H C 493 S9 R9 MAIN UC-NRLF ifllill! *B «JO fl23 SYRIA: AN ECONOMIC SURVEY By DR. ARTHUR RUPPIN (Translated and abridged by Nellie Straus) Published by The Provisional Zionist Committee New York 1918 VI V PAKT ONE. THE LAND AND ITS INHABITANTS. I. The Land. Area. — Syria, in the larger sense of the term, inclusive of Palestine, extends from Egypt and the Arabian Desert in the south (31° 30' north lat.) to the Amanus in the north (37° north lat.), which divides it from Asia. It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the Syrian Desert and the Euphrates on the east; its length varies from 435 to 497 mi., its breadth from 62 to 186 mi. Its area in round numbers is 124,200 sq. mi. Surface Configuration. — Geographically Syria may be divided into four longitudinal zones extending from north to south: 1. The flat, extremely fertile, coastal plain, with a maxi- mum breadth of 18.6 mi., on which lie the harbors Alexan- dretta, Seleucia, Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, Tyre, Acre, Haifa, Jaffa, Gaza, and Khan Yunus; 2. The western mountain range, extending from the Giaur Dagh in the north over the Ausan Range and the Lebanon to the Galilean, Samaritan, and Judaean mountains, (average height of plateau, 874 yards, highest point, Jebel Makmal in the Lebanon, 3,344 yards), from 18 to 31 mi. in breadth, on which lie the cities Beilan, Safita, Safed, Nablus (Shechem), Jerusalem and Hebron; 3. The famous depression, formed by the Orontes, the Litani, and the Jordan, from 6.2 to 18.6 mi. wide, falling 437.2 yards below sea level toward the south, in which lie numerous lakes (Amuk, Horns, Huleh, Tiberias, Dead Sea), and the cities Antioch, Hama, Horns, Baalbek, Zahleh, Tiberias, Beisan, and Jericho; the Orontes Valley forms its northern part, its central part through which the Litani flows is called Beka'a (Coelesyria in ancient times), and the southern section through which the Jordan flows is called Ghor ; Palestine Is not an administrative province. The historic Palestine ex- tended west of the Jordan from El Arlsh in the south to Tyre in the north. East of the Jordan it extended from the southern extremity of the Dead Sea to the Yarmuk, its eastern boundary being the desert. It was about 3,000 sq. km. in area, and comprised the present Mutessarifliks of Jerusalem, Nablus, Acre, and Kerak. -r Syria: An Economic Survey 4. The eastern mountain range, with a maximum breadth of 31.05 mi., running parallel to the western mountain range; its average height is 983.7 yards, its highest point (Mt. Hermon) 2,916.7 yards in height, whence it extends southward over the Jolan and Ajlun mountain ranges into the Trans- Jordanian plateau. In this eastern mountain range lie the cities Aleppo, Damascus, Es Salt, and Kerak. The plateau of El Leja and the Hauran Mountains may be considered an annex of this zone. This region, as well as the tableland of En Nukra is famous for its fertility, thanks to the formation of the soil, which is covered by disintegrated basalt and lava. In the east the mountain range gradually merges into the Syrian Desert. Temperature. — The mean annual temperature of the coastal plain is 70° F. (57° in January, 84° in August), of the western and eastern mountain ranges 61° (43° in January, 73° in August). The Jordan Valley has a sub-tropical climate, the mean annual temperature being 24° C. There is never any frost in the Jordan Valley. It is rare in the coastal zone, but frequent in the mountain ranges and in the northern part of the plain which lies between them. Here snow occasionally falls, but it melts immediately except in altitudes of more than 1,093 yards. The difference in climate between the coastal zone and the Lebanon (a distance of only 12 to 18 mi.) is remarkable. Rain. — Rain falls only from October to April. The average yearly rainfall varies from 400 to 900 mm., according to locality, being smallest in the south and largest in the north. (Gaza has 420 mm., Jaffa 510 mm., Haifa 610 mm., Beirut 880 mm., Alex- andretta 900 mm.) The mountain ranges have a greater rainfall than the coast, (Jerusalem 660 mm., Hebron 650 mm., Damascus 700 mm.), whereas the depression has much less, especially the Jordan Valley (Tiberias 440 mm., Jericho 200 mm.). The rain- fall varies greatly from year to year. The rainy season may be divided into three parts : 1. The autumn (former rains), usually beginning in the middle of November and lasting 3-4 weeks (3/9 of total rain- fall) ; 2. The winter rains, during January and February (5/9 of rainfall) ; 3. The late winter (latter rains), lasting from the middle of March to the end of April (1/9 of rainfall). Syria: An Economic Survey Dew. — In summer a heavy dew falls in the coastal plain and in the mountains, which is indispensable for the summer crops (durrha, sesame). Winds. — The winds are fairly strong throughout the year. The prevailing wind is from the southwest and brings the winter rains. In spring and fall the sirocco (Chamsin) blows from the Arabian Desert. In summer there is a sea breeze in the daytime and a land breeze at night. Lakes and Streams. — The important lakes are the Lake of Antioch, fed by the Kara Su and the Aphirin Su, the Lake of Horns, formed by the Orontes, the prairie marshes near Damascus fed by the Barada, the salt lakes near Jebbul, and the three lakes of the Jordan Valley, Merom, Tiberias, and the Dead Sea. Syria has no navigable streams. Its deepest rivers are barely a yard in depth and from 30 to 50 yards wide, with a swift current. The three main rivers of Syria are the Orontes, (about 186 mi. long), with its source in the Lebanon near Baalbek, which flows into the Mediterranean near the Lake of Antioch; the Litani, which also has its source in the Lebanon and flows into the Mediterranean near Tyre; and the Jordan (124 mi.), which com- ing from Mt. Hermon, flows through the Lakes of Huleh and Tiberias and empties into the Dead Sea. Besides these longitudinal streams there are several small transverse streams, the Nahr el Kebir (near Latakia), the Kadisha (near Tripoli), the Nahr Ibrahim and the Nahr el Kelb (near Beirut), the Brook Kishon (near Haifa), and the Aujah (near Jaffa), all flowing from the western mountain range into the Mediterranean. The Barada and the Nahr el Avadj flow toward Damascus from the eastern mount- ain range, while the Yarmuk and the Zerka flow into the Jordan from the Ajlun. The Kuveik flows through Aleppo into a prairie marsh, and the Kara Su and the Aphirin Su flow into the Lake of Antioch. Health Conditions. — In general the land may be considered healthy. The only diseases which are constant and epidemic in certain sections are malaria and trachoma. Malaria is prevalent in (a) the coastal zone, where swamps are formed by the rain water which is dammed up by sand dunes and rocks, (b) valleys with an impervious sub-stratum and imperfect drainage, (c) the banks of shallow streams, and (d) mountain districts where rain water is preserved in badly made cisterns for use in summer. Both these diseases could be successfully combated. (International Health 5 Syria: An E'c b n o m i c Survey Bureau founded in Jerusalem in 1912 by Nathan Straus.) Besides these diseases there are the so-called Aleppo-plague and Jericho- plague, confined to certain localities, and directly attributable to the poor water supply. Other epidemics have occurred from time to time, chiefly bubonic plague and cholera brought by ships or by the pilgrims to Mecca. Administrative Divisions. — Syria is composed of the following administrative provinces : Vilayet of Aleppo (consisting of the Mutessarifliks of Aleppo and Aintab) 35,397* sq. mi. Vilayet of Syria or Damascus** (consisting of the Mutessarifliks of Damascus, Kama, Hauran, and Kerak) 55,890 " « Vilayet of Beirut (consisting of the Mutessarifliks of Beirut, Tripoli, Latakia, Acre, and Nablus) 18,941 " " Mutessariflik of Lebanon 2,111 " " Mutessariflik of Jerusalem , 12,420 " " The head of a Vilayet is called a Vali, the head of a Mutessari- flik (Sanjak, Liva) is called a Mutessarif. The Mutessarifs of Jerusalem and the Lebanon are directly subordinated to the Min- ister of the Interior. Each Mutessariflik is divided into a number of Cazas or Kaimakamliks, with a Kaimakam at their head. Population. — No reliable census has ever been taken in Turkey. Since 1902 there is a law compelling all Ottomans to record their names in the official register, from which source the following information was obtained: POPULATION OF SYRIA IN MARCH, 1915 Estimated Nomadic Men Women Population Total (not registered) Vilayet of Aleppo 336,384 320,555 212,463 869,402 Vilayet of Damascus 456,031 468,774 924,805 Vilayet of Beirut 408,628 414,679 823,307 Mutessariflik of Lebanon 225,580 182,170 407,750 Mutessariflik of Jerusalem 343,362 55,000f 398,362 3,423,626 * These figures are only an approximation. ** We shall call it Damascus to avoid confusion. t Caza Beersheba. Syria: An Economic Survey KERAK HAURAN Caza Population Gaza Population Kerak 19,551 Hauran 27,691 Salt 37,235 Ajlun 61,500 Maan 5,752 Basr el Harir 26,448 Tafileh 7,750 Sueda 24,260 Azrua 29,382 Total 70,288 Masmieh 13,825 Total 183,106 ACRE NABLtTS Caza Population Caza Population Acre 40,897 Nablus 76,426 Haifa ................. 30,629 Jenin 41,442 Nazareth 20,801 Beni Saab 35,901 Tiberias 13,102 Safed 31,735 Total 153,749 Total 137,164 JERUSALEM Caza Population Jerusalem 123,017 Gaza 82,614 Jaffa 81,490 Hebron 56,241 Beersheba 55,000 398,362 Population of Some Cities. Aleppo 200,000 Tripoli 50,000 Aintab 70,000 Nablus 30,000 Antioch 30,000 Haifa 20,000 Alexandretta 12,000 Nazareth 20,000 Damascus 300,000 Zahleh 150,000 Horns 80,000 Jerusalem 80,000 Hama 70,000 Jaffa 40,000 Es Salt 15,000 Gaza 30,000 Beirut 200,000 Hebron 25,000 It is generally estimated that the percentage of non-registered Ottomans and of non-Ottomans may be reckoned as being equal to 25 per cent of the registered population. Thus in round numbers the population of Syria would amount to four million. Of these, 7 Syria: An Economic Survey 1% million form the urban population and 2% million the rural population, that is, the population living in villages and tents. In the smaller towns as well as in the villages a large number of the inhabitants are farmers and are to be considered as part of the rural population. With the exception of Aleppo and Damascus practically all the Syrian cities and towns developed only in the nineteenth century, especially after 1880. 1880 1915 Beirut 80,000 200,000 Jaffa 10,000 40,000 Alexandretta 2,000 12,000 Jerusalem 35,000 80,000 Density* of Population. Vilayet of Aleppo 15 to the square kilometer Vilayet of Damascus 13 " " " " Vilayet of Beirut 34 " " " " Mutessariflik of Jerusalem 25 " " " " Mutessariflik of Lebanon 159 " " " " Religion. — The predominant religion of Syria is Islam, em- bracing about 4/5 of the total population. There are about % million Christians of various sects, especially in the Lebanon, and in Beirut, Nazareth, Bethlehem, etc., where they form the majority of the population, and also in Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, etc. The Jews of Syria number about 115,000 souls, concentrated in Jerusalem (45,000, 60 per cent of total population), Aleppo (15,000), Damascus (10,000), Beirut (5,000), Safed (8,000), Tiberias (4,000), Jaffa (10,000), Haifa (3,000), Hebron (1,000), Sidon (500), and about 40 agricultural colonies in Palestine. Language. — The language of the country is the so-called Syrian dialect of Arabic. Turkish is the official language, spoken by government officials and the more cultured classes, as well as by part of the population in the district between Aleppo and Asia Minor. The Jews speak either Arabic, Spaniolish (Ladino), or Judeo-German, according to their origin, in addition to Hebrew which is known to almost all. French is spoken by the upper classes in the coast towns, and German in Haifa, Jaffa, Jerusalem, and the German colonies. • The population Is very unevenly distributed. 8 Syria: An Economic Survey Cultural Status of the Population. — Thanks to its geograph- ical situation and the peculiar religious interest attaching to it, Syria is rather European than Turkish from a cultural point of view. Among the prominent factors in its cultural development may be mentioned: (1) the Crusades and the medieval immigra- tion of the Jews from Spain and Central Europe; (2) the immi- gration of Genoese, Venetian, and Greek merchants (Levantines) who settled in the coast towns and assimilated with the population ; and (3) the influx of pilgrims, monks, nuns, and missionaries, and in modern times the German Templars and the Zionist Jews. Culturally the Syrian population may be divided into three types : the inhabitants of (1) the coast towns which are the regular stopping-places of steamers, and Jerusalem; (2) the coast towns to which there is no immigration, and Damascus and Aleppo; and (3) the cities untouched by European influences, such as Horns, Hama, N"ablus, Gaza, etc. Fluctuation of the Population. — There are no reliable sta- tistics at hand regarding births, marriages, and deaths in Syria. The large number of births is counterbalanced by high infant mor- tality, especially among the Mohammedans, so that the population either remains stationary or increases very slowly. It is equally impossible to secure exact information about immigration and emigration. In general, it appears that in the last three decades there has been a noticeable exodus of Christians from the Lebanon to America, and a marked influx of Eastern European Jews into Palestine, especially into Jerusalem. During the last 30 years ap- proximately 40,000 Jews have immigrated, of whom 12,000-15,000 left in 1914 and 1915 because of the war. The number of Lebanon emigrants seems to have reached over 100,000, about y± °^ the total population of the Lebanon. The majority of them go to North and South America. Many of them either send money home to their families or else return and invest their earnings in real estate. Bethlehemites and other Christians likewise immigrate to America, and numbers of Mohammedans to Egypt. The Jews have brought considerable sums into Palestine, amounting to 5-7 million francs annually. (Halukkah, religious and benevolent institutions, etc.) Besides, those who became bankers, merchants, and farmers, have increased the wealth of the country by 3 to 5 millions annually. There has also been an immigration of Oriental Jews into Palestine, from Morocco, Persia, Bokkhara, and the Yemen. The Moroccan and Persian Jews (about 5,000 in number) are poor and feeble, whereas the Bokkharans (1,000) Syria: An Economic Survey are strong and well-to-do. The Yemenites (4,000) have settled not only in Jerusalem (about 2,000) but in Jaffa and the colonies as well. In enumerating the monetary advantages which have accrued to the country as a result of migrations, the sums received from Christian churches for the support of their Syrian institutions must not be omitted; it reaches 10 million francs annually, at a moderate estimate. 10 PART TWO. THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF SYRIA AND THE VALUE OF ITS PRODUCE. Syria is emphatically an agricultural country. The vast ma- jority of the population lives by husbandry, that is to say, by its three main branches, agriculture properly speaking, arboriculture, and cattle-raising. Mining plays a small role, and both silvi- culture and fishery bring inconsiderable returns. The industry of Syria consists of three more or less important branches: (1) silk-spinning in the Lebanon and vicinity; (2) weaving and dyeing of silk, cotton and wool in the Lebanon and in Damascus, Horns, Hama, and Aleppo; and (3) the production of olive oil and soap in Palestine, Tripoli, and Antioch. Other industries such as tanning (Beirut, Zahleh, Horns, Aintab), rope making (Damascus, Aleppo), manufacture of religious articles (Jerusalem, Bethlehem), craftsmanship in copper and wood (Damascus), cigarette-making (Damascus and the Lebanon), the making and repairing of machinery, and the manufacture of wood, building stones and tiles of cement are relatively unimportant. The majority of artisans working for the local trade are shoe- makers, saddlers, smiths, joiners, and tinkers. Traffic enterprises, with the exception of the harbor of Beirut and the railroads, are limited to electrical plants for the tramways and lighting purposes in Damascus and Beirut, a gas plant in Beirut, a horse car service in Tripoli, and a number of water-works. The commerce of Syria consists in providing the country with European commodities (especially dry groceries, sugar, dress ma- terials, coal, kerosene, timber, hardware, cement) and with the sale within and without the country of the agricultural and the few industrial products (export of silk, oranges, grain, sesame, domestic dress materials, soap, raisins, wine). The lack of reliable data makes it difficult to give an exact estimate of the value of the annual produce of Syria and of the sums sent into the country as benefactions. I. 