Sustainable Use for Global, National and Community Benefit: An Analysis of Utilisation and Biodiversity Conservation EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A project funded under the Darwin Initiative compiled by Timothy M. Swanson and J. Carlos Fernandez U. Faculty of Economics and Poiitics, Cambridge University and Richard A. Luxmoore World Conservation Monitoring Centre December 1995 WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE A|N a } fy L168 The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, provides information services on the conservation and sustainable use of species and ecosystems and supports others in the development of their own information systems. Sustainable Use for Global, National and Community Benefit: An Analysis of Utilisation and Biodiversity Conservation EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A project funded under the Darwin Initiative compiled by Timothy M. Swanson and J. Carlos Fernandez U. Faculty of Economics and Politics, Cambridge University and Richard A. Luxmoore World Conservation Monitoring Centre December 1995 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge htto://www.archive.org/details/sustainableusefo95swan Abstract This document summarises the principles for the implementation of sustainable wildlife use at the global level for the purpose of securing maximum conservation and development benefits at the local level. It is based upon a series of case studies conducted for the purpose of analysing the meaning of sustainable use. These case studies are summarised within the document for the purpose of illustrating the basic principles of a sustainable use regime. The conclusion states that there is a need for a certification mechanism that certifies sustainability and engenders exclusive purchasing arrangements between certified producers and conservation-minded consumers. It is recommended that this mechanism be created at the multilateral level in order to induce the substantial investments required for its success and in order to make exclusive purchasing a legal obligation. | Acme as | ! *. —— 1 TTA ae tas apse ney dyer thehrets' jag tlh 1 aniahintiy ake wear arents ee hema + pia lg eas bores AN ey foul. ne) Lopieervare ae ad my wala une wy favel A “ra PTaley A ‘ing bis pntou etuie 89) 40, aT Rex bait ahh, saat iageded ont Vive he Diwan ie yes ea (eres wal’ meas thentveatcioe ‘ tsk ate fi AHN au Mdina tet bee Id eR NY Stak wat trite Te sunapsung alls Palio: Toit pootonat on csokiaeal ind a 00 hei em ME Moe | aativ'yy iis AHIR HA nh 5p ulatPatag ial ce Fas Gg At asia my rite ef habitats HT i ApineRe9 eis Witty sigh rete : F wh NED. pretreat teeth presi art sortie woh wi bod faa 4 th) Den Bis aint fk a ci ce ceaemmncihel Hibizt, as qe Introduction Biodiversity is under threat from a number of distinct sources: over-exploitation, introduction of exotic species, habitat conversion and environmental pollution. At base, however, the problem of loss of biodiversity lies with the developmental process and the pressures that this places for social change and consequently land use and general environmental change. Species have adapted to one set of conditions and humans are reshaping the environment in ways that upset this equilibrium. Out of such conflicts come projections of global change and possible mass extinctions. The use of wildlife must be seen within the context of this fundamental conflict between human development and the conservation of biological diversity. All of the values of wildlife must be recognised and realised if it is to find its rightful position in relation to human development. This study focuses primarily on the use values of widlife . The non-use values may be equally large or, in some cases, greater, but they are difficult to quantify and mechanisms for capturing them are poorly developed. Until they have been, use values will form the bulk of market values of wildlife. The sad fact is that the future of all wildlife is now an economic question, simply because economics is defined as the study of the human allocation of resources between competing objectives. Species now have their future determined by decisions on resource allocation made by human societies, if not directly, then concerning the conservation of a habitat or its protection from pollution. Human societies have many competing objectives (health, education, recreation) and wildlife will have to compete with these for its allocation of resources. It will be the aggregate value of wildlife that will ultimately determine its allocation of resources, and hence its continued existence. This document outlines the conditions that are required to channel wildlife values, and especially use values, into constructive forces. This is a difficult task, as the history of wildlife use attests; however, there is no alternative. In this document, the basic principles of sustainable use are outlined in the context of several case studies. These principles point to the importance of the development of a sustainable use certification mechanism, which is described further in the concluding recommendation. There are good reasons for developing this mechanism at the multilateral level in order to make its recognition and enforcement a legal obligation. aye - w wilbal be Tremmiint ‘ CQ we eR TEND Jo sims Wee sare) HP een ans ¥ are iv ec a ret at) dere, ee nL Asi gall ieraiat: ravi Line neereiea inn, hea heme ah faa NG a8) sea tact mi act Ryd peo Ladiesanitgedyes! at iat ie ea Sait at asl py Siti adiaegeays yi ight falsity ees Sanyo hares dsruet it? trainee Neem Miho rt AeGs Abt dicateiiachecdy A odhp Tries: ot quite he On wn Paes cepacia ety ssa Poth ye Cippabe aq ’eos Hie pi oe ‘reine A mF peline a ‘tipo. hah ay ‘a bias silt ities Novieg 4 sith: ‘ 0 ra. ATER eM Poe St 1) Bly iW iui iheaSietnt. Fe nega renin OD ih gh, COG vicettingie) spotless AM Say fies. 2% fooseetas agit gts fate Sune Seber NTF, satel Ley Seals ns Sa) co gi ui eh Or anen Lesko b ait Viaihbisy 1 the item eh iad i Hewat ithe mrBbaes: set ee cena aif ya hasty. tered i hat a A sutton tte 5 Sault nu ee piles ip A. The Need for the Development of Wildlife Resources 1. Local communities make the decisions on land uses that will determine the natural resources with which they live. 2. Successful wildlife conservation policies are necessarily based in the sustainable development of the local communities down pathways that are compatible with the resources with which they live. 3. Policies based on the prohibition of all use are unlikely to provide for the long term viability of a species. The case study of the different Monarch Butterfly reserves illustrates the first two points. In each case, the reserve was primarily designated to conserve the butterfly (as it was a critical habitat for the species), and the government had enacted a prohibition on alternative uses of the habitat that conflicted with this objective. Despite this prohibition, in all but one of these reserves, substantial use of the forest resources occurred, primarily timber extraction for commercial and subsistence use by local communities. The one exception occurred in the monarch butterfly reserve that had developed a substantial tourism-based economy around it. In this instance, the local community had come to view the reserve as an asset on which its development relied. Here, the local community’s incentives were compatible with the national government's prohibition and, for that reason alone, the prohibition on alternative uses was effective. The third point is suggested by the case study of the Vicufia (summarised below in section B), which had been harvested almost to extinction, prior to the introduction of a prohibition on its use. Initially this prohibition met with success, the population soared severalfold, in response to conservation measures until it neared the carrying capacity. At this pomt, poaching increased and the population began to fall once more. An additional problem was that the vicufa is in competition with other domesticated livestock (llamas and alpacas) over its range. While the vicufa could not be harvested legally, it had zero use value for the local communities and, indeed, carried a significant opportunity cost as a competitor for grazing. In the long term it is unlikely that the local communities would have continued to tolerate these levels of competition. Keseshegas nasi saiineqatat: Weir Veet) thea Di Mr aipdelgh cith 4ilwgy eatsaneas ; pee ey siete : ‘ iielitetenae Sith 1 fvardil Coakom: tt ere elie yun delay Ere yi Hirt niddifer pastes, vi, iat enrnee ned) kh uaviesaa.. Wey: wilt ; ; Sv ihe ae Betsy apy = eee Sul at Wit lyrecrney Grit es ad bo wits, atl we 4 oy (abs eer esha ll en 3 ore thamccctetet tase ot inti vy aie Ah of Desa rent sire sree! Le atyach ei iit) sash aA aba vita ibe fie cori: iy dorset crating aed hyip ee oe ny rea Heese a! ee Potw gy pee oe ye rsa Aleta BG ate, Hades wast at teat i eietane ye nlf Oa “a Rob sary ves a A. Conservation and development in the Monarch Butterfly Special Biosphere Reserve. The monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus. | Map 1. Migratory routes of the Monarch butterfly undertakes one of the most outstanding examples of animal migration, described as “a unique biological phenomenon". Each winter. hundreds of millions of monarchs coalesce from a continent-wide distribution in North America to overwinter at as many as 129 colonies in California and approximately 10 small sites in central Mexico that range in area from 0.03 to 3.34 hectares of oyamel fir forest (see Map 1). Despite the fact that the monarch butterfly is a common species, its migration to tightly aggregated overwintering sites makes this phase of its life history especially vulnerable. Hence, the conservation of _ these overwintering aggregations and their habitat ‘ Q is crucial. The fact that the monarch remains SY Gaxtzos for up to 5 months in these heavily packed mia aggregations poses considerable problems for their conservation, particularly in Mexico, where socioeconomic pressures for land use are greatest. In California, the Xerces society secured funding for the Monarch Project in 1984 and started negotiating protective easements and landowner registrations. Unlike California, Mexico's overwintering sites are mostly located in communal and “ejido” land under community management, and the creation of private reserves is not feasible for most sites. In fact, only a fraction of one of the five biosphere reserves (Chincua) created to protect the monarch was bought from a private land owner. The oyamel fir forest, used exclusively by the monarch, has been exploited both for commercial and