological, 35

Cave man, 53

Cell, cleavage, 109; doctrine, 22;
structure, 106; study, object of,
1 1 ; theory, 73

Central Europe, 24

Choetopterus, 73

Chagas disease, 100

Chemical integration, 40; phys-
ical explanations, 34

Chemistry, 108, 110, 113, 116,
119

Chile, 103 ; University of, 103

China, xi, 27

Chlorophyll, 113

Chromosomes, 35, 36; conjuga-
tion and reduction of, 117

147

148

INDEX

Clinica, La, xi

Color, theory of, 113

Comparative anatomy, 109

Concepcion, University of, 103

Conditional reflex, 117

Congo, The, 26

Conjugation and reduction of
chromosomes, 117

Constantin, 26

Cordoba, 102; University of, vii,
1, 98

Costa Rica, 103

Criminality, 45

Criticism a generation behind
publication, 57

Crop increase, 49

Cross section of biological
thought, 48

Cruz, Oswaldo Instituto, 99

Cuba, 103

Cytochrome, 40, 107

Cytology, 36 ; mechanics of, 109

Cytomorphosis, 22

Cytoplasm, 106, 115

Czechoslovakia, 108

Darwinism, 53

Death, development of, 22

Denmark, 119

Development, mechanism of, 115

Digestive glands, 117

Diphtheria, 41, 115

Disease, 45

Dog experiment with parotid
gland, 10

Downfall of prehistoric Amer-
ican civilization, 7

Dysentery bacillus, 122

Eel, 38

Egypt, xi

Electrocardiograph, 114
Electromotive chemistry, 113
Embryology, 115; experimental,

32
Emergent evolution, 53, 72, 87,

106, 111
Empire Marketing Board, 105
Entomology, 25, 46, 116
Environment, 45, 46; vs. hered-
ity, 45, 52
Epidemics and war, 6
Europe, 104
Evolution, 65, 116; emergent, 72,

87, 106, 111; mechanistic, 53;

mental factors in, 107 ; organic,

51 ; purposive, 96
Explanations and interpretations,

48
Eye development, 115
Facts and findings, 20
Fads and fancies, 44
Fermentation, 113
Fifth Estate, 16
Finland, 119

Fisheries, 50, 118; research, 25
Fluorine, 110

Food, deficiency, 13 ; excess, 13
France, 109
French scientists, 26
Friendship, scholarship of, 65
Fruit fly, birthday of, 35
Gallic vs. Anglo-Saxon genius,