'Husbandry \ — Husbandry in Syria has developed in two directions : grain tillage (in which the^ ctwo year crop rotation system is used, the field being allowed to lie fallow one year or else planted with sesame, durrha or legumes, and planted with 11 Syria: An Economic Survey wheat or barley the following year), the chief product being wheat; and arboriculture (olives, mulberries, oranges, lemons, vines, figs, apricots, pistachios, almonds). Grain tillage predominates on the plateaus, arboriculture on the slopes; both play important roles on the coastal plain. In addition to these, commercial plants (cotton, tobacco, tombeki, and hemp) are cultivated, cattle are raised in the Vilayet of Damascus and in the Lebanon, and sheep and goats in the Vilayets of Aleppo and Damascus. The value of the annual produce may be estimated approxi- mately at 695,000,000 francs, to which must be added about 5,000,000 francs which accrue to the farmers from agricultural by- industries such as desiccation, etc., by means of which perishable products are preserved (raisins, grape honey, figs, apricots, apricot- paste, table olives), making a total of 700,000,000 francs. II. Silviculture. — (Forestry and its products.) The prod- ucts are limited to fuel, charcoal, etc., and the sweet pine kernel, and do not exceed 5,000,000 francs in value. III. Fishery. — The value of the annual catch of sea and lake fish amounts to about 10,000,000 francs. IV. Mines. — The value of the products of mining properly speaking (asphalt) is inconsiderable, not amounting to more than ^4 million francs. To this must be added 1% million francs, the value of the building stones from quarries, making a total of about 2,000,000 francs. V. Industries. — Total value of manufactures, etc., about 30,000,000 francs. VI. Trades.— Total value, 30,000,000 francs. VII. Traffic. — (1) Transportation, 45,000,000 francs; (2) pilgrims and tourists, 10,000,000 francs. VIII. Receipt of Money from Other Countries. — Lebanon, 30,000,000 francs; Palestine (principally to Jews), 10,000,000 francs; Benevolent and religious Christian institutions, 10,000,000 francs. The total, 882,000,000 francs, is distributed somewhat as follows : Vilayet of Aleppo 222,000,000 francs Vilayet of Damascus. 350,000,000 " Vilayet of Beirut 210,000,000 " Mutessariflik of Jerusalem. 50,000,000 " Mutessariflik of Lebanon 50,000,000 " 12 PART THREE. HUSBANDRY. I. A Statistical Summary of the Products of Husbandry. A. The Area in Which Husbandry is Practised. — Syria is a limestone plateau, its average height above sea level being 800 to 1,000 meters. It slopes to the sea in the west and to the steppe and the desert in the east, and is split in the center by a deep depression. The coastal plain and the border zones of the steppes as well as the depression, are, with the exception of a narrow strip of sand-dunes near the sea, suited to husbandry. Much of the mountain district, on the other hand, is not arable, as the loose stratum of surface soil formed by the disintegration of the stone is being washed away by heavy winter rains, leaving the limestone bare. But sections of the slopes and all the transverse valleys (for instance, the Esdraelon Valley) are very fertile, as are also the Hauran, where the substratum of lime is covered by disintegrated lava, and other parts of Trans jordania. In the Vilayet of Damas- cus, as in the rest of Syria, it seems that 75 per cent of the land is mountainous. In 1915, according to the official report, 29 per cent of the Vilayet of Damascus was devoted to husbandry, of which 10 per cent was pasture land. B. Composition of the Soil. — The physical and chemical properties of the Syrian soil have not been thoroughly investigated. Most of the available information is the result of researches made by the Jewish colonists in Palestine. On the coastal plain, in the depression, and in the transverse valleys the soil is generally very deep, whereas in the mountain districts it forms a very shallow surface stratum of not more than 25-50 centimeters. Grain and flatrooted trees thrive in this soil, but not deeprooted trees. Be- sides, the soil in the mountain districts is coarse grained and porous. On the plain its quality is not uniform. It is either very rich in clay and not porous (heavy soil) or else sandy (light soil). The sandy soil was formed by a mixture of clay and sand drifts. Wheat and sesame thrive in heavy and moderately heavy soils, whereas barley does better in lighter soil. Orange trees require a moderately heavy soil; almond, fig, and eucalyptus trees and vines demand a light soil, and olive trees flourish in either. 13 Syria: An Economic Survey The soil in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea in the Jordan Valley is salty and unfit for cultivation. In some parts of the mountain districts the trees seem to grow directly on the rocks. This is because what seems to be a rock is nothing but a thin crust (nari) which is formed over loose earth, through the crevices of which the roots are able to penetrate. Another phenomenon is the luxuriant tree-plantations in the sands of the Plain of Sharon. Here the stratum of sand is only 50-80 centimeters deep, and the roots penetrate to the fertile soil beneath. C. Dangers and Obstacles to Husbandry. 1. Natural Dangers. Drought. The success of the crops depends upon the abun- dance and duration of the rain during the rainy season. The latter rains are indispensable for wheat, although a delay in the former rains is also detrimental; this frequently occurs in the neighborhood of Gaza and Beersheba. Frost, hail, and locusts. These also constitute a menace to the crops. Frost injures trees rich in sap and evergreen trees, which can therefore be planted only in the Jordan valley and the coastal plain. Heavy frosts occur only in Northern Syria, and there at rare intervals. Hail, which falls very seldom, is injurious particu- larly to grapes and oranges. Locusts, which constitute the gravest menace to Syrian husbandry, are of two varieties, the Italian and the Soudan wandering locust. The former kind appeared in the Vilayet of Aleppo about ten years ago and, having domesticated, caused a deal of damage. The government has been partially successful in exterminating it. The latter kind, far more harmful, devastated the country in 1866 and again in 1915, when the dam- age caused was estimated at 100,000,000 francs, the Jewish colonies in Palestine alone suffering a loss of two or three million francs. Since this last onslaught the government has taken precautions, and the small hordes which appeared in 1916 were immediately exterminated. 2. Legal Obstacles to Husbandry. The townships are divided into several sections, in each of which the property owners are compelled to plant only one sort of cereal each year. In some villages the land is in the permanent ownership of individuals, but in others the old system of communal ownership still persists, whereby the land is apportioned anew 14 Syria: An Economic Survey biennially. In these villages the individual does not possess any one piece of land, but claims a certain portion of the area of the village. The disadvantage of this system is that the farmer takes no interest in fertilizing the land or improving it in any way, as it passes out of his possession in two years. Besides, he never planis fruit trees except in the town itself, where he owns the land around his house permanently. What is more, the tenant has practically no redress against the landlord. In Northern Syria and parts of Trans jordania there are no trees to be seen for miles around because the fellaheen do not trouble to plant trees on land from which they may be evicted at any moment. Another obstacle to husbandry is the tobacco monopoly. Ac- cording to the law of 1914 tobacco may be cultivated only in certain cazas of the Vilayets of Beirut and Aleppo, although the government can grant permission to any individual to grow to- bacco provided he complies with a number of regulations. The tobacco fields are inspected and the crop must be deposited in a center designated by the government. Tobacco may not be sold by the producer within the country, and only under certain condi- tions to export merchants. The same restrictions hold good for tombeki. Special permission must also be obtained for rice cultivation. D. Kind, Quality, and Value of Produce. 1. Annual Food and Fodder Crops. The following table dates from 1910, when the harvest waa unusually poor, not more than 2/3 of what it usually is: Wheat 761,712 tons Barley 381,428 " Durrha 161,623 " Corn 16,983 " Vetches 32,984 " Horse-beans 93,642 " Chick-peas 136,633 " Lentils 236,860 " Sesame 20,216 « 15 Syria: An Economic Survey The total area planted with annual crops amounts to 12,662,- 918 dunam (2,874,393 1/3 acres), of which 5,889,936 dunam (46.5%) are planted with wheat 3,836,842 " (30.3%) " " " barley 1,091,216 " ( 8.6%) " " " durrha 723,412 ( 5.7%) " " " vetches, peas, beans, lentils 431,329 " ( 3.4%) « " " cotton 255,493 « ( 2.0%) " " « sesame 434,690 ( 3.5%) " « other crops Wheat is chiefly grown in the Hauran, which supplies Da- mascus, Beirut, the Lebanon, and part of Palestine, and exports some to other countries. Other wheat regions are parts of Trans- jordania, the Esdraelon Valley, and the Beka'a (Coelesyria). The three kinds of wheat most extensively grown are Hauran wheat, red and white Salamuni wheat (Beka'a), Baladi wheat and Nursi wheat (Damascus, Esdraelon Valley) and Douchani wheat (Beka'a and Damascus). Wheat is sowed in December or January after the first heavy rain and is harvested at the end of May on the coastal plain, somewhat later in the mountain districts. The total wheat crop of Syria may be estimated at a million tons. (Hauran and vicinity 150,000, Beka'a 100,000, Esdraelon Valley 50,000, etc.) Subtracting 10 per cent for seeding, there remain 225 kilo- grams per capita for the population. Up to the present time the quantity of wheat exported has been negligible. The price of wheat in the ports ranges from 200 to 250 francs per ton. Barley, the most important crop next to wheat, is grown prin- cipally around Horns and Hama, Gaza and Beersheba, and in lesser measure throughout the whole country. The five kinds most extensively cultivated are Eoumi, Arabi, the Hama-Homs variety, the Aleppo variety, and the Gaza variety. Barley is in great de- mand by English brewers and whiskey distillers. Its price in the ports ranges from 125 to 175 francs per ton. The annual yield is estimated at 500,000 tons. Durrha is a summer crop. It is sowed in March or April and harvested in August or September. Durrha is used for bread by the fellaheen. Part is exported to Malta and Algiers, and to spirit factories in England. In 1912 the total yield of 200,000 tons was sold for about 30,000,000 francs. 16 Syria: An Economic Survey Corn (yellow-grained) is sowed on about % as much land as durrha. In the Jolan it is planted in August after the wheat harvest. Eye and oats are very infrequent, being planted only in the German, Jewish, and Circassian colonies. Legumes, for the most part chick-peas, lentils, beans, vetches, and lupins, are sowed in February and serve to bridge over the time between winter and summer crops. Beans are harvested in April, chick-peas in June or July. Lupin is used as food, ferti- lizer, and dye-stuff. Chick-peas are exported, principally to Mar- seilles and Egypt. The total yield of legumes for household use is about 500,000 tons. Sesame, which is planted in the vicinity of Horns and Kama, in parts of the coastal plain, in the Plain of Sharon and the Valley of Esdraelon (the latter two regions produce the best quality), is a summer crop, and is used in the manufacture of oil. It is sowed in March or April and harvested in August or September. Of a total of 30,000 tons a considerable part is exported, mainly to France and Italy. Sesame is the crop most valued by the fellaheen. It is a delicate plant and easily destroyed by heavy rains. Sesame requires thorough tillage and much care. It forma a good green crop for wheat. Bice is planted in small quantities in the Vilayet of Aleppo and in the Jolan. Alfalfa and clover are planted mainly in the Vilayets of Aleppo and Damascus. Alfalfa, which requires much water, is grown in large quantities in the plain of Damascus, where it is used for fodder. From March to November it is reaped every few weeks. It is used as an additional crop between olive trees. Edible roots and tubers, for instance potatoes, play a far smaller role than in Europe. They are hardly planted at all, except in Damascus and Aleppo. Their price ranges from 80 to 100 francs per ton. The total yield of potatoes and beets is about 200,000 tons. Of vegetables, especially melons, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucum- bers, onions, garlic, carrots, cabbages, cauliflowers, artichokes, and asparagus are cultivated. Melons thrive on the coastal plain between Jaffa and Haifa. About 1,000,000 are exported yearly, worth approximately 250,000 francs. Onions (35,000 sacks in 1912) are exported from Tripoli and Latakia. The other vege- tables are used in the country. The fellaheen are expert vegetable growers. Watermelons, squashes, tomatoes, egg-plant, and onions do not require watering. 2 17 Syria: An Economic Survey 2. Commercial Crops. The principal commercial crops are tobacco, cotton, anise, hemp, sugar cane, fennel, and caraway seed. Caraway seed grows in small quantities near Tripoli and is exported (1,000 sacks in 1912), as is fennel. Sugar cane, which requires an abundance of water, thrives only on the coastal plain and in the Jordan Valley. It is planted in February or March and harvested in October or November. It has no industrial importance. Hemp is grown near Damascus and in the Vilayet of Aleppo on the Euphrates and is used in the rope-making industry. Hemp-seed is also used for food for poultry and in the manufacture of oil. The stalks are used for fuel. In 1912 1,300 tons valued at 1,000,000 francs were grown in the valley of the Barada. Anise is planted in the neighborhood of Damascus and is used in the production of arrack. Cotton is planted on a large scale in the Vilayet of Aleppo. Before the American Civil War it was cultivated along the whole coastal plain from Alexandretta to Gaza, and the annual yield was 19,800,000 pounds, worth 9,000,000 francs. As a result of the slump in the price of cotton after the war its cultivation was restricted to Northern Syria. In the last few years unsuccessful attempts have been made to grow cotton further south, in Latakia, Acre, Petach Tik- vah, etc. The staple of the Syrian cotton is very white and elastic, but short, being about 2 centimeters in length. The cultivation of tobacco is subject to the restrictions men- tioned in a preceding paragraph. Small quantities are grown in the Vilayet of Aleppo, larger quantities in the Vilayet of Beirut. Most of it is exported to Egypt and England, the rest being made into cigarettes in the Lebanon. Tombeki, a special kind of tobac- co used for the narghileh," is grown mainly around Latakia, but also in the vicinity of Beirut, Acre, Jaffa, Nablus, Tripoli, and Jerusalem. The total value of the tobacco and tombeki crops reaches approximately 5,000,000 francs. Summary. Annual Crops Used for Food and Fodder. Tons Value in francs Wheat 1,000,000 210,000,000 Barley 500,000 75,000,000 Durrha 200,000 30,000,000 Corn 50,000 6,000,000 Legumes 500,000 65,000,000 Sesame 30,000 12,000,000 Potatoes 200,000 18,000,000 Vegetables 25,000,000 Other plants — 9,000,000 18 445,000,000 Syria: An Economic Survey Commercial Crops Used for Industrial Purposes. Tons Value in francs Hemp 1,500 1,200,000 Cotton 3,000 3,500,000 Tobacco 2,500 5,000,000 Other crops (Fennel, anise, sugar, etc.) . . . . 