subsistence use in Mexico to a point that only 40,000-50,000 ha are thought to be left. Monarch colonies tend to aggregate in the higher and dense fir-dominated forest. This association is the main source of limitation on forestry activities in the region. There is, however, much controversy over which particular forest densities the butterflies select. Some studies have suggested that monarchs prefer moderately disturbed forests, leading to the belief that controlled forest management is a feasible conservation option and this is currently being developed in one of the reserves. The Monarch Butterfly was declared protected in 1980, but it was not until 1986 that the Monarch Butterfly Special Biosphere Reserve (MBSBR) was formed by decree and its boundaries established. In total, the reserve covers some 16,110 ha in the Mexican states of Mexico and Michoacan. The five areas constituting the reserve (Sierra El] Campanario, Chivati-Huacal, Altamirano, Cerro Pelon and Sierra Chincua) differ significantly in size and degree of restrictions. The creation of the MBSBR directly affected 37 ejidos, 11 communities and 5 small private properties. airpepbametit LTE Lh see sane eyes ahs Lats 'S eA VE flartante tf) a is rp Biveilseh ueahrms Bante Wi Sano oy) * npr AUN IP, AMT 5 Ra Dal : onda eh so ‘pcan: ont og ey ‘ 4 ol pth j ‘ ; , : } oa 7 comer ae er AL a i" vet) p 1 j re = rae heet i % NAAR = + de ae tetany tae mY ' be ; : ~~ yee - oa il ena : au Mail safe ‘he git So 7 — > Wit Roscoe «ote Ranta ia : ; Nu) Uncle Achar ones eet Oat. . ‘hat 2 ae etiek A ; | th Geo 2A Etial iy i j sisi (kage il ak ee ieerowes. A ps Ey leneigai sina bap sities : hee i ' yAhaneay mrpaareeer nd sant a Cowie Alvbot) sed at ) ye sabi hse es ace we Coloeeed: Table 1. Number of visitors (national and foreigners), total income and entrance fee to the E] Campanario Sanctuary during the seasons 1984-94 Gross Income ‘000 N\S Visitors Total National Foreigners 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 \1 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 \1 Estimate produced by SEDUE. Source: INE, 1992, SEDESOL 1994. As a means of involving the local community and to help alleviate the negative impacts of the restrictions on logging, a local NGO, Monarca AC, and the government have encouraged the development of tourism in one site open to the public (Cerro El Campanario). The promotion activities and the media rapidly increased the popularity of the site, from some 7,500 visitors in 1984, to a peak 70,000 in 1990 before declining to about 57,000 in 1993. The mnajority are national visitors who come from Mexico City, whereas most foreign tourism comes from the United States (Table 1) . As aresult of socioeconomic pressures, illegal logging has increased in most areas. An illegal network of intermediaries is still in operation, particularly in areas where the forest is not managed by the community. Analysis of deforestation in the five reserve areas between 1982 and 1990 shows significant differences among the various areas of the reserves. The least altered was El Campanario, where there is a local tourism industry, indicating that tourism has managed to curb land use conversion. The government’s designation of monarch reserves has had little impact on areas other than this one (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Changes in land use patterns in the five polygons of the reserve between 1982/84 and 1989/90. Taken from SARH 1992. fess ae 89- 90 82- 84 89- 90 82- 84 89- 90 82- 84 Chivati-Huacal Campanario Chincua D Agricultural and livestock grazing land Meadows and shrubland Open Forest O Closed Forest Dense Forest 82- 89- 90 82- Altamirano tdi ; ; : : = > a len mie ea ing eset sill OW tadis “etc tein> Leto eats vit Yo yaa Be 1 Ct meaigieds ten) cemrmaaany wenriery Secret igkad NP Ke Pc oattnete a A Gt av) tage tte Yeas) OAT I ith 10 neue Sil any SYS) i ial ST ace ry re igh Witty OP ioctl opt | DPA VR ay ch eae Seal wi saucy ay Sal Song id Aomigrgag> Set OS eed w ‘eee dey oath a Bonde vie be) Shewieayare he a —— thes oath bans mya 16 auth rrggtt =! peyton ta ee ee tpailnattc a: fly 88 he Ni on tutes Reacu “) pe Beh iat HONE dordyea OL RAC). oh cA wey SHY ik iguer ‘Hae ir ok u | "T v : pleat Watt erune nde Bethea) En ya: Ste ke ee te Th tay od, bail On (arehod hi ibaa bet, Leyte x er ry 4 ooay 4) S| a et vey waar f-6p ' aioli i shigwot PAE AE URI 5 Ke it Ae aster lub dhe Prag ‘ait ame i oa. 0 Pacitheds tira a i the RW YA) oe NG. |! Tey hp deans ‘gaunt 7 Mas: bE astperel Neale eee - % a ms) aby ma 1hinfldy ul TA aa reat a era Fad Bs ie ies) act, ve ht : Ti mie: iY ives) daar ee orth 7 create He se at a Sirst bat aut eer niin, RF ag ul if | CHS peti SMAI 8 ates i mi “syeert tees erin et ie ——— cones eer = / NeW bo Bae he wees pr 5iht nerd to) 6A (HOD ay surge lay wnt: > es i et i : oot. = B. The Need for Managed Development of Wildlife Resources 1. Use of wildlife is not, in itself, sufficient to establish incentives for its conservation - management is required for use to generate these. 2. Governmental intervention in wildlife use should be directed to the creation of rents (restricted output) and the reduction of the costs of joint management (increased monitoring). 3. Rent appropriation is important because it creates incentives to invest in the resource. Monitoring is important because it reduces the incentives to over-exploit the resource. These points are best illustrated by the Red Sea Coral Reef case study of two tourism development sites. One, Hurghada, made use of its coral reef resource in an unrestricted fashion, where the government allowed unmanaged development of the shores along the reef. The other, Sharm, made use of its coral reef in a managed fashion, where the government restricted development density along the reef (tourism and fishing) and implemented a monitoring programme for compliance. The contrasting results were dramatic. In Hurghada, development density is nearly three times greater and the reef suffers from over-exploitation (three times as many visitors and twice as many boats), reckless exploitation (unnecessary damage from construction of hotels and unmanaged tours) and pollution (poor visibility). In Sharm, the restricted number of operators has rendered it possible for them to recognise their interdependence in their joint use of the reef, and thus they have invested in its conservation. The hoteliers in Sharm provide more mooring sites and diver briefings to spread impacts and reduce unnecessary damage. They have also invested in sewage controls and visibility is ten to twenty times greater than at Hurghada. Importantly, all of these investments earn a return. Hoteliers at Sharm are able to charge a fee double that applicable at Hurghada. It is this price differential between the controlled and the uncontrolled resource use that is the rent flowing from the resource. It is only through governmental restriction of use of the resource (and monitoring to ensure compliance with the restriction) that rents are created, and hence incentives to invest in the reef are induced. ers, whe wnt i ne al aerate: ‘obi oi dibhv a sii ke teen ee —_ te eee wll to. cnthahe: ait ne” Poqteg he t svniban “is. ay besides Papen err AiR vi wage vert sar truput > sahibeeage iia evant of WenMae ih ine eacek NUN 2 hcl Ps was a Ne) 2 das 4. of) vor lespe hen bee aa ane iP 3 sce a Ing Sicibe oh (ose She Lire om : a rite ee : eee : abeewr, nerd fips eer atte ae eon genet. Ory nee see Vibe tui Abin cestase anthems ae by ; ay cel cottente Nn Uae a ee ae itallog £ wad 6 : | AP soegtarart Paneer: bi » per > ea Bue meaty eter i Sots Lr "Sone anya ? oxi Tei oamayat baange eid ; bearer ei an) Ohne i ikaselaly Rape Pike Si inrsial ie veithol i credo w eae gh fedlarstiscits ans sey Aorrted, leaaniow ily seagate AWE iad Had 51 oct a th "Hor asl Natt ihe senate Vakpak iv we g jradie ge ih ob Peaea ser B. Sustainable Tourism in Ras Mohammed National Park, Egypt. The Sinai peninsula, located at the northern- | Map 2. The Ras Mohammed National Park and Hurghada. most part of the Red Sea, is embraced by the Gulf of Suez to the west and Aqaba to the east (Map 2). The Gulf of Aqaba is bordered by a luxuriant fringing reef which extends along almost the whole 200 km shoreline from Eilat (Israel) in the north to Ras Mohammed (Egypt), the southernmost tip of the peninsula, interrupted only by shallow bays. The reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba are subject to few natural disturbances. The Red Sea is a narrow and almost enclosed body of water with generally small waves and very rare storms; the lack of river runoff, low planktonic primary production and extremely low rainfall result in very clear water. These features have all contributed to the biological uniqueness of the area; a relatively high diversity of corals and over one thousand ae ee . 723 2 Ras Mohammed National Park species of fish living in transparent, warm | ©) Res Motummed Sector - additional marine arcas waters have formed the basis for the region's popularity as a tourist destination. nS The vicinity of Sinai's reefs to the European tourism market and Egypt's economic needs have led to an unprecedented increase in tourism and associated infrastructure. In 1983 the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt declared the Ras Mohammed peninsula, a ‘Marine Protected Area’, in order to protect the coral reef and its tourism potential. Technical assistance from the EU supported an initial development phase. This first phase, lasting two and half years, demonstrated, among other things, that strict management of marine resources did not need to hinder development in South Sinai. One of the objectives of the management in place at Ras Mohammed was to show that all development in the area was resource dependent and that the degradation of coral reefs and other marine ecosystems would limit the area's economic potential, a message that has since been recognized by the private investors in the region. Despite the fact that since 1988 the number of hotels in South Sinai has increased from 5 to 36 and the number of diving centres from 5 to 26 in response to the higher demand, many of the usual negative consequences of tourism development have been avoided at Ras Mohamed. Some of the more common effects, such as siltation due to construction, waste water discharge, damage from collecting, fish feeding, over-fishing, anchoring and diver damage are, for the most part, absent in the Ras Mohammed National Park Management Sector. Measures to minimize the negative impacts of tourist on reefs (e.g. environmental education, walkways, sewage systems, moorings) have been deployed in the RMNP, some of them state-funded, but an increasing proportion have resulted from private investment (see Table 2), after realizing the benefits of conservation. Some hotel managers indicated that lack of diving intensity limitations would increase their revenue by 10- 15% per year but only for two-three years at most. Indeed, a niche in specialized tourism has been created and operators are keen to maintain it. From a survey, the majority of visitors rated the Ras Mohammed Sector reefs and associated marine life very highly. More than 50% of visitors surveyed rated the South Sinai reefs better than other destinations when describing corals, fish life and visibility, respectively. This clearly shows the benefits of management and controlled development. 