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PROFESSOR ANDERS RETZIUS.
Anthropologist, Stockholm.

• * 13/10 1796. 1 18/4 I860.

THE SWEDISH NATION

IN WORD AND PICTURE I h

J > > » » » »a* ,

TOGETHER WITH SHORT SUMMARIES OF THE

CONTRIBUTIONS MADES BY SWEDES WITHIN THE FIELDS

OF ANTHROPOLOGY, RACE^BIOLOGY,

GENETICS AND EUGENICS

A JUBILEE BOOK GIVEN OUT,

WITH THE COOPERATION OF EXPERTS COMMISSIONED BY

THE SWEDISH SOCIETY FOR

RACE-HYGIENE

BY

H.[LUNDB0RG, M. D. J. RUNNSTROM, D. Ph.

PROFESSOR, UPPSALA LECTURER AT THE UNIVERSITY

EDITOR OF THE SOCIETY'S SERIES OF PAMPHLETS OF STOCKHOLM, SECRETARY TO THE SOCIETY

PRINTED BY HASSE W. TULLBERG CO. LTD.

STOCKHOLM -- SWEDEN

19 2 1

V

^

CONTENTS:
PART I.

Professor Oscar Montelius, Stockholm, The Immigration of our Forefathers

to the North 7

Professor Otto von Friesen, Uppsala, Emigration from Sweden in Ancient Times 12
Professor Herman Lundborg, Uppsala, The more Important Racial Elements

that form a part of the present Swedish Nation 24

Reverend Georg Bergfors, Vittangi, The Swedish National^Character 34

Professor Martin Ramstrom, Uppsala, Anthropological and Race»biological

Researches in Sweden 39

Doctor Hjalmar Anderson, Bergvik, The Swedish State*Institute for Race*

biological Investigation 48

Professor Herman Lundborg, Uppsala, The History of a Swedish Farmer's

Lineage as seen from a Race*biological Stand»point 57

Professor J. Vilhelm Hultkrantz, Uppsala and Doctor Emanuel Bergman,

Uppsala, The Struggle for Race»improvement in Sweden 71

Doctor Emanuel Bergman, Uppsala, The Swedish NationaUtype Exhibition

1919 81

Doctor Kaarlo Hilden, Helsingfors, Some Anthropological Data on the In«

habitants of Swedish and Finnish Extraction in Finland 84

Professor Ossian Schauman, Helsingfors, Eugenic Work in Swedish Finland 89
DocENT Arvid Edin, Uppsala, The Swedish Church Registers and the Demo*

graphical Science 95

Docent N. Heribert*Nilsson, Lund, Genetics in Sweden 101

Professor Herman NilssonsEhle, Lund, Some Remarks on the Work of the

Swedish Genetic Institute in Akarp 105

Professor Otto Rosenberg, Stockholm, Genetic Cytology in Sweden 109

Docent Harry Federley, Helsingfors, Genetics in Swedish Finland 112

Doctor Hans Tedin, Svalof, Plant Breeding in Sweden 117

Editor Robert Larsson, Lund, The Mendelian Society in Lund and its Perio*

dical, Hereditas 127

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Professor Anders Retzius Frontispiece to face page

Professor Oscar Montelius 8

Per Henrik Ling, the Father . of Swedish Gymnastics, Professors M. Huss,

C. M. Furst and G. Retzius 24

Miss Ellen Key, authoress. Baroness E. Palmstierna, Professors F. Lennmalm

and H. Lundborg 40

Dr. C. Swartz, Chancellor of the Universities in Sweden 48

L

^•73527

Mr. E. Backlin, Permanent Secretary, Dr. F. Bauer, Surgeon^general, Professor
N. Hansson, Minister for Agriculture, Dr. B. Bergqvist, Minister for

Education 64

Dr. V. Bjorck, Member of the Board of Education, Mr. Hj. Branting, States*

man. Admiral A. Lindman, Statesman, and Professor K. Kjellberg 72

Professors V. Hultkrantz, I. Broman, T. Thunberg and O. Schauman 88

Professor H. Nilsson=Ehle 96

Professors N. v. Hofsten and O. Rosenberg and Dr. H. Federley and Dr.

N. H. Nilsson, lecturers 104

Professors P. Fahlbeck, G. Sundbarg, K. B. Wiklund, and Mr. I Flodstrom,

Demographer 120

PART II.
FOLK. AND RACE.TYPES IN SWEDEN.

Nordic (Teutonic) Types .. Plates I— VII

Swedish Mixed^Race Types Plates VIII— X

Finnish Types Plates XI-XIII

Finnish Mixed*Race Types Plate XIV

Lapps Plates XV-XVII

Lappic Mixed»Race Types Plate XVIII

Swedish Walloons Plates XIX-XX

_.j

PART I.

THE IMMIGRATION OF OUR FORE*
FATHERS TO THE NORTH

BY

OSCAR MONTELIUS

STOCKHOLM

AMONGST OTHER PRECIOUS RELICS, WHICH HAVE BEEN
preserved to the present day from the time of the sumptuous Erik XIV,
is a valuable tapestry. This shows a Iife»size representation of the first
king of Sweden, according to a Latin inscription. The name of the king is Sven,
as one would expect of the progenitor of the Swedes; he was the son of Magog,
whom we recognize from the First Book of Moses, as a son of Japhet, and a
grandson of Noah.

The tapestry is an illustration of »The History of the Gotar and the Svear»,
published at that time by Archbishop Johannes Magni, according to whom Magog
was the first king of the Gotar (Goths), and his son Sven the first king of the
Svear. Ubbe, the brother of Sven, succeeded him about 246 years after the Deluge,
and built the city of Upsala, according to the Archbishop's history.

The question regarding our forefathers' immigration to the North was, 400
years ago, easily responded to, and the answer was very satisfactory: »our fore*
fathers arrived here immediately after the Deluge».

Towards the end of the 17th century, when Sweden was at the height of her
political power, this date was not ancient enough for the Swedish people. Olof
Rudbeck in the »Atlantica» informed his delighted contemporaries, that the Swed»
ish peninsula was peopled before the Deluge, and that even then, the inhabitants
of Sweden were in a high state of culture. After the Deluge, Japhet's sons Magog
^ and Mesek came to the North. The former founded in Sweden the ancient Gothic,
and the latter in Finland, the Finnish Empire. Magog's realm was divided bet«
ween his sons Sven and Getar, who founded the Svea and Gothic Empires.

We must not forget that this belief was advanced quite seriously, and proof
thereof was developed with all the wisdom, invention, and ingenuity, which di*
stinguished Olof Rudbeck, one of the mightiest and most esteemed figures we meet
with in the history of Swedish science. The doctrines of the »Atlantica» delighted
both king and people. To deny their truth, was looked upon as a crime against
our native country, and the few doubters were compelled to silence by the fear
of Charles XI, and Magnus de la Gardie.

The foregoing remarks formed the introduction to an article I published in
the first number of the »Nordisk Tidskrift* for^ 1884j^in which I attempted, as
well as I could at that time, to solve the problem: »Of the immigration of our
forefathers to the North».

I showed that our Germanic forefathers lived in Scandinavia as far back as
the later Stone«Age, thus about 5,000 years ago. The grounds for this statement
were principally two. One was, that after the end of the Stone^Age there are

OUR FOREFATHERS IMMIGRATION

no traces of any great change of the people inhabiting Sweden. The other was,
that mo5.t of the skulls found in graves of the later Stone»Age, are of the charac*
teristic Teiitpnictype.

This opinion is now generally considered to be correct. An important que«
stion arose however: Were our forefathers the first inhabitants of the country, or
was it peopled previously?

In 1884, through the then accessible though insufficient material, I found it
probable that a people of another race lived here before our forefathers. On the
other hand, from the knowledge at our disposal in this moment, I gather that
our forefathers were the first, who, after the end of the Glacial Period, occup*
ied Sweden.

During the last forty years, indefatigable investigations have brought to light
many important circumstances which tend to ultimately solve this problem.

We can all quite understand that the solution of it is enticing, inasmuch as
we, like other people, naturally wish to know our origin, and when our fore«
fathers immigrated here.

The whole of the Scandinavian peninsula was, as is generally known, for
many thousand years, the last Glacial Period, covered by a tremendous mass of
ice and snow.

When the climate became warmer, and the ice«boundary retreated towards
the North from the South coast of Scania, it was not long before plants and
animals from Central Europe spread over the parts of our country which had
been delivered from ice, and soon man followed.

Who were the primitive inhabitants* of our country? Where did they come from?
\ It is apparent that they, as well as vegetation and animals, must have come

from Central Europe, over North Germany and Denmark.

It is also apparent that this people belonged to the race, which then lived
in Central Europe.

Do we know anything of the inhabitants of Central Europe at that time?
Yes, we know that a long-headed (dolichocephalic) race then inhabited Central
Europe, and, what is very important, that in the whole of Central Europe no
^^y •^ remains have been found of any short^headed (brachycephalic) race who could
have lived immediately after the end of the last Glacial Period. The first rests of
such a brachycephalic race have been met with many thousand years afterwards.

The long-headed race, who, at the end of the Glacial Period, lived in Central
Europe, is known as the »Cro»Magnon»»race, so called after a place in France
where remains of the same were found, or the »Aurignacian»«race, because the
same has been identified in remains from the »Aurignacian» Period, which imme«
diately followed the Glacial Age.**

It was a superior, rather cultivated, race.

♦ That is to say, naturally, the first inhabitants of Sweden after the last Glacial Period. It is another question, whether
ythe North was peopled during the Inter.Glacial Period, between the penultimate and the ultimate Glacial Age. In the southern
■ PSrts of the Scandinavian countries, traces of an. IntMjGlacial people probably have been met with, which would not be surprising,
as Central Europe was inhabited during the whole of the same Inter-Glacial Period, and even previous to this.

•• It is not necessary to discuss here the relations between the Cro-Magnon and other similar types. Here, this name
is used as a common designation of the long-headed peoples who lived in Central Europe during the time in question.

L

ft

PROFESSOR OSCAR MONTELIUS.

Archsologist, Stockholm.

* 9/9 1843.

OUR FOREFATHERS IMMIGRATION

Accordingly, it is clear that the people who, after the end of the last Glacial
Period, immigrated to Sweden, and became the first inhabitants of our country,
must have belonged to the Cro«Magnonsrace.

This is confirmed in a very distinct manner by the many discoveries made
in our country, which prove that a long-headed race, with skulls similar to those
of the Cro«Magnon«race, lived in Sweden more than 2,000 years before the com*
mencement of the Christian Era. This is further confirmed by the fact that such
skulls are, even at the present time, very common here.

As the fragile skulls can be preserved for thousands of years only under very
favourable conditions, it is not surprising that no Swedish skulls are met with
from an earlier period than the later Stone Age. Already long before this, the
short»headed race, of which we have just spoken, had arrived to Europe.

Although this race had not replaced the original inhabitants in the North,
the latter had, as is usual in such cases, more or less been blended with the
new*comers. As even these, as well as the former immigrants, came to Scandi»
navia from Central Europe, it would be a natural consequence that the short-
headed race was comparatively more spread in Southern Scandinavia, than further
North. This has just been the case.

GusTAF Retzius and Carl Furst have described a large number of Swedish
skulls from the 3rd millennium B. C, and Furst has proved, that in Scania, as
in Denmark, the percentage of short-heads during that time was greater than in
Central Sweden. This is just what ought to be the consequence of my theory
about the primitive inhabitants of our country.

We obtain further important confirmation of this theory from another source.

If they who immigrated here after the end of the Glacial Period were our
forefathers, the names of the lakes in our country would be of Swedish origin.

Several years before I arrived at my present opinion regarding the primitive
inhabitants of Sweden, Professor Heilquist of Lund had examined the names of
the Swedish lakes, and found that all of them, — with the exception of the Lapp-
landish and Finnish lakes in the most Northern parts of the country — are of
Swedish origin.*

•

Do we know anything about the time when the first immigrants arrived in
Sweden? Or in other words, do we know, when the last Glacial Period ended
here?

The Swedish geologist Baron Gerard de Geer has, by most ingenious in<
vestigations of the strata which were formed when the ice-masses retreated north
from Scania, found that about 15,000 years have elapsed since the ice-boundary began
to retreat north from the most southerly shore of Scania. As we have already
stated, people probably cam^^ortly after the disappearance of the ice, when the
country was made habitable for human beings, and we can therefore say: It is
about 15,000 years since our forefathers began to occupy Sweden. '

Another question may be asked: Have any relics from this period been found

• Elof Heliquist, »Studier ofver de svenska sjonamnen, deras harledning och histoiia*. in the xBidrag till kannedom om
de Svenska landsmilen och Svenskt folkIiv» (Stockholm 1903—1906).

10

OUR FOREFATHERS IMMIGRATION

^

\

which would thus be nearly 15,000 years old? Fortunately we can reply in the
affirmative.

The »almond»formed» flint implements which have been found in those parts
of our country, where people first could settle, are of exactly the same type
as the flint implements from the Solutre»Period in France, which is coincident
to the period when the ice first disappeared in South Sweden.

«

The people who immigrated to the north, after the end of the
Glacial Period, cannot be called Teutons, but they were the forefa*
thers of the Teutonic (Nordic) race. At this remote age, when our forefathers
first began to settle in Sweden, probably there was not much dissimilarity between
the tribes, who wandered about in different parts of Central and Southern Europe.

During the many thousand years, which have elapsed since our forefathers
came here and lived separated from the other inhabitants of our part of the world,
they by degrees, through a natural differentiation, became Teutons, in the same
way as the inhabitants of Western Europe became Celts, and those who lived
in Eastern Europe became Slavs.

About 2,000 years B. C, the home of the Teutons was only Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, and the most Northerly part of Germany, between the Oder and the
Rhine, as is shown in the map Fig. 1. This is apparent from the fact, that within
that region the well*executed and tasteful stone implements, which are charac*
teristic of the Teutons are common; in other parts of Europe, those types are
very rare, or entirely absent. Afterwards, the Teutons spread more and more on
the continent, so that the whole of the present Northern Germany became Teu«
tonic, but the Southern part was Gallic. The countries south of the Main, as
well as France, were in possession of the Gauls, who belonged to the great
Celtic race. ''

It is generally known that the conditions in Germany and France became
considerably changed by the great migrations, which caused the fall of the Roman
Empire.

The short^headed people who, seven* or eight thousand years before our
time, appeared in Europe, penetrated to the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean,
so that the long«headed race remained comparatively unblended only in two
districts very far apart: one of these districts was south»western France, ^nd the
other the Scandinavian countries.

Right up~to the present time the dolichocephalic race on the Scandinavian
peninsula remained almost pure.

The dolichocephalic people who remained in South«western France, after the
penetration of the brachycephalic race into Europe, has been blended with these
long time ago, and therefore the Scandinavian peoples are the purest of the now
Hving descendants of the Cro»Magnon race, who inhabited Central Europe at the
end of the last Glacial Period.

The above investigations entitle us to say: Our forefathers lived in Sweden
since the end of the last Glacial Period, and consequently when they arrived here.

OUR FOREFATHERS IMMIGRATION

11

the country wich is now called Sweden was not at all inhabited. We Swedes

possess a country which neither we, nor our forefathers, have taken from any

other race. We Swe«

des have ourselves

»made» our country,

have cultivated the

land and made the

roads. We have thus

an unusually good

»title» af our land.

Celts, Germans,
and Slavs, with many
other peoples in Euro*
pe speak, as do Per*
sians and Hindoos,
languages which are
related, and which
form the great Indo»
European, or — as it
is also called, though
not so correctly, — the
t^ Indo»Germanic family
of languages. All these
peoples are supposed
not only to speak
languages which have
their origin in the same
root, but also to have
themselves a common

Fig. 1. The country of the Teutons 2,000 years B. C, (shown by the
dotted portions). The districts (Finland, the Baltic provinces belonging
to Russia, and the country round the Vistula, etc.), to which the
Teutons had already migrated during the stone age, are not given

on the map.

origin.

Some scholars

have supposed that the home of the Indo^Europeans was to be found in the
countries round the Southern Baltic.

My opinion is however, that this supposition can not be correct.

Here in the Scandinavian North, we have the home of the Teutonic race, but '^
not that of the Indo«Europeans. All that I know of the remote ages, when the
Indo«Europeans left their native land to spread over the earth, has convinced me
that we cannot take upon ourselves the honour of our country being the cradle
of the Indo-European race.

It is honour enough that the Teutons became Teutons in our country: a race
who has inscribed its name on many pages of the history of civilisation, and
who — I hope — will, even in the future, have a great mission in the mutual
work of furthering the wellfare of Mankind.

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN IN
ANCIENT TIMES

BY

OTTO V. FRIESEN

UPPSALA

THE GOTHIC HISTORIAN JORDANES IN A FREQUENTLY QUOT*
ed passage in his Getica (Gothic history) calls Scandia, i. e. the Scan*
dinavian peninsula, a »workshop where tribes are forged* and a »womb
of the peoples*. Jordanes wrote in 551 A. D. in Italy. He himself was of Gothic
birth and can thus be supposed to be quite familiar with the legends and songs
of their past fortunes that the Goths, like other Germanic tribes of the period of
migrations, preserved with extraordinary fidelity from generation to generation.

His above^quoted statement starts out from the assumption that the great
region in the northern sea that was taken to be an island called Scadinavia or
Scandia by the geographers and historians of antiquity was the primeval home
of a number of the Germanic tribes that appeared in Middle and South Europe
during the period of migrations and whose onset at length overthrew the Roman
Empire, the great civilization of antiquity. He relates himself that his own people,
the Goths, under the leadership of King Berig once left this island and crossed
the sea in three ships. The first time they are mentioned in classical literature
they are settled on the south coast of the Baltic in the neighbourhood of the
estuary of the Vistula. Another of the leading Germanic tribes on the Continent,
the Gepids, has also, according to Jordanes, come over the sea from Scandia to
the islands in the delta of the Vistula, which were called Gepidoios after them —
the Gepidislands. Jordanes' general view of Scandia as the original home of a
number of tribes of that time also agrees with the traditions quoted by other
writers of the period of migrations.

Paulus Diaconus, who during the time of Charles the great wrote the history
of the Langohards, tells us that this people came from the island of Scadinavia,
which they left because the country was unable to maintain the whole of their
populous tribe. The same legend is quoted a couple of centuries earlier in the
introduction to the statute=hook of King Rothar, the Langobardian king, and is
thus obviously based on an ancient tradition in the tribe.

According to the tribal legend the Heruli too are one of the peoples who
emigrated from Scandinavia. Jordanes relates that they were expelled from their
native land by the Dani, who had issued from the tribe of the Svear. As early
as the 3rd century they appear by the side of the Goths in the south-east of
Europe, where they ravage the coasts of the Black sea and the Archipelago. But
on the other hand they also appear in the Viking expeditions along the shores
of Western Europe in France and Spain. The appearance of the tribe in these
widely separated regions along the two main commercial routes to the north from

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN 13

the Roman empire, the route along the line of the Vistula and Dnieper to the
south-east and to the estuaries of the Rhine to the south-west, indicates that, in
accordance with Jordanes' statements, their original home is just Scandinavia.

Finally in this connection we may recall the above-mentioned Dani, who are
identical with the modern Danes. It is true that this people is not one of those
who left the Scandinavian region, but the information Jordanes has given about
them indicates, however, that they represent a similar tribal displacement from
north to south within Scandinavia itself According to the interpretation of Jor#
Danes' words in the place referred to it is most probable on both internal and
external grounds, that they have proceeded from the tribe of the Svear and displaced
the Heruli from what is now Scania. As, according to older and mediaeval
linguistic usage, the name Svear refers to a tribe dwelling on the north side of
Lake Malar, it is there we must look for the point of departure of the under*
taking that led to the conquest of the Heruli and caused their appearance in the
continent of Europe.

Not only ancient tradition but modern scholarship as well bears witness to
Scandinavia as a »vagina gentium», a »womb of the peoples*. I shall here only
mention in passing that contemporary philologists, archaeologists, and anthropolo*
gists have gradually agreed that the original home of the Teutonic peoples was
in the region round the western Baltic and the south-east of the North sea, which
would thus comprise the southern parts of the Scandinavian peninsula, the Danish
islands, Jutland, and North Germany between the Ems and the lower Oder.
Observations that archaeological investigators consider they have made and that
I shall touch on briefly here, have a more direct connection with the subject
under discussion.

The Finnish archaeologist A. M. Tallgren has observed that at the beginning
of the late bronze age about 1000 B. C. there was in east Russia at the big bend
of the Volga a type of axe that has been found at Lake Malar and occurs there
and in the west of Finland. The middle Swedish axe has given rise to new
local forms in Russia. According to Tallgren's view the extension of this axe
to the region of the Russian bronze age cannot be due merely to commercial
connections but to a Swedish colonization of East Russia.

The German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna'' asserts that a special culture that
distinguishes the region between the lower Vistula and the lower Oder during the
oldest iron age (750—150 B. C.) is maintained by Germanic tribes who had
crossed the Baltic from the islands and mainland of Scandinavia. His view
seems to be accepted by a number of authorities. According to Kossinna these
tribes are identical with the later Vandals mentioned by the classical writers and
known from the history of the period of migrations. A part of these Vandals
was the tribe of the Silingi, wliose name is seen in the name of Silesia. The
name Silingi has been connected with Selund, the oldest form of the name Sjaelland.

During the two centuries immediately before the beginning of our epoch
there appear, according to Kossinna, two new Scandinavian tribes in the norths
east of Germany. These tribes are the Rugii and the Burgundians. The name
of the former is seen in the old Norwegian county Rogaland and the mod.

* See the bibliography in J. KOSTRZEWSXI, Die ostgermanische Kultur der Spatlatenezeit I, p. 4 (Mannus-Bibliothek 18).

14 ■'' EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

Norwegian Ryfylke (= the present county of Stavanger, the south*western
corner of Norway). Their name perhaps survives in North Germany in the name
of the island of Riigen. The Burgund(ian)s emigrated from Bornholm, in ancient
times Borgund, later Borgundarholm. Because the ancient necropolis at Bornholm
ceased suddenly to be used at the end of the third century A. D. Knut Stjerna
considered that he could draw the conclusion that a new great emigration then
took place from the island, where the dwellings that had to a great extent become
empty were gradually occupied by immigrants from the region round the Kal«
mar sound.

About the middle of the first century B. C. the Goths arrive at the delta
of the Vistula, according to archaeological evidence. Antiquarians were formerly
of the opinion that they came there from Gotland, whose inhabitants, the Gutar,
have a name that philology has shown to be identical with that of the Goths.
Now, however, there is a greater tendency to assign their original home to the
east coast of Sweden in the county of Kalmar or Ostergotland.

Not only archaeologists but also the modern historians favour the opinion
that many of the tribes of the period of migrations emigrated from Scandinavia,
especially the Baltic region. Ludwig Schmidt, the German, who is probably the
modern historian who has studied the period of the migrations most extensively,
is of the opinion that the Vandals, Rugi, Burgunds, Goths, Gepids, Heruli, and
on the whole all the Germanic tribes on the Continent who at the beginning
of our epoch were settled in the present Germany, east of the Oder, in Poland and
west Russia, have immigrated to these regions from Scandinavia. These tribes
are generally grouped under the heading East Germanic, and philologists are
unanimously of the opinion that the languages or perhaps more correctly the
dialects they spoke are much more closely related to the Scandinavian languages
than to the old West Germanic languages, those from which have sprung modern
high and low German, Dutch and English. But according to Ludwig Schmidt
not only the real East Teutons, i. e. the tribes east of the Oder, but the Langobards
as well, whom we first find on the continent by the Elbe near Hamburg, are
originally Scandinavians.

No Germanic tribes played so great a part in European politics during the last
stage of ancient times and the beginning of mediaeval times as the East Teutons.
It was through their intervention that the Roman Empire, the greatest and mights
iest power that the West had so far seen, was completely shattered. And we get
an idea of their positive significance for Europe if we remember that at the be»
ginning of the 6th century the East Goths ruled over Austria south and west
of the Danube, the whole of Italy, and south-east France, the West Goths possessed
Spain and a part of southern France, and the Vandals North Africa, the Balearic
Islands, Corsica and Sardinia. And round the northern frontier of the Ostrogothic
dominion the kingdoms of the Burgunds, Langobards and Gepids formed a broad
belt in Central Europe. In other words, the greatest part of the most fertile and
cultivated countries of the old world were in the possession of the East Teutons.

With regard to the origin of the East Teutons a glance at the geographical
situations affords us some guidance. The oldest dwelling»places of the East
Teutons is the coast region between the mouths of the Oder and the Memel. This

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN 15

region is situated opposite the Baltic coast of Gotaland and has from the very
earliest times been connected with it along one of the main routes from south and
central Europe to the north, the route along the Vistula. It is therefore quite
natural that a horde emigrating from the Swedish Baltic coast should, in choosing
the direction of their journey, often decide on the Prussian region, which was
fertile and inhabited by a not very warlike people.

What were the causes of this Scandinavian emigration, which was to have
so radical a significance for the fate of Europe and the world?

Before proceeding to answer this question I shall try to explain some ideas
and terms that are often used in an indistinct and misleading fashion. By
a tribal emigration I mean here a removal of a people in which the male population
— or part of this — from a whole district or country leave their native place
in a collected troop together with their wives, children and property in order to
try to maintain themselves in a foreign land. The Viking bands are only tribal emi«
gration to a slight extent. In most cases the Vikings were a larger or smaller
band of warriors who wen toff on trading and plundering expeditions in the spring,
returning home towards the autumn with their earnings and the booty. Sometimes
the Viking adventures might extend to real campaigns lasting several years; many
thousands of men took part in these and their purpose was to capture spoils, levy
forced contributions, or to suppress the countries they attacked. This was the
character of the Danish invasions of France in the middle and second half of the
9th century. In these cases it was exclusively or essentially warriors who took
part in the journeys. It may happen of course that individuals or larger bands
settle down in the lands they visit, take wives in the foreign country, and arrange
for a long, perhaps a permanent, stay. But this is not yet tribal migration in the
real sense of the term. The first real instance of this is when the Vikings settle
down in the conquered country with their families, as for instance the Danes
did in the east and north of England in the second half of the 9th century or
the Norwegians did at the same time in the Hebrides, Orkneys and in Ireland.

It was principally only hordes of warlike young men who took part in the
Viking campaigns. The chief purpose of these enterprises was war and, if I may
put it so, private finance. And after a successful conclusion the participants
returned to their homes. As the causes of the Viking expeditions modern historians
give chiefly the over^population of the North and the desire for spoils and ad«
venture in the male population. This view also agrees with the accounts given
by contemporary western writers. Only in exceptional cases were the Viking ex»
peditions real emigrations, carried out for this purpose.

The term over»population also needs a few words of explanation. A country
may become over=populated in different ways. One way is when the number of
people reach or exceed the normal limit of the country's power to give its in»
habitants a bare subsistence at a certain stage of culture. One might call this
type of over«population chronic. Another type is temporary. It arises when a
country's production of the necessities of life is suddenly lowered by unfavourable
climatic or other conditions to such an extent that the people are affected by a
scarcity of what is necessary to maintain life. According to the now prevalent
opinion chronic over«population was the main cause of the Viking expeditions.

16 EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

Temporary over^population is considered to have played a very minor part. I
shall not examine the causes of the Viking expeditions here, but only mention
that the idea that before the beginning of the Viking period Scandinavia had a
very large population, even so large that the country was no longer able to
maintain it under normal conditions, is based on rather weak evidence. The reasons
for this specially adduced are the high figures given by the terrified western
Europeans in their accounts of the Viking ships and warriors. Thus in 885 Paris
is said to have been besieged by 40,000 men and in 845,600 ships are supposed
to have sailed up the Elbe against the Emperor Ludwig. This implies, says the
Danish historian Johannes Steenstrup,* that the population that sent forth these
hordes was exceedingly numerous. And he is of the opinion that it has reached
the limit that the country could support with the means of subsistence at that
time. We know, however, that during the Viking period enormous stretches of
cultivable land were untouched and it is impossible to say, as other historians
have done, that the agricultural implements and methods were so primitive that
this land could not be used. With the immense forests that were then in exi«
stence they had an ample opportunity to use the primitive method of burn^beating,
which needed no animal manure — they simply burned the forest, sowed in the
ashes, and were then able to reap not one but several harvests, getting good
pasture into the bargain. When the open ground was no longer sufficient or
was exhausted they could thus get corn for the people and food for the cattle
from the woods.

At this stage of civilization disease and a high mortality strongly counteracted
the probably great prolificity. And these factors operated with increased force
in times of scarcity and want, when peoples' power of resistance was suc«
cessively decreased by privations. There was in addition a method of regulating
a too great increase in the population, that later times would not employ, the
exposure of children. It was Christianity that put an end to this barbarous
custom. But even in the year 1000, when Christianity became the legal religion
in Iceland, they insisted, among other things, on the retention of this right.

It is thus at present rather doubtful whether a chronic over^population really
was the main reason for the Viking expeditions.

It has already been pointed out that the tribal migrations were at bottom
quite a different phenomenon from the usual Viking expeditions. The migrations
of the peoples were real emigrations, when the emigrants left their native country
in great bands with their wives and children and goods. If the desire for ad*
venture and thirst for spoil drove the young warriors of the Viking expeditions
from their homes, we may be certain that, however highly we may estimate the
martial spirit of enterprise in the old Scandinavians, it was not so great, nor was
their solicitude for their closest relatives, whose needs and future they had to
provide for, so small, that they would risk their life and prosperity in the un»
certain hope of victory and spoil. We must assume that only one thing could

* Noimannerne 1, p. 209.

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

17

drive these emigrants with their wives and children from their native soil, and
this mighty force was dire need.

We have direct testimonies from ancient times to the eflfect that such need
compelled the old Scandinavians to emigration en masse. During some centuries
before the beginning of our epoch the Cimbri were a tribe dwelling at Limfjorden
in Jutland, in the district now called Himmerland with Aalborg as its capital.
Enormous floods from the encroaching sea had covered great stretches of culti«
vated land and pasture and deprived many of the surviving peasants of any possi«
bility of maintaining themselves. This occurred about 120 B. C. Together with
parts of other tribes living by the sea who had been overtaken by the same mis«
fortune at the same time the necessitous Cimbri marched through Germania down
to the Danube, penetrated into the rich Roman province of Gallia after having
repeatedly asked the Romans in vain to assign them land and seed for cultivation,
conquered the Roman armies sent against them, extended their invasions and
plundering expeditions to Spain, and at length invaded Italy itself. It was only
then that Marius, the great Roman statesman and soldier, succeeding in checking
their advance, definitely annihilated them in a great battle in 101.

Thanks to classical writers, we probably possess with regard to the Cimbri
the most detailed and reliable information we have of any migrating tribe from
the time they left their native country until the tribe perished. This information
clearly shows us that the Cimbri left their home and their kinsmen in the North
because of what I have called temporary overpopulation, caused by floods.

For the same reasons it is considered that the Langobards who migrated from
Scandinavia to the valley of the Elbe, the present Bardengau, partly abandoned
their native homes about 300 A. D.*

The Celtic tribes at the mouth of the Rhine are also described by classical
writers as having emigrated because of floods.

In the Scandinavian peninsula floods that are sufficiently serious to affect the
sustenance of the people are, on account of the nature of the country, very rare.
But we have here instead to contend with a natural catastrophe of the greatest
importance from this point of view, namely failure of the crops. This catastrophe
affects human life in these regions all the more, because in its severe forms it
recurs or rather in earlier stages recurred frequently during each century, often
several years in succession.

Even the legends from preohistoric time tell us of serious failures of the crops,
and the more light is thrown on the past vicissitudes of our people, the more
distinctly we see the scope and effects of this terrible scourge. From the last
centuries of the middle ages we have a series of accounts of years of drought
or rains which caused famine and its concomitant diseases among human beings
and cattle. During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries these periods of distress
occurred almost regularly in every generation, and during the most severe ones,
which might last for a series of three, five, sometimes even as many as eight
years, hundreds and thousands of human beings perished from hunger and privations.

The more rational agricultural methods of later times are able to an extent
undreamt of before to counteract or nullify the reverses of nature, and the disas*

• See L. Schmidt, Allgem. Gesch. d. germ. Volker, p. 79.

-J

18 EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

trous effects of the bad harvests during the last centuries have been powerfully
and effectively counteracted by precautious and good management. But even
during the recent years of war, on account of a stoppage in the supplies from
abroad, we have had at least in the towns, a rather vivid experience of what it
means to have only a supply of bread that is inferior in quality and decreased in
quantity and, in addition, to have a deficiency in the necessary fat — butter and pork.

May we assume that failures of the harvest occurred about as often in pre*
historic as in historic times and had as disastrous consequences for the sustenance
of the people then as later? In order to answer this double question two other
questions must first be examined. How was the climate in our regions in pre*
historic times compared with the present? And were agriculture and cattle*
breeding as important then for the sustenance of the people as they are now?

With regard to the climate botanical geographers have proved, by means of
plant remains in our peat*mosses, that during the later stages of the stone age
and during the bronze age there was a warmer and drier climate than now. The
summer had an average temperature now characteristic for north and central France.
At the end of the bronze age a deterioration took place. The climate became colder
and damper to an extent that had a strong effect on vegetation. The noble foli*
ferous trees and the southern plants disappeared from the north. Towards later
times a slow improvement in the climate is supposed to have taken place, but on
the whole we have had about the same climatic conditions from about 500 B. C.
to the present day.

There are two factors in the climate of historic times that are of special im'
portance for vegetation: the distribution of the rainfall within the period of
growth — spring, summer, and autumn — and night frosts.

»Rainfall during spring and midsummer*, says H. Juhlin«Dannfelt, one of our
foremost experts on Swedish agriculture,* — »when the grain takes the greater
part of its nutrition, is decisive for the size of the crop, and on the whole damp
weather is most beneficial during this time, while, on the other hand, drought
during late summer and autumn is favourable to harvesting. The value of the
crop and the burden of the work connected with it depends to a great extent on
the favourable course of these climatic conditions. Unfortunately the climate of
Sweden is the opposite of favourable from the point of view of agriculture. The
months of May and June are generally distinguished by persistent drought, making
it difficult for the grain to grow and checking its development, while the amount
of rain in July and especially in August is generally great, and rain often delays
the harvest very greatly, increases the amount of work attached to it, and in*
jures both fodder and corn. — The distribution of the rainfall differs, however,
in different parts of the country. The higher parts of south and middle Sweden
have on the whole and even during spring the most abundant rainfall. Then
comes the west coast. The east coast, on the other hand, and the districts round
the great lakes have less rain especially during early summer, the period so im*
portant for the development of vegetation.*

With regard to night frosts, southern and middle Sweden is rather frequently
exposed to these during early summer, when the vegetation, both fodder and

• In J. GuiNCHAUD, Schweden, Sthlm 1913, p. 39 S.

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN 19

grain, is specially sensitive, and disastrous night frosts occur not infrequently even
during late summer, as early even as July.

As causes of failure of the crops in earlier times the sources indicate some*
times hard drought during early summer, sometimes incessant rain during harvest*
time, sometimes, finally, severe night frosts. When the misfortune came, some or
all of these factors might cooperate.

Were the Scandinavians of prehistoric times dependant to as great an extent
as during the historical period on the products of agriculture and cattle»rearing
for their sustenance?

Only a generation ago it was still considered that our ancestors lived mainly
by hunting and fishing and moved from one place to another to seek their prey.
And this idea seems even now to be rather common. The investigations of the
last decades have shown, however, that at least from the beginning of the later
stone age the people of Scandinavia were settled and that their domestic economy
was based chiefly on agriculture, which gave them the vegetable nutrition, and
cattle«rearing, which gave them the fat necessary — butter, tallow, and pork.

The species of grain cultivated in the North during the later stone age was
especially barley, but also wheat. In addition there was millet. During the bronze
age oats become known, at least in Denmark. During the period of migrations
we get rye* During the early middle ages, according to statements in the laws
of the counties, the cultivation of rye was of great importance in our country.
But barley was probably still the chief cereal. This was at any rate the case at
the beginning of the modern period, according to Hans Forssell.** In 1571 in the
Sweden of that time barley formed 65 % of the harvest, rye 33 %, oats and wheat
the rest, i. e. 2 % together. At the beginning of the 19th century the figures
are: barley 25 %, rye 29 %, oats 27 %, and wheat 3 %. Thus even more than a
century ago barley was no longer the most important species of grain. It had
been surpassed by both rye and oats, an alteration of the conditions to the pre*
judice of barley which has continued in the same direction during the latest gene*
rations, so that in 1880 barley formed only 13 % of the whole harvest.

The most important cereal during the prehistoric times was thus probably
barley. But this fact exposed the harvest even more than now to the unfavou*
rable effects of our climate. Corn sown in spring is naturally even more exposed
to the ravages of the spring drought than winter corn, and also to the night frosts
of early summer. For this reason the risk of a bad harvest was greater when
barley, sown in spring, formed a very much greater part of the grain than it did
later on. In addition the soil was worked and manured much worse in earlier
than in later times. Lack of draining made it impossible to use a large part of
the land that now gives the best and most certain crops, and the art of ditching
ground attacked by frost, which spread destruction to the adjacent fields, was
unknown.

All these circumstances together and others in addition justify us in assuming
that bad years and complete failure of the crops of grain and fodder were both more
common and more serious in earlier times than during the last couple of centuries.

• See Hoops, Reallex. I, p. 30 f.

*• Art. on Swedish agriculture (Proceeding of the Academy of Letters, 29), p. 17 S.

r-

"1

20

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

How are we to imagine that our ancessors met these periods of failure of the
crops, which certainly occurred almost every generation? They could endure a
single bad year by tightening the belt and mixing bark in the bread baked from
the previous year's savings. In case of need they could of course also kill some
of their cattle. But if two or more bad years came in succession it was worse. The
cattlestock, which was underfed during the winter with heather and spruce brush,
found no pasture on the ground during the dry early summer. It dried up, grew
still more thin, and was seized by diseases. The people, exhausted by the star*
vation of autumn, winter and spring, saw in front of them the certainty of a
half or third'part harvest again. Something might perhaps be obtained by sea from
friendly and more fortunate neighbouring tribes by offering them precious things,
gold and silver, jewels and selling at a low price the skins that were generally
the most important object of exchange in foreign trade. But what was the little
that could be procured with the undeveloped communications of the time among
so many who were starving? And in most cases the effects of the bad times
extended to neighbouring tribes as well. They too were in the same trouble and
misery or had at least nothing to give up. By midsummer it was evident that
thousands would perish during the terrible year that was imminent, unless so»
mething was done in time. They sacrificed and prayed to wrathful gods, and
magicians and witches eagerly exerted their magic arts so as to move the powers
of the elements. »But god helps those who help themselves*, says an old Swe«
dish proverb. They were not to fold their arms and trust blindly to the grace of
gods and powers, and it was no part of the Scandinavian temperament to await
passively a harsh fate, however convinced they were that what the Norns had
decided must be fulfilled. In despair voices were raised to kill the aged people,
and even the young children.