300,000 10,000,000 3. Fruit Trees. The olive tree comes first in order of importance. It thrives on the coast as well as in the mountain districts, although in Northern Syria its existence is endangered by the heavy frosts. As the roots of the olive tree require a large area for proper devel- opment, not more than nine or ten trees can be planted to the dunam. The tree becomes productive after eight to ten years. The normal yield of an olive tree is from ten to twenty okka (1 okka=2.8 pounds). In 1909-1910 there were 3,593,566 olive trees in the Mutessariflik of Jerusalem, which bore 74,384,900 okka of fruit. The olives are either preserved green (September) or else used for the production of oil (November). An okka of fresh olives generally brings 20-25 centimes, an okka of olive oil 1.25 to 1.50 francs. Vines are grown throughout Syria. The total area covered by vineyards is estimated at 917,227 dunam (206,400 acres) which yields 270,286,150 okka of fruit, valued at 30,000,000 francs. The grapes ripen at various times between July and November, accord- ing to the climate. Most of the fresh fruit is consumed in Syria, being too perishable for transportation. Eaisins are made mainly in the Vilayets of Aleppo and Damascus, in the Lebanon, at Hebron, and at Es Salt. The production of wine is restricted to Shtorah in the Lebanon (about 132,000 gal. annually), the Jewish colonies in Palestine (1,056,000 gal.) and the German colonies near Jaffa and Haifa (132,000 gal.). Besides wine the Jews make cognac, liqueurs, and arrack. Phylloxera, which caused some damage during the last twenty years, has been combated by the introduction of American vines. In damp springs the vines are subject to oidium and plasmopara (true and false mildew). The mulberry bush is extensively cultivated on the coastal plain from Sidon to Antioch, in the Beka'a, etc. It is used for silk-worm culture. The yield of cocoons in Syria (mostly 19 Syria: An Economic Survey in the Lebanon) was 13,376,000 pounds in 1911. About 85 per cent is spun into raw silk in the country and then exported to France. Because of the depressed condition of the silk industry, silk-worm culture has grown less profitable, and in recent years many mulberry plantations have made way for other plantations, especially orange. The cultivation of oranges and lemons, especially the former, has greatly increased in the last two decades. Oranges thrive on the coastal plain and in the Jordan valley. As they require arti- ficial irrigation in summer, they are planted either along streams or on the coastal plain between Haifa and Gaza, where water may be obtained at a depth of from three to thirty meters. According to an official report the Vilayet of Aleppo has only 18,000 orange trees bearing 180,000 okka of fruit, and 3,235 lemon trees yielding 32,350 okka, whereas the Vilayet of Beirut has 26,430 dunam of orange and lemon trees producing 21,078,000 okka of fruit. There are no statistics at hand of the area of the large orange plantations in the Mutessariflik of Jerusalem (especially around Jaffa), but it may be estimated at 30,000 dunam, producing 50,000,000 okka. The Jewish and the German colonists plant seventy trees to the dunam. The Jaffa oranges are larger than those of Northern Syria. About 8,000,000 francs worth of oranges (not counting the value of the cases) are exported to Liverpool, and smaller quantities are sent to Eastern ports. The consumption of oranges in Syria is very high. The total value of the Syrian orange and lemon yield comes to about 15,000,000 francs. Among the other fruit trees grown in Syria are fig, apple, pear, peach, apricot, pomegranate, mulberry (red, with edible fruit), almond, pistachio, and walnut trees. The fruit of the carob tree is partly made into syrup in Damascus and Sidon, and partly exported. The value of all these fruits may be estimated at 10,000,000 francs. Almonds are cultivated mainly in Palestine. In 1913, 528,000 pounds of almonds, worth 225,000 francs, were exported from Jaffa. The total value of the almond crop is about 1,000,000 francs annually. Pistachio nuts are grown in Aleppo. 4. Wild Fruits. Licorice is collected in large quantities by the fellaheen in Northern Syria and sold to an American firm in Alexandretta, by whom it is exported. Since 1914 there is a tax of 2 para (1/5 cent) on every okka of licorice that is exported. Other wild plants are buckthorn berries, galls, gum, tragacanth, 20 Syria: An Economic Survey radix scammonia, and other herbs. The total value of these amounts to about 1,000,000 francs. The bitter-apple, which grows in the sandy, unplowed land around Gaza and Beersheba, is exported mainly to Germany. At the junction of the Jordan and Lake Huleh the papyrus reed grows in large quantities. 5. Animal Husbandry. In round numbers there are in Syria : 270,000 horses, donkeys, and mules, worth 50,000,000 francs; 500,000 heads of neat-cattle, worth 60,000,000 francs; 800,000 sheep and goats worth 96,000,- 000 francs ; and 180,000 camels worth 54,000,000, making a total of 260,000,000 francs. The horses of Syria are good, although thoroughbreds are rare. Donkeys are used both for transportation and plowing. The oxen in Damascus and the Lebanon are of a fairly good breed, but in the rest of the country they are small and neglected. The Damascus cow gives a maximum of 3,171 to 4,228 quarts of milk annually. Sheep are the mainstay of the classes which live by animal husbandry. There is only one kind, the fat tail sheep. The shear- ing takes place in April or May. The average yield is 6^ pounds of wool per head. There are two varieties of goats, the mambrina and the horned mountain goat. Camels are used only for transportation purposes. They are purchased from the Bedouin. Swine are to be found only in the Christian villages. Animal husbandry suffers severely from frequent murrains. The annual receipts of the whole country from animal husbandry (including milk, etc., goat's hair, hides, etc) amount to about 36,000,000 francs. To this sum must be added the profits derived from rearing the young of the various animals, about 67,000,000 francs, making a total of over 100,000,000 francs. Most of the young animals are kept in the country, although some are exported to Egypt. Cow's milk is used in the Vilayet of Damascus and in the Lebanon, as well as in the Palestinian colonies. The rest of the population use sheep's milk and goat's milk. Wool is brought in large quantities to the markets of Damas- cus, Horns, etc., by the Bedouin. The Hauran wool is very strong, and suitable for carpets. Almost all the wool is exported to Western Europe and America. 21 Syria: An Economic Survey 6. Poultry-Raising and Apiculture. Poultry-raising does not play an important role in Arabian husbandry. Chickens, pigeons, and turkeys are relatively abun- dant, geese and ducks very rare. A Jewish colonist in Eishon FZion has attempted to introduce ostrich-farming, but the results have not yet been ascertained. Eggs are exported (about 22,500,000 annually) and bring in about 900,000 francs. Apiculture is practised in a primitive way by the natives, modern methods being employed only by the Palestinian colonists. A hive yields about 33 pounds of good honey annually. 7. Agricultural By-Industries. Among agricultural by-products the following must be men- tioned: raisins, grape sugar, dried figs, dried apricots (also apri- cots passed through a sieve, dried, and used as a substitute for sugar) and preserved olives. II. Unit Farming: Scope, Method and Returns. A. Forms of Land Possession. — The greater part of the land in Syria is in the hands of large proprietors who live either in the country or in the city. According to Auhagen, about 20-30 per cent of Northern Syria, 15 per cent of Trans j or dania, 20 per cent of Northern Galilee and 50 per cent of Judaea is still in the posses- sion of the peasantry. Many of the orange plantations around Jaffa (exclusive of those in the Jewish colonies) belong to Effendis who live in the city. The Turkish law demands that all arable land which remains uncultivated for three consecutive years revert to the state; this happened very frequently until recent years. The tracts of land were then auctioned off and acquired at a low price by the absentee capitalists. The usual size of a Syrian farm is 100-200 dunam. Many fellaheen do not possess more than one-half or one-fourth of this, whereas some proprietors own at least 100,000 dunam. It is customary for the owners of estates to rent out their land to specu- lators who in turn sublet it to the fellaheen. These generally pay their rent in crops, on a share system. As a rule they are exploited by the speculators. B. Methods. 1. The Season Program of Farm Work; Crop Rotations. The agricultural methods of the fellaheen are practically 22 Syria: An Economic Survey those of Biblical times. For instance, the plow is most primitive, consisting of a wooden board with an iron nail at the end, with which the farmer scratches the surface to a depth of 10-15 centi- meters. The system of rotation has not been changed for centuries. Generally speaking, the program of the fellah inhabiting the coastal plain near Jaffa is as follows : Planting of clover and lupin immedately after the first heavy rainfall Second half of November and first half of December Earley first half of December Wheat December- January Lentils January Chickpeas February Weeding of wheat, barley, and legume fields February-March Planting of durrha Second half of March- April Planting of sesame Second half of April and first half of May Gathering in of clover and lupin Second half of May Mowing of barley End of April and first half of May Gathering in of lentils End of April and first half of May Mowing of wheat Second half of May and first half of June Gathering in of chickpeas .June Weeding of sesame June and July Picking of durrha August Gathering in of sesame August-September Threshing of winter and sum- mer crops May to October The widespread belief that the same field will yield two crops a year is erroneous, except in the case of artificially irrigated soil. It is true that there are two harvests, one in April or May, the other in August or September, but not on the same field. The fellaheen employ the system of two-year crop rotation, according to which they plant sesame, durrha or (on small fields) legumes the first year, and wheat or barley the second year. In the regions where the dew-fall is not sufficiently heavy for sesame or 23 Syria: An Economic Survey durrha, the soil is not plowed until the summer, but is allowed to remain as black fallow. At the end of the summer it is planted with winter crops. The fellah tries to maintain an equilibrium of nutritive substances by planting first nitrogen collectors (legumes) and deep-rooted plants, and then nitrogen consumers and shallow- rooted plants. He is careful to loosen and clean his soil by means of repeated plowing and frequent black fallow. 2. Agricultural Implements. The farms of the fellaheen, unprogressive as they are, have the merit of being well-balanced and adapted to natural and economic conditions, whereas the dairy farms of the German colo- nists depend on the proximity of a large town, and the vineyards and orange plantations of the Jewish colonists require capital, co-operative production, a market, and easy access to a port. More- over those Jewish colonies whose chief product is grain (especially those around Tiberias) have not yet evolved a successful modus operandi. A new system of husbandry will have to be found, with other crop rotations and other branches of husbandry, so that the individual may produce his own requirements (vegetables, fruit, poultry, eggs, honey, milk, etc.). The primitive implements of the fellah are suited to conditions; his plow conforms with the small dragging power of his oxen, which could not begin to move a European plow ; his sickle can be used on stony ground, where the cutting machine is valueless. He would gain nothing by replacing his threshing-drag with a threshing-machine, as his time costs nothing. In a word, innovations must be introduced gradually, as Syrian agriculture becomes more European in character. Many of the machines imported by the Palestinian colonists were found to be impractical. Among those, however, which proved useful, are the European plows, reaping machines (on cleared and even soil), harrows, sub-soil plows, rotary plows and chaff cutters. Sev- eral threshing machines are in use in the Jewish colonies, as well as cultivators and diskplows. 3. Draft and Breeding Animals. Animal husbandry is much neglected by the fellaheen. In the Jewish colonies horses and mules are used in preference to oxen. 4. Land Improvement and Fertility. In certain sections of the mountain regions the declivities have been skilfully terraced in order to prevent the soil from 24 Syria: An Economic Survey being washed away. Thus arable tracts of land are created. This terracing was much more resorted to in olden times. The fellaheen do not usually trouble to clear the land of stones. Much attention has been given to this phase of land improvement in the Jewish colonies, where the stones are used to build walls around the fields. Drainage by means of pipes has been attempted only in one place, namely, along the banks of the Aujah (north of Jaffa). The Jewish colonists of Hudeirah partially drained their marshes by planting eucalyptus forests. The large swamps along the coastal plain could only be drained by means of canalization, those on the banks of Lake Huleh by regulating the course of the Jordan. Afforestation has not been undertaken anywhere except in the vicinity of cities and in the Palestinian colonies. Fertilizing is unknown to the fellaheen. They do not keep cattle to any extent, and what little dung they have is dried and used as fuel, or else is heaped up on the ground and remains un- used. The Palestinian colonists used to buy these manure heaps from the Arabs, who are now, however, beginning to awaken to a realization of their value. 5. Irrigation. During the dry season irrigation is indispensable for oranges, lemons, etc. It is accomplished either by water from the streams or by pumps. Along the coastal plain from Gaza to Haifa, there are wells where water is found at sea-level. Lately the natives have followed the example of the Palestinian colonies and have used suction pumps and kerosene or coal-gas motors. The Jews were also the first to introduce the so-called "dry wells," which have been widely copied. In Petach Tikvah a large pumping station was constructed some years ago by the Palaestina, an irrigation company of Char- lottenburg. In 1916 the works supplied 1,500 dunam of orange plantations with water, charging from 15 to 35 francs per dunam according to the distance from the pumping station. The works are capable of irrigating 3,000 dunam. From 1911 to 1915 numer- ous attempts were made to introduce new systems of irrigation. The maximum depth of the wells along the coastal plain was 55 yards. Several Jews sank two wells 100 yards deep on the slopes of Mount Carmel. In the colony Huldah (Judaea) a well of 200 yards was sunk by means of an American drilling machine. Among the many irrigation projects of recent years special mention 25 Syr i a An Economic S u r v e y should be made of those which deal with utilizing the Jordan and the Aujah. The Jordan project is not easy of accomplishment because from Beisan to the Dead Sea the river bed lies very deep, and the water would have to be pumped up over 100 yards, unless a long canal were built from the upper course of the river. The utilization of the Aujah for irrigation purposes presents no serious difficulties. C. European Influences in Syrian Agriculture. The influence of the Palestinian agricultural colonies has been far greater than the number of their inhabitants would lead one to suppose. 1. The German Agricultural Colonies of Palestine* Founded Pop. Value Area (in francs) Principal products Sarona (near Jaffa) 1871 225 Wilhelma (near Jaffa) . . . 1902 229 B'er Salem (near Jaffa). .1890 10 Bethlehem (near Naza- reth) Um el Amed (near Nazareth — also called Waldheim)...1907 100 8,000 4,000,000 Dairy products, wine, oranges, vegetables. 10,000 2,000,000 Dairy products, oranges, cereals. 3,538 500,000 Wine, almonds, (Agricultural orphanage.) 1907 60 7,500 750,000 Cereals, timber. 7,500 750,000 Cereals, timber. (The German urban population of Palestine in Haifa, Jerusa- lem, and Jaffa, which also engages in husbandry to a certain ex- tent, numbers approximately 1,400 souls.) The German farmers introduced the European system of crop rotations with fodder culti- vation and fertilizers. They use artificial fertilizers imported from Germany. They have met with signally good results in diversified farming. 2. The Jewish Agricultural Colonies of Palestine. The Jewish agricultural settlement of Palestine began in 1870 with the establishment of the Agricultural School Mikveh Israel near Jaffa by Charles Netter, the representative of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. In 1878 the first colony, Petach Tikvah, was founded by Jerusalem Jews, in 1882 Rishon PZion was founded Founded by Templars from Wtirttemberg. 