7 sated i Sa ma wet pop Trae Hh Vodatentadcsy 4? aaa ak ct vrrae a | AP tiv ; ¥ ee es ae 4 ; ee pee eT TY Li yt6 one ‘Me ‘ - | bee Gow PT sain Dailies tol ed gee ee pretest ~— | sto: wet hessrlme. pot ba i. fe a a . = 1 . _ | st} i) Mah Vig or sat a fy wpotnar! eee ve 9 Versa © ate ff nh) ~—ae eo A i Pre ch la pet me yours 4 _ 7 ; i PL eee alt aed Od) t Saerenae Lie ann ee ute raat gree F er bap Mien apni: aque’ off 4 Bay Bele! 2 ca tahy. gre oped Bags eae tes, Maul es wom Rega begnipiee ‘Verwhe’ sta Ra) te eco ara eh infil co pak SEER ld epi, eopcaecwneacah CNT. “hoe MAY EG) hier ye: MMe ower “Lup? Soe te: ; haat Wy deine tase ty soy oben pened Ce One a =) ses hae? teen yhayss Daria E ROA Tiehoe Dye | en oe WP MESA Save ls ‘ada tad sat ap 24 RON te itlow " re ROL < to ink catshi-shw ooo Mi mm Bier td aaa Ga i and eve tc Die sree reve plage ui vi iS ai rn test aoe oe? abness ii, we Re ee battled: ; ep worl ctaenaa The mechanisms in place at Ras Mohammed, however, are by no means standard in the region and the effects of unregulated tourism can be seen in other reefs in continental Egypt, such as Hurghada. The resort of Hurghada was established nearly 30 years ago and rapidly became a tourist destination for Europeans. The less controlled development led to massive hotel development between the coastal road and the shoreline and, in particular, on the back reef itself. Developed under lax regulations, Hurghada represents an example of resultant environmental collapse and loss of an economic resource. Use levels of the reef are much higher than in Sharm, dive packages selling for up to 50% less than in Sinai and providing a lower quality service. Boats are having to take their customers further south along the Egyptian mainland in search of less degraded reefs. Table 2 presents the sharp contrast between the quantity and quality of development between Sharm and Hurghada. Successful management at Sharm has so far prevented the resort from following the same course of development as Hurghada. From an economic point of view, the rents to resource “appropriators', i.e. the tourism industry, created through restricted output, have to be maintained to encourage resource investment (management costs). In Hurghada, rents appear to have been almost dissipated and the open access to the reef has eroded all incentives for individual firms to protect it. Table 2. Some key parameters at Sharm el Sheikh and Hurghada. Most data from RAS MOHAMMED NATIONAL PARK (SHARM) and Fawzi (1995), HEPCA and Medio (pers. obs.). Sharm Hurghada Government Intervention Urban planning yes no Monitonng programme yes no Public awareness prog. yes no Fishing regulations Development density indicators Hotels 40 127i Dive centres 27 85 Boats Investment for conservation Dive sites 37 30 Fixed moorings 108 65 Diver briefing (% dive centres) Conservation benefits Sewage pollution no yes Infilling 1/40 64/75 Underwater visibility (m) 15-30 1-2 Anchor damage Rents from conservation Avg. price of package US$27 This situation is illustrated in Figure 2. While Sharm caters for specialised tourism, Hurghada pursues a mass tourism strategy offering a lower natural quality. The significant difference in package prices indicates the extent of rent dissipation in Hurghada, with Sharm operators capturing rents in the area P, -A-C-C,, in Figure 2, while rents in Hurghada are dissipated (C, = P,, ). Quantitative and qualitative supply restrictions appear to be critical for the maintenance of appropriate rent levels. Current management at Sharm addresses both by limiting the number of boats per site, passengers per boat, number of diving sites (quantitative), while also providing environmental awareness talks to the visitors, requiring appropriate sewage systems and infrastructure designs to minimise damage per visitor (qualitative). These findings stress the need for regulation to complement and, direct market forces to generate conservation. 7 oar * (aaron Ree rer pret awe) | * eave: bontrinuioh) ote se o7ebe ote ie PTs iol a pe et oe ae BS , wee vy" ek ae om f AIHA O)') ) Teh oe over n ORY SU) Lard Yenryery Get fTrader Be ee tL VRP Bart seth ie net it ee a ate el ory : ti we 93 iba ' Heed bat 4 liaadoe yl im dos : NF ; ibemiect pide I RR Date i als OE, way, Brett Bi ies eel tee’ — Aeris) ead re) mt: ati Eee Wt we Vad ait enw, rea ew ee ee as cree: | Sk eave er ae : : & “”~ PON a ee an ashen 1 ae Den bel cal eee : * | ‘9 “7 7 “ve Ay ns? i iwlcdleressy ks thar ne ernea wer nocsispclee = 1 3 oy — fi MOT Ye ep ti i Ry P es rom mes: = Te ‘par. UPON Hae. er kcal’ Dare wget ; ; j ‘wp | ih re ht ecw at 1 ian ae ee odes sis mt cs Yee eee > site a ee ee j i Te ve Se ee ae, RAE a any did. aeige eee: 2 “ i eee ve : 7 a epee ‘ashes a denn Quand ldnret lipides 3 5 wh + etx Hae epee WS ym hh a mia ihe. evan vi fh aly odd witre Ma “mil Ale *b Eastin ayia if i EPG oni ive eat he Tae ie Se thie ian yitinan ds Gar ae = eG i} ; fee wna meal / ANS oe Eb hi is Ji vied aa ( ) x oieal owt Beale 1 ‘PcStgnen one aa oat oeod? ao ine Ve : Je atenrgniyrt) Ps aun enane Sale: by a a is oe merch we f Vy tay Witileer (ast Sak atu ; if ble owt veh avad MED: i : AES hte WR) sea peiy free eter: al a HG WEA ot Oe wi Eg hs lat A wa hea Led ae <4 y ftiwser tad oye pith hd, : eee } ot A Oh hetlhes at PT oepaia | sada “ sastny WOPat tee dehyas Boi site y vary: oF ages Sil | wg ltee ig) “shy Frm wink noe terest CO (ed ane gieepernnny ue yettierremkey wal ines ihe ys tues peel te sakereel pat tn eeniggn mb 03 rahe: kin giakis: saute 3 wiley “sl evissivy ahi [i | | eu SO ty Lestputl dd icin SR may lh en Raristiinghiuisrrne ut A rte arty ane (a rhode sitar Se ernie art. Sere a8 Pp a a ed ei asians eb ane ‘a, errant gat | eikh meee) bie bP alii! ad) ob Apres ‘ i al ile een vq Ali oc} ced Oe abe ATS OAS FI Ft iwsik - : i cs tie BF th oreo Sat etleereetes wae pene tertiles tenes ci oot a i} Nive Verma, srg itiiarry (ar aug iit, Fescher thay . seid ee Apne: 4 sects biter (i Eee RA oboe ae Mts ty Hilla Bema iahith seine "i PNA Nunes AED iy touyy, oll 904 fies Miers! alto) ae a eo te ee GS Hil aalrreumcit wy. any rae en ‘bie hia EEA, Pe ioe UD at breast 0 “i a ek ities et EM PEL ahs Pan age 5 oe hye “th Te de Bete MM aera snail = siieadiaae set 0. ARR LOM) tb gram Os poneediien neee a x» : Natl 09 creak i ic i ie, AN RID & have been impossible in the absence of cooperation to increase the scale of the operation. The role of the state here has been to aid these individuals in the enforcement of their contracts. The conservancies depend for their success upon the monitoring of individual use of the joint assets. Namibia provides this monitoring by means of the requirement of a state-licensed guide with each hunting party and the requirement for annual state-monitored wildlife censuses. These auditing roles of the state increase the efficiency of wildlife management based on individual incentives. Thirdly, as indicated in the Coral Reef case study, the ultimate objective of the state in wildlife management must be the inducement of individual investments by means of restrictions on aggregate harvesting. Overuse, even in the aggregate, drives down the prices for everyone, and restricts the availability of rents. The state should always look to restrict entry to the market in order to maintain high prices and rent-induced investments. These points indicate the nature of the role of an international mstitution as well. There are certain of the above roles of a state which extend beyond its borders, and hence cannot be managed by one state alone. The southern African wildlife case study provides a good example, where the focus is on those uses which produce the greatest appropriable value. These tend to be uses for which travel to those countries is a requirement, i.e. tourism and sport hunting. There are other values of wildlife which do not involve travel to the host state, and these are less easily appropriated by the host state in the absence of international cooperation. For example, a pilot study in the U.K. indicated that the average person might be willing to contribute £10 for programmes to ensure the conservation of the black rhinoceros, an exclusively southern African species. It is one of the roles of an international institution to enable the host state to appropriate such transnational values so that they may be applied to conservation there. An international institution may also assist in the pursuit of other objectives of the host state, such as the monitoring and enforcement of rent-creation policies. Whenever the producers of a wildlife resource are in one country and the primary consumers are in another, international cooperation will be required in order to implement any sort of policy directed to rent maximisation. For example, producer states might need to implement an aggregate quota on production, and consumer states could assist by monitoring imports and restricting them to designated quantities and suppliers. 12 r sae lnatiang AE) hte a) weap Wi sah PAPA By Dae ate WET preter 4 alt we. panne veftina” it ee ayia bs i fe OF | eed Aen, AT ver gag |) dt ait Ww at right nate oat ar Pa ESE 1) Ot fans tien shioy ai NTA, Ny tre ei AALS aman vit Boron ae ae pels pirrinee areas? bev itomrye tana Hh te) VT Irevcaeemayey tt ai OS f weoadisinstce outed ter sees oi] wy pie By tows edt ult seer rad 3 TAS BO = write ba oat * ssa ee 3" slush dea) met Voto adh St branch 7 ee antigen, Be fiona Ye Wrote: Latebither fi) creche ov at ee Loe | SHisahty SANRDbE wetin miantigie uit te seu > cmv.) ysl te ac aera ia hrnyiots MR sige rear oy tl Yew cera bits hist. jin bos scorn ieee eee era Seley ate ATO wet OD hg yi = Aa PAP am rceire,y eae Se om | 14 a , é . eran rif | op tratt, » ny wily mil oo Te at Hid Soe vt I legit pre yg Mary ue Me ak ser preg t ‘alos g . P ‘ : ¥Y Tite Wepribied! 