57, 64, 71
Genes, 35, 36
Genetics, 27, 45, 115; applied, 49

INDEX

149

Geographical aspects of biology,
24, 26

Germany, 16, 24, 30, 111

Gland grafting, 117

Glutathione, 107

Great Britain, 26

Guinea, 26

Gynase, 84

Haematozoons, 111

Heart-action currents, 114

Herd instincts, 107, 112

Heredity, 13, 46; vs. environ-
ment, 45, 52

Heterogenesis and evolution, 116

Historian vs. philosopher, 2

Holland, 30, 111, 114

Honesty of scientific men, 55

Hormone, deficiency, 13 ; excess,
13

Human biology, SO

Immigration affected by biology,
45

Immortality, 22

Immunity, 114, 116

Impetus of experimentation, 44

India, 121

Indo-China, 26

Infantile paralysis, 122

Infection, 13

Insect control, 49

Instincts of the herd, 107, 112

Institute of Physicochemical Bio-
logy, 110

Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 99

Insulin, 42

Insurance investigation of
shortening of life, 12

Ionization hypothesis, 119

Italy, 114

Japan, 26, 122

Labor vs. intelligence, 15

La Clinica, xi

Latin America, 7, 97

Life, notion of, 22; nature of, 45

Limiting science, 70

Malaria, 40, 101, 107, 111, 115

Manias, biological, 24

Mar Chiquita, 102

Marquis wheat, 25

Materialism, 112

Mechanism, 64; vs. vitalism,
62, 66

Mechanistic evolution, 53 ; ex-
planation, 44

Medicine, 49, 107, 113, 117

Mendel's hypothesis, 31

Mental factors in evolution, 107

Metabolic gradient, 72 ; theory
of sex, 72, 82, 112

Metabolism, amino acids in, 39,
106

Metamorphosis of Amphibia, 115

Mexico, 104, 111

Microstomum, 81

Minerva's list of universities, xi

Modern problems of biolog}% 22

Molecular structures, 114

Morocco, 26

Mosaic theory of development, 73

Motive vs. obligation, 64

Mutation theory, 30, 114; origin
of, 111

National Research Council, 94

Negative side of biology, 51

ISO

INDEX

Nervous system, 115; of plants,

121
New Zealand, 122
Nobel Institute, 118
Norway, 24, 117
Nova Guinea, 114
Nucleic acid, derivatives of, 114
Object of science, 3
Obligation vs. motive, 64
Ocean depths, 118
Order of importance, 54
Organic syntheses, 110
Organisationcentrum theory, 72,

77
Organismal theory, 72
Organism, unity of, 74
Origin of species. 111
Otago, University of, 122
Outstanding biological workers,

92
Oxalines, 113
Parasitology, 49

Parthenogenesis, artificial, 37, 110
Philippines, xi
Philosophical progress, 54
Philosopher vs. historian, 2
Philosophy, 46; and modern

scientific thought, 59
Photographer vs. scientist, 4
Photosynthesis, artificial, 40, 107
Physical apathy, 14; trauma, 13
Physics, 34, 116
Physiology, 52
Plankton, 39, 106, 117
Plant control, 49
Plasmogeny, 12, 85
Poison, 13

Poland, 116

Portuguese, 120

Pragmatism, 60

Prague, University of, lOS

Preventive medicine, 40

Pribilof Islands, 26

Primitive ancestors, 53

Probity, intellectual, 55

Progress, philosophical, 54 ; scien-
tific, 16

Prophylaxis, 113

Protoplasm, 45, 108

Protozoan reproduction, 115

Provocative theories, 72

Pseudoresearch, 18

Psychic, apathy, 14; trauma, 14

Psychology, animal, 111; com-
parative, 38

Psychological reactions of bio-
logists, 23

Purposive evolution, 96

Quarterly Review of Biology, xi

Questions asked of world's bio-
logists, viii

Racial psychology, 57

Radioactivity, 108

Reduction of chromosomes, 117

Reifung der Geschlechtszellen,
117

Revolutions, 28

Rockefeller Institute, 101, 119

Rosario, 102

Roux's experiment, 32

Rubber, chemistry of, 119

Russia, 16, 17, 26, 116

Salt deposits, 114

Sao Paulo, 99

INDEX

151

Scandinavia, 24, 117

Science, definition of, 3 ; influence
of on philosophy, 59; in our
day but not of it, 55 ; limita-
tion of, 70; object of, 3

Scientific laws always negative,
58; progress, 16

Seals, 26

Selective elimination, 90

Senegal-Niger, 26

Serotherapy, 111, 113

Sex, determination of, 22 ; meta-
bolic theory of, 72, 82, 112

Siboga Expedition, 114

Slavery, 29

Snake farm, 99

Social biology, 107

Social Psychology, Journal of, xi

South Africa, xi

Spain, 27, 120

Spectrotherapy, 108

Splenomegaly, 101

Statistics, biological, 107

Statocysts, 109

Success to a biologist, 14

Surgeons, American College of, 1

Sweden, 118

Switzerland, 121

Sydney, University of, 122

Syphilis, 122

Symbiosis, 109

Synthesis of ammonia, 113; of
indigo, 113; of sugars and
proteins, 113; organic, 110

