UGH SOUTH. c/ 1 'XJ.-H.LAB. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class University of California Southern California Laboratory Plant SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY OTHER <-. . - SOUTH-. C/i ."PATH.LAB. COPYRIGHT NINETEEN HUNDRED AND THREE BY F. A. WAUGH DEDICATION One of my teachers, above all the others, is responsible for my love of taxonomic science. And, as for that, the same one laid the whole foundation for my love of general horticulture. This man has never received the praise rightly due him for his efforts in behalf of his students — of whom I am but one among hundreds. I know I have been no special credit to him; and, like many of the others, I have seemed unappreci- ative. Now, however, as I am about to publish a book, the inspiration Jor which came long ago from him, I wish to acknowledge my sense of in- debtedness to him and my high personal esteem for EDWIN A. POPENOE Formerly Professor of Horticulture and Ento- mology, now Professor of Entomology, in the Kansas Agricultural College. F. A. W. 185138 Southern California Laboratory OK — Plant Pathology TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE I. Pomology in General I DESCRIPTION II. Making and Filing Descriptions 8 III. General Considerations 18 IV. Describing Pome Fruits 34 V. Description of Drupe Fruits 56 VI. Describing Strawberries 68 VII. Describing Raspberries and Blackberries . . 76 VIII. Description of Currants and Gooseberries . . 81 IX. Describing Grapes 88 NOMENCLATURE X. The Requirements of Nomenclature .... g8 XI. The Lazy Club Code 105 XII. American Pomological Society Rules .... 123 CLASSIFICATION XIII. Principles of Classification 131 XIV. Classification of Fruits in General 139 XV. The Classification of Apples 148 XVI. The Classification of Pears 163 Viii CONTENTS PAGE XVII. The Classification of Peaches 175 XVIIi. The Classification of Plums 181 XIX. The Classification of Cherries 194 XX. Miscellaneous Fruits 201 XXI. Warder's Classification of Apples 215 APPLICATION XXII. Relation to the Practice of Fruit Growing . . 232 XXIII. For the Teacher and the Student 237 XXIV. Laboratory Work 248 XXV. Judging Fruits 263 GLOSSARY 281 INDEX 287 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAOE 1 Description Blank, General Form n 2 Card Cabinet for Filing Descriptions 14 3 Laboratory Note-book 16 4 The Photographic Record 27 5 Folmer & Schwing Tripod Arrangement for Ver- tical Photography 30 6 Apparatus for Vertical Photography 32 7 Apple Description Blank 35 8 Forms of Apples 37 9 Forms of Apples 39 10 Cross-sections of Apples and Pears 41 n Measuring Diameter of Fruit 44 12 Different Cavity Formations 45 13 Different Basin Formations 46 14 Description Blank 48 15 Apple Description Complete 51 16 Pear Description Complete 54 17 Different Forms of Plums 57 18 Blank Used for Field Notes 59 19 Description Blank for Plums 61 20 Cherry Description Complete 63 21 Peach Description Complete 65 22 Forms of Strawberries 70 23 Description Blank for Strawberries 72 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 24 Perfect and Imperfect Blossoms 74 25 Design for Description Blank for Blackberries . . 77 26 Description Blank for Blackberries, Raspberries, etc 78 27 Description of Raspberry Complete 79 28 Design for Description Blank for Currants ... 82 29 Design for Description Blank for Gooseberries . . 86 30 Grape Description Complete .89 31 Different Forms of Grape Seeds 91 32 Description Blank for Grapes 94 33 Field Notes Blank for Grapes 96 34 Description Form for Nuts 207 35 Description Form for Citrus Fruits 210 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY POMOLOGY IN GENERAL ?* POMOLOGY is the science of fruits. The defi- nition is sometimes made to read thus : " Po- mology is the knowledge of fruits " ; or even as follows : " Pomology is the study of fruits." But study must result in knowledge if it have any result at all, and knowledge must be classified if it have any purpose or use, and classified knowledge is science. Therefore, when we study fruits in any way so as to get some knowledge of them we have the mate- rials of pomology, and whenever we classify the knowledge gained by our study we have the science of pomology. The science of pomology separates natu- rally into two subdivisions, viz., systematic pomology and practical pomology. The former deals with our knowledge of the fruits them- selves, and the trees, bushes, or vines on which they grow ; the latter deals with our knowledge of the practice of fruit growing. 2 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY This classification does not assume that prac- tical pomology is anymore "practical," in the vulgar usage of that adjective, than systematic pomology. Practical pomology is practical simply because it deals with the practice of growing fruits without concerning itself about the history, characters, names, or classifica- tions of the fruits themselves. The modern evolution of business has made this natural subdivision of pomology into two branches somewhat inadequate to the circum- stances, especially in North America. Fruit growers have found more and more that the fullest knowledge of the fruits themselves, combined with the utmost proficiency in the practice of fruit growing, was insufficient to their needs. To these they have been com- pelled to add an extensive and complicated knowledge of fruit marketing. This makes a third department of pomological science. This knowledge of how to market fruit may properly be called commercial pomology. These three branches are very intimately related. In order to grow fruit successfully one ought to know all the characters and relationships of the varieties which he cul- tivates. In order to sell fruit at a profit it is POMOLOGY IN GENERAL 3 always necessary, first, to have it well grown and correctly named. Yet the three branches are easily separated. It is no uncommon thing to find a man who knows at a glance all the leading varieties of apples or plums, with their correct names, and who is yet not capable of growing any of the varieties successfully. That man would be a good systematic pomologist, but a poor prac- tical one. The next man may be able to grow the finest grades of fruit, and yet be unable to market it at a profit. Such a man would be strong on practical pomology, but weak on the commercial side. Pomology, it should be observed, is a branch of horticulture. Other nearly co- ordinate branches are olericulture (dealing with vegetables), floriculture (dealing with flowers), and arboriculture (dealing with trees). In order to locate the subject more pre- cisely we ought to bear in mind that horticul- ture, in its turn, is a branch of agriculture. More strictly speaking, horticulture is a branch of agronomy, and agronomy is a branch of agriculture. Agriculture is sepa- rated into two subdivisions: zootechny (the 4 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY knowledge and care of animals) and agro- nomy (the science of crops and crop produc- tion). This whole classification of subjects will appear more clear by reference to the following outline : Zootechny Cereal culture, etc. AGRICULTURE \ f Systematic Agronomy -j ' Pomology \ Practical i Commercial The word "pomology" means literally the science of fruits. It has a mongrel etymol- ogy, being a combination of the latin word pomum (fruit) and the Greek word logy or logos (discourse, treatise, or science). The former root is seen also in the word "pome," designating specifically such fruits as the apple, pear, and quince. The latter root is seen in such words as "geology," "theology," and "anthropology." It may be remarked in passing that the science of systematic pomology has been se- riously neglected in North America during the last three or four decades. It would be easy to show that this is a fact, and to give POMOLOGY IN GENERAL 5 some of the reasons why such a condition of affairs should have come upon us ; but that is too far aside from the present design. During the last few years there has been a manifest revival of interest in systematic pomology. More really scientific work is being done now in the study of fruits than ever was done before in this country, and more persons are interested in knowing the best methods for the study of systematic pomology. Systematic pomology, when analyzed in turn, is found to comprise three distinct sub- jects. These are (i) description, (2) nomen- clature, and (3) classification. The first step in getting acquainted with any variety of fruit, be it Ben Davis apple, Clyde strawberry, or something entirely new, is to form an accurate and detailed notion of all its different characters. This involves the making of a description. The description may be merely mental, or it may be fully written out, which is much the better way. In either case, when we examine a specimen closely, or a number of specimens of one va- riety, making mental or written note of size, form, color, markings, and other distinguish- 6 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY ing characters, we are engaged in descriptive pomology. Nomenclature is the science of names. In a slightly different sense the same word ap- plies to the problem of determining the cor- rect names for given varieties. This latter sense is the one in which the term nomencla- ture is more frequently used by pomologists. (By the way, this word " nomenclature " is ac- cented on the first and third syllables, and not on the second syllable, as one often hears it.) As soon as we have made a description of a specimen or sample of fruit, we inquire for the name. But the description, written or mental, must come first. We must have some knowledge of the characters of the fruit as a basis for further work. Expert pomologists are often able to name fruits at a glance ; but this is because the characters are already well pictured in their minds, and they are able to call up these mental descriptions in- stantly. In many other cases the discovery of the correct name for a variety is a difn cult, laborious, and uncertain undertaking. When a variety is known and named in some way we may proceed to its classification. It is true that this order of procedure seems POMOLOGY IN GENERAL 7 to be inverted at times ; for a man familiar with fruits will often classify a variety before he knows the name of it. This is because he is acquainted with several other varieties of generally similar characters. But the logical order of systematic study is not disturbed by this apparent exception. In order to classify fruits the pomologist must have several differ- ent varieties to work with, and these must be properly described and named before he can proceed with his classification. In classifying varieties in systematic pomol- ogy, as in classifying any other materials in any other objective science, we simply place together those which have the closest re- semblances. Sometimes we assume a limited basis of classification, however, putting to- gether those varieties which agree in certain specified characters, though they may disagree in others quite as important. Thus, most nurserymen in their catalogs classify apples according to season, putting them into three groups — summer, fall, and winter varieties. In this case two varieties may be almost ex- actly alike in all their visible characters; but if one ripens a month later than the other, they may go into separate groups. II MAKING AND PILING DESCRIPTIONS THE first step in the study of a given sample of fruit is to make a suitable description. The description may be fully written out in proper form, or it may be merely a brief mental in- ventory of the characters of the fruit. In any case, however, the characters of the fruit must be recognized before the sample can be named or classified. The beginner will find the preparation of full, accurate formal descriptions a most val- uable exercise, if, indeed, he do not find it in- dispensable to further study. Any one who is ambitious to become a fruit expert must take long and thorough training in descrip- tive pomology. This work of description will be much facilitated and the results will be greatly im- proved if some proper outline is followed. Doubtless the best and most convenient way is to have a printed blank for the purpose. Those shown in the following chapters (con- siderably reduced in size) have been found by MAKING AND FILING DESCRIPTIONS 9 experience to answer the requirements under most circumstances. Any one beginning a new set of descriptions for himself, however, ought to consider these designs carefully from all points of view to see if particular modifications may not improve these outlines for his special purposes. Aside from the desirability of making these particular adaptations of descriptive forms to special needs, it should be borne in mind by every working pomologist that there is, on the contrary, a certain advantage in uni- formity. If the various pomologists in differ- ent parts of the country all use practically the same descriptive form for apples, for instance, then the descriptions made by each one may circulate readily with the others. Different descriptions of the same varieties may be compared with ease and to some result. De- scriptions published by one man are readily intelligible to another, because they are ren- dered in the same terms. The advantages which belong so conspicuously to a uniform system of nomenclature are to be found also in a uniform method of description. It is a noteworthy mark of our pomological advance and a gratifying promise for the future that 10 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY many of the leading American pomologists are using practically the same descriptive forms. The descriptive blanks now most in use measure either 5x8 or 5^x8^ inches. A few men are using sheets 7x9 inches. The larger sizes have the important advantage of greater space. One frequently finds himself crowded for room when using one of the smaller sizes. The smaller sheets are easier to handle, however, particularly when it comes to filing ; and when the pomologist finds one sheet too small to hold a description, it is an easy matter to continue the notes on a second sheet. When the description blanks are made up into book form to be carried into the field, it is especially handy to have them small enough so that the note-book may be managed easily in an ordinary coat pocket. It is desirable, at the same time, to have these blank pages in the note-book exact duplicates in size and style of the forms used in the permanent file — providing any file is used aside from the books. This method of handling fruit descriptions is greatly to be recommended. Almost any- where that the pomological student may go — 12 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY in his own garden, in his neighbor's orchard, to a county fair or to a horticultural meeting — he is sure to see some interesting speci- mens of fruit. If he has his note-book with him he can quickly make a memorandum of important characteristics, or he may fill out a complete description. The ordinary fruit grower, who does not expect to write nursery catalogs, books, or experiment station bulle- tins, will usually prefer the note-book method of keeping descriptions. The book offers the most convenient means of preservation, and as long as there are not so many descriptions but that the owner of the book can readily turn up the one he wants, it is the best means. For the working pomologist, the experi- mentalist, the secretary of the horticultural society, or the nurseryman who has his cat- alog descriptions to prepare, it will usually be best to keep the descriptions on loose sheets. These can be arranged alphabetic- ally and filed in almost any way. In default of anything more elaborate, it is best to place them in large envelopes of just the right