2) Tear Te AE Fae 4 Mh ; ¥ cnt it hae ite HOA tit 11) Lotaty CTRL Sott ob ts a OT ory Balacigdie Lackey i he: orem at \ Ca r f ' ty i tad mat “yuri cigs tet £5 shea My sy Oa ee " wh “2 fennel Gi oe. 2gwe ou ing wet " a — G) Sine 2 4d) 4 SNS 47-40 seein TA hile “ai piaieyisencce at trike seal hi van ‘tt ia, fives fake PN nrenustiatl az aiwalige setinati: iiss ko Hiantestess we, ath saat Pima) atl banue RIT eine “gibt Yo yt on levine His at's the ee) sheet et bean ets athe. i % Ba hala ti Aneta cob twas roe : Je +4 tate C. Conflicts in Wildlife Conservation-The Role of Property Rights: the Southern African Conservancies The southern African conservancy movement | Map 3. Tne Khomas Hochland Conservancy, Namibia originated initially in the legislation passed in 1967 by the South West African (now Namibian) assembly by giving “the owner and occupier of a farm full ownership of all game, other than specially protected and protected game, while such game is lawfully upon such farm and while such farm is enclosed with a sufficient fence." It was this “privatisation” approach to wildlife that generated an entirely different management system for the wild animals in what is now Namibia. Subsequently, nearly identical legislation was adopted in Zimbabwe, extending these rights of ownership to commercial farmers and then to communal areas in 1982. Once private property rights in game species were in place. the individual landowner had the capacity to capture the use values of wildlife on his land. The immediate problem facing these individuals was that in many cases the individual landholdings were insufficient to support the range of the wildlife species. Much of the Namibian territory is extremely arid and wildlife must range across large territories in order to browse successfully and to locate water supplies. Although individual ranches are usually very large (c. 5-10,000 ha), the individual range of many of the wildlife species in these arid districts is often even larger. The solution to such problems has come with the establishment of a contractual relationship between neighbouring landowners providing for the joint management of the wildlife species that range across their lands. In such agreements, between ten and twenty landowners join together to establish a common outside boundary around a more substantial land area, and principles for the joint management and use of the wildlife. In Namibia there are at present four conservancies: Ngarangombe (100,000 ha), Waterberg (150,000 ha), Khomas Hochland (130,000 ha) and Black Nossob (130,000 ha). Each of these conservancies has been registered with the Namibian Ministry of Environment, and has agreed to certain regulations governing its registration; such a registration is necessary in order for the landowners to have their land designated for joint management. The conservancy concept constitutes a solid groundwork for the joint management of game species by both getting the individual users involved in the development of the control policy and by having an outside presence involved in the implementation of that policy. The former element is important in making the policy acceptable, and thus enforceable at least cost. The latter element is essential for providing the assurance that all parties are complying with the agreement, removing the incentive to free-ride on the others’ compliance. The key to this programme is the values that these species generate, and the benefit sharing system that has been implemented. Each hunter must pay a trophy fee for any animal bagged on the conservancy property as well as for lodging and a licensed guide. The hunter is recruited from Europe or the U.S. and his lodging fee is kept by the landowner who recruits and lodges him. However, once the hunter is within the conservancy, the individual conservancy member is welcome to hunt on any of the conservancy property. The landowner on whose property the game is bagged is entitled to a specified share of the trophy fee, and the conservancy itself receives a further 5% of this specified fee; the recruiter conservancy member is entitled to the rest of the trophy fee as well as the lodging fee. iS) ee li ee ee =m mance Witare ad? syn HF i tea eat ree hg ee te eo mast le were May Pont : : a i eae 4A Pa atin > Wy Speedy pe ite) eI prey an tls ‘ q WTS (oy irae vat } hay, | how Joe ty f 6%) itoteeeer sO f im go. Boia ee hy ake tha rie! s A 7 OMS Pecan 7 Irebeg Fed}: ‘taiti os, 1 oppor ey Set pate boast bial Atel Te sath Qoe > re * : Booed ” cena te Tem SEN at : ” a OL sit Libis: 4 Mi ST Racise 0y, Agere bani’ t bi : tiiees Phew Aiea alba a tie wheres OM aan; CaP tech wr Cited eee oa att ll a) eh eniigest q LP) ati a age out ; i 0 ee rin err a 4 eg sas a echo £3 pail > se veiw Armin Dh baat a, aes TR) tA wernt Dig naam siete Ao, SL oritivaty acne Sik dibasic vere Tetly Bie apa: pel ‘ pret ten Alc) taped talent b pet eee fn fed oohoety “RPO Mirattd othe | ) sul eck exten, er gaenine es hee i iecae en biked nate t bbc telly > ev cachaay ten mon ob ai nh pes Mesa) bees Joe olan ps. ae iain. Roles. ted diye iy eg Mites abo he Seca og eet mene gS AY tans 7 cc, Bohan aN Cage Sew cies wow - a oe alabeseenb tars: aeons ca Has o Seite co one od gin PL capt: Sala iyirh, Yo. tine This benefit sharing arrangement allows for the various landholders to share in the __ benefits of game ownership, even if they do not themselves engage in Tectuiting and lodging trophy hunters. All that is required is that they participate in the joint management actions that enable the use of their land by game species. In addition, the _ Namibian Heculation of the Conservancy Movement The state ee that affect ae members of a Namibian conservancy. - the conservancy must have a common Douney within which all jandowners are members - the conservancy must have a secure extemal fence marking its boundary - the conservancy must have a constitution governing its objectives and a standing committee responsible to the state for meeting those objectives - the conservancy must provide for rules concerning management and use. (benefit sharme) = Taanagement rules must provide for ongoing monitoring of _ specified characteristics of the game: ‘Species (e.g. populations, trophy sizes, sex levy collected by —the | ;atios) and it must allow the state to participate in that monitoring conservancy itself is used tO |_ the conservancy must provide a state-licensed guide on each trophy hunt fund jointly beneficial management activities, including restocking of game species and the construction of exterior game-proof fences. Therefore, as a direct result of the financial incentives inherent in the privatisation of wildlife within Namibia, private landowners are in the process of removing fences erected earlier this century and re-stocking species that were eradicated in the process of these earlier conversions. In addition, it is clear that these are only the first steps down the road toward wildlife-based land uses. Conservancies continue to look for members and are in the process of importing other wildlife (giraffe, impala) in the hopes of developing the ecotourism-based values of its lands as well. The analysis of economic _ Joint Management Actions of Cie te ection Coreroney 2 EO 2 AERA DRESS A land use models at int management | actions taken by Khomas Hochland conservancy since } an f ation in Sepia 1992, Tae included: — S eae? a e operation offers important insights into the economic forces at work. First, there is a positive financial return to game ranching on Namibian land, even at the individual landowner level; however, it is apparent that this is nota socially beneficial use of capital as the rates of return are relatively low for this economy (i.e. in the region of 4-5%). The economies of scale realisable when several landowners work together in the provision of wildlife services changes this picture quite dramatically. At the scale of most existing conservancies (i.e. c. 100,000 ha.) the rates of return increase to economically competitive levels (i.e. 8-10%). This is the incentive for the creation of these large landholdings under joint management. Even more importantly, when the real social costs of the factors used in these operations are evaluated (rather than the prices actually paid) the rates of return to a conservancy escalate to a very impressive level (i.e. 13-20%). These studies provide a picture of privatisation-led land use determinations (through fiscal incentives) that are generating substantial value for the society as a whole. ‘reduction of the cue soca levels: on 1 the conservanc: pening of waterholes to game during the dry season: emoval of two wire strands from the interior. fences: ie ‘erection of game. foe fences on some: of the exterior ‘Doundary evelopment of common marketing organisation (broche re, agent). 14 oe 1 Rami pee oe meee (alin ceitipeamem, eee Seve atti i is ni ede ea: ‘peeved, clash seston de. 25 ceonrneey Te Tame sc ‘gee 1s ite Wir PS Oe - Bice Piers oy, pd oe Niel Wee Pease opine ie per Dey Vind plain; ii Wo ie are apes ye ibe ag vy aid sca nk f 7 rat j » afiady eaisi , f 4 7 —_ 2 adlateY wR pba Ge mrateeged cvvhrndil sat i = Sinbad eae = ! jireesi - ed at yim sida 2-cavogy hn (la : — bee lero Rees se =4 sat ‘el riyy ihe hw ae ann pete wo , ey ay ighayeiias grow hoes _) ee ne deat A vel 0 Wetohe iae : and code 907% de Governmental Interventions - Land Use Conflicts Interventions Required for Market Determined Optimal Land Uses; Remove distortions in market prices ‘of factors used and products produced im alternative land uses Genel subsidies, labour-based taxes) = Introduce charges for internalisation of social costliness of alternative land uses (e. 2. erosion cost , pesticide accumulation internalisation) > Install mechanisms that allow for all ranges of values to ae with ee not only the most direct forms of use (e.9. land banking and compensated zoning schemes) Ynterventions at the Conservancy Level *Flow Monitoring”- monitoring the rate at which wildlife is bemg used consumptive. s S tock Monitoring'-monitor the stock of wildlife periodically. The privatisation of wildlife within Namibia has contributed to the significant increase in wildlife numbers and biomass (70% and 85% respectively) over the 20 year period between 1972 and 1992. There appears to have also been an increase of some 44% in the diversity of species. Therefore, the impact of privatisation in Namibia provides solid evidence of the incentives that this programme has created for the conservation of wildlife. In Zimbabwe, a similar phenomenon to that in Namibia is occurring, with the expansion of wildlife use on private landholdings driven once again by the financial incentives for the use of wildlife rather than cattle. The contributions of the Conservancy movement at the national