Technique, scientific, 110

Terpenes, 113

Theories, axial gradient, 72, 79;
biological, 109; color, 113;
emergent evolution, 72, 87 ;
metabolic gradient, 72 ; meta-
bohc, of sex, 72, 112; mosaic,
of development, 73; mutation,
114; organismal, 72; organisa-
tioncentrum, 72, 77; plasmo-
geny, 72

Thermodynamics, 113

Thyroid gland reaction, 115, 121

Tissue culture, 115

Transformation of energy, 114

Treponema pallidum, 122

Tropisms, 37

Tuberculosis, 113

Tunis, 26

Typhoid fever, 7, 41 ; injections,
100

United States, 26, 27, 62, 93

Variations and modifications, 51

Violet rays, 119

\'italism vs. mechanism, 62, 66,
112

Vitamins, 39, 50

Viruses, filterable, 45

Votes and science, 62

War, biology of, 64

Western Front, 41

Whistle experiment on dog, 10

Wrong use of science, 17

Yellow fever, 6, 41

152

INDEX

Proper Names

Agar, W. E., 123
Aldrich, J. M., 57, 71
Alexander the Great, 55
Allen, Dr., 39, 106
Alverdes, F., 112
Aristotle, 74
Arrhenius, S. A., 119
Artrom, Dr., 115
Aschan, O., 119
Aston, Francis Wm., 108

Babak, Ed., 109

Bagehot, Walter, 15

Baltzer, Dr., 37, 110

Baly, Edward C. C, 40, 107

Balzac, 63

Banting, Frederick G., 42, 93

Barany, R., 105

Barker, Lewellys, 18

Bateson, Wm., 107

Bayer, Adolph von, 113

Beach, Frederick E., 58, 71

Behring, E. A. von, 113

Beneden, E. van, 108

Benham, Prof., 123

Bensley, B. A., 51

Berlese, Dr., 116

Bern, Dr., 112

Bernard, Noel, 110

Besredka, Dr., 8, 117

Bichat, Marie Frangois X, 72

Bordet, Jules, 105

Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder, 121

Boveri, Theodore, 36, 108

Brazil, Vital, 99, 100
Brieger, Prof., 8
Broch, Hjalmar, 24
Bruschettini, Prof., 8, 115
Buchanan, J. William, 86, 91
Buchner, Eduard, 113

Csesar, 56

Cajal, S. Ramon y, 28, 120

Carrel, Alexis, 37, 94

Celli, Dr., 115

Chagas, Carlos, 99, 100

Chambers, Robert, 38, 95

Chantemesse, Prof., 8

Chasles, M. Michel, 56

ChUd, C. M., 76, 94

Chilton, Prof., 123

Cid, The, 56

Cleopatra, 56

Cleveland, L. R., 95, 110

Cockayne, Leonard, 123

Cockrell, T. D. A., 17, 19, 63, 71

Columbus, Christopher, 62

Conklin, E. G., 51, 95, 97

Coolidge, President, 16

Cooper, Duff, 71

Correns, Carl, 30, 113

Cortonei, Dr., 115

Cromwell, 27

Cruz, Oswaldo, 41

Curie, Marie, 116

d'Herrelle, F., 42, 110
Darbishire, A. D., 9, 19

INDEX

153

De Vries, Hugo, 30, 104, 113, 114
Delage, Yves, 37, 110
Dewey, John, 60, 61
Dontchef-Dezeuse, M., 117
Driesch, Hans, Z2, 33, 112

Eberth, Carl Joseph, 8
Ehrlich, Paul, 113
Einthoven, Willem, 114
Enrigues, Dr., IIS

Fichera, Dr., 115
Finlay, Carlos, 41, 103
Fmsen, N. R., 119
Fischer, E., 106, 113
Fisk, Eugene Lyman, 19
Fric, A., 109
Frisch, F. von, 112