size to receive them. Ten cents will buy a bunch of twenty-five strong manila envelopes, one MAKING AND FILING DESCRIPTIONS 13 for each letter of the alphabet, barring X. These may be lettered from A to Z, and may be fastened together with a rubber band and kept in the writing-desk, on the book-shelf, in the madame's mending-basket, or in any other convenient spot where they are safe and easily found. Into these envelopes the variety descriptions can be distributed alpha- betically. Altogether the best device for filing de- scriptions, however, is the card catalog cab- inet now used in so many different ways. These cabinets are made with drawers, into which the cards fit smoothly, where they may be removed and replaced at need. Alphabet- ical guides keep the descriptions arranged according to name, or, with other guides, one may follow systematic or numerical arrange- ments if preferred (Fig. 2). These card cabinets are made and kept in stock by several manufacturers in the United States. They may be had in various sizes, but the largest standard size drawer kept in stock receives a card 5x8 inches. Since there are many advantages in using a stand- ard card and drawer, the writer uses and recommends this size. 14 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY For laboratory or classroom use the writer prefers loose sheets of the standard size and form. Where a great many are to be used, it is a matter of economy to have them printed on news or poster paper, railroad manila, or other cheap stock. It is often desirable, for FIG. 2 — CARD CABINET FOR FILING DESCRIPTIONS other reasons, to have these cheap paper blanks. They can be used in the field for lead-pencil notes, or for making temporary descriptions, which can be copied later on to the permanent cards. The present writer, when he has a large number of samples for description, finds it a great saving of time to dictate the descriptions to a stenographer, who takes them down on these temporary sheets, afterward transferring them with the typewriter to the regular filing cards. MAKING AND FILING DESCRIPTIONS 15 Another plan for laboratory work is that devised by Professor U. P. Hedrick. He has designed a laboratory note-book which con- tains, first, some printed matter (definitions, explanations, classificatory schemes, etc.) and, second, a number of pages of printed forms for the description of varieties. The style of these blank forms will be better understood by reference to Fig. 3, which is engraved directly from one of the pages. I,t is con- siderably reduced in' size, however, the orig- inal page measuring 6 x 9^ inches. Such a laboratory note-book has certain advantages as well as several disadvantages. It should be noted that the making of ac- curate descriptions is much a matter of ex- perience. The beginner will find it slow work, and many of his entries will be made with considerable doubt. One must be thor- oughly familiar with the vocabulary to select always the most appropriate and illuminating adjective. What is more, many of the state- ments made in such a description are rather expressions of personal judgment than records of exact fact. Should a certain stem be called long or very long? Is the basin moderately irregular, considerably irregular, decidedly VARIETY. General Appearance. Tree. Habit. Foliage. Color *f Bark. Color of Tvigs Vigor. History. Economic Status. FIG. 3 — LABORATORY NOTE-BOOK. (HEDRICK) MAKING AND FILING DESCRIPTIONS 17 irregular, or very irregular? Is the quality very good or best ? These are all matters of opinion, and a man must be trained by long experience in such things to make his opinion the most valuable. Ill GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS THE fruit is of paramount importance in nearly every case in the description of any pomological variety. It receives, properly, the chief attention. We shall be obliged to go more into detail regarding the methods and the terms for describing the various classes of fruits, but first it may be convenient to dis- pose of sundry matters of a general nature relating to the entire subject. The tree or vine or bush or plant on which the fruit grows, though less important from the standpoint of systematic pomology, is evi- dently not to be disregarded. Occasionally, though not usually, the characters of the tree or plant are more striking and easily recogniz- able than those of the fruit. Whether the characters are peculiar or not, something should be said of the tree. In speaking of a tree, its form should be described first. This varies so much with different kinds of trees that no convenient set of descriptive terms can be suggested cover- 18 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 19 ing all cases. Trees are often said to be upright, spreading, open, close-headed, round- topped, or irregular. Beyond this, one has to depend largely on his own ingenuity to in- vent apt terms of description for particular cases. The productivity of the variety is usually mentioned as a characteristic of the tree. Convenience is the best justification for this custom. Thus, under this head, one would say that Elberta peach \s prolific, coming early into bearing ; that General Hand plum is a very light and late cropper ; that Baldwin apple bears abundantly in alternate years, etc. The hardiness of a tree and the degree in which it is subject to disease ought to be en- tered here. Hardiness is generally under- stood to mean the ability to withstand winter damage, but it may mean a variety of things. The man who uses the term ought to be " fully persuaded in his own mind," as Paul said of the meats offered to idols. The sus- ceptibility of trees to disease is often difficult to arrive at, but it is a very important practi- cal observation, and ought not to be omitted if it can be ascertained. So we would say of Roseau apple, very hardy ; of the Peen-to 20 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY peach, hardy only in Florida (which might not be true) ; of the Spitzenberg apple, much subject to canker ; of Milton plum, severely at- tacked by pockets ; of Martha grape, subject to mildew, etc. Vigor of growth should be recorded here. Some trees are strong growing, some weak growing. The color of the bark, or the color of the young wood, is often characteristic, and such peculiarities should be included in this part of the description. The foliage as a whole should be described. It is of value to know whether it is abundant, sparse, healthy, dark green, or some other color, subject to disease, or marked by other characteristics. The individual leaf requires more critical attention in certain cases. Among ordinary varieties of apples and pears leaf distinctions are seldom of enough importance to be worth record ; but in certain groups of plums, and in some peaches, the leaf characters are strongly differentiated. There are a great many different technical terms used in de- scribing leaf characters, but these have been so often repeated in the text-books of botany GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 21 that we may assume that every one knows at least the most common and useful of them. Special attention should be directed, how- ever, to the fact that the surface of the leaf — whether it be smooth, rough, rugose, tomentose, lanate, wooly, hairy, or of some other quality — is often of considerable value in identifying varieties. The glands, which are often found on the petioles, or leaf stalks, particularly in stone fruits, are frequently of critical conse- quence in description. Peach leaves may be ^landless, or set with orbicular or reniform (kidney-shaped) glands. In describing plums, the approximate number of glands at the base of the leaf, or along the petiole, is to be chiefly considered. General notes vti\\ usually accompany any full description. It will be seen that most of the description blanks in use offer comparatively ample space for this entry. These notes may cover such a wide range that it is hardly pos- sible to give any general directions for mak- ing them. Peculiarities of soil or location, which might have influenced the specimens described ; facts with regard to the storage of the specimens ; notes on insect or fungus in- juries; general remarks on the value or uses 22 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY of the variety ; notes with respect to its origin, introduction, or history ; discussion of nomenclature and synonymy ; and dozens of other matters all come up for review. Any information worth preserving should be put down, and if there is no other place provided, the entry can be made under the head of " General Notes." , The grower of a sample of fruit should always be remembered in the description, with his location and post-office address. The locality where a sample is grown is of great importance, for the reason that the same variety often develops very differently in different localities. The name and address of the grower are valuable in identifying or verifying the sample, and in tracing the mat- ter up in case any doubt arises subsequently as to the authenticity of the variety. This information, while not strictly descriptive, is essential. The one who describes a sample of fruit should always certify the description with his own name. This enables the person who uses the description to judge its value, and sometimes to secure additional details. Ac- curacy in description is, to a considerable GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 23 extent, a matter of training and experience. One man's descriptions are apt to be consid- erably better than another man's, and the one who consults the written description has a right to know its value as nearly as pos- sible. Certain points in description, more- over, as elsewhere explained, are always matters of purely personal judgment, and the person who renders the judgment should therefore be held responsible in the record. The date at which the description is made is also a matter of some interest (sometimes of real consequence), though its value is more bibliographical than descriptive. It should always be given. Before we pass now to the description of the fruits themselves, we may stop for a single observation regarding the nature of the sample to be chosen. It goes without saying that the specimens chosen for descrip- tion should be representative — typical. It is desirable in many cases, of course, to preserve notes of abnormal samples, but the fact of their abnormality should be conspicuously advertised in the description. In all ordinary cases great pains will be taken to select only 24 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY those specimens which fairly and fully pre- sent the characters of the whole lot. Within reasonable limits, the larger the sam- ple the better the notion which one can form of the variety, and the more accurate the de- scription which one can render. An entire bushel basketful of apples or peaches is not too many. Yet even from these one will naturally choose a few specially well-formed and typicalt specimens for critical examination while making up his notes. Usually five to eight such specimens, carefully selected, will form the most convenient and satisfactory basis of a description. The simplest and easiest way to make a description is to draw it from a single speci- men. If special care is taken to secure one fruit which represents the variety fairly in all points, such a method is not particularly objec- tionable. Beginners may be allowed to fol- low this plan for a time, but it should by no means be permitted to come into customary use. The descriptive value of a good picture is very great indeed. This is recognized every- where. Even the daily papers use pictures to enforce their description of places and their GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 25 records of events. Anyone who is accus- tomed to use such books as Downing's " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America," Dr. Warder's " American Pomology," or Thomas' " Fruit Culturist," has certainly learned that the fig- ures of fruits therein given are often more useful than the descriptive text. In making descriptions, therefore, the value of a good figure should be duly recognized. No description can fairly be allowed to be complete without some sort of drawing or photograph of the fruit in question. A good pen or pencil drawing of the fruit is excellent for record, but it is difficult to make. Only a few persons, usually such as have had some training in drawing, can draw such sketches with sufficient lifelikeness to make them very serviceable. The outline of a fruit may be taken much more easily, and this is the method adopted by the ordinary man whose fingers are all thumbs and whose thumbs are all stiff and sore. Such a fruit as an apple can be readily cut in half and laid upon a sheet of paper. Its outline is then traced with a pencil, and the tracing mav be subsequently reinforced with ink. Plums, peaches, and softer fruits must 26 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY be handled with more care, but outlines may be made from them also without great trouble. Such drawings are very satisfactory if carefully made from typical specimens. Water-color paintings are indulged in by a few American pomologists who are them- selves expert with the brush, or who have the necessary funds for employing an artist. Good water-color sketches are an obvious improve- ment on the uncolored drawings, and they form about as complete a record as one can have in connection with a good written de- scription. Very few persons, however, can avail themselves of this method. Models in plaster of Paris, or in wax, are sometimes undertaken. These are usually colored by hand, in imitation of the fruits from which they are made. When such models are well done they make remarkably satisfac- tory records, but they are not always well done. The difficulties in the way of securing models are the same as those in the way of the water-colors. There are probably not more than three or four good collections of fruit models in America at the present time — perhaps not so many as that. The photograph is one of the most practi- PIG. 4— THE PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD. (COCKLINE PEACH) 28 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY cable and serviceable of picture records. Al- most any one nowadays can make photographs if he have only moderate patience in learning. It is not just so easy as it might seem to be to make good photographs of fruits. It is considerably harder than it is to make push- button pictures of the girls in their bathing suits. Nevertheless, it is a good deal easier than some other things. For making photographs of fruits it is req- uisite to have a camera at least 5x7 inches in size. A 6l/z x S/4 camera is better, and even an 8 x 10 is desirable for indoor use. The so- called "view cameras " are suitable for indoor work ; but since the hand cameras are so popu- lar and so convenient for other purposes, most people will prefer this latter model. The writer prefers what is known as a long-bellows (or " tele-photo ") camera, with a reversible back. Both these adjustments are essential. Other conveniences are desirable, but not im- peratively necessary. In photographing fruits one can get large satisfaction out of a good lens. There is hardly any other line of photography — aside from professional portrait-making — in which an expensive lens really seems to pay so well GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 29 for itself. Almost any of the modern ana- stigmats can be used for such work. The Goerz, Voigtlaender, Cooke, Zeiss, and other makes are all known to be good. If one is selecting a lens for this special purpose, and if price is a great consideration, he will natu- rally choose one of