26 Syria: An, Economic Survey by Russian Jews, and two other colonies by Roumanian Jews, namely Ziehron Jacob in Samaria and Rosh Pinah in Galilee. The colonists went through tremendous sufferings because of sickness and poor harvests, and would have succumbed had it not been for the help tendered them from 1885 on by Baron Edmund de Rothschild of Paris. The colonies in Upper Galilee made attempts to intro- duce silk-worm culture and the production of rose oil, later tree- plantations and grain cultivation, whereas the Judaean and Samari- tan colonies engaged in wine growing. Wine cellars costing several millions of francs were constructed in Rishon PZion and Ziehron Jacob. But despite the superior quality of the wine the sale did not keep pace with the production, and the producers were faced by a crisis. For a time Baron Rothschild bought the wine himself and either stored it or else sold it at an enormous loss. This state of things was untenable. Finally, considerable tracts of vine- yards were replaced by other trees (especially almond trees). In 1910 the failure of the European wine crop made it possible to dispose of the stored-up wine, and the wine-growers, who had mean- while formed an association of Jewish vintners and taken over the cellars in Rishon FZion and Ziehron Jacob, began to gain a firm footing commercially. They arranged for the sale of their wines by founding special agencies in various countries, and created an important and remunerative market for themselves in Egypt. They produce from 792,000 to 1,056,000 gallons of wine, cognacs, and liqueurs, worth about a million francs. In the meantime, other plantations were founded in the colonies — orange, almond, olive, and eucalyptus. The cultivation of oranges has assumed consider- able dimensions, and has been successful, with very few exceptions. The center of orange growing is Petach Tikvah, 11.2 miles north of Jaffa. The orange growers have also organized two associations, Mercaz and Pardes, for the sale of the fruit. In 1913 the total yield of oranges in the Jewish colonies amounted to about 600,000 cases, valued at 2,000,000 francs. Besides the above-named colonies, which devote themselves mainly to orchards, there are three colonies in Judaea, and about twenty in Samaria, Lower Galilee, and Upper Galilee, which are occupied mainly with grain cultivation and animal husbandry. The colonies in Lower Galilee were founded in the years 1902-1910 by the Jewish Colonization Association with funds provided by Baron Rothschild, who had given over the administration of the colonies he was supporting to the J. C. A. in 1900. Although these colonies are pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm, the results of grain 27 Syria: An Economic Survey cultivation have so far not been brilliant. Therefore, there is a tendency to devote part of the land to orchards, as in the Judaean colonies, and to engage in so-called diversified farm- ing. As a matter of fact, grain cultivation in Palestine is less profitable for the European immigrant than orchards and, more- over, the Jew seems to have a greater aptitude for the care of trees than for grain cultivation. In any case, the excellence of the tree plantations in the Jewish colonies is admitted without a dissenting voice. They are generally considered models, whereas grain cultivation and animal husbandry as practised by the Jews leave much to be desired, and have not as yet proved unquestionably profitable. Since the administration of the colonies has been in the hands of the J. C. A., an effort has been made after a fifteen-year period of support to set the colonists on their own feet again. The J. C. A. succeeded in reducing the subsidies accorded the colo- nists by a considerable amount, and in rendering some of the colonies entirely independent. This task was facilitated by the immigration, even before 1900, of a number of rich Eastern Euro- pean Jews, adherents of the Hovevei Zion (Friends of Zion) move- ment, who either founded their own plantations or else formed societies in Europe whose representatives were sent to Palestine for that purpose. The number of private plantations has grown since 1908, when several stock companies founded under Zionist auspices began to establish farms, and so to popularize cultivation on a large scale, of which there was only one instance in Palestine before that, the farm school of the J. C. A. in Sedjera, founded in 1899. As a result Jewish agricultural colonization not only was enriched, but it acquired a spirit of independence which had a salutary effect on the "dependent" colonies. It has sometimes been asserted, especially by German agricul- turists, that the Jewish colonists are not real farmers, but rather manufacturers of and dealers in fruits. Unquestionably the Jewish plantation colonies have a strong commercial tinge. In this respect they differ from the German colonies and approach American farms in character. The proprietor does not participate in the work himself, but undertakes the bookkeeping and the sale of the fruit. It may well be asked whether in Palestine that which the German farmer, judging by German standards, considers a defect, may not represent a higher grade of agricultural activity. In one respect, however, this commercial tendency is a great draw- back, for it keeps the planter from growing requirements which 28 Syria: An Economic Survey he is forced to buy, thus spending a considerable part of his earn- ings. If the colonists, with the help of their wives, were to produce vegetables, dairy products, poultry, etc., their situation would be far less hazardous. The farmhands in the plantation colonies are Arabs from the neighboring villages, and also Jews. The Jewish farm hands are either young people from. Eastern Europe whose love for Palestine and for agriculture has induced them to become laborers, or else Circassian and Yemenite Jews who have immigrated to Palestine in the last ten or twenty years, and are used to a very frugal exis- tence. The wages of the laborers ranges from 1.25 to 2 francs a day; expert laborers are paid higher wages for special jobs. The Jewish laborers who have been drafted from urban callings do not accustom themselves rapidly to farm work in the hot Palestinian climate; many are unable to do so, and others persevere in the work only at the cost of a tremendous effort, despite which their work is inferior to that of the native Arab laborer. Nevertheless, in March, 1915, there were 2,381 laborers and their families in Judaea, including 941 Yemenites. Before the war, besides these Jewish laborers, there were two or three times as many Arab laborers. In the colonies of Lower Galilee where grain cultivation is the rule, there are numbers of Jewish laborers, in contrast to Upper Galilee, where the Jewish colonist usually leases his land to the Arabs. The following table gives a list of all the Jewish agricultural settlements, exclusive of those which are no longer inhabited (Yehudiyeh near Petach Tikvah, and Tantura near Zichron Jacob) and of the land which is owned by Jews, but has not yet been settled, namely, about 56,000 dunam in the Hauran and 30,000 dunam in Western Palestine. THE JEWISH AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENTS OF PALESTINE IN 1914. Name Founded Area Pop. Principal products Remarks I. In Judaea, near Jaffa. 1. Mikveh Israel 1870 2,612 100 Wine, oranges, Agricultural vegetables, School of cereals, milk, the A. I. U. 2. Rishon 1'Zion* ...1882 10,926 1,500 Wine, oranges, Big wine- 3. Wadi Hanin (Ness almonds. cellars. Tsionah) 1882 2,390 200 Oranges, wine, . almonds. * Including the laborers' settlement Nachlat Yehudah. 29 Syria: An Economic 8 u r v e y Name Founded Area Pop. Principal products Remarks 4. B'er Jacob 1908 2,040 150 Almonds. Laborers' settlement. 5. Rehobot 1890 14,193 1,100 Wine, oranges, 6. Ekron (Mazkeret almonds, olives. Batiah) 1884 13,000 360 Cereals, milk, olives, almonds. 7. Katrah (G'derah) .1885 5,970 180 Almonds, wine, cereals. Kastiniyeh 1896 5,623 170 Cereals, almonds. Ruhamah (Djemamah) . .1911 6,000 30 Almonds. Farm. Petach Tikvah ...1878 23,870 3,300 Oranges, wine, almonds, olives, eucalyptus, cereals. 762 200 Vegetables, Laborers' oranges, settlement, eucalyptus. 4,220 20 Almonds. 7,231 100 Almonds, olives, eucalyptus. 120 Olives, Farm, almonds, dairy products. 1,973 30 Olives, Farm. almonds. 4,800 30 Almonds, Farm, olives. 8. 9. 10. 11. Ain-Gannim 1908 12. 13. Kfar Malal 1912 Kfar Saba . ..1892 14. Ben Shemen 1906 2,329 15. 16. 17. 18. Hulda 1909 Kfar Uriyeh . ..1912 Artuf 1896 4,727 Motsah (near Jerusalem) . . 1894 750 150 Grain, almonds, Farm and milk. colony. 40 Wine, olives. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. II. In Samaria, near Haifa. Hudeirah 1891 32,500 300 Cereals, oranges, olives, eucalyptus, almonds. Hephtsibah .1905 5,908 20 Oranges, Property of almonds. "Agudat N'tayim." Kerkur 1913 15,500 50 Almonds, Farm. oranges, cereals. Zichron Jacob 1882 30,668 1,000 Wine, cereals, Big wine almonds, cellars. oranges, olives. 50 Cereals, almonds, wine. 80 Cereals, milk, almonds. Shveyah . 1891 6,915 Urn el Djemal....l891 7,642 Atlit 1909 6,800 26. Merhaviah 1911 9,415 80 Cereals. Colony and Agricultural Experiment Station. 100 Cereals, dairy Farm and products. colony, almonds. 30 a y rid Economic 8 u r v e y Name Founded Area Pop. Principal products Remarks 27. Sedjerah 1899 17,720 200 Cereals, olives, Farm and oak-forests. colony. 28. Mes'chah 1902 10,120 250 Cereals. 29. Yemmah 1902 23,290 300 Cereals. 30. Poriah 1911 3,545 50 Almonds, Farm. olives, eucalyptus. 31. Raman 1913 5,000 30 Almonds, Farm. olives. 32. Bedjen 1904 5,681 50 Cereals. 33. Mitspah 1908 2,941 50 Cereals. 34. Kinneret 1908 9,000 100 Cereals, Farm and vegetables, colony, oranges, almonds. 35. Daganiah 1909 3,073 30 Cereals, Farm. vegetables, almonds, oranges. 36. Migdal 1910 6,000 50 Cereals, vege- Farm. tables, milk, almonds, oranges. 37. Bethaniah 1913 600 30 Bananas, Farm. fruits. 38. Melhamiyeh 1902 8,477 100 Cereals. 39. Rosh Pinah* 1882 41,987 700 Cereals, almonds. 40. Mishmar ha- Yarden 1890 7,569 100 Cereals. 41. Yessod ha-Maalah.1883 12,228 160 Cereals. 42. Metullah 1896 16,731 300 Cereals. 43. Ain-Seitun, .,,-.-.-.» 1891- 6,016 30 Wine, olives. * Including 21, 88 5 dunam of uncultivable land. An investigation conducted in March, 1915, showed that in the Judaean colonies (Nos. 1-17) there were 7,499 Jewish inhabitants, including the following: Colonists (with families) 2,735 Laborers (with families) 2,381 (941 Yemenites) Tradespeople (with families) . . . 1,268 Other callings or without calling. 1,115 Total... 7,499 At the same period there were the following plantations in these colonies: Dunam Oranges 7,900 Vineyards 12,000 Almonds 27,000 Olives, etc 7,200 54,100 Value per Dun. in francs 1,200 200 150 150 Total Value 9,480,000 2,400,000 4,050,000 1,080,000 17,010,000 31 Syria: An Economic Survey In the other Jewish colonies in Palestine the plantations may be estimated as follows: Value per Dun. Total Dunam in francs Value Oranges 1,300* 1,000 1,300,000 Vineyards 2,000 200 400,000 Almonds 10,000 150 1,500,000 Olives 2,000 150 300,000 Eucalyptus 2,000 100 200,000 17,300 3,700,000 Thus the total value of the plantations in the Jewish colonies may be estimated at 21,000,000 francs. To this must be added the value of the uncultivated land (about 340,000 dunam at 50 francs a dunam), approximately 17,000,000 francs, and that of the buildings, wine-cellars, water-works, implements, live-stock, etc., making a total of from 60 to 70 million francs. The annual value of the crops may be estimated as follows: Francs Oranges (600,000-700,000 cases) 2,000,000 Grapes (15,840,000 pounds) ., 500,000 Almonds (about 1,100,000 pounds) 500,000 Olives (about 2,200,000 pounds) 100,000 Other tree plantations (figs, eucalyptus, apricots, etc.) . 50,000 Cereals, legumes, and sesame 1,200,000 Vegetables 100,000 Dairy farming 200,000 Poultry raising and apiculture 50,000 Receipts from travel and the renting of vehicles 50,000 Total 4,750,000 Taking it all in all we can say that the plantations in the Jewish colonies are models of their kind, and that the colonists, through their initiative and enterprise have not only organized the sale of their products in a new and efficient way, but that they have made their colonies into real oases of civilization, thanks to the schools, physicians, druggists, and water-works they have intro- duced. They have persevered in their work despite an enormous sacrifice of health, and even life, and have transformed unwhole- * Of these orange plantations 1,100 dunam are situated In Hudeirah and HephtBibah. 32 Syria: An Economic Survey some spots like Hudeirah, for instance, by the introduction of the eucalyptus tree, which drained the marshes. Those colonies which engage in grain cultivation are not yet on a stable basis and are still groping for a suitable and profitable type of farming. A great problem is constituted by the fact that the Jews, coming from a European milieu, cannot reduce their manner of working and their demands to the low level of the Arab without injuring their health, their intellectual development, and their working capacity. On the other hand, they have not yet found a way of making grain cultivation so profitable that it will admit of being carried on according to higher technical methods. The better tilling of the soil resulting from the employment of European implements has not yet produced an increase of profits to correspond with the in- crease in the expense. What is necesary is a radical change in the whole procedure of farming (introduction of cattle for food and dairy purposes, etc.). Besides, the production of vegetables, poul- try, dairy products, etc., with the co-operation of the farmer's wife has not yet been developed, and as a result the farmer is compelled to buy requirements. In this respect the German colonists are better situated, as their wives have been of great assistance on the farms. The establishment of an agricultural experiment station in Atlit, near Haifa, in 1910, is due to the interest taken in Palestine by rich American Jews. Since 1912 a Hebrew monthly, Hahciklai, has been appearing in Jaffa, which deals with the practical problems confronting the Jewish farmers. 3. The Muhajir Settlements. Mohammedan Circassians who left Kussia and Bosnia after the Treaty of Berlin settled in several sections of Trans j or dania (for instance, Amman, Djerash, etc.), in Kafr-Kama near Tiberias, and in the ancient city of Kuneitrah east of Lake Huleh, etc. They have introduced advanced agricultural methods and are skilled in animal husbandry. The Circassians are cleanly, diligent, and courageous. 4. The Influence of Monks and Missionaries. Mention should be made of the agricultural achievements of the Christian monks and missionaries. It is they who are respons- ible for the terraces and olive plantations of Bet j alia (near Jerusa- lem), the forests of Kubebeh (Emmaus), the dairy and vegetable farms of Latrun (between Jaffa and Jerusalem), 9fiO t ,^9 nyriao stll ^aitesiijdiia luodiiW 33^'' kg. 18. 4. 4. 1. 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. 6 5 6 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 9 9 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 5 6 5 3 8 6 5 3 10 8 3 35 25 20 16 15 12 60 50 70 60 16. 13. 10. 13.50 11. 10. 14.25 13.25 10.25 8.25 14.75 12.75 15. 12. 11. 8.70 20. 18. 13. 12. 65. 49. 30. 26. 21. 18. 67. 67. 78. 58. 14. I 10.50 7. 5. 12.76 9.25 7.25 4.25 13.25 8.25 13. 8. 10. 5.30 15. 7. 6! 40. 26. 37.60 26.50 29. 19.50 53. 33. 42. 23. Beans II III I Lupine II Vetches .... II Lentils II Durrha • II Melons II ' II Potatoes Green beans and peas Beets II II ' II Cabbage and cauliflower Tomatoes and eggplant II II . I II • I, superior quality of soil ; II, middling quality ; III, inferior quality, t One kele = about 35 liters, i. e., about 25 kilograms of wheat, 20 kilograms of barley, or 23 kilograms of beans, vetches, etc. J Without subtracting the osher and the wergho. 34 Syria: An Economic Survey It is interesting to compare the budgets of various types of farms. Three farms belonging to fellaheen in the neighborhood of Lydda may be taken as examples of native husbandry. Type I consists of about 100 dunam, and is worked only by the fellah ancl his wife; the net profit amounts to about 750 francs annually. Type II, of the same size, is more elaborately run, the fellah em- ploying two laborers for several months in the year; the annual net profit is 1,485 francs in a good year. Type III, about 500 dunam in size, requires five tenant partners (charats), two shep- herds, and a watchman. The net profit is 1,780 francs. It must not be forgotten that the fellah is compelled to pay out 20 per cent of his profit for taxes, the osher, wergho, etc. The advantage of the native farm is that the income is fairly uniform, that the risk is small, and that little capital is needed to run it. The Jewish and German farms in Palestine, on the other hand, which are run according to European methods, require a far greater investment for buildings, etc. In general it may be said that the native farmer requires an invested capital of 5,000 francs inclusive of land (100 dunam) or 1,000 francs exclusive of land; the Jewish colonist requires an invested capital of 17,000 francs inclusive of land (200 dunam) or 8,000 francs exclusive of land; and the German colonist requires an invested capital of 24,000 francs inclusive of land (200 dunam) or 14,000 francs exclusive of land. 35 Syria: An Economic Survey § I ^ 1 3IIIK •uojpnpoj,! i! sc p o o to OS rH t- CO t- O CO rH CO* 00 •^ to to 00 O CO CN rH ^ q ^ os Ci OS rH to co eo CN t- o os co TJJ co t- to CO rH t-* rH CO I- rH to d rH 05 to ^ O o o ^o «s 1 So M t- os co to b- rH O 00 OS CO rH 00 to OS t^ CO' 00 «i .aj-o BrflSgsgc'cS'ffig w"S "Hi ^o 2 « !