Gaffky, George, 8

Galileo, 56

Galton, Sir Francis, 107

Gamble, F. W., 79

Gardiner, G. Stanley, 27, 50

Gates, R. Ruggles, 93

Gerhard, Wm., 7

Ghigi, Dr., 115

Giacomini, Dr., 115

Giardina, Dr., 115

Goethe, 52

Goldschmidt, R., 82, 112

Golgi, C, 115

Gran, H. H., 117

Grassi, Dr., 115

Grignard, Vikto, 110

Gullstrand, Alvar, 119

Gunnerus, Johan Ernst, 25, 118

Haber, F., 113

Haffkine, Dr., 9

Handhrsch, Anton, 105

Hardy, Dr., 106

Harrison, Ross G., 37, 94

Haswell, William A., 22

Herbst, Curt, 113

Hertwig, R., 83

Herrera, A. L., 85, 104

Hill, A. v., 107

Hjort, Johan, 118

Hoff, L. H. van't, 114

Hopkins, Sir F. Gowland, 29,

106, 107
Houssay, Bernardo, 102
Howard, L. 0., 39, 95
Huxham, Dr., 7

Jakob, C, 102

James, Wm., 60

Janda, V., 109

Jennings, H. S., 37, 52, 88, 91, 95

Joseph of Egypt, 15

Keilin, D., 40, 107, 112
Kellogg, Vernon L., 26, 47, 63, 71
King, Helen, 83
Kitasato, Shifasabur, 8, 122
Koch, Robert, 113
Kocher, Theodore, 121
Koford, C. A., 95, 112
Kohler, Prof., 96
Kolle, Dr., 8
Korschminsky, S., 116
Kossel, Albrecht, 114
Krause, W., 120
Krogh, A., 119

154

INDEX

Lacroix, Alfred, 26

Lamartine, 2

Langley, Prof., 16

Laveran, C. L. A., Ill

Lavoisier, 16

Lazarus, 56

Le Blanc, Dr., 16

Learned, Mrs., 96

Levi, Dr., 115

Lewes, G. H., 75

Li Hung Chang, 14

Lillie, F. R., 73

Lipschutz, A., 103

Little, Arthur D., Dr., 15, 19

Locy, Wm. A., vii

Loeb, Jagues, 37, 73, 94

Lotsy, Prof., 123

Louis XIV, 56

Lovejoy, Arthur, 53, 96

Luke, Saint, 56

Lutz, Adolph, 100

Mac Leod, John J. R., 93

McClung, C. E., 19, 55, 71

Manson, Sir Patrick, 103

Marchiafava, Prof., 115

Martin, Franklin H., 1

Mary Magdalen, 56

Mendel, Johan Gregor, 27, 31,

104
Metcalf, Prof., 57
Metchnikoff, Prof., 8, 116
Meyerhoff, O., 114
Minot, C. S., 22, 47
Moissan, Henri, 110
Morgan, C. Lloyd, 53, 75, 87, 106

Morgan, Thos. Hunt, 27, 36, 47,

52, 82, 95, 96
Mrazek, A., 109
Mueller, Johannes, 21
Murray, Sir John, IIS

Napoleon, 27
Naumann, Einer, 119
Nelson, Prof., 123
Nemec, Prof., 109
Nernst, Walther, 113
Newton, 56
Nikolai, Prof., 64
Noble, Edmund, 53, 96
Noe, Juan, 103
Noguchi, Hideyo, 122

Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 53
Ostwald, Wilhelm, 113

Paget, S., 122

Parker, G. H., 38, 50, 82, 95
Parker, T. Jeffery, 122
Pascal, 56

Pasteur, Louis, 9, 110
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 117
Peabody, F. W., 56, 71
Pearson, E. L., 71
Pearson, Karl, 107
Pentimalli, Dr., 115
Peter, Saint, 56
Pfeiffer, Dr., 8
Philpot, Prof., 123
Pierantoni, Dr.. 109
Plato, 56
Pliny, 56