But in a nation of born organizers wise men had even thousands of years
before found a more humane and more practical expedient, which though despe»
rate, could still be attempted wich greater equity. In order to decrease the num«
ber of those who were competing for the exceedingly small supply that existed
and could be expressed from the coming harvest, lots were drawn to decide who
were to set out and seek deliverance in foreign countries. From very different
sources and times we have legends showing that this expedient was used. Thus
Paulus Diaconus in his history of the Langobards relates that a third of the tribe
living in Scandinavia, after drawing lots, set out from their national land to dwell
on the south coast of the Baltic. It is true that he states that this happened be»
cause the people had so increased in number during the course of time that the
country could not feed them all. But for reasons shown above this is probably
incorrect. It was much more probable that a temporary over^population, caused
by famine, drove them forth from hearth and home.

The Danish historian Saxo,* who lived in the later part of the 12th cen«
tury, recounts an old tradition of a severe failure of the crops that visited Den»
mark in ancient times during the days of King Snio. At first the king prohibited
all luxury, among other things the brewing of beer. But it turned out to be as
impossible to enforce this total prohibition as to enforce a strict rationing in our

* See Grundtvigs translation, (. 378, cf. Steenstrup, Norm, 1, p. 197.

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN 21

own times. They brewed in secret. The failure of the crop continued, however,
and the people saw themselves on the brink of ruin. A suggestion was made in
the thing that all children, cripples and aged people should be put to death, only
those capable of bearing arms and of working should be allowed to live. The
commonalty and the king assented to this suggestion. But a compassionate woman
pointed out to the people the inhuman crime against the natural feelings for parents
and children that this decision implied, and suggested instead that lots should
be cast so as to select the necessary number of people to leave the country.
And this suggestion was accepted by the people. Saxo combines this account,
obviously based on old Danish tradition, with the above-mentioned legend from
Paulus Diaconus as to the emigration of the Langobards.

Saxo's recital appears again in the work that Olaus Magnus, the last catho*
lie archbishop of Sweden, had printed in Rome in 1555, »On the Scandinavian
peoples*.*

According to Olaus Magnus** the »disting» market (annual spring market)
at Uppsala got its name from Queen Disa: »This gifted and resourceful woman
saw that the greater part of her people ran the risk of perishing by a terrible
famine caused by the supply of corn and root«crops coming to an end owing to
the extremely unfavourable climate. She succeeded in persuading the people to
draw lots in order to decide which of them were to leave their native soil and
find new dwelling»places on the other side of the sea.» Olaus Magnus adds
a few words, probably indicating that they had previously adopted the resolution
mentioned by Saxo, namely to kill those who were unfit for work.

In the Danish Ryd yearbooks, written about 1300, is mentioned an emigra»
tion of every third man among the bondsmen and poor people to the part of
the south coast of the Baltic inhabited by Slavonic and Finnish tribes***. Here
they remained, as they found these fertile tracts very pleasant. The fact that serfs
are mentioned as an essential contingent of the emigrants implies that it was bad
times that caused the emigration, for otherwise the Danes would not voluntarily
have resigned so valuable a part of their property as their serfs.

Finally we may mention in this connection a remarkable account from ancient
Gotland. The Gotland legend, written down about 1350, probably composed about
a century earlier or somewhat more+, mentions that after Gotland became colos
nized the population increased so greatly in the course of time that the country
could not feed the whole of the people. By drawing lots it was decided who
had to leave the country so as to make room for those who stayed behind. A
third of the population was selected to go into exile. Those chosen were allo«
wed to take with them all they possessed above the ground, i. e. all movable
property. They did not like to leave their native country, however, and went
off to Torsborgen and settled there. But this was not in accordance with what had
been decided and they were expelled from there, after which they went to Faron, an
Island at the north end of Gotland. Here, however, they were unable to maintain
themselves, but crossed the Baltic to Dago on the Esthonian coast, were they built a

• Bygden in Samlaren, XVII, p. 48.

" 01. Mag. lb IV, cap. 6.

•" Cf. Steenstrup, Norm. I, p. 194.

t Pipping, Guta lag och Guta saga. f. 63.

22 EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN

castle that was still there in the 13th century. Thence they moved farther up
the river Dyna and down through Russia to the Grecian empire, where at length
they obtained permanent dwelling — places from the Grecian emperor.

In this case we are probably concerned with a historic event, perhaps several,
that have been preserved in the memory of the people in the form of a legend.
Here too what is reasonable is that the real cause of the extraordinary measure
of banishing a large portion of the people is a famine caused by failure of the crops.

We thus find that tradition both among those nations who have emigrated
themselves and at home in Scandinavia can tell us of emigrations from the Scan*
dinavian regions caused by the country being over»populated. The surplus of
population here concerned was in all probability not of the sort that I called
chronic above, i. e. where the population is constantly greater than can be support
ted by the average food production of the country.

In assuming this it has been supposed that the population consisted of
hunters and fishermen or led a completely or half nomadic life. As a matter of
fact it was a settled agricultural people with good possibilities of increasing their
prodution to the same extent as the population increased. There was a great
deal of cultivable land not yet being used; there were also implements and
methods whereby they could turn this land to account. During certain periods
the country so far settled may to some extent have been over^populated on account
of the clan's disinclination to split up and leave their original ancestral farm and
settle down far away from it to break new ground and form new farms. Thus
in more recent times Gustav Vasa complains in an edict of 1555 that the pea*
sants crowd together too much in their old farms. But these inconveniences were
gradually removed without any emigrations.

It was, as we have already seen, the terrible effects of several successive failures
of the crops that made the people leave. The starving people sought for food where
this could be got. The population of one district certainly applied to another
that was temporarily better off. Even at the beginning of historic times the
Norwegian kings had to adopt energetic measures against those who — as it was
said — ravaged their own country. It is a reasonable supposition that the district
castles, so numerous in our country, which partly derive their origin from the
period of the migrations, were to a certain extent erected to protect the supplies
of grain and cattle from a desperate and starving populace in adjacent hundreds
and counties.

In most cases, however, the failure of the crops extended over great regions of
the country, and there was no other way out of the difficulty than to expel part
of the people so that the fragments obtained from the bad crop and the reduced
stock of cattle might be sufficient for those who were left to exist in a state of
semisstarvation until the next harvest.

Those who were exiled had ships allotted to them in which with their families
and household goods they could cross the sea to places where they knew or
supposed that the harvest had been better and there was food for them. From a Swe*
dish point of view the first districts that had more favourable agricultural condi*
tions and more certain harvests were Scania and the countries on the south and south*
eastern side of the Baltic. It was there most frequently that the course was steered.

EMIGRATION FROM SWEDEN 23

If the newcomers did not succeed in arranging matters peacefully they had
recourse to force of arms. If they were fortunate, the fugitives obtained possession
of greater or smaller parts of the country and expelled its former owners. This
throws light on Jordanes' statement that the Dani (Danes) were Svear who drove
the Heruli forth from their homes in Scania. The name Dani seems really to
means dwellers on the plain and there is reason to assume that the Danish king*
dom was formed by these Scanians, who gradually subdued the Danish islands
and Jutland as well.

But the main region to which the emigrants directed their course was the
German coast of the Baltic past of the mouth of the Oder. Century after century
fresh hordes arrived there and succeeded in gaining a foothold there. Each time it was
necessity that paved the way, but when the emigrants found themselves at home
in the new country and had experienced its fertility and the greater security of
its sustenance, a message was sent across the seas to their relatives at home.
They needed to strengthen their ranks against the former owners attempts to expel
the newcomers and regain their land.

Thus one great tribe after another grew up on the fertile south coast of the
Baltic and penetrated up the valleys of the Vistula and the Oder.

In language too these East Germanic tribes show a closer affinity to the
Scandinavians than the Germans, Dutch, Frisians or English.

Finally from the beginning of our epoch the East Teutons moved farther to
the south=east, south and south»west down towards the frontiers of the great
Roman empire, to districts favoured by a still more fertile nature and rich with
the flourishing culture of hundreds and thousands of years. But then they had
left their maternal hearth, the meagre soil and severe climate where in their
struggle for a human existence amid troubles and hardships at the limits of the
cultivable world they had grown strong in body and will. Amidst the abundance
of Central Europe and the Mediterranean there was a gradual transformation of
the qualities that had given them their character, their physical and spiritual ele«
vation. After five hundred years all the political edifices they had erected had
collapsed. A few centuries later their language and their national qualities had
in most cases disappeared. And now only anthropology can trace them with
difficulty in some Italian, Spanish, and African settlements, where blue eyes, light
hair and beards, and unusual height bear witness to an ancient Northern weft in
the inhabitants.

THE MORE IMPORTANT RACIAL ELEMENTS

THAT FORM A PART OF THE PRESENT

SWEDISH NATION

AN ORIENTATING SYNOPSIS

BY

H. LUNDBORG

IT IS VERY USUAL TO FIND THAT IN THE COMMON CONCEP.
tion, no clear distinction is made between a race, in the antropological sense
and a nation. The two ideas are used alternately and in many cases they
are regarded as equivalent. This is however wrong. It must be borne in mind
that here one has to do with dissimilar terms. By a race is understood a more
or less numerous group of human beings all possessing many similar bodily (and
mental) qualities, which display a pronounced hereditary tendency. Thus one speaks
of certain distinctive racial features, a certain racial characteristic, etc. It includes
all^ the qualities that continue to exist through all the ages, as long as the race
in question keeps itself pure and unmixed. By a nation again one means a larger
group of human beings who constitute a unit for themselves, distinguished by
a similar culture. The latter is determined in its turn by the traditions of its
environment and the circumstances of the community, i. e. a common language,
the same religion, common laws, etc. The characteristics of a nation therefore
are not the same thing as the characteristics of a race. The former is gradually
changed, the change depending on the one side on the different racial elements
of which a nation is composed — they might alter considerably by reason of immi*
gration and emigration, a different birth«rate and death-rate, etc. — on the other side
by the varying influences of culture on the mass of the people at different times.

Persons belonging to the jame race have many similar hereditary features.
The sum of these gives the characteristics of the race in question. If the race
remains pure they appear again and again, generation after generation during
hundreds of years and even longer. New hereditary combinations arise through
the crossing of different races.

Science has with great zeal endeavoured to investigate all possible kinds of
organisms, but strange as it may sound humanity itself has been treated in rather
a grudging fashion. There are to be found animals and plants, of which from
a biological point of view, we have far greater knowledge than we have about
ourselves. It ought to be obvious to everyone that such a condition of things
cannot be right. Mankind of all living things ought to occupy the first place i^
as an object of research. We want to know what mankind is like, as a race and
as a nation — what qualities are inherited and how this inheritance is brought
about, in what degree it is susceptible to external influences, etc. These questions
connected with the life of the family, the nation, the race, which the modern

W

PIONEERS AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS

PER HENRIK LING.

The father of Swedish gymnastics.

♦ "(n 1776. t 's 1839.

PROFESSOR MAGNUS HUSS.

Physician, President of the Medical Board, Stockholm

• " 10 1807. t --/< 1890.

PROFESSOR CARL MAGNUS FCRST.

Anatomist and Anthropologist, Lund.

• '< 12 1854.

PROFESSOR GUSTAF RETZIUS.

.Anatomist and Anthropologist, Stockholm.

• " 10 1842. t -'7 191'-X

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN 25

race biologist tries to answer, are of extraordinary importance for the whole world.
Meanwhile they must have access to a very comphrehensive material.

The investigations in heredity made in modern times, teaches us that the
natural type (genotype), developed during the course of hundreds and thousands
of years, in different peoples and races, is the essential type and that it never
wholly repeats itself in different individuals except in the case of such twins
who have their origin in one and the same ovum or egg. More or less diverse
hereditary combinations form therefore as a rule, the groundwork of every new
individual who is conceived. "Within certain bounds the environment afterwards
becomes a force causing still further dissimilarities, but these alterations in one
or another direction (modifications) acquired during life do not change the
natural disposition.

Mankind, like all the other higher organisms, can be compared to a mosaic.
The many small pieces, which correspond to the different hereditary units (or
factors) taken together form a whole picture. These bits can be combined in
varying patterns and so give rise to different natural types, different individuals,
and, in the course of time, different races and nations.

It is certain that the hereditary substance or natural type in different indivi*
duals, peoples and races may be quite different. In the common language there
are many phraces which bring to light the fact that mankind half unconsciously,
recognizes this, for instance, »He (or she) belongs to a good race», »That nation ( '
is a strong race*, »One can tell the race», etc.

The different dispositions, the outward characteristics as well as the inner,
are inherited according to a fixed law, each one for itself. It remains now to
ascertain how this happens, examining characteristic after characteristic. This work
is now eagerly being done in different countries. A great deal of knowledge
has really been won already, but the greater part still remains to be done.

A careful study of individuals belonging to different races and nations is
necessary, and the work must be done systematically and exactly.

In a free country with free institutions, a stratification among the people,
layer after layer, arises of itself. One can distinguish a natural aristocracy, (the ^
result of fortunate hereditary combinations and a favourable environment) a middle ^
class, and a lower class, which in ancient days formed the so-called serf or thrall class. |
As a rule these three layers are fairly unlike each other, in some countries to
such an extent, that they are formed of wholly different racial elements. For*
tunately Sweden is not one of these, but one finds even here that among Swedes
belonging to different classes, a not unimportant difference can be observed in
the combinations of race.

A people composed of good racial elements creates for itself good conditions of
society, if it is allowed to develop freely, a people of bad race is not capable of this.

There are at present (as in the past of the world) nations of wholly difife*
rent quality, some are clever, enterprising and vigorous, others are weak, sluggish
and lacking in vitality, in a word nations that are dying out. A whole series
of different grades are to be found between these two poles.

No nation remains altogether unaltered during the course of time, it developes and
becomes ennobled or it degenerates and becomes debased. History shows us many

26 RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

examples of this. There are many facts which co-operate to cause such changes.
One of the most important, which at the present time makes itself very apparent

i owing so mass!=emigration, industrialism, commerce, war, etc., is the unchecked
mixture of blood which takes place between nations and races. This mixture of
blood has not only very apparent biological consequences, but it is also not
without influence on the cultivation of a people.

We possess a relatively good knowledge of the present day Swede, owing
to the great work Anthropologia Suecica Professors G. Retzius and C. M. Fiirst,
which was published in 1902 and which is founded on measurements taken
from about 45,000 conscripts at the age of 21 years.

The average height of the Swedes in the whole of Sweden was then 170.88
cm. Excepting Lappland all the provinces of Sweden showed an average height
of over 170 cm. Gothland showed the highest average or 172.74 cm. The two
most northern provinces, Lappland and West Bothnia (Vasterbotten), as well as
the two most southern, Blekinge and Scania (Skane), showed the lowest average
which fact seems to point out that the variations in the average height in diffe*
rent provinces to an important extent depends upon the mixture with races of
shorter stature (round skulls), in the north with Finns and Lapps and in the
south with Alpines and other race elements to be found among the people. As
the body has not finished growing at the age of 21 years, the average height
for a full grown Swede (after correction) is somewhat higher. (= 171.88 cm.)
It has further increased during the last twenty years.

In the whole of Sweden 87 per cent of the population were long skulls
and 13 per cent round skulls". Within the first mentioned group 30 per cent
were genuine long skulls and about 57 per cent mesocephali. The greatest num*
ber of round skulls are found in Lappland, where they reach 23.67 per cent, in
Upland with 20.98 per cent, in West Bothnia with 19.03 and in Scania with
18.60 per cent. In the middle of Sweden there is also to be found a belt of
decided longskulls. Towards the north as well as towards the south the average
of the round skulls increases which no doubt has its explanation in the same cir«
cumstances which were noted in reference to the variations in the height of the body.

Regarding the shape of the face it can be proved that the long, oval type
of face certainly predominates. (=80 per cent.) In the southern provinces how*

* The Swedish Scientest Anders Retzius inaugurated in anthropology, (by which is meant the science of man and man*
kind and of his place in the scheme of nature), the method of using an index. By an index is meant a number by which the
relative size of one dimension in regard to another is expressed.

The index referring to the length and breadth of the skull, which is considered an important race mark, is reckoned in
the following manner:

The greatest breadth of the skull X 100.
The greatest length of the skull.

The numbers one obtains by means of such a division very generally lies between 70—75—80—85. Higher and lower
numbers appear more seldom.

One usually arranges the skulls, according to the different index numbers in the following way :

1) Genuine long skulls (Dolichocephali) with an index no: below 75,

2) Medium skulls (Mesocephali) » » » » between 75 — 80.

3) Round skulls (Brachycephali) » » » » above 80.

It often happens that the long and oval skulls are reckoned as belonging to one group, which is called by the common
name of long skulls. (Dolichocephali). The boundary number is 80, as is shown above.

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

27

NORDIC TYPES

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

ever especially in Scania, the round type of face appears more than twice as often.
(In about 45 per cent).

The colour of the eyes in 47.4 per cent was blue, in 19.3 per cent grey, in
28.8 per cent mixed, and in 4.5 per cent brown. The colour of the hair was in
23.3 per cent fair, in 52 per cent cendre, in 21.6 per cent brown, in 0.8 per cent
black, and in 2.3 per cent red. Taking into account the blue and grey eyes, and
the yellow and cendre hair there is found to be in Sweden 66.7 per cent with
light eyes and 75.3 per cent with fair hair. The southern provinces and East
Gothaland show a higher percentage of brown eyes than the rest of Sweden,
and in the northern provinces is found a perceptibly higher percentage of eyes
of mixed colours. Brown and black hair also reaches a higher number in the
north. More than half of the Swedish population consists of the blonde type.
(Light eyes and fair hair.)

The North European or Nordic (Germanic or Teutonic) race is found to be
without comparison the most important constituent in the Swedish nation, for
there is more or less Teutonic blood in the veins of the bulk of the people.

The Swede of pure Nordic type is tall and strong. The head and face are
relatively long, the complexion fair and ruddy, the hair fair, and the nose most
often short and straight.

In Figs 1 to 3 are shown some pure types: (Fig. 1,) a girl from Dalcarlia;
(Fig. 2,) a peasant from Sodermanland and (Fig. 3,) Jenny Lind, a noble repre*
sentative of the northern branch. In the Plates I— VII (given in section II)
we also find a number of Swedes of the present day of comparatively pure
type; on Plates VIII— X are given several Swedish types of different mixed kinds.
It is of course of great interest to investigate where, within the bounds of
Sweden, the pure Nordic type is to be found in the greatest numbers. If we take
as a criterion of the pure Nordic race, (1) genuine long skulls, (with a length*
breadth index number up to 75) (2) tall stature, (170 cm. or more) (3) fair hair,
(4) light eyes, we find by looking at the chart map, drawn from the Anthropo*
logia Suecica (see also table I) that the average number in Sweden reaches 10.7
per cent. The ligther parts on the map show the provinces in which more than 10

28

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

ANTHROPOLOGICAL MAP OF SWEDEN

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PURE NORDIC TYPE IN
DIFFERENT PROVINCES (SE TABLE I).

The light parts in the map comprise the provinces, in which more than 10
per cent of the population show a pure type of this kind. The rest have
a more mixed population. The examinations that are the basis of this map
and the tables I and II, are made on close upon 45,000 Swedish Conscripts.
According to Anthropologia Suecica.

KW.T KART AVO. STHLM iSH

per cent of the inhabitants are
of pure Northern blood. These
provinces are Sodermanland,
Narke, West Gothaland (Vas*
tergotland), Dalsland, Warm*
land, Westmanland, Dakar*
lia (Dalarna), Harjedalen and
Jamtland. Dalsland shows the
maximum with 18.3 per cent.
The two provinces in the
north (Lappland and Vaster^
botten) marked with double
lines, show the minimum with
something over 5 per cent.
The inhabitants of those parts
are therefore seen to be of
very mixed blood. In the
horizontally lined parts con»
sisting of Gothland (Gott=
land), Scania(Skane),Halland,
Blekinge, and Angermanland
there is also to be found a
population of very mixed des«
cent. In a lesser degree this
can also be said about the
vertically lined provinces. Ta=
ken on the whole one can
say that the parts which lie
near to the boundary of Nor*
way show a purer Swedish
race than do the northern
and southern parts of the
country if one excepts Soder*
manland and Oland.

Table II shows the per*
centage in which another si*
milar Swedish type of tall
stature and fair complexion
occurs, but in which the Me*
socephali are also included.
The average for this type in
the whole country is 29 per
cent. The maximum occurs
in Harjedalen with 41.4 per
cent and the minimum in the
most northerly parts of Swe*

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

29

den (in Lappland and West Bothnia) with 17 per cent. It is easy for the rest
to study the numbers given on the table.

Even from the most ancient times our country has been exposed more or
less to the immigration of foreign peoples and races. If, for example, one exa»

TABLE I

SHOWING THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PURE NORDIC
TYPE IN PER CENT IN DIFFERENT PROVINCES OF

SWEDEN.

With pure Nordic type is here meant: 1) Long'headness. (Doli*

chocephalic type with cephalic index lower than 75); 2) Tall

stature (170 cm. or more) ; 3) Fair hair and 4) Light eyes.

According to Anthropologia Suecica.

Provinces %

Dahland (maximum) 18.3

Sodermanland 16.2

Harjedalen 16.0

Dalarna 14.7

Varmland 13.2

Jamtland 12.6

Bohuslan 12.4

Narke 12.0

Vastmanland 11.9

Oland 11.6

Vastergotland 11.5

Sverige (average) 10.7

Gastrikland lO.o

Ostergotland 9 8

Medelpad 9.7

Halsingland 9.0

Smaland 9.0

Uppland 8.2

Halland 7.6

Blekinge 7.3

Angermanland 6.8

Skane 6.5

Gottland 6.1

Lappland 5.5

Vasterbotten (minimum) 5.1

TABLE II

SHOWING THE OCCURRENCE OF A SWEDISH TYPE
THAT SHOWS THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS IN
TABLE I, WITH THE EXCEPTION THAT ALSO MESO-
CEPHALIC HEADS (CEPHALIC INDEX BETWEEN 75
AND 80) ARE INCLUDED.

Provinces %

Harjedalen (maximum) 41.4

Dalsland 36.1

Bohuslan 35.0

Oland 34.6

VAstergotland 33.7

Gottland 33.7

Sodermanland 33.5

Jamtland 32.2

Varmland 31.6

Vastmanland 31.2

Dalarna 31.1

Smaland 29.9

Sverige (average) 29.0

Narke 28.3

Stockholm 27.9

Uppland 27.3

SkSne 26.9

Halland 25.6

Gastrikland 25.4

Ostergotland 25.1

Halsingland 24.6

Blekinge 24.4

Medelpad 23.6

Angermanland 22.6

Vasterbotten, Lappland (minimum) .. .. 17.0

mines the composition and origin of our Swedish nobility one often finds families
of German, Baltic, English or Scotch descent. Ever since the Middle Ages a
not inconsiderable immigration has been taking place of Danes, Norwegians,
Germans, Dutchmen, Englishmen and many other nations, who have settled prin»
cipally in the towns. But these nearly related peoples have not caused essential
alterations in the Swedish race^type.

The Finns and the Lapps on the contrary, two races who are considerably
different to the Swedes of Nordic type have created a marked difference, for
they are to be found in such numbers that they have had a strong influence in
certain parts of the country, especially in Norrland and the middle of Sweden.

30

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

FINNISH TYPES IN NORRBOTTEN

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

A very considerable immigration of Finns took place at the end of the sixteenth
century and the beginning of the seventeenth. Altogether at that time from
twelve to thirteen thousands of Finns at least settled in the middle of Sweden
or in the South of Norrland, especially in Warmland and the counties of Koppar*
berg and Gafleborg. Long before this however, a slower more disconnected
immigration of Finns had begun to take place, and continued to do so after*
wards. They have gradually become incorporated in the Swedish nation. A
great many of the serfs to be found in Sweden in olden times belonged almost
certainly to the Finnish race. In the most northerly parts of Sweden are to be
found about 25,000 so«called Finns, who speak the Finnish language. In spite
of this they are for the most part of very mixed descent, which can be ascer*
tained not only by means of genealogical investigation, but also manifests itself
in the varying types which appear among them. Part of them is of Finnish,
Swedish and Lappish descent, another part of Swedish and Finnish or of Finnish
and Lappish descent, etc. The number of persons in Sweden having more or
less decided Finnish racial characteristics is of considerable importance. They
include in all probability some hundreds of thousands of people.

The Finnish races, that in olden times were especially numerous and who
were divided into many different branches, living in a territory stretching from
the most northerly part of Scandinavia through Finland and North Russia a good
way into Siberia, have by degrees lost their own national peculiarities and have
to a large extent become absorbed by other nations, especially by Slavonic races
in Russia. The Tavastlandish is considered to be one of the most pure of the
Finnish races. Such types are not so unusual even among us. A Finn of this
type is short in stature, thick*set and strongly built. He is fair and, as a rule,
has light eyes, his hair is straight and coarse, his complexion is fair and often of
a somewhat dirty grey colour; his head is short and fairly broad, as is also his
face. This has a square appearance caused by the broadness of the cheeks which
extend downwards even to the angle of the lower jaw. The nose is very clumsy
with a concave^brigde. Figs. 4 to 6 show us some Finnish types in Sweden, as
do also the pictures on Plates XI— XIII, mixed types on Plate XIV.

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

31

LAPPS

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Although they all have certain features in common, Karelians Savolaxians,
Esthonians with other, Finnish races of more adulterated blood, deviate from the
type described above in a more or less degree. These races are also represented
in our own country. But this is not the right place to consider these differences.

The Lapps have come to Sweden from the east, certainly before the begin*
ning of the Christian Era, and have since spread out gradually towards the south
as far as to the northern part of Dalcarlia. Probably the Lapps have never, at
any time, been a numerous nation. At the present time their numbers hardly
reach to 30,000 of which about 7,000 are found in Sweden, about 20,000 in Nor«
way and the remaining few thousands in Finland and the Kola peninsula in
Russia. The greatest number of the Swedish Lapps, about 3,500 live in the most
northern province of Sweden (Norrbotten).

The Lappish race differs very considerably from both the Finnish and the
North European Race.

The Lapp is of very low stature (the men measure about 155 cm. in height)
his hair is dark, most often black or blackish»brown, lank and coarse; his beard
is of very weak growth, his eyes are brown, his complexion has a tint of yellow*
brown in it; he has a short skull with an index number of about 84; his face is
broad and short, with projecting eyebrows and a small lower jaw narrowing off
downwards; his nose is often concave. Figures 7 to 9 represent typical Lapps
from North Bothnia, as do also Plates XV — XVIL Mixed types occur, and not
so seldom, among the Lapps which seem to indicate that they have received an
infusion of both Swedish and Finnish blood. (See Plate XVIII).

The colour of the eyes as well as the index number of the skull is an im=
portant race^mark. One knows that it is inherited and that the possession of blue
eyes is of a recessiv nature.

The diagram on side 32 shows the division of different colours of the eye
into three shades, light, dark»medleys (= mixed) and brown, among Swedish,
Finnish, and Lappish speaking populations, according to my own, not yet pub*
lished investigations. The light eyes appear in predominating numbers among
the Swedish population and even among the Finnish in Norrbotten. Among the

32

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN

FOREIGN TYPES

Fig. 10.

Swedish jew.

Fig. 11.

Swedish Walloon.

Fig. 12. .

Gipsyswoman.

Lapps on the contrary they appear more seldom. The brown colour of the eyes
is usual and appears most often among the Lapps and comparatively seldom
among the Swedes and Finns.

The mixed eyes are not frequent among the Lapps and in a still smaller
degree among the Finns and least of all among the Swedes. For more particu*
lars see the diagram itself.

Smaller groups of other races besides these three chief components, the Nor*
die, the Finnish and the Lappish races, appear also in Sweden; they may be sum*
marised briefly.
1 00 I't'p Walloons came from Belgium during the seventeenth century to improve the

Swedish iron industry. They settled near the great ironworks in East Gothaland
(Ostergotland), Uppland, Varmland and Bergslagen. They are represented mostly
by a dark type. Even they are for the most part of short stature, thick=set growth,

DIAGRAM CONCERNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT COLOURED
EYES AMONG DIFFERENT RACE.GROUPS IN SWEDEN.

The examinations, performed by the author, comprise a\l persons, of both sexes and of all ages,

living in a certain district.

SWEDES IN VARMLAND SWEDISH NOMADIC LAPPS FINNS IN NORRBOTTEN

(558 individuals) (463 individuals) (660 individuals)

Blown

Mixed

Light

-.J

RACIAL ELEMENTS IN SWEDEN 33

and have broad faces. (See Fig. 11). They have intermarried partly among
themselves and partly with Swedes, and owing to this a great many mixed types
have arisen. (See Plates XIX— XX). The descendants of these Walloons who
have now spread themselves over the whole country, probably amount some tens
of thousands.

The Jews are another foreign race who began to settle in Sweden during the
latter part of the eighteenth century. They consist of only a few thousand. The
same remarks apply to them as to the Walloons, some of them preserve the pu<
rity of the race, while others intermarry with the Swedes. The Swedish Jews
stand in a relatively, high position. Fig. 10 shows a Jew of pure type.

Lastly we must mention that there are a smaller number of gipsies (Fig. 12)
to be found in Sweden.

The so-called Tattars often the offspring of gipsies are to be found at the
present time in many"'parts of the country. They are unfortunately in no slight
degree criminally disposed proletarians of very mixed origin.

The presence of these foreign races as well as the continual influx of people
of different nations cannot be without importance to the character of our race
both from a biological as well as a cultural point of view. They are not enti» / /

rely favourable. ~

The Swedish nations whole numbers are beetwen 7, and 8 millions of people,
of which about 6 millions are found in Sweden, 370,000 in Finland and something
more than 100,000 in other European countries. Rather more than a million have
found new homes in America, the principal number of these in U. S. A. It is
a remarkable circumstance that Swedes who have emigrated to America and Western
Europe and very soon become absorbed in and mixed with their hosts, contrary
to Finns and Russians, build a national unit which tenaciously retains its vital
power for hundreds of years and more.

-.J

THE SWEDISH NATIONAL. CHARACTER

SCATTERED THOUGTS AND APHORISMS
FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES

BY

THE REV. GEORG BERGFORS

VITTANGI, LAPPLAND

OW CAN SUCH A HARD NATION HOLD SO MUCH OF
tenderness and feeling in its soul», a Japanese is said to have uttered

H

once, and stirred by emotion he burst into tears, as he listened to a
selection of our most beautiful folk»songs, sung by Swedes. He had lived under
the impression that the Swedes were hard and brutal. Their reputation as daunt*
less warriors was probably not unknown to him. Perhaps he had read of their
courage, bravery, heroic self*sacrifice, silent self-denial, modest fulfilment of duty,
all martial virtues. Perhaps he had noticed that a certain coarseness can still be
found among them, a disposition towards fighting and a strong desire for spi*
rits, which he also interpreted as being an inheritance from the old war times.
Now he sees, opening before him, a whole world, showing the sweet, serene,
open temper of the Swedes, which they usually hide behind a yeil^jsf—bashf,
fulness.

»The Swede is a curious mixture of idealism and realism, of sentimentality
and hardness. This is connected with his power of imagination. He is a realist
and can be hardshearted when it is a question of something he has just in front
of him, but he is an idealist and can be sentimental in regard to things he can
only see at a distance.* (G. Sundbarg).

Undoubtedly there is found, in the depths of our people's character, much
that is beautiful, gentle and dreaming.

Another quality which the Swedes, as soldiers, have had an opportunity of
showing, or perhaps in spite of their wartlike qualities, is their chivabrousness. »Vin«
cere scis, Suecia, victoria uti nescis.» (Thou knowest how to conquer, Sweden,
but not how to profit by thy conquest). A pronounced humanity is one of the
principal traits of the Swedish character. No one has ever been more forbearing
towards a beaten foe, no one has ever found it easier to forget an injury. One
might with more reason, rather reproach the Swedes for unnecessary pliability.
It is very significant in this connection that the inhabitants who live on the
boundaries to the north, the west and the south, which are inhabited by other
races, and the inhabitants of the provinces which have belonged to neighbouring
nations, are heartily desirous of belonging to Sweden.

The Swede possesses also in a large measure, »the noble integrity, which is
one of society's firmest foundations, and which many times mitigates the conse*
quences of an, in itself, imperfect social order*. (G. Sundbarg). One can depend

..J

THE SWEDISH NATIONAL.CHARACTER 35

upon the word of a Swede and his word of honour is often more sacred than
an oath. Many of our proverbs have reference to just this inherent sense of ho*
nour and faithfulness to one's word. Foreigners not seldom, lay stress upon
this. »The Swedish spirit always strives after justice. It is this which, at one
and the same time, constitutes its strength and causes its lack of warmth». (Andre
Bellesort).

»One cannot think of any land, where equity of law, exists in so high a
degree», says the same author. »The Swedes' obedience to the law and their
special sense of duty, make them very welcome every where.» (Heidenstam).

Another manifestation of the same humanity is the Swedes' pronounced re»
luctanqe to dogmatics of every kind. Moral justice in Sweden has more weight
than legal justice has.

»The aristocratic trait is strongly developed in Sweden, both in a good and
bad sense. One of the strangest forms it takes is the Swede's dislike to defend
himself against agression. It is not considered »good form» to defend oneself*.
(Sundbarg). Selfish advocacy of a thing is, as a rule, judged very severely.

The power of organization possessed by the Swedes, is another unquestio*
nable element in their character. This appears throughout all Swedish history
and is seen in the activity of the guilds and other corporations that have always
existed. The ancient statue, »By law shall the land de built», is no empty
word. It expresses itself in every direction and in many ways. Everywhere the
Swede will set in order, straighten up, and put things tidy. He cannot thrive
amid disorder. Even in detail he likes to catalogue and label everything that comes
to his hand. One only needs to mention such names as Carl von Linne (Lin«
naeus), Berzelius, Hazelius, and many, many others, who have set to work brin»
ging order in several directions. »A place for everything, and everything in its
place*, is a Swedish proverb which the Swedes literally obey. »When one has
lived in Sweden, every other land one afterwards may visit, strikes one as being
disorderly and dirty.» (Professor Rene Bellanger). It can probably be said, that,
in no other land does associated life blossom so freely as it does in Sweden.
This holds true respecting sport, temperance societies, the promoting of lec«
tures, etc.

The Swedes' gift of equipoise, no matter what position in society his work
gives him, stands in connection with this. He can fill his place as a leader
without domineering, and he can fill a subordinate place without cringing. He
is a pattern, both as master and man. Swedes, with some Finnish blood are, as
a rule, more defiant and less submissive to discipline.

»As the born organizer and leader, the Swede is active in disposition. He
loves to throw himself into a new enterprise, to think out new plans, to change his
business and place of living, to look around him and utilize all the possibilities in
other places and in foreign lands.» (Are Waerland). The temper of the Vikings
is still to be found, even today, with many Swedes. They love adventure for
its own sake. »When carrying out a new enterprise, the Swede at first is very
enthusiastic, but he is lacking in perseverance and energy; he is often tired
when the thing is half done. That is why so much is only half done here in
Sweden*. (Tegner). His capacity for action cannot confine itself to one direction.

36 THE SWEDISH NATIONADCHARACTER

where he might easily become a power, but he splits his strength and his interest
among many things and so becomes »jack»ofsall»trades, master in none», although
this must be taken with a certain amount of reservation.

The Swedes' ready courtesy, hospitality and polite manners are widely known.
— »The Frenchmen of the North» — But this quality can be exaggerated
and has reverse side too. They love festivity and splendour, which often
launches out into luxury, ostentation and theatrical arrangements, scarcely answe*
ring to the intrinsic value. »They often clothe themselves in the richest manner,
although they live in a poor way.» (Jordanes, in the sixth century). Taking
all classes into consideration one can say about the Swedes, even today, that
they both dress well and carry themselves well.

»Honour stands foremost in the Swedish mind.» (Tegner). »The Swedes are
distinctly a governing race, with greater desire to rule and lead than to work.»
No matter how unpretentious a Swede's place may be in society, he still loves to
break loose and play the gentleman. This points to a certain carelessness and
tendency to live for the present moment, from which we cannot exonerate him.
He likes to pose as being more than he is. »To avoid the least suspicion of
seeming mean, the Swede scatters profusely both his own and other people's mo*
ney, to the right and the left.» (Are Waerland). »The Swede can both work well
and save his money, but for the most part he spends all he has saved. His goal,
when he works, is not to improve his position, but to have money to spend; he
saves to throw away, and very often without any pleasure or any purpose.* (C.
J. L. Almqvist).

But in spite of this the Swede is rather dull and heavy in society. He has
a tendency to settle every thing according to a scheme he has in his own mind,
and judges everything in a rather superficial manner. This makes him, even
among strangers, feel awkward and absent*minded. »When he is working, the
Swede generally has a kind and humane manner, but he is all the more weari^
some when one meets him afterwards in society.* (Carl Laurin). »With us
nearly everything is equally tiresome and commonplace. Always the same gene«
ral system, never anything that takes the individual into consideration.* (Sund*
barg).

The home«life, taken on the whole exhibits the same features. The Swede
has so little to give. His mind is directed to outward things. »The relation,
which warmly and sincerely binds father to son, and mother to daughter, under
all the changes of life, and makes of them almost one spirit, is not seen very
much in Sweden.* (Are Waerland). In regard to a desire for knowledge and
interest in education the inhabitants of Sweden probably stand highest in the
world. General elementary education in the whole country is, with us, of an
older date than anywhere else. The state grants a larger sum, in comparison to
the number of its inhabitants, to be spent on elementary education than is the
case in any other country. Practically one can say, that there are none who can<^
not read in Sweden, if one excepts idiots and imbeciles, whom it is not possible
to educate, and whose percentage in our country is fairly low. Public Librae
ries, where books can be borrowed free of charge, are to be found, not only in
the towns but in every larger place in the country. The scheme of lectures

THE SWEDISH NATIONAL»CHARACTER 37

is not to be beaten anywhere, neither as regards organisation, nor in regard to
the interest shown by the pubHc.

Hand in hand with the active courageous temper of the Swedes is found a
strong independent feeling. »The Swedes are a self==willed people, ready to do
great deeds.» (Gustavus Vasa). »Our pride remains the same, from age to age,
through all our changing fate.» (Tegner). This strongly developed feeling of one's
own strength, one's own worth, leads all to easily to an over^estimation of one*
self, the consequence of which is, that one sometimes tries to assert oneself at
the expense of others. The naive self»admiration that one often meets with,
and that among country people is called bragging, is very common among the
Swedes. It may be an expression of their frankness. But when he boasts of
his own personal merits, both in season and out of season, very often laying
stress upon the incapacity of his fellow«men, then the Swede is not attractive.
This quality often leads to the envy, that flourishes in many parts of Sweden
and has even received the epithet, »Royal Swedish*.

This quality does not prevent the Swedes from being among the first in all
the world, to give a helping hand to their suffering and distressed fellow»men.
Let there be a failure in the crops in a part of the country, let there be a family
struck by misfortune and help committees are started at once, and both rich and
poor are not afraid of making every sacrifice to give aid to those in need. It has
happened more than once, that a family in need, thanks to the unselfish aid
given by others, has not only been saved from ruin at the time, but has been
placed in a better economical position than it occupied before the misfortune
happened. Sweden's leading position in the work of the Red Cross Society,
»Save the children*, and other international aid societies is well known, and val*
ued as it deserves. The sympathy, charity and high ideals of our officials has
also given them a very high reputation. These occupy, not only in respect to
their intellectual reputation, but also in respect to a broad humanity, a position
that singles them out, to their advantage, from the officials of many other
countries. The unwritten history of the deeds done by Swedish doctors and
priests, would present numberless proofs of the greatness and nobility, unsel*
fishness and self-sacrifice, faithfulness and conscientiousness, which in silence,
without advertisment, as a matter of course, have been and are still being exhibited,
in the service of mankind. The justice administered by Swedish judges is also
raised above all doubt.