•! -e eS'O °HH 3=3 *"&£ - H1 lUJ.i s I. 21 I I 3 £ 57 t3 I •xs i? o I ^ g « -+~> I fl 5 -s M o a? H 1 *»E S of § S • S o s ^ B?S *s **» Ifg ^52 g J£Ho =5^5 ! s Si* 1 53 >» S= 45 . England. Germany. « E s: a I s Barley. Quinces. & . a iBJ B *3 « a * S8 Syria: An Economic Survey C. The Main Branches of Foreign Trade. Import : 1. Victuals and delicacies. 1. Flour. — The Syrian wheat flour is not suitable for fine pastry. Flour is imported from Russia, Roumania, and Bulgaria, especially by the Palestinian Jews. In years when the crops fail inferior qualities are imported from other coun- tries as well. 2. Sugar is imported from Austria, Russia, etc. 3. Rice is extensively used by the well-to-do natives, and is imported from Egypt. 4. Coffee comes mostly from Santos (Brazil). The Arabian coffee from the Yemen is of a superior quality, and has been much used during the war. 5. Tea is brought from China, India, and Java. Recently a large Moscow firm established a branch in Palestine. 6. Cocoa is not much used in Syria, except by Europeans. 7. Pepper is extensively used, especially the domestic red pepper. The black pepper of the Peruvian pepper tree grow- ing along the coast is not used, but real black pepper is im- ported from the East. 2. Alcohol and beverages. Alcohol is imported from Russia, Austria, and Java. Beer, etc., is imported from Germany and Austria, mineral waters from France, Austria, etc. 3. Coal and petroleum. Coal is used (1) to fire trains, (2) to make gas in Beirut and electricity in Damascus, (3) for coal-gas motors, (4) for steam machines, (5) for heating purposes. Practically all the coal used in Syria is imported from England, small quantities coming from Heraclea (Turkey) and Germany. In 1910-1911 the amount of coal imported was 143,530,833 pounds, valued at 8,671,198 francs. According to the official statistics, 87,966,- 173 pounds of petroleum were used in Syria in 1910. Forty years ago American petroleum was used in Syria exclusively, but it has been forced out of the market by Russian petroleum from Baku. In recent years it has partially regained its former popularity, due to the efforts of the Vacuum Oil Com- 59 Syria: An Economic Survey pany. Smaller quantities of petroleum are also imported from Koumania and Galicia. Petroleum is used for illumination, partly for cooking in the cities, and in large quantities for petroleum motors. Petroleum cannot be imported in tank ships, but is brought in in cases. A case (about 66 pounds) costs 8-12 francs in the harbor towns. 4. Various Commodities. Paper is imported mostly from Austria-Hungary, matches from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Germany, etc. Window-glass comes almost exclusively from Belgium. 5. Building Materials. Wood is brought largely from the Bukovina. According to the official statistics about 3,000,000 francs worth was im- ported into Syria in 1910-1911. Cement is much used in building, and is brought from Marseilles, Belgium, etc. Lime, gypsum and hydraulic lime come from France and Cyprus. Flag-stones and tiles are brought from Marseilles. Marble is imported from Italy, mostly on sailboats. 6. Metal, Metal Ware, and Machines. Iron, hardware, enamel ware, are sent to Syria from Bel- gium, as well as from Germany and France. Iron bedsteads come from England, enamel ware from Austria-Hungary and Belgium. Copper, zinc, tin, lead, are imported from England, Ger- many, Belgium, etc. Machines and pumps valued at 3,850,000 francs were im- ported into Syria in 1910-1911, including locomotives, loco- mobiles, steam motors, agricultural machines, pumps, sewing machines, etc. 7. Woven Goods, Fezes, and Ready-made Clothes. Woven goods worth about 55,000,000 francs were brought into Syria in 1910-1911, mostly from England. In the last years India has begun to crowd England from the cotton yarn market, and other countries have participated in the import of cotton goods. Burlap and empty sacks are brought from India, Eng- land, and Austria-Hungary. 60 S y r i a An Economic Survey Stockings are imported from England, although they are manufactured in considerable quantities in Syria. Fezes are imported from Austria, where there is a syndi- cate of fez manufacturers. Ready-made clothes are imported mostly from Germany and Austria. 8. Chemicals, drugs, dyes. The main chemicals imported are soda, potash, alum, nitric acid, sulphur, sulphuric acid, and glucose. Drugs are imported from Germany and other countries, especially quinine. Dyes. — Synthetic indigo and all chemically prepared dyes are imported from Germany. Natural indigo comes from India. 9. Oranges and Lemons. The English Consular Eeport gives the following table for the export (including export to Turkey) of oranges and lemons from Syrian ports: From Jaffa . . Tripoli . Sidon . . Beirut . 1909 . 744,463 . 134,000 . 188,000 3,200 Number of cases. 1910 1911 1912 853,767 869,850 1,418,000 218,000 135,000 140,000 125,000 70,000 79,600 1,200 4,800 1,860 1913 1,608,570 Jaffa .. Tripoli . Sidon . . Beirut . .4,650,000 . 600,000 . 800,000 . 10,000 Value in francs. 5,875,000 5,440,000 7^100,000 900,000 600,000 600,000 500,000 300,000 300,000 5,000 15,000 6,000 7,450,000 The Jaffa oranges, which can be transported for long distances, are packed in cases containing about 77 ^pounds (144 pieces) and sent to Liverpool in boats which come to Jaffa for the purpose. The freight usually amounts to 1.50 francs per case. The packing and bringing the oranges to the port cost the planter about 2-2% francs per case. In Liverpool a case generally brings 7-8 francs, so that the planter makes 3-4 francs net on each case. Oranges are also sent to Egypt as well as to Smyrna, Constantinople, and Odessa. 61 Syria: An Economic Survey Orange Export from Jaffa in 1913-1914. To Liverpool 887,481 cases " Manchester 400 " " London 4,626 " " other English ports 3,361 " " Marseilles 3,412 " " Hamburg 9,487 " " Trieste 58,492 " " Odessa 148,409 " " Egypt, Australia 149,846 " " Turkish ports 268,942 " " Eoumania and Bulgaria. . . . 19,405 " Total 1,553,861 " The Jaffa oranges are exported partly by dealers who buy the fruit from the planters before it is ripe. The Jewish orange planters in the vicinity of Jaffa are organized into two- associations (Pardess and Merkaz) which determine where the oranges are to be sent. Each member marks his cases with hi& own name, so that he may be reimbursed according to the quality of his fruit. In the year 1913-1914 the Pardess ex- ported about 270,000 cases, the Merkaz 112,000 cases, and the German colonists about 40,000 cases. 10. Olive Oil and Soap. The export of olive oil is inconsiderable. In recent years it has not been exported but imported, and used for soap making. In 1910-1911 about five million francs worth of soap was exported, mostly to other parts of Turkey and to Egypt. 11. Cocoons, Silk Yarns, and Oriental Woven Goods. Cocoons and silk yarns are exported from Beirut to Mar- seilles. (Raw silk yarn is imported into Syria from China.) Oriental woven goods are sent into the interior of the country as well as to Egypt, Constantinople, etc. 12. Wine. Most of the wine exported is that of the Jewish Vintners' Association, which exports Rishon FZion wine from Jaffa and Zichron Jacob wine from Haifa or Tanturah. The wine is exported to Egypt and in lesser quantities to Europe and to America. In 1913-1914 the Association disposed of: 62 Syria: An Economic Survey Ked wine 594,000 gallons White wine 105,600 " Sweet wine 145,200 " Arrack 6,864 « Cognac 22,440 Liqueurs 1,320 " Total 875,424 " Wine is also produced by the German colonists, by the Jewish Agricultural school Mikveh Israel, by the Trappist Monks in Latrun, and in the Lebanon. 13. Wheat, Barley, Legumes, and Sesame. The success of the crops determines each year whether these products are to be exported or imported. Sesame is practically always exported. In 1910-1911, when the crops were of average size, 194,836 pounds of wheat, 3,853,784 pounds of barley, etc., were exported. 14. Wild plants. (See page 20.) 15. Cattle, Butter, Wool, Hides, Eggs, etc. (See page 21.) III. Inland Trade. The inland trade of Syria consists in (1.) Supplying the consumer with domestic or imported wares ; (2.) Disposing of domestic products to the exporter. The inland trade of Syria plays a much smaller role than in other countries, because the fellaheen produce their own require- ments to a great extent. Their other needs are so inconsiderable that a single storekeeper can supply several villages. In the cities the inland trade is more considerable, although the urban popula- tion secures part of its requirements from the fellaheen of the neighborhood (especially vegetables, poultry, etc.), who come to the cities on market days. The bazaars are grouped according to trades. The most important branch of the inland trade consists in supplying the cities and those parts of the country which are poor in grain with grain, legumes, oil-producing plants, and cattle. Large quantities of legumes are brought from Horns and Hama to Aleppo, Tripoli, Beirut, and the Lebanon, from the Hauran to Damascus and Haifa, from Trans j or dania to Haifa and Jerusalem ; barley is brought from Horns and Hama to Aleppo, Tripoli, and Beirut, and from Gaza and Beersheba to Jerusalem and Jaffa. 63 Syria: An Economic Survey Legumes are transported throughout the country, principally from the Beka'a and Transjordania, sesame from the Plain of Esdraelon and the coastal plain. Sheep are bought from the Bedouin by dealers in the inland cities (Aleppo, Horns, etc.) and transported west and south. The trader forms the connecting link not only between producer and consumer, but, in those cases where the production is in excess of domestic needs, between producer and exporter. Sometimes there are several middlemen. In Syria there is no clear distinction between wholesaler and retailer. The Jewish and German orange planters and the Jewish almond planters, who have formed syndicates which dispose of their products at home and abroad, depend neither on inland traders nor on exporters. The vintners around Jaffa have gone still further in forming associ- ations both for output and sale. Their wine is made by a central agency and sold by a central agency. The most remunerative branch of inland trade is the distri- bution of the wares brought into the country by the importer. Goods bought in Beirut and Aleppo are taken to smaller cities, which in their turn form distributing stations for towns and vil- lages. Thus Damascus, Tripoli, Sidon, Haifa, Jaffa, and Jerusa- lem depend on Beirut, while Acre, Nazareth, Tiberias, and Safed depend in their turn on Haifa, etc. But this relationship is of a more or less temporary nature. Damascus, Haifa, and Jaffa are beginning to emancipate themselves from their dependence on Beirut and to negotiate directly with European firms. Trans- jordania, which heretofore did its buying in Jerusalem and Nablus, has been connected with Haifa and Damascus by the Hejaz Kail- way. The opening of the Afuleh-Beersheba line will cause many changes. Inland trade is generally profitable. The dealers are shrewd business men, far more honest than their reputation would lead one to suppose. Allied with the inland trade is the overland transportation of goods to Bagdad and other places in the interior by camel. This activity amounts to about 2,000,000 francs. IV. Bedouin Trade. The centers of the Bedouin trade are Aleppo, Horns, Hama and Damascus, and in a smaller measure Zahleh, Tiberias, Safed, Hebron, and Beersheba. The Bedouin bring the products of animal husbandry, live stock (camels, sheep, goats, horses), wool, hides, butter, and eggs to the markets and exchange them for grain, petroleum, sugar, tobacco, groceries, fire-arms and ammuni- tion, dress goods and saddles. The value of the products brought 64 Syria: An Economic Survey to trade centers by the Bedouin approximates 45,000,000 francs, as follows: 600,000 sheep 10,000,000 francs 100,000 camels 25,000,000 " Several thousand horses 1,000,000 " 30,000 goats 200,000 « Wool 5,000,000 " Hides 500,000 " Butter (Sheep's milk) 3,000,000 " Eggs 300,000 " Total .45,000,000 " The price of a white sheep varies from 10 to 15 francs, that of a red sheep from 20 to 30 francs. A camel brings from 250 to 500 francs. The price of a pound of unwashed wool is .57 francs, that of a pound of washed wool 1.15 francs. According to the official report 4,700,000 francs worth of wool, 900,000 francs worth of sheep and goat hides, 70,000 francs of other raw hides, and 2,000,000 francs worth of butter were exported from Syria in 1910-1911. Peddlers from Safed, etc., go into the desert with their wares. V. Trade Monopolies (Salt, Tobacco and Tombelci). A. Salt. — Since 1881 the salt monopoly has been given over to the Dette Publique Ottomane, which has offices in Aleppo and Beirut. The annual income derived from this monopoly is about 2,000,000 francs. The salt is taken from Asia Minor, the Salt Lake of Jebull near Aleppo, and the Dead Sea, and is sold either at the center of production or at railway junctions and ports. Some of the salt is exported. Before the war large quantities of salt were smuggled in by the Bedouin. B. Tobacco. — The Regie Cointeressee des Tabacs de L'Empire Ottoman has offices in Aleppo, Damascus, Latakia and Beirut. According to an ordinance of 1914 the monopoly consists of (1) the right to control and buy all the tobacco which is planted; (2) the right to tax imported and exported tobacco cut or treated ; and (3) the right to prepare and sell cigars, cigarettes, cut tobacco and snuff. This government monopoly is not in force in the Lebanon, where there are about 20 cigarette factories. These factories buy up tobacco both in the Lebanon and also outside the Lebanon by means of contraband, and succeed in selling their wares within the precincts of the Regie. The Regie itself imports tobacco from 5 65 Syria: An Economic Survey Turkey and Greece and manufactures cigarettes,, etc., in Aleppo and Damascus. C. Tombeki. — Tombeki is the tobacco used for water pipes (narghileh). It was imported from Persia by the Societe du Tombac until 1912, when the monopoly expired. Since then the importer must pay a tax of 4 piastres per kilogram to the Regie. The tombeki grown in Syria is handled by the Regie. VI. Banks and Currency. A. Banks. — The banking system of Syria is in the hands of the following companies, except for a few companies in Aleppo and Beirut. (See page 67.) The Banque Imp&riale Ottomane is the central banking com- oern of Turkey since 1863. Its concession has been renewed several times, now being in force until 1925. The Banque Imperials Ottomane functions as the Sub-Treasury of the Imperial Govern- ment, and is the only bank permitted to issue notes. The circu- lation of notes must always be covered at least 33 1/3 per cent in metal. The notes of the Banque Imperiale Ottomane have never become popular, the total circulation in 1913 not exceed- ing 1,000,000 Ltq., only 6 per cent of the total liabilities of the bank. In its capacity as Sub-Treasury the bank receives the income of the Government and is responsible for all its expendi- tures. For this it gets a fixed commission. Besides, the bank is free to engage in all branches of the banking business, so that it may really be considered a private commercial bank which has the profitable privilege of administering the finances of the govern- ment. As before the war its capital was in foreign hands and the government had no influence in its management, it did not fill the place which a National Bank does in the economic life of other countries, namely, that of a central institute which serves the interests of the country, administers its bank and currency system, etc. The banking system in Syria is absolutely unorganized. Each bank does business according to its own ideas. The Anglo-Palestine Company, Ltd., with its seat in London, does business exclusively in Turkey. Its object is to better the economic condition of the Palestinian Jews. Apart from its ordi- nary banking business the Anglo-Palestine Bank extends credits on real estate on a small scale. It was the Anglo-Palestine Bank that introduced mutual loan associations into Turkey. According to its financial report of December 31, 1913, the outstanding long-term credits of the Anglo-Palestine Bank amounted to about 66 Syria: An Economic Survey |1 « ! s* | if! 111!; iHOO 1-100 c.oo p" ©"< 5 >ac BB O I II ££ •-s a 13 •sSa § »» II III g II Is « K o g Q e< 67 Syria: An Economic Survey 900,000 francs, besides which it had loaned about 620,000 francs in short-term credits to 52 loan associations with about 2,300 members. Since the beginning of the war the activities of the bank have been suspended. The Banque Commerciale de Palestine does regular banking business in Jerusalem, and recently has engaged in loaning money to farmers on a small scale. The Deutsche Palastina-Bank became affiliated with the syndi- cate of the Dukes Hohenlohe and Fuerstenburg about ten years ago, when its capital was increased to 20,000,000 marks. Before the war the bank was to be separated from the ducal combination and administered by the Deutsche Orientbank, but at present it is still working under the syndicate. The banking business done by private firms is not of great moment. In Aleppo, however, there are eight or ten bankers who do regular business, and 25 smaller bankers who discount second class bills of exchange refused by the larger banks, at an enormous rate of interest, far above the legal 9 per cent. The volume of investment securities in Syria is very limited and the business done in them is confined chiefly to the purchase of such paper for the investment of savings. The mortgage bonds of the Credit Foncier Egyptien are the most important, paying only 3 per cent interest, but having the attractions of lottery features. They are issued in denominations of 250 francs. Besides, Turkish and several French premium bonds are bought. Speculation in securities is practically non-existent. The credit system is carried on by means of discounting bills or advances made on current account. Usually the paper runs for no more than 3 months. In many cases the discounted bill is not really commercial but rather a promissory note, the signature of the drawer serving as a guarantee. As in Europe, the customer's notes of the borrower are as- signed to the bank as collateral for loans on current accounts. Personal guarantees, and also pledges and mortgages, are some- times taken as security. The volume of commercial paper in Syria is estimated at 10,000,000 Itq. per annum. This shows how little developed the whole banking system is. In 1010 the Beirut banks under the leadership of the Ottoman Bank agreed upon the following rates of discount for notes: for bankers of the first class, for bankers of the second class. 