scale are not insignificant. The Save Valley Conservancy alone represents about 1% of the land area in Zimbabwe, and more importantly, it has increased the land dedicated to wildlife by 6%. These findings illustrate that financial incentives are an important keystone for building a sound land use policy option, while the government has an important role in correcting obvious policy and market failures. It is important to note that the government plays an important role in the Conservancy movement providing the assurance of credible monitoring and enforcement structures within private joint management regimes. It requires the presence of a state-licensed guide on each conservancy hunt, enabling each conservancy member to monitor its partners’ benefit taking. It further requires an annual state monitored stock taking excercise in order to audit the general performance of the conservancy. The conservancy movement in southern Africa represents one of the most dynamic and hopeful trends in wildlife management currently taking place. Southern Africa is probably the only place on earth that is currently expanding the amount of habitat that is available to wildlife species on a significant scale. It is interesting that this movement is occurring in an area that has abandoned traditional wildlife management practices in favour of a market-based approach. Here, the forces for development are encouraging the adoption of more wildlife uses of land. 15 ire was sil hadith eet eeen —- er a — ‘ne ae Ps . Ag et any a ee NE "n eel (cee s | f Pm Mea tet te My BUGS ete NG; UME AT esis) TF iy ail? 1:5 sameehiente Waa a 2" woe asceha "nk ate leita etek 4 Ol gia Seah 3 Sar) ee RY ite #7 eh Lees ars ie . KD cy" see} bs vgs users rhs ene é Bs are PORTAL Larie< TSS Angee rent erie ss Da etapa, £2 ig mba. Lowery t WHET H s ite comiy Todtart i} ¢rigiss Un Our aereys Wy 0G oredr as ‘aie ‘Piha dnt 2 mieist-t> erat of gg ava, ae DOI ae “4 a ia Lear oo hag D. The Role of the International Institution: Monitoring and Certifying Habitat Use 1. Most of the conservation value of the sustainable use of a species is related to natural habitat, not the species in isolation. There is little conservation value from ''captive breeding" of wildlife itself. 2. Certification should be used to induce investments in stocks of species in particular habitats, and hence "sustainability" should have, as its primary criterion, the maintenance of stocks in designated habitats. 3. Sustainable use must be based on some agreed indicator of stocks in the wild, by including: surveys, population analysis and flow analysis. ‘The Papua New Guinea Crocodile Case Study illustrates these pots. In that country, and others, large crocodile farms have been established as a means of supplying the trade in reptile skins. There is little conservation value in the establishment of captive breeding operations, as it merely translates what was once wildlife into the domesticated sphere. The conservation value of wildlife use is in the creation of an instrument by which the investment in the retention of natural habitats may be compensated. Crocodile farms in PNG satisfy this criterion by means of their dependence on wild breeding stock: that is, the crocodile farms operate as "ranches" in the sense that they procure much of their required inputs (eggs, young crocodiles) from the wild. Incentives for sustainable use at the individual level may be induced by means of certification programmes that afford certified producers special access to markets; the crocodile is once again a good case study. Many of the populations of crocodile were initially listed on Appendix I of CITES on account of their endangerment, and this denied lucrative markets to most traders. Some populations of crocodile have been "downlisted" (allowed into trade) under exemptions granted for demonstrably sustainable ranching of wildlife. On account of this exemption, there is an incentive for the traders to demonstrate that their use is not harming crocodile populations, in order to keep their businesses intact. This incentive has resulted in the creation of a management programme to restrict the harvesting activities of individuals supplying them. Traders have even paid for the monitoring effort which certifies that stocks of crocodiles in the affected habitat remain relatively stable. These management activites are all induced by reason of the CITES certification mechanism which promises a market to those regimes which demonstrate management activities. One of the most difficult facets of the certification process is the establishment of a criterion for sustainability that can be monitored. The first-best criterion is one which demonstrates that a management regime is able to set a stock target and then achieve it; second-best is a demonstration that populations do not decrease significantly. Such criteria need to be fully specified. Actual population trends are virtually impossible to measure for most species; in most cases, some sort of indicator must be substituted. In the case of PNG crocodiles, an aerial survey is conducted of nesting sites and, from this information; a rough trend regarding adult crocodile populations trends is obtained. 16 aed Tatts Ss ites: Dig egrets Gu diver! Low Dr Ue ee ee ee “patattatenae Ofte 1 wllipy vr eel” adh Gilera reaing tie ae" eh ieee) at dl hal . ; seedy t : : ' ~~ zeta Wi Waray Ww eal ie iii alae i ead off OP thal Ati plan ete | rs) erated wotivy tra’ iydeoaal a. wn crtet tn iach AD hee on aoe 7 yar! Minas has 6s 7 aE IR | a ae, vi i eae bes Hine We 7h) Seu! od upto ee ; 4 sary: Windt ‘hii Pecan hia Rta ines Sint > an he Seatac ny quinn Lae ih will; thar Yaa 9) Hel aay el aie 04 ‘ inal Yaz Dyer cles eet ooed expt Oe pa a decst Sow! Wii nee Pei aaa sa ares nagar” MAHA ei ; igs ey, gv ud baeiatal (sil) bali piers «l Pisin Pa el iy RAE ni : 4 . al ne ae fi fe a PRIA eee g Ay ot vat i eee Fao aT oy bisstonndle wi vate 2 Aer! asi vuln wilt hs ga fh Wek olny otterietaanny’ ionk< lain 4 ws ice He j . : oirigir nh HAL Lbs TAgtt * nm} ; Biase ae oe ay ic) ; wy pe | he pal Ty ai. Sites é - y pbtaton cold. gages ca mie ts ‘ol rama tse ne x ; ia ite at #8 a Mot, Leda a D. The Crocodile Industry in Papua New Guinea. There are two species of crocodiles occurring | Map 4. Distribution of C. porosus and C. novaeguineae in in PNG, the endemic freshwater crocodile, | Papua New Guinea Crocodylus novaeguineae and the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. Their habitat extends through most of the lowlands of the main PNG landmass, and C. porosus is believed to be the only species in the offshore islands (see Map 4). Prior to European contact, in the areas where crocodiles Were plentiful the native people hunted them for food, with the eggs and younger population most heavily used. Commercial shooting of crocodiles in PNG started in the mid 1950s, in particular, uncontrolled shooting of saltwater crocodiles from upwards of 150 cm in length, which over the period 1955-60 greatly reduced the adult population. This decline in saltwater crocodiles was soon followed by increased hunting of the less valuable freshwater crocodiles (see Figure 3). By the mid-1960s, the industry showed clear signs of over-exploitation of both crocodile T1 istrbution of C. novaeguineae species. Hunters targeted the remaining large breeding stock, greatly affecting the regeneration potential of the species. Besides, poor international marketing meant low prices throughout the industrial chain. It was believed that effective direct control of the hunters would be impossible to achieve, given the extreme isolation of many rural communities. Instead, control over the intermediate stages of industry. traders and exporters, was expected to affect hunters’ behaviour in a positive way. After the hunting peak of 1965-66. a management programme and legislation was introduced to maintain the crocodile populations and manage the skin trade. While other crocodile populations were listed in CITES Appendix I worldwide due to their endangerment, all crocodiles in PNG were retained in CITES Appendix II to allow for a managed trade. A licensing system for traders and exporters was introduced. Figure 3 .Historical data on crocodile harvests in Papua New Guinea, 1955-1993. Live crocodiles 80,000 O Wild Skins Licences for traders, 70,000 Licences for traders and eee L 60,000 hunters angeme nny 4 Ban <7" Ss Freshwat i 50,000 ee Ban > 51cm S harvest peak = 40,000 2 = 30,000 Z 20.000 Few European traders, Mainly Indigenous hunters 10,000 saltwater skins 0 w ~ a = Gal Va) i fon al on Ya) ia a al Gal a) CS lon _ Gal al a) w \o \o \o \o eo} = ~ i= = = ao co oo co o nan n Sie eR AES ICON) FI CO nS ON Gy. OS I ONS 17 tinh monte ee ee ee a eT Te — A _— erg partie tyre ¥ So ier i SPV aways “h t UD Wulebs + eee? aiieel lL! rite’ (Wei ‘ 1 gaeeieat ~L5iT, #1 FIORE oh core) Way Mies re wee | ay ) ui Ete " KS io ile fy! f Hy hrontielt SB i, ; aL dw ro, Ke ee eae fy at eat ry il tas GNF fos PT via | aM Fr ial up an pitas; 1a SOME GON ee ru) , ill hg ii x HY npg nN 7 a ar a _ Beah orate en: M 2soF elias Raat a Fete i Vena cu ec | | Since then, the management system has allowed both the hunting of wild crocodiles and a thriving trade in live animals. The relatively high prices offered to hunters for live animals has resulted in a very active live trade (see Figure 3) and hunting effort appears to have been partially diverted from large crocodiles for the skin market to small live animals for the farms (see below and Figure 4). These findings indicate that the existence of an active trade in live animals is having a positive impact on the conservation of the species, reallocating hunting strategies and efforts. Figure 4. Indicator of hunting effort for C. porosus. Higher the selectivity implies more effort is exerted on that cohort. Excludes live trade. 