INDEX

155

Plotinkow, Prof., 17, 117
Poincaire, Prof., 57, 64
Pompey, 56
Porter, Carlos E., 103
Pregl, Friederich, 3S, 105
Priestley, 16
Pritchett, Dr., 18
Purkinje, J. E., 108
Purkyne, J. E., 108

Rabelais, 56

Radl, Prof., 109

Raffaele, Dr., 115

Ramon y Cajal, (See Cajal)

Ramsay, Sir William, 108

Rangold, Dr., 113

Reed, Major Walter, 41, 96, 103

Richards, William, 96

Richet, Charles, 111

Riddle, Dr., 82, 83

Ritter, William E., 47, 52, 53,

63, 71, 73, 74, 95, 96
Ross, Sir Ronald, 103, 107
Roux, WiUiam, 27, 32, 112
Ruddenbrock, Prof., von, 113
Russell, E. S., 107
Rutherford, Sir Ernest, 108
Ruzzini, Dr., 115
Sabatier, Paul, 110
Sars, Georg Ossian, 25, 118
Sars, Michael, 25, 118
Sappho, 56

Saunders, Charles Edward, 25, 93
Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, 72
Schreiner, K. E., 117
Schreiner, Mrs., A., 117

Schwann, Theodore, 72
Schwegler, Prof., 64
Scripps, E. W., 29
Shakespeare, 56
Silvestie, Dr., 116
Sklodowska, Marie Curie, 116
Slye, Maud, 42
Smith, Elliott, 107
Smith, Stephen, 11, 19
Soddy, Frederick, 108
Spemann, Hans, 77, 78, 113
Spencer, Herfut, 59
Steinach, Eugen, 105, 117
Studnicka, E., 109
Sulc, K., 109
Svedberg, Theodore, 119

Thienemann, Prof., 112
Thomson, J. Arthur, 34, 39, 47
Tillyard, Prof., 123
Torrey, H. B., 58, 71
Tracy, H. C, 96
Trotter, W., 107

Tschermak, Erich, 30, 104, 105,
113

Uexkull, Jacob von, 113

Vejdovsky, F., t09

Virgil, 56

Voronoff, Serge, 26, 117

Wallach, Otto, 113
Wassermann, Prof., 8
Weber, Prof., 114
Weismann, Prof., 27

156

INDEX

Wenig, Prof., 109
Werner, Alfred, 121
Wernicki, Paul, 102
Wheeler, W. M., 52, 53
Whitehead, A. N., 75
Whitman, C. O., 73
Whitney, Dr., 83
Widal, Prof., 8
Willcock, Dr., 39, 106
William II, 7

Willstatter, Richard, 113

Wilson, Edmund B., 27, 73, 76,i

96 !

Wright, Sir Ahnroth, 8 j
Wundt, Wm., 10

Yerkes, Robert, 96 i

!

Zsigmondy, Richard, 105 i

To Those Interested in

The Progress of Biology

Investigatory and Didactic

We submit the following Record for the 1928
period:

The Achievement

The beginning of this school year (the fifth
after publication) was marked by an increase of
more than 33% per cent new adoptions of
Menges GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL
BIOLOGY, bringing this standard text for col-
leges and universities into its third edition and
its fourth printing.

More than 100 colleges and universities, lo-
cated in 34 different states, have now adopted
this text for classroom use, ranging from Johns
Hopkins University in the East to North Pacific
College in the West.

The Committee of Biologists appointed by a
foreign nation to make a study of the world's
biology texts for secondary schools, has just
chosen Menges THE LAWS OF LIVING
THINGS as the most perfect example of what
a high-school textbook on that subject should be.
The book is now being translated into Spanish
by order of the Minister of Public Instruction.
It will be printed officially by the Government
and immediately becomes the National textbook
on biology for secondary schools of that nation.

The author's SURVEY OF NATIONAL
TRENDS IN BIOLOGY has just been com-
pleted and is ready for publication. In this sur-
vey Dr. Menge was assisted by many of the best-
known biologists of seventeen foreign lands.