1% for business men of the first class. 7-8% for other business men. 68 Syria: An Economic Survey Collateral loans secured by merchandise do not as yet play an important role. The number of staples which might serve as col- lateral, such as grain, wool, and sesame, is as yet limited. As there are practically no modern warehouses, the banks are forced to maintain storage rooms for merchandise on which money is loaned. It is more frequent that money is loaned on shipments for foreign trade than on merchandise within the country. Loans on real estate do not exist on the whole. (The activities of the official Banque Agricole which do not have any relation to actual banking business cannot be considered in this connection.) The law makes lending on mortgages difficult and does not permit the mortgages to be recorded in the name of the bank. The interest paid by debtors ranges from 8 to 9 per cent. In many cases a commission is charged in the form of a discount amounting to from 1 to 3 per cent per annum. Current accounts and deposits are growing from year to year, although real estate is still the favorite investment of the rich man. The bank deposits in Syria are derived rather from private indi- viduals than from industrial or commercial circles. It is very difficult to estimate the size of the assets and liabili- ties of banking operations in Syria, as all the large firms except the Anglo-Palestine Company do business throughout Turkey and have no special reports concerning Syria. At an arbitrary estimate the total of the assets of all Syrian banks (excluding private bankers) before the war amounted to 46-49 million francs, the total of the liabilities to 23-35 million francs, an insignificant showing for a land of 4 million inhabitants. Among the other activities of the banks is trading in foreign exchange. Before the war the exchange in pounds sterling and francs played the main role. In general all the Syrian banks accept the foreign exchange prices of Beirut. In Beirut itself it is the Banque Imperiale Otto- mane that has a preponderant influence in fixing the rate of ex- change. The exchange is reckoned in Beirut piastres (1 Itq. equals 124 piastres of 25 para Beirut standard). By far the greatest part of the export of all products is effected by documentary draft (with bill of lading attached) or by the check remittance of the recipient. Apart from the real banks and bankers Syria has so-called money lenders both in the favorable and unfavorable sense of the word. In the favorable sense these are capitalists who want to secure safe investments at a good rate of interest by lending their money. In Palestine there are religious organizations and rich Jews who let their money work in this way. Few of the natives 69 Syria: An Economic Survey engage in this business. On the other hand there are Arab usurers in the villages who make the fellaheen pay them enormous rates of interest, up to 75-100 per cent. B. Currency. — Before 1916 there was a bewildering diversity in Syrian currency, as the gold lira introduced in 1844 did not permit of a uniform division, being worth from 123 piastres in Tripoli to 255 piastres in Gaza. The banks had to keep book according to the local value of their piastres. Besides, the value of the silver piastre was reckoned only on the basis of the govern- ment piastre (Piastre Sagh). Another complication arose from the fact that while in 1844 a fixed relation was established between gold and silver, the subsequent depreciation of silver caused the government to introduce free coinage of silver. The silver coins (Mejidieh) did not constitute a legal tender and consequently they could not retain their original relation to the gold lira. This re- sulted in a considerable discount, amounting to 8 per cent in 1880. The government subsequently recognized the mejidieh as legal currency, but fixed its value at 19 piastres instead of 20 piastres. This unpopularity of the mejidieh resulted in a lack of change. Besides the mejidieh and the half and quarter mejidieh of silver, there is the copper bishlik, used especially in Beirut and in Palestine. The bishlik is worth 2^ government piastres and is divided into ten metalliks of ten para each. Half bishliks and quarter bishliks exist as well, also silver one and two piastre pieces, and metalliks, two metalliks, four metalliks and half metallika of nickel. In April, 1916, the government fixed the lira at 100 piastres and the mejidieh at 20 piastres of 40 para each. Silver coins must be accepted as payment up to the amount of 300 piastres; other small currency up to 50 piastres. Up to the time of the war Turkey had no paper money other than the notes of the Banque Imperiale Ottomane, but now the government has issued its own paper money (50.5 Itq., 1 Itq., V2 Itq., % Itq., and 20.5, 2i/2, 2 and 1 piastres). VII. Insurance. The insurance business is mostly in the hands of foreign com- panies with agencies in Syria. There is one Turkish company, the Societe Generate d' Assurance of Constantinople, which writes life, fire and transportation insurance. In Palestine the sums insured by life insurance companies amount to about 15,000,000 francs, with yearly premiums of 600,000 francs. The business is remunerative, as the mortality is very low, there being few acci- 70 Syria: An Economic Survey dents and no drunkenness. Fire insurance is also profitable, as there are rarely any fires, the houses being built of stone. The Arabs are too fatalistic by nature and religion to resort to insur- ance, particularly life insurance. Most of the business is done with Europeans. The insurance of live stock has not been introduced by com- panies, but has been attempted in the Jewish colonies on a co- operative basis. Foreign insurance companies are subject to government in- spection, in accordance with a law passed in 1914. VIII. Commercial Schools. The commercial schools of Syria are : (1) The Commercial School of the Syrian Protestant College in Beirut, opened in 1900, which had 66 pupils in 1913-1914; (2) Two Jewish commercial schools in Jerusalem with about 60 pupils (one supported by American Jews, the other by the Hilfsverein der Deutschen Juden) ; and a government school in Beirut. The following pro- gram has been used by the commercial schools in Jerusalem: Number of Eecitations per Week Subject IV* III II I Hebrew 9 7 6 6 German 6 6 6 6 Arabic 4 5 5 5 English 3 3 3 3 Turkish 3 2 2 2 French — 3 3 3 History 2 { 2 2 Geography 2 j 2 2 Mathematics 5 2 3 3 Zoology and Botany 2 2 2 I Physics 1 1 1 1 Chemistry 1 1 1 1 Physical Training 2 2 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 2 Singing 1 2 2 2 Arts and Crafts 3 2 3 3 Stenography 1 Bookkeeping — 2 3 Typewriting — 1 Total 47 46 45 48 * Lowest. 71 Syria: An Economic Survey Commercial schools are urgently needed in such cities as Aleppo, Haifa, and Jaffa. IX. Chambers of Commerce. According to an ordinance of 1885, Chambers of Arts and Trades were to be established in Constantinople and other cities, but they never materialized in Syria. However, there are Ottoman chambers in Syria established by an ordinance of 1880, of which any reputable business man may become a member by the annual payment of a small sum. The chambers have other sources of income, namely, fees for the issuance of certain certificates and for the attestation of certain documents. The Chambers of Com- merce of Aleppo, Damascus, Beirut, and Jerusalem, exist only on paper. The last-named, founded in 1909, for a time published a monthly report in French. The membership dues of the Jerusa- lem chamber are 50, 150 or 200 piastres according to the business of the member, and up to 500 piastres for bankers. The main difficulty in establishing Chambers of Commerce in Syria lies in the fact that the business men are of different nation- alities, have different customs, and speak different languages. This difficulty will have to be overcome gradually. X. Measures for the Promotion of Commerce. Neither commercial schools nor other measures will serve to develop commerce in Syria unless the Syrian business men work in closer co-operation and have greater confidence in one another. This might be brought about by the establishment of exchanges in commercial centers. What is most important of all is the development of the Syrian harbors, Jaffa, Haifa, Tripoli and Alexandretta, the development of roads and railways, the introduction of telephones, etc. 72 PART SEVEN. TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION. I. Harbors. The only good harbor on the Syrian coast is that of Beirut, which was built by a French company. The gross profits amounted to 586,593 francs in 1896 and to 1,038,695 francs in 1909. Second class harbors with regular steamer traffic are : Jaffa, Tripoli, Alex- andretta, Haifa, Latakia, and Sidon. All these harbors have only open roadsteads. Frequently winds render them unapproachable. The following third class harbors have no regular steamer traffic: Gaza, Caesarea, Acre, Tyre, Juni, Jebull, Tarsus, Banias and Suediah. In the grain season steamers call at Acre and Gaza. Unfortunately, as the town of Gaza is about 4 kilometers from the shore and there is no connecting road, loads must be carried through the deep sand on camels. The other harbors have none but sail boat traffic. As the sea is rather shallow along the Syrian coast, steamers are forced to anchor from one-half a mile to a mile from the shore, except in Beirut. In all the harbors the ships must pay dues for health and light house service, in Beirut for use of the harbor as well. Every harbor is under the jurisdiction of a harbor master and a customs official. From a technical standpoint there does not seem to be any great difficulty in the way of building the harbors of Alexandretta, Haifa, and Jaffa. The building of the harbor of Alexandretta, which is protected from winds and waves by nature, was begun in 1912 by the Bagdad Railway, but interrupted by the outbreak of the war. The harbor of Jaffa presents greater difficulties than the other two, for as it is quite unprotected it will be necessary to build moles quite far out to sea. A plan has been broached to fill in the sea 109.3 yards out, as far as the famous and much feared reefs, or perhaps still further out, in order to gain valuable land for quays and to decrease the labor of dredging. The government has already had the harbor surveyed. The cost of building the harbor is esti- mated at 15-20 million francs. According to a report of the Austrian Consul in Haifa, made in 1912, the building of the harbor 73 Syria: An Economic Survey of Haifa, to be 30-40 hectars in size, would also come to 15-20 million francs. Almost all the merchandise imported and exported through Alexandretta and Haifa is or will be transported by rail; conse- quently any increase of traffic brought about by the building of the harbor will be advantageous to the railways. But this is not the case in Jaffa. It happens that most of the oranges, wine, and soap exported from Jaffa come from places which do not lie on the Jaffa-Jerusalem Railway. The same is true of imports. This con- dition will be changed after the completion of the Lydda-Tulkerem and Wadi-Serar-Beersheba lines. In any case it is advisable to have the harbor built by railway companies which are materially inter- ested in its success. II. The Road System. The building and maintenance of roads in Syria has been effected either by concessions to private companies or by govern- ment undertakings. The Beirut-Damascus road and the Tripoli- Homs-Hama road were built in the former way, both proving very profitable to the companies which undertook them. All other roads in Syria were built by the Turkish government which laid taxes in kind, amounting to about 600,000 Itq. per annum, on the popula- tion. 10 per cent of the receipts of the Banque Agricole (about 35,000 Itq. annually) are devoted exclusively to road building. The system of taxes levied in kind was not successful, and before the war the road system of Syria (with the exception of the Lebanon) was very backward. During the war Djemal Pasha has accelerated the work of road building in extraordinary fashion. The following roads have been built since 1911 : Damascus-Kuneitrah (37) ; Rosh Pinah (22) ; Tiberias (17) ; Semach (6) 83 mi. Nazareth-Afuleh (6) ; Jenin (9) ; Nablus (22) 37 " Jericho-Es Salt (27) ; Amman (21) 47 " Hebron-Beersheba (31) ; Hafir (45) 76 " Latrun-Djulis-Gaza (not yet completed) 62 " The road system of Syria consists of the two main thorough- fares running from north to south, and the transverse roads which connect them. The coastal road is not complete, there being no connection between Haifa and Tyre, and Tripoli and Alexandretta. In June, 1916, the most important roads of Syria were: 74 8 r i a An Economic Survey The Coastal Road. Gaza-Jaffa-Haifa 112 mi. Tyre-Sidon-Beirut-Tripoli 106 " The Highway. Hafir-Beersheba (45) ; Hebron (31) ; Jerusalem (24) 99 " Jerusalem-Hablus-Nazareth 75 " Nazareth-Tiberias (21); Rosh Pinah (17); Kuneitrah (22) ; Damascus (37) 97 " Damascus-Homs-Hama- Aleppo- Aintab 217 " The Transverse Roads. Gaza-Beersheba 27 " Jaffa-Jerusalem 40 " Jaffa-Tulkerem (Nablus) 19 " Haifa-Nazareth 22 " Haifa-Tulkerem-Nablus 50 " Sidon-Merjayun-Safed 43 " Beirut-Damascus 78 lc Tripoli-Horns 58 " Alexandretta- Aleppo 98 " A few of these roads extend further to the east, namely : Jerusalem-Jericho-Es Salt- Amman 73 mi. Aleppo-Meskeneh (on the Euphrates) 62 " Aleppo-Bab-Biredjik (on the Euphrates) 62 " It is important that several roads, for instance that between Safed and Acre, begun in May, 1916, should be completed. This will serve to awaken Safed from its lethargy and connect Acre with the Hinterland. III. Railways. The Syrian Railway System consists of the following lines: Length Hejaz Railway in mi. Gauge Opened in Damascus-Dera'a (76); Maan (211). 287 105 1902-1904 Haif a-Dera'a 100 105 1904-1905 DeraVBosrah-Eski Sham 24 105 1912 Haifa-Beled-Acre 11 105 1913 Afuleh-Jenin-Massudiyeh-Lydda 62 105 1913-1915 Massudiyeh-Nablus 9 105 1915 Wadi-Serar-Beersheba (52) ; Hafir (44) _96^ 105 1915-1916 589 75 Syria: An Economic Survey Length Bagdad Railway in mi. Gauge Opened in Islahiyeh-Muslimiyeh-Aleppo 88 143.5 1912-1914 Muslimiyeh-Jerabulus (Euphrates) . . 58 143.5 1912 Toprak Kaleh-Alexandretta 37 143.5 1913 183 Companies founded with French capital: 1. Societe Ottomane du Chemin de Fer Damas-Hama et Prolongements. Beirut ( Harbor )-Rajak-Damascus ... 