»The trait lying deepest in the character of the Swedish people, and which
to a large extent explains their nature, is their strong love of Nature.* (Sundbarg).
This explains their disposition towards and love of natural^history and geographic
cal investigations, and their reputation as a nation standing above all others in
the fields of invention and exploration; this worship of Nature is also expressed
in the mildness of the Swede's temper, his dreams, and his changing moods. It
meets us in the best and deepest of Swedish poetry, in its finest and most deli*
cate blossoms, the Swedish folk=songs; in a word, in everything where the Swe^
dish imagination, with undipped wing can take its flight. In contradiction to this
the Swede has no sharp eye or power of observation for the differences to be
found in the spiritual life of mankind. He is a mediocre and uninterested psycho'

38 THE SWEDISH NATIONAL»CHARACTER

legist. This can be proved in several spheres of life, not least when he wishes
to show what he can do as a business man. There are Swedes, and not so few
either, who look wellnigh with contempt on everything that can be called bu»
siness. It does not appeal to his unselfish disposition and ideal nature. This
may be a fault or a merit in his character. It is certain that many a great deed
and noble work would never have been done in our country, if the »economical
sense» had been as strongly developed with us, as in some other nations. A lack
of flexibility in the spiritual life, a want of knowledge of its finer shades, is
apparent in the Swede, when he tries to characterise other people. He often draws
in black and white. In the spiritual life we lack the shades that come between.

The intellect of the Swede is alert in nearly every sphere of life. He is
blessed by Nature with great intelligence. He can easily understand and absorb
new ideas and even initiate new lines of thought. He is both receptive and
productive, perhaps at the latter, he is stronger than any one else.

It has been asserted, that one of the Swedes' greatest faults lies in »their lack
of national temperament* (Sundbarg), but such an assertion certainly rests on very
weak ground. When Sweden's existence has been threatened by external or in«
ternal enemies the Swedish people have given proof of possessing both a national
temper and the instinct of self«preservation. »We have toiled, we have hungered,
we have frozen to protect the land, that has always been our own. During this
strife for Sweden and its welfare, the Swedes have grown»up to become a nation
of gentry. The nature of slaves has no place in our people. Neither with rich
or poor, high or low.» (E. Trygger).

Lastly, it may be sufficient to say, that Sweden is the oldest independent
kingdom in Europe. High»minded deeds hawe been accomplished by Swedes in
all times, to the advantage and glory of their own native land.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE.BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCHES IN SWEDEN

BY

MARTIN RAMSTROM, M. D.

PROFESSOR. UPPSALA

ANTHROPOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF MAN, IN ITS WIDEST SENSE
includes in its scope the whole essence of man. In the following descrip* •
tion, however, it is only intendedlcTconsider the sqmatical anthropology,
the science telling of the bodily qualities of the human being with the history of
his origin and development, together with that of the human species.

Several other branches of science that are nearly connected with this must
also be considered here, first^ of all race»biology, ethnography, and archaeology.
Race=biology treats of the life of families, peoples and races. It employs itself
with all the factors — favourable or unfavourable — that are able to influence and
alter the primitive species or race conditions in given groups of human beings.
Thus it is not interested in the first place in the generations living now, but has
the task of inquiring into the connection between the different generations. On
account of this it is clear that hereditary investigation must play a very dominant
part in its work.

Ethnology (Ethnography) treats of the human being__as a member of society.
It employs itself with the structure of society, with the occupations, language and
conception of religion among different peoples at different periods of time, with
their tools, dwelling»places, clothes and such things.

Archeeology, the science of antiquarian research, employs itself in investigating
the remains of tools, ornaments, graves, dwelling«places etc. belonging to people
in pre«historical times.

Already in Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galenus together with many other
naturalists from ancient times, we find a great deal of anthropological information
which is both interesting and of a certain amount of value, and by means of the
great geographical discoveries in the 15th century the area of anthropological
knowledge was expanded to a large degree. But it was first through the great
naturalists of the 18th century that anthropology began to take a more scientific form.

The general scientific foundation was laid by the Swede, Carl von Linne
(Linnaeus) (1707—1778), who in Tiis work »Systema Naturae» (1735) partly placed
mankind in its position among Primates, and undertook a classification of the
races of humanity on the ground of their physical, mental, physiological and moral
characteristics, their geographical distribution etc. He distinguished Homo Americ*
anus, Europaeus, Asiaticus, Africanus, and Homo monstrosus, a group of less
known human types, described in a more or less fantastic manner.

At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century Gall and Spurtz*
helm appeared, as is well»known, with their cranioscopy and phrenology, and
thereby directed the anthropological interest towards the human cranium. It seems

\

40 ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE>BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

partly to have been this which influenced here in Sweden the eminent anatomist
Anders Retzius (1796—1860) and tempted him especially to make craniology the
object of a profound investigation. By means of the work Anders Retzius after*
/ ( wards achieved in this field he has given anthropology a firm foundation, system*

?i o( atized it and given it exact methods of investigation and study which have since

been used in nearly all anthropological researches.

There were 3 methods he chiefly employed, the mgtjical, the typological and
the hi^tojical. It was just these means that afterwards showed themselves to be
of such unprecedented importance in bearing fruit as regards anthropology, and
it is thanks to them that anthropology from the modest position it held, when
Anders Retzius began his work, has been capable of swinging itself up to the high
position and the imposing dimensions it takes now.

Especially momentous and important were the means of help he gave to the
C study of anthropology by the introduction of the jndex=number, that is, the ex»
pression of the relation between certain dimensions of the skull by means of
numbers, for that has now become an indispensable means for the clearing up
and deciding objectiygly the^ distinguishing marks in the objects comj)ared. Anders
Retzius used iT first to make plain the difference in form, which the craniums
present when they are surveyed from a crown view. For this reason he measured
1) the greatest length, and 2) the greatest breadth of the cranium, and combined
these measurements in the following relation in numbers: —

the greatest length : the greatest breadth = 100 : x.
By this means he gained the so=called length=breadth=index of the cranium and
thus won firm ground for their division, supported by which he carried out his
well'known classification of craniums into '^

longheads or dolichocephals
shortheads or brachycephals.
J I i/(Dolichocephals with an average index of 75 and brachycephals with one of 83.7.)

^^- By the use of such an index»number it became possible for him to show in an

objective manner the essential shape and differences in the structure of the skull,
which are to be found among nations and races, for example between the craniums
of the Swedes, Finns, and Lapps, as well as between those of Lapps and Esqui*
mos, etc. See his work: — »On the shape of the craniums of the Northern
peoples*, which lays the foundation for modern anthropology.

He asserted in the meanwhile that both dolichocephals and brachycephals
^/were to be found in all the continents with the exception of Africa, and the ex«
istence of intermediate forms was by no means unfamiliar to him, although he
did not as yet feel it necessary to place them in a special group.

In his classification he combined also the shape of the cranium with that of the
jaws, and in this manner he created the welUknown system of dividing the human*
races as: 1) prognathous, and 2) orthognathous, i. e. with projecting and non*
projecting jaws, as sub*classes in both the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic groups.

The system and the methods of study introduced by Anders Retzius, are
still the living principles in all anthropological research and continue to win a
more extended application, so that without exaggeration, it may be said, that he
is the creator of scientific anthropology as it is known at the present day.

PERSONS INTERESTED IN RACE=BIOLOGY IN SWEDEN

ELLEN KEY.
Authoress, Alvastra,

BARONESS EBBA PALMSTIKRNA.
Wife of the Swedish ambassador in London.

PROFESSOR FRITIOF LKNNMALM.

Neurologist, Rector of the »Karolinska Institutet», Stockholm.

• =</9 1858.

PROFESSOR HERMAN LUNDBORG

Race*biologist, Uppsala.

• '/4 1868.

/■

/

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE»BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES 41\

The successor of Anders Retzius in the professorship of anatomy at the
CaiflJine Medico»Chirurgical Institute (in Stockholm) Baron Gustaf von Duben
(1822—1862) also took great interest in anthropology. His best^known works in
this field of labour are »Sur les caracteres craniologiques de I'homme prehistorique
en Suede», (Compte rendu de la 7 session du Congres prehistorique a Stockholm
1874), and his ethnographical monograph »On Lappland and the Lapps* (Stockholm
1873). His anthropological work on the Lapps which he rested chiefly on the
basis of the Lapp craniums and skeletons collected by Anders Retzius and himself,
was given out first, however, after his death by professor C. G. Santesson under
the title: »Crania Lapponica*. Stockholm 1910.

With the appearance of Gustaf Retzius, son of Anders Retzius, the anthros
pological research in Sweden began to flourish once more.

Gustaf Retzius (1842—1919) published as early as 1864 a German edition
of his father's collected anthropological works. Since then he has published a
large number of comparatively speaking smaller pamphlets and essays; but chiefly
through the four monumental folio works: »Finska Kranier» (1878), »Das Menschen'^
hirn» (1896), »Crania_Suecica» (1900), and alsoT together with C. M. Fiirst, »An« Y
thropologia Suecica» ( 1902), he has won a place for himself among the most remarkable
anthropologists of our time. In the first mentioned work he treats of the physical-/
qualities of the tribes or branches of races dwelling in Finland itself: Tavastians,
Karelians, and Savolakians, and gives also an exposition of the mutual relationship
between these tribes, their wanderings and expansion, their culture both now and
in ancient times, their manners and customs, their tools and dress. This important
and within its own sphere pioneer publication is founded partly on the results
of expeditions to Finland, performed by Gustaf Retzius, Christian Loven and
Erik Nordensson 1873. I regard to anthropology, Gustaf Retzius distinguished
two fundamental types within the area investigated, namely the Tavastian of
medium height, with fair hair and brachycephalic head with a broad face, and the
Karelian of less than medium height and likewise of less brachycephalic type than
the Tavastian, with a narrow face and dark chestnut hair.

In »Crania Suecica antiqua* Gustaf Retzius in the most excellent pictures has
preserved for the coming ages the remains which have been found of Sweden's
primitive inhabitants. This work, according to Kollmann, possesses the same
universal importance respecting knowledge of the European human species, sur«
veyed from the stand^point of race^anatomy, as does His' and Riitimeyer's »Crania
helvetica*, Studer's and Bannwart's: »Crania Helvetica antiqua», Davis' and Thur«
nam's works on the primitive English craniums and also Quatrefages' and Hamy's
work on the primitive French craniums. But the importance of this work lies,
as Kollmann also shows, not only in the fact that by means_of pictures of natural
size it makes the defective remains of the first inhabitants of Sweden accessible
to the wide circle of all the cultured nations, but it is also to be sought in the
scientific result regarding the anthropological characteristics of our forefathers,
which Gustaf Retzius reached through the anthropological study of the material
in question. This result Retzius himself has given in the following words:

»The people of the stone age certainly in regard to anthropology did not )
form a pure race, but were still in a preponderating degree dolichocephalic, although j

n/

42 ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE^BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

with a strong admixture of mesocephals, but only a slight addition of brachycephals.
(Crania Suecica antiqua page 162.) During the time of transition from the stone
age to the bronze age and during the first periods of the latter the inhabitants in
regard to anthropology did not either form a pure race, but were still for the
most part dolichocephalic, and showed only a small admixture of meso* and
brachycephals. (Crania Suecica antiqua page 170.) During the iron age also the
inhabitants were not either a pure unmixed race, but formed a mixture of pure
dolichocephals, mesosdolichocephals and brachycephals. The pure dolichocephals
were however the preponderating type. (Crania Suecica antiqua page 172.) Crania
suecica antiqua is therefore in the highest degree, according to Kollmann, a most

r important support for the conclusion respecting the constancy of the ancient races,

\ towards which for the rest all the facts of the craniology point more and more

/ decidedly.

Anthropologia Suecica has a previous history: On the initiative of Gustaf
Retzius the Anthropological Society was founded in Stockholm, March 15th 1873,
and already in 1875 it began to give out the »Journal of Anthropology and
Culture»history». After the return of A. E. Nordenskiold from his voyage
in the Vega, the society was expanded to include geography also and was now
named: »The Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society*, and its organ
was now called »Ymer, a journal published by the Swedish Anthropological and
Geographical Society*. Within this society the thought was adopted of bringing
about a comprehensive statisticaUanthropological investigation regarding the Swedish
people in the same way as had been done in several other countries with lively

( interest. Gustaf Retzius had already in 1862 and 1863 planned and even begun
I such an investigation, but was obliged to postpone the work.

»In the year 1888 the Archaeologist Dr. Hans Hildebrand emphasized strongly
that such an investigation ought to be made in this country. But it was first in

11896 that the thought came to the surface. Dr. Vilh. Hultkrantz then made the
proposal that the statistical«anthropological investigation in question should be
started. Dr. Hultkrantz and Professor Retzius were entrusted with the task of
preparing the question. The Government was petitioned to allow an anthropology
ical investigation to be made on the conscripts of Sweden. Arrangements were
made with several younger colleagues, professors, physicians and doctors, who
were initiated ready for the work, and in the years 1897 and 1898 the invest*
igation took place. The whole contingent of the conscripts for both those years,
about 45,000 men altogether of the age of 21 years, were then measured and
examined according to the following plan: place of birth: that of the young man
as well as that of his father and mother, height of the body in standing and sitting
position; breadth of embrace: from fingertip to finger-tip; skull: greatest length
(Glabella=occ.) and greatest breadth; type of face: oval or round; colour of the
eyes: blue, grey, mixed, or brown; colour of the hair: yellow, cendre, brown,
black or red.» (Anthrop. Suec. page 3—8).

»The arrangement and study of the material which had been collected from all
parts of Sweden was carried out by G. Retzius and Carl M. Fiirst, G. Retzius
taking upon himself the working up of the measurements, and Carl M. Fiirst the
task respecting the colour of the eyes and hair, after which in collaboration they

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE=BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

43

made comparisons, calculations and a general survey of the whole. » (Op. cit.
page 12). The work was ready in the year 1902.

These ample statistical examinations are, according to Kollmann, of enormous
bearing in the matter. They constitute a fundamental basis for the whole science
of the races of mankind. They not only give a complete statement of the anthro»
pological characteristics of the Swedes but even explain the anthropology of the
German type, and if one places them in combination with the »Crania Suecica
antiqua» of Gustaf Retzius they have established the following facts, which Koll*
mann calls »the giant results*:

1st. The Swedes of our own times show us a picture of the old Germans; '

2nd. The Swedish people is made up of several races;

3rd. These races ever since the stone age have shown the same unchangeable
constancy to type.

In his fourth work »Das Menschenhirn» Gustaf Retzius has sought to eluci^
date the macroscopical morphology of the human brain, and its embroyonical de*
velopment. As the material of pictures is especially copious, and is presented with
the greatest fidelity to nature, it gives a good insight into the wealth of variation
which the configuration of the surface of the brain shows. And Gustaf Retzius
has in this work given us the most perfect and exact elucidation of the brain of
mankind, and especially of that of the Germanic tribes, which is to be found in
literature. Without doubt in regard to the morphology of the brain, as Gustaf
Retzius himself says, a plentiful and as ^ as possible exact rendering in pictures
of what has been observed is above all things of great importance. Kollmann also
in speaking of this work says, that just through these qualities and the accurate
and extensive study of the variation, it will be a base for the study of morpho* /^
logy, and race^anthropology during all time.

Through his other anthropological writings G. Retzius has contributed to the
unravelling of a great many dissimilar questions, such as the connection bet*
ween the cranium and morphology of the brain and the intellectual powers, the
anatomy of the Lappic brain, trepanation in pre^historical times, the artificial defor»
mations af the cranium, etc. G. Retzius' popular work »On the most ancient trace
of mankind's existence on the earth» (1873), which in a great measure is groun*
ded on his own observations at the places of discovery, gives a good idea of the
stand=point of palaeo'anthropology at that time. It has helped in a high degree
in awakening interest for anthropology in wide circles. And Retzius has even in
many other ways with praiseworthy self=sacrifice and magnificent liberality sup»
ported and advanced anthropological research in Sweden.

C. M. FiJRST as before mentioned has taken a very active part in the great
work »Anthropologia Suecica». He has also in collaboration with Professor Fr.
C. C. Hansen (Copenhagen) published the great monograph »Crania Groenlandica»
(1915) which contains a richly and beautifully illustrated description of 380 Green»
land Esquimo craniums. From this is seen among other things that »the Green*
land Esquimos is one of the most dolichocephalic peoples that live or have lived
on the earth in historical times. The average Length^Breadth^index is for men 70.67
and for women 72». He has also in a number of other writings thrown light upon
the anthropological characteristics of the Swedish people, in doing which he even

44

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE»BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

observed with interest its ethnology and archaeology. The craniology of the stone
age and that of the iron age are touched upon in several of his works (»Ymer»
1905, Proceed, of »Swedish Acad, of Sci.» 1912, »Fornforskaren» 1920, 1911, 1914
and others). He has described several cases of trepanation in olden times (1913,
1917 etc.) and also a case of scalping during the stone age (1919). C. M. Fiirst
especially has done good service in the preservation of large numbers of valuable
objects found in ancient graves, and in describing and interpreting the Swedish
anthropological material from pre^historical and historical times, and a great deal of
the discoveries and observations he thereby made, he has told us comprehensively
in the interesting book »When the dead bear witness* (1920). His plastic recon*
V structions of the cranium are also of great interest, and his index^tables, as well as
his valuable measuring instruments (craniophore, trigonometer) are a good means
of help in anthropological research work.

J. ViLH. HuLTKRANTz, as before said, has also taken an active part in the great
work »Anthropologia suecica» (1897—98). But he had already before this perfor*
med a very comprehensive anthropological investigation respecting the »Stature of
the Swedes* (»Ymer» 1896). »The material for this consisted of the tabular rep»
orts of the stature of the conscripts, which for the years 1887—1894 had been sent
in from the 31 enrolment districts of the kingdom to the War Department, and
included 232,367 individuals of 21 years of age. According to these reports and
Hultkrantz' reckoning the average height of Swedish men at 21 years of age is
169.51 cm.» Hultkrantz added to this a summary of the stature in different pro*
vinces as well as some studies in the colour of the eyes and Jhair. Besides these
anthropological studies of the Swedes, Hultkrantz has also made such studies over
some South American tribes, viz. the Ona and the Yahgan Indians, a work, which
among other things on account of its technically critical treatment of the measure*
ments of the long bones has attained a very remarkable position in the foreign anthropo*
logical literature, equal to that of Lehmann^Nitsches fundamental investigations. His
inquiries regarding the in many respects remarkable disturbance in the formation of the
skeleton, which he named Dysostosis cleido*cranialis are also of great value.

The anthropology of Sweden during the Middle Ages has been elucidated

by another Swedish scientist, the eminent Uppsala anatomist Edvard Clason, who

( by his work added yet another link in the chain of evidence that the same Ger«

j manic tribe, which now inhabits this country had during the Middle Ages as well

I, as in earlier times, its dwelling«place here. Besides this it is seen from his inves«

tigations, that the Germanic tribe even during the middle ages could not be looked

upon as one race but must be considered as being composed of at least two races.

Like Kollmann, Clason is inclined to lay great weight upon the facial cranium in

regard to comparative anthropology.

Edward Clason deserves at the same time to be remembered as the real creator
of the AnthropologicaUanatomical Museum of the Anatomical Institution in Upp=
sala, the largest in Sweden. By means of untiring diligence and the most unspar*
ing labour, he has here collected material of inestimable value. In the same way
the principal part of the honour of founding the anthropological department in the
Anatomical Museum in Lund belongs to C. M. Fiirst. The museum of the Caro=
line Institute in Stockholm, which is especially valuable from the stand«point of

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE=BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

45

comparative anthropology, is chiefly the work of Anders and Gustaf Retzius and
Professor Albert Lindstrom.

Even the general European palaeoanthropology has been considered with
great interest here in Sweden. Among others Gaston Backman, at present pro*
fessor in Riga, has by means of diligent authorship helped in spreading and pro*
moting this interest among wide circles, and his meritorious, richly illustrated
representation of this subject in »Xhe_Pre»history Q^J^jUilijaj^ Stockholm 1911,
may be specially mentioned. Another of his works »From the history of somatical
anthropology* (Ymer 1910), from which a great deal of the information given
here is taken may also be mentioned, G. Backman has also through his tj^pological
studies (over the shapes of the cranium etc.) and by several anthropological meas*
uring iqtruments (tropometer, goniometer) further advanced anthropology in Sweden.

Lastly perhaps something may be said on the result of the investigations in
the most ancient of the palaeoanthropology which the undev=signed has made
during recent years. They have been carried out with the idea of examining into
the reliability of the sensational discoveries »Pithecanthropos» and »Eoanthropos»
which are supposed to represent »the missing link» and are interpreted as being
transition forms between the chimpanzee and man. But if both these interpretations
were correct, the anthropogenesis must in these transitions have followed different
ways, contrary to each other. For according to »Pithecanthropos» the lower
extremities must first have reached the high human stage of evolution with upright
walk etc., while the skull is still of pure chimpanzee type, while on the other
hand according to »Eoanthropos» the brain and skull must first have reached the
human stage and afterwards gradually the other parts of the body. By means of
detailed examinations of the parts of the discoveries and extensive studies of the
skeletons in a great deal of comparative material, especially teeth, together with a
comparison of the results of the Vobz* and Selenka^expeditions to Java and
their renewed examinations of the strata where the fossils had been found, it has
been shown in my examination that the discoveries in question do not in reality
give the support to the above mentioned interpretation one believed. This is all
the more clear as both discoveries are plainly composed of typical chimpanzee
fossil and similarly typical human fossil, the latter most nearly of Aurignac*
tlSSy that is oLthe human race which seems to have wandered in the deluvial
period from the East into Europe.

By request I add a plate from the »Eoanthropos»*examination, which shows
that the teeth [two molar teeth. Mi and M2] in the chimpanzee»jaw, that was found
at Piltdown (England), are not »human», but chimpanzee=teeth.

The upper figure is a photograph of the Piltdown »Eoanthropos» jaw.

The middle » » » drawing of the same.

The lower » » » photograph of the lower jaw of a chimpanzee.

The discoverers asserted that the teeth of the Piltdown^jaw were »distinctly
human»; and according to their opinion they should prove that »Eoanthropos»
was an intermediate form between chimpanzees and human beings. But in reality
thex are in their structure fully in corresppndence with the chimpanzee teeth.
Also the whole jaw together with the teeth shows the chimpanzee type.
There is then no reason for connecting this jaw with the admittedly human skull

/^it^ie i;»-»--i^

7^'

46

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE=BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

which (together with many other both tertiary and quarternary animal fossils)
was found in the sand at Pihdown.

The results of my examinations are to be found more completely published
X in »Der Piltdown*Fund» in Bull^ of Geol. Inst. Uppsala 1919.

As before said anthropology has many points of connection with other subjects, e.
g. anatomy, rontgenology, ethnography etc. But many of the contributions that have
been made in these branches of science cannot be treated of here for lack of space.

The beautiful studies and work which have been done by Dr. Victor Berg*
LUND in inventing methods for the reconstruction of the profile of the cranium on
the skeleton of the face (Lund 1914) ought however to be mentioned. And it
should be said also that in Professor K. B. Wiklund of Uppsala, Sweden posses*
ses not only an eminent Finnish*Ugric linguist but also a genuine expert especially
in Lappic ethnography.

Even in Finland: important anthropological researches have been made by
Finland^Swedes. These have not however been mentioned above, because an ac»
count of them will be found in a later article by Dr. K. Hilden.

Lastly in regard to the latest systems started, genetics and race»biology, even
these have been pushed forward strenuously by Swedish scientists.

It is quite natural that at the change of the century when the Mendelian laws
were re«discovered, biologists, especially botanists threw themselves into this inte«
resting sphere of labour. In another part of this book (see page 101) is given an
account of the contributions made by Swedish experimental geneticists and cytologists.

This is the place to mention something about the race«biology which rests on
a medical and anthropological foundation.

There is only one scientist in this field of labour at present in Sweden, na«
mely, H. Lundborg in Uppsala.

He has during many years with rare zeal devoted himself to researches in

ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND RACE=BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES 47

race«biology and done it with so much success that the authorities in the State
have now considered the time ripe to found a Swedish Race^biological Institution
under his direction (see an account of this page 48).

Already in 1899 we find an article in Hygiea on myoclonus in families, in
which quarter' his interest lies. He describes there this uncommon and peculiar
disease, which has since received the name of myoclonus^epilepsy, and is only
found in one place in the south of Sweden. During the years which followed he
drew attention to it in several treatises, among them being a monograph »Die pro=
gressive Myoclonus»Epilepsie» (1903). In the years 1908 he again took up the
investigations and then thoroughly examined the large and at present degenerated
farmer family in which many cases of the above mentioned disease have appeared.
The result of five years work in this district was presented by Lundborg in an
important work: »Medizinisch5biologische Familienforschungen innerhalt eines
2,232 kopfigen Bauerngeschlechtes in Schweden» (Text u. Atlas, Jena 1913). This
work which has won recognition among experts in every country is the most
complete family investigation, built on medicaUgenealogical grounds which, taken
as a whole, is in existence. In this work Lundborg treats of several weighty race*
biological questions, and he shows very plainly that myoclonus«epilepsy is inhe«
rited in fact as a recessive factor according to Mendel's law. This is the first
time that anyone has succeeded in showing exactly, that the disposition for the
disease appears as a recessive unit in mankind.

Professor Lundborg himself gives a very brief account of these investigations
of his in this work (see page 57).

During recent years Lundborg has been busy with race»biological studies
among Swedes, Finns, and Lapps in the most northern parts of Sweden and at
the same time he observed attentively the biological effects of a mixture of race
and of intermarriage. In several articles in Hj^giea, Svenska Lakaresallskapets
Handlingar (The Swedish Medical Society's Proceedings) and Hereditas he has
recently taken up the treatment of questions of this kind and thinks it may be
found that higher stature, increasing disposition for tuberculosis as well as certain
signs of »degeneration», stand in some connection with the crossing of races.

By means of arranging National and Race^type Exhibitions in several parts of
Sweden in 1919 and by popular works (among them Swedish NationaUtypes)
Lundborg has helped strenuously in awakening the interest of a greater public in
anthropological, race^biological and eugenic questions in Sweden.

STANDARD WORKS ON ANTHROPOLOGY AND RACE.BIOLOGY.

Anders Retzius: Om formen av Nordboarnes kranier (1842). — Gustaf Ret»
zius: Finska kranier (1878); Crania Suecica antiqua (1900); Das Menschenhirn
(1896). — G. Retzius and C. M. Furst: Anthropologia Suecica (1902). — Gustaf
v. Duben: Om Lappland och Lapparne. Etnografiska studier. Stockholm 1873;
Crania Lapponica. Stockholm 1910. — C. M. Furst and Fr. C. C. Hansen: Cra«
nia Groenlandica. Copenhagen 1915. — H. Lundborg: Medizinisch:=biologische
Familienforschungen innerhalb eines 2,232 kopfigen Bauerngeschlechtes in Schweden.
Text u. Atlas. G. Fischer Jena 1913. H. Lundborg: Svenska Folktyper, Bildgalleri,
ordnat efter rasbiologiska principer. Stockholm, A.=B. Hasse W. Tullberg 1919.

f I

THE SWEDISH STATE.I N STITUTE FOR
RACE.BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

AN ACCOUNT OF ITS ORIGINATION .

BY

Doctor HJALMAR ANDERSON

BERGVIK

1

o

N THE 13th OF MAY 1921, THE SWEDISH PARLIAMENT RES.
olved (almost unanimously) to grant a sum for the establishment of a
Race^biological Institute. And, as the foundation is thus laid for the
first State Institution in the world of this kind, a short survey of the origination
of the Institute is not out of place.

Eugenic ideas and efforts are no novelty in our time. Both in Swedish leg«
islation, and that of other countries, are found, from ancient times, inconsiderable
tendencies in the direction of eugenics. We find that sociologists and statesmen
of different periods and nationality, have had raceshygienic ideas, at least sporad«
ically, and we meet with them also in philosophical and medical works (e. g. in
Plato's Politeia).

The rise of the doctrines of development during the latter half of the 19th
century, naturally nurtured the idea to influence the biological development of our
race. More than anything else, the revival of Mendel's Laws, about the end of
the 19th century, increased the interest for race^biological and eugenic questions.
It was first through this revival, that race=biology began to stand on firm ground.

During the last decennaries, the »Temperance Movement* in our own, as
well as in other countries, has without doubt, also tended to spread eugenic ideas,
through its strong emphasis of our responsibility towards coming generations.
Finally, in recent times, the late great War, with all its horrors, and pitiable con*
sequences, has caused many to put their hope in race^=biology and eugenics, as
the possible saviours of suffering Europe.

Doctor Herman Lundborg wjs-the first, w^ho, in our country, advanced these
ideas, and their great significance, forcibly and energetically, and he, through his
pioneering scientific labours, and energetic enlightenment, has succeeded in gaining
respect for race^biology in this country. In 1904 he gave a lecture to the Upp*
sala Physicians' Society on this matter, and amongst his remarks were the following:

»A people who, in good time learn to appreciate the importance of heredity*
hygiene, and fulfil its demands, can look into the future with equanimity. A race
which continuously degenerates, cannot in the end survive the struggle for exis*
tence, however well-armed they appear to be in a military sense.

We should remember that powder and shot do not protect us from tuber*
culosis, alcoholism, nerve* and brain disorders, and other enemies of the commu*
nity at large. It would be much better if civilized countries, instead of directing

DOCTOR CARL SWARTZ.
Chancellor of the Universities in Sweden, Statesman, Stockholm-

» 5/6 1858.

THE SWEDISH RACE=BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

49

their armaments and weapons against each other, would expend their revenues, and
mutual strength, to combat enemies of this description. I dare hope, that the
time is not far distant, when one will be inclined, in public affairs, to allow the
word of the biologically educated physician to have as much weight at least as
that of the lawyer and soldier, and when sociologists and statesmen become awake
to the significance of heredity=hygiene for the future of mankind.*

The Race^biological Institute of the University is accomodated in
the building to the right.

Parliament has during later years granted Doctor Lundborg a sum of money
for undertaking Race*biological investigations in this country, and Uppsala Uni*
versity has procured temporary premises for the above purpose, and placed them
^t his disposal. But these arrangements are found to be insufficient. Lundborg
himself and other prominent investigators in this country, agree that a well*
equipped Institute must be established. A wide^spread opinion in Sweden has
supported this idea. "We may below quote the remarks made by well-known
investigators, biologists, and physicians.

»It is sincerely to be hoped» writes Professor H. Nilsson»Ehle of Lund, »that
the idea of the Swedish Race^biological Institute, which, during the last few years,
has been advanced and strongly supported by several authoritative persons and
institutions, may be realized without delay. It is apparent to the theoretical her*
edity investigator, that the great and difficult task must lie in the hands of medic*
al science. Here are found the necessary qualifications, which consist of a thor*

50 THE SWEDISH RACE.BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

f ough knowledge of the human organism, and which exclude dilettantism in
investigation. And in the eventual practical application of race*hygiene, it is spec*
ially necessary that the whole should be seen from a physician's point^of^view.
The thorough attention to the health of the race will better counteract prejudiced,
or hasty ideas regarding the complicated science of race»hygiene; and thus a guar*
antee is secured that the whole matter would be handled in a humane manner.

The importance of race^hygiene cannot be over«rated, inasmuch as it will
enhance the earthly happiness of the human race; moreover, one cannot avoid
asking ourselves the question, as to what other science could, in this respect, really
surpass it.

It is to be hoped therefore that the idea of j*ne Swedish Race^biological In*
stitute will soon be realized, and that its establishment, and equipment, will be
such that, by the aid of sufficient Governmental subventions, and other means at
the disposal of science, it can attain its end in a worthy manner, and will be ben«
eficent, and an honour to our country.

Professor J. V. Hultkrantz of Uppsala states, amongst other things: »We
cannot evade the elementary laws of life, and thus it is of great importance that
our own written laws do not come into conflict with the same, but instead, be
adaptive to them in the best possible way. — A nation's possibilities of future
development, in the first place, depend upon its jacial qualifications, and the great
importance of an inventory of the biological resources of our people, is very
apparent. - — -^

Even they, who possibly mistrust the idea that eugenics (race^hygiene) will
succeed in finding any effective means to improve the race, must see how im«
portant it is for a people to ,»knGW themselves*, and be fully aware, both of
their power and limitations.

In our country racesbiology possesses no scientific Institution, nor any per*...
manent representative at the University.

It would be both a duty and an honour for our country, to partake in Race*
biological research, as much as possible.

If the Swedes are, in the future, to maintain their position in competition with
other nations, and take advantage of their natural resources, and if they are to
s/avoid degeneration and downfall, and utilize remedies in the right way, the first
condition is that they obey, in good time, the wise old admonition »know thyself».
The first task for the Swedish Race*biologicaI Institute is to energetically aid the
fulfilment of this precept; to attain this end alone is sufficient to justify its estab*
lishment.»

The well*known experimental biologist Docent Nils Heribert*Nilsson of Lund
writes: »We sacrifice without hesitation, enormous sums for the up*keep of discip*
linary establishments and prisons, to maintain individuals which, by race*biolog*
ical means could be considerably reduced. By making this statement I do not
mean to censure these establishments in the slightest degree; and I wish to em*
phasize this, to avoid any misunderstanding; for as long as these unfortunate categ*
ories of beings exist, they must be attended to, and taken care of. But the pity
of it is, that they must exist, so long as the Government undertakes nothing to
thoroughly probe to the root of the evil, i. e. the inferior characteristical propen*

THE SWEDISH RACE.BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

51

sities. And is it not unsound economy to willingly sacrifice large sums to support
the evil, but not a penny to forestall the same, when we have the means at hand?

In Sweden this problem could be more easily solved than in most other coun«
tries for a certain reason: that is to say, we have the immense advantage of pos«
sessing a Swedish race^biologist, who as regards his researches, is admitted to be
one of the foremost, namely Docent Herman Lundborg, whose pioneering res*
earches I have referred to above. He has bestowed an incredible amount of pains*
taking labour in solving problems which are the most important in Race»biology,
and has achieved great success. Would it not be a simple token of gratitude, and
a deserving reward, for a sacrificial and disinterested life-work, to give him the
opportunity, under more favourable conditions than obtains now, to continue the
researches, which are of such great importance for the future welfare of our people?

Two Swedish women in prominent positions, namely Ellen Key the autho*
ress, and Baroness Ebba Palmstierna have, on several occasions, with emphasis and
enthusiasm, given expression to their faith in the feasibility of eugenic ideas, and
have spoken in favour of the Swedish Race«biological Institute as a first step in
the right direction.

This question came very much to the fore, when the Rector of the Karolinska
Institutet (The High School of Medicine in Stockholm) Professor F. Lennmalm,
one of the most prominent physicians in Sweden, in a long report to the Nobel
Committee of the Institute in December 1918, advanced the idea of the establish*
ment of a medical Nobel Institute for Race*biology. From his expert and thor*
ough explication, the following may be quoted:

»There has, for a long time in this country, been a desire to establish a Race*
biological Institute, and several biologists, physicians, and national economists have
given expression to this in print. Now that there is a possibility of establishing
a medical Nobel Institute, I, for my part do not know of any branch of medical
research which, for its development requires so much support as race*biology,
noir^o I know of any branch of medical research which, on account of its sig*
nificance, is more worthy of such support. The »Karolinska Institutet» would
prove to be an excellent guardian of Alfred Nobel's testament, and the Institute
would also be very benificial to Medical Science through the establishment of a
medical Nobel Institute for Race*biology and Heredity research. The »Karolinska
Institutet» would hereby also embody the new science: a High^chool of Medicine
which would retain its position as the most prominent in the country, must endeav*
our to support the new branches of Medical Sciences which are working their
way up, and can easily be stifled if not duly sustained.*

The Committee agreed unanimously to the suggestion, which for essentially
formal reasons, was not accepted by the Board of the »Karolinska Institutet».

At a later conference of the »Karolinska Institutet», Professors Lennmalm and
Gadelius, strongly emphasized the significance of the Race*biological Institute, in
the following words:

»During the discussion regarding a Race*biological Institute it has been sta*
ted, that the whole question can be settled by appointing Docent Lundborg in
Uppsala, to a professorship. In the meanwhile this would be a solution which
is by no means compati^Te with the real weight and significance of the problem.

52 THE SWEDISH RACE^BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

although naturally, Lundborg has, for a long time, been specially worthy of this
distinction. Parliament has indeed demanded an explication of the need of a Race*
biological Institute, and such an investigation would seem to be quite unneces«
sary, if the thing at the commencement, could have been so much simplified, as
only to be a matter of appointing a worthy scientist to a professorship. But here
it is quite another question.

Fully awake to the significance for our people of heredity researches, now, and
in the future, it is the intention to guarantee the existence of the science, and not
of any single scientist. And what makes a really permanent Institute of research
necessary are the difficulties which are met with in the investigations to be made.
It is not sufficient that single investigators attempt to ascertain historically, the
conditions of health and disease of previous generations; it is necessary to form a
continuity in this work, by organizing an Institute whose methods of research, and"
the results thereof, make it possible for one generation of physicians after the other,
to continue, and complete the researches of the foregoing generation; the material to
be investigated is the continuous series of human beings followed from generation
to generation. It goes without saying that such a task cannot be ensured by con«
ferring a professorship on one person, who cannot depend upon a successor fol<
lowing up his work. To suggest the establishment of a personal professorship is
certainly an act of respect to the scientist in question, but is at the same time, a
depreciation of the significance of the whole question.* —

Several of to«day's most prominent investigators abroad, who have had the
opportunity of expressing their opinion, have unanimously stated that an institute
is of great importance, and that a professorship is insufficient. The names of
<^ these scientists are as follows: Professors W. Johanssen of Copenhagen, E. Baur

of Berlin, M. v. Gruber of Miinchen, the anthropologist the late R. Poch of
Vienna, W. Bateson of London, A. Thomson of Aberdeen, and C. B. Davenport
of New York.

In January 1920 a motion for a petition to the King was submitted by the
vSwedish Parliament by very prominent members of all parties, atjiQngst others, the
former. Prime Ministers Hj^^ranting, and A. Lindman, the Vice Speaker in the
Second Chamber Count Raoul Hamilton, Professors K. Kjellberg and N. Wohlin,
the Councillor of Education Doctor W. Bjorck, and the Head«inspector of the
Hospitals for Mental Diseases Doctor A. Petren, containing a request regarding
an explication and suggestions in reference to the founding of a Swedish Race*
biological Institute. The motion was unanimously carried in both Chambers.
Below are extracts from the same:

»Race«biological investigation, which works to attain a high and noble object:
protection against genealogical degeneration, and the furtherance of good racial
attributes, grows daily stronger and stronger. The motion is based upon the stand*
point that there is nothing so precious in a country as the racial material itself,
especially if this, as is the case with the Swedes from ancient times, is of good
/ ' quality. The task this scientific investigation has to contend with, is to explicate
and elucidate all conditions regarding heredity and environment which cause an
elevation, or debasement of the inherent worth of a race. Then, firm bases and
guidance can be given to a State in its endeavouring to enhance the development

THE SWEDISH RACE^BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 53

of the race and people in the right way. Racesbiology is, in other words, the sc'u
entific study of all the factors which exercise influence on the physical and spirit*
ual structure of coming generations. Thus has the Englishman, Francis Galton,
simply and clearly defined this branch of science, of which he himself is really the
founder.*

And further: »Already several years ago, a prominent English investigator.
Professor Thomson, stated when speaking of the significance of race»biology, for
the human race: »We cannot but feel that the application of biological results
is only beginning, and beginning with a tardiness which is a reproach to human
foresight. There can be no doubt, that it would pay the British nation to put
aside a million a year for research on eugenics, or the inprovement of the -^
human breed. »

The truth of these words is clearly apparent, when one takes into consider*
ation the enormous and incessant increase of expenditure in reference to defective,
abnormal, criminal and anti«social individuals of different kinds, in all civilized
countries.