0.07 + Higher targeting of large > SWiEapua crocodiles in Papua 2 0.06 = —— SW New Guinea S Ss 0.05 + = Higher trade in small crocodiles may = 0.04 indicate mortality of small crocodiles = 0.03 + intended for live trade 3 5 0.02 + Differential mean selectivity sizes = reflect the hunting bias towards S 0.01 smaller crocodiles in New Guinea 0 lo) +r \o ao nN vr \o co So _ Nn N N fsa) ise) an foe) om wT + vr wT vr wo Crocodile size expressed in belly width (cm) At present, crocodiles are hunted/trapped by individual village hunters with previous knowledge of prices and conditions, they then sell their live crocodiles and skins to registered traders. Traders, who are normally members of the community, are permitted to operate only within a certain area, which creates an incentive to maintain specific populations. This contrasts sharply with the unregulated market where itinerant traders have little conservation interest. In order to improve the marketing conditions for hunters, the government established the Skin Marketing Service (SMS), to assist local hunters internally and the PNG industry externally. The first objective was accomplished by the creation of an alternative direct marketing source, the SMS, which would buy at better prices than intermediaries. This simplified and made more transparent the trade structure, in preparation for a private system taken over by licensed traders and company buyers. The SMS also suceeded in creating the necessary market power for PNG exports. The need to maintain international certification has created incentives to monitor wild populations in order to demonstrate sustainability. Both large farms and the exporters of wild skins have a strong vested interest in the maintenance of the trade, which effectively means keeping the CITES Appendix II listing. In order to do that, monitoring mechanisms such as the aerial population surveys and the costs of issuing CITES permits have been financially supported by the industry. The interest of industry in the continuity of the monitoring and enforcement system is a positive outcome of use, with much needed support in times of financial difficulties for the government, although care must be taken to ensure the independence of the state’s monitoring mechanism (see the Conservancy Case Study). The CITES Appendix II ranching resolution has provided the certification mechanism required for the creation of incentives for the sustainable use of some other crocodile populations; however, the dissipation of rents at the international level, due to overproduction of crocodilian skins worldwide, indicates the need for international coordination of conservation/production operations to ensure adequate production levels to generate revenue for conservation. International institutions need to focus on both roles: certifying sustainability and generating rents. 18 ; Ove) tt atlan! gare seat) ge hie robitewrerir Mdpe oe tin Pe OT Wiidh: at vie nee Shee al svete wrens § eo Eeilemer de) ulioanass) A et seein OT oy ; ety ail) Wd elie: apt pr eat lea) eet et ee cg te) colton sient wl) reat) eakotlon wpb voy ule DM ee het oi OT A Sila) 2a 20) AB PhD ENG ere) wah toe: aval ee 4 : ; : a oe 7 Anarene nha Sh hetrendky ull poh il nomny > che, Gehan ee aeialn SER a ane f STAY: AD ig 0 chs i be Pie of, eee 7 7 : aa) Ch a et i 7 ’ _— i Nf * s rudd Bee at a om ie fis! ? > ay ire aaran di re, in rie : ; ‘ 7 1 Fl i vary ae ast & tira. at 7 P es ee ; 2M F { wihk: ee 7 : x) Tn | , ~ . Se? Ae i * “= 7: Le ue ee iw = of ' ‘ meni Wor bindoPus A alk ‘- sere Fyiby 4 wiew§ \eetiPetiate Ai broys atid aes 4 Y aelhsn: itn 7 ayia IPG, DEA sk Lema ie MS hahy + iltee wire um pai fe akebiu yy ed: medicnancael 2 ay eal y ; ve 4 idea ail Aye ad pe? Sr hair, Dens Spee ori Fs 6 wh Hers. Stay yaee ‘ Py ag ing eet 4a patency Lesh) cami, ie, 1 ie ch EY rey hi fae beh. payee i rayne Sis Pb uiis Sarre: #¢ ena’ eae 4 aha | \ : ners eesti (iva ace dhe p Gale ni “aan a tnt rat BT vavbayhy coe " cad at eons i mines cochia : ierng Pate Pat Rr Wilco) gare renal y Binet acy “dhe E. The Role of the International Institution: Generating Appropriable Rents 1. The object of an international institution must be the generation of the maximum appropriable rents to those production systems which are certified as sustainable. Management must not simply allow trade or ban it. 2. The international institution should attempt to achieve the maximum rents for the certified producers by: a) determining a revenue maximising aggregate quota and allocating it between certified producers; and b) investing in the monitoring required to ensure exclusive purchasing from certified producers. The Vicuria Case study illustrates these points. A simple ban on the use of vicufa initially provided the necessary management to reverse the decline of this species. However, as the species expanded ‘to its carrying capacity, poaching resumed. One factor was the reluctance of local communities to share their lands with vicufias, which were believed to compete with domestic livestock for grazing. The alternative for them was simply to replace them with domesticated species. This pressure could be counterbalanced by some sort of management system that would cause vicufia production to be as lucrative as the alternative land use: llamas and alpacas. This could not be achieved simply by allowing the trade to resume in an unmanaged fashion; instead, a producers’ cooperative was formed which allowed all products to flow through one channel. So long as consumers agree to exclusive purchase from this conduit (and enforce their agreement), the price of vicufa products can be controlled through restricted sales. International institutions need to induce consumer states to agree to provide exclusive markets to those regimes which are certified as sustainable. This enables the certified producers to receive the greatest rents from their production, and hence have the greatest incentives to invest, provided they form cooperatives that determine aggregate production and allocate quotas. The price differential that results (between that afforded the certified cooperative and the uncertified suppliers) will be the rents that flow to sustainable management. This price differential will only be maintained to the extent that consumer states agree to provide exclusive markets, and then monitor and enforce this agreement. ALS) | ralE alrite ee thoes = ,ncbeheriahy baad te, poidecesit wt Eo ‘teas nities teats cyan na ta aya yy halle siylinhepe bar fh Bh wit birt When ie a ttt sible Wiis, Jota 7" : a am dimhien. we re ae ‘Yrgtexsaats falagerrt> rr tga thee aera ie ae putnioetn Daw arn egarayss Gor Init oi, ea 3 bape Tes ie nribe, joie - orechaiies a 9 Tecan aytiowl gules fist teh Fete (ens uierey bat Mts sti be stinis une rg Ey; vis a wget a Ah a lhe ami f ane hahen a 4tiead “Mt vi nie we ose “meh tye waa We patient ie BEV iM erg bah ext) cae: areal PRS, hemetyesy iilenginy ’ eS Dovialod Ope gat iespeas tbe ine - ab ing inte. eer tas MGA ea ei i 7 , 0 ays al in Rae Sionsilp 2 aa , at as su raivearesity ye et epee coh i ne ie gia PU hve fy 1) Sat nl wrireodle wey UMAT iy prcategity Me Loveth. Avner Geetem sa a pi ah OF RATED yf erate ‘abies p AD) Aas vena Eben es a ceylaere inlihg) yeni i beta Pi IT shrindhixtowiown teAltinrn wie. yr cpg Makuinany vice) where) agra _ ark Hai Sener iawn ence NE eves aiaahyat). utes Sort laine TH ag se a oT ft Yt Daeg: dats atl (per ayn ye val Ha a Siesad can at eee i yi E. Commercial Use of Vicuna |The vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) is one of the | Map 5S. Distribution of Vicugna vicugna South American camelids along with the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), the llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (Lama pacos). While _vicuiia and guanacos are wild, the llamas and alpacas are their domesticated counterpart, a process of selection that appears to have started between 7,000 and 6,000 years ago. The vicufia inhabits the Andean highlands, between 3,000 and 4,600 m. Its range currently extends over large areas of Peru (80,000), north of Argentina (23,000) and Chile (25,000), and west of Bolivia (12,000) (see Map 5). Hunted for their precious wool, which is the finest in the world, the vicufa was near to extinction by the late 1960s. With the European invasion, a trade in fibre was developed, involving the killing of the animal. The few attempts to regulate the use of vicufias up to this century failed and uncontrolled hunting continued until the species reached near extinction, with just an estimated 10,000 individuals left in the 1950's. Vicuiia wool has been long praised for its softness and fineness. Its current scarcity also adds to the high prices commanded by the few items traded internationally. Vicufia wool (or rather fleece) is regarded as a luxury fibre along with Alpaca, Angora, Cashmere, Camel hair, Mohair, Musk Ox and, Yak, which are noted for their fineness, scarcity. unique appearance and status. It is a very exclusive market, with production of all luxury fibres representing less than 3% of annual sheepwoo! production by weight. Vicuiia is considered the finest and rarest of all, and its softness and colour are highly valued, commanding the highest prices. Conservation efforts to protect the vicufia started in Peri in 1969, with the creation of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. Subsequently, range states have coordinated conservation efforts through several Figure 5. Total estimated vicufia population in Pert, 1965-1994. CITES Custody and 120,000 + ratified neo eli het a communities | Ajj p. App. II. 100,000 1 Vicuiia agreement Fa ee Se ae export. and Pampa : SPs \ 2 80,000 | Galeras created ; ' ic bed = ' 1 $ 60,000 Some pop. moved App I : E. ; an 3 >App II : he £40,000 + Cloth trials. eines No trade. ! ' 20,000 J : ; 0 : Val i a = al Val io fon = Cal vel io a = Gal Val \o \o \o i io lo" CC (oe ao o co co ao an n an x S Ss 2 2 3 2 2 SS Ss Ss es oy 2S Sy = agreements. In 1969 the first agreement for the protection of the vicufa was signed. Peru and Bolivia signed in 1969, with Argentina joining in 1971 and Chile in 1972. The agreement banned all international and internal 20 ms } ‘ b are aaron ich-e arg ree ae my os Saari gtacami iL ; ; Goa WiPrgy it % ib Dapeeendn ae yuNe | SNE 3 or ag F ’ eh SOPs tincinoe gigh ~ —— fh SP a he 10m caer! BS ; of sii od. Pee 7 Sate nae Uke il cy ae z : a rhe & ‘iuceg ee ‘ jens oe) Pike 4 AVENE Lyete, ete 7 .2ot Segba Pole ep Pci / elbethoel earn (ortip. <0 eA) Duvet reli De 47 hey gh at ge Abs 4 7” f Hn 4 Oia ya eas teal Mas vio hi bt f ' gaguee eon aes: We tip 0 Tein Kat, a Ais GST ales" 28h ectoowy wk Ad “elas sires — aengrrd ey | trade in vicufia products and prohibited the export of fertile individuals to third parties. The vicufia was also listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1975, ratified by all range states and banning all international trade in the species. These coordination efforts for SS | conservation at the international level Ce piseree pie irene created a strong base for cooperation among range states. As a result, the | vicufa experienced an impressive | recovery during the last 30 years, particularly in Peri (see Figure 5)... | From an estimated 6,000 over the four range countries in 1965, the vicuna reached 10,000 by 1970, 101,215 in 1983 and around 154,000 by 1992. However, financial and _ physical requirements to effectively protect those areas has not grown at the same rate. Studies in Chile suggest that