The three fundamental, as well as original,
works here mentioned brought the author the
appointment to the first International Guest-
Lectureship ever extended by the National Uni-
versities and the Learned Societies of the great
nations of South America, to a North American
biologist. The same works also brought him
membership in various distinguished foreign sci-
entific societies.

The Report of Eminent Men on the
Above Work

The foremost leaders in seven fields of science
— Biology, Embryology, Comparative Anatomy,
Neurology, Medicine, and even Etymology —
have written personal letters to the author or
publishers, or have written long and glowing
commendations in the leading scientific journals
of four continents, regarding the originality,
worth, comprehensiveness, and clarity of the
books mentioned above. Among such men we
find the world's greatest biologist, Hugo De
Vries ; the world's greatest histologist and neurol-
ogist, Ramon y Cajal ; our own beloved William
A. Locy, and a host of others.

Immediately after its publication, the Official
Organ of the Surgeon General of the United
States, devoted more than four full pages to
commending Dr. Menge's work, classifying his
GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL BIOLOGY
as a pioneer work in "that it marked a new de-
parture in the teaching of biology" and recom-
mending it "for wide acceptance as a textbook
in high schools, colleges, and pre-medical schools."

The Suggested Explanation
The author, Edward J. Menge, Ph.D., Sc.D.,
Director of the Department of Animal Biology
in Marquette University, had, before beginning

his work as a writer of successful textbooks,
made a first-hand investigation of biological
work and teaching in the leading universities of
the United States and thirteen foreign lands,
thus gaining an educational and cultural back-
ground that few American scientists possess.

He is both a trained biologist and a trained
psychologist, thus understanding not only the
problems to be presented but the presentation
as well.

He has taken all laboratory courses offered in
the regular medical course of American schools
of medicine, thus understanding, particularly, the
needs and problems of the medical and dental
student.

He has worked out a consistent terminology
in General Biology and Physiology not only in
the High-School Course, but in General Biology,
Embryology, and Comparative Anatomy for the
College Course as well. An example of the com-
prehensiveness of the text can be suggested by
noting that although medical writers use some
ten different names for the "chondriosome," alone,
for instance, the student need but to refer to the
index under any one of these to learn immedi-
ately that ail pertain to the selfsame factor.

He is the only American biologist who has
written three accepted texts (though bound in
two volumes) in three sciences — General Biology,
Embryology, and Comparative Anatomy.

The Standard of Comparison
If the VALUE of a college textbook is deter-
mined by those most capable of passing judgment
thereon — the heads of departments in charge of
the particular subject — in our colleges and uni-
versities :

If the JUDGMENT of such men is expressed

only after careful study and comparison with
other books in the same field, as to content, com-
pleteness, originality, clarity, and "teachability" :

If the DECISION reached from such study
and comparison is shown by the number of adop-
tions for class use which follow:

And ....

If the CORRECTNESS of that decision is
demonstrated by the continued use and a yearly
increase in new adoptions:

Then, from the Record just given, the conclu-
sion follows that

Menge's

GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL

BIOLOGY

is at this moment, the most OUTSTANDING

College Textbook in the English Language ;

And if a textbook for Secondary Schools is
chosen through Competitive Selection by a Com-
mittee of distinguished foreign scholars and edu-
cators as being best for the purpose for which it
was written, then the conclusion follows that

Menge's
THE LAWS OF LIVING THINGS
is, at this moment, the OUTSTANDING High-
School textbook on Biology in any language.

GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL BIOLOGY

Volume I, (General Biology) Atho-leather, 484 pages,
6% by 9% Price $3.S0

Volume II, (Introductory Embryology and Compara-
tive Anatomy) Atho-leather, 498 pages,
6Va by PJ4 Pnce $4.00

THE LAWS OF LIVING THINGS
Cloth, 530 pages, 5^2 by 8 Price $1.72

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