Seen from this point»of»>view, we must look upon the establishment of a Race*^
biological Institute as an absolute necessity, a pure and simple act of self«defence ;
on the part of a country, against its internal enemies. J

It is a duty of Go^^rnment to pay attention to these demands, which have
originated from the most prominent investigators and physicians. They have a
powerful public opinion behind them which cannot be silenced in the end. On
the contrary, they meet with immediate approval in daily increasing circles. The
instinct of self-preservation in a race, tells them that something must soon be done,
to counteract the present degeneration which threatens to get the upper=hand.»

By reason of a Parlamentary resolution, the Government requested investig*
ations, and direct suggestions to be made by the competent authorities as follow:
Uppsala and Lund Universities, »Karolinska Institutet» in Stockholm, the Royal
Medical Board and the University Chancellor. All these authorities testified to
the great significance of Race»biology, and supported the establishment of a Swe»
dish institute for Race»biological investigation (including human heredity research).
The Government gave its support, and brought forward a proposition on the sub*
ject to Parliament in 1921. We can quote some remarks of the Minister of
V Education, Dr. B. Bergqvist, which received the Royal sanction, and approval
of the Ministry:

»It is without doubt clear to all, who are awake to certain circumstances at
the present time, that we cannot avoid being anxious for the future of the civili*
zed race. Amongst the many beneficial influences which are at work to improve
and meliorate the conditions of the human race, there obtain regrettable and dan*
gerous factors through which the result of these influences is threatened by under*
mining and annihilation. The struggle between these conflicting currents is not
new, but we at the present time have possibly felt the danger more forcibly of
permitting the destructive forces to execute their work, without any attempt to
counteract them. The meaning of the expression »Culture's sacrificial nature* stands
out clearer, the more civilization advances. As the welfare of the people as a
whole improves, mortality decreases, and the average length of life is increased etc., a

54 THE SWEDISH RACE^BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

simultaneous race<deterioration threatens. The vigour of the race is destroyed, and
thus too dear a price has been paid for the advantages produced by a highly*
developed material, and spiritual civilization.

However, for a long time back, endeavours have been made to take measures
against the aboveonamed destroying forces. But up to the present these endeav*
'ours have principally been directed to the easily accessible task lying nearest to
hand, that is, to improve the exterior conditions of mankind, (the social environ*
ments), or one has turned attention to the symptoms which are apparent through
the short«comings of these conditions of life, that is to say, of the social condi*
tions. With all appreciation of what has been, and continues to be done, we
are however awake to the fact that through this alone no genuine result is to be
won against the evil we have to combat. One cannot rely any longer on im«
proved environments only. Itjs the powerfully prominent insight of inheritance
and its signification for the existencT^ of the race, and its improvement, which is
oflmportance here. Plant«life was the first sphere in which the so»called Mende«
lian Laws held good. In this work, Swedish investigation has taken a prominent
part. By this I naturally refer, in the first place, to the pioneering investigations
which have been achieved by Professor H. Nilsson^Ehle of Lund University. In
this connection I should like to bring to recollection, that by special resolutions
of Parliament in 1917, arrangements were made to put Nilsson^Ehle in a position
,y/, / ^ to devote his time wholly to that branch of Botany, heredity doctrines, and espec»
/ '^ ^ / ially improvement of plant4ife, in which he undertook his epoch-making theoret«
ical and practical investigations. By Royal decree. Parliament resolved to confer
a professorship on Nilsson»Ehle at Lund University, in the science of heredity,
and through a grant of land at Alnarp's Agricultural Institute, with arrangements
of premises, and appointment of assistants, to establish a Heredity Biological In»
stitute for scientific investigation, and practical experiments in the refinement of
plant«life. Meanwhile it is now generally admitted that the Mendelian Laws hold
y good not only for plant«life, but also in the animal world, and for human beings.
To ascertain how far these laws could be applied to human beings, is one of the
important tasks, the comparatively new science which is called race«bioIogy, has
to deal with. It will endeavour to solve the pxoblem of heredity, ascertain its
significance to health and disease, indicate the way to preserve the good racial

I attributes, and hinder the progress of the bad ones. It endeavours to solve »one
of the greatest social problems of the present day» (Professor F. Lennmalm).

It is not an easily attained or accessible object which race=biology desires to
reach. This is apparent, because where it is a question of human beings, race*
biological experiments which correspond to those, which could be undertaken with
plants and animals, are impossible. Other means must be found to attain the
desired result. Many years must pass, of patient, laborious research, comprising
thorough investigation in different spheres. The explication of human hereditary
conditions, and the inheritance of diseases, and other attributes, demand, as stated
in the motion, a great quantity of material, comprising not only single individuals,
but also whole households and families, a collection of material, not only as re»
gards that living at the present time, but through examination of archives, revert*
ing to by»gone times, and through observation continued during the future.

^'

THE SWEDISH RACE»BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 55

Thus if one is convinced of the reality of the dangers threatening the welfare
of the race, as before mentioned, and admit that in race^biology there is a possibility
of obtaining a means of counteracting these dangers, it is apparent that one should
without delay, support race^^biological science, although it will be in a distant
future before it can fulfil, to any great extent, its practical and self-imposed task.
The forces which threaten to envenom the race, will be at work incessantly, and
their activity will be ever on the increase. The sooner the antidotes are prepared,
the more beneficial they will be.

In consideration of all that I have said, and the opinions given on the sub>
ject, from which I have taken a part of my remarks, I do not hesitate to agree
with the unanimous sentiments contained in these opinions, that one should give
the race^biological science powerful support for its continued development. The
help the community have hitherto given its future assistant in self»defence is in*
sufficient. It is not enough that, occasionally, more or less Government support /
is given to single scientists; it demands a firmly organized scheme of investigation, V'
with co-operation of well»qualified assistants. The magnitude and intricacy of the
task before us, demands this. — — —

As the personal professorship, the establishment of which is now under con*
sideration, would be conferred on Docent Lundborg, it would be of great inter*
est to hear his own opinion on the subject. — — — His decided refusal of this
professorship, gives us no option in the matter.

Thus remains the question of establishing a Swedish 'Race«biological Institute.
The objections raised are not in my opinion decisive. — — — This is for us, as
it were, a remarkable step to take, but the importance of the matter demands that
it must be handled in an unusual way. The fact that the goal of race^^biology
agpears to be in the_distant futurCj^ should as we have already stated, not relieve
us from the duty of acting immediately, and equip the same with means for its
development.

In the proposition it was suggested that besides the salary for the future
principal, Docent Lundborg, an extra sum of 82,500 Crowns (Swedish) should be
granted for 1922, of which 24,000 Crowns should be utilized for the first equipment
of the Institute, 26,500 Crowns for working expenses, and the balance for salaries
of assistants.

The financial position of the State however, at this time of general economic*
al depression, is specially serious, and Parliament this year was obliged to be
very careful with regard to expenditure, in every way.

On the Parliamentary Committee of Ways and Means, which had the prepa*
ration of this question on hand, voices were raised in favour of the alternative,
that is to say, to be satisfied for the time being with a personal professorship
for Docent Lundborg, also an University Institute of smaller dimensions. As
Docent Lundborg energetically refused to co*operate in such a solution of this
important question the Committee agreed to the proposition, but were in favour
of a reduction of the grant for 1922, to 60,000 Crowns and a salary for the prin«
cipal. In the report of the Committee it stated :

»The Committee are in full agreement with the Head of the Department res*
pecting the importance of researches, which the Race, biological Institute intends

56 THE SWEDISH RACE=B10L0GICAL INSTITUTE

to make. In consideration of this, and with regard to the opinion which Parlia^
ment expressed last year, when it empowered the expHcation on this matter, the
Committee thinks that it should assent to the Royal proposition on principle. A
further reason for this is, according to the opinion of the Committee, the fact that a
principal for the Institute can now be appointed; a deserving investigator who has,
for a considerable time laboured in this science, and whose activity, in the opinion
of the Committee should be continued to aid the completion of the work which
he has so successfully commenced. If the Committee thus consider that they should
on principle, support the Royal proposition, the Committee cannot, entirely, on
account of the financial condition of the State now ruling, support the same.
Nevertheless they are of opinion that an Institute of this description should by
degrees be organized and developed to such an extent, that the results attained,
warrant such organization and development.*

^ On the 13th of May both Chambers in Parliament assented without a divi»
sion, to the proposition of the Committee, the First Chamber, without debate, and
the Second Chamber, after a short one. The Minister of Agriculture, N. Hansson
M. P., made a brilliant speach in the Second Chamber, in favour of the Institute,
and this was loudly applauded.

The Swedish Government owing to this resolution, have led the way, and
given an example worthy of being followed by other countries in nourishing this
important young science, which is called Race=biology. That this could be ac*

v^complished in the midst of a period of a very serious financial crisis, is really due
to one man. Professor Herman Lundborg. He has, for twenty years, with small
financial resources, a burning desire for investigation, unconquerable energy, rare
and admirable disinterestedness, devoted the whole of his strength to the achieve
ment which has now gained a Governmental acknowledgement; and the future
development of which is thus in safe hands. The resolution is, to a large extent,
the fruit of Professor Lundborg's scientific contributions, and the revival of eugen*
ics, which he, more than anyone else, has helped to give our people. For a
moment it looked as if the financial troubles in Parliament would have stifled the
suggestion of an Institute. Professor Lundborg did not however hesitate a mo»
ment, in deciding to allow the whole question to fall through for the present,
rather than receive the personal honour and security, which a professorship would
have procured him, when he saw that science would be too badly served by such
a solution of the problem. He would not have been the idealistic and unseU
fish man he is, if he had acted otherwise. He has earned the thanks of the
Swedish people.

THE HISTORY OF A SWEDISH FARMER'S

LINEAGE AS SEEN FROM A RACE.

BIOLOGICAL STAND.POINT*

OF

HERMAN LUNDBORG

A COMMONWEALTH CONSISTS, AS IS KNOWN, NOT ONLY OF
individuals, but also of households and families. These combined con*
stitute a people. A constant family»tie engenders the safest foundation
for a »culture» State. It is in the interest of every well^^organized community to
preserve, and further strengthen such a social principle, which has shown itself
to be beneficial from times immemorial.

For this purpose, we must acquire a thorough knowledge of a large number
of kinsmen, during several generations. We must confess that very much is
needed, before we have reached this goal. Thither we shall arrive sooner or
later however.

We must never forget, that the greatest opulence a country possesses, is its
own people, provided they are of a good stock. We Swedes are, in this respect,
fortunately situated. We should not therefore shun any sacrifice, to cherish, and
augment the biological inheritance, which a generous nature has bestowed on us.
It is inadvisable to feel too secure in the belief that this vigorous source is in*
exhaustible. It can decrease, or even wholly disappear, if we do not understand
how to economize sufficiently.

Ancient sages have given utterance to the wise saying »Know thyself». It
applies to us even in these days. But we must add more and say, »Learn to
know thyself, your kindred and your people*.

When it is a question of putting this precept into practice, we must not be
satisfied with only a superficial knowledge, but we should penetrate further into
the matter, as other scientific explorers do such as historians, biologists, physi''
cians etc.

We must learn to know thoroughly the various stocks, their life and condi»
tions, and the forces which generate development, in one or the other direction.
We should therefore carefully pay attention to biological, physiological and pa*
thological conditions existing in the same, that is to say, to obtain knowledge
regarding the constitution of the family, its disposition, its social value and
ability etc.

One often hears it said that nothing is to be gained by investigating the
conditions of »a farmer's family, which is similar to all others*. This is a great
mistake. The social position of a family, is by no means the most important

• This representation is grounded upon the author's work : — Medizinisch'biologiche Familienforschungen innerhatb eines
2232'kopfigen liauerngeschlcchtes in Schweden (.Medical'biological Familyrcsearches containing 2232 copies of peasant-families in
Sweden). Text und Atlas. G. Fischer, Jena 1913.

58 A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

point. One can compare the Swedish race with a lofty and vigorous fir. The
farmers may be discribed as the »heart» of the tree itself.

By reason of this fact, we should give this type of family our special atten«
tion. Moreover, we have here a very accessible field of labour.

A scientific investigator would, without doubt, naturally be interested in any
human family whatever, of high or low social standard. Farmers, peasants and
labourers, should interest us, quite as much as noblemen or princes.

It is not rank, titles or, brilliant careers which are the subject of our studies
in race^hygiene, but it is a question, of larger or smaller groups of human beings
connected by blood, or race. It may easily happen, that a single poor, and de»
generated family can teach us more than a dozen others of average type.

The goal, which we are striving to reach is to acquire a thorough know*
ledge of the laws of inheritance as appertaining to mankind. In the struggle,
which is before us, we must undertake assaults from as many different positions
as possible.

THE SWEDISH LISTER FAMILY.

The reason why just this family of farmers, who have lived a very long
time in Listerland in the south west of Blekinge, is the subject of such thorough
investigations, is that a very uncommon family disease obtains amongst its mem«
bers. This disease is known in medicinal literature, as myoklonus epilepsy. It
appears occasionally in other parts of the world, but nowhere is it so prevalent
as in the Blekinge family in question.

It has not been observed in other parts of Sweden. In Norway it is
unknown.

When I, at the end of 1890 arrived in Listerland, my first task was to in*
vestigate the nature of the disease. The doctors in the district had no clear idea
regarding the same. I had, therefore to begin from the beginning, and had to
note all cases of illness, from which, I worked out a genealogical table. A
talented school-teacher, who was a member of the family in question, and his
nearest relatives, were very helpful to me. I am very grateful for the admirable
assistance they gave me during my investigations.

With the help of the parochial register I succeeded, after much labour, to
obtain such complete genealogical tables that I could trace the origin of the
various branches. It appeared that all lines, as it were, met at one point, that
is to say, all persons who were attacked by myoklonus epilepsy, 17 altogether,
belonging to 10 different households, were offsprings of the same ancestors, who
lived in the 18th century. In other families in the same district not a single
case of this peculiar disease was met with. Hereby I had shewn it to be highly
probable that the disease was hereditary, and not originating from any local con*
ditions, in other words not, of endemic type.

My next task was to investigate which was the course taken by the inherited
disease. By careful analysis (see original work) it is demonstrated that the
disease is inherited as a recessive and monohybrid (simplex) factor in accordance
with Mendel's law. I shall revert to this question further on.

I now began to eagerly study the disease itself, its nature and development.

A SWEDISH FARMERS LINEAGE 59

Descriptions of this disease are very seldom met with in foreign publications.
Boys as well as girls are attacked by it. Its usual progression is about like this.
At an age of 7 to 10 years, the child is subject to nightly attacks, which are repeated
with shorter intervals for some years.

During the day very little happens at first. Gradually however, a change
appears. Skaking fits occur and, occasionally muscular spasms take place here
and there, in different parts of the body. These symptoms gradually increase in
violence, and spread.

A marked symptomatical periodicity is soon observed. The patients have
comparatively quiet days, followed by days when the muscles become more and
more agitated. Then one or more epileptic fits occur, after which the patient
becomes comparatively quiet again. In this way it continues through life with
increasing violence. Many patients die early, others having the advantage of
good attention may live 20 or 30 years. They are a burden to themselves, and
their environment, for in a few years after the appearance of the disease, they are
helpless, and must be waited upon, and looked after as if small children. They
are very troublesome as patients, for they are not only helpless, but as a rule
stubborn and passionate.

The muscular spasms, and attacks of cramp keep the patient bed^ridden.
During the most troublesome days, the muscular reflexibility is so increased that
figuratively speaking a puff of air will be enough to produce spasms.

The patients cannot, under such conditions, take food. It is difficult, or
even quite impossible to feed them, because, as soon as the food is placed in
the mouth, (whether in solid or liquid form) irregular muscular spasms in the
mouth and throat commence. All is ejected again. It is a sorrowful sight.

No radical remedy has been discovered for this serious disease. All our
efforts are nearly fruitless in combating veritable inherited diseases. Both phy«
sicians, and quack«doctors have been resorted to, and large sums of money have
been sacrificed — without result.

This fact should certainly open the eyes of both doctors, and the general
public to the importance of taking preventative race^hygienic steps. A new
epoch is approaching, when these ideas will be established. It will come as a
blessing to both families and peoples.

I soon observed, during my investigations in the district, that this family in
question was a rich field of labour for a more penetrating study. It was now
considerably degenerated being numerous however and now living within a small
limited district. One could here collect race>^biological material of great scientific
value, thus being well able to throw a light upon social and race«biological
questions which are yet in darkness. Such a task however would require a
scientific explorers time, and energy for a number of years.

The original forefather of the large family under investigation was a farmer
in a prominent position, a member of the District Council, member of Parliament.
Per (1721 — 1804). He was dark, healthy and robust, talented quick-tempered,
imperious, often involved in disputes, and law*suits, even with his own children.

60 A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

His wife, was named Kersta (1723—1799). Of her we know but little; however
she appears to have been of a mild and retiring disposition, and grieved at the
disputes between the children. Their children were, 1. Kersta, who married a
farmer, was dark, robust, narrow-minded, conceited, despised by her brothers and
sisters. 2. Knut, farmer, member of the District Council, member of Parliament
unusually talented, under average height, but was remarkably strong and hardy,
was interested in his work, acquired learning, and worked himself up to a pro*
minent position in his native place; where he was known as »King of M— by».
He was imperious, passionate and hasty. When a member of Parliament, he was
one of the Secret Committee, but was not tolerated on account of this temper,
hated by his brothers and sisters, and he removed from his native place. He
was without doubt a very unusual personality. 3. Bengt, fair, of average height,
powerfully built, not particularly intelligent, of a quarrelsome nature, revengeful
and fond of law^suits. He was also a clever farmer, drank heavily and was
fined several times for fighting. Great hatred existed between him and his
brothers, expecially as regards Knut. 4. Elsa, dark, small, powerfully built, in=
telligent, proud, revengeful, unrelentless and despotic. She was the principal in
the bitter family quarrels with the prosperous brother Knut. 5. Pernilla, married
a farmer, not particularly intelligent, otherwise not much is known of her.
6. Pehr, a large farmer, member of District Council, member of Parliament, very
dark, short, not particularly intelligent, economical, rich, conceited, egotistical,
and fretful. He was fined for libel, was elected member of Parliament instead
of Knut, for which position he was not suitable.

We now pass on to the heredity table, this comprises 8 generations excluding
ancestral parents.

We find that in generation III, IV, V and VII diseased individuals appear (all*
black symbols). Usually both the parents of the invaUds are apparantly sound,
but both have a propensity for myoklonus epilepsy. And as the disease is only
found in one district in Sweden, the parents therefore must be related. The
parents, on their part must have acquired the propensity from one (or both) of
their parents etc., etc. Thus we can conclude that at least one of the ancestral
parents must — though apparently sound — have had the propensity in question.
It is not impossible that both the ancestral parents had this propensity. The
question arises: is it possible to determine this? Yes, undoubtedly. The in*
vestigation of this family shows that the ancestral parents had 6 children — as
above mentioned — who all became grown up and married. They thus con*
stitute the source of 6 different branches of the family. If both ancestral parents
had been »heterozygots», with a propensity for myoklonus epilepsy, one at least
of these children would have been affected, (that is to say, a recessive homo*
zygot), but this was not the case. Whereby, and owing to other circumstan*
ces, (see below) we can conclude, that without doubt, but one of the an*
cestral parents had a transmissible propensity. If this had been the case, the
question arises, which of the ancestral parents had this propensity, theoretically
either the husband or the wife could have had it. Sex plays no part in the
hereditary transmission of this disease.

A SWEDISH FARMERS LINEAGE

61

In the meanwhile, the disease has appeared in the male ancestor's family,
but not in the females, and from this fact we can deduct that the male ancestor
must have had the propensity and not the female. A sister of the male ancestor
must have had the same propensity, because, when a grandchild of hers, married
a grandchild of the male ancestor, two of their several children had this serious

INHERITANCE SCHEME RELATING TO THE FAMILY DISEASE
MYOKLONUS EPILEPSY IN BLEKINGE.

\0

Hcilc ancester's
sister

Male anccsfgr Female ancester

®j

\®_

o

/

\0 ^®/ O^ \0 ^®^ O ® O O ^®^ O/

u

m

^ n-.

IS rr

'o ® o ^®' '®i O O ^®' 'O, O O O^ '®j ® o o^

^ /^

tlarriagc
second

hetweeji Marna<je

cousins

b;fivcen
cousinb

R.^laiioiishifj
marriage

\0 ^•/ o ® v®^ /®, o o ®).^ 'o ® ® ^•^ Oy

Jl

m

fiarnaqe^yh^tiueen cousins

^ ^® ® ® ® ® ® ^®' Oy 'o ® • ®^

emigrated to

yO ®/

Australia

'^ o, ^

^O '®, O O s®_Oj

Yf

vzr

'® P o ^®^ ^®^ ® o o^ ^

^O ® O ^®^ ''®^ o ® o^

bctu/cen
cousins

Marriage

fiarrlage
cousins

bctiucert
in Australia

^O ^®y O • ® • ® ® xO^ o

'• • • •

'^^ 'o ® ® o\

'o o o o'

\ w

vm

L-Kplanailon of symbols ( • ® O J.

9 denotes n person affected luitk myoklonus epiUpsij (•recessiue homozLjqot).

® ■ » » healthli but witk propensiUj f-hcierozimot )

O . . heallhij person without propcnsiti) (-dominant Iwmozifqot).

disease. Both these parents must therefore have been heterozygots, and the pro»
pensity must have originated from the male ancestor and his sister, through one
of their parents, but not from the female ancestor, or her family.

The first bearer of the propensity for myoklonus epilepsy of which we have
any information thus lived in the 17th century. There we lose all trace. It is
impossible to determine whether the propensity has originated in Sweden, or
was brought here from some other country.

Professor Unverricht in Dorpat was the first to describe the disease in
question.

He has observed several cases in one and the same household in Esthonia.
It is not only possible, but very probable that these families living in Sweden
and Esthonia, had the same root many years ago, for diseases of this type go in

62 A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

invisible links from generation to generation, from family to family and from
country to country. Below, we shall give examples of this.

The table shows that there must be a propensity for a certain recessive
disease to appear in one or several of the children. If one of the parents is
effected by the disease, and the other is a healthy homozygot, all the children
will be sound, though heterozygots. If the propensity of the disease is a domi«
nant attribute, so in the last mentioned case, all the children will be affected.
On the other hand, if both the parents are sound, although heterozygots with
propensity for a certain recessive disease, 25 % of the children will be affected
This is a verj^ common occurrence with human beings, that is to say, an epilep*
tic or a person of weak mind, may have healthy parents or even forefathers for
several or many generations, for heterozygotism can be inherited from generation
to generation, without the disease appearing.

In such families in which the propensity of the disease of a recessive nature
is inherited, one often finds one or of few cases of the disease here and there
in different households, whereas other families or branches are free from the
same. The disease appears within households with collateral expansion, though
seldom in 2 or more successive generations. Numerous marriages between rela»
tions increase the number of such cases apparently, as persons with similar here*
ditary propensities are thus often united.

Moreover it is of great importance to remember, that not a few people,
who appear to be quite sound, are often bearers, and transmitters of serious pro*
pensities, they are, so called »conductors».

From the present scientific standpoint, we cannot unfortunately beforehand
distinguish between homozygotically and heterozygotically sound persons, which
however would be of great importance, because heterozygots often, in future ge«
nerations, generate persons affected by the disease.

In our investigations, we have progressed so far, that we know that the male
ancestor of the Lister family was without doubt a heterozygot, the female ancestor
was most probably a healthy homozygot. As I have just shown, Mendel's law
demands that 50 % of the children should be heterozygots with a propensity for
the disease and 50 % healthy without any propensity. Let us now see if this
agrees with the true position within this family. The number of the ancestral
parents' children was 6, of which three in all probability would be heterozygots,
and three healthy homozygots.

How can we know if this is the case or not, as all are apparantly sound?
»By the fruit we know the tree.» On investigation, we find that 3 of the branches
of the family had unhealthy offspring, when married with relations, but not the
other three. The matter thus stands as we had expected.

From the heredity table we find further, that 2 unhealthy individuals (females
of the Blekinge family) were married, and had offspring, none of whom were
diseased. Even this circumstance is quite in agreement with Mendel's law. For,
if one of the parents, is a healthy homozygot, (without any propensity) and the

A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE 63

other an unhealthy homozygot, we can expert that all the children will be healthy;
but it should be noted: all have the propensity that is to say; all are heterozy*
gots. Three of these children having attained mature age, emigrated to Australia,
and married (not to relations). Half the number of the children of these mar*
riages will be heterozygots. When these marry in Australia, 50 % of their
children will be heterozygots, and so on. Let us imagine that 2 brothers or
sisters, who are both heterozygots in time to come — e. g. in a hundred years
or more — remove with their families to a distant part of the country. Their
children perhaps grow up without having any neighbours; and then it is highly
probable that cousins marry, that is to say, new sources of the disease, appear
there occasioned by such marriages, which result in a fresh appearance in the
offspring, of myoklonus epilepsy (see generation VII in the table).

Parents, who see such a disease break out in one of the children, are very
horrified. They have most likely forgotten long ago, that they originated from
Sweden. And they probably know nothing of the family disease in Blekinge.
They resort to a doctor for help and advice. The doctor asks them the reason
of this disease in the child. The parents would give then, as now, the first
»local» reasons, which came to hand.

We will give as an example, what a doctor in these days, would hear from
the parents: A child has perhaps been out playing, on a very warm day, and
drunk cold water. The first attack occurs the same night. The parents think
that the heat, and the drinking of cold water, are the cause of the illness, and
tell the doctor this. Or they suggest that the child has eaten poisonous berries
etc., etc. The doctor, who perhaps has an inkling of the true cause, probably
enquires. »Do you think that it may be a hereditary disease.* He gets a de«
cidedly negative reply as follows. »We know nobody in our family who has ever
had the disease.* Here the matter is supposed to be settled. If it is a really
clever and »schooled» physician, he is in a position to inform them, that medical
science has discovered long ago, that the disease is decidedly hereditary, although
it has only appeared in solitary cases, that is to say, in a certain percentage
amongst children, if both the parents have a propensity for the disease, otherwise
only the propensity is inherited. Now if the parents are in a low state of
culture, the doctor cannot convince them of this, at least not as a rule, in
these days.

They retain their idea of the importance of local causes, and think the doctor
does not know his business. They resort to a quack«doctor, who has, as they
think, a better knowledge of the disease in question. This is the usual idea
amongst ignorant and unintelligent people.

The Lister family was at its best, during the latter half of the 18th century.
They were far above other families in the district in question.

The members were called »the great», several of them were elected to Parlia^
ment as already stated, and one of them played an important part in the »Farmers
Party» during the end of the 18th century. They deteriorated, however, in the
beginning of the 19th century, when they distilled their own alcohol, and thus

64 A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

became drunkards. Then degeneration appeared, and increased in an alarming
degree, on account of the numerous marriages which occurred between relations.
Now, a hundred years afterwards, the family is, as a whole, in such a miserable
state that, in many cases, there are signs of a veritable collapse. Alcoholism
and consanguinity still appear, but nothing like so often as before. There is still
great fecundity in the families. As a matter of fact, it is often the case that the
parents have 8 to 10 children. Fathers and mothers are not at all pleased atthis,
but wish to have smaller families.

Preventative methods have not been resorted to, to any great extent, but
they have adopted the alternative of extending the suckling period as much as
possible, usually 2 years, in the belief that a fresh conception cannot then take
place. Experience shows, however that such an extended suckling period does
not prevent a new conception.

Several of these women must therefore nourish, not only a child more than
one year old, but also an embryo. When 8 or 10 such periods have occurred
in a woman's lifetime, we can easily imagine what a miserable condition she is
in, though still under 40 years of age. To fortify themselves, they resort to
stimulating mediums, such as alcohol, but, chiefly coffee in large quantities.
The extended suckling periods, the frequent confinements, the great consumption
of coffee, have without doubt increased the miserable condition of these women.

Yet it is to be noted, that several of the mothers, on account of degenera»
tion, have lost the capability of suckling the child, which is also a signi*
ficant fact.

I also wish to mention that in my opinion, deterioration of the family has
been caused by the emigration to America and Australia, which has taken place
to a rather large extent, from that part of the country, during the last decennaries.

In all probability it was the most robust persons who emigrated. The less
healthy who remained behind, generally married relatives as unhealthy as themselves,
and thus one cannot be surprised at the result. In addition to emigration, they rerno*
ved, of course, to other parishes. It is possible, that they, who have been fortunate
enough to escape the general collapse of the stock, may be the progenitors of
new families, who under favourable conditions would be regenerated.

One and the same family can thus be good material for the study of both
degeneration and regeneration.

On the other hand, there are naturally whole families who are on the upward
grade. A thorough study of such families may be as interesting, or even more
so, than an investigation of those which degenerate. As above mentioned the
male ancester lived from 1721 to 1804. In his time the family was rich and
respected. They have now lost the greater part of their former opulence.

There are now distinct signs here and there, that the family is partially
degenerated.

Marriages between relations occurred more frequently formerly, than now.

In the family in question, one meets, to a rather great extent, dark types,
with a foreign appearance. Many years ago a blending of race occurred between
dark foreigners and fair Scandinavians. The dark types belong to certain family
branches are known as »the blacks*. My anthropological investigations show

HIGHER OFFICIALS, WHO HAVE WORKED FOR RACE.BIOLOGY

EDVARD BACKMN.

Permanent Secretary, Stockholm.

• ■* [0 1855. t ';' 1921.

DOCTOR FRITZ BAUER.

Surgeon General, Stockholm.

• '"s 1864.

PROFESSOR NILS IIANSSON.

Minister for Agriculture, Stockholm.

• »/5 1867.

DOCTOR BE.S'GT J;N BEKGQVIST.

Minister tor Education, Stockholm.

• 5 10 1560.

-J

A SWEDISH FARMERS LINEAGE

65

that we have in this district a large quantity of Brachycephali (25.6 % amongst
schoolchildren in the district). Persons with brown eyes appear here, more than
in most other parts of Sweden. Several circumstances show that this race blend
has been decidedly disadvantageous.

In the family there is considerable drunkenness, neurosis, idiocy, weak in»
telligence and criminality etc. (see below). Syphilis appears only seldom, tuber*
culosis is comparatively rare. In spite of the unmistakable degeneration which
appears in the family, mortality is not specially high, in any case not greater than
the average rate for the whole kingdom, according to my calculation. Thus we
have here an example, which shows that a veritable badly constituted stock, in
spite of unmistakable nervousspsychical degeneration can increase, and spread at
home as well as abroad, in a very remarkable manner, a circumstance worth noting
from a race^hygienic point»of*view.

We must not take it for granted, that such degeneration in itself, will dimi»
nish the family.

TABLE 1.

SPECIFICATION OF MATERIAL.

Number of descendants

Other persons married into the Lister family

Further additions (persons returned, belonging to branches of the family who had

previously removed from the district)

Illegitimate children

Total

My material comprises, as table 1 shows, 2,232 persons, partly offspring
of the ancestral parents, and partly 241 other persons who married into the
family. The nearest relations of the latter^named persons I have not included in
the present investigations (though they are mentioned and described in my original
work) so as not to have the material heterogeneous.

TABLE 2.

NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE LISTER FAMILY AND FREQUENCY OF MARRIAGES WITH RELATIONS.

Households in which parents have been closely
second cousins)

related (cousins-

Number

Percentage

245

20.69),^
14.32J

64.99

Households in which parents were distant relations

Households in which parents were not related

Total

377

100.00

Table 2 shows, that marriages with relations have occurred often amongst
the 377 households, which the material comprises. Marriages with cousins and
second cousins have occurred at the rate of 20 %, with more distant relations
more than 14 %, thus marriages with near or distant relations show a rate of
55 %, a specially note^worthy fact, to which I shall revert.

66

A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

-1

The diagram shows the increase of the family in each generation within the
investigated district. In generation V are already found 888 individuals, which

is evidence of an unusual vita=
DIAGRAM lity. Generations VI and VII

INCREASE OF THE FAMILY IS EACH GENERATION. ' r- t

are, as we find, much fewer in
number, amongst other things
because they are not yet com*
plete. Future investigations of
the family, if such ever take place,
will show if any of these gene»
rations become so numerous as
the fifth was. It is possible,
that this will not be the case,
because the family is now poorer
than formerly, and much dete«
riorated, circumstances which in
no small degree tend to disperse
the same, that is to say, cause
removal, and emigration. Farmers
who must leave their old home*

steads, have generally no desire to remain in their native district.

In addition to this, nativity in many places in this district has decreased.
In all probability other more robust families settle down, and perhaps are

in their turn supplanted later on. We know very little of this sociaUbiologic

process: development of families, their life, struggles, and ultimate decline. It is

like an unknown country, which must be explored.

Gene.
rjtion

Anccstrjl

Parents

^~0

c

1

o

E i:

il

M

III
IV

V
VI
VII

1

6
24

69
171
102

4

6
S4

140
462
888
354

5

6
24
69
171
102
4

/

/

^

^^"""''^

^"""•^•.^^^^^^^^

"^^\

l-VII

1720-1907

37*

1909

377

We now pass on to investigate more closely the pathological conditions of
the family, by aid of tables 3 and 4 which give an essential idea thereof. We
find (table 3) that amongst 1,909 progeny, not less than 394 (= 20.6 %^ were
defective, in some way, 150 (= 7.9 %) of these were very defective. Amongst

TABLE 3,

THE DIVISION OF THE MATERIAL INTO DIFFERENT GENERATIONS.

Generation

is

II

3J=

Average number

of children in

each family

Died before
the fifth year

Healthy over
15 years

Defects

Defective
persons

Very defective
persons

1

E
s
Z

%

E

3

z

Percentage

of survivors

over 5

years old

1
E

3

z

%

u

E

3

z

%

u

E

3

z

%

I

1

6

_

.

4

2

2

II

6

54

9.0

16

29.6

21

55.3

13

24.1

11

20.4

—

—

Ill

24

140

5.8

36

25.7

58

55.8

51

36.4

40

28.6

14

10.0

IV

69

462

6.7

122

26.4

181

53.2

158

34.2

133

28.8

50

10.8

V

171

888

5.2

195

22.0

279

40.3

228

25.7

177

19.9

71

8.0

VI

102

354

3.5

59

16.7

60

20.3

52

14.7

31

8.8

15

4.2

VII

4

5

1.3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

I-VII

377

1,909

5.1

428

22.4

603

40.7

504

26.5

394

20.6

150

7.9

A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

67

the »very defective* I comprise persons afflicted with idiocy, imbecility, mental
diseases, marked psychopathy, epilepsy, and myoklonus epilepsy, which is a
characteristic of this family.

Table 4 contains in column E the whole material, and we find there, that
only 92 known cases of tubercolosis appears in the family, which is a small
number, even if this is stated as a minimum. It is surprising that such is the
case, in a family which in other ways is so defective. The reason of this is
probably, that the family in question is immune, to a great extent, to this disease,
usually so prevalent amongst the people.

Several other farmer's families in the same district, are not in this way so
fortunately situated, for amongst them, mortality from consumption is much
greater than in the Lister family, in spite of the fact, that practically speaking,
they live under the same conditions.

If we examine table 4 further, we find there that the number of cripples is
rather small (16), and suicide is rare (6 cases). Persons with psychical defects
are, on the other hand remarkably numerous (9.54 % of the whole number).
Weak intelligence is a very prominent defect.

TABLE 4.

FAMILY PATHOLOGY.

Specification of defects

B.

2S >,

•s.s=

S2

D.

s

00 s

E.

Percentage

Tuberculosis .
Cripples .. .
Suicides .. .

72

15

5

19

92

16

6

4.12
0.72
0.27

II.

Psychical
taints: '

Debilitas

Imbecillitas .. ..

Idiocy

Mental diseases
Psychopathy .. ..

63

34

7

44

44

71

39

7

51

45

3.18
1.75
0.31
2.28
2.02

> 9.54

III.

Serious

di.

Epilepsy

Myokl.sepilepsy
Paralysis agitans

Hysteria

Other forms .. ..

6(8?)
13

7(9?)
3
9

6(8?)
14*

7(9?)
3
9

0.27
0.63
0.31
0.13
0.40

1.75

11.29

IV.

Moral and
social (
defects :

Alcohol I

Alcohol misuse

Alcohol II

Chronic alcoholism .. ..
Criminality and Defects of

character

Lewdness

138

55

43
14

34
33

4

7

179

91

49
21

8.02

4.08

2.20
0.94

>12.io

},.,

15.23

• There are in addition 3 casci of myokl. 'epilepsy, but they belong to a branch who had removed from the district.

68

A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

More serious nervous complaints appear (1.75 %}. It is remarkable that
only a few serious cases of hysteria appear. Paralysis agitans (Parkinson's disease)
a grave nervous disease appears in a certain branch of the family (7 genuine cases,
possibly 9). That such an unusual illness appears in this way, concentrated within
a certain branch of the family, seems to me to be conclusive evidence that
heredity, even regarding this disease, is an important factor.

We must remember that it is a disease which attacks persons when they have
reached an advanced age, so that a large number of those who perhaps have the
propensity, die before the disease breaks out. Diseases which specially attack the
aged, even if they are (according to Mendel) inherited as a recessive attribute,
appear comparatively, seldom.

A large number of drunkards are found in the family (12.10 %).

In addition to alcoholism we find other moral and social defects (3.14 %).

As family diseases we find, in addition to the before<^mentioned, paralysis
agitans, and the progessive myoklonus epilepsy, mental diseases, (dementia praecox
in different forms).

In my original treatise I have paid particular attention to the above.

To explain the reasons for family degeneration I have made several grou»
pings of the different households in the family. The material has been divided
into groups according to the absence or presence of taints in the parents.

Table 5 is, as it were, summary of several foregoing tables, worked out for
the purpose of explaining this matter. I shall now proceed to further examine
the above table.

TABLE 5.

DIVISION OF THE MATERIAL INTO HOUSEHOLD GROUPS ACCORDING TO PRESENCE,

PARENTAL TAINTS.

OR ABSENCE OF

Division into groups

0-T3

is

Average no of

children in each

family

Dead be»

fore 5 y.

of age

Healthy

over 15

years

Defects

Defective
persons

Very

defective

persons

1

E

3

z

%

E

3

z

Percentage
of survi-
vors over
5 years

B

3

z

%

1

z

%

£

B

3

z

%

I. No taint

II. Tuberculosis

A. Nearer relationship .. ..

30
14
15

148

52
108

4.9
3.7
7.2

27

18.2

36.5
32.4

85
22
39

70.3
66.7
53.4

23

8

29

15.5
15.4

26.9

22

8

23

14.8
15.4
21.3

2

1
10

1.4

1.9
9.3

The whole material

240

1,391

5.8

332

23.9| 556

52.5

452

32.5

372; 26.7

134

9.6

III. Alcoholism

37
12

213
95

5.8

7.9

56
34

26.3
35.8

69

23

44.0

37.7

84
44

39.4
46.3

70
36

32.9
37.9

26
17

12.2
17.9

D. Closer relationship 2 or
more successive genera^
tions (and other taints)

The whole material comprised in this table contains, as we shall see, only
240 households with 1,391 children, instead of 377 households with 1,909 children,
as before stated. This deviation is due to the fact, that those families in which
only children under 15 years are found, must be excluded in an analysis of this
kind because the generation cannot be, with certainty worked out in such cases.

A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE 69

Group I, comprises 30 households with 148 children. In these no parental
taint appears, nor any relationship between such parents.

Group II, contains 14 households with 52 children where tuberculosis is the
only parental taint.

Group A, comprises 15 households, with 108 children where the only taint
is close relationship between the parents (cousins or secondscousins).

Group III, contains 37 households with 213 children where one, or (in excep*
tional cases) both parents were alcoholists, otherwise, no taint.

Group D, contains 12 households with 95 children. Parents were cousins,
and closer relationship, is found in one or two former generations.

The children in these households obtain a comparatively large »loss of
ancestors*, as genealogists say.

If we now compare the numbers in table 5 we find that children in group I,
where no parental taints are seen, have proved to be decidedly better than those
in any other group. The number of children who have died before 5 years of
age, is least here, and the number of healthy persons over 15 years is greatest.
The number of »defectives» is considerably less than in the other groups.

In the tuberculosis group, mortality is greatest, and nativity least, but even
here »defectives» are not particurlarly numerous.

Group A, the relationship group, shows as a rule average rates.

The alcoholist group (III) shows considerably more disadvantageous rates
of percentage (see table).

The worst group is D, where closer relationship is found in 2 or more
successive generations, the mortality, in children of tender years is, in this group,
particularly high, and the nativity also. The number of »defectives» is also
great. Very defective persons appear at the rate of 17.9 %.

The children who have been unfortunate enough to be born in these house*
holds, have paid dearly for the ignorance or imprudence of their parents when
marrying. The pitiable consequences of marriages with relations in this unhappily
situated family, has been noticed to a certain extent by the inhabitants of the
district. Especially persons of other families residing there, but also nembers of
the Lister family have apparently been aware of the menace. Most marriages
however take place in this district, for economical reasons. When it is a question
of retaining a home^stead within the family, which has been in its possession
for a long time, all consideration for offspring is forgotten. In this district crass
egotism still prevails, not only in this family, but in many others in the country,
where one would have expected better.

The race^hygienic principles will lay the foundation for a higher and better form
of ethics, than obtains now, when these ideas become thoroughly, rooted in the
mind of the people at large.

These comparisions give us an interesting insight into the biological structure
of the family, if I may use such an expression.

They show us amongst other things, how difficult it is from a large mass
of material, to separate groups of households where no, or only one, paren*
tal taint appears, a grouping which permits certain conclusions to be drawn tou»
ching the importance of one or the other taints in connection with offspring.

70 A SWEDISH FARMER'S LINEAGE

So much however we learn from these groupings, that the original constitu*
tion, such at it has developed during a hundred or thousand years, is of great
significance. That inauspicious racial blending in former times, is of signification,
as before mentioned. Relationship marriages have a very injurious effect in just
the family in question, thats is to say, hidden (recessive) propensities appear.
Such is not the case in families enjoying favourable constitutions (genotype).
Relationship marriages on the other hand, in such families have a beneficial effect.
Scientific investigators now agree that consanguinity has both the good and
bad effects named.

Marriages with relations can be described in other words as a two»edged sword,
in one case being beneficial, in the other injurious, depending upon the different
nature of the families.

The conclusion arrived at regarding one family, cannot be correct for the other.

One must be careful not to generalize ones experience, for life is more com*
plicated than we generally believe it to be.

Another reason for the collapse in the Blekinge family is the abuse of alcohol.
We are yet unfortunately, very ignorant as regards the part which alcohol plays
in damaging the so called germ^plasm.

»Culture» nations would certainly be wise in doing their utmost to solve
questions of this kind. It will be a very important mission for race*biological
institutions, which should be organized in all countries. Their investigations
should be carried out with the greatest thoroughness, and they demand much
material, which would claim much time and expense. We cannot, by any means,
be satisfied with the knowledge we at present possess. The weal and wol of
future generations, depend in many respects, upon what we do or omit to do.

THE STRUGGLE FOR RACE.IMPROVEMENT

IN SWEDEN

BY

Professor J. VILH. HULTKRANTZ and Dr. E. BERGMAN

UPPSALA

I

N SWEDEN - AS EVERYWHERE ELSE IN THE WORLD - IT IS
first during the last decades in reality, that one has arrived at the know»
ledge that our efforts to protect the race against degeneration and raise_
its level_only by an improvement in the environment (euthenics) are tolerably
^uitless, and that the most effective means of reaching this goal is by a favourable
selection of the parents, through whom good qualities can be transmitted to the
next generation (eugenics). Thus it is of importance to seek to hinder, as far
as possible, the reproduction of inferior individuals, and to increase the nativity
among the better stock instead, as well as to prevent immigration of inferior, and
emigration of the fittest individuals. It is the discovery of the laws of heredity
together with the favourable results of modern breeding of plants and animals
which has brought about this inversion of our ideas of the race«problem.

In the Swedish legislation from older times though, there is to be found an
interesting example of clear insight respecting the right way for race»betterment.
In the preamble to a law promulgated in the year 1757 forbidding marriage to
those having falling sickness it says: »And inasmuch as, according to the humble
report issued by Collegium Medicum, the most experienced medical men from
the oldest times have agreed, that a true falling sickness called epilepsia idiopa*
thica, is reproduced by the parents in the children and children's children; and
as daily experience attests that scarcely any are burdened with this grave malady,
so long as none of their forefathers, on the father's or on the mother's side, have

been afflicted with falling sickness for this reason and because We find the

only means of rooting out gradually the true falling sickness, to be, to forbid
marriage altogether for the persons, be they men or women, who are troubled
herewith, it is Our gracious will and command* etc. — Statutes which could work
in an eugenic direction are certainly to be found among some of the older laws,
such as the Mosaic, but in the Swedish statute just mentioned it seems to be
the first time that the intention of protecting coming generations has been di»
stinctly pronounced, and it is therefore we have given this detailed quotation.
The hopes, that by these means epilepsy could gradually be rooted out, have
unfortunately not been realized, chiefly on account of the difficulties met with in
carrying out the law rigorously. Epilepsy is still rather common in Sweden.
The number of those having falling sickness is very probably at least 7,000. With
the enrolment of conscripts during the last years, something over 2 per thousand
of the men examined have been rejected on account of this malady.

72 RACE4MPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN

In the old marriage act of 1734 which was in force down to 1915 it was
. expressly enacted that epilepsy was an impediment to marriage, but in prac=
tice such mental affections as entailed incaparcity to enter into a legal agree*
ment, were also an impediment to marriage. On the other hand it was enacted
that »incurably infectious disease* was sufficient ground for invalidating a marriage,
whereby in all likelihood venereal disease in an infectious stage was meant.

In the meanwhile at the beginning of this century more and more voices
were raised emphasizing the duty of society to provide for the mental and bodily
\ health of the race, demanding legislative measures preventing the marriage of
I persons who in medical and eugenical respects are not suitable for it. For this
purpose motions were raised which, among other things, insisted upon obligatory
medical examination before marriage was entered upon. These were rejected by
Parliament, but when the marriage law must be revised owing to other reasons,
the Faculty of Medicine in Uppsala was consulted respecting its opinion as to
what ought to be the ground for the new law from a medical point of view.
The opinion of the Faculty of Medicine, with which the Medical Board agreed
on the whole, can be looked upon as a good expression of the position taken
at that time (1911) by Swedish medical science towards eugenical questions. We
shall therefore give an account of what it chiefly contains. The Faculty pointed
out to begin with, that as the legislative measures, which from a medical direction
must be insisted on in regard to the eugenical importance of marriage, are in a
greater or less degree intended to reduce the already low percentage of marriages,
they must on that account be proposed with great care and restricted to fit the
circumstances where they are most needed. Great care is urged in taking measur*
es, both by the difficulties of applying them practically, as well as by the
possibility that they can be avoided by means of illegitimate sexual relations
when marriage is not allowed. In certain cases it might be made possible to
obtain a dispensation to marry, as in the case where there are already children
who could thus be made legitimate, and when from one or the other cause it is
quite certain that reproduction is precluded.

The Faculty proposed that it should be enacted that the following might be
( taken as forming an impediment to marriage: 1) falling sickness, when not caused
\ by external reasons, 2) mental disease and mental debility actually present, men*
j tal disease in the past, not caused by external reasons, also mental and moral
defects in a severe degree from which specially great danger might be anticipated
for the mental development of the posterity, and, 3) venereal disease in an in*
fectious stage. In the meanwhile in the two first mentioned cases it ought to be
possible, after the presentation of a certificate from a qualified medical man to
obtain a dispensation in certain cases. Anyone who is, or can with reason be
suspected of being affected by any form of falling sickness, as also anyone who
has been mentally deranged or whom there is good reason to suspect of being
afflicted with mental disease, mental debility or any other psychical abnormality
of the kind just stated and also those who have been condemned for greater
V crimes, for repeated offences or convicted of vagrancy, ought not to be allowed
j to marry without the production of a medical certificate, accepted by the Med*
/ ical Board, showing that he must not be considered to be affected by any such

POLITICIANS AND STATESMEN IN SWEDEN

DOCTOR VILHELM BJORCK.

Member of the Board of Education, Stockholm.

• 13/10 1888.

HJALMAR BRANTING.

Statesman, Stockholm.

• "/,, I860.

r*%

PROFESSOR KNUT KJEl.I.BKRG.
Sociologist, Promoter of popular Education. Stockholn

• ','4 1867. t -' 1 1921.

ARVID LI.NDMAN.

Admiral, Statesman, Stockholm.

' ";<! 1862.

RACE4MPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN 73

malady, arrest in development, or abnormality in the mental life which might
be an impediment to marriage.

With certain stated restrictions the above mentioned diseases ought to be
allowed as grounds for the annulment of marriage, or for divorce. If one of the
married pair had become mentally diseased, and continued so for three years, and
if according to a certificate given by the proper medical man there was no reason
for hoping that a lasting return to health could be expected in the insane person,
the Court ought, if the other party to the marriage desired it, to grant a divorce.
In the same way it ought to be enacted that venereal disease, if caused by adul«
tery or other inchastity, or if the sick person has infected the other party, or
exposed him to danger of infection, shall also give grounds for a divorce.

Although from a eugenic point of view it perhaps might be desirable to
enact that an impediment to marriage is found with alcoholists, and persons suf«
fering from leprosy, or tuberculosis in a high degree, as well as for deaf«mute
persons, and others suffering from bodily defects or disablements yet the Faculty
from practical reasons considered that they ought to refrain from demanding this
and rested their hopes upon the increasing knowledge and sense of responsibility.

Regarding the minimum age for marriage, which in our country has been
21 years for the man and 17 for the woman, the Faculty gave a warning against ..
sinking it to 16 years in accordance with the Danish and Norwegian law, which J
had been brought into question.

The old law did not allow persons, standing in any nearer relation to each 7
other than cousins, to marry. The Faculty did not consider that any alteration f
ought to be made in this law. ■'

From practical reasons and not to make it unnecessarily difficult to enter
into matrimony, the Faculty considered itself obliged to restrict its demands for
medical examination before marriage to the cases already stated, notwithstanding
that it saw fully the medical justification of the proposal for making examination
of the nupturients by a medical man statutory, whether with or without a quali*
fied certificate, which was raised not only by medical men, but also by motions
in Parliament.

Although the proposal of the Medical Faculty must be considered as moder*
ate in a high degree, it did not win the approval of the legislators in every way.
The law committee who modified the proposal, took as the chief foundation that
the entrance into matrimony ought not to be made more difficult, and it must
also in a high degree take into account the great difficulties which are met with
in the practical appliance of the law.

Our marriage law now in force of the 12th of November 1915, contains
therefore prohibition of marriage for persons suffering from epilepsy, produced by
preponderating internal causes, mental disease and mental debility, as well as
sexual diseases in an infectious stage. Before the marriage takes place both the
contracting parties must declare in writing on their honour and conscience, that
they are not suffering, according to their knowledge, from true falling sickness
or sexual disease. If a person has been insane during the last three years or if
there is any cause for believing that he suffers from mental disease or mental
debility, he must show by means of a doctor's certificate that there are no signs

10

74 RACE.IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN

that he is suffering from the disease in question. In certain cases it is enacted
that the occurence of these maladies, as well as the misuse of intoxicating means,
may be taken as grounds for invalidating the marriage or for divorce. It is en»
acted that the minimum age for entering into the marriage state shall be 21 years
for the man and 18 years for the woman. Marriage between a person and one
of his brother's or sister's children is not allowed without a special dispensation.

Although it had been desirable that the law in several points had been more
rigorous one must feel glad over it, because it implies a tangible advance from
the eugenic point of view. The most important innovation in our new marriage
law, are the regulations respecting sexual disease in an infectious stage, as an
impediment to marriage.

The reproduction of eugenically undesirable individuals can be hindered
not only by prohibiting marriage for them, but also by means of segregation
and sterilising and these modes of proceeding are much more effective than
prohibition of marriage. It is self«evident that with us, as in other countries,
insane persons and criminals are interned. In the meanwhile the extent to which
this takes place, is much too small. The object one has in doing it is namely,
only to protect society against unpleasentness, and not to protect the coming
generations from an increase of worthless individuals. Strong voices have been
raised insisting that more vigorous measures should be taken especially regarding
habitual and sexual criminals, who should not be set free after working out their
punishment, but should be interned for life. — No regulations are found in Swedish
law which allow the sterilising of eugenically inferior individuals. The Medical
Faculty touched on this question also, but considered that regulations respecting
the sterilisation of physical and mental degenerates by means of operating, ought
not to be introduced before public opinion has been welbprepared to support
it. The question has been discussed among doctors and one or another of these
have, with the consent of the patient, sometimes performed an operation for ster»
ilisation on account of eugenic indications. Sterilisation is a necessary complement
to prohibition of marriage and it is therefore to be hoped that the general
public will be brought gradually, by means of continued efforts for their enlight*
enment to a right understanding of this weighty question.

Immigration to Sweden implies not so seldom a danger for the future of the
Swedish race and above all because especially during the latest years an invasion
has been taking place from the East, where the human material, in respect to the
mental and physical qualities of race, can hardly match itself against the ancient
Swedish population. During the great war, asylum has been granted to a large
extent and for a longer time to unlucky fugitives, permission for their naturalisation
has fortunately been granted with great carefulness. Voices have been raised
asking for more severe regulations in respect to immigration. The number of
immigrants according to official statements the year before the great war broke
out was 8,407, but it was and still is in reality appreciably larger.

The drain which emigration ever since the middle of the last century has
been for our nation, has certainly acted in a weakening way on its vital power.
Out of Sweden's population, which is near to 6 millions, twenty to thirty thous*
ands emigrate yearly. During the years between 1851 and 1910 about 1 'A million

RACF.»IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN 75

Swedes left their fosterland and settled in foreign countries, mostly in America.
At the present time 2 to 3 millions of Swedes are living in foreign lands (the
Swedes in Finland included). As it is the young and strong who preferably
emigrate, the statistics in respect to the people, divided into classes according to
age, are less favourable. Added to this there are the rigorous laws on immigration,
which have been in force during these latter years in U. S. A., whither the
strongest stream of emigrants has wandered, and which have brought about a
selection, so that the worst elements have been obliged to stay at home, while
the better elements have been allowed to enter America without any hinder.
As through this our country has lost no small number of fully satisfactory, from
a race»biological point of view, individuals and their offspring, one can concerning
this matter talk about a for us contra»selection respecting emigration. In hopes
of mending the matter, the state has started an exhaustive investigation respect*
ing emigration. And further the National Society against Emigration has been
working in the matter since 1907. It devotes itself partly to bringing enlight»
enment to the people, and partly to practical work especially in procuring small
holdings and own homes for the people. If the more efficient individuals are
offered better chances of making a home and settling down in Sweden, and of
becoming parents, the result will be a good addition to the next generation. The
struggle to prevent a too great amount of emigration, acts therefore in a for Sweden
positive eugenic direction.

Industrialism also, and the flight from the country to the towns, works in an
anti'selective manner. The unfavourable effects of the former, one has sought to
avoid or to reduce as far as possible, through legislation on the matter. Our le*
gislation to protect the workers, which has a long pedigree, stands at present tol'
erably high. Regarding the employment of children in industry, there are to be
found detailed instructions which are intended to prevent the children from being
given too heavy work, such as might do harm to their development, too early
in life. In the same way there are to be found certain exceptional regulations
in respect to women industrial workers, as for example, that they are to be
allowed a free time both before and after the birth of a child, during which time
they can obtain pecuniary assistance also (Maternity help). Since 1919 the time
for work has been restricted by law to 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week.

In regard to the migration from the country to the towns over a quarter of
Sweden's population live in the towns at the present time, while in 1800 only
a tenth did so. If one reckons all the thickly settled tracts, having at least 2,000
inhabitants as belonging to the towns, the number of town*dwellers reaches at
present to about a third of the population. Above all the circumstance that peo»
pie dwell so closely packed together, the greater extent of inebriety and sexual
diseases, and, as a rule, the more unhygienic work in the towns actsun favourab*
ly on their inhabitants. A danger that is underrated is the strong mixture of
blood which usually occurs in industrial centres which flourish rapidly. It is of
importance that sound state<craft should be brought to bear on the subject of
dwelling houses in the towns. During the latter years a considerable improvement
has certainly taken place till the war came with its unfavourable consequences, which
were felt even in regard to the housing question. Some of the larger industrial inter*

76 RACE.IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN

prises have arranged the housing question for their workers in a excellent manner.
The larger towns have made great sacrifices to help forward the question of own
homes for the people. Even the State has granted means to facilitate the starting
of own homes and small holdings out in the country. Motions have also been
raised in Parliament respecting measures for keeping the youth of the country*
side on the land, although at present without any especial success. It is to be
hoped that this question can soon be taken up over the whole line, and be made
the object of a thorough investigation. The Swedish statisticians and sociologists
P. Fahlbeck, G. Sundberg and N. Wohlin have during many years, devoted both
time and strength to answering these questions. It is namely of the greatest im»
portance that our old peasant stock shall be preserved and that the nativity within
these circles, which can be considered as the eugenically more valuable, does not
diminish too fast on account of the state of affairs within the agricultural world
being altogether too low.

One cannot of course by means of peremptory language compel the best in=
dividuals to increased production of children, but one can lighten the way to par*
entage for them and reduce the burden of a large family of children. The vol*
untary restriction in the number of children, especially among the better situated
classes, has unfortunately with us, as in other places, become more and more
common. Thus while the frequency of marriage has increased a little during the
last few years (6.9 °/oo 1919), the frequency of birth has steadily declined (19.6 %o
in 1919 and 25.6 °,'oo in 1909). The increase in the population is small (5.7 %o
in 1919). A law was passed in 1911 against preventive means, but it has
not acted in the manner contemplated and up till now it has not been pos<
sible in any other way either to amend the evil. The best way without doubt is
to try to lighten the economical troubles of the breadwinners. The State ought
to support their endeavours to win a home of their own, which is of all the more
importance as families having a large number of children often have a great diffi»
culty in renting a flat or any other place. During hundreds of years we have
enjoyed the great advantage of free education or of its costing only a small fee,
which has been a considerable relief for the fathers of families. It has also been
of great importance for the circulation of the classes, which has existed in our
country since the olden times, and thanks to which children from the peasant
and middle classes through their personal ability can work their way upwards to
the highest honours the state has to give. During these last years by means of
supplemental wages and reduction of the rates and taxes for familysfathers an
attempt has been made to improve their financial position. The advantages the
breadwinners have gained in this way, have however up to the present been so
slight, that any real effect can hardly be expected. One is going quite certainly
to proceed further upon the way marked out. In the meantime it is of impor*
tance that such advantages should be reserved for indivuals who are satisfactory
from the race*biological point of view, and who can be expected to leave a good
posterity, and that it should not be dealt out with too niggard a hand.

The fight against the so»called race=poisons, above all against alcohol and
syphilis, are carried on intensively. It is perhaps of more importance for the pri»
vate individual and his surroundings, but has also, at least indirectly, some im»

RACE.IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN 77

portance for the coming generation. Besides being assigned some etiological sig»
nificance in the occurrence of a large number of the hereditary diseases, the ven»
ereal diseases can also cause sterility, miscarriage and inferior offspring.

Temperance work has been carried on in this country at least since the middle
of the last century. Among its pioneers and leaders, the clergyman and popular
speaker Peter Wieselgren (1800—1877) must be placed first, personally he was a
total abstainer from 19 years of age, thus long before the temperance movement
began anywhere in the world; and the renowned doctor Magnus Huss (1807—1890),
author, among other works, of »Alcoholismus chronicus», one of the most noted
books among the temperance literature, must also be mentioned by his side. Our
five greater temperance societies had, when they were at their greatest in 1910,
about 350,000 adult members, in round numbers. Since then they have suffered
some decrease, so that the number of members at the beginning of last year was
275,000. To these must be added the societies belonging to the Free Churches,
which first in 1920 took up temperance work, and whose members are reckoned
as going up to 205,000. The legislation in the cause of temperance has during
the last few years, gone in the direction of personal restriction. As the result
does not seem to be that which one had hoped for, a strong opinion is in course
of bulding in favour of the introduction of total prohibition. In connection with
this the sinking numbers of members belonging to the temperance societies have
begun to rise again.

The frequency of the venereal diseases in this country has without doubt
risen during recent years. Since 1912 the duty of reporting these diseases has
become law. The whole number of reported cases was 30,429 (5.2 %o) in 1919,
of which 6,451 (1.1 %o) were syphilis cases, 20,651 (3.5 %o) gonorrhoea and 3,327
(0.6 %o) were chancre. In the meantime these numbers represent a minimum and
the real frequency must therefore be essentially greater. The fight against sexual
diseases is consequently a very important social question. Besides the part of the
marriage law, which prohibits marriage for those suffering from sexual disease in
an infectious stage (it is the duty of a doctor to report anyone who defies the
law), we have since 1918 a law against the spreading of sexual disease. Regular
tions are joined to the law partly in regard to the treatment free of cost of those
suffering from sexual disease and partly in regard to the duty of the doctor giving
the treatment, to report the case; negligence can lead to forced treatment of the
contumacious person. To expose others to the danger of infection may involve
severe punishment. An inquiry has also been made by a committee concerning
the measures to be taken for spreading a knowledge of sexual diseases. In the
scheme recently propounded it was proposed to carry out a systematic educational
work in the schools as well as among elder persons. As the before mention*
ed preventive law makes this work of enlightenment more difficult, it is pro»
posed to revise it.

It is naturally of great importance that a good hereditary disposition shall,
thanks to favourable outward circumstances, reach full development. Everything
working in this direction we comprise under the word euthenic. That the

78 RACE.IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN

temperance movement makes considerable contributions in this area, by an improve
ement in the environment, is easily seen. General hygiene, sport, protection of
the workers, especially the regulations respecting workers under age, which have
been mentioned before, and measures for the protection of children born out of
wedlock, can all be looked upon as euthenic activity. In this country 20,000
children are born out of wedlock every year. By means of the law of 1917
the dreary position which was often their lot before has been considerably
improved. The law assigns to these children the right to be brought up and
educated at the cost of their parents in a way suitable to the financial and
social position of both parents. To make sure that the children receive the ben»
efit of the advantages the law gives them, a guardian is appointed for every child
born out of wedlock, and every community has its »Board of Guardians for
Children*, who take in hand all matters connected with these children, as well
as watching over the children born in wedlock to make sure they are not neg«
lected. This law most certainly will be the means of saving many children, and
making them useful members of society.

Great attention has been paid in Sweden as is the case in many other countries
to bodily culture. The man of mark in this connection is Per Henrik Ling
/(1 776— 1839) who won a world«renowned name for Swedish gymnastics. The
\ Central Gymnastic Institute founded by him in 1835 has been of great import
tance for the further development in a sound direction of the Ling gymnastics and
has on the whole exercised a momentous influence on the development of bod«
ily culture in our country. The Swedish gymnastic has also made a triumphal
progress throughout the world and has been transplanted to most of the civilised
countries. In this connection it ought to be mentioned that in 1874 the College
for Sloydsteachers was opened at Naas; since its opening it has received a large
number of teachers from all parts of the world. As well as the pedagogic sloyd
(Naas system) it has held courses for the education of game4eaders and instruct
tion courses in gymnastics. The old Swedish folksgames and folk»dances have
been cherished here and have awakened great interest in the foreign teachers tak«
ing part in the courses. Interest for pure sport is great, but considerably less
among the students than among the younger industrial workers and labourers.
Unfortunately sport seems to be degenerating more and more, which is much to
be regretted, and the matter is not helped by the fact that its development has
gone in the same direction in other countries. If our students bestowed more
interest on gymnastics and sport, it would perhaps be easier to bring back sport
into the right track again. The Society for Physical Culture has been working for
several years for the advancement of bodily culture.

For the furtherance of folk»hygiene the following means may be mentioned:
cheap baths for the people, free baths for schoolchildren, the sending of weak
and poor children to settlements in the country in the summer, the arrangement of
open air games, allotment gardens, etc. Such measures have been taken to a
very great extent. Added to this care of the health, comes the care of the sick
of which only the work in connection with anti=tuberculosis, which is of the grea«
test importance socially can be mentioned here. In this country about 10,000
(about 2 %o) people die yearly of tuberculosis. The death rate from tuberculosis

^ ^

RACE'-IMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN 79

is about 14 % of the total death rate. As it is usually young persons who are
attacked by the disease, it is easy to understand what a fearful part tuberculosis
plays even in our country. In the fight against it, the Swedish National Society
against Tuberculosis has since the year 1904 done very serviceable work. This
society which carries on an exhaustive work in the way of enlightenment, and
supports practical antituberculosis work has during the most recent years espec^
ially interested itself in the prevention of tuberculosis and in work among the
children. Besides dispensaries which have been found in Sweden since 1905,
the National Society against Tuberculosis has even founded homes for children
I threatened with the disease, and has supported colonies for them out in the
country, among others the settlements, started by the Abstinence Association of
Swedish Students (S. S. U. H.), for healthy children coming from infected homes.
By these visits to the settlements it is intended to strengthen the children so that
they have a better chance of conquering in the fight against tuberculosis in their
own homes. In this way or by some other means, e. g. by taking the children
from their homes at the earliest age possible (preferably at their birth, if the
parents are already consumptive), to try to prevent tuberculosis must be of the
greatest importance. The settling of the dwelling«house problem ought also to
give good help to the antituberculosis work. During some years a Royal Com*
mission has been at work arranging a united programme for our anti«tuberculosis
work in the future. This will pay the greatest attention to the prophylactic anti»
tuberculosis work, especially among the children.

It is of especial importance that when reforms are close at hand, the general
opinion should be led in the right direction through educational means. This
work of educating the people is supported by large grants from the state, and
consists of lectures, circles for study, public libraries etc., during recent years it
has done a great deal towards raising the people. The work of enlightenment
has embraced the most widely separated subjects even including medical and hy=
gienic lectures. In regard to the position taken by the workers towards eugenic
questions, the following quotation from a recently published pamphlet (General
information on educational work), given out by the Worker's Educational Union
(A. B. F.) is significant: »Our educational organisations must not stand any longer
either, as strangers towards physical training. One must learn to understand that
all mental advancement is impossible in the long run, without one has good hu»
man material to work upon. The mental culture must be complemented by bod=
ily culture — — — . Those who have the arrangement of lectures ought to see
that the subjects of race«biology and eugenics, personal and social hygiene, and
other branches of physical education are taken up very extensively. These subjects
are also especially suitable for the circles for study.» Among the popular lecturers
on all that belongs to these subjects Professor Lundborg stands in the first place,
he has carried on an inclusive work by means of popular lectures and phamphlets
in medical hygienic, and before all in race»bioIogical and eugenic subjects. Sever*
al other University professors have also treated these subjects popularly.

The temperance movement has most certainly been a powerful lever in the
spreading of social knowledge and in waking a sense of social responsibility in
the Swedish nation. During recent years the Temperance Societies have more

80 RACE»lMPROVEMENT IN SWEDEN

than ever before devoted themselves to the work of social enlightenment among
the people, this concerns especially a number of organisations for young people
such as the Abstinence Association of Swedish Students (S. S. U. H.) and Swe*
den's Good Templar Society for the Young (S. G. U.). which have also taken up
as a subject for study the tuberculosis problem and the race»biological questions.
Since 1901 when the Central Society for teaching Temperance was started, the
Society has arranged altogether 97 popular^science courses. During recent years,
some hours out of every course have been devoted to lectures on heredity and its
application to mankind.

Since 1909 The Swedish Society for Race»hygiene has been at work in this
country. It has taken as its task to advance eugenic investigation, the spreading of
enlightenment in questions connected with this subject and to »support scientific
cally founded struggles for the physical and mental health of the rising and coming
generations*. Grants have thus been made, among others, towards the publication
of Professor Lundborg's great work on a degenerate Blekinge family, and the
Society publishes a series of popular eugenic pamphlets.

THE SWEDISH N AT I O N A L.T YPE
EXHIBITION 1919

BY

EMANUEL BERGMAN

UPPSALA

IN THE SPRING OF 1918 A NUMBER OF UNIVERSITY ASSOCIA.
tions in Uppsala, welbknown as the seat of Sweden's oldest and greatest Uni«
versity, sent out an appeal to those interested in the matter, begging them to
collect material for a Swedish NationaUtype Exhibition, which it was hoped to ar«
range in the near future. The real originator of the idea of such an exhibition
was the race»biologist Professor Herman Lundborg. This scientist, who during
a number of years has carried on, under difficult outward circumstances, devoted
and especially successful investigations in race»biology in this country, has also
been warmly interested and taken a leading position when it has been a case of
bringing enlightenment to the Swedish people in questions of race»biology and
eugenics. He has unusual ability both in speaking and writing, of sharing his
knowledge with others and of imparting to the general public something of the
interest and enthusiasm for questions of eugenics, which inspire him to such a
high degree. This work of enlightenment, judging by results, has begun to bear
good fruit. For great interest was shown for the National=type Exhibition. Con»
tributions poured in profusely from students, scientists, artists, photographers and
others, and the material was so extensive, that it was not possible to get it all
arranged before some months had passed of the following year. When in March
1919 the Exhibition was opened in Stockholm, it became at once a veritable pub*
lie success. The people visited it in masses, and the newspapers, no matter what
their political stand*point might be, paid it great attention. One can say that the
Exhibition on this occasion brought about a real national assembly. At the be»
ginning the intention was only to hold the Exhibition in Stockholm and Uppsala,
but very soon the proposal to make it of an ambulatory character, became more
and more decided, so as to give the inhabitants of the larger towns an opportu-
nity of seeing it. In this way the National»type Exhibition came to be held, not
only in the two above«mentioned cities, but also in Gothenburg, Gavle and Visby.
The interest shown by the people in general was magnificant the whole time. In
Stockholm about 10 per cent of the grown«up inhabitants visited the Exhibition
and in Uppsala the percentage was no less than 40. One could therefore rejoice
over the fact, that the support had broken the record, for perhaps no previous
exhibition had received so much patronage in our country.

What was the meaning of this Exhibition? As Mr. Lundborg has specially
pointed out, upon different occasions, scientific investigation has, up to the pres*
ent, chiefly devoted itself to the most minute examination of nature — organic
as well as inorganic — but when it has been a question of studying mankind,
the highest of all nature's productions, one has, as a rule, confined oneself to giv*

L.-
11

82

THE SWEDISH NATIONAL.TYPE EXHIBITION 1919

ing an account, certainly not less minute, of the products she has created, or

one has gone on exploring expeditions to foreign lands, to make a careful study

of people who are still living in a state of nature, and to observe their manner

/^ of life. On the other hand one has never practically speaking, aimed really con*

\ sciously at making a study of civilized man, that is to say, of ourselves, or of

I investigating our own nature and our own disposition. Before discussing the

question of taking measures in eugenics to improve a people, one must have ob*

tained an inclusive knowledge of its internal structure, of its good and bad qual«

ities. In other words, one must make a race«biological inventory of the people,

so as to ascertain the presence of different types of race and to estimate Jlje vaU^

ue of their qualities. The Swedish NationaUtype Exhibition can be regarded as

a link in this work.

The collected material consisted for the most part of portraits which had, to
a very large extent, been taken for a race^biological purpose, which of course en*
hanced their value. The collection was arranged in a manner easy to survey and
in an instructive way, and was divided into several different departments. By
means of charts and diagrams, the first section gave a general survey of the Swe*
jig):^ race, with an account, according to height, sliape of skull, and blue eyes, of
its distribution in the different provinces. There were also pictures showing the
dififerent types of race, for example, the pure Nordic type, Walloons, the Finnish
and Lappic types, Jews and Gipsies, as well as other foreign types. To this sec*
tion belonged also, a very instructive collection of casts made from living models
by Professor G. Backman, for an anthropological purpose, and which represented
Dolico*, Meso* and Brachycephalic types.

After the first section's orientation over the principal National4ypes in Swe^
den, the second and third sections followed with a copious supply of race*types,
in which particular attention was given to transition types especially from the
most northern part of Sweden, where Swedes, Finns and Lapps live together, and
have to a very considerable extent, become blended together. A great many peas*
ant types from most of the Swedish provinces were represented. One had now
an opportunity of studying a rather plentiful and very interesting collection of
gipsies, »tattares», as well as vagabonds and criminal types. Another section show*
ed the Swedish race*types grouped according to social status, as workers, stu*
dents, sick*nurses, doctors, clergy and military men, higher civil servants, profes*
sors etc. There was also a collection of portraits of well*known Swedish men
and women, among whom the authoress Selma Lagerlof was to be remarked, as
well as the author Verner von Heidenstam and others. A special section gave
some characteristic pictures of Swedish race*types from Finland, Aland and Runo.
The section for family*groups was perhaps the most weighty in the Exhibi*
tion. Here were shown a number of Swedish families, important from a cultural
point of view, together with their family trees, and portraits of now living mem*
bers of the families. Among the families represented, could be remarked that of
De Geer of Finspang, which immigrated to Sweden from Holland in the seven*
teenth century, the Jewish family of Josephson, the scholarly families of Petren,
Fries, Holmgren, Aurivillius, Key, Santesson*Loven, Retzius»Hierta, Nordensson,
Angstrom and others, all remarkable in the field of science.

THE SWEDISH NATIONAL.TYPE EXHIBITION 1919

83

Swedish artists have also contributed to the Exhibition. One found again
Wilhelmson's fisher types from Bohuslan, Albert Engstrom's Roslagen types
(»Rospiggar») and Gunnar Hallstrom's types from the provinces round Lake Malar.

Lastly tables were exhibited by which were shown clearly the hereditary
course of inherited disease, with dominant and recessive inheritance of the mor*
bid disposition.

A large number of prizes had been placed at the disposal of the Exhibition
which made it possible to encourage those taking part in the competition for the
best portraits or collections of portraits. Among the donors who by their gifts
assured the economical position of the Exhibition was the world«renowned artist,
since dead, Anders Zorn, who subscribed 5,000 Swedish crowns.

In connection with the Exhibition a number of wellknown scientific men,
such as professors O. Montelius, C. M. Fiirst, J. V. Hultkrantz, Lundborg and
N. von Hofsten, gave lectures on race=biological subjects which were well atten»
ded. Professor Lundborg and his assistants also demonstrated the portraits and
other objects in the Exhibition, at least once, but more often, several times a day.

It was intended, in addition to collecting portraits and material for future
elaboration when the collection became more complete, to open the eyes of the
general public who visitejd_the Exhibition, by means of its profuse supply of pic^
tures, to_thg_eminent importance of good race characteristics in a people, and to
awalceiT sympathy for, an3~love of, one's own people. This purpose was attained
also, and to no small extent either. The increased interest for heredity and eugen^
ics which we have witnessed in this country during the last few years, must be
ascribed to a not inconsiderable extent, to the merit of the NationaUtype Exhi»
bition.

For the purpose of making the effects of the National^type Exhibition more
permanent, and of letting as many as was possible benefit by it Professor Lund«
borg at the same time published a very instructive book, popularly written, with
the title of »Race questions in modern light», which contained a number of artic«
les, written by experts, on the Swedish nation, its origin and race characteristics,
together with an account of the foreign races in this country. There were also
some articles on heredity and race»biology as well as on eugenics. Another book
was also published containing plates with reproductions chosen from the pictures
which the National^type Exhibition had brought together. This work »Svenska
Folktyper» (Swedish National4ypes), which came out at the end of 1919 con»-
tains about 800 photographs arranged according to race=biological principles and
is preceded by an orientating introduction by Professor Lundborg. A number
of these plates are also included in this book. It can surely be said of this work
as of the NationaUtype Exhibition, that it is unique of its kind, not only in our
own land but in the whole world also.

Thus one can say with confidence that the Swedish National^type Exhibition
has succeeded particularly well. As a link in the work of enlightenment in race*
biology, such an exhibition has certainly a not inconsiderable task to fulfil. The
trial invites to imitation, and it is to be hoped, that the same kind of experien*
ces will be met with in other countries, where as we suppose, exhibitions of this
kind will soon be taking place also.

SOME ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA ON THE

INHABITANTS OF SWEDISH AND FINNISH

EXTRACTION IN FINLAND

BY

Doctor KAARLO HILD^N

HELSINGFORS

IT IS ONLY FIRST DURING THE LATEST DECENNARIES THAT
the anthropology of Finland has been investigated scientifically. Of older
explorers in this department we may specially mention the celebrated Swedish
scientist Anders Retzius, of Stockholm, the Finnish scientist C. v. Haartman of
Helsingfors and the wellknown German anatomist Virchow. The material these
investigators had at their command was in the meantime singularly scanty, and
in consequence gave to a certain extent, a wrong picture of the anthropological
circumstances in Finland. A valuable contribution to our knowledge concerning
Finlands anthropology was afterwards given by the Swedish scientist Gustaf
Retzius, who during his journey in Finland in 1873 measured 91 individuals,
took a large number of anthropological photographs and collected a large number
of skulls. He published the result of these investigations in the year 1878 in
his classical work »Finnish craniums». The anatomist K. Hallsten in Helsingfors
has later, together with his pupils carried on craniological researches, which in
the years 1881—1893 were published under the common title of »Materiaux pour
servir a la connaissance des cranes des peuples Finnois». (Materials of service
in giving a knowledge of the craniums of the Finnish people.) In the meantime
we have the lately deceased medical doctor F. W. Westerlund of Helsingfors,
to thank for his investigations respecting the anthropology of Finland, he insti*
tuted careful measurements and observations when the conscripts were called up
in 1885—92. These researches cover in respect to the height, 131,697 men about
21 years of age from all parts of the land, excepting the Lappmark; in respect
to the shape of the head and the colour characteristics Westerlund has had at
his disposition a material consisting of about 6,000. Westerlund has published
the result of these researches collocated in 6 volumes under the title of »Studies
in Finland's anthropology*, and they contain the most complete description of
the anthropological circumstances in Finland which we possess up till the pre*
sent. The following information therefore is derived principally from Wester*
lunds investigations.