the vicufia population has reached the carrying capacity of the habitat, given the existing livestock. At the regional level, some areas show significant overstocking, as in the Lauca National Park. As populations recovered, the competition over habitat with domestic livestock (llamas and Sage alpacas) increased, being this one of + Ascccin Se Conmnidates Canpesinss Crindores Ge Views y res camblidos ela Resta Los Libcradores War the factors behind the increase in fa as Coa ae Cana on Ves wegen Toe pce poaching. These factors made the —E_E ETE involvement of the local communities essential for the long term protection of the species. One way to create incentives for conservation and protection of the vicufia at the local level was to reopen trade in vicufa wool, which can be extracted by shearing live vicufias with little impact on wild populations, and generating revenue for local communities. This was the philosophy behind the second vicufia agreement in 1979. In recent years, initiatives to reopen a legal trade in vicufa fibre have taken concrete form and Pert and Chile are already exporting/processing vicuiia fibre for commercial purposes. In 1986, the trademark ~ Vicufandes" was registered and some populations in Peri were downlisted to Appendix II in CITES to allow export of cloth made with fibre from live animals. In the last Conference of the Parties (Fort Lauderdale 1994) this was taken further and all Peruvian populations were downlisted to Appendix II. The downlisting was conditional on the trade in fibre from live vicunas. In Pert in 1991, legal reforms altered the status of the vicufas in communal lands, returning them to the local communities in usufruct and custody, thus enabling their use under state regulation. Communal Vicufa Committees have been created since then as a means to protect, negotiate and regulate the use of the vicufa, complementing state protection. The National Vicufia Breeders' Society (NBS), encompassing all regional associations, is the legal body representing the communities. Since Vicufa fibre is difficult to process given its fineness and relatively short staple length, the management authorities sought to create a joint venture with the industry. In order to get better prices, the NBS put out for tender the processing of the stock of fibre accumulated until 1993. A total of 2,000 tonnes of fibre and 200 metres of cloth from early trials were offered. The tender was for a two year participation agreement, requiring the applicant to guarantee a direct processing line to the final consumer. Ayal - alexeye Ehwaly col? aneraieg tobi) ve alengtier ta albrie\ibs te ae iP deg sath? GHA Yh congrats WARY Heeoduir,* yee OPEL sath het sey trainers wi ts SIDR ih Miide wat Sosa rant =~ serra Ses — | , Hievern. ig ga be Oe ed wa ab a ms (Wie og ee eva ee i tA | ee ve ides — a ot reer trots distin « Pig ay wa nee SHS ce matte ¥ J a a Ve nor de ee te nc HE SO ese. Pret all ad pais. nertgt site nese ews = Cibcregeer yy! aaread? vit tee aa 4 i aye le aA! tS G4 ary hey es he MSE phe = pr fe iy oy a is The resulting agreement was very advantageous, and several funds for development and conservation were secured. The International Vicufia Consortium, the winning Italo-Peruvian venture, gained in exchange exclusive use for two years of the trademark and marketing of existing stocks of fibre. Figure 6 illustrates the various aspects of the agreement. Revenues from the agreement will be channelled back to the communities through the National Vicufa Breeders' Society. At present, Pert's Rural communities are collecting fibre for the next tender which should take place in 1996. 22 ~ Becilbl ie tthany Hi par gererery aes me a ee wi Thi: on aids ihirtwe podem wae serait wd Sega Pols 7: F. The Need for a Sustainable Use Certification Protocol 1. The sustainable use certification should occur within the context of an international multilateral agreement. De A protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity for the establishment of a sustainable use certification mechanism is necessary. 3. The mechanism should be extended to apply to the widest range of values possible, including non-use values. As indicated in the case study on certification, there are at present a large number of formal and informal certification programmes. Many of these comply with many of the principles set forth above. Nevertheless, it is important that this plethora of programmes be replaced by a single multilateral mechanism for accomplishing these objectives. There are two primary reasons for doing so, both concerned with the establishment of the credibility of the certification mechanism. First, the fundamental purpose of the establishment of such a mechanism is to allow consumers to convey the additional value that they attach to natural habitat back to producers who sustain it. The only task that must be accomplished in order to attain this object is the development of a credible mechanism for assuring consumers of this result. A legal obligation by the consumer state to monitor and enforce this mechanism, together with an international auditing mechanism to confirm this, is the highest form of assurance that may be achieved. Secondly, sustamability must be assessed according to an agreed criterion, not a multitude of possible standards. An international authority would establish the international scientific committee required to agree consensus-based standards, and it could establish the international monitoring committee that would agree the basis for surveying with respect to those standards. The development of a single multilateral agency to perform these tasks would eliminate the wasteful replication involved in the establishment of numerous unofficial bodies doing the same things. All that is required is a small multilateral agency composed of a scientific committee that establishes the criteria for sustainability and a monitoring committee that audits the performance of both consumer and producer states. These tasks cannot be accomplished within the framework established under CITES. First, CITES is exclusively concerned with those species which are endangered or potentially threatened through commercial use; the required certification mechanism must be applicable to all the possible products from natural habitat utilisation, endangered or not. Secondly, the framework of CITES is directed to a very different purpose - the monitoring and halting of trade in endangered species; the object of a certification mechanism is to maximise the differential premium attainable from sustainable utilisation production methods. Finally, it is important to recognise that there are many people who value wildlife for purposes other than use values, and that a multilateral agency could also harness these values and channel them back to the range states. In this case the agency would not certify the wildlife product as sustainable, but would instead certify the state's commitment to provide specific habitats or 23 sanenroa ®t aiisbirrdg wduniaren’ © wala ott & lanoterreiYini dy lo i ytean ov. tithiv Ww er feactiad witoines ro pheteasise yet ae ce 7 has ics 5 and i ow Sewireleigte mal? wok wacesvilt Lagi eth 44 are aun dS: ah ni! ese - : wikereny a priests 4c) AD RARE ae: Lagan ‘id taog waite Ww ognet hihi nh wo elgg sh baits ad huni, alco ait ~ ve 2, ile ge aa hiss, Serveclh So soterdes signal we tearsign), fe 271: pig! puatines eR soe wohginatiny Gey da end ahiper iin ea anh YO VRE i f thyida x ud bores Sperone me sot hee J) Hai P Wey er or WA neimanin cumini OWS one edt ahaa 22) Sri pmelbe Te ene - wraps Ae nowaober es al no ies Poppet! ool ity Bes ary f = oF erannieioo vente ay 2¢ aminedoom 5 Rove bo at api es lhl aurea ignites , Tes. finery pit gimauboxy co) Sond drill! foop ht yeatonl iPod ici ook» (nals ae enectyetseved fh a snblo zit mints va aaiD BY 4 dL oaicpttytn ati vat bias hip mainte att yd wabssihio legs A. prank a hp pietarea? x ©) caeinptiysett eal bnotsa ia, a aah. pea i ts x aah — ne ah. aphijron bi ees Od | PCS Wak alien og Ger i ae data Dh a ehtaon tuts herent : oil theliinnes Wipes A aes 2isighitsye buh bane, 10> Oat ce canna ere y ven lea eats Aepge bith bes conservation programmes as credible. In this way, individuals in consumer states could be assured that their donation would be channelled in the precise manner that the certification asserted. It is precisely the same certification process, only attached to a programme rather than a specific product. 24 ~*~ ~— barijene od Plan. eouta yen ar te Abi Khar. dieees a illbape of peiteettnys cry et ed 8 Berean Nontvins Si ats mite oy ih} ter ‘Yaltoarnein sd olan 1 erty hae Qratt edist omumemgry bs Late Yd areantt cere “y “att ay F. Certification programme and the sustainable use of forest products. There has been an increasing trend towards the use of markets to enhance conservation incentives at the local level in developing countries. A significant green" market has evolved, with both traditional and new products reaching the marketplace. This growth of environmentally aware consumerism has led to a plethor of labels appearing in the market making doubtful claims about products as firms try to capture the ~~green" premium from consumers. A study in 1991 by WWF UK found over 600 different timber firms making ecolabel claims for their wood products, of which only four were willing to substantiate their marketing claims. NGOs have also established their own formal or informal ~ certification" programme. Informal ones have relied on the use of the NGO's reputation and use its emblem in the labels with some information on the product's characteristics. This has been the case in many non-timber products such as those from the Conservation International's Cultural Survival Enterprises, the Body Shop and Ben & Jerry's, who lack third party verification. Formal certification schemes have been created through independent bodies with set criteria to assess the sustainability of forest management; among these are the Rainforest Alliance's Smart Wood" (US), Scientific Certification Services' Green Cross" (US), Soil Association's ** Woodmark" (UK) and the Societe General de Surveillance (Switzerland). Even governments, such as Indonesia, have taken measures aimed at identifying wood products from acceptable sources. The consequences of this proliferation of labels has been confusion among consumers, who cannot link a label to sound conservation practices. A step forward in unifying all certification programme has been the creation in 1993 of the Forest Stewardship Council, an independent, non-profit, and non-governmental organization, aiming to provide consumers with reliable information about