92 105 1895 Damascus-M'zerib 63 105 1895 Eajak-Aleppo 206 143.5 1902-1906 Tripoli-Horns 63 143.5 1911 424 2. Societe des Tramways libanais. Beirut-Mamilten 12 105 1898 12 3. Societe Ottomane du Chemin de Fer Jaffa-Jerusalem 54 100 1891-1892 54 Total 1,262 At the beginning of the war the Turkish Government took over the French railways. The rails from Jaffa to Lydda on the Jaffa- Jerusalem Railway were torn up and used in the construction of the Jenin-Lydda, Wadi-Serar-Beersheba-Hafir lines. Besides, the gauge from Lydda to Jerusalem was changed from 100 to 105 cm. The Syrian railway system is poor compared with that of European countries, but far more developed than that of any other part of Asia Minor. The Jaffa- Jerusalem Railway was opened in 1892 and proved so unprofitable at first that it had to be shut down for a while. Since then the traffic has increased considerably. The gross profits, 51,949 francs in 1895, had risen to 1,388,755 francs in 1911. 76 Syria: An Economic Survey When the two Asia Minor tunnels of the Bagdad Railway are completed, which should be in 1917 or 1918, Aleppo will be con- nected with Constantinople, that is to say there will be direct rail- way communication between Syria and Europe. The economic value of a direct connection with Africa over Port Said is doubtful, as it would take longer and be more expensive to go from Aleppo to Port Said by rail than by boat. On the other hand it would be valuable to connect the Syrian Railways with Akabah. Another useful line would be from Rajak to Afuleh which would shorten the trip from Aleppo or Beirut to Haifa or Jaffa by about 124 miles, Safed and Nazareth could easily be linked up with this line. IV. Transportation. Transportation overland is effected by means of railways or animals ; on the sea by means of steamboats and sailboats. Sailboats are not much used except for fishing. They are sometimes used in preference to steamboats to carry loads between neighboring har- bors, as they can load and unload on the shore, whereas the steam- boats must anchor at a considerable distance from land. The sailboat traffic is mostly in the hands of natives, the steamboat traffic almost exclusively in the hands of foreign companies. A. Shipping. 1. Steamship companies. The following steamship companies entered Syrian ports up to the time of the war: (a) Societe des Messageries Maritimes (Marseilles) with a weekly service, Marseilles-Alexandria-Port Said-Jaffa-Beirut- Haifa (Marseilles-Beirut in 10 days) and a bi-weekly servifce Marseilles-Constantinople, touching at Beirut, Haifa, Tripoli, Alexandretta, and Mersina. (b) The Oesterreichische Lloyd in Trieste. The steam- ships of this company make the trip from Trieste, Alexandria and Port Said to Jaffa, Haifa, Sidon, Beirut, Tripoli and Latakia, taking 12 to 15 days from Trieste to Mersina. (c) The Russian Steamship Line in Odessa with a weekly service from Odessa via Constantinople and Smyrna, to Mer- sina, Alexandretta, Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Haifa, Jaffa and Port Said (Odessa-Beirut, 8-9 days). (d) The two Italian companies, Marittima Italiana and Servizi Marittimi, with bi-weekly boats from Venice or Genoa 77 Syria: An Economic Survey via Rhodes to Beirut and via Piraeus to Beirut. The regu- larity of the traffic is sometimes interrupted by storms and the quarantines made necessary by cholera epidemics in Egypt. Besides the above mentioned steamship lines there are a Roumanian, a Bulgarian, and German lines which run less frequently and two English lines which have only freight steamers. It is interesting to note that in 1910, the last year in which shipping was normal, Beirut was entered by 1,143 steamships, Jaffa by 707 steamships, Tripoli by 620, Haifa by 555, Alexan- dretta by 472, Latakia by 137 and Sidon by 109. Of these steam- ships 22.3 per cent were English, 20 per cent were Russian, 12.4 per cent were Austrian, 10.5 per cent were Turkish, 10.2 per cent were French, etc. The number of sailboats touching at the seven large harbors in 1910 was 8,545. B. Railways. The Hejaz Railway. — The passenger traffic is far greater in proportion than the freight traffic. In 1912-1913 there were 130,- 563 travelers from Damascus to Medina. The Damascus-Dera'a- Haifa line has greater traffic, but no figures are available. In 1913 the Hejaz Railway owned 96 locomotives, 103 passenger cars, 30 baggage cars, 1,028 freight cars, and 7 special cars. The passenger trains from Haifa to Damascus run daily (12 hours' trip), those from Dera'a to Medina 3 times a week. The Jaffa- Jerusalem Railway. — The number of passengers (pilgrims and tourists) is greatest in March and April. The freight traffic is considerable from Jaffa to Jerusalem, but slight in the opposite direction. In 1913 182,700 passengers (I and II class) travelled on the line, and 47,500 tons of freight were transported. C. Animal Transportation. Camels are used in preference to other animals. Donkeys and mules are used for short distances, wagons only for military pur- poses, in the Lebanon and in the Jewish, German and Circassian colonies of Palestine. The rest of the population does not possess any wagons because of the miserable condition of the roads that prevailed up to recent years. In the cities there are carriages and omnibuses. Palestine has several "Diligences" (stages) running between Jaffa and Ramleh, Jerusalem and Bethlehem, etc. Among 78 Syria: An Economic Survey the Arabs the bedouin and effendis use horses, the fellaheen donkeys. It is estimated that a donkey can carry 110-220 Ibs. ; a mule, 220-330 pounds, and a camel 440-660 pounds. Donkeys and camels cover 19-25 miles in an 8-10 hour day, mules 25-37 miles. It is estimated that no less than 180,000 loaded camels come into Alexandretta in the course of the year. D. Total Freight Receipts. At an approximate estimate the total freight receipts of Syria accruing from the transportation of goods, etc. (to which must be added the receipts from sea-born traffic and transfer), amount to 45,000,000 francs. E. Expressage and Warehouses. There are no large express companies in Syria. Expressage is in the hands of business men in the ports, who neither under- take to transport goods direct to far distant points nor offer suffi- cient safety. The dispatch business consists mainly in transporting people and freight from the steamships to the shore and vice versa, by means of small rowboats. Storage warehouses are quite un- developed. It is only in Beirut and Haifa that there are steam cranes. Beirut possesses the only modern storage warehouse. The other cities have nothing but primitive sheds, and in the large wheat centers of Hauran the grain lies outdoors absolutely unprotected. V. Tourists. The tourists who visit Syria may be classed as follows: (a) Business men and officials on government business. (b) Egyptians who spend their summers in the Lebanon. (c) Jewish tourists who visit Palestine. (d) European and American tourists who visit Syria and especially Palestine, in the course of a trip to the Orient. (e) Christian pilgrims who visit Palestine. (f) Mohammedan pilgrims who travel to Medina via Haifa or Damascus. The first three classes include from several hundred to a thousand people each, the fourth class from 6,000 to 7,000 people. The Christian pilgrims, estimated according to the number of pas- sengers on the Jaffa-Jerusalem line, number about 20,000 annually, the Mohammedan pilgrims travelling on the Hejaz Eailway number 79 Syria: An Economic Survey about 15-25,000 annually. The total receipts accruing to Syria from tourists may be roughly estimated as follows : Classes (a), (b) and (c) . . . 1,000,000 francs Class (d) 3,000,000 " Class (e) 2,000,000 " Class (f ) 4,000,000 " Total 10,000,000 " If travelling and hotel conditions in Palestine were better a far greater number of tourists would undoubtedly visit the holy places. Good roads for automobiles, European hotels and an adver- tising campaign in Europe and America would bear immediate fruit. The same may be said of the Lebanon, which is an ideal summer resort. There are already several agencies in Syria (Ham- burg-American Line, Thos. Cook and Son, Clark) which arrange tours in Palestine and the rest of Syria. When Syria becomes easy of access and offers the same modern comforts to tourists as Egypt it will be possible to utilize its watering places. The hot sulphur springs of Tiberias, famous since antiquity, and widely used by natives, resemble the hot springs in Aix-la-Chapelle. The water, which has a temperature of 143.6 degrees F., is rich in sulphur and magnesia chloride and has radio-active properties. The hot springs of Hamman-ez-Zerka (the Callirrhoe of the Romans) were used by Herod. There are also hot sulphur springs in the Yarmuk Valley. It seems, too, that the enormous basin of the Dead Sea may also be used for medicinal purposes. The lower Jordan Valley would prove an ideal winter resort for consumptives and convalescents in general. 80 PART EIGHT. URBAN AND RURAL LIFE. 1. The Life of the Fellaheen and Bedouin. For food the fellah depends for the most part upon the prod- ucts of his farm. His main food is bread, made of wheat (or of durrha or barley by the poorer classes) baked in thin cakes. Wheat is also consumed in the form of burghul (wheat grits). The well-to-do always serve mutton and rice on festive occasions. The commoner vegetables are tomatoes, egg plant, lentils, peas, beans, etc. Olive oil serves as a fat in the preparation of foods. Coffee and tobacco are used extensively. Entertaining guests is an im- portant feature of village life, as well as celebrations, such as weddings, circumcisions, etc. Despite the fact that polygamy is allowed, the fellah rarely has more than one wife, whom he pur- chases from her father at a price ranging from 200-1,000 francs. In other respects, too, the fellah is quite primitive in his customs. The village children grow up without instruction of any kind an3 a large number of them are either disfigured or crippled by avoid- able diseases, such as small-pox, trachoma, etc. The fellah rarely has recourse to physicians or pharmacists. It is interesting to note, however, that better health conditions exist in the Arab villages near the Jewish colonies, where a physician and a drug store are maintained by the community. The fellaheen generally live in houses consisting of one room without flooring or chimney. The Bedouin, on the other hand, live in tents and roam the land at will. When they come into the civilized part of Syria they break up into groups of 10 to 50 families. Their favorite haunts are Transjordania, the Jordan Valley, the environs of Beersheba and the eastern parts of the Litani and Orontes Valleys. The life of the Bedouin is still more primitive than that of the fellaheen. II. Life in the Cities. A. Architecture. — The streets of the Syrian cities are narrow and crooked, although there are modern quarters with wide streets in such towns as Beirut, Damascus, Jerusalem, Jaffa, etc. In the European sections the streets possess narrow sidewalks. In 6 81 Syria: An Economic Survey Batrum, in the Lebanon, the streets are paved with small, round stones, in Tyre with small cobble-stones, etc. In the last few years the government has forced each municipal administration to oc- cupy itself with the laying out of new streets and the widening of existing streets. In those cases where houses were torn down the proprietors were indemnified. The houses built by natives have a large drawing room in the center with numbers of doors leading into smaller rooms. (In Damascus there are beautiful courts with fountains and trees.) The rooms are furnished with rugs, mats, divans, and cushions; there are no tables, chairs or closets. Bathrooms are practically unknown. The first bathrooms and water closets were introduced by the Jews of Tel- Aviv. B. The Price of Land and Rents. — The price of city lots is highest in Beirut. Then come Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, Jaffa and Haifa. Before the war lots were sold at the following cost per pic (1 pic equals 0.5625 sq. meters) : Best Location in Near the Edge Center of Traffic of the City Beirut 200 10 Aleppo 50 5 Damascus 50 5 Jerusalem 30 2 Jaffa 30 2 Haifa 30 2 Tripoli 20 2 Horns 15 2 Hama 10 2 Gaza 5 1 The cost of building a one-story house containing four large and three small rooms, with a foundation of 62 square miles, is approximately as follows: Building Material Francs Damascus framework filled in with sun-dried brick 8,000 Jerusalem natural stone (hard) 20,000 Jaffa " " (soft) 14,000 Haifa " " (hard) 18,000 Houses bring 3 to 4 per cent in Horns, Nablus, Gaza, etc., 8 to 10 per cent in the ports, and as much as 10 to 12 per cent in those ports with the greatest immigration. 82 Syria: An Economic Survey C. Water-Works and Canalization. — Beirut and Damascus are well supplied with drinking water by means of aqueducts. There are a few small aqueducts elsewhere, for instance in Acre and in the Jewish suburb of Tel- Aviv, near Jaffa. There is no doubt that in the near future good drinking water will be brought to the other large cities by means of modern aqueducts. So far they use river water. In Jerusalem rain water is stored in cisterns. A small aqueduct from the old Pools of Siloam supplies the neighborhood of the Temple. For decades there has been a plan afoot to bring water to Jerusalem from the wells of Ain-Farah or Ain-Arub but it has not yet been carried into effect, despite the fact that in summer water brought from a distance is sold for as much as 10 to 15 centimes for a can of 5 gallons. It would be expedient to instal sewerage at the same time as waterworks. D. Tramways. — There are electric tramways in Damascus and Beirut, and horse-cars in Tripoli. Both electric tramway lines belong to French companies. There is a project of introducing electric tramways in Aleppo, Jerusalem and Jaffa. A Constanti- nople firm attempted to obtain a concession for an electric plant (lighting and tramways) in Jerusalem after the beginning of the war, but no definite arrangement was made. In Jerusalem the motive force will have to be supplied by means of coal or petroleum. The water power of the Aujeh can be utilized for Jaffa, from where the tramway service should be extended to Ramleh, Lydda, and the neighboring colonies. E. Intellectual and Social Life. — Intellectually the cities are undeveloped. The most important institutions of learning are : the Mohammedan theological faculty in Damascus, the medical faculty (formerly in Damascus, now in Beirut), the American Syrian Protestant College and the French University of St. Joseph in Beirut. In Jerusalem there are the German and American archaeo- logical institutes and the Jewish Arts and Crafts School Bezalel, which has had several notable artists among its teachers, for instance, S. Hirschenberg, E. M. Lilien, Eichard Goldberg, etc. In Tel-Aviv there is a Jewish music school. The school system has improved during the last years. Al- most every city has a secondary boys' school. In Beirut there is a teachers' seminary. There is little provision made for the edu- cation of girls, excepting among the Jews; the secondary schools in Jerusalem and Jaffa are co-educational. Arabic newspapers are published in Damascus, Beirut, Jeru- 83 Syria: An Economic Survey salem and Haifa. Besides there are several Turkish official news- papers, a French paper in Beirut and a Hebrew daily in Jerusalem. Several Hebrew periodicals are published in Jaffa and Jerusalem. Most of the physicians of Syria are graduates of European universities, although some of them studied in Constantinople or Beirut. The higher officials are graduates of the law faculty of Constantinople. PART NINE. THE ECONOMIC FUTURE OF SYRIA. Syria suffers in comparison with other Mediterranean coun- tries in lacking metals and coal, in possessing a large percentage of mountains and arid land, and in being isolated by high mountains to the north and by steppes and desert to the east and south. How- ever, it also has advantages, the principal ones being: (1.) Its long coast line (435 mi.) ; (2.) The intelligence of the urban population, especially in the coastal zone, and the robustness of the rural population; (3.) The plentiful water supply in the coastal zone and -in the longitudinal valleys; (4.) The unusual fertility of certain grain growing districts, especially Hauran; (5.) The interest of all humanity in the "holy places" in Palestine. If these advantages are properly utilized the following results may be achieved in the near future: (1.) The whole coastal zone (and the river valley) may become a garden of tropical fruits and vegetables. All that is necessary is a proper system of irrigation and the establishment of ware- houses and transportation facilities. Excellent markets for Syrian oranges, lemons, grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots, melons, toma- toes, artichokes, etc., could be found in Egypt and all the Mediter- ranean ports. (2.) The mountain district can be devoted to olive and pis- tachio trees, etc. (3.) The plateaus may be utilized for grain cultivation. (4.) Finer grades of tobacco may be grown in Syria. (5.) Agricultural industries such as the manufacturing of cane and beet sugar and the preserving and desiccating fruits can become an important activity, as well as the production of alcohol from durrha, figs, carobs, etc. (6.) The chief factor in promoting industry will be a new tariff. Raw products which were exported to other countries and then re-imported in a finished state must be treated in Syria itself. 