X Finland, as is well known, is inhabited by two different races of people in
regard to their language and origin, Finns (about 8S %) and ^Swedes (about 12 %T~
of whom the latter inhabit Aland and the larger part of the southswest archipe«
lago, as well as parts of coasts of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia,
in the provinces of Nyland and Osterbotton, (East Bothnia). In the course of

SWEDES AND FINNS IN FINLAND

85

time these two races have become mixed in a rather high degree, especially on
the mainland in the south of Finland. Meantime Westerlund has shown that in
spite of this, one can still prove that there are evident differences between the
Swedish and the Finnish inhabitants in Finland. In the same way, grounded
upon his anthropological researches he has been able to verify that there are
natural race^groups within the Finnish population. West Finns (in Finland pro*
per, Satakunta, and south Osterbotton), Tavastians (in the central parts of the
country), Karelians (in the eastern parts), Kavnerians (in north Osterbotton).
In doing this he has based his observations principally upon the following cha«
racteristics: the height, shape of head, and the colour of the eyes and hair.

The height of the Swedish population in Finland is shown in the following
table:

Province

Average

height

mm.

Below the
standard

X-1570
mm.

%

Short

1570-1619

mm.

%

Average

1620-1699

mm.

%

Tall

1700-1800

mm.

%

Very tall

1800-X

mm.

%

Aland

Finland proper .. ..

Nyland

S. Osterbotton .. ..

1700
1694
1683
1680

1.2-
1.34
2.52
3.59

6.34

7.90

10.23

10.68

39.77
41.82

44.70
45.12

47.62
45.98
40.32
38.52

5.03

2.%

2.23
2.09

Average

1684.2

2.69

9.89

44.23

40.74

2.45

The height of the Finnish race«groups is seen in the following table:

Racesgroups

Average

height

mm.

Below the
standard
X-1570

%

Short

1570-1619

mm.

%

Average

1620-1699

mm.

%

Tall

1700-1800

mm.

%

Very tall

1800-X
mm.

%

West Finns

Tavastians

Karelians

Kavnerians

1686
1678
1654
1644

2.29
3.12
7.30
9.25

8.83
11.19
18.56
21.65

44.53

45.06

48.76

49.20

■ 42.21

37.85
24.65
19.50

2.14
1.88
0.73
0.40

Average

1667.8

5.05

14.34

46.96

32.29

1.37

A glance at these tables shows at once, that a considerable difference exists
between the Swedish and the Finnish population: there are more very tall
and the average height is greater among the former, while on the contrary
it can be remarked that there are more short and below the standard as well as
a lower average height among the latter. The tallest individuals among the Swedish
inhabitants are found in Aland and the south-west archipelago, where the popular
tion in regard to height corresponds with the tall grown population of adjacent
parts of Sweden. Hence the height decreases with a surprising regularity in
correspondence with the rest of the Swedish provinces as well as to the interior

86

SWEDES AND FINNS IN FINLAND

parts of the country which are inhabited by Finns. The tallest Finns are the
West^Finns, whos eheight (and peculiarities of speech) indicate Germanic influence.
The shortest individuals are shown among the so«called Kavnerians in north
Osterbotton, where the influence of the short grown Lapps has probably made

itself felt.

The same differences between the Swedish and Finnish population, as well
as among the different Finnish groups can also be shown in regard to the shape
of the head.

By means of the following tables Westerlund has made this quite clear :

SWEDES.

Province

Average
index

Index

70.0-74.9
%

Index

75.0-79.9

%

Index

80.0-84.9

Index
85.0-89.9

%

Index

90.0-X

%

Aland and Finland proper

Nyland

S. Osterbotton

79.2
79.3
80.2

8.2
7.5

4.1

53.8
52.6
44.8

33.6
37.7
44.3

4.1

2.2
5.5

0.3
1.3

FINNS.

Index

Index

Index

Index

Index

Province

Average
height

70.0—74.9
%

75.0-79.9
%

80.0-84.9
%

85.0-89.9
%

90.0-X

%

Finland proper

79.4

7.2

51.2

38.2

3.4

^

Satakunta

80,4

3.1

73.1

47.9

5.7

0.2

Tavastland

80.9

2.5

37.2

50.9

9.2

0.2

Nyland

80.5

5.6

39.9

46.3

8.2

—

S. Osterbotton

80.0

4.2

48.3

41.0

6.4

0.2

Savolax

81.3

2.1

33.2

52.9

11.0

0.8

82.2
82.6

1.4
1.7

23.9

21.7

55.7
52.5

17.8
21.8

1.2
2.5

N. Osterbotton

As is seen the Swedes in the country, have on an average, a lower index
than the Finns. The relatively highest number of dolichocephalic types are to be
met with in Aland and the south»west archipelago, in correspondence with their
Swedish extraction. The Swedes in Nyland present nearly the same conditions,
while dolichocephalic and brachycephalic types appear, in southern Osterbotton, in
about the same numbers. — Within the Finnish population again, the West»Finns
(in Finland proper, Satakunta and South Osterbotton) are those, who stand
nearest to the Swedes. In several districts dolichocephalic types are dominant. The
Tavastians who form the majority of the population in the country, and who
inhabit not only Tavastland but also parts of Nyland and southern Osterbotton,
as well as smaller stretches of Satakunta and Savolax, show a larger percentage of
brachycephalic types and have an average index of 80—81. The Karelians, who

SWEDES AND FINNS IN FINLAND

87

live in the eastern part of the country have still shorter heads with an average
index exceeding 82. Among the Finnish race^groups in Finland the Kavnerians
show the most brachycephalic types, their average index is considerably over 82,
and among them can be met, numerous individuals, whose index exceeds 85.

Lastly we give here the numbers respecting the colour characteristics according
to Westerlund. (Relative numbers.)

SWEDES.

Province

Colour of the eyes

Colour of the hair

blue

grey

mixed

brown

light

cendre

brown

black

red

Aland and Finland proper

Nyland

S. Osterbotton

53.92
48.51
53.65

31.32
31.71
28.63

9.03
11.92
10.45

5.72
7.86
7.17

19.28
20.05

1500

34.34

36.31

31.82

41.57
36.59
38.64

4.51

6.50

12.73

0.30
0.54
1.82

FINNS.

Province

Finland proper

Satakunta

Tavastland

Nyland

S. Osterbotton ,

Savolax

Karelen

N. Osterbotton

Colour of the eyes

blue

grey

45.63
45.51
46.63

46.18

52.98

42.11

40.34

42.17

37.47
35.25
33.83
33.67

28.52

34 14

32.82
29.63

mixed

11.20
10.43
11.86
14.25
11.95
18.20
18.89
19.09

5.72
8.71
7.68
5.90
6.55
5.55
7.95
9.11

Colour of the hair

light

15.48
18.53
18.87
19.90
19.27
18.78
15.62
13.32

cendre

49.89
42.63

38.14

42.26

32.18

30.26

34.10

41.06

brown

30.35
33.26
36.39

30.%

58.73
39.26

45.60

35.63

black

3.67

3.%

5.66
4.67
9.25
2.56
3.83
9.21

red

0.61
1.62
0.94
2.21
0.57
0.14
0.85
0.78

As can be seen from the tables, the two races of people living in Finland
differ regarding the colour of the eyes and hair to a very small degree from each
other. Among the Swedes we find blue eyes in about 52 %, and grey eyes in
about 30 %, or light eyes therefore in more than 80 %. Among the Finns we
meet identically the same percentage: blue eyes in about 45 %, grey eyes in about
33 %, together therefore light eyes in 78 %. The least number of brown eyes
among the Swedes we find among the inhabitants of Aland and Finland proper,
among the Finns the least number is found among the inhabitants of Finland
proper and Nyland, where the mixture with the Germanic element has been grea*
test. The greatest percentage of brown eyes is found with the Kavnerians in North
Osterbotton but even among these it is less than 10 %. The colour of the hair
shows a similiar correspondence: in the Swedes there are 18.5 per cent having light
hair, and 34.5 % with cendre hair, or taken together 53 % with fair hair, in the
Finns there are 17 % with light hair and 40 % with cendre hair, or taken toge»
ther 57 % having fair hair.

88 SWEDES AND FINNS IN FINLAND

As can be seen from the information presented above, the Swedes in Finland
show rather decidedly the anthropological characteristics which are considered ty»
pical for the Nordic (or Germanic) race: tall stature, predominating Dolichocephali
together with light eyes and fair hair. The Finns on the contrary are shorter,
and the predominating number are of the brachycephalic type, but in common
with Swedes they have mostly light eyes and fair hair. These last named charac*
teristics are very interesting. They indicate decidedly that the Finnish race^groups
cannot be considered anthropologically to belong to the Mongol race, as one
earlier tried to assert.

Meanwhile it is yet too early to definitely establish the position of the Finns
systematically. This chiefly depends upon the fact that at the present time we
have not been able to collect sufficient material in Finland. It may be especially
emphasized, that careful cranio«metrical examinations are yet lacking, and that
the material we now possess, concerns almost exclusively male individuals, and
within a highly limited age too. (Age for military exercise.)

MEDICAL SCIENTISTS AND EUGENISTS

PROFESSOR VILHEI.M HULTKRANTZ.

Anatomist, Anthropologist. Eugenist, Uppsala.

' "'2 18S2.

PROFESSOR IVAR BRO.MAN.

Anatomist, Cytologist. Lund.

• '"q 1868.

PROFESSUR TORSTEN THUNBERG.

Physiologist, Lund.

• 'O'e 1873.

PROFESSOR OSSIAN SCHAUMAN.

Physician, Eugenist, Helsingfors.

• '0/3 1862.

EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND

BY

OS SI AN SCHAUMAN, M. D.

PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF HELSINGFORS, FINLAND.

POLITICALLY FINLAND WAS UNITED TO SWEDEN UP TO 1809;
it was then conquered by Russia and became an independent republic in
1918 after a bloody struggle. Laws, administration, education, in other
words, culture in general are chiefly of Swedish origin.

Finland is inhabited by two different races, the Finnish and the Swedish.
The population of Swedish origin amounts at present to 370,000 souls, thus con«
stituting only 11.5 % of the whole population. About 10?^ of the Swedes are
spread in small colonies among
the Finnish population, while
90 % inhabit certain stretches
of land along the coast and a
great part of the archipelago.
These lastnamed districts do
not form one connected whole,
but consist of three separate
territories Nyland, Aboland
with the Aland Islands, and
Ostrobothnia. The whole area
of the Swedish settlements amo=
unts to 15,000 square kilomes
tres or to 4.5 % of the whole
surface of Finland.

At present about one third
of the Swedish against one
eighth of the Finnish popular
tion lives in the towns. The
country population in Swedish
Finland mainly occupy them*
selves with farming; the popu<
lation of the islands and along
the coast are also fishermen and
sailors. In Ostrobothnia the
greatest part of the land is in
the hands of the peasantry. In
the other Swedish districts the
number of peasant^ owners is
smaller.

The knowledge of reading
is general. The number of Swe«

?

1 V.

5W&D EN^^^H

1

r^y^ cM^^^^^^^I

^

(^ ^y^^^^^^^^^l

Hb|i

i^^^^^^^^^^M

T^

^1^

Map showing the domiciliation of Swedes in
Finland at present.

12

90 EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND

dish undergraduates at the University of Helsingfors — the only state University
— amounts to 666 against 2,602 Finnish alumni. Moreover the Swedish academy
at Abo, just lately founded, whose Principal is Edw. Westermarck, the renowned
Professor of sociology, counts about 140 alumni.

I beg here specially to point out, that Swedish culture is of a considerably
earlier date than Finnish. It is only 50 to 60 years ago since government offi*
cials were mostly recruited from the ranks of the Swedish population. Lately,
thanks to intense Finnish propaganda an ever increasing number of Finnish schools
have been founded and the Finnish educated classes are steadily increasing in
number.

The boundaries between the two spheres of language have undergone chan»
ges partly in favour of the Finns, partly in favour of the Swedes. During the
last few decades a remarkable immigration of Finns has taken place into the Swe«
dish towns and also in some places on the country-side. Above all industrial en«
terprise has attracted the Finns. However, lack of hands for farming purposes in
consequence of immigration to the towns and emigration to foreign lands (chiefly
America) have given Finnish workmen employment in Swedish districts. Part of
these immigrants have remained in their new abodes on the Swedish land and
many have bought large or small farms.*

At first this immigration aroused little attention but with the growing cons*
ciousness of nationality, now manifest amongst the Swedish population, the view
is more and more gaining ground that measures must be taken to ensure that
Swedish land should remain in Swedish hands.

The Swedish population wants to ensure its future also through measures of
another kind. They desire to be regarded as a part of the population of Finland
on an equality with the Finnish majority both as to administration and cultural
rights. Indeed, a protection of the minority is demanded and legal measures are
claimed, for the sake of procuring seIf»government within certain bounds to the
Swedish minority.

Hitherto however, these requirements have met with serious resistance from
the Finnish side. Even if they were granted, it is clear to the Swedish popula*
tion, that laws cannot offer the Swedish an unfailing protection against pres«
sure from the Finnish majority, unless the Swedish themselves possess the will to
live and are ready to make sacrifices in order to create an innate power, which
under all circumstances constitutes the most unfailing defence of a people. Through
considerations of this kind it became evident, that it was indispensable to take
measures towards ameliorating the standard of health among the people in Swe<
dish Finland.

A circumstance which helped to a great extent to hasten the realisation of this
plan may be shortly mentioned here.

In 1911 Miss Jenny Florin made a donation of Fmk. 100,000:— to the Swe*
dish Literary Society in Finland, on condition that the interest of the fund should
be used to promote medical science. This was outside the proper sphere of work
of the Society, of which fact the donatrix was aware. However, knowing that

* The facts stated above are mostly taken out of the work : >La Nationality Suedoise de la Finlande par G. Nikander et
E. von BOKN. Helsingfors 1920.

L.-

EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND 91

at this time there did not exist in Finland, any other society of which the sta«
tutes guaranteed the future use of her donation for Swedish cultural work, she
offered the aforesaid sum to the Literary Society. The Society received the do«
nation and, on the proposal of a committee, specially appointed for the purpose,
they decided that the interest should be used for comprehensive scientific exami=
nation of the mental and physical health of the Swedish population in Finland
and of all circumstances, which might exercise influence on it. It was parti*
cularly pointed out that the significance of heredity for the health of the people
should be made a special object of research.

The Literary Society entrusted this research to a special committee, consisting
of eight persons and called »The Florin Commission* (Florinska Kommissionen).
Though the economic resources at the disposal of the commission were small,
the work was immediately begun. Through bursars, nominated for the purpose,
the population in three parishes of Swedish Finland were examined in conformity
with forms drawn up by the commission. About 23,000 persons underwent an
examination, chiefly with the view to stating the occurrence of nervous and mental
diseases as well as tuberculosis; at the same time the anthropological circum*
stances were studied as well as the housing and nourishing questions. As yet only
the results of such examinations as had to do with the nourishing of the people
have been published,* but other results will of course be brought to the know*
ledge of the public in due time.

The Great War which, owing to Finland being politically united to Russia,
also affected Finland, checked the work of the Florin Commission. During the
time of war the only possible work was the compiling of material for a statistical
research about the frequency of marriage, nativity and mortality and also of some
other statistical primary facts in connection with the Swedish population of Fin«
land. The work, conducted by the able statistician of the Commission, Professor
E. Lindelof, will soon be concluded and is sure to form a correct basis for
future examinations and measures.

When Finland had separated from Russia and became an independent state,
the work of the Commission got a fresh impetus. In different quarters people's
eyes had been opened to the necessity of purely practical measures for the ameli»
oration of the health of the population in Swedish Finland and for this purpose
a number of donations in money were placed at the disposal of the Commission.

The interest on one of these funds of Fmk. 200,000: — the Commission de«
cided to use for awarding prizes to mothers. The conditions, according to which
a mother has a chance of being awarded a prize, are, that she and her husband
must belong to healthy families, be in good health themselves and possess at
least four strong healthy and well nurtured children of the age of four to four»
teen years. The prizes either consist in a diploma, or a diploma and a sum of
money, hitherto stipulated to amount to Fmk. 500: — . The first awarding of prizes
took place last year and aroused greater interest than could be expected.

The income from another donation amounting to Fmk. 750,000: — is to be
used to afford general eugenic information.

* Carl Tigeistedt, Ucbn die Nahrungszufuhr des Menschen in ihrer Abhangigkeit von Alter, Geschlecht und Beruf.
Helsingfors 1915. 232 p.

92 EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND

For this purpose the Commission issues a series of pamphlets. Hitherto the
following subjects have been treated of: the importance of heredity for the health
of the people, the care of children and home education. In preparation are pamph*
lets about temperance, thrift and the desertion of the countryside. The pamphlets
are spread by 180 cultural societies, situated in the Swedish districts, and have
been issued in 30,000 copies. They ought to reach most of the Swedish homes
in Finland.

As it is beyond doubt that the written word in many cases is of less effect
than the spoken, persons specially trained for the purpose will, as far as the
means of the Commission allow, be employed to carry on the propaganda. They
are to spread knowledge through lectures and above all through personal in*
struction in the homes. For the said purpose persons interested in the work and
not paid for it will act as assistants. They are chiefly recruited from a woman's
association under the name of the »Martha society*, working in every part of the
country for twenty years, which has made it their object to spread knowledge in
every home. The society is well organized and has specially gone in for teaching
the housewives how to take care of their homes; it has with the greatest success
spread the knowledge of cooking, women's handiwork and gardening. The care
of children is also part of their programme and it co«operates with the Commis^
sion in the above mentioned awarding of prizes to mothers.

This information work, carried on by the above mentioned paid and unpaid
workers, will comprise the introduction of rational care of children, a campaign
against tuberculosis, temperance work, shortly family hygiene in the most extensive
meaning of the word.

As soon as the Commission had laid out the plan of work, pointed out
above, it became evident to the members that a reconstruction of the Commis»
sion into an independent society must be undertaken. A proposal to this effect was
handed in to the board of the Literary Society, whose approval was gained. The
board promised to hand over most of the funds, the interest of which the society
had a right to dispose of, to a new society, to be organized for this purpose.

In March this year the newly formed society held their constituent meeting
and took the name of »Samfundet Folkhalsan i Svenska Finland^ (Society for
improving public health in Swedish Finland).

The society will in all essential points follow the principles laid down by
the Florin Commission. It consists of working and supporting members. The
working members are divided into two sections: one scientific and one practical.
More than half of the members of the sections belong to the Helsingfors Uni*
versify teachers' staff.

At present the working members are the following: Amos Anderson (busi*
ness man), Robert Ehrstrom (professor of medicine), Harry Federley (lecturer
on genetics, sercetary to the Society), Jarl Hagelstam (professor of neurology, vice
president of the Society), Oskar von Hellens (professor of hygiene), C. M. Ho«
henthal (medical practitioner, archivist to the society), Fanny Hult (president of
the central board of the Martha Society), G. Landtman (lecturer on sociology),
Albert Lilius (professor of pedagogics), Ernst Lindelof (professor of mathematics),
Wilhelm Pipping (professor of pediatrics), Henrik Ramsay (doctor of philosophy.

EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND

93

managing director of The Finland Steamship Company, treasurer to the Society),
Emma Saltzman (member of the central board of the Martha Society), Ossian Schau:=
man (professor of medicine, president of the Society), Robert Tigerstedt (professor
of physiology), Wilhelm Udd (master builder) and Axel Wallgren (professor of
general pathology and pathological anatomy).

Sub^committees of the Society are already
founded both in Aboland and in Ostrobothnia
and branches are being founded in several pa»
rishes.

It is highly desirable for the Society as soon
as possible to found a special institute for re*
search in heredity. A fund of Fmk. 50,000: —
exists already and just lately a sum of Fmk.
300,000: — has been bequeathed to them for the
same purpose. However very little can be done
with the interest on these funds. It is to be
hoped that some patrons of science will give
their aid towards the realization of this extre»
mely important work, the more so as the Society
in the person of its secretary. Dr. Harry Feder»
ley has a scientist, who possesses the necessary
ability for undertaking the management of such
an institute.

Among the first tasks of the scientific sec=>
tion of the Society may be pointed out an acco»
unt of the national character in Swedish Finland,
and further an anthropological research of the Swedish population, on the same
plan as the one that will be followed in a proposed corresponding examination
in Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

As regards the practical hygienic work of the Society it is worth mentioning
that temperance work must in the nearest future be made an object of special
attention. The reason is: since total prohibition was introduced two years ago in
Finland drinking has increased in a most alarming way in certain parts of the
country, especially in the coast regions of South Finland, where the population is
of Swedish origin. Through smuggling of spirits from the neighbouring Esthonia
the people earn large sums. They leave their honest callings, farming and fishing
and become addicted to an immoderate desire for intoxicating drinks. The go«
vernment has granted pecuniary subsidies to the Society for the campaign against
intemperance and thus made it possible to carry on the said propaganda with
greater intensity than could otherwise be done. A happy circumstance is that our
renowned physiologist, professor R. Tigerstedt, has undertaken to conduct this work.

Immediately after the constituent meeting the Society issued a proclamation
to the Swedish population of Finland, in the shape of an artistically illuminated
»table», printed on cardboard, which is to be sent out in about 60,000 copies.
It contains a number of commandments about the hygiene of the people, which
run as follows:

Professor Jarl Hagelstam.

Neurologist, Eugenist, Helsingfors.

*28/3 1860.

X

— — 1

94 EUGENIC WORK IN SWEDISH FINLAND

SWEDISH MEN AND WOMEN!

On our own will, on our innate power ultimately depends the future of the
Swedish race in our country. A people mentally and physically strong can hold
out even under hard outward pressure!

Improvement in the health of the people must therefore be our watchword,
and first of all we must direct our attention to the children! That they are born
with a good disposition, that they are taken care of and educated well, there is
the surest ground for our happiness in the future!

The inherited qualities of the parents, both the good and the bad, are re*
fleeted in the children. Be careful therefore when you marry that your chosen
one has good health and belongs to a healthy family!

Be on your guard against strong drink and sexual disease! They not only
undermine your own health. They can even do harm to your children and their
posterity. Do not forget that the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children
unto the third and fourth generation!

Be modest and thrifty! But still not a slave to the desire for money! It can
so easily lead you astray, and what shall it profit you to gain the whole world
if you lose your own soul the while! The best inheritance you can give your
children is not money and gold but a sound mind in a sound body!

Should you be the owner of a piece of ground do not sell it, however temp«
ting the offers may be! Rather make it your glory and your pride as your fathers
before you to leave it in an improved state to your descendants! Remember also that
a farmer's work is the most important and the healthiest among all occupations!

And even if you have no land of your own, but have lived and grown up
in the country since your birth, do not abandon your native place unless circum*
stances really force you to do sol Above all, do not move into town! There
temptations and dangers threaten you, which may be the cause of your own and
your children's ruin!

Take care of the children from their birth onward tenderly and lovingly
Educate them to be obedient, to love truth and to keep their word! Harden
their will and accustom them early to do useful work, adapted to their strength
and ability! Diligence promotes health and welfare and keeps you from many
occasions for sinning!

Briefly: all members of our Swedish race should be educated to become honest
and diligent workers for their native placT'and their fatherland!

There must be no bad Swedish men and women in this country!

Let us all obey these admonitions and keenly feel our responsibility before
coming generations! If we do so it will be well with us and the day of our
Swedish race shall be long in the land!

THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS
AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

BY

Docent K. ARVID EDIN

UPPSALA

THE OFFICIAL SWEDISH DEMOGRAPHICAL STATISTICS, IN
contrast to those of most other countries, exhibit the peculiarity that they
rest, all the way through, on a continuous, as far as possible, closed ecde*
siastical record«keeping, comprised in the so«called parish registers (Jorsamlings=
bockerna, in older times catechetical meetings registers), where, with complete names,
with exact dates — registered at the same time in the birth*, marriage*, death*,
and removal registers — one can follow every person's demographical fate, as long
as he lived in the parish: birth or entrance into the parish, with information on
the parish of birth and that of removal, civil status, and eventually year and date
of marriage, entrance into or withdrawal from marriage, the birth or death of
children (removal from or entrance into the parish), removal, with the name of
the parish, or death. The church registers also, of course, contain information
respecting occupation; their value here, however, stands far behind what it does
from a pure demographical point of view; the parish registers also contain in»
formation respecting defects, race (for example Lapp), religion, and nationality,
and eventually sentence of punishment.

The recurrent censuses of the people rest upon the returns given in the
parish registers for the 31st of December in all years ending with 0, the last
being thus 1920. Especially respecting their completeness and their exactness con«
cerning age, they may probably by considered unique. By means of more rigorous
regulations as to the taking out and issue of certificates for removal — high fines fojr
neglecting to report removal within a short time of respite, measures to ensure that
entrance into one parish shall be brought to coincide as far as possible with removal
from another parish — and by arranging that the non*existence of persons, about
whom it has not been possible for a long time — since 1894 during three con»
secutive assessments (»mantalsskrivningar») — to obtain any information as to
their actual presence in a parish from which they have not taken out a certificate
for removal, shall be notified in the registers (the parish registers and the registers
of non*existence), the closed keeping of the parish registers has during the last gene*
ration been brought to the highest possible perfection. Special certainty has been
gained that persons cannot — as not seldom happens in Finland, where the keep*
ing of the parish registers has been neglected and not as in Sweden altered to
suit the needs of the time — during any longer period of time live only a sta*
tistical life. The assessment is the Swedish equivalent to the »momentary, real
(actual) census* (on oral statements) taken in foreign countries; the parish registers
must be corrected and completed yearly in connection with the assessment. It

96 THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

can most nearly be described as self=enumeration (the filling in of formulas by the
heads of households, without questioning by enumerators). The Swedish census
can suitably be described as a »paper=censust> (balance sheet) built upon the current
book=keeping over all the ingoing and outgoing items of the population, con=
trolled by an element of »momentary, real census». In Stockholm the parish register
is missing and the deficiency is made up for entirely by the assessment lists.

Ever since 1860 the material for the census is nominative, i. e., the clergy
have ever since that time sent copies every tenth year of the person lists of the
parish registers to the Central Bureau of Statistics, giving the complete names of
all those who were found in the parish on the last day of the year, with informal
tion as to sex, civil status — since 1870 — year and place of birth, race, nation*
ality, religion, defects, occupations, position in family (wife, son, etc.) — as far
as possibly persons are arranged in families and households — in 1920 also the
years of marriage and widowhood; by means of which arrangement the widest
possibilities are opened, not only for different combinations in working up the
facts, but above all for watching over the correctness of the information given
by the census papers. Moreover, in connection with the census the Central
Bureau of Statistics sends out to the clergy a large number of inquiries con*
cerning deficiencies and supposed errors in their returns, though the clergy possess
in a much higher degree than the census officials of other lands, the qualifications
needed to bring about a perfectly satisfactory census material.

From 1860 there is also sent in from the registers of births, deaths, and marri=
ages, yearly copies containing information respecting not only the name, date of
birth, marriage, and death of the persons in question, but also the names of
the parents of the new«born, with their occupation, date of birth, and, from 1911,
also the date of marriage; respecting the date of birth of both parties to a marriage
contract, with their occupations, and the marriage number; respecting the cause of
death (both the clergyman's and medical man's notes, with information concerning
the medical man from whom advice was last sought on behalf of the deceased),
and also the dead person's date of birth, and civil status, and (since 1911) the
date of birth of the survivor. For the whole time between 1861 and 1910, it has
only been obligatory for the towns to send in information respecting the cause
of death, but since 1911 it has been so for the whole country. Unfortunately
the tables respecting the cause of death are published without sufficient division,
from 20 years of age only in groups of ten years, without combination with either
civil status or occupation. The former combination cannot be made even with
the help of the manuscript tables, for example regarding such a common illness
as tuberculosis. Nominative returns are also sent yearly to the Central Bureau
respecting immigrants and emigrants, with the date of birth, civil status, and occu«
pation, and information on the country from which the migration took place and
the immigrants' nationality or the country to which the migration shall take place.

The peculiarity of the Swedish demographical statistics affords many advanta*
ges besides those already indicated. Very exact information concerning the num«
bers of the people can be obtained yearly without any additional cost to the
state or the parish, from every parish, according to sex, and with returns not only
of the number of births, marriages, and deaths, but also of the number of those

PROFESSOR HERMAN NILSSON.EHLE.
Experimental Biologist, Lund.

* 12/2 1873.

THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE 97

who have entered the parish, and those who have removed from it (either inland
or from or to foreign countries), Hkewise divided according to sex, which last
information, in any case as regards the inland removals and as completely as in
Sweden, can only be obtained in one or two other countries. As the vital stati*
sties and the population statistics are built upon precisely the same material, and
with the use of the same clearly understood conception of the population, »the
legally registered population*, it is much easier with the Swedish than with the
foreign method, »the de facto (actual) population*, to obtain real local geographic*
al coefficients, for example, of the births, deaths, and marriages in the larger towns,
in contrast to those of the country-side surrounding them. If the sick from the
country in large and increasing numbers are taken into the hospitals in the towns,
the towns will clearly, if one reckons with the de facto population, feel the burs
den of a mortality that is to a certain extent artificial, especially noticeable pro*
bably in the case of certain ages during youth. If the women from the country
in increasing numbers are confined in the maternity hospitals, the frequency of
birth is raised thereby; if more and more of the country brides are married in the
towns the frequency of marriage rises higher to a corresponding degree, at the
cost of the country-side, as long as one reckons with the de facto population and
not, as in Sweden, with the legal. It is only in regard to certain diseases, such
especially as tuberculosis, which are comparatively slow in causing death, that the
Swedish demographical method does not perhaps give an entirely correct expres*
sion of the local geographical influences. Such diseases to a certain degree work
in the direction of causing removals (and that not only by chance either). Young*
er unmarried persons of country extraction, who have sought work in towns
often move back again to their own district after they have been attacked by
such illnesses, and die there; this probably is more especially so in the case of
women, who usually do not make such long migrations as men do. In such cases
it is difficult to know which »environment» ought justly to be charged with the
death. It is not impossible that persons of weak constitution, in whom is found
a disposition towards tuberculosis may not be already disposed, more than others
on account of this, to prefer work in the towns rather than in the country. An
addition to the returns respecting deaths in the form of information on removals
which have taken place during, for example, the last three years, would be very
desirable for throwing light on this important question. On the whole the stati*
sties over removals seem to be — for reasons easy to understand — the most neg*
lected area of demography. Doubtless the Swedish parish registers (and removal
registers) have much to offer that is new and of great interest for investigators,
among other things in the area of the statistics of fecundity. In exceptional cases,
for instance with regard to accidents occurring during casual visits to the town,
it may happen that the Swedish method affords even a less satisfactory result than
the usual one. It may be observed, however, that deaths, births, and marriages
are noted in the district where they occur even if they are not reckoned there.
For the whole country the Swedish method allows a particularly reliable esti*
mation of the population's division according to sex, civil status, and age, in the
last respect into groups of one year, as the foundation for birth, death, and mar*
riage coefficients specified in a corresponding degree.

L._

98 THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

The weakest point in the Swedish census is, as already indicated, the inform
mation respecting occupation. With the present highly developed and very chan«
geable specialization of work within all occupations, it is only by means of detail*
ed information supplied by those concerned, in oral conference with an »enu»
merator», that we can obtain a deeper insight into the life of trade, as in any
case was tried in Germany, The indispensable condition for this is a »momentary,
real census*. Here a continuous registration of the changes of the population is
plainly not at all sufficient.

In any case one cannot demand that the clergy, whose chief call lies in quite
another sphere of work, should be enjoined to obtain correct details concerning
the occupation of all the inhabitants in their parishes. At the census in 1910 an
attempt was made with the help of the assessments to obtain a somewhat better
material as to occupation than at the previous censuses. In 1910 one also for the
first time worked up the material respecting occupations according to age. An
attempt to arrive at the mortality in different occupations, in diflferent groups of
ages, as is done in England, has not led to any trustworthy result.

Taken as a whole the Swedish census, arranged as it is now, could not be
extended considerably. Thus, for example, returns touching the whole number of
children born in every existing marriage can not be demanded, as they would not
be founded upon current registration. A real census giving all such information,
besides concerning occupations and income, etc., is therefore required and should
be afterwards completed by compulsory introduction of family^registers, as is the
case in Wiirttemberg, i e. the registration of every marriage should be accompanied
by a family bulletin where all the demographical events in the family should be
registered with the same certificate as in the parish registers, and when the family
removes from one parish to another, this bulletin should be transferred as well.
Whereas now — if one is not willing to burden oneself with a practically insur*
mountably difficult work — one can only follow a family during the time its
different members live in the respective parishes, one could by such a means follow
it exactly in detail, even from the time when it was founded. And not least would
the removal registers, an institution peculiar to Sweden, here be of the greatest value.

The keeping of the Swedish parish registers still rests in principle on the
instructions given in the Ecclesiastical Law of 1686. Since that time, in any case,
the keeping of birth, marriage, and death registers seems to have been regularly
practised over the whole kingdom, though in many varying forms. Before that
time such a continuous registration was considered a private matter for the cler»
gyman or in any case an affair that fell upon the bishops and cathedral chapters
to undertake, if they wanted. One of the earliest of such ordinances was issued
in 1608 for the archiepiscopal diocese of Uppsala. Its observance does not seem
to have been worth mentioning. But in the diocese of Vasteras, on the contrary,
after a similar ordinance had been issued in 1622 by the renowned Johannes Rud*
BECKius, the keeping of the parish registers was pursued, according to a form
which the bishop had printed and provided. Ever since that time the death
registers in that diocese have offered very much of demographical interest, (first
and foremost the information respecting the cause of death, by which means
epidemic diseases can be traced fairly accurately). In any case since the end of

THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE 99

the seventeenth century the death register's information swells out to really demos
graphical biographies, containing information respecting years of marriage and
widowhood, the numbers of children in different marriages, etc., of inestimable value
for the statistical studies of families of those times.

It is true that in the Ecclesiastical Law of 1686 parish and removal registers
are presupposed, but as a foundation for the census, containing information re«
specting years of birth and age, they have certainly only appeared sporadically
until far into the eighteenth century, and then chiefly in connection with the
establishment of the Table Archives (Tabellverket).

In 1749 the Swedish Table Archives were established, and since that time,
earlier than any other country, Sweden possesses continuous, never broken official
demographical statistics, based on a foundation of amply specified printed formulas,
which were to be filled in by the help of the parish registers. The most remark*
able innovation was the census table, with division of men and women into groups
of 5 years (during the five youngest years of life into 3 groups) — a division
perfectly identical with the one used in the mortality tables, and there in com*
bination with a large number of causes of death. Down to 1775 the table was
given in every 3 years and from that time to 1855 every 5 years. These censuses
can be characterized as the oldest in the world, in a modern sense. As long as
regular keeping of the parish registers was still lacking, they could most nearly
be characterized as living censuses, having as foundation the oral information given
by the heads of the households, and consequently suffering from all the imper*
factions such a census shows. The imperfections of the first censuses — especially
false information as to age in order to escape the capitation tax, which was not
paid by the oldest and youngest — has been vigorously emphasized by Per
Wargentin, whose name before everyone's is bound up with the Table Archives.
The effecting of a regular keeping of the parish registers, homogeneous for the
whole kingdom, was considered by Wargentin as the only possible foundation
for a fully reliable census. Such an arrangement was taken at any rate in the
diocese of Vasteras, where parish registers of nearly identical appearance to the
modern ones, and with printed formulas, were begun in and have been kept from
1774. Ever since that time up to the present, according to the degree in which
the keeping of the parish registers was closed, i. e. the data respecting removal
were properly recorded, one has complete uniformity in the demographical material.
On the foundation of these early parish registers, with the help and control afforded
by the death register's biographies, it is relatively easy to effect series of family
statistics, in which the children can be followed in any case till the customary age
of removal. The writer of this article has succeeded in effecting for some parishes,
even from the end of the 17th century, such continuous, fully representative series
of family statistics, with full information respecting the dates of birth of all the
children and of the deaths of all those deceased under 15 years of age. Especially
for the study of the secular changes of the frequency of re*marriage, and of the
marriage=fecundity, as well as of the mortality, male and female, among married
and children at different ages (especially in regard to severe epidemics, and more
important popular diseases, and in regard to the connection between child mor«
tality and the intervals between child-birth) such investigations are without doubt

100 THE SWEDISH CHURCH REGISTERS AND THE DEMOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

of great interest, so much the more so as the Table Archives in these points do
not give sufficient guidance. The combination of civil status with age and sex
was first introduced into the Swedish census of 1870. Gustav Sundbarg's brilliant
attempt to effect such a hypothetical combination for the time between 1750 and
1780 can naturally never be anything more than a hypothesis. His assumption
that marriage^fecundity during the whole of this time underwent only casual
variations and no secular evolution, seems to me — on account of the certainly
as indicated above, much too insufficiently worked up material from the diocese
of Vasteras — to be somewhat doubtful. But on the other hand Sundbarg is
certainly right in his assertion that there are errors in the tables respecting division
of age and sex of the population, especially for the earlier ages.

After the Provincial Archives were established at the beginning of this century,
the possibility of studying the parish registers has been very much facilitated.

GENETICS IN SWEDEN

BY

Dr. NILS HERIBERT=NILSSON

LECTURER. LUND

THE SWEDISH SCHOOL OF EXPERIMENTAL GENETICS MADE
its start before the rediscovery of the Mendelian law. A pre»MendeIian
geneticist, Pehr Bolin, at that time assistant at the plant breeding institute
in Svalov, published in 1897 a paper dealing with artificial crosses between different
varieties of barley in »Utsadesf6reningens Tidskrift». He arrived at the conclusion
that no variation takes place in the first generation, while it does occur in the
second. This variation seems to follow definite laws, he says, as the resulting
varieties represent different combinations of parent characters. He has also found
that the variation in certain cases falls beyond the limits of the variation of the parent
plants. He knew the fact of combination, as did many of the pre«Mendelian
workers, but he did not push his knowledge to the point of exact numerical
relations. The value of Bolin's discovery does not seem to have been appreciated
at that time, and his name has not been mentioned in the foreign literature among
the pre^Mendelian workers, so fas as I know. This is explained by the circum*
stance that his paper is written in Swedish and published in a journal of applied
science.

The first who made Mendel's discovery known in Sweden was the talented
plant physiologist in Lund, Bengt Lidforss. He had been much interested in the
mutation theory of Hugo de Vries, and he acquainted himself with Mendel's
discovery in that work. Mendel's discovery was considered as mainly a verifica*
tion of the mutation theory at that time, as it demonstrated in a clear way the
discontinuity and the constancy of the characters. He gave a masterly summary
of Mendel's discovery in a popular work published 1904. He had already at this
time investigations under way dealing with the problem of the origin of species
in the genus Rubus. He found that species originated through mutation as well
as through hybridization. Some species, as R. polyanthemus, gave rise to a great
number of morphologically different types when selfed, which formed an absolute
parallel to the mutations of de Vries in many cases. A still greater variation,
however, was obtained from the hybridization experiments. The hybrid caesius
X Wahlbergii, for instance, gave so great a variation in the second generation
that he was able to distinguish types among the descendants which resembled
nine species already described. There were additional types which did not resemble
any known species. These striking results led him to adopt the Mendelian point
of views more and more. He dismisses at last the mutation theory entirely and
holds the view that the seemingly spontaneous, wild forms represent the last
oscillations of a segregation. His discovery that in certain cases of successful
species crossing all the descendants resemble the female parent plant is very in»
teresting. The pollination stimulates the development of the ovules, according to
the explanation given by Lidiorss, but does not bring about any nuclear fusions.

102

GENETICS IN SWEDEN

"1

Difficulties in obtaining suitable experimental ground hampered and limited
the work of Lidforss. He succeded at last to arrange the matter but died after
short time, working to the last minute.

Lidforss represents the searcher, the problem raiser in the history of Swedish
genetics; he is not in the same degree the solver of problems but his logical in»

telligence, his enthusiasm and great learning gave
a mighty impetus to the study of genetics in
Sweden.

While Lidforss spent his time at the Uni»
versity of Lund struggling against practical ex<
perimental difficulties one of the most important
genetical analysis hitherto made was going on
at the plant breeding institute in Svalov. Nobody
knew anything about this work before it was
done and published. It was H. Nilsson^Ehle
who in 1908—1909 presented the results of his
investigations of polymeric factors in wheat and
oats. An analysis of weight had now been worked
out in Sweden. The great importance of this
analysis with regard to the interpretation of
quantitative variation, acclimatization, and other
questions was at once realized. The cogency of
his analysis showed the potentiality of the young
Mendelian science, and, therefore, stimulated
and spurred the study of genetics among Swedish
scientists. It also showed that the intensive study of genetics required special and
good experimental working conditions. These are mainly of two kinds, sufficient
ground and sufficient assistance, and such requirements are better fulfilled at the
plant breeding institutes than at the universities. Most of the Swedish geneticists
are therefore engaged at the plant breeding stations. The material experimented
upon is also mainly cultivated plants.

The valuable contribution to genetics made by Nilsson^Ehle through his
analysis of polymery in 1909 was renewed a few years after when his extensive
work on the inheritance of quantitative characters appeared. This work rests upon
the polymery analysis and represents a further building up of the theory. Since
then the mutation phenomenon has mainly occupied his interest. He has investig^
ated expecially three groups of mutants, viz. chlorophyll variants in barley, and
fatuoid variants in oats and speltoid ones in wheats. His work on the speltoid
mutants in wheat, where segregations is strongly disturbed by many complications
(coupling, elimination of gametes, partial heterogamy), is especially rich in fresh
suggestions and new ideas. Another study dealing with the resistance of barley
towards the attacks of the nematode Heterodera Schachti is important also from
a practical point of view; the character shows monohybrid segregation, which is
a rare case of segregation among resistance«characters.

A genetical study started already in pre«Mendelian time, or about 1890, has
been made by Hans Tedin in Svalov dealing with peas, Mendel's classical experis

Dr. Hans Tedin.

GENETICS IN SWEDEN 103

mental plant. He has been able to show, thanks to the discovery of a new color
variety (light purple), that the ordinary flower color in Pisum arvense, held to
be a simple character and an allelomorph to white by Mendel, depends on three
complementary factors. Tedin may serve as a type of the strict analyst, who
works with extensive progenies and numerous controls, tying the chain of proof
methodically and definitively.

The versatile mind of Birger Kajanus, another Swedish geneticist, contrasts
greatly with the persistent disposition characteristic of Tedin. His temperament
marks both his material and his theoretical point of views. He has published a
great number of papers dealing with widely different genera and characters. He
has collected his thoughts on greater problems in two cases, viz. with regard to
the inheritance of the color and the shape in roots (Beta and Brassica), and with
regard to the flower color and other characters in Papaver Somniferum. His
theoretical point of views, as seen in his publications dealing with Beta and
Brassica, pass from enthusiastic Mendelism to Lamarckism and scepticism, and
back to practical Mendelism. His work on Papaver is a pure analytical work.
His extensive and long continued experiments with crosses between different wheat
species seem to be of great interest both analytically and phylogenetically, to judge
from preliminary notes already published.

Hans Rasmuson has combined analytical investigations with the species problem.
He was engaged as vine breeder in Germany for some years and worked expecially
with the problem to raise vines which combined the fine quality of the European
varieties with the resistance of the American varieties towards the vine^disease
(Phylloxera). The war put a check to these investigations, but it was found that
immunity is dominant, and that in some cases monohybrid segregation, in other
cases more complicated segregation, takes place. The characters of different species
as well as of different varieties of Vitis seemed to segregate in Mendelian ratios.
The same has been found by Rasmuson to take place in the genus Godetia, where
the both species Whitneyi and amoena have been found to segregate with regard
to morphological characters. A close analysis of the flower colors of these species
has also been made. These investigations give the interesting result that the genus
Godetia, although belonging to the same family as Oenothera, does not show
any of the complications of segregation characteristic of the latter genus.

In addition several smaller papers and analyses have been published by
Rasmuson dealing with Impatiens Balsamina, Petunia, Papaver, Tropaeolum, Malope,
Clarkia and Collinsia.

Carl Hallq^vist has published an investigation of the flower color and seed color
in Lupinus angustifolius, which with regard to both analytical distinctness and extent
forms a beautiful analogue to the pea investigation by Tedin, mentioned above. It
is also valuable from a purely analyticaUmethodical point of view; he describes a
method to determine the degree of coupling through determining the ratio in F3
between progenies of different segregation types, which makes the result more reliable
than a determination based on the segregation ratios found in the F2«generation.

HALLQ.UIST has also contributed to the question of polymery, viz. in a paper
dealing with the inheritance of the flesh color and the shape of the leaves in
the Swedish turnip (Brassica napus).

104 GENETICS IN SWEDEN

The great importance of wheat breeding in Sweden is seen from the fact that
the genetic constitution of the wheats is studied by different Swedish workers.
Also Ake Akerman has studied the speltoid mutants in Triticum vulgare. He has
found that a plant may be a sectoral or a periclinal chimaera between a normal
and speltoid heterozygote. The speltoids would then be able to originate through
vegetative mutation. Akerman has also begun a study of Epilobium bastards.

K. B. Kristofferson has been working with Viola and, recently, with a bastard
between white cabbage and kale. He has been able to show that Scotch kale,
Brussels Sprouts, Virsing cabbage, and different varieties of decorative kales origin*
ated as novelties in the F2=generation.

C. Hammarlund has studied the genetical constitution of different types of
Plantago major with branched spikes and metamorphosed bracts. Several known
»monstrous» types are genetically explained.

JoHAN Rasmuson has published the results of Fi^isolations in onions. He has
found several chlorophyll variations, and polymery characterizes probably the green
as well as yellow leaf color.

OssiAN Dahlgren has published smaller genetical analyses dealing with Cap=
sella, Polemonium, Lactuca, Chelidonium, Primula, and Barbarea.

The writer has been working on the genera Oenothera and Salix since 1907.
The former investigation aims at clearing up the complications of the segregation
which underlie the phenomenon of mutation. The latter work is an attempt to
release as great a variation as possible through species crossing in order to reach
an understanding of the origin of species and of evolution. The chances of
combination are very great in this genus as crosses between systematically unrelated
species are readily made, and because of the great fertility of the resulting bastards.

All the geneticists mentioned in the above have been working with plants.
H. FuNKQ^uisT alone uses zoological material. He has studied the inheritance of
the muzzle color in cattle. He finds that the color is due to two polymeric
factors. The light color may be due to the absence of these factors, or to the presence
of an inhibiting factor. As light muzzled animals fallen from dark muzzled parents
lack the complicating inhibiting factor only such animals should be crossed if a
constant light muzzled breed is wanted.

Several popular works have been published by Lidforss, Robert Larsson and
Kajanus dealing with the more important and interesting results of Mendelism.
Mendel's own work has been translated into Swedish. A thorough text book of
genetics for colleges and universities has also been published in Swedish by
Nils von Hofsten.

BIOLOGISTS AND GENETICISTS

PROFESSOR NILS von HOFSTEN.

Zoologist, Uppsala.

• ^/lo 1881.

DOCENT HARRY FEDERLEY.

Experimental Biologist, Helsingfors.

• 22/3 1879.

DOCENT N. HERIBERT.NILSSON.

Experimental Biologist, Lund.

• 261; 1883.

PROFESSOR OTIC ROM-NBERG.

Botanist, Cytologist, Stockholm.

• 96 1872.

SOME REMARKS ON THE WORK OF THE
SWEDISH GENETIC INSTITUTE IN AKARP

BY

H. NILSSON=EHLE

L UND

THE SWEDISH INSTITUTE OF GENETICS, FOUNDED 1917-1918
in connection with a new professorship of genetics at the University of
Lund, is situated in Akarp, near the railway station of the same name,
9 km. from Lund, between Lund and Malmo. The institute lies on ground be»
longing to the State farm Alnarp, only a few minutes way from the Alnarp
Agricultural College. In this way the institute forms a connecting link between
the university and the agricultural college, and the experiments and the cultures
of the institute are easely demonstrated for students in Lund as well as in Alnarp.

The purpose of the institute is research in theoretical and applied genetics
combined with lectures. Genetics has been made a special subject at the Uni<
versity of Lund, and courses leading to a doctor's degree in this subject are
offered by the philosophical faculty under the supervision of the professor in genetics.

The research of the institute is at present limited to plants. The writer
continues his former work begun in Svalof, especially with cereals, but also expe«
riments with several wild plants are going on. The assistant of the institute,
lie. phil. G. TuRESsoN, has at the moment extensive work with such plants,
Atriplex and others, under way.

The writer's work on purely theoretical genetics now embraces researches as
to the mode of inheritance of a number of different genetic characters, studies
on mutations, coupling and multipe allelomorphs.

Since 1913 the writer has had very extensive experiments with some charac*
teristic mutations in wheat, called speltoid mutations by him. These mutations
offer great interest in many respects, especially since their nature of complex*
mutations has been almost proven; they involve, in other words, genetic changes
of several Mendelian genes simultaneously. The question of multiple allelomorphs
is closely connected with these complex^mutations. Furthermore, these mutations
have offered great advantage in studying the question of decreased vitality of
mutated pollen, of heterogamy, which is probably a form of coupling with sex*
genes of the haploid generation, and of somatic segregation. The results of these
researches have partly been published (Botaniska Notiser, 1917; Hereditas I, 1920,
II, 1921). More than a thousand plots of plants belonging to this investigation
series have now been grown in the experimental fields of the institute.

In barley a number of different chlorophyll^mutations have been found,
which have been crossed with each other in order to elucidate the question
whether or not the different mutated chlorophyll^genes show independent segre*
gation or coupling. This work forms amongst plants an analogue to the American
investigations in Drosop/ij7a=mutations. About 250,000 seedsplants of such crossings
have hitherto been examined and counted.

14

106

THE SWEDISH GENETIC INSTITUTE IN AKARP

The Swedish genetic institute in Akarp.

With regard to the investigations into the mode of inheritance of genetic
characters ecological characters are now especially followed up. With respect to
the annual=biennial character in wheat distinct multiple or polymeric genes are
met with here as in numerous other characters. Also in wild plants a number of

adaptive genetic charac*
ters are studied, charac*
ters adapted to climate
as well as to soil (the
latter mostly studied by
Mr. Turesson).

The study of muta*
tions involves also the
important point, wheth*
er or not the mutations
may be regarded to play
any role in evolution.
For this purpose large
cultures of pure lines of autogamic cereals are made in order to see if in a Men*
delian factor pair, A — a, the mutative change is possible in both directions,
and whether, and to which measure, reversible mutations arise. Another series
of investigations concerns small mutations of quantitative characters (wheat, beans).
Special attention is also paid to the question of the origin of mutations, which
may be of value in the practical plant breeding.

In addition to the purely theoretical work practical plant breeding plays an
important role at the institute. About ^3 of the ground is occupied by plant
breeding plots, while the remaining V3 belongs to the purely theoretical work.
Hitherto the plant breeding embraces only cereals (winter wheat, summer wheat,
barley, rye and to some little extent Indian corn).

The writer fulfils his former breeding* and combination*work begun in Svalof
with regard to wheat. In the summer*temperate, half^maritime part of Sweden the
winter wheat breeding is highly favorized as compared with a continental, summer*
hot climate, as but little regard has to be taken to early ripening. In the northern
part of Sweden, on the contrary, the importance of winter hardiness increases
with the latitude. The main point is therefore to combine through crossing high
yielding*power with sufficient winter hardiness. The best high*yielding West
European wheats yield, when not damaged during the winter, about 50 % more
than the old winterhardy Swedish wheat. However, these wheats are in the most
winters (excepting the rare very milde ones) not at all winterhardy enough and
yield therefore only little. Thus through combining sufficient winter hardiness
with high yielding power an increase in mean yielding*power of 50 % should be
reached — a very important economic gain. As winter hardiness, yielding*power
and other characters of practical interest as, for instance, straw stiffness, hereditary
resistance against diseases (yellow rust and others) are characters which segregate
in a very complex manner giving rise to many intermediate (or in other cases
transgressive) stages, the aim is not to be gained at once, that is, through one
cross only, followed by successive selections. A repeated and long continued

THE SWEDISH GENETIC INSTITUTE IN AKARP 107

work, now about thirty years old, involving numerous crossings, combinations and
selections, has been necessary. At the moment an increase in the mean yielding*
power of about 40 % has been reached in South Sweden (through the raising of
the new cross^variety Pansar« or Ironwheat, and others); in the more severe cli*
mate of middle Sweden about 20 Yo has been reached (through Thule II and others).

The writer continues his former work along this line hoping to be able to
add the remaining part of the calculated increase to the present yielding^power of
the wheats in South Sweden; continued crossings in large measure are therefore
made and worked out (for example between Pansar and the very high yielding
Dutch variety Vilhelmina, not winterhardy in Sweden). Furthermore, the breeding
work aims at reaching the greatest possible straw stiffness, resistance against disea»
ses, improved quality of grain etc. An extensive breeding work in these direc*
tions has still to be carried out in the winter wheats.

A similar extensive breeding work with summer wheat is also going on at
the institute. The early ripening plays here, contrary to the winter wheats, a very
important role. High yielding varieties of middle Europe give in Sweden, espe«
cially in cold summers, only a low yield. This is due to the fact that they ripen
too late, so that the grain does not reach its definitive, ordinary size. The main
point here is therefore to combine to so high a degree as possible high«yielding
power and early ripening. The work already carried out in Svalof by the writer
shows that this combination is possible to a much larger degree than one would
think for purely physiological reasons. A new variety has been raised, which now
is grown extensively in South Sweden. This variety combines the time of ripe*
ning characteristic of the ordinary Swedish summer wheat, formerly cultivated
extensively, with 12—15 Yo higher yielding power (as seen from the official re»
ports on sortstrials during a series of years). If it is possible through continued
crossingswork to reach an increase in the yielding»power of 30 % the growing of
summer wheat in the rich soils of South Sweden, where it is now grown only on
a very small scale, would undoubtedly largely increase, provided that the time of
ripening remains the same. This breeding work embraces also crossings between
summer wheats and the best and highest yielders among the winter wheats, a pro*
mising piece of work, although very difficult as the segregation of many characters
here is very complex, and because of the appearance of numerous bad transgressions.

Crossings between winter and summer rye, with the object of improving the
latter one, are also carried out and followed.

A special point of study in the plant breeding work carried out at the insti»
tute is to record new hereditary differences of value to the breeding, and to study
their genetical construction. In barley, for example, the writer has discovered
that certain varieties are quite immune against the attacks of the nematode Hete=
rodera Schachti, while most of the other varieties, including the highest yielders,
are susceptible (Hereditas I, 1920). Much work has therefore to be done in or*
der to combine high yielding*power and other desirable qualities with immunity.
This is of importance not only with regard to the barley breeding itself, but also
and still more with regard to other cereals as oats and wheat, where no such
hereditary differences are met with, all varieties being equally susceptible. When
during the rotation of the crops immune varieties of barley are grown, which do

108 THE SWEDISH GENETIC INSTITUTE IN AKARP

not increase the nematodes in the soil, the yield of other cereals, especially of
oats, may be much higher than else.

In other cases the valuable hereditary differences are not easy to find out
because of the fact that they manifest themselves only certain years, sometimes
with long intervals. The various (and often very important) hereditary different
ces in wheat with regard to the susceptibility of the attacks of Cicadula sexnotata
ear only to be seen about every fifth year (during the period 1900—1921 the
years are: 1902, 1912, 1915, 1918). Another disease in wheat, which also shows
considerable hereditary differences in different varieties and lines, was seen especi*
ally in the years 1907 and 1920. In other years the grains of different varieties
show very differing resistance against bad weather during harvest, and so on.
One of the main points of future breeding may therefore be, I think, the coUec*
tion through continued and systematic crossings of all such hereditary good qua*
lj.ties discovered by and by, even if they separately only seldom play a practical
role. In this manner the mean yielding of a series of years may surely be increased.

A purpose of common interest to the plant breeding is the working out of
the best and simplest methods, for example, with regard to the selection in the
progeny of a cross, when the segregation of quantitative characters is very com»
plex. It is, then, necessary to have a very large F2«generation. If the parent*
varieties are rather dissimilar in characters a progeny of 20,000 plants is not much.
As it for practical reasons in general is impossible to raise 20,000 plots in the
F3«generation the strongest possible selection must take place in F2, although
selection with regard to quantitative character is very difficult. The question as
to the most eflfective method to be used in the F2<selection now becomes of im»
portance. In the last year the writer has selected only a very small percentage of
plants (in wheat), so that in the assumed case about 200 plots would be grown
in F3. Now a more definitive selection between these plots can be made. The
main point, then, is to work out the best methods for determining the yielding
power in small plots, as it would be an altogether too large a task to determine
the yieldingspower of a great number of cross^descendants from many different
crosses grown in sort*trials of ordinary size.

A good deal of the work of the institute, therefore, aims at stating the facts
concerning the best and at the same time the most scientific methods to be used
in plant breeding. The results of this work shall be published later.

With regard to teaching lectures on theoretical and applied genetics are gi*
ven at the University of Lund in the winter months, November— March. In the
summer the field experiments are demonstrated at different times, and the students
may take part for shorter or longer time in the current scientific work of the institute.
They also dispose of ground sufficient to run field^experiments of their own.

The building contains seven working rooms, intended for examination of
plants and for ordinary breeding work. The material is stored in a spacious attic;
there are also cellars, and a neat barn connected with the main building and in»
tended for plant breeding work. For microscopic investigations and the like the
institute maintains a laboratory in the botanical institute at the University of Lund.
The institute disposes of about 3 hectares fine sandy loam^soil for the field experiments.
A suitable rotation of crops is maintained. The area may be easily increased if necessary.

GENETIC CYTOLOGY IN SWEDEN

BY

Professor OTTO ROSENBERG

S TO CKHOLM

THE TENDENCY OF CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION WHICH
aims at a connection with genetics has, in Sweden, chiefly followed two
lines: on the one hand, an examination of parthenogenesis, its nature and
causes; on the other, the study of bastard forms, in order, by an examination of
the chromosome conditions in the germ«cells, to obtain a clearer idea of the nature
of hybridizing.

As far as the first question is concerned, Juel's important work on partheno^
genesis in Antennaria alpina (1900) must be considered as being of fundamental
importance. His discovery that, in the embryo»sac and eggformation in the case
of this plant, the reduction^division is entirely absent so that, from the very be<
ginning, the egg has the somatic chromosome number, has later on been confirmed
in numerous cases; by Murbeck's investigation (1901) with respect to the poly*
morphic genus Alchemilla, and by examinations of Taraxacum (Juel 1905), Hier=
acium (Murbeck 1904; Rosenberg 1907) and of Eupatorium (Holmgren 1919).

The apomictical or parthenogenetical development in the genus Hieracium
proved to be of special interest. Ostenfeld, by means of castration experiments,
had already shown that seedsformation without fertilization occurs in most species
of this genus. The present writer showed, later on, that the embryo«sac in the sub*
genus Archieracium was formed according to the .^nfennarja=scheme, while, in the
case of the sub«genus Pilosella, a vegetative cell in the neighbourhood of the sexual
embryo*sac grows out to an aposporous embryo=sac and displaces the sexual one.

Already in Juel's -^nfennan'a=work, the supposition is put forward, that par«
thenogenesis is connected, in one way or another, with a previously existing bas*
tardizing process, an opinion which has, later on, been developed by Ernst into
an hypothesis of bastardizing as the cause of apogamy.

Holmgren and the present writer also come to a similar conclusion, as the
result of a cytological investigation of apomictic Hieracium= and Eupatorium=
forms, where triploid chromosome numbers are specially characteristic.

In respect to the cytological investigations of bastard forms, our interest is
chiefly attracted by the problem of the chromosomesconditions in the formation of
germ^cells or, more definitely, in regard to the heterotypic division.

In 1904, the writer found in the genus Drosera a species^bastard which, in
cytological respects, presented features of no slight interest; especially, because the
germ*cells of the parent plants showed different chromosome^numbers the one 10 the
other 20. The bastard itself showed, as was to be expected, 30 chromosomes in
the somatic cells. But how does this chromosome arrangement agree with the
heterotypic division? Juel had previously shown that, in a 5yring-a=bastard during
metaphasis of the heterotypic division, there took place an extremely irregular chro*
mosomesdistribution, which results in sterile germ«cells. In the case of the above*

110 GENETIC CYTOLOGY IN SWEDEN

mentioned Drosera^bastard, this irregularity proved to be merely apparent, as, dur«
ing metaphasis, 10 regularly formed gemini appeared in the equatorial plate, while
10 unpaired or single chromosomes were distributed over the spindlesfigure. Start*
ing from Montgomery's well»known hypothesis with regard to the chromosome*
pairing in the heterotypic division, the above»mentioned chromosome»arrangement
is thus explained: that 10 D. rotundif olia=chromosomes become paired with 10
D. longifolia, and the remaining /ong^//b/ia«chromosomes constitute the 10 unpaired
ones. The result finally is the production of germ«cells of greatly varying chro*
mosome*numbers, as, of course, the unpaired chromosomes are distributed very ir«
regularly on the daughter nuclei.

A large number of other cases with bastards of the type mentioned, x + 2x
or 2x + y, where y signifies a smaller number of chromosomes than x, has, later
on, been investigated by the writer in other species, and have proved to follow
the same Drosera=scheme.

By Mendel's well«known crossing^experiments with Hzeracium=species, there
was discovered the remarkable fact that bastards were constant. The experiments
made, later on, by Ortenfeld showed that this depended on the occurrence of
apomixis or parthenogenesis in Fi and that the hybrids would segregate, when crossed
back with the parents. On the other hand, Ostenfeld obtained, in some of his
crossing*experiments, a segregation already in Fi, for instance, in a single cross
between Hieracium auricula (sexual species) and H. aurantiacum 29 hybrid indi*
viduals, all of which differed from each other. The writer has shown (1917) that
the germ^cells in one of the parent plants showed very different number of chro«
mosomes, which resulted in a greatly varying chromosome^arrangement in the
bastard individuals.

In the section Archieracium the sexual species have 9 chromosomes in the
germ cells; among the apogamous species the number of chromosomes in the
somatic nuclei is 27, thus proving, that these species must be considered as hybrids
between parent plants with 9, resp. 18 chromosomes in the germ«cells.

An interesting fact in Hieracum is, that the apogamous species of Pilosellae
are not absolutely apogamous but form both sexual embryo«sacs, which have
proceeded from a reduction«division, and embryo<sacs with the diploid number of
chromosomes, which have proceeded from a vegetative cell in the vicinity of the
sexual one, and displacing this latter during the course of its development.

A very peculiar circumstance was observed in the case of a bastard between
H. excellens and H. aurantiacum where the germ*cells of the parent=plants have
each 18 gemini«chromosomes and a number of unpaired ones, while the bastard
in the heterotypic division shows over 22 gemini plus a number of unpaired
chromosomes. This depends thereupon, that some of the unpaired chromosomes
in each germ*cell are homologous and therefore form gemini. A similar condition
of things has also been shown by Holmgren (1919) in his important investigation
of genus Erigeron.

Of extreme importance is a newly published work by Tackholm (1920) on
the cytology of the genus Rosa. The purpose of that study was to learn to what
extent the use of cytological methods of research could be employed in the
elucidation of the problems that appear in the genus, distinguished by its enormous

GENETIC CYTOLOGY IN SWEDEN 111

polymorphy and its, in part, apomictical reproduction: the problems of the causes
of polymorphy and the lines followed by the formation of species. The section
Caninae, which contains the greatest part of the i?osa«vegetation of Europe, is
characterized by the peculiarity of showing in the reduction»division both gemini
and single chromosomes, usually 7 paired and 14, 21 or 28 unpaired, thus
representing an analogous chromosome*condition to what the writer stated in the
Drosera=bastard. In the other sections of Rosa only paired chromosomes are to
be seen, 7, 14, or 21 gemini. These latter have exclusively sexual reproduction.

Triploid Roses, showing in the heterotypic division 7 paired and 7 single
are hybrids, derived from two sexual forms possessing respectively 7 and 14
chromosomes in the germ«cells.

The Caninae are characterized by a quite peculiar type of reduction«division
in the pollen mother cells, which differ in certain respects from other types of
chromosome^distribution found in plants. The partners of the gemini pass to the
poles, while the single still remain in the equatorial plate, where they undergo
segmentation and later on begin their journey towards the poles.

In the embryo^sac mother cells a very curious and interesting type of reduc»
tionsdivision occurs. In the anaphasis the partners of the gemini pass in normal
way to the poles, but usually all the singles pass undivided to one pole. The
result is that the one daughter^nucleus receives 28 chromosomes, the other only 7.
Eggs developed from such embryosacs containing 28 chromosomes are qualified
for fertilization, which can be proved by the chromosome sets in hybrids derived
from pentaploid species and normally sexual roses with 14 chromosomes.

A cytological examination thus can be of use when the hybrid origin is to
be controlled. By a study of the chromosome^arrangement in the heterotypic
division it is also possible in certain cases to find out to which group of species
the parents of a hybrid belong.

In the genus Crepis the writer has shown, that the different species are
characterized by very diflferent number of chomosomes: 3, 4, 5, and 21 in the
germ«cells. Hybridization experiments with Crepis»species with small num»
ber of chromosomes have been started by the writer. The dimensions of the
chromosomes are also very diflferent: in the nuclei with 3 chromosomes there are
1 very long, 1 short, and 1 chromosome of intermedial shape. In the species
with 21 chromosomes 7 sets of these 3 chromosome^dimensions clearly can be
distinguished.

Finally it may be mentioned, that Heilborn by examination of a great num«
ber of Carex species has stated an interesting series of chromosome*numbers to
exist in this genus.

GENETICS IN SWEDISH FINLAND

BY

Doc. HARRY FEDERLEY

HELSINGFORS, FINLAND

GENETICS IN FINLAND IS OF RECENT DATE. IN 1915 THE
author of the present paper, then Lecturer on Zoology, was nominated
Lecturer on Genetics, and in February 1921 the University made an appli*
cation to the Government to have him nominated e. o. Professor of the said disci?
pline. The author is the only person in Finland who has made this branch of
biological research his speciality.

There being no Institute of Genetics, the choice of research is limited to
such as can be made in the usual zoological laboratories, chiefly work ofacytos
logical kind; or such mendelian experiments, as can be made at home. In virtue
of the aforesaid the object of research was in most cases Genetics in moths, their
larvae being comparatively easy to breed, as they do not need any special cages.
Some attempted experiments with birds, amphibiae and mammals had to be given
up, owing to the absence of suitable localities for the breeding of the animals.

A leading thought in most cases of research was to connect the experiments
with careful studies of the behaviour of the chromosomes in the germ cells of the
forms attained through crossings.

The first experiments had to do with hybridisation of species (1911). Reci*
procal crosses were made between Pygaera curtula and pigra as well as P. curtula
and anachoreta with a view of finding an answer to the question, if characters
of species follow the mendelian law and segregate, or if constant intermediate
hybrids arise. The Fi»individuals were in respect to most of their characters
intermediate: only a small number of characteristics showed a greater or smaller
degree of dominance. It was to be regretted that the Fuindividuals were sterile
in a high degree and consequently only a few Fz^individuals could be obtained
and from one crossing only. They were quite like the Fi«individuals. On the
other hand the back«crosses with the parent species resulted in a greater number
of larvae and moths. These Fi X Psindividuals did not afford any proof of
a segregation, expected in a mendelian cross. On the contrary, they rather
proved the opposite, showing a great likeness with the Fi«parent, both as to their
special characteristics and as to their general habitus. An explanation of the
experimental results would be gained by an examination of the behaviour of the
chromosomes in the spermatogenesis (1913).

The haploid number of the chromosomes in the three species are: Pygaera
anachoreta 30, curtula 29, pigra 23. In the hybrids the full number is the
sum of the two haploid sets that went in from the parents. In the maturation
a few or no one of the chromosomes unite in pairs, but most of them or all
fail to do so, so that the number of chromosomes after the first maturation^division
is slightly less than or like the diploid number of the hybrid. Different types

GENETICS IN SWEDISH FINLAD

113

of hybrids behave slightly differently in respect to the extent in which union in
pairs takes place. The cause of this peculiar behaviour of the chromosomes is
to be found in the fact, that the affinity between homologous chromosomes of
the same species is lacking between the chromosomes of different species, united
in the hybrids.

Anachor&ta
30Chr.

Curtula
29Chr.

Pigra
23Chr.

59

58 59

Pp X C d
51 ^8 A8

Ap . 30 Chr. (Af x C (}) d 59 Chr.

Cp X Pd
^7

56

A^ X fAp X Cd) cf

59

'-<»*.■

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

FIRST AND SECOND SPERMATOCYTE EQUATORIAL PLATES OF PYGAERA ANACHORETA, CURTULA AND PIGRA.
First spermatocyte equatorial plates of the hybrid anachoreta 9 >< curtula C? with 58—59 chromo»
somes, so that none or only two chromosomes have united to form a pair. All the others are
about half the size of the first and about the same size as the second spermatocyte chromosomes

of the parent species.
First spermatocyte equatorial plates of secondary hybrid P. anachoreta 9 x (P- anachoreta Q x P.
curtula (J) C? with 56 and 59 chrosomomes, (latter in two sections). Of the chromosomes about
30 are large, and consist of two units, paired together, presumably anac/iorefa chromosomes; about

26, resp. 29, are small, unpaired, presumably univalent curtula chromosomes.

First spermatocyte equatorial plates of the reciprocal hybrids between P. curtula and P. pigra: the

chromosome number is 47—51, there is thus only 1—4 paired chromosomes, all others are univalent.

The figures mark the chromosome number after the maturationsdivision.

15

114 GENETICS IN SWEDISH FINLAD

When the first spermatocyte»division takes place in the hybrid, all the unma*
ted chromosomes divide longitudinally, but the few chromosomes that are mated,
presumably separate. Consequently each of the daughter cells obtain the diploid
number of chromosomes, except for the few that had been united in pairs. The
second maturation»division, which is a usual longitudinal division, does not alter
this fact, and every spermatozoa receives nearly all the one set of chromosomes
from the one parent species, the other from the other parent species.

The peculiar behaviour of the chromosomes in the spermatogenesis of the
hybrids explains, why a back«crossing results in a nearly uniform generation,
which is very much like the Fi«parent. The spermatocytes of the Fi=individual
contain all — or with few exceptions all — chromosomes of both parents. Con«
sequently the descendants of an Fi«individual must of course be like the same.
The result is triploid forms, which possess a diploid set of chromosomes of the
one parent and a haploid set of the other.

The correctness of this opinion is corroborated beautifully by the sperma«
togenesis of such triploid hybrids. At maturation*divisions appear de facto both
a set of bivalent chromosomes as well as a set of univalents. In the reduction
division the united chromosomes separate, while the single chromosomes divide
in the same manner as at a usual cell division. The spermatozoa of such a
secondary Fisindividual have consequently the same set of chromosomes as those
of the primary Fi»hybrid, and therefore a weakening of the characters of the one
parent is not possible by continued crosses with the other.

In 1914 similar experiments have been made with some moths of the family
Sphingidae. The hybrids between Smerinthus populi and Sm. ocellata also show
in spermatogenesis a repulsion between the strange chromosomes; the same thing
occurs in respect to hybrids between 5m. ocellata and Dilina tiliae. It was indeed
surprising that the reciprocal crosses between the European species Sm. ocellata
and his near relative the Eastasian var. planus gave an almost analogous result,
though a somewhat greater number of chromosomes usually unite in this case.

An examination in 1915 of the hybrid between the African variety austauti
and the European species Sm. populi showed, that in this hybrid in the greatest
number of spermatocytes all the 28 chromosomes of both parents mate, but that
in some spermatocytes 29—33 chromosomes could be counted. In these lastnamed*
cells 1—4 pairs of chromosomes did not possess the needful affinity towards
each other in order to pair.

Also in a hybrid between two species of the lepidopterous family Noto*
dentidae, i. e. Dicranura erminea and D. vinula a completely analogous state of
things as in the closely related jFygaera=hybrids could be described 1916.

A comparison between the results, arrived at through examinations of a
number of hybrids, seems to prove, that the farther from each other the parents
stand in the system, the fewer chromosomes mate. It was therefore a surprise,
that the hybrid between Cbaerocampa porcellus and Ch. elpenor, two Sphingides,
of which species both of them have 28 chromosomes, had the same number too,
and otherwise did not show any anomalies in their spermatogenesis (1916). A
critic has expressed the supposition that a mistake might have been made, but
this is impossible. The only examined testis was got through exstirpation from

GENETICS IN SWEDISH FINLAD 115

a living chrysalis, which afterwards gave a typical hybrid imago male. As por=
cellus and elpenor by certain authors are considered as belonging to different
genera and must certainly be regarded as good linnean species, one would have
expected a reduced affinity between their chromosomes.

Later on quite analogous phenomena like the ones described by me in the
lepidopterous hybrids, are pointed out in the maturation of the gametes in spe*
cies hybrids of mammals, birds, other lepidoptera, and a great many phanerogamae.
Thus it appears, as if the conclusion were warranted, that the lacking power of the
chromosomes to mate was a characteristic of most species hybrids, and further,
as if a tripleentente of chromosome affinity, fertility and segregation stood against
a triplealliance of chromosome repulsion, sterility and constant=intermediate inherit^
ance. It would be of greater interest still to try and get this hypothesis confirmed
through continued attempts at crossings between different species and races.

But even otherwise the experience thus gained is of general interest. It
shows, that at the side of the alternative or mendelian type of heredity, another
type exists, that is, the constant^intermediate one, which is however of lesser
significance, as it must always in its most extreme form produce sterility. But
both these forms can also exist side by side in the same hybrid individual, as
has been proved at least in one case. I refer to the fact that some chromosomes
unite, while others do not: then all the factors, situated in the paired chromo*
somes, segregate, all those in the not united chromosomes, show a constant*
intermediate type of heredity. In reference to the latter factors, not pure gametes
are formed. But these are not a result of an amalgamation between inherited
factors, as was generally assumed earlier, but on the contrary produced by the
slight affinity between the strange chromosomes, through which the mechanism,
needful for mendelian heredity, is rendered incapable of functionating.

An earlier opinion was, that mutations and new combinations were the only
ones to be reckoned with, when new species arose. However, I am of opinion,
that the new forms arising out of new chromosome combinations, could be ima«
gined to play a not quite unimportant part, and especially with regard to lepidoptera
might explain the very much varying chromosome number we find in this order.

From a cytological point of view, too, the observations thus made are of no
slight interest, for they show, that chromosomes retain their individuality, though
they have existed for two generations in a foreign cytoplasm. Continued examina*
tions, especially with regard to the heterochromosome behaviour, of great value in
moths, will doubtlessly afford new and interesting ideas. I am going to cite one here.

The hybrid between P. anachoreta 9 and curtula cf is interesting, in so far
as the larvae show a sexual dimorphism of highest degree, a fact which is very
rare among the lepidoptera and of which the parents do not show the least trace.
The female hybrid larva is always like the father species curtula, but becomes
much larger than the aforesaid and grows very slowly. The male larva, on the
contrary, is on a whole like the mother species anachoreta, of the same size and
developes as quickly. The larvae in the reciprocal cross are however exactly alike
in both sexes and impossible to distinguish from the said male hybrid larvae.
Thus it is to be assumed that this is a case of criss<cross inheritance in a species
hybrid — to my kowledge the first known one. The back^crossings made with

-J

116 GENETICS IN SWEDISH FINLAD

the Fi»males also corroborate this. And it becomes still more probable through
being able to Seiler and Doncaster prove, that the lepidoptera, contrary to
other insects, are heterogametic in the female genus. My experiments to prove
the existence of heterochromosomes in anachoreta females, have hitherto led to
nothing, and since the summer 1917 I regret to say, that I have not succeeded
in getting the necessary material of this species, rare in Sweden and Finland.

I will only add a few lines about my purely experimental research.

A small paper in 1916 treats of the dimorphism of the Sphingid larvae, a
question much discussed by evolutionists. Through the four possible crossings
between imagines, derived from green and black larvae of Chaerocampa elpenor
it is proved, that both the forms are isogenic and thus do not possess any selec*
tional value. The species consequently possesses a factor, which under certain
circumstances has the power of producing black pigment in the skin of the larva,
under others, however, lacks this power. The said factor is inherited both if
it has been activised, as is the case with the black larva, or if it remains inactive,
as is the case with the green form. The contest about the different value of
selection of the different phaenotypes and their phylogenetic age has consequently
been a contest about the beard of the pope.

Since 1914 the author has been working at a mendelian analysis of the
lepidopterous formae Spilosoma lubricipeda, intermedia and zatima. Zatima is a
strongly, intermedia a weaker melanistic form of lubricipeda, which is yellowish
with a small number of tiny little black spots. The melanism is produced by a
factor Z, which is homozygotic in zatima ZZ and heterozygotic in intermedia
Zz: it fails in lubricipeda zz. But this factor Z is altered in a high degree by
a number of polymere factors, which strengthen the influence of Z. If the poly=
mere factors are all homozygotic, a ZZ*individual becomes nearly uniformly black,
however if they are absent, a zatima may become nearly white with just a few
black spots. On the Zz4ndividuals the influence of the polymere factors is just
as strong, while the rare and small black spots in lubricipeda are changed very little.
Through the influence of the polymere factors, not yet finally analyzed, a continuous
series of phaenotypes is produced, ranging from an almost purely black specimen
to a nearly white one. It is of course theoretically possible to receive all these
different phaenotypes, which are also different biotypes, in one sole crossing; in
fact it has been successfully performed, with the exception of the very rare most
extreme forms. A preliminary paper about this research was published in 1920.

For the sake of completeness I beg to state, that Professor Alex. Luther has
examined the heredity of Agriolimax agrestis and Agr. reticulatus and among
other things he has found, that a totally albinotic form of the latter, observed in
nature, differs from the normally pigmented one only as to one factor: further
that the manager of the zoological garden at Hogholmen near Helsingfors Mag.
phi!. Rolf Palmgren during the last few years has attempted a few hybridisations
between different species and races of mammals and birds and succeeded in arrive
ing at some new and remarkable hybrids.