comparatively short focus, since such a lens will give photographs of fruits at natural size without the use of the long bellows extension. These short-focus lenses, often spoken of rather erroneously as wide-angle lenses, are not suitable for general outdoor work, however, and are to be re- garded always as special purpose tools. Too short a focus should not be adopted under any circumstances. A 6-inch focus may be regarded as the minimum for a 5 x 7 plate, 7^-inch for a 6>£ x 8^ plate, and 8>4-inch for an 8 x 10 plate. For myself, I greatly prefer a lens of consid- erably longer focus, such as is used for gen- eral landscape work. These lenses will run about as follows : Focus of 8-9 inches for 5x7 plates, 9-12 inches for 6% x S/4 plates, and 1 1-14 inches for 8 x 10 plates. As a general rule, subject to some qualifications, it may be said that the longer the focus of the lens the FIG. 5— FOLMER & SCHWING TRIPOD ARRANGEMENT FOR VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 31 more correctly it will render the object photo- graphed, but the longer will be the required, exposure. Any of the better lenses, either anastigmats or the cheaper rapid rectilinear models, com- monly used in hand cameras, will give pictures of fruits at natural size if the camera bellows is long enough. To use a lens having an equivalent focus of 8^ inches, such as one usually finds in a 5x7 camera, a bellows ex- tension of 16 to 18 inches is required. The notion of photographing fruits and flowers has become so popular and common in this country that many useful special de- vices have been developed for the work. The best single idea is that which places the camera in a vertical position, photographing downward upon the specimens, which are posed on a glass staging below. The arrange- ment will be understood better by reference to the accompanying illustrations (Figs. 5 and 6), showing two different types of fruit photographing stands. There are many im- portant advantages furnished by these pieces of apparatus — advantages which can hardly be understood without experience. This whole subject, however, has so many compli- FIG. 6 — APPARATUS FOR VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY (McFARLANI)) 32 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 33 cations, and there is so much to be said on it, that any one interested in photographing fruits would better consult some special work on the subject. Mr. J. Horace Mc- Farland's little pamphlet, " Photographing Fruits and Flowers" (Photo-Miniature Series, New York), is especially recommended. IV DESCRIBING POME FRUITS SUPPOSE we undertake to make a descrip- tion of an apple, or of a sample of a given variety numbering a half dozen specimens. Let us take the blank form shown in Fig. 7, on page 35, and follow the outline there pro- vided. The fruit is first considered. Possibly it would be more logical to examine the tree first, with its foliage and flowers and other distinctive characters. But in most cases the pomologist relies chiefly on the fruit for his information — he regards it always as the most important — and frequently he has nothing else before him when he makes the descrip- tion. On account of its relatively great im- portance, therefore, it is quite proper to take up the description of the variety in this order. The form is the first characteristic of the fruit to be considered, and one of the most important, especially in pome fruits. To be sure, a given variety may vary considerably in 34 36 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY form, especially when grown in different locali- ties ; yet it is true that the expert depends very largely on this character for the identifi- cation of varieties. The local variations, due to climatic or soil influences, are very inter- esting, too, and should be noted with special care. Apples are round when the two diame- ters are approximately equal. An apple ap- pears round, however, when the main axis, running from stem to calyx, is considerably less than the horizontal diameter, and some allow- ance may be made for this fact. That is, it is better to make the definition of round de- pend more on the judgment of the eye than on the measurement of the calipers. This remark applies also to the other forms. Ap- ples are said to be ttc»l Setds: .-. Flesh. « , . , Flavor _ Quality Season -„„ Remarks FIG. 14— DESCRIPTION BLANK. (lOWA STATE COLLEGE) (Original, 8x 10% inches) DESCRIBING POME FRUITS 49 may read " Eye so and so," which would be much better expressed " Basin so and so." The term "eye" can thus be dispensed with to advantage, The calyx, which is also sometimes ambigu- ously spoken of as the eye, rests in the middle of the basin. It is sometimes spoken of as the blossom, and though it is, in fact, a part of the original blossom, it is hardly more properly so than the apple itself, or the stem, or the seeds. The calyx may be large or small ; it may be composed of long or short segments, and any peculiarity of this sort should be men- tioned ; it may be open, half open, or closed; and in many cases it is deciduous, when the leafy segments fall off altogether. The color of the fruit is always a prime character in the recognition of varieties in the mind of the experienced pomologist, but it is peculiarly difficult to describe in words. One should properly do what he can to distinguish in words the various tints of green, yellow, and red which he meets in apples and pears, but no great satisfaction is to be anticipated in this part of the work. The manner in which the color is distributed over the surface may be described with somewhat greater 50 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY accuracy. It may appear as a mere blush on one cheek, or it may be washed all over the side. It may be splashed or striped upon the ground color, and the stripings may be bold and irreuglar, or they may be fine and regu- lar. It is no uncommon occurrence to find two shades of red combined in the coloring of an apple, both being superposed on a ground color of green or yellow. Such a coloring should be specially mentioned. A fruit which is all of one solid color is said to be self-colored. The dots are very characteristic on some fruits, particularly on many apples. They vary in number, in size, and in color. In color they may be white, gray, or russet, or seldom of some other color. In form they may be round, irregular, or areolar. Areolar dots are such as usually have a small dot of russet in the center, surrounded by- a more or less regular circle of white or gray. In certain cases the dots appear to be sunken, as in the Baldwin apple, and rarely they appear to be slightly raised above the surface. Finally they may be scattered miscellaneously over the surface of the fruit, they may be crowded, or they may be most numerous about the eye. ^8 r %* ^> IN 4: A 4 § 1 E 52 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY The bloom is the waxy, whitish substance covering the outside of the fruit. It is of very doubtful value in distinguishing varieties, being, apparently, more characteristic of the climate in which the fruit is grown. About all that can be said about the bloom in a fruit description is to mention its amount, saying whether it be scant, moderate, or abundant. In order to determine this matter quickly it is usually sufficient to scrape the surface of the fruit lightly with the knife blade. What- ever bloom there may be will be caught up on the steel, and may be estimated at a glance. In certain cases this bloom is peculiarly oily, and this quality is to some degree a mark of the variety. Such observations will be men- tioned, of course, in the description. The skin may be thin or thick, tough or brit- tle. Rarely it has some taste of its own. There is seldom anything more to be said about it. The flesh is always to be critically described. Its color should first be mentioned. Next its texture is described. This may be hard or soft, coarse or fine grained, crisp, spongy, granular, or woody. The flesh may be dry or iuicy. It is customary to speak of pears as melting or sometimes as buttery. DESCRIBING POME FRUITS 53 The core may be large or small, and may be open or closed. Dr. Warder, in his descrip- tions, speaks of cores as "clasping" or as " meeting the eye" depending- on their relation to the sunken tube of the calyx ; but the writer has been unable to make any practical use of this distinction in fruit descriptions. The flavor of an apple is one of the quali- ties by which an experienced pomologist most readily recognizes a variety, but here again he has extreme difficulty to render his expert judgment in intelligible words. For the most part, apples are either sour or sweet, and pears are sweet in various degrees. However, most sour apples are not really very sour, but are more accurately described by the term sub- acid. The range of flavor would then run something like this : sour, subacid, mild sub- acid, flat, slightly sweet, sweet. In some varie- ties there is a certain aromatic quality to the fruit which is very agreeable, interesting, and characteristic. This is very hard to describe, also, but should be mentioned under the gen- eral head of flavor. It should be noted that flavor is not a matter of personal judgment. All men ought to agree as to whether a cer- tain fruit is sour, subacid, or sweet. It is not DESCRIBING POME FRUITS 55 proper to say that the flavor is good or bad. Good and bad relate to quality, which see. The quality may be very poor, poor, fair, fair to good, good, very good, or extra. These terms are all relative, and all express a per- sonal judgment. Men may honestly disagree as to quality. Some persons say that Kieffer pear is good, while others rate Howell as only fair to good. The season stands for that period when the fruit is really ready for table. Of course, a Roxbury Russet or a Willow Twig is mature (ripe) when it is picked from the tree in Oc- tober, but it is not in season until it is at its best condition for use — along in April or May following. It is often very difficult, with a sample of fruit in hand, to determine what its proper season is. Usually it is necessary to have considerable experience with the variety — grown and ripened under varying condi- tions, and kept in different kinds of storage — before one can decide just what its proper classification is. Of course, with summer fruits there is little or 10 trouble of this sort. DESCRIPTION OF DRUPE FRUITS THOUGH there are some differences, many of the points of description are the same for drupaceous fruits as for pomaceous fruits, and many of the same descriptive terms are em- ployed. In order to make the whole subject perfectly plain, however, it will be best to go through the formula for the description of drupaceous fruits point by point, and make such explanations as seem necessa-y. Form is considered first. Many plums and a few peaches are compressed (that is, flat- tened sidewise), and this is perhaps the most important matter of difference in form be- tween pome fruits and stone fruits. It will be noticed that many cherries are strongly oblate, and that a few are heart-shaped or cordate. Peaches and plums are often oval or round-oval. Occasionally the term ellip- tical or ellipsoid seems more distinctive, but rarely so. The simpler term is always to be chosen if it is equally significant (see Fig. 17). Size is to be determined and described in 56 DESCRIPTION OF DRUPE FRUITS 57 the manner already explained in Chapter IV., except that, as there noted, some form of fruit calipers is a practical necessity in meas- uring soft-fleshed peaches, nectarines, plums, and cherries. The cavity is, in general, less important and characteristic among the stone fruits Cordate Elliptical, unequal FIG. I?.— DIFFERENT FORMS OF PLUMS than among the pome fruits, but it can by no means be disregarded. As in the former case, it is described as to its depth, width, form, and markings. The stem is of more value in the descrip- tion of plums and cherries than with other fruits, and should accordingly be mentioned with special care. Many describers habitually give the exact length of the stem ; and in 58 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY case the size of the fruit is mentioned in ab- solute inches or millimeters, the length of the stem certainly ought to be recorded in the same units. The suture is a character peculiar to the drupe fruits. This term applies to the fold or crease running from the stem toward the apex of the fruit. In some cases it is contin- uous and even from stem to apex ; in other cases it runs only the third, one-half, or two- thirds the distance, and these details should be fully noted in the description. In many plums there is no suture at all, but there is nearly always a distinct line of darker color marking the place where the suture would naturally be. It is best, with such a variety in hand, to enter in the description the state- ment " Suture, a line." The apex of a peach, plum, or cherry may be pointed, rounded, or depressed, and occa- sionally it has some peculiar marking, as a dot or a distinctly prolonged tip. The dots on plums are of great value in separating varieties. Their number, size, color, and distribution should be noted. In peaches and nectarines the dots are very ob- scure and seldom of any differentiating value. 59 GO SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY In cherries they are wholly absent or are not worth considering. The bloom on stone fruits is nearly always conspicuous and often highly characteristic. Underthis head one would describe the "fuzz" on peaches, which may be coarse and heavy, or light, or thin, or scant. Other descriptive terms will occur to any one who has a sample of peaches in hand. On plums the bloom is of entirely a different sort. It is usually best to describe it as thin or heavy, though occa- sionally it is characteristically waxy. It is the time-honored custom to describe the bloom of plums as to color, calling it white, or pur- plish, or blue. Such terms, however, are quite misapplied in this connection, for the bloom really has no color at all, or is merely waxy- gray. Any one can readily satisfy himself on this point by scraping off a quantity of this bloom with a knife blade and examining it by itself. It will then be seen at once that the blue or purplish color attributed to the bloom really belongs to the fruit alone, and that it is the color of the fruit showing through the waxy covering which gives it its chromatic look. The skin may be thick or thin, tender, Iff ft 62 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY or brittle, and in the case of plums it may be peculiarly astringent. The flesh may be of divers colors. In peaches it is yellow, white, or red, and these differences are of great weight in the classifi- cation of varieties. The color of the flesh in cherries, though it shows less conspicuous differences than it does in peaches or plums, is not of less importance, and should be spe- cially noted. The texture of the flesh may be next described. It will be coarse, fine- grained, stringy, dry, or juicy. The stone, or pit, has many distinguishing characters which have to be set down in the description. Its size and form are first to be mentioned, after which the nature of the sur- face should be described. This may be smooth, rough, or pitted. It is usual in this connection also to speak of the important matter of the adhesion of the flesh to the stone. This is relied on particularly in peaches and plums, which may be either free, half- free, or dinr. The flavor of a peach, plum, or cherry may be sweet, subacid, sour, bitterish, or flat. Sometimes there is a striking aroma to a fruit which can not well be described, but which 1 g | 1 ! 