forest products and their sources. Involving representatives from governments, NGOs, indigenous peoples’ organizations and forest industry, the FSC is seeking to accommodate the views of all stakeholders involved, acknowledging the need for wide support and recognition of it is to be credible. Previous global certification efforts by governments through organizations such as ITTO, where progress has been slow, have highlighted the limitations of a government approach ignoring the NGO and industry perspective. The FSC is not a certifier of forest products, but its role is to accredit, evaluate and monitor certifiers of forest products. Through its principles, the FSC requires certifiers to assess a wide range of criteria, from land tenure to indigenous peoples’ and community rights as well as environmental and monitoring Figure 7. UK surveys on the Willingness to Pay for Sustainably produced 2 Tropical Timber standards. A major step of the FSC 25 was the inclusion of both ] temperate and tropical forest 50 Milland's study products, hence involving a fairer il manufacturers’ mmitment for both developed WHE o me : P 15 I WWF's study consumer's average WTP (13.6) and developing countries. consumers' expected WTP by In order to allow for national Milland’s study average WTP (6.35) provisions, the FSC isencouraging | — — — — — SW — — — — - the creation of National Working rela OPE Meera. Lia wee 5 8 Groups to draft country specific interpretations and expansion of the principles. This is necessary to a 20 40 60 30 TOORGiGieee allow differences in tropical and temperate areas and other social and political conditions. Despite the apparent difficulties in establishing unified criteria, the process was cased by the tacit harmonisation of existing criteria. Indeed, comparative studies of the various forest sustainability criteria used by various NGOs and governments have shown a high degree of similarity in their objectives. LEEC's study consumers’ expected 25 te oe ea hp obs Pe Soe ee ee Scie : sein Haine Sa Gay adit hom hii als ital ye ~, a, a Pee) Peau ae ey ‘puppets 6» ipa Beal dt ahve ain wre Aedte WitecA ahead ied Orie: sHlgenery es A ska CAE iewsthril i Fs ae melee, tar trek aa el ‘nglnnigun aa ane! Mine ral i caiaty. i “nopiy itt oldie ca ae SiR at Zaller il bi ibe iP ce yet acre ana iaby oimwketiy OFD. ove Tayi SAS UEP epee POOH aU OLR: 13 steerer oe Sia hem ee ese bnb wedi sae eS fips tube ses aaa Re | Loow beat hae a “agel. sen waite? Fe a ee ae 41S) mm WT gigi sb? esl! ts ila 1th ety tor mite eb ‘Raboh Mia ate Ha ot qeadbtay: Bhi: oat, Seb. ee Sta 7 yA ntl laa Nee oi ih coat SarKt 20 hat outer) TH | ert: mn Sey tt nad Adit aiet Prod al . th eal tater a = al ves} hide ‘nyt re 4) eet mene bevtraye. ditusin. 2 bei STAR \ ‘ oo" ae patie 00 iii asin foibniein vegas Sitio aes sw il eoighgd sonal iret 2 ok OA we tN eer Ne Ak Lissa ote eR We a ah bee eteelet, 36, ‘pat 4 oh Paeusiatiea brine, SAS) Sern nc mana gala Pa eeasea viet ak sia Cex sate Snead Fide pin et ‘piety 30 : 9 tae * Pea > rae to eal 1h soon air havin rat jek eindet Ts citar hag Rabie 2st bev! ateriy ares SE gat quiet = Wiha Z dager bar tad i ee a ‘alae fa oaeet i | sate. Tay an iy tee cht 2 ideal iy Ee eas abitnt hay ee ey 0 i pha odio wi sat Bas MC esale jhe My sieame Pes vd tj ‘daly: wine Midday al yh oh, Ely i Siva GIL Ta eek “ake Mig Sead st pi. i. srl Ait aT 2 | bie hii Heat isiobony de A \ by ake e Sete = : he By ak — aig tay EF ltr Geauga? you’ TS ! : a ; pi they =. hi ne a am ond me a, sage — stati Pate ~ i i dallas Key to the creation of product differentiation was the issue of product discrimination by method of production, explicitly prohibited by GATT. For this reason, the approach has been to certify on a voluntary basis, with no legal restriction on imports; hence, the system must work purely on consumer preferences. With regard to differentiated access to certification services by operations in the developed and developing countries, measures are being taken, with some previous certification systems, such as Smart Wood, explicitly non-discriminating on the basis of cost. The certification process promoted by FSC involves both forest management certification and product certification. The first involves the assessment of the viability of the operation at the grassroots level, while the product certification involves tracing the wood from source through the supply chain to the final products (chain-of-custody). While more expensive than alternative systems like country certification, this method allows for greater credibility of the label as well as a greater involvement of higher stages of industry in the certification process. To date, 40 major retailers in the UK, representing 5% of the entire UK market for wood-based products, have publicly committed to buy FSC-accredited certified products by the end of 1995, a trade representing some USD 2 billion per year. In the US, 41 wood suppliers have been certified by a third party. At grassroots level, 19 forests have been certified, covering 4.26 million hectares and 1.2 million cubic metres per year. More than half of these are tropical forests. The real test for this encouraging response from industry and NGOs will be the consumers’ real willingness to pay for certified wood. Studies conducted to date show that consumers are expected to pay between 5% and 13.5%. However. retailing companies are still very much influenced in their buying decisions by price rather than environmental issues (see Figure 7). The creation of exclusive marketing channels for the low volumes produced by ~‘sustainable harvesting” projects has proven to be costly, with NGOs and government often subsidising the production of these projects at least during the pilot phase. It has been estimated that harvesting costs could almost double by the use of sustainable techniques. Additionally, certification costs are as yet uncertain but substantial. Governments and NGOs will have to play an active role in promoting the use of certified wood in order to create this price differential. In addition to the capture of consumer willingness to pay for sustainably produced timber, the establishment of a credible ecolabel will also allow the use of other creative mechanisms to internalise the environmental externalities in the forests, such as tax or revenue transfers and trade subsidies. Such mechanisms could encompass wider resource values other than use. 26 ni! WP ssulletony les ehiome ye, rrulbaatyhiririatty Haubinne = sua aa T. ra im iho hi bvahievin ts aiderahy We a i) iis 4 il platens Ca igre! ay ned yal sl sand 7 nt eats STE ee Lalo ay ty at inte HW Asourat Ay iy peepee et! hy mm pine wibie'nd} eobabe agreingal si 2A Guth of ations ae mre CONE sia, fa vagir' cgjiginag ae ae * atl * fad Ryd essai ui tee ‘Sim wer oy ky Pope Ae, ee ; 4 j - { = ion tenes Ye Ada — OE faba ie: sbiipest i. ora pares Shaves Prom roe = Fh hayaene! ee 2a “ penny ie ohana ee tee pie yee eth ai i chisel ss 4a « a sorasaedh at Shilo unity of, ay PS “eee cn Byinish . te faa he Me Saiuett oly nai ean + geen Heghtcen ety TimtathS acted pe “y we ek oe sie aia “— eee ini ort ibe: sae oni aise “ poedirys uli 1 Fe us msds Cay fh) seas oe a 6h ot io aaa fete 8 “e . . sack to lila iby im ase i we 152 enenyailti.’ ising sii As er Shaki Recommendation It is the considered recommendation of this project team that the above principles be implemented by means of the adoption of a protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity that would certify sustaiable use regimes in the manner described above. The object of the protocol would be the establishment of an agency for the following purposes: a) the development and implementation of a set of agreed standards on the sustainable use of natural habitats; b) the development and implementation of monitoring and auditing mechanisms that ensure that member states purchase exclusively those products that have been certified to meet these sustainable use standards. These objects would be accomplished by the implementation of the following tasks: a) the establishment of agreed criteria for sustainable use based upon stock level indicators in specified habitats; b) the establishment of procedures for assessing the attaimment of certain indicator levels in specified habitats as against specified criteria of sustainability; c) the auditing of the performance of applicants for certification, and the continued auditing of the performance of existing certificants; d) the auditing of the performance of consumer states in the execution of exclusive purchasing agreements; and e) the provision of market information to certified producers regarding rent-maximising aggregate flows of particular wildlife products, and the monitoring of these flows. In order to accomplish these tasks, the international agency would consist of: a) a standards committee (for establishing general criteria for sustainability and the creation of regulations for each sub-agency); b) a habitat monitoring sub-agency (responsible for implementing surveys of stock levels and testing for attainment of the criteria set for sustainability); c) an international auditing sub-agency (responsible for annual and random auditing of the performance of producers and consumers in terms of flows between them); and d) a market analysis sub-agency (responsible for providing rent maximisation analysis and advice to producers to aid and enhance their cooperation). 27 sadibiingith wt ialgh ating: “Hi ti dhs: ‘dh wtges peas da aed co imei): bade oat i tami ihtinseh blarsiw? tanh neezsennie — tes mags i ealisiephrmn a Maat th prt Hepa yee ay wii eames i — 4 nso ett wan na sas anf hd pier err i ian bid ill stv cl bee oa tome ta aso bah ‘{apoest ‘ be aD . h A ', wield iets a alis Pree ty (iat jornisttiyeah Lark. anrcneg oe see all ae bis bail Pees hb ernest A tee In order to reach these decisions, the standards committee would be: a) a small representative body elected by the member states to the convention; b) a democratic body rendering decisions and regulations by majority vote. 28 By g nest i na aes py h bi eh wi aS ie wer WORLD CONSERVATION : TESS) MONITORING CENTRE a. — | io”) S Hy World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 219 Huntingdon Road tae Cambridge CB3 0DL bee United Kingdom > Telephone: +44 1223 277314 Fax: +44 1223 277136 e-mail: info@weme.org.uk The World Conservation Monitoring Centre is a joint-venture betw partners who developed the World Conservation Strategy and its successc for the Earth: YUCN-The World Conservation Union, UNEP-Unite Tid Wall Conta asn UN UNEP WWE Environment Programme, and WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature. - a xt a oe DW i