Further I beg to add, that papers about the significance of heredity in connec*
tion with some human diseases and anomalies, are to be found in the transact
tions of the Society of Physicians (»Finska Lakaresallskapets Handlingar»).

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

BY

Dr. HANS TEDIN

SVALOF

THE PRACTICAL PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN IS AS TO
origin and development intimately associated with the name of Svalof, a
village, situated in Skane, the southermost province of Sweden, about four
Swedish miles from Malmo. On the initiative of Birger Welinder in Svalof,
»The South Swedish Association for the cultivation and improvement of seeds*
was established in 1886. The idea won lively adherence so that two years later
the Association was enlarged and included the whole country. In 1889 a like
association was organized for Middle Sweden, but after five years only, the two
associations were united to one organization now officially called the Swedish Seed
Association. From an inconsiderable origin the Association has, little by little,
attained a great development. It has, as will be shown in the following, been
of extraordinarily great importance for the improvement of Swedish agriculture
and the increase of its production. Svalof sorts have been proved on trial on
both a large and a small scale all over the world, wherever a rational growing
of the common cereals, wheat, rye, barley and oats is carried on. In several
European countries, and not only in the countries nearest Sweden certain sorts
have been greatly spread.

From north to south, Sweden extends over 14 degrees of latitude. The climate
and soil in different parts are therefore very different, and the general conditions
for agriculture show considerable variations also. In order to look to the need
of different provinces as to better sorts, more suited to their locality and with
a higher yield, branch stations were established in different parts of the country.
There are now eight such stations, the northermost being situated somewhat north
of the 65th degree of latitude, near the town Pitea. The chief aim of these stations
is to find out through systematic and comparative field trials, which sorts are best
suited to the different provinces, and also to carry on local plant breeding, if such is
necessary for the production of still better sorts in the different parts of the country.

A proof of the interest, which the Association and its work aroused from
the very first, are the contributions, which have been given both from private
men and from the public. Of the 26 Provincial Agricultural Societies of Sweden
one after another began to help the Association, so that in 1890 all of them
contributed with large or small sums to the support of its work. From the govern»
ment, which during the first years only gave temporary subsidies, the Association
has now, since the year 1891, received an annual and from time to time increa*
sed supply. The contributions from the Provincial Agricultural Societies were discon*
tinued in 1914, but then compensation was given by the government. The supply,
which the government last year granted the Association and its branch stations
for 1921, was in all 185,600 crowns.

p_

118 PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

The first director of the Association was Th. von Neergaard, a mathemati*
cian and chemist from Holstein. He, however, kept the leadership till 1890 only,
when he was succeeded by professor N. Hjalmar Nilsson, who is still director.
In connection with the growth of the Association and its work the staff of trained
botanists has also been increased. There are now 11 specialists at the main
station and eight superintendents of the branch stations as well, and several extra
or temporary assistants.

At first and for a rather long time the plant breeding was limited to wheat,
oats, barley, peas and vetches. As time passed all other agricultural plants grown
in Sweden were subjected to this improvement: rye 1900, forage plants and pc
tatoes 1905, field roots 1914, flax and rape 1918. Certain crops were alotted to
different experts, belonging to the Association, and each one, as director of a
section or assistant is to lead the work and is responsible for the crops or the
group of crops alotted to him. The improvement of wheat and oats was lead by
prof. Hj. NiLSSON till 1900. His work was then continued by Nilsson:=Ehle till
1915, when it was handed over to Dr. Ake Akerman. The agronome Pehr Bolin
had the barleys till 1900, when the responsibility therefore was taken by the author,
who since 1892 has been entrusted with the improvement of peas and vetches.
Agronome E. W. Ljung, the secretary of the Association, is responsible for rye,
Mr. JoH. Fr. Lundberg for potatoes, prof. Nilsson and Agronome Gustav Sun*
DELiN for field roots, and Dr. Nils Sylven for flax and rape. Dr. Hernfrid
WiTTE, who hitherto was head of the section for forage plants, has this year
become director of the Swedish Moor Culture Association and a new leader
has not as yet been appointed.

At first the ^methodical system of mass selectiony>, a system at that time
commonly followed all over Europe, was adopted. The aim thereof was, by
selection year from year, to change a sort in a certain desired direction. It was also
at that time believed, that correlations between different factors were common
and it was thought, that in these one could find guidance for the selection. It
was thought that a compact head went with stiff straw and that from the diffe*
rent types of the panicles of oats conclusions could be drawn as to their yielding
power. The above mentioned are only a couple of the supposed correlations,
which were thought to be very important for the selection and breeding of plants.
In order to simplify the measuring and weighing of heads, kernels etc., used as
a basis for the selection, some mechanical instruments were devised, such as the
automatic classificator, to determine the density of the heads, the automatic weigh*
ing machine, for the sorting of heads according to their weight and a riddling*
machine, for the controlling of the size of the kernels etc. All these, however,
are now, since many years, only of historical interest.

From the results of the works of the first years, several valuable selections
were made of those sorts of barley and oats, which were subjected to compara*
tive field trials and were then found to be mostly worth cultivating (Frobsteier
Oats, Chevalier Barley, Plumage Barley, Printice Barley etc.). As products of
this »mass selection* may also be mentioned the sorts, which at the same time,
1895, were put forth on the market: Borstlos Propsteierhavre (Awnless Frobsteier
Oats), and Renodlad Squareheadvete (Selected Squarehead Wheat). The latter

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN 119

- - — _

was gained by repeated selections of an English Squarehead wheat, imported
about 1880, and which after severe winters was at last acclimated. By these
repeated selections the variety gained great uniformity and also remarkable win*
ter«hardiness without loosing its Squarehead type. While the imported Square*
head — and as is yet the case with this imported variety — was not even winter*
hardy enough for the most southern province of the country and consequently
did not give a greater average yield than the old, unimproved, native »land
wheat*, the Selected Squarehead greatly surpassed this latter sort not only in
Skane but also at a branch station at Ultuna in Middle Sweden.

Professor Hj. Nilsson, who when he assumed the leadership as director of the
Association, was Lecturer of Botany at the University of Lund, had, when he
attended the University, studied systematic botany and had made himself known
as a distinguished florist. It was therefore quite natural that since he came to
Svalof greater attention was paid to the botanical and morphological characters
of the different parts of the plants, and the differences in these, by which they
are distinguished from one another. A closer examination of the morphological
differences and the observations, which then were made as to the constancy of the
progeny, depending upon whether it came from one or several plants, lead up to the
System of Pedigree, 1892. It was found that almost as regularly as the progeny which
came from a single plant was constant, just as often was the progeny, coming from
several plants, mixed and ununiform, even if these plants were alike in appearance.

The System of Pedigree was certainly no new system, it having already been
used for several decades by other investigators and plant breeders. Peculiar for
Svalof, however, was the consistency and extension with which it was immedia*
tely adopted. The first direct result of this application was the discovering of
the great multiplicity of forms, which is typical for the old »land sorts» of cereals.
Already during the first years after the system had been adopted a very great
number of hereditarily (genotypically) different forms were separated from old na«
five and foreign sorts of all the crops, with which the work was carried on —
from common vetch (Vicia sativa) for instance several hundreds were gained.

From deviations in the density of the heads of wheat and the characters of
the panicles of oats, from certain characters of the kernels of barley, the colour of
the blossoms and seeds in peas and vetches etc. systems were devised by which
the great multitude of types was arranged into difterent groups. And even if
these systems were more artificial than natural and even if they were of no great
use for the breeding work, still they to a great degree facilitated the handling
of the varieties and the forms. In order to gain such a desirable facility, genealo*
gical tables of the plants were also devised and exact stock books with notes
about the appearance of the different types in the field and about their chief
characters were kept. The keeping of stock books, however, was soon given up.
It was considered unnecessary, as the details about the types, which were register
red in them, were to be found almost as easily in the »field books», which
were annually kept and which are still kept about all the plots, cultivated during
the year, and in these books notes are made about all the types. Genealogical tables
are still made. A complete list of ancestors is always useful for instance in order
to get a summary of the numerous progenies of different generations of crossings.

120 PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

As has already been remarked, the separated forms were from the beginning
constant. The crops before mentioned, wheat, oats, barley, peas and vetches,
which at the time of the adoption of the pedigree system had already been in»
vestigated, are typical self^fertilizers and the pedigree sorts are therefore pure lines.
That this constancy was perfectly permanent was not clear from the beginning.
Hoping that they could still be improved, the pedigree sorts of the above men*
tioned crops were also subjected to a repeated selection which, however, natu«
rally was without result.

In oats and still more in wheat and seemingly also in vetches spontaneous cross
sings occasionally take place. This is also the case with common six^rowed barley
(Hordeum tetrasiichum). Even spontaneous variations (mutations) can arise. Accor*
ding to NilssonsEhle, for instance, who first observed the fact, wild^oat types
often, if not regularly, arise as a result of »loss«mutation» in originally constant
pedigree sorts of white oats. And when an originally constant pedigree sort
thus for one reason or other becomes ununiform it is naturally necessary to make
a new selection in order to regain the original form.

The constancy of the types warrants that the advances which they represent will
be permanent. Thanks to this fact it will also be possible to form a far more accurate
opinion as to what conditions the different sorts require, than when dealing with mixed
sorts. These sorts can namely be changed hereditarily by external circumstances. Accor*
ding as the agricultural conditions change, now one and now another of the mixed
parts is favoured and increases in quantity at the cost of other parts. Thanks
to their constancy and uniformity the pedigree sorts are also easier to recognize
and consequently give greater possibilities for an effective control, a fact which is
a necessary condition in order to carry on a real and an honest trade with impro*
ved sorts. Nothing is gained by getting an improved sort which can not be
recognized but is easily mistaken for less valuable sorts. Both difficult and expen*
sive measures would at least have to be taken in this case in order to prevent
the latter being launched on the market under false flag.

It must, as is easily understood, take several years before the first pedigree
sorts were ready for sale, but thereafter these were rapidly followed by like sorts,
a proof of the value of this method for plant breeding. Many of these sorts,
raised by line selection from old sorts are no longer cultivated, they having been
superseded by still better sorts, but many of them are still cultivated and success*
fully compete with the best sorts, produced during the last years.

Thus it has been observed that the Segerhavre (Victory Oat, 1908) as well
as the Guldregnshavre (Golden Rain Oat, 1903), both white oat sorts and both des*
cending from the Milton Oat, a mixed sort of the Probsteier type, which is said to
come from America, have been difficult to surpass. (The numbers mentioned in the
parenthesis, both here and in the following, name the year, when each sort was put
forth on the market.) Of black oat sorts the Stormogulhavre (Great Mogul Oat,
1901) still gives the highest yield. This type as well as the Klockhavre (Bell Oat,
1901) is bred from the Black Tartarian Plume Oat. On account of its late maturity
the Great Mogul Oat has not, however, gained that importance within the black
oat districts, which are situated in Middle Sweden especially, which it otherwise
would have done.

-.J

SCIENTISTS AND STATISTICIANS

PROFESSOR I'ONTUS lAHLBKCK.

Demographer, Nationaleconomist. Djursholm.

• "5 u 1850.

PROFESSOR GUSTAV SUNDBARG.

Demographer, Uppsala.

• "/i: 1857. t -° 11 191^-

iSIDOR FLODSTROM.

Demographer, Stockholm.

• "it 1856.

PROFESSOR KARL BERNHARD WIKLUND.

Philologist, Ethnographer, Uppsala.

* 15/3 1868.

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN 121

Characteristical for the black oat sorts is the fact that their straw developes
relatively late but in return they stool much more luxuriantly, qualities which
make them especially suitable for the stift clay soils of Middle Sweden and which
at the same time give them a greater power of resistance against the Frit Fly
(Oscinis Frit), which otherwise can do much damage, especially if the sowing
has been late. Dr. Akerman hopes to be able by crossing to make the most
of this quality in the black oat sorts when continuing the improvement of white oats.

Of barley sorts the Prinsesskorn (Princess Barley, 1897), taken from Pren=
tice Barley, a sort, which originally came from England, and the GuUkorn (Golden
Barley, 1913), out of an old native land barley frqm the Island of Gotland are
still most generally grown in South and Middle Sweden. Besides these, both
Chevalier II (1900), taken from Horsfords Crossbred Chevalier from America, as
well as Svanhalskorn (Swan^neck Barley, 1899) and Primuskorn (Primus Barley,
1901) are still considered as the most suitable under growing conditions more
particularly suited to them.

The sorts of peas and vetches, which during the years 1900—1907 were put
forth from Svalof have only just lately begun to get competitors. These were
in number 4 respectively 2 and all improved by line selection from foreign mixed
sorts. The Svalof sorts of peas have by their considerably higher average yield
(the increase is 20 to 30 to 40 %) made the cultivation of peas much more pro*
fitable than hitherto.

The renewal of sorts of winter wheat has been the greatest, for the cultiva»
tion of all those pedigree sorts which were put forth first has been given up, these
being surpassed by new sorts with a still higher yield. These sorts at that
time however marked a great progress. The English Squarehead wheat produces
under favourable conditions and with sufficiently mild winters 50 % higher yield
than the Swedish land wheat. But, by reason of its lack of winter^hardiness
the average yield of the former sort was even in the most southern parts of the
country scarcely superior to that of the latter sort. Thanks to a greater winter*
hardiness Svalofs Extra Squarehead Wheat (1900), taken by line selection from
imported Squarehead, gave an increase of the average yield with about 12 %.
And the increase for Grenadier Wheat, a pedigree sort, taken from a Squarehead
sort, imported from Scotland about 1880, was not less than 20 %, despite a winter*
hardiness somewhat lower than that of Extra Squarehead. But Grenadier Wheat
has hardly been surpassed by any hitherto tested sort, when speaking of its
specific yielding power, by which is simply meant the yielding power of a sort
when this power is not lessened by too severe winters or by other temporary
causes. A chief quality of Grenadier is also its unusually stiff straw. For those
districts in Middle Sweden, which are more favourably lotted for wheat growing,
the Borevete (Bore Wheat, 1902) and the Pudelvete (Poodle Wheat, 1910), both
pedigrees taken from a sort imported from Holstein by Neergaard had an in*
crease of about 10 % of the average yield, when compared to native land wheat.

These sorts have now almost entirely disappeared. When improving winter wheat
by crossing, these sorts, however, have been of great use as will soon be observed.

Crosses of both barley and peas were made to a great extent already about
1890 and also of winter wheat later on during the same decennium. All these

..J

16

122

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

crosses, however, were made without any special object, ahhough perhaps in some
cases with the hope of getting a practically useful result from some of them.
Crossing was at that time generally considered as a way of stimulating or produ»
cing a variation. It was not until after the discovery of the Mendelian laws of
segregation that artificial cross»fertilization became used systematically with a dei'u
nite purpose and to a great extent. The honour of having applied these laws
in the practical breeding work is due to Nilsson»Ehle, who at once understood
the value of this discovery when improving both oats and winter wheat especi*
ally. It is easy to understand that the winter wheat in this case was especially
easy to work with. It now became the chief aim of the workers to combine the
high yield of Squarehead wheat with the hardiness of the old native land sorts
to a greater extent than they had hitherto been able to do by line selection.
When improving barley and oats, on the contrary, there have been no such
decisive characters of yield to work with. There have been no foreign sorts of
barley and oats either, which have been as superior to the old Swedish sorts as
Squarehead to old Swedish land wheat. At the beginning nobody hoped, not
even Nilsson»Ehle himself, that the yielding power of the former and the hardi=
ness of the latter could be combined to so great an extent as has now been done
by him.

The purpose of crossing sorts with characters of different degrees of value,
for practical use, is to produce new combinations of characters which from a practical
point of view are still more valuable. Cross=breeding is a combination^breeding.
The way of working and the results already gained are clearly shown in the
following scheme, borrowed from Nilsson«Ehle. The numbers in parenthesis
give the average yield of the trials made at the Association at Svalof. These are
expressed in relative numbers compared with Svenskt Sammetsvete (Swedish
Velvet Wheat) = 100. One of the sorts has no name and is therefore called
by its stock book number 0516; a stock book number is in reality a substitu*
tion for a name and is used in all tables, genealogical schemes, field books etc.
were the sorts are mentioned.

SUMMARY OF PAKT OF THE CONTINUED COMBINATION WORK WITH WINTER WHEAT AT SVALOF.
Skine Ljnd Wheat (102) English Squarehead Wheat (99)

0516 (121)

Cone Wheat (128) X ^^'^^,^ ('j^l ) ^ Wheat MI12)'

Sun Wheat (131) X

D ji w/L i v^ Swedish Velvet
Poodle Wheat X ^^^^^ (joq)

. Extra Squareh. Wheat II (129) X Small Wheat (131)

Sun Wheat II X Iron Wheat (140) X Fylgia Wheat (135) X (Sun Wheat II) X ^hiAe^y^eMU^^'^'wL'^t^^'*

Fi 1915

F3 1915

Fi 1915

Fi 1915

F2 1915

To describe the different characters of the crossed sorts more closely and
the purpose of each cross would take too long time. Iron Wheat, for instance,
has inherited good winter«hardiness and a high degree of resistance against yellow

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN 123

rust from Kottevete (Cone Wheat), a sort which very likely is a product of a
spontaneous crossing between land wheat and Squarehead wheat, and from Grena»
dier Wheat high specific yielding power, stiff straw, relatively early maturity and
relatively good kernel quality. In the same way Fylgia Wheat has inherited
high yielding power, relatively good resistance against yellow rust and relatively
early maturity from Smaahvede (Small Wheat), a Danish improved sort, and
from Extra Squarehead II relatively good winter=hardiness and relatively early
maturity. Both are intended for southern Sweden and Iron Wheat for Skane
especially. The importance of its high yield can easily be understood when one
hears that about half of the wheat, produced in Sweden, comes from this province.
None of the sorts mentioned in the summary, however, have all qualities to the
highest degree and therefore the workers hope, by continued crosses to be able to
produce still better combinations. Besides with the sorts mentioned at the bottom
of the summary. Dr. Akerman is now also working with crosses, which he
himself has made.

Systematic crossing has also been sucessfully used when improving other
selfsfertilizing crops and has given rise to several valuable sorts even if it has
not been able, from above mentioned reasons, to show such fine results as with
winter wheat.

I will be brief when speaking about the other plants, rye, field roots and
forage plants etc., mentioned in the beginning. To force typical crosssfertilizers to
self-fertilization, year after year, can by degrees result in a weakening of the
progeny. This seems for instance often to be the case with timothy, according
to WiTTE who has also shown a greatly different power of self-fertilization in
different strains of this grass. They vary from almost self^sterile strains to such
with a very high degree of self»fertilization. HeribertsNilsson at the plant
breeding institution of Weibullsholm, about which more will be mentioned later
on, has found the same fact to be true with rye.

The pedigree method, however, is also used when improving cross=fertilizers,
but naturally with necessary care and combined with mass selection. When im«
proving these crops systematic crossing is also used. The methods of the work
must of course vary in each case according to the plant and the chief object of
the breeding. In order to avoid spontaneous undesired cross*fertilization different
isolating methods are used.

The work with the plants in question has also made considerable progress.
Three sorts of rye have hitherto become of practical use, two especially for south*
ern and one for middle Sweden, and all superior to the sorts before cultivated.
Rye is, in view of the extension of the cultivated areal, next to oats the most
important cereal in Sweden and for bread uncomparably more important than
wheat. The former occupies about Vh times as large an areal as the latter. It
is easy to understand what an increase of the yield of rye per hektare would mean
for the nourishment of the people.

Even of several of the chief grasses have been produced strains, improved in
different respects, with higher yielding power than those hitherto cultivated and
guaranteeing a more even and a more uniform development of the mixed plants
of the artificial meadows, a necessary condition for a good quality of the hay.

124 PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

Even several new sorts of potatoes have during the last years been put forth.
No new sorts of flax and rape can as yet be ready, but they are being success*
fully investigated. Svalof sorts of different kinds of field roots (mangels, Swedes,
turnips and carrots) cannot be said to be superior to all other sorts but they stand
on a level with the best ones. To be able to keep them on this high level, so
that they do not decline, requires continuous attention and constantly repeated
selections founded on a careful investigation of the chief characters of the mother
plant and of the progeny. Professor Hjalmar Nilsson has also during the last
years begun to work with mangels with the purpose of producing sorts com<
parable in uniformity and constancy with those of selfsfertilizers. This he intends
to achieve by a more strictly conducted pedigree selection and an artificial crossing
of sister individuals most like each other.

As a contributive cause of the high average yield of Iron Wheat is also men*
tioned a high degree of resistance against yellow rust, a disease which some years
appears and ravages such sorts as are less resistant. Besides yellow rust a large
number of other dangerous plant diseases are already known, even such as are
caused by animal parasites, towards which different sorts of the same crop behave
very differently, a fact which has also been considered in the breeding work. The
producing of sorts resistant against diseases will surely be an effective remedy
against these plant diseases and thus a way of increasing the production. Another
important problem, upon the solution of which work has already been begun, is
the improvement of the kernel quality, especially in wheat in order to produce
sorts better suited for bread»baking — without mentioning all other future objects
of improvement.

The field trials are an important part of the improvement work. They are
the beginning and end of all breeding, for without good trial plots one works as
a blindman and the whole improvement work floats in the air without the firm
basis which they form. It is namely only by comparative trials that the eventual
superiority of a new sort to already cultivated ones can with certainty be deter»
mined. But one thing is certain, the better the sorts get the less progress can be
expected. The trials, however, must also be more exact and more free from errors
in order to be able to determine accurately the differences that possibly exist
between the sorts. The improvement of the trial system, so that the trials become
as reliable as possible, is one of the most important objects of the plant breeding.
In Svalof the principle generally followed from the beginning has been to give
the sorts in the trial*plots no better conditions than they get in the general culti*
vation, apparantly a quite correct principle, the strict accomplishment of which
has been of great benefit for the work.

The General Swedish Seed Company was founded 1891 along side of the
Swedish Seed Association, with the purpose of distributing the new sorts to the
farmers. It is exclusively a commercial company, with its main office at Svalof.
The Company, which alone has the right, receives the improved sorts from the
Association according to certain rules, sanctioned by the Government. They cuU
tivate them first on their own farms, which together cover a field area of about
1,500 hektares, and also by contracts on fields belonging to farmers all over the
country. Last year these cultures on fields belonging to private farmers together

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN 125

covered an area of 6,000 hektares. All cultures are inspected while growing by
the specialists of the Association. The entire seed business of the Company, thus
the business with imported foreign seeds also, is under the strict control of the
Control Oflfice of the Association of which Mr. J. N. Wallden has been super*
intendent from the beginning. All deliveries sent out by the Company, from the
largest to the smallest, are delivered under the seal of the Association, and with
a guarantee as to purity, germinating power etc The number of sealed sacks
delivered last year was about 133,000, and all the seed delivered amounted to
about 8,200 tons. The annual export of elit and original seed of Svalof sorts
amount to about 1,000 tons. Last year the Company paid the Association 117,500
crowns in compensation. The work of the General Seed Company, controlled by
the Seed Association, has greatly helped to bring the seed business to the relati*
vely high position which it now holds in Sweden.

The affairs of the Company and the Association are administered by different
councils. One member of the council of the Company and five belonging to
that of the Association (7 in all) are chosen by the Government in order to be
able to control the work of both and to excercise influence as to the use of the state
subsidies. The Association is also under the control of the Royal Board of Agri«
culture, which is subordinate to the Agricultural Department and is the highest
administrative authority for agriculture.

As well as at the Swedish Seed Association, plant breeding is also carried
on to a great extent and according to quite modern principles and methods at
WeibuUsholm, a plant breeding institution near Landscrona, a town situated a
couple of Swedish miles from Svalof. The work there began about fifty years ago.
The father of the present owner began about 1870 to cultivate and sell seed from
field roots as a by»trade. He soon began to try to improve these also, first by
mass selection of roots, according to their form, but later on with guidance of
their specific weight, gained by sinking them into a salt^solution of a certain con«
centration. About 1890, when the eldest son had begun to devote himself to
the improvement work, new principles were introduced, which were of decisive
importance for the future development of Weibullsholm. The pedigree method
began to be adopted 1898. The first scientist. Dr. Birger Kajanus, was engaged
1907. The improvement work is now carried on by four sections, each of them
with a scientific botanist as leader of the breeding work, assisted by an agronome
as leader of the practical trials. Kajanus has devoted his attention to winter
wheat, six^rowed barley, peas, vetches and forage plants. Dr. Nils Heribert^Nilsson,
Lecturer of Genetics, is responsible for rye, oats and potatoes. Dr. Carl Hallquist
has field roots and two^rowed barley as his speciality and Amanuensis Carl
Hammarlund has charge of the vegetables. The latter is also head of the Control
Office of the Institution. An extensive seed business is namely combined with
the improvement work. The leader of the whole firm is Harry Weibull, while
three of his brothers are responsible for a department each.

Since many years the firm has naturally dealt with its own improved sorts
and strains of all different kinds of field roots and their present sorts compete
with the best ones from Svalof As results of the improvement work it has also

126 PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN

put forth on the market two winter wheat sorts, two rye sorts, one oat sort, two
pea sorts, and also strains of the most important forage grasses. It has also its
own sorts of vegetables as well.

One of the wheat sorts. Standard Wheat, which will be put forth this autumn
and which is intended for the southermost provinces is produced by artificial
crossing between Iduna Wheat, from Weibullsholm about ten years older, and
a Danish sort. Storm Rye, characterized by its relatively short and stiff straw
which makes it easier to cut with self^binding harvest;=machines is produced from a
German sort, Petkuser Rye, by repeated selections four years in succession, the
first two years by line selection, the last two years by mass selection, by removing
before the plants bloomed, ail such as had straw higher than the average height.
In specific yielding power, however, the Storm Rye is somewhat inferior to the
mother sort. A new sort. Storm Rye II, with short straw as the first Storm Rye,
but according to Heribert^Nilsson with a specific yielding power equal to Petkuser
Rye has been produced by sowing like portions of Storm Rye and another pedigree
with short straw together and letting them fertilize naturally.

The farms belonging to the firm occupy together an area of about 1,800
hektares, but it also has cultures by contracts with private farmers.

In view of the extension of the work and the knowledge of the object with
which the work is carried on it will undoubtedly be of great importance for the
Swedish agriculture. By its field root cultures, field root seed cultures and field
root improvement the firm has been of a very great importance for the develop*
ment of the Swedish field root growing.

In the year of 1906 the Swedish Sugar Manuf. Company began with seed culture
and improvement of sugar mangels with the purpose of making all import of
sugar mangel seed unnecessary. This work, which is lead by Dr. Hans Rasmusson
has given the desired results. Thus the crop of sugar mangel seeds produced last
year is adequate to the need of such seeds in Sweden. The sugar mangels grown
from these native seeds can readily be compared with the best imported sorts and
are in several cases even superior to these, this owing to the improvement work
consequently carried on.

Finally, since some years a rather extensive breeding of vegetables is carried
on partly at the horticultural division of the Agricultural College at Alnarp, situ*
ated about V2 a Swedish mile from Malmo, the work being lead by Mr. J. Rasmusson,
and partly at one of the farms near Malmo, belonging to the General Swedish Seed
Company at Svalof, the work being lead by Professor H. Nilsson=Ehle and Dr.
K. Kristoffersson. The improvement work has not as yet been carried on long
enough to be able to influence the cultivation of vegetables in Sweden, but new
improved sorts of different plants are now ready. And there is no doubt that
the work will contribute to the improvement of this cultivation by providing
better and more profitable material for it.

THE MENDELIAN SOCIETY IN LUND AND
ITS PERIODICAL, HEREDITAS

BY

ROBERT LARSSON

EDITOR, LUND

THE REDISCOVERY OF THE MENDELIAN LAWS HAS GREATLY
influenced every field of biological science. New lines of study were
opened up by botanists and zoologists. From 1900 and onwards the ex*
perimental study of genetics was taken up the world over. The biologists at the
University of Lund also participated in this work. The need of co-operation in
matters of genetics was felt pretty soon. After some discussion the Mendelian
Society was founded. This was on the 10th of december, 1910. The Society
succeeded in obtaining the distinguished geneticist, Dr. H. Nilsson»Ehle, as head
of the Society. He still holds this position. The work of the Society has con»
sisted in arranging lectures and discussions on heredity and related topics. The
Society has also had the privilege of seeing three of our most distinguished gene=
ticists as its guests, Dr. W. Johannsen from Copenhagen, Dr. E. Baur and Dr.
C. CoRRENS from Berlin. These gentlemen have also joined the Society as bono*
rable members.

The Society enlarged its program essentially last year when a periodical, Here=
ditas, owned and edited by the Society, was started. The purpose of this perio*
dical is to publish Scandinavian, principally Swedish, research on heredity. The
first volume is complete, and two parts of volume II have been published; the
third part of the volume is in print. The five parts already completed contain
various contributions from the vast field of genetics. The table of contents in*
eludes the following titles:

VOL. I:

Part 1: H. Nilsson'Ehle: Ueber Resistenz gegen Heterodera Schachti bei
gewissen Gerstensorten, ihre Vererbungsweise und Bedeutung fiir die Praxis. —
H. Lundborg: Hereditary Transmission of Genotypical Deaf=Mutism. — Nils
Heribert^Nilsson: Zuwachsgeschwindigkeit der FoUenschlauche und gestorte Men*
delzahlen bei Oenothera Lamarckiana. (With a summary in English.) — Hans
Tedin: The Inheritance of Flower Colour in Fisum. — Emanuel Bergman: A
Family with Hereditary (Genotypical) Tremor. — Hans Rasmuson: Ueber einige
genetische Versuche mit Papaver Rhoeas und Papaver laevigatum. — A. Akerman:
Speltlike Bud*sports in Common Wheat. — J. Rasmusson: Mendelnde Chloro*
phyll*Faktoren bei Allium cepa.

Part 2: H. Lundborg: Rassen* und Gesellschaftsprobleme in genetischer und
medizinischer Beleuchtung. — Hans Rasmuson: On some Hybridisation Experi*
ments with Varieties of CoUinsia Species. — Halfdan Bryn: Researches into

u.

128 THE MENDELIAN SOCIETY AND HEREDITAS

Anthropological Heredity. — Nils Heribert«Nilsson: Ein Uebergang aus dem
isogamen in den heterogamen Zustand in einer Sippe der Oenothera Lamarckiana.
Part 3: Harry Federley: Die Bedeutung der polymeren Faktoren fiir die
Zeichnung der Lepidopteren. — Hans Rasmuson: Die Hauptergebnisse von einis
gen genetischen Versuchen mit verschiedenen Formen von Tropaeolum, Clarkia
und Impatiens. — H. Nilsson^Ehle: Multiple Allelomorphe und Komplexmuta^
tionen beim Weizen. (With a summary in EngHsh.) — Nils Heribert«Nilsson:
Kritische Betrachtungen und faktorielle Erklarung der laeta«velutina«Spaltung bei
Oenothera. (With a summary in English.) — H. Funkq^uist: The Inheritance of
the Muzzle Colour in the Cattle Breed of Stjernsund.

VOL. II:

Part 1 : C. Correns : Versuche bei Pflanzen das Geschlechtsverhaltnis zu ver«
schieben. (Vortrag gehalten am 10. Dez. 1920 zur Feier des 10«jahrigen Bestehens
der »Mendelska Sallskapet» in Lund.) — H. Nilsson=Ehle: Ueber mutmassliche
partielle Heterogamie bei den Speltoidmutationen des Weizens. (With a summary
in English.) — H. Lundborg: Rassenmischung — Vermehrte Heterozygotie (Gen*
chaos) — Konstitutionsveranderungen — Habitus asthenicus sive paralyticus (Zunahme
der Korpergrosse usw.) — Tuberkulose. Fine Ursachenkette. — K. V. Ossian
Dahlgren: Vererbungsversuche mit einer buntblattrigen Barbarea vulgaris. —
A. Akerman: Untersuchungen iiber Bastarde zwischen Epilobium hirsutum und
Epilobium montanum. — C. Hammarlund: Ueber die Vererbung anormaler Ahren
bei Plantago major. (With a summary in English.)

Part 2: Hans Rasmuson: Beitrage zu einer genetischen Analyse zweier
GodetiasArten und ihrer Bastarde. (With a summary in English.) — Otto L.
Mohr: a Case of Hereditary Brachyphalangy Utilized as Evidence in Forensic
Medicine.

The contributions will be written in English, German or French {not in Swe»
dish). When necessary adequate illustrations, text figures or plates, will be pro»
vided. The journal is published in volumes of about 350 pages each issued in
three numbers. The volumes will appear annually so far as possible. Subscript
tions may be sent to the Editor, Mr. Robert Larsson, Adelgatan 7, Lund (Sweden).
The subscription price for a volume — post free — is Twenty^five (25) Swedish
crowns.

PART II.

FOLK. AND RACE»TYPES IN SWEDEN

Plate I

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Jamtland farmer. The same.

Photo. O. Olsson, Ostersund. Photo. O. Olsson, Ostersund.

Peasant's wife from Vasterbotten.

Photo. H. Ridstrom, Asele.

Fisherman from Halsingland.

Photo. J. O. Wiklund, Hudiksvatl.

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Plate II

Uppland crofter.

Photo. II. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Peasant's son, Gottland.

Collect, of Visby County Registry.

M.L%

i

A crofter's daughter from Sodermanland.

Photo. Am. Biancbini. Stockholm.

Servant girl from Varmland.

Photo, II. Litndhorg, Uppsala.

Plate III

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Smiland schoolchildren.

Photo. G. Heutrlin, Stockholm.

A farmer's children, Varmland.

Photo. II. I.undborg, Uppsala.

Plate IV

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Old man from Dalecarlia.

Collect, cf Dalarnes Hembygdsforbund.

Mother with her children.

Photo. Calla Sundheck, Gr'anna.

Plate V

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Schoolboy from Vastergotland.

Photo. M. Janson, Mariestad.

Physician.

Private collection.

Schoolgirl.

Young bride.

Photo. II. Ljungkvist, Visby.

Photo. II. Ljungkvist, Visby.

Plate VI

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Student from Gottland. Lady^student.

Photo. H. LJungkvist, Visby. Photo. H. Lundborg, t/ppsa/a.

Swedish scientist. Manufacturer.

Photo. Gerds Siiderlund, Leksand.

Private collection.

Plate VII

NORDIC (TEUTONIC) TYPES

Officer, of the nobility.

Photo. Atelier F/orman, Stockholm.

Artist.

Private collection.

Bishop.

Parish school master, aged 80, from Faro,

Photo. Atelier Gifer, Harnosand.

Gottland.

Photo. H, Ljungki'ist, Visby.

Plate VIII

SWEDISH MIXED^RACE TYPES

•#*

Parish school master from Roslagen. Nordic
type with Finnish blood.

PAofo. G. Wallenius, Uppsaia.

The same.

Photo, G, Wallenias, Uppsala.

Lady of Swedish^^Italian descent.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

The same.

Photo. U. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Plate IX

SWEDISH MIXED»RACE TYPES

Old man from Dalarne (Dalecarlia). Swedishs
Finnish niixed=race type.

Photo. K, Larka, SoUero.

Workman, strongly racesmixed with gipsy and
Lappic blood.

Photo. Oskir IV. Olsson, tludiksvsll.

Skilled smith of Swedish»Walloon<Jewish des;

*-^^t. Photo. G. Keimers, Gavle.

The

Photo. G. Keimers, G.Vv/e.

Plate X

SWEDISH MIXED=RACE TYPES

Woman of manly type, socially of low sfan= The same,

ding.

Collect, of the Race=biologkal Institution, Uppsala. Collect, of the Race^hiohgical Institution, Uppsala.

i:

^1
^1

^^^^^^^Hff^^^^HU^i w

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Workman, strongly race=mixed, of Finnish type.

Collect, of the Race-biological Institution, Uppsala.

Gipsy with Finnish blood. Criminal.

Collect. Theslejf.

Plate XI

FINNISH TYPES

Finn from Norrbotten. Finn from Norrbotten.

I'hoto. Borg Mesch, Kiruna. I'hoto. H. Lnndboxg, Uppsala.

Sailor from Roslagen.

Collect, of the Race'biological Institution, Uppsala.

Finnish woman from Varmland.

Collect, of NorJiska Museet.

Plate XII

FINNISH TYPES

Farmer from Norrbotten.

Photo. Mia Green, Haparanda.

The same.

Photo. Mia Green, Haparanda.

Student from Halsingland.

Photo. G. Reimers, CjjV/e.

Factory girl.

Photo. Oskar U''. Olsson, Ihidiksi'all.

Plate XIII

FINNISH TYPES

Finnish type from Varmland.

Collect, of Nordiska Museet.

Finnish type from Varmland.

Collect, of Nordiska Museet.

Varmland Finn. Varmland Finn.

Collect, of Nordiska Museet. Collect, of Nordiska Museet.

Plate XIV

FINNISH MIXED^RACE TYPES

The father a Lapp, the mother a Finnish wo^
man from Norrbotten.

Photo. H. Liindborg, Uppsala.

LappicsFinnish woman.

Photo. H. I.undhorg, Uppsala.

Lappic-FinnishsSwedish mixedsrace type. The same.

The dark hair and the short head point to a Lappic descent; the long-drawn face with the straigt profile and nose to a Swedish.
The great breadth of the lower part of the face (at the angles of the lower jaws) is a Finnish racial characteristic.

Photo. II. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Plate XV

LAPPS

mm:^Mmm

Lappswoman from Jamtland.

^SPN^T^

Photo. N. Tomasson, Arc.

Pupils at a Lappic training school from different Swedish Lappterritories, and a little Lappboy.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Plate XVI

LAPPS

Lappic mother with her twins.

Lapp from Norrbotten.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Old Lapp.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Plate XVII

LAPPS

Typical Lappland boy.

Photo. II. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Lappswoman from the north of Lappland.

Photo. II. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Lappswoman Lapp from Norrbotten.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala. Photo. Borg Mesch, Kiruna.

Plate XVIII

LAPPIC MIXED^RACE TYPES

Lapp-woman with Nordic blood.

Photo. H. Tegstrdm »S- C:o, Lulea.

Tramping Lapp with Nordic blood.

Pholo. H. Lundhorg, Uppsih.

The same.

Photo. H. Tegstrdm S. C:o, Lulea.

Resident Lapp with Finnish blood.

Photo. Borg Mesch, Kinina.

Plate XIX

SWEDISH WALLOONS OF PURER WALLOON TYPE

The youngest Walloon descendant with his

'"°''^^''- Photo. II. UmJborg, Uppsala.

Walloon from Uppland (so-called alpin type).

Photo. H. Limdborg, Uppsala.

Walloon type from Uppland.

Photo. Ellen Claeson, Uppsala.

Uppland Walloon.

Photo. Ellen Claeson. Uppsala.

Plate XX

SWEDISH WALLOONS (MlXED=RAC[iS TYPES)

Walloon descendant with Nordic blood.

Photo. H. Lundborg, Uppsala.

Uppland Walloon.

Servantsgirl ot SwedishsWalloon descent.

Phcto. K. G. Holm, FinspSng.

Photo. Ellen Cheson, Uppsala.

Metal worker. Walloon from Ostergotland.

Photo. K. G. Holm. Finsping.

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