1 1 1 \ | 1 1 I Jj •o i J ,5 I 1 1 i 1 1 1 8 § « c f 41 I a C •a C 1 $ | s 4» «J ^ ^ 3 * •1 j "t 1 7 'i I ( g >i •ft 1 g ? i I ^> 1 i B c *j s 1 1 •*» £ j ^ G 1 1 i V •* j •j ^ 1 : ! I 1 1 t) i I 5 i S ! ' < ' 64 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY may be better mentioned in connection with flavor than elsewhere. It will be well to re- peat here what has already been said in Chapter IV.: that flavor should not be a mat- ter of personal judgment. Everybody ought to agree as to whether a certain fruit is sweet or sour. Such adjectives as " poor " or " good " ought never to be applied to flavor. They belong to quality, and represent the personal judgment of the one who writes the descrip- tion. The quality may be poor, medium, good, very good, or extra. It will be seen from the nature of these adjectives that they stand for personal opinions of quality, and not for any absolute standards. Persons often differ in their judgments of quality. Some persons honestly prefer a Late Crawford peach to a Waddel, but other persons, like the writer, think the Waddel is much the better peach. This should always be borne in mind : Under the head of quality the describer is always rendering his own personal judgment purely and simply, while under the head of flavor personal opinion must be entirely excluded. The season at which a fruit ripens is of great practical importance, and should be put UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POMOLOGICAL NOTES FIG. 21 — PEACH DESCRIPTION COMPLETE 66 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY down in every instance. It is usual in the descriptions given in books and in nursery- men's catalogs to cover this point with rela- tive terms, such as early, midseason, or late. This is necessary in such cases ; but when a given sample of fruit is under description, it is better to specify the exact date at which it is found to be ripe. The same description will also show the locality from which the specimens come, and all the data will be given, therefore, for determining whether a variety is really early or late. It is often de- sirable to know what the season of a variety is more exactly than can be expressed in these loose relative terms. It is often desirable to know the exact succession of varieties within a day or two, and this information can be gained only from the most complete records. There is always a question, of course, as to when a fruit is really ripe, and plums and peaches are often commercially mature long before they are ready to be taken direct to the table for the dessert course at dinner. It ought to be assumed, however, that season in the description refers to the time when the fruit is dead ripe and ready to eat, and not to the time when it can be shipped to market. DESCRIPTION OF DRUPE FRUITS 67 If the variety is one capable of being picked long before it is ripe, and held in storage or shipped long distances, such valuable and in- teresting facts should be included under the head of general notes. These matters will all appear more clear on reference to the accompanying examples of descriptions and description blanks (Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21). VI DESCRIBING STRAWBERRIES NOT much really good systematic work has been done with strawberries in this country. One might have expected something first-rate in this line, considering the commercial and domestic importance of the strawberry in America, and the very general distribution of the plant from Florida to northern Canada. Many descriptions of varieties have been made and may be consulted in books, bulle- tins, and catalogs, yet all of them leave much to be desired. No definite and comprehen- sive form of description seems ever to have come into use, and most of the descriptions which one finds are fragmentary as to quali- ties named and vague in characterization. From every point of view the strawberry de- serves better study at the hands of American pomologists, and it is greatly to be hoped that the present revival of interest in system- atic pomology will soon turn attention to this need. DESCRIBING STRAWBERRIES 69 The fruit itself may properly be described first, beginning with the form. The form may be regular or irregular. At the same time it may be conical, oval, spherical, pyri- form, or may have some more unusual shape for which some special descriptive term may be found (see Fig. 22). The size of the berry should next be given, either relatively, as large, medium, or small, or absolutely, in inches or millimeters. The calyx may be large or small, and it may separate easily or with difficulty from the fruit. Its segments may be long or short, broad or narrow, or may possibly have other distinctive characters which should be men- tioned whenever, in the judgment of the describer, their importance warrants it. The core of the berry may be hollow, or it may be hard or soft, or it may be character- ized simply by being of a color somewhat different from the surrounding flesh. The texture of a strawberry is a matter of considerable consequence, affecting, as it does, the dessert quality of the fruit, and also the shipping quality. It is hard, however, to describe texture in precise terms. The flesh may be hard or soft, it may be fine-grained Conic. (Gandy) Oblong. (Haverland) Angular flattened. (Bubach) FIG. 22 — FORMS OK STRAWBERRIES DESCRIBING STRAWBERRIES 71 or coarse; but these adjectives do not quite cover the whole idea of texture. In certain cases there may be peculiarities of texture for which the describer can find some adequate term, but often he must feel that he has left his observation only half recorded. The external color of a strawberry is pecul- iarly hard to describe. Color descriptions are always unsatisfactory, and in this case they are doubly so from the fact that different varieties differ only by very slight shades. It is hard to say whether a berry is red, scarlet, or crimson, but usually we may safely say that it is light, dark, or medium colored. TJie flesh color is frequently, or nearly al- ways, different from the external color, but is described in the same way, subject to the same limitations. The seeds, which are clotted all over the sur- face of a strawberry, sometimes offer very characteristic marks of varieties. They may be large or small, prominent or inconspicuous, protruding or depressed, and they may vary in color. Flavor and quality are to be described in the same manner as in the case of other fruits. For a full discussion of this matter, DESCRIBING STRAWBERRIES 73 see the chapter on describing pome fruits, page 34- The season may be specified exactly by giv- ing the actual date at which the variety is ready for the table, or it may be given in rela- tive terms, as early, medium, or late. In general the former method is to be preferred. In determining the date of ripening, one should have regard to the time when the variety is actually ready for use, not to the time when it may be picked for shipment. In order to indicate whether a variety covers a long or a short season, it is desirable to give not only the date when the first picking can be made, but also the date of the last picking. Shipping quality constitutes one of the most important commercial qualities of any strawberry, yet it is hard to determine it without actual experience in shipping the fruit to market. The texture of the berry furnishes some clue, but is by no means an infallible guide. Whenever the shipping quality of a variety is actually known, how- ever, it ought to be entered with especial solicitude in the description. The blossoms of different varieties differ 74 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY with respect to size and general appearance, in the size of the petals, etc. The chief point of difference, however, relates to the num- ber of stamens present and the amount of pollen borne. This quality is usually, though somewhat incorrectly, spoken of as sex. Flow- F1G. 24 — I'KKKKCT AND IMPhRFECT BLOSSOMS ers which have only pistils and no stamens are said to \*e female, and those which have both pistils and stamens are said to be bi- sexual or hermaphrodite. It is doubtless better to call the former imperfect and the latter perfect (Fig. 24). These terms, also, are in common use. Flowers bearing pistils only are also often called pistillate. The plant should be described, as suggested in the accompanying description blank, as to DESCRIBING STRAWBERRIES 75 vigor, the number and strength of runners which they make, the size, form, and color of the foliage, and the amount of rust which they show. Other matters can best be men- tioned with the general notes. VII DESCRIBING RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES AFTER what has been said concerning the methods of describing other fruits, it is hard- ly necessary to particularize regarding the description of raspberries and blackberries. A few words may be given the subject, how- ever, in recognition of the diversity and im- portance of these fruits. The design for a description form (Fig. 25) gives an outline of the principal points re- quired. The outline presented in Fig. 26 is engraved from the much more elaborate description form in use in the Division of Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture. Fig. 27 is a photographic repro- duction of a description of the Cuthbert rasp- berry by the West Virginia Experiment Station. The only new point brought into these de- scriptions of blackberries and raspberries is the mention of the individual drupes. This calls attention to the morphology of the fruits in question. Each blackberry, dewberry, or 76 BLACKBERRY FRUIT: For> eclat texture calyx individual drupes seeds flavor qiiality BLOSSOM: PLANT: vigor suckers foliage disease GENERAL NOTES: Specimens received from Described by Date Massachusetts Agricultural College Department of Horticulture Hatch Experiment Station FIG. 25 — DESIGN FOR DESCRIPTION BLANK FOR BLACKBERRIES LJnited States Depai-tmeint of Ag*-i<=t-tit«_iJ DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. Pomologicai Notes. SECTION C. BRAMBLES Date of Receipt,- Slackbma,fRMfbema, etc. " " Description, 'No, of receipt, ..Journal page. ~ .Volume, .... Name and address of sender, _ — - - Species, Name, Purpose, ., Condition at time of receipt, FIG. 26— DESCRIPTION BLANK FOR BLACKBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, ETC. 1 il i! s; i t: ,! 8 ji n I i! I I 80 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY raspberry is, in fact, a bundle of individual fruits held close together. Each one of these individual fruits is a little drupe, having its own single seed surrounded by a soft pericarp, or flesh. It is, in effect, a very small plum. In some varieties these individual drupes are comparatively very large, and stand out from one another almost separately. In other va- rieties they are small and closely pressed together. VIII DESCRIPTION OF CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES CURRANTS and gooseberries have not often been the subjects of careful and formal de- scriptions in this country. Even in Card's " Bush Fruits" no special form of description seems to have been followed. It would be easy, however, to arrange a description blank after the general pattern of those in use for other fruits, and shown in the engravings in preceding chapters. An outline for a blank for the description of currants (Fig. 28) is suggested herewith. The cluster is first described, its form and size being given. In form the clusters may be long or short, much branched or sparsely branched. In size they may be large, medium, or small, or in many cases it will be best to compare the size of clusters according to the number of individual fruits. Some varieties have very few berries in a cluster, others have many. The main stem of the cluster should be described with respect to its length, and CURRANT CLUSTER: Form size main stem peduncles BERRIES: size color flesh seeds flavor quality use season PLANT: height form vigor disease FOLIAGE: GENERAL NOTES: Specimens received from Described by Date Massachusetts Agricultural College Department of Horticulture Hatch Experiment Station FIG 28 DESIGN FOR DESCRIPTION BLANK FOR CURRANTS CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES S3 any incidental characteristics should be men- tioned, such as a very thick stem, or one of some unusual color, or one showing a ten- dency to be leafy. The peduncles, or little stems on which the individual fruits grow, vary in size and length, and these differences are to be recorded. The berries are next taken up. The size is first disposed of, either by the use of some relative term like large or small, or by record- ing the actual diameter, preferably in milli- meters. Next the color is given, remembering that this is one of the most important charac- ters, either from the standpoint of classifica- tion or of the practical marketing of the fruit. The flesh is described as to its color, texture, and relative juiciness. The seeds are some- times prominent and occasionally few, but always to be mentioned as to size and num- ber. The flavor of currants is hardly to be distinguished in any other terms except as to degrees of sourness, yet varieties differ materi- ally in this respect. In quality varieties also differ materially, though no two men might agree as to which one was best. These mat- ters of flavor and quality are liable to serious confusion, and the reader should keep in mind 84 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY the distinctions drawn in another chapter, pages 53 and 55. The use to which currants may be put may vary somewhat, though not often materially, according to the qualities of the variety. Some varieties are better for jelly than others, some varieties are best for spicing or pre- serving, some are good for dessert, and some, no doubt, are especially suitable for the manu- facture of currant wine. Such adaptabilities, when they are known, make very proper entries on a description sheet. The season at which the fruit ripens should be given either relatively or absolutely. In some cases it seems best to classify varieties merely as early, midseason, and late; but, as a general rule, it is better to mention the actual date on which the fruit is ripe and ready for the table. To be sure, the practical currant grower will bear in mind that currants are often picked and marketed before they are ripe, this being necessarily the procedure with those destined for jelly. It may be desirable, therefore, in certain cases to mention the time at which a variety can be picked for jelly. The plant is described as to its height, CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES $5 form, vigor of growth, and susceptibility to disease. The height can be determined quite closely, though the same variety grows taller or shorter in different soils and under differ- ent treatment. In form some plants are much more bushy, spreading, or inclined to sprout, than others. Vigor of growth can best be estimated by observing the new wood which the plant makes annually. Nearly all our currant bushes are peculiarly susceptible to disease, though a few varieties are compar- atively immune. The foliage should be described as regards the form, size, thickness, color, and covering of 'the individual leaves. The terms com- monly used in botanical and horticultural description are applicable here. There are no special descriptive terms. Gooseberries The outline for the description of goose- berries would naturally be very much like that for currants. As no one seems to have adopted any definite form for regular use, the accompanying suggestion (Fig. 29) is offered; The only noteworthy points of difference between this form and the one already out- GOOSEBERR Y FRUIT: Form size stem calyx color markings seeds bloom skin flesh flavor quality season use PLANT: height vigor disease FOLIAGE: GENERAL NOTES Specimens received from Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College Described by Date Department of Horticulture FIG. 29— DESIGN FOR DESCRIPTION BLANK FOR GOOSEBERRIES CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 87 lined for currants are the entry here of calyx, markings, and bloom, for description. The calyx is more prominent on gooseberries than on currants, and occasionally offers points of distinction of some value. The sur- face of the gooseberry, too, is usually marked with more or less distinct meridian lines ; and these ought always to be carefully noted, and, where expedient, entered in the descrip- tion. The bloom on the gooseberry is often important and characteristic. Furthermore, certain varieties, especially natives derived from Ribes cynosbati, are apt to be thorny on the surface. Since this takes the place of bloom in such instances, it will be convenient, though illogical, to enter the description of the surface generally under the head of bloom. IX DESCRIBING GRAPES THE grape, being considerably different from other fruits, requires a special descrip- tive form. Various styles of blanks used by different pomologists are reproduced here- with in Figs. 30, 32, and 33. The bunch should be described first with respect to length. This entry may be made in comparative terms merely, as long, medium long, or short, or it may be given in absolute inches or centimeters. Perhaps it is as good a plan as any to use both methods side by side, giving the general relative size of the bunches, and then adding the exact measure- ment of some typical bunch. The breadth of the bunch may be treated in the same way. The form of the bunch requires more care- ful study. This may be round, elliptical, ovate, long, regular, or irregular, or it may occasionally take some other form. The shoulder of a bunch is that portion which branches out from the main axis of the bunch near the base (in this case, near the ,'^N 90 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY upper part of the bunch, as it hangs on the vine). The stem on which the individual berries grow is not always branched in this way, in which case the branch is not shoul- dered. In rare instances there are two branches or shoulders, and then the shoulder is said to be double. In the ordinary case of the single shoulder it is usually competent to describe it as small, medium, or large. The berry, or individual fruit, of the grape is next described, first as to size and next as to form. The form is nearly always round, but is occasionally either oblate or elongated. The color of grapes is largely depended on for classification, and the different varieties are usually summarily distinguished as black, red, and white. A little closer examination, however, will show that varieties differ among themselves by much finer gradations of color. The reds are not all alike, and not even the blacks are of the same shade. Colors are notoriously difficult of description, but when- ever these distinctions can be put into words it is well worth while to do so. The skin of the berry may be thin or thick, tough or brittle, and in certain cases it has a more or less sour or bitter taste, which DESCRIBING GRAPES 91 affects somewhat the quality of the grape as a whole. The flesh should be described with respect to color and texture. In texture it may be soft and melting, stringy, toiigJi, or granular. If FIG. 31 — DIFFERENT FORMS OF GRAPE SEEDS the berries are very juicy, or strikingly defi- cient in this quality, it will be best to mention the fact here. The seeds of grapes offer very important char- acters for the purpose of classification. These differences will be seen in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 31), but it requires some 92 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY familiarity with grapes in order to point these out tersely and accurately in a description. It will be seen at once that the seeds vary as to size, but these differences are often due to local circumstances, and are influenced particularly by the number of seeds in the berry and by pol- lination. Differences of form are much more constant and characteristic. Some varities have the seeds very broad, others comparative- ly long. Many of them are cordate, or heart- shaped, while others are more nearly ovate, or egg-shaped, and still others are almost obovate, or reverse egg-shaped. Some seeds are notched at the top, while others are smoothly rounded. Some have a long beak at the bottom, in others the beak is short and blunt. On the back of every grape seed is a little mark or boss, known as the chalaza, which may also vary considerably in different varieties. In all, or nearly all, our native American grapes it is found near the center of the back of the seed, or even somewhat below the center. In most European varieties, on the other hand, it lies above the middle, somewhere near the top. It also varies in size and shape. This chalaza is connected with the ventral side of the seed by a raphe, funiculus, or cord, which runs up- DESCRIBING GRAPES 93 ward over the top of the seed. This raphe, or cord, is much larger and more prominent in some varieties than in others. The flavor of a grape, as of any other fruit, should not be a matter of individual opinion, but should be recorded as a plain fact. Flavor depends on the degree of acidity of the fruit. Some grapes may be called sweet, perhaps, and all varieties undoubtedly contain consid- erable quantities of saccharine matter. Never- theless, the acids nearly always predominate over the sugars to such an extent as to furnish the real basis of the flavor. Most grapes, therefore, are mild acid, sour, or very sour. The quality may be poor, fair, good, or very good. As in the case of other fruits, these terms represent a personal judgment on the part of the one who writes the description. (This point is fully discussed in Chapter IV., Page 55-) The season may best be described by giving the date at which the fruit is really ripe and fit for table use at the point where it is grown. Some varieties keep much better than others, holding in storage for months even, and such sorts might be said to have a long season. Any such observations regarding keeping I I DESCRIBING GRAPES 95 quality, however, can better be recorded in the general remarks at the foot of the de- scription. This matter also is more fully dis- cussed in another connection (see Chapter V., page 66). The nsc to which grapes can be put varies considerably, and some mention of this mat- ter may properly be made in the description. The greater part of the grapes grown in the Eastern States are used for eating fresh out of hand. Under the head of use, then, one might enter the word table. If the variety is especially attractive in appearance and high in quality, it may be recommended for dessert. Many important varieties are grown only for wine ; but it may be recalled in this connec- tion that much of the best wine made in America comes from such varieties as Goethe, Catawba, and Delaware — varieties which stand high as table or dessert grapes. The vine should be described as to vigor and as to its susceptibility to disease or insects. Mildew is the disease usually thought of when ratine vines as to their relative disease- o resistance ; and this matter of susceptibility to or immunity from the attacks of the downy mildew forms one of the most important DESCRIBING GRAPES «)7 characteristics of any variety, considered from the point of view of the grape grower. In some sections, more especially in California and in Europe, the insect known as the phyl- loxera is a perennial menace to the grape- growing industry, and in such localities one of the most critical qualities which a vine can have is immunity from the ravages of this insect. Different species, and even different varieties of the same species, differ greatly in this respect, and these degrees of immunity or susceptibility are particularly worthy of note. The foliage should be described as to vigor and abundance. The individual leaves should be described with respect to size, form, thick- ness, and surface. The surface is often downy or tomentose in various degrees, especially on the lower sides of the leaves. Unfortunately the description blank for grapes shown in the engraving does not give a special caption to the foliage nor to the leaf. It also omits any printed suggestion of general notes. In these respects it is seriously inadequate. THE REQUIREMENTS OF NOMENCLATURE THE term nomenclature is used with two different meanings. Used in one sense it may be defined as the science of names ; that is, it comprises those rules by which we determine the correct names of things. It is with this meaning that the word is used in this book. However, the word " nomenclature " may mean also simply a system of names. Thus, golf has a certain nomenclature made up of such terms as " niblick," "lofter," "driver," "caddie," "foursome," "stimmie," etc. These terms have special or technical meanings in connection with golf, and, taken altogether, with the others of their kind, they make up the nomenclature of that popular game. Similarly there is a special nomenclature for theology, including such terms as " trinitari- anism," "original sin," " apochryphal," "pre- destination," "transsubstantiation," etc. And for every science, sport, or calling there is likewise some specialized set of words which NOMENCLATURE 99 constitute its nomenclature. One of the poets somewhere speaks of "the sweet nomencla- ture of love," which is not so unscientific either. In objective science, however, the term " nomenclature " usually refers to a set of names given to a particular group of objects. Thus, Mr. Sudworth prepared a book which he called " Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of North America," in which he gave simply a list of those botanical and vulgar names which have been applied to the trees and shrubs of North America. When we say that the nomenclature of the Russian apples is badly mixed we mean only that their names are mixed. In this chapter we shall not try to deter- mine the correct names of any fruits, but shall study only the rules and principles by which we are to determine which are the correct names; that is, we shall be investigating nomenclature in the sense first defined above. The first requisite to the study of any science or art is a satisfactory nomenclature, using the word in either of the senses already mentioned. This is a widely recognized prin- ciple. The students of such sciences as 100 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY physics, astronomy, and botany have spent a great deal of time and effort in selecting and defining most minutely the terms necessary to their descriptions and discussions. And whether it be cause or effect, the present un- deniable crudity of horticultural nomenclature is evidence that pomology, vegetable culture, and floriculture still fall measurably short of being sciences. Science is said to be classi- fied knowledge ; but before we can classify our knowledge of horticultural varieties, we must have those varieties unequivocally named and accurately described. We are fond of saying that horticulture is coming to be a science ; but it certainly falls far short, in this respect, of what it ought to be. A reasonable nomenclature assigns to each entity, be it object, process, species, or variety, a separate and distinctive name. In horticul- ture our attention is fixed chiefly on varie- ties, and varieties are hard to define ; but each one, as we know and describe it, ought to have one name and one only. In other words, one variety must not pass under several names ; nor must one name stand for two or more dis- tinct varieties. It would be easy to mention examples of both mistakes. The well-known NOMENCLATURE 101 apple, Ortley, for instance, has nearly two dozen synonymous names, such as White Bellflower, Ohio Favorite, Detroit, Greasy Pippin, Inman, Yellow Pippin, Jersey Green- ing, Warren Pippin, etc. Those older varie- ties of pears introduced from France are especially rich in synonyms. There is the common Easter Beurre, which has over a dozen, such as Doyenne d'Hiver, Beurre de Paques, Pater Noster, Beurre de la Pente- cote, Bergamotte de la Pentecote, etc. Some- times these synonymous names become so widely distributed and so well known as to supplant the proper names. We may cite among apples Jewett Red, which is generally known throughout New England as Nodhead. One of the most striking cases is that of the Abundance plum, which was first called Botan. The latter name, though entirely correct, has been superseded by the former. The variety is, however, still known as Botan in many sections. But other varieties also pass under the name of Botan, and this illus- trates the second class of difficulties which arise in nomenclature. There are also two distinct varieties passing under the name Satsuma — perhaps more. The name Greasy 102 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Pippin is applied to the Ortley apple, and to Grimes' Golden, and sometimes to other varieties. There are two ways, theoretically at least, of settling such difficulties. The first is by authority, the second is by some code of rules. Not so very many years ago the former method was relied on, even in this country. Andrew Jackson Downing and Charles Downing, dur- ing their lifetime, stood so high among pomol- ogists, and had the actual work of systematic pomology so much in their own hands, that their judgment was often accepted as final. So was the judgment of Dr. Warder among his associates. In the same way, but in a lesser degree, has the judgment of Professor Budd, Professor Bailey, and other pomologists, been accepted by those who believed them compe- tent to settle such questions. But the circle of men who could be thus satisfied with the arbitrary decision of any one pomologist has grown relatively smaller year by year. Our country is now so large that one man can not understand nor control it all in any matter of a scientific sort. In one state one authority might be followed, but in another some other pomological dictator would be preferred ; and NOMENCLATURE 103 when these two wise men should disagree on certain names, what could the laymen do? Evidently we can not longer depend on such authority for the settlement of questions of nomenclature. Formerly the American Pomological So- ciety exercised a considerable influence in these affairs. Not infrequently its findings were accepted as putting an end to all further discussion. But the country has outgrown this method. For the same or similar reasons it is no longer possible for the Division of Pomology in our United States Department of Agriculture, or for any other institution or society, to exercise any final and arbitrary authority. Our whole reliance must now be placed in some scientific system of nomenclature. We must have some simple, yet adequate, rules by which we can easily determine what the cor- rect name of a variety is. In this respect horticulturists have much to learn from bota- nists and zoologists. They name the species of plants and animals, which they study ac- cording to rules upon which they are fairly well agreed, and though there are some in- consistencies, occasionally ridiculous ones, 104 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY yet on the whole the sciences of botany and zoology are immeasurably in advance of horti- culture in this respect. We have, indeed, a code of rules for naming fruits ; and though, these rules are not above criticism, they are much in advance of the general practice in nomenclature. It is safe to say that no one fruit grower in a hundred has ever seen these rules. It is also plain that the rules are openly and flagrantly disregarded by many nurserymen and writers on horticultural top- ics. Of