85 Syria: An Economic Survey Spinning and weaving of wool and cotton as well as tanning come under this head. (7.) The absence of coal makes it imperative to utilize to the utmost the motive force of the rivers. The falls of the Yarmuk and the Jabbok, the rapid flow of the Jordan and the Aivjeh, etc., can be used to provide electricity for the working of pumps, rail- ways, etc. It seems that the Hejaz Railway Co. has worked out a scheme for utilizing the falls of the Yarmuk to run the Dera'a- Damascus, the Dera'a-Afuleh-Jerusalem, etc., lines, to provide lighting plants for a number of cities, etc. (8.) If hotels and railways are improved tourists can be brought into the county in great numbers and become a consider- able source of income for Syria and especially for Palestine. 86 APPENDIX. PROJECTS FOR THE PROMOTION OF SYRIAN AGRICULTURE. Up to now the government has erred in not seeking the co- operation of Syrian farmers in its projects, not of the poor fellah, but rather of the rich landed proprietor, and especially of the Euro- pean colonists in Palestine. We believe that all efforts to promote agriculture should be made by a single agency, similar to the Societe Khediviale d' Agriculture in Cairo. A Syrian agricultural society might engage in the following activities: (1.) To destroy locusts and insects, and combat diseases in- jurious to crops; (2.) To make artificial fertilizers, seeds, etc., accessible to the farmer ; (3.) To maintain model farms; (4.) To experiment with, and introduce, new forms of agri- culture and new agricultural industries. Under this heading the following branches of agriculture and agricultural industry may be mentioned : (a) Cotton in central and southern Syria (and the pro- duction of cottonseed oil) ; (b) Sugar beets and sugar cane; (c) Carob trees (the carob is used in England for the production of alcohol) ; (d) Bananas; (e) Castor oil bushes; (f) Fruit and vegetable preserving; (g) Oil production. A society of this kind should publish a periodical containing instructions and suggestions for the Syrian farmer. So far there is only one agricultural monthly, the Hebrew Hahaklai published in Jaffa. Besides, it should hold agricultural expositions from time to time to promote competition. The promotion of animal husbandry can be brought about by improving the quality of the breeds and by combating the frequent epidemics. In order to prevent the spread and fatal consequences 87 Syria: An Economic Survey of animal epidemics proper precautions should be taken to inocu- late the animals. This would call for the preparation of sera. An institution for this purpose could easily be founded by Jews in connection with the Pasteur Institute in Jerusalem, and develop into a veterinary college. An increase in cattle raising would be of great benefit to the soil. There are certain districts in Syria at present partially or wholly unfit for agriculture, which could be rendered cultivable by the following measures: (a) Drainage; (1.) The swamps and marshy districts along the coast; (2.) The swampy districts near streams and lakes. (b) Afforestation of the sand dunes between the Egyptian frontier and Caesarea, the arid district near Beersheba and the mountain slopes; (c) Irrigation (of the Jordan Valley between Beisan and the Dead Sea and other districts in the neighborhood of streams). It is, of course, expedient to begin by undertaking those ameliorations which seem most urgent and promise to be most profitable. The work may be undertaken either by the government or by private societies acting in co-operation with the government. In the latter case the government is not forced to utilize state funds nor does it run any risk in case of failure. There ought to be up-to-date warehouses throughout Syria, both in the ports and in the centers of production. Not only would the farmer be able to store his grain instead of being forced to sell it immediately, but the fact that grain of a certain quality coming from various quarters is stored together would force the farmer to keep his products up to the standard. But if the grain grower finds it advantageous to store his wares and sell them when the demand is greatest, the fruit planter is anxious to dispose of his crops as soon as possible. In former years the fruits grown on the coastal plain were shipped either to Egypt or to European ports, but now the Hejaz Railway makes it possible to transport the fruits to Damascus, Horns, Hama, Aleppo, etc.; in the future, when the Bagdad Railway is com- pleted, they will find an important market in Asia Minor. Nevertheless, as a large proportion of the fruit crops will be Bent to foreign markets, it will be necessary to erect a number of cold-storage warehouses in the ports and to establish steamship Syria: An Economic Survey lines connecting the Syrian ports direct with Trieste, Marseilles, Liverpool, London, etc. With proper storage facilities even the most perishable fruits and vegetables, for instance, apricots and grapes, can be transported to Europe without risk. These improve- ments will, of necessity, be brought about gradually. It might be well for the government to subsidize the steamship lines. Agrarian Credit. — According to a law of 1916, the Banque Agricole is no longer limited to a maximum of 150 Itq. on mort- gage credits, and moreover it is now empowered to grant loans secured either by grain or by the entire property. Thus the bank can really become a central institution for the granting of agrarian credit in every form. The Banque Agricole will fulfill its task only when it wholly and adequately satisfies the demand for loans. It should facilitate the advance on grain by erecting warehouses and issuing warrants in the American manner. It should promote the establishment of all sorts of agrarian associations and educate the farmer as to the value of forming associations. As long as it is not certain whether or not the Banque Agri- cole can raise the necessary capital to fulfill the duties imposed upon it by the new law it would not seem advisable that it should have a monopoly on granting agrarian mortgages, thus excluding private concerns from this activity. And yet this is what the provisional law of 1912 has done, for in accordance with it private concerns cannot grant mortgage credit in villages. If this measure was taken in the fear that the competition of the mortgage banks would be prejudicial to the Banque Agricole it was superfluous, for as the latter charges only 6 per cent, interest it is in no danger of meeting serious competition. There is another reason why private mortgage banks should not be excluded from the agrarian credit system, namely, because such banks could co-operate with tfre Banque Agricole in the important task of dividing the large Syrian estates into small holdings and creating a class of free farmers in the place of the tenants of the present time. This could be done by giving the fellah the opportunity of buying the land which he now labors on as a tenant, by granting him a long-term credit to be repaid year by year for a period of 10-30 years, this credit to be guaranteed by a mortgage on the newly acquired land. The osher, which amounts to 12.63 per cent, cannot be con- sidered an advisable method of taxation. Moreover it is unjust because it is taken on the gross profits without regard to differences in the cost of production. The osher is an impediment to every improvement in which money must be invested, for the proprietor Syria: An Economic Survey knows beforehand that he will not derive the full benefit of the increased interest on his money due to the improvement, but only % of the increase. The manner in which the tax is collected is still more harm- ful than its form. The osher farmer who rents the osher tax of an entire village from the government at a fixed rental is fre- quently an unscrupulous person who manages to squeeze more than the legal 12.63 per cent out of the farmer. Several reforms of the osher and wergho have been carried through and others projected. In Egypt the osher has gradually been replaced by a fixed land tax. It is very important that the new land registry law of 1913 be carried into effect in Syria, Certain of the rules which prevent the property owner from disposing of his land are no longer practicable: (a) As the owner cannot bequeathe his land to his heirs he disposes of it in his lifetime either by actual or by simulated (b) The law stating that land lying uncultivated for a period of three years reverts to the state is too indefinite; (c) The law restricting the acquisition of land by private companies had two motives, first to prevent foreign companies from owning land, and second, to prevent the absorption of small hold- ings by large capitalistic enterprises. Neither of these motives is sufficiently important to deprive Turkey of the financial and other advantages which would accrue from the introduction of various enterprises. Besides, the farmer could be protected by a law fixing a minimum of land possession for the individual farmer ; (d) The fact that every real estate transaction must be rati- fied by the commission charged with the recording of such matters gives the official practically unlimited power, as the law does not state for what reasons permission is to be granted or withheld. This restriction should be completely abolished except in the case of foreign companies. 90 BIBLIOGRAPHY. General. Lortet: La Syrie d'Aujourd'hui. Paris, 1884. Vital Cuinet: Syrie, Liban et Palestine. Paris, 1886. Verney et Dambmann : Les Puissances Etrangeres dans le Levant, en Syrie, et en Palestine. Paris, 1900. Ernest Weakley: Report upon the Conditions and Prospects of British Trade in Syria. London, 1911. Husbandry. Herbert Auhagen: Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Landesnatur und der Landwirtschaft Syriens. Berlin, 1907. Wady Medawar: La Syrie agricole. Paris, 1903. Industry. Gaston Ducousso: L'industrie de la Soie en Syrie. Paris, 1913. Railways. M. Hecker : Die Eisenbahnen der asiatischen Tuerkei. Archiv fur Eisenbahnwesen, 1914. Pp. 744, 1058, 1284, 1539. Berlin, 1914. Hermann Schmidt: Das Eisenbahnwesen in der asiatischen Tuer- kei. Berlin, 1914. Alexis Rey: Statistique des Principaux Resultats de ^Exploitation des Chemins der Fer de FEmpire Ottoman pendant FExercise 1911. Constantinople, 1913. Max Blanckenhorn : Die Hedschasbahn. Zeitschrift der Gesell- schaft fuer Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1907, nos. 4 and 5. Max Schlagintweit : Verkehrswege und Verkehrsprojekte in Vor- derasien. Berlin, 1906. Eduard Mygind: Syrien und die tuerkische Mekkapilgerbahn. Halle, 1906. E. Pech : Manuel des Societes anonymes fonctionnantes en Turquie, 5th Edition. Constantinople, 1911. Ernest Weakley: Report upon the Conditions and Prospects of British Trade in Syria. London, 1911. Programme du Ministere des Travaux publics. Constantinople, 1909. 91 Syria: An Economic Survey General References. E. Pech: Manuel des Socie'tes Anonymes Fonctionnantes en Tur- quie, 5th Edition. Constantinople, 1911. Morawetz : Die Tuerkei im Spiegel ihrer Finanzen. Vienna, 1903. F. van den Steen de Jehay: De la Situation Legale des Sujets Ottomans non Musulmans. Brussels, 1906. Padel and Steeg: De la Legislation Fonciere Ottomane. Paris, 1904. Young: Corps de droit Ottoman. 7 volumes. Oxford, 1905-06. A. Bilioti — Ahmed Sedad: La Legislation Ottomane depuis le Retablissement de la Constitution. Paris, 1912. Baedecker: Palestine and Syria. Leipzig, 1912. Resume de la Statistique Agricole de la Turquie d'Asie et d'Afrique pour 1'Annee 1325. Constantinople, 1912. Resume de la Statistique des Mines de PEmpire Ottoman pour 1323. Constantinople, 1912. Statistique des Forets de TEmpire Ottoman pour 1323. Constanti- nople, 1911. Bulletin Annuel de Statistique pour 1327. Constantinople, 1914. Consular Reports. German (of the Consuls in Jaffa, Jerusalem, Haifa, Beirut, Damas- cus, Tripoli, Aleppo), published in the German Archives of Commerce and in separate volumes. Austrian (of the Consuls in Jerusalem and Jaffa, Haifa, Beirut, Damascus, Tripoli, Aleppo), published in separate volumes. English (Jerusalem and Jaffa, Beirut and Haifa, Tripoli, Damas- cus, Aleppo), published in separate volumes. American (Jerusalem, Beirut, Aleppo), in Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Washington. Periodicals. Deutsches Handelsarchiv. Berlin. Deutsche Levant-Zeitung. Hamburg. Handelsmuseum. Vienna. Oesterreichische Monatsschrift fuer den Orient. Vienna. The Near East. London. Levant Trade Review. Constantinople. Daily Consular and Trade Reports. Washington. 92 INDEX Page. Part One: The Land and Its Inhabitants 3 Area, Surface Configuration, Temperature, Rain, Dew, Winds, Lakes and Streams, Health Conditions, Administrative Divisions, Population, Religion, Lan- guage, Cultural Status of the Population, Fluctuation of the Population. Part Two: The Economic Structure of Syria and the Value of its Products 11 Part Three: Husbandry 13 I. — A Statistical Summary of the Products of Husbandry. A. — The Area on Which Husbandry is Practised. B. — Composition of the Soil. C. — Dangers and Obstacles to Husbandry. 1. — Natural dangers. 2. — Legal obstacles to husbandry. D. — Kind, Quality, and Value of Produce 1. — Annual food and fodder crops. 2. — Commercial crops. 3. — Fruit trees. 4.— Wild fruits. 5. — Animal husbandry. 6. — Poultry raising and apiculture. 7. — Agricultural by-industries. II.— Unit Farming: Scope, Method and Returns. A. — Forms of Land Possession. B.— Methods. 1. — The season program of farm work; crop rotations. 2. — Agricultural implements. 3. — Draft and breeding animals. 4. — Land improvement and fertility. 6. — Irrigation. C. — European Influences in Syrian Agriculture. 1. — The German agricultural colonies of Pales- tine. 2. — The Jewish agricultural colonies of Pales- tine. 3. — The Muhadji settlements. 4. — The influence of monks and missionaries. 1 INDEX.— Continued. Page. D. — Crop Yields and the Price of Land. 1. — Grain yields. 2. — Plantation yields. 3. — The price of land. III.— Agricultural Credits: The Activities of the Banque Agricole. IV. — Taxation, Land Registry, Ownership and Inheritance. A. — Taxation. B. — Land Registry. C. — Property Ownership and Inheritance. V. — Agricultural Training and the Introduction of Improve- ments. VI. — Measures for the Promotion of Agriculture. Part Four: Other Branches of Primary Production 43 I. — Forestry. II. — Fishery and Game. III.— Mining. Part Five: Industry 46 I. — Type and Scope of Syrian Industries. II. — The Main Branches of Industry. A. — Textile Industries and Dyeing. B.— Oil. C. — Soap. D— Milling. E. — Wine and Other Alcoholic Beverages. F. — Building. G. — Arts and Crafts. H.— Other Industries. I. — Trades. III. — Abortive Attempts to Introduce Industries. IV. — Industrial Training. V. — Trade Taxes. VI. — Measures for the Promotion of Industry. Part Six: Commerce 55 I. — The Extent of Commercial Activities in Syria. II. — Foreign Trade. A. — Ways and Usages. B. — Import and Export Statistics, ii INDEX.— Continued. Page. C.-*The Main Branches of Foreign Trade. 1. — Victuals and Delicacies. 2. — Alcohol and Beverages. 3. — Coal and Petroleum. 4. — Various Commodities. 5.— Building Materials. 6. — Metal, Metal Ware, and Machines. 7. — Woven Goods, Fezes, and Ready-made Clothes. 8.— Chemicals, Drugs, Dyes. 9. — Oranges and Lemons. 10.— Olive Oil and Soap. 11. — Cocoons, Silk Yarns, and Oriental Woven Goods. 12.— Wine. 13. — Wheat, Barley, Legumes, and Sesame. 14.— Wild Plants. 15.— Cattle, Butter, Wool, Hides, and Eggs. III. — Inland Trade. IV.— Bedouin Trade. V. — Trade Monopolies. A.— Salt. B. — Tobacco. C. — Tombeki. VI. — Banks and Currency. A. — Banks. B. — Currency. VII. — Insurance. VIII. — Commercial Schools. IX. — Chambers of Commerce. X. — Measures for the Promotion of Commerce. Part Seven : Traffic and Transportation 73 I.— Harbors. II. — The Road System. III.— Railways. IV. — Transportation. A. — Shipping. B. — Railways. C. — Animal Transportation. D. — Total Freight Receipts. E. — Expressage and Warehouses. iii INDEX.— Continued. Page. V. — Tourists. Part Eight: Urban and Rural Life 81 I. — The Life of the Fellaheen and Bedouin. II.— Life in the Cities. A. — Architecture. B. — The Price of Land and Rents. C. — Waterworks and Canalization. D. — Tramways. E. — Intellectual and Social Life. Part Nine: The Economic Future of Syria 85 Appendix: Projects for the Promotion of Syrian Agriculture 87 Bibliography. BROOKLYN EAGLE PRESS ill