course some persons will never re- gard the rules, no matter how perfect they are, and no matter how strongly recommended by the leading pomologists and pomological societies. But the simpler and more funda- mentally correct the rules are and the more widely they are understood, the more difficult will it become for any violations of them to gain a standing. XI THE LAZY CLUB CODE VARIOUS attempts have been made in this country and in Europe to formulate a satis- factory set of working rules for pomological nomenclature. It would be interesting to trace the history of these efforts, but it is not essential. Instead of doing that, we shall ex- amine, first, the so-called " Lazy Club Code for Pomological Nomenclature," and shall then take up briefly the rules of the American Pomological Society. In introducing this Lazy Club code it is necessary to say that it has no official endorse- ment and no special public recognition. Never- theless, it has been very widely discussed by American pomologists, who have in general expressed themselves favorably toward it. It doubtless gives the best pomological expres- sion to the fundamental principles on which a scientific nomenclature is founded of any set of rules current in America, and it probably comes nearer covering the actual practice of 105 106 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY the best working pomologists than any other system of rules yet prepared. The history of the Lazy Club code deserves some mention. The Lazy Club is, in reality, the horticultural seminar at Cornell Univer- sity. In the autumn of 1898 the subject of nomenclature came up for discussion, and was accorded unusual attention. The rules then current were freely criticized, and a com- mittee was appointed to draw up as nearly as possible an ideal code. This committee con- sisted of Professor F. A. Waugh, then con- nected with the University of Vermont, but temporarily an active member of the Lazy Club ; Professor John Craig, later Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in Iowa State College, now of Cornell University ; and the late Mr. J. H. Cowen, afterward Professor- elect of Horticulture in Colorado Agricultural College. Other members of the club who par- ticipated liberally in the discussions, and who had much to do with the formation of the final code, were : Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University; Professor S. W. Fletcher, now of Cornell University; Professor K. C. Davis, now principal of the Dunn County (Wis- consin) School of Agriculture. Several THE LAZY CLUB CODE 107 of the leading pomologists of the United States were consulted during the progress of the work, and their advice was of ma- terial assistance. Among these persons the following should be especially mentioned : Messrs. W. A. Taylor, of the Division of Pomology, United States Department of Agri- culture, and S. A. Beach, Horticulturist of the New York State Experiment Station, Geneva. It will be seen from this recital that con- siderable horticultural talent was brought into play in the making of this Lazy Club code, and that the rules have a certain degree of authority, in spite of the fact that they have had no public or official adoption. The rules follow herewith : LAZY CLUB CODE FOR POMOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE FORM OF NAMES i. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of one word, or at most of two words. In selecting names, simplicity, distinctiveness, and con- venience are of paramount importance. Pitmaston Green Gage and Louise Bonne de Jersey are neither simple nor convenient. Gold, Golden, Golden Drop, Golden Beauty, Golden Queen, and Golden Prune, all given to different varieties of plums, are not distinctive. 108 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, pippin, buerre, damson, etc., is not admissible. Nouns must not be used in the possessive form. Mc- Intosh's Red, Crawford's Early, Bubach's No. 5 must be written Mclntosh. Crawford Early, and Bubach. Numbers are to be considered as temporary expedients to be used while the variety is under trial. The name of no living horticulturist should be applied to a variety without his full consent; and the name of no deceased horticulturist should be used without the general agreement of living horticulturists. An author publishing a new variety should use the name given by the originator, or by the introducer, or else should choose the oldest discoverable local name, pro- viding such name may be conformed to these rules with- out loss of identity. 2. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name of the author who first published it shall also be given. Names would then take such forms as the following: Summer Queen, Coxe ; or Henry (Jerolaman); or Sophie (J. W. Kerr, Cat., 1894); or America, Burbank, New Crea- tions, 1898, p. 5. It is expected that such citations of names will be used only in elaborate works on pomology, in scientific publi- cations, or in cases where they are necessary for clear discrimination of synonyms. PRIORITY 3. No two varieties in the same group shall have the same name; and the name first published for a variety must always be used to designate it. All names subsequently published must stand as synonyms. The term " group" as here used shall be held to desig- THE LAZY CLUB CODE 109 nate the large general groups specified by words in com- mon language, such as raspberry, plum, apricot. PUBLICATION 4. Publication consists in (a) the public distribu- tion of printed name and description, the latter giv- ing distinguishing characters of fruit, tree, etc., or (b) in the publication of a new name for a variety properly described elsewhere. Such a publication may be made in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalog, or periodical, providing the issue bears the date of its publication, and is generally dis- tributed among nurserymen, fruit growers, and horti- culturists. REVISION 5. No one is authorized to change a name for any reason except when it conflicts with these rules. The order of these rules is not exactly logical. The priority rule (3) expresses the fundamental law of nomenclature, and prob- ably ought to stand first. However, this and some other slightly illogical turns of the rules may be fairly overlooked. It should be observed that the rules proper are given in large type, while those portions in smaller type are provided merely for ex- planation, illustration, or general direction, without having the binding force of the rules themselves. Rule i might be called the rule of conve- nience. The great reason for using a single HO SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY word in preference to three or four is that the single word is more convenient. The fundamental importance of this point has generally been insufficiently recognized. Yet a name is essentially nothing but a matter of convenience. There is no other reason par- ticularly why men and women should not be numbered — as the motormen and conductors are — instead of being named Richard Croker, Susan B. Anthony, or Jan Panderewski. The easiest way to deal with men and objects is to give them names. Whenever numbers are more convenient they supplant the names; witness the call numbers in the telephone ex- change list, the numbers given to workmen on large contractors' jobs, or the motormen and conductors already mentioned. The law of convenience is a fundamental law of lan- guage, and so properly a primary considera- tion in the settlement of any system of no- menclature. Aside from the inconvenience of speaking and writing such long names as Louise Bonne de Jersey, their application to horticultural varieties is very apt to result finally in confu- sion. No nurseryman is going to write a hundred labels for his pear trees with this THE LAZY CLUB CODE HI whole name: " Louise Bonne de Jersey." He is perfectly certain to abbreviate it. One man will write it " L. B. Jersey," another "Louise Bonne," another simply " Louise," and pos- sibly another will write it simply "Jersey." Then the man who sees these labels, espe- cially if he is somewhat unfamiliar with the names of pears, will be uncertain whether he has one, two, three, or four different varieties. After such an abbreviation is itself abbrevi- ated or remodeled several successive times, it is apt to lose its identity altogether. Even the Ben Davis apple is frequently called " Ben," though the Baldwin is always Baldwin. Some parents name their boys Jack or Dan to pre- vent other people from giving them nick- names. A name should be distinctive for the rea- sons just recited. If it is not distinctive, it is not convenient. In the words of the code, " Gold, Golden, Golden Drop, Golden Beauty, Golden Queen, and Golden Prune, all given to different varieties of plums, are not dis- tinctive." They are, therefore, an inconve- nience to the nurseryman, the fruit grower, and the systematic pomologist. " The use of such general terms as seed- H2 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY ling, hybrid, pippin, buerre, damson, etc., is not admissible," but their inadmissibility rests solely on the ground of their inconvenience. They add nothing to the distinctiveness of a name, though they add materially to its length. The use of nouns in the possessive form is also bothersome. The possessive sign means nothing, or, if it does, the meaning is mis- leading. Mr. Mclntosh does not own the variety named in his honor. He may not have a single tree of it on his farm, though other men own thousands. He may not even control the propagation and distribution of the trees. The name is only commemorative. It is given in his honor, because the variety originated on his farm. He is commemorated quite as well, or even better, with his name in the nominative case as with it in the posses- sive. Even were he not, we must not forget that names are not for historical records nor for descriptive uses, but solely for conve- nience. The use of tautological descriptive adjec- tives as a part of variety names is also in dis- repute, and is objectionable for the same reason —because they are inconvenient. Mclntosh's THE LAZY CLUB CODE H;} Red becomes Mclntosh, dropping the adject- ive out of the name for simplicity's sake, and because that is properly a part of the descrip- tion. The same apple is also oblate, white- fleshed, and aromatic ; but it would be folly to put all this into the name and call it Mclntosh's Red Oblate White-fleshed Aro- matic apple. In the case of Crawford Early, mentioned also in the rules, the adjective " early " has to be retained to distinguish this peach from another variety, Crawford Late. The only alternative would be to give an entirely new name to one of these two va- rieties. Numbers ought always to be used for varie- ties under test in the hands of the originator or of his immediate friends. As soon as they are sent out to the public, though, they ought to be given names. The Bubach strawberry was grown commercially in large quantities for years before it shed the " No. 5 " which the originator had given it to dis- tinguish it from his other seedlings. The late Mr. E. S. Rogers, of Salem, Mass., has furnished another case in point. He orig- inated many fine varieties of grapes, all of which were sent out under numbers, and all 114 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY the best of which, above a dozen, were subse- quently named. The numbers were used so long and widely, however, that they are still customarily given in all catalogs : " Rogers' No. i, Goethe; Rogers' No. 3, Massasoit ; Rogers' No. 4, Wilder; Rogers' No. 9, Lind- ley," etc. " The name of no living horticulturist should be applied to a variety without his full consent." But this is more a matter of polite- ness (or decency) between man and man than it is a concern of scientific nomenclature. It is one of the penalties of being famous in the horticultural world that then a man is always liable to have some worthless pear or strawberry advertised by his name. In the case of the President of the United States, he has a large percentage of all the new babies in the country named after him — especially colored babies. In like manner there is no reason, aside from a regard for common decency, against the use of the name of a deceased horticul- turist. We might infer from the fact that this code mentions horticulturists only that the rule of politeness did not apply in favor of poli- THE LAZY CLUB CODE 115 ticians, authors, millionaires, or others who may become popular or famous in other walks of life. Perhaps it would not be worth while to attack this inference. The last clause of explanation under Rule i raises a point which has been widely and seriously discussed for years by American pomologists. The citation of an actual case will serve to make the difficulty plain. A nurseryman goes into the remote rural dis- tricts of Arkansas, or to other places, and finds apples of considerable merit locally grown, but unknown to the world at large. These varities have local names, as, Arkansas, Beach, and Oliver; but he brings them home, propagates, advertises, and sells them as Mammoth Black Twig, Apple of Commerce, and Senator. Subsequently other nursery- men may get cions from the same sources, and may use for them the names locally and originally known. According to Rule 3 of the code in hand the names Mammoth Black Twig, Apple of Commerce, and Senator would have to stand (except for their undue length or other conflicts with the rules). This has been widely felt to be an injustice to the horticultural public, yet it is hard to see how 116 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY any rule can be devised which will positively prevent it. Priority of publication, as defined in Rule 3, seems to be the real basis of scientific no- menclature, and to make any exceptions to this rule would be fatal. The fact that the names secondarily given are published and properly brought first to the attention of fruit growers and nurserymen makes them in reality the prior names in the knowledge of the majority of the pomologists. To go back later to the original local and unpublished names would involve hardship to the public, and the rights of the horticultural public must always stand above any local jealousies or sentiment attaching to an unpublished name. The direction here given, that "an author publishing a new variety should use the name given by the originator, or by the introducer, or else should choose the oldest discoverable local name," ougnt to be emphasized to the utmost, but it never becomes more than a piece of good advice. If the "author" pub- lishing a new variety sees fit to disregard it, and if he has at the same time the discretion to stay inside the rules on other points, the THE LAZY CLUB CODE 117 name he gives will have to stand, even if it is not the one given locally or by the introducer or originator. Rule 2 might be called the bibliographer's rule. It reads thus: " In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name of the author who first published it shall also be given." This is merely for identifying names, for tracing out their histories, and for deter- mining their dates of publication in case any conflict arises under Rule 3. Nevertheless, this citation of the name of the man who names a variety sometimes comes to be a matter of practical necessity. There are at the present moment two differ- ent plums being propagated under the name Klondyke, one in Iowa by a man whom we will call Brown, and the other in Illinois by a man whom we may call Black. If Mr. White were writing to the Country Gentleman about his plum trees named Klondyke, it would be necessary for him to specify which Klondyke plum he meant. This he would do by naming the man who named the plum, thus : " Klon- dyke, of Brown," or " Klondyke, of Black." The forms of citation suggested in the ex- planatory paragraph show how this rule can 118 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY be advantageously followed in bulletins, trade catalogs, etc. As a matter of fact, a consider- able number of recent publications have fol- lowed substantially these forms. Such citations as those here exemplified are practically necessary in working up the synonomy of any group of varieties, and in determining what are the correct names. Al- most exactly the same method is used in botany, zoology, and all related sciences. An example from botanical practice will make the whole matter clearer. If, for instance, a bot- anist were looking up the nomenclature of our common red oak, he would have to exam- ine the following names and citations, among many others : Quercus rubra, Linn., Spec. PL, ed. i, 2 : 996. 1753. Quercus ambigua, Michx., Hist. Arb. Am. 2: 120. 1812. Quercus coccinea ambigua, Gray, Man. Bot. N. U. S., ed 5, 454. 1867. When it has been established that these different names were really intended all for the same species, the question turns only on which one shall be used. This is determined by the priority rule, similar to Rule 3 of the pomological code. The oldest correct name stands. The name Quercus rubra was given THE LAZY CLUB CODE 119 to the red oak by Linnaeus, and was first pub- lished in his book entitled "Species Planta- rum," edition i, Volume II., page 996, in the year 1753. The name Quercus ambigua, given by Michaux, was not published until 1812, and the name Quercus coccinea ambigua, by Dr. Gray, in 1867. The name given by Linnaeus thus has the preference, and is the one adopted. Rule 3 is the rule of priority. This is the real foundation of nomenclature, and the most important rule in the code. The prin- ciple might doubtless be expressed better than it is in the phraseology of the rule as it stands in the code. The writer believes that the matter may be more clearly stated in these words : In case of two varieties claiming the same name, the name shall be retained by the variety for which it was first published; and in the case of two names ap- plied to one variety, the name first published must always be used to designate it. It will thus be seen that the priority rule has two converse applications : no variety can have two correct names, and no name can properly belong to two varities. One name for one thing is the foundation 120 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY principle of scientific nomenclature every- where. Rule 4, the rule of publication, is in reality only an explanation of Rule 3, and ought to be included in the same section. Priority of publication has just been established as the standard of nomenclature, and it is now neces- sary only to define publication. " Publica- tion consists in, first, the public distribution of printed name and description, the latter giving distinguishing characters of fruit, tree, etc." The first public notice of any variety would have to come in this form. However, if it should be subsequently discovered that the name first published was already in use for some other variety, it would thus become necessary to choose a new name ; and when this new name were presented to the public the description of the variety might be omit- ted. Explicit reference would be given, how- ever, to the description originally published. The provision that any "book, bulletin, report, trade catalog, or periodical " in which such original publication is made must "bear the date of its publication," is made obviously for the purpose once more of determining priority of names. In case two names are THE LAZY CLUB CODE 121 applied to one variety it will be impossible, without outside help, to determine which is the older, unless both are published in such a way that the date of their distribution is known. This provision, in pomological ex- perience, applies most sharply to the catalog of the mediocre nurseryman. This man finds it too expensive for his business for him to issue a catalog every year, so he makes one catalog do for several years by the simple ex- pedient of omitting the date. Yet this is, un- fortunately, the very style of nurseryman who is always introducing new varieties with flam- boyant, unsuitable, and ill-considered names. The provision that the " book, bulletin, re- port, trade catalog, or periodical," in which a new variety is published, shall be "generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers, and horticulturists," has its obvious meaning and justification. Rule 5, the rule against revision, is redun- dant, purely negative, and unscientific. There is no real necessity for it. The four rules previously given cover all the ground. Yet the fifth rule is perhaps needed for emphasis, and the emphasis can not be too great in view of current practice in this matter. A some- 122 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY what amusing case of the present time may be mentioned to enforce this statement. A certain famous Western plant breeder has originated many good plums, and the variety which seems to be the best production in all his life's work was named Free Silver, because the man was an ardent advocate of the free coinage of the white metal at a ratio of 16 to i, and a loyal supporter of William Jennings Bryan. Now, after this variety had been ad- vertised for about two years under this name, and had been distributed to some extent, the entire stock remaining in the hands of the originator was bought up by one of the best, most careful, and conservative nurserymen in the United States. But this man is a rank Republican and a gold-standard man from start to finish. Whatever his horticultural principles might be, his political principles would not permit him to advertise, praise, and circulate anything under the name of Free Silver. So he unhesitatingly renamed the plum, calling it Terry. Yet this man is a high pomological official, and, more than any one else in the country almost, interested in upholding the rules. Unquestionably his provocation was very great. XII AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY RULES IT has already been pointed out that the foregoing Lazy Club code of rules has no official standing. The only pomological rules which do have are those of the American Pomological Society, adopted many years ago. These rules are as follows: 1. The originator or introducer (in the order named) has the prior right to bestow a name upon a new or unnamed fruit. 2. The society reserves the right, in case of long, inappropriate, or otherwise objectionable names, to shorten, modify, or wholly change the same when they shall occur in its discussions or reports, and also to recommend such names for general adoption. 3. The name of a fruit should preferably express, as far as practicable by a single word, the character- istics of the variety, the name of the originator, or the place of its origin. Under no ordinary circum- stances should more than a single word be employed. 4. Should the question of priority arise between different names for the same variety of fruit, other circumstances being equal, the name first publicly bestowed will be given preference. These rules were adopted in 1883. They 123 124 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY were apparently intended chiefly to guide the American Pomological Society in its official proceedings, in its fruit exhibits and in its published reports. Only here and there do the rules give one the feeling that the men who framed them expected them to have any force or application outside the society. In this respect they differ essentially from the Lazy Club rules, which were designed to express the fundamental laws of nomencla- ture as applied to pomology. It is evidently easier to make rules for a society than for the whole world, and inestima- bly easier to enforce such rules. But, ideally, the rules of nomenclature should rest on uni- versal laws, or, at least, the rules themselves should have universal recognition. Perhaps the best expression of this point was the one given long ago, written, I believe, by De Candolle, saying that science " can make no real progress without a regular system of nomenclature, acknowledged and used by a large majority" of the men engaged in a given line of work. Another closely related principle was ex- pressed by the same writer in these words : "The rules of nomenclature should neither AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY RULES 125 be arbitrary nor imposed by authority. They must be founded on considerations clear and forcible enough for every one to comprehend and be disposed to accept." If these principles should be accepted as the foundation for pomological nomenclature we should feel that the American Pomolog- ical Society or any other organization or insti- tution could not do more than to formulate a code and recommend its adoption. No one would be bound to follow that recommenda- tion nor to use the code, unless the majority of pomologists chose to use it. Then it would be the force of custom, acting in recog- nition of general principle, and not the force of any society's dictum, which would prevail. The rules given above are of great interest, however, under any view, as showing the ideas of nomenclature current, or recently current, among American pomologists. With respect to Rule i, it may be said that * From the laws of botanical nomenclature adopted by the Congress of Botanists at Paris. August, 1867. For a full and instructive resume of nomenclatural rules, including botan- ical, zoological, and ornithological codes, the student may consult Sudworth's " Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States," Appendix, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1897. 126 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY this matter has usually adjusted itself. If the originator does not introduce his own variety, he commonly disposes of his right to name it when he turns his new apple or strawberry over to another man to introduce. The priv- ilege of naming a new variety — or at least the division of that privilege between the originator and the introducer — is commonly considered a property right, and is bought and sold like any other property, without reference to rules of nomenclature. What ought to be chiefly noted in the application of this rule is that both originator and intro- ducer may lose the right to the bestowal of a name, if that right is not promptly and prop- erly occupied. If a variety should be dis- tributed without a name, such a one might be named by any pomologist who should have occasion to publish or advertise the variety ; and a name so given would hold against any subsequent action of originator or introducer, if it conformed to the other rules of nomen- clature. Or if the originator or introducer should give a name contrary to any of the other rules, such an incorrect name could be revised or changed either by the American Pomological Society, as provided in Rule 2, AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY RULES 127 or by any author making formal publication with reference to the variety in question. Rule 2, though less definite and explicit than might be wished, is reasonable and necessary. Practically the same ground is covered, though more positively and arbitra- rily, in the first rule of the Lazy Club code. Rule 3, in the terms here given, is less a rule than a suggestion. Suggestions with re- gard to what is suitable and what unsuitable in naming fruits, however pertinent, are hardly to be called rules of nomenclature. Rule 4 is introduced in a hesitating tone, as though a conflict of names on the ground of priority were a very unusual or delicate matter, yet this is the rule of most impor- tance in the whole code. We know that an old variety which has not two or three names is an exception, but in deciding among a number of names for a given fruit, choice will rest oftener upon priority than upon any other ground ; in fact, priority is almost an absolute test in such cases. Any other con- sideration must be of the most obvious sort to justify the substitution of one name for another ; but the first correct name correctly given to a variety must stand. 128 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY The rule of priority as here set forth, how- ever, covers only half the ground. It applies to any case in which one variety has two names. Yet it is not at all uncommon to find one name doing duty for two varieties. It is evident that in such cases the name belongs to that variety upon which it was first publicly bestowed, and the second variety must find another name. This is one of those good rules which work both ways. The rules which we have just been dis- cussing are a direct outgrowth of another set of rules proposed to the American Pomo- logical Society by Mr. P. Barry in 1867. These rules are very interesting in them- selves, and they throw some light on the de- velopment of the science of nomenclature in its application to American pomology. For these reasons it will be worth while to tran- scribe these rules here : * Rules Proposed— 1867 i. No new seedling fruit shall be entitled to the recommendation of this society until its qualities shall be ascertained by at least five years' experience in more than one locality, and which is not at least equal * American Pomological Society Report, n : 153. 1868. AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY RULES 129 to any similar variety of the first rank already known, or which, if only of second-rate flavor, is superior in vigor, hardiness, productiveness, or other important quality or characteristics. 2. No new fruit shall be considered as named until it has been accurately described by some person or committee known to be conversant with existing varie- ties, and such description shall have been published in at least one horticultural or agricultural journal, or some pomological work of acknowledged standard character. 3. The originator, or he who first makes known a new variety, shall be entitled to name it, and such name, if suitable, shall be adopted by the writer de- scribing the fruit for the first time. But if the name proposed is inappropriate, or does not come within the rules of nomenclature, the de- scriber shall be at liberty to give a name. When two persons have named or described a fruit, the name and description first published, if accord- ing to the rules, shall have the priority. 4. In giving names to new varieties, all harsh, vul- gar, or inelegant names, such as " Sheepsnose,'' " Hogpen," etc., should be avoided, and no name should consist of more than two words, excepting only when the originator's name is added. Characteristic names, or those in some way descriptive of the quali- ties, origin, or habit of fruit or tree, shall be preferred. They may either be of intrinsic properties (as Golden Sweeting, Downer's Late, etc.), or of local origin (as Newtown Pippin, Hudson Gage), of the season of ripening (as Early Scarlet, Frost Gage), of the form 130 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOMY and color (as Golden Drop, Blue Pearmain), or which commemorates a particular place or person (asTippe- canoe, La Grange, Baldwin), or any other titles which may be significantly applied. 5. The descriptions of new varieties of fruits shall embrace the following particulars: (a) An account of their origin. (£) The fruit, its size, form, and exterior color; texture and color of the flesh; flavor, and time of ripening, with the addition, in stone fruits, of the size of the stone; adherence or non-adherence of the- flesh, form of the suture, and the hollow at the stem, and in kernel fruits, of the size of the core and seeds, the length, position, and insertion of the stalk, and form of the eye. (f) The tree, its marked characters of growth, young and bearing wood, foliage and blossoms. In peaches, the form of leafglands, and size of blos- soms. In strawberries, the character of the blossoms, whether staminate or pistillate. In grapes, the form of bunch or berry. XIII PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION THE natural end of systematic pomology is classification. " Science is classified knowl- edge," in the terms of the old school-book definition. Until we classify our pears, plums, raspberries, and other fruits, our knowledge of them does not really become scientific. De- scription and nomenclature are often valuable in themselves, but they do not reach their legitimate application until they are made the means to a classification. The present need of more and better classi- fication in pomology deserves to be very forc- ibly presented. Horticulturists will agree, on general prin- ciples, that our fruits deserve as careful study and as accurate classification as the different kinds of microbes floating in the air, or the various sorts of moss clinging to the rocks of Popocatapetl. Pomology is just as promising and as proper a field for science as bacteri- ology, mycology, or conchology. Then when one remembers that there are probably be- 131 132 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY tween 1,500 and 2,000 different named varie- ties of apples growing in North America, some 500 to 600 varieties of plums, 200 to 300 of pears, and of other fruits in like propor- tion, with more coming every year, then one must see that, unless some method of topical study can be secured, no man can ever get even a superficial knowledge of our pomo- logical wealth. If those varieties which are alike can be grouped together, then one can understand several of them at once by famil- iarizing himself with their generic charac- ters. And thus from every side, and much more urgently than can be here written down, do we need more and better classification of our varieties of fruit. Methods of Classification There are two radically different methods of classification used in all fields of natural science. These are commonly designated the natural and the artificial methods. It would be more accurate and more sug- gestive to call the latter the arbitrary method rather than the artificial method. The essential difference between these two methods is that the arbitrary method arranges PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 133 objects (or varieties in this case) into groups according to some one character arbitrarily selected, while the natural method attempts to take into consideration all the characters of the varieties in question. This matter may be made plain by an ex- ample. In nurserymen's catalogs apples are usually classified according to one character — namely, season of ripening; that is, they are, given a purely arbitrary classification. There may be two varieties almost exactly alike as regards growth of tree, color, texture, and flavor of fruit, and all other qualities ; yet if one happens to ripen in August and the other in December, the two will go to the opposite ends of the nurseryman's list. We would have similarly an arbitrary clas- sification if we selected any other one charac- ter for our basis of assortment. We might decide to classify according to form, which is one of the best of all arbitrary ways of classi- fying apples. We would put the round apples into one group, the oblate apples into another, the oblong varieties into a third, and the conic varieties into a fourth. Still we would be sure to find placed together certain apples which, though of the same form, were 134 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY very unlike in most other characteristics ; and conversely we would discover that many va- rieties, though strikingly alike in the majority of their characters, had been separated into distinct groups by our arbitrary method of classification. To illustrate the natural method of classi- fication among apples we may refer to the fairly well-recognized Fameuse group. This includes Fameuse (Snow), Mclntosh, Shi- awassee, Sweet Fameuse, Louise, Green Fa- meuse, and others — all having certain points of resemblance. They are usually red (but not always) ; they have tender skin, soft, ten- der, very white flesh, with pinkish markings running through it, a peculiar flavor and aroma, and a medium early season of ripen- ing. The Fameuse group, therefore, is founded on natural resemblances. In deter- mining these resemblances the apples are considered in all their characters, not in some single one. Persons who are not familiar with apples of the Fameuse group may understand this point better by calling up the Ben Davis group. This consists of Ben Davis, Gano, Black Ben Davis, Beach (Apple of Commerce), PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 135 and several others — all much like Ben Davis in all their principal qualities. It will be seen at once that the arbitrary method of classification is the easier to use. It is easier to study varieties for agreements or disagreements in one character than in many characters. The arbitrary classification is also easier to make, as well as easier to use. Any natural classification is extremely difficult with any kind of fruits, but especially so with apples, pears, and strawberries. In fact, with these fruits it is practically impos- sible to make a natural classification cover- ing more than a few specially well-defined groups. The natural method of classification, how- ever, is the better for a]l reasons, except that of convenience. It is more scientific — if that adjective permits of 'comparison — than the arbitrary method, because it shows more of the facts of relationship. Fruits which re- semble each other in several particulars are certain to be more closely related, in the majority of cases, than those which resemble only in one particular. The natural method is, therefore, the one toward which the ambi- tious pomologist always strives, but the arti- 136 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY ficial method is the one with which he is frequently forced to be content. In actual practice the two systems are apt to be somewhat mixed. The mixture occurs because the pomologist seeks to make a natural classification ; but, finding his knowl- edge imperfect and inadequate at certain points, is obliged to proceed without bringing positively all the characters of all the fruits into his scheme. As soon as he classifies anything on the basis of this partial knowl- edge, he is using a few characters, or a single character, in place of the full quota demanded by the perfectly natural method. Thus, we very commonly find the pomological worker piecing out a natural classification with artifi- cial links. The ideal system of classification combines both the natural and the artificial methods. If this ideal system were applied to any given material — say, to our cultivated grapes — we should have two classifications given side by side. In the natural classification all the varieties would be arranged according to their broad, natural relationships. In the arbi- trary classification the same series of varie- ties would be arranged more diagramatically PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 13J according to characters arbitrarily chosen. Then any one wishing to identify an unknown variety could follow out the arbitrary key or classification, while any one wishing to study the varieties broadly would have recourse to the natural classification. It should be remarked, for the benefit of those who are accustomed to the use of the current manuals of botany, such as Gray's Manual, that these books employ, more or less successfully, the double method outlined. The keys given in these books for help in tracing out (" analyzing," as they say in school) plants whose names are not known are purely artificial. The arrangement of plants into species, genera, and families, ac- cording to their broad resemblances, is natu- ral— at least, it is professedly so ; and though the books frequently fall far short of the whole truth in these qualifications, yet the arrangements are on a natural basis. All these matters 'will appear more clearly when we take up some of the actual examples of classification, as we shall now proceed to do. The author feels that some explanation is fairly due the student for the introduction of the following very imperfect, and often 138 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY contradictory, systems of classification. It would be much better if this treatise on sys- tematic pomology could give an ideal classifi- cation of our common fruits. Such a classifi- cation, however, has not yet been made, and it seems impossible that it should be made — at least, for many years, to come. In default of a perfect classification, therefore, the reader will be instructed by observing what the best pomologists have already done in this field. Each one of us will then be at liberty to choose for his own use that system of classification which seems to him most reasonable or useful. In many cases, doubtless, two or more systems of classification can be combined, or useful fea- tures can be taken from each. Out of such study, readaptation, and invention the future may see a better system of pomological classification arise. XIV CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS IN GENERAL IT is difficult to define a fruit in exact terms. The botanist has a definition, but it is not just the same as the horticulturist's definition. In general, we may sum up the horticultural notion by saying that a fruit is an edible, more or less fleshy portion of a plant, in its development intimately con- nected with the seed. Sometimes it is the seed itself, as in the walnut ; sometimes it is the swollen ovary, as in the plum ; sometimes it is the fleshy calyx adhering to the ovary, as in the apple. The names of fruits in common language are really generic classificatory terms. Such names as peach, nectarine, apricot, almond, etc., designate rather considerable classes of fruits. While such names are usually fairly clear in common usage, it is sometimes diffi- cult, in critical cases, to say just what is a plum and just what is a cherry. The shrub commonly called the western sand cherry (Primus pumila besseyi) has often been 139 140 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY classed with the plums. It may be called by either name with equal propriety. Recently the plum has been successfully hybridized with the apricot and with the cherry. The resulting fruit is half plum and half apricot, and can not be conveniently classed with either. Mr. Burbank has called it a plumcot. The cross between the plum and the cherry has not been named. The writer has several times seen fruits which were thought to be hybrids between the apple and the pear. They partook of the characters of both fruits. Whether such specimens could be called pears or apples would be a knotty question. About the best thing that can be done in such cases is to rely on the arbitrary definitions of our com- mon language. When we study all these common classes of fruit at large, we find that there are some striking natural relationships among them. The apple, the pear, and the quince, for in- stance, are much alike ; so are the plum, the peach, and the apricot ; and so are the orange, the lemon, the pomelo, and the kum- quat. The three groups here exemplified are very generally known as the pome fruits, CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS IN GENERAL 141 the drupaceous fruits, and the citrous fruits respectively. The most recent and comprehensive classi- fication of fruits in general, covering the ground outlined above, is that given by Bailey,* and reproduced below with minor changes : CLASS I. — ORCHARD CULTURE, OR TREE-FRUIT CUL- TURE. SUBCLASS i. — Pomaceo us fruits. Apple, Pyrus ma/us. Crab-apple, Pyrus baccata. Prairie crab, Pyrus ioensis. Atlantic crab, Pyrus coronaria. Pear, Pyrus communis. Sand pear, Pyrus sinensis. Quince, Pyrus cydonia. Chinese quince, Pyrus cathayensis. Japan quince, Pyrus japonica. Maule's quince, Pyrus maulei. - Medlar, Mespihis germanica. Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica. SUBCLASS 2. — Drupaceous or stone fruits. Plum, Prunus doniestica. Damson plum, Prunus domestica damascena. Myrobalan plum, Prunus cerasifera. * Bailey, " Principles of Fruit-Growing," p. 2. New York, 1897. 142 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Japan plum, Prunus triflora. American plum, Prunus americana. Wild Goose plum, Prunus hortulana. Chickasaw plum, Prunus augustifolia. Sand plum, Prunus augustifolia watsoni. Beach plum, Prunus maritima. Pacific plum, Prunus subcordata. Apricot plum, Prunus simonii. Hybrid plums, combining various species. Sweet cherry, Prunus avium. Sour cherry, Prunus cerasus. Sand cherry, Prunus pumila btsseyi. Peach and nectarine, Prunus persica, Apricot, Prunus armeniaca. Japan apricot, Prunus munie. Purple apricot, Prunus dasycarpa SUBCLASS 3. — Citrous fruits. Orange, Citrus aiirantium. Tangierine orange, Citrus nobilis. Citron, Citrus me die a. Lemon, Citrus niedica limon. Lime,' Citrus medico limetta. Sour lime (lime of the United States), Citrus me die a acris. Grape-fruit, Shaddock, or Pomelo, Citrus de~ cumana. Kumquat, Citrus japonica. Trifoliate orange, sEgle (or Citrus} trifoliata. Glycosmis, Glycosmis aurantiaca. Lime berry, Triphrasia trifoliata. White sapota, Casimiroa edulis. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS IN GENERAL 143 SUBCLASS 4. — Moraceous fruits. Fig, Ficus carica. White (and Russian) mulberry, Morus alba. Black mulberry, Morns nigra. Red mulberry, Morus rubra. Downing mulberry, Morus multicaulis. Japan mulberry, Morus japonica. Bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa. SUBCLASS 5. — Anonaceous fruits. Sour-sop, Anona muricata. Sour-apple, Anona squamosa. Cherimoya, Anona cherimolia. Pond -apple, Anona laurifolia. And other Anonas. Northern papaw, Asimina triloba. SUBCLASS 6. — Myrtaceous fruits. Guava, Psidium guajava, and others. Rose-apple, Eugenia jambos Surinam cherry, Eugenia uniflora. And other Eugenias. SUBCLASS 7. — Sapotaceous fruits. Sapodilla, Achras sapota. Marmalade tree, Lucuma mammosa. Star-apple, Chrysophyllum cainito. And others. SUBCLASS 8. — Anacardiaceous fruits. Mango, Mangifera indica. Jew plum, Spondias duleis. 144 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY SUBCLASS 9. — Ebenaceous fruits. Kaki (Japan persimmon), Diospyros kaki. Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana. SUBCLASS 10. — Leguminous fruits. Tamarind, Tamarindus indica. St. John's Bread, or Carob, Ceratonia siliqua. SUBCLASS n. — Nut- fruits. Walnut, Juglans regia. Japan walnut, Juglans sicboldiana. Black walnut, Juglans nigra. Butternut, Juglans cinerea. Pecan, Hicoria pecan. Shell-bark hickory, Hicoria ovata and H. laciniosa. European chestnut, Castanea vesca American chestnut, Castanea americana Japan chestnut, Lastanta japonica. Chinquapin, Casta uea pumila . Filbert, Corylus arellana. Litchi, Nephelium litchi. Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba. Almond, Prunus amygdalus. Russian almond, Ptunus nana. Tropical almond, Terminalia catappa. Cashew, Anacardium occidental*. Pistacio, Pistacio I'era. SUBCLASS 12. — Palmaceous fruits. Cocoanut, Cocos nucifera. Date, Phoenix dactylifera. And others. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS IN GENERAL 145 SUBCLASS 13. — Miscellaneous tree-fruits. Olive, Olea eurofcea. Pomegranate, Punica granatum. Papaw, Carica papaya. Hovenia, Horenia dulcis. Jujube, Zizyphus jujuba, and others. Myrica, Myrica nagi (M. rubrd]. Sea-grape, Coccoloba urifera. Otaheite gooseberry, Phyllanthus disticha. Spanish lime, Melicocca bijunga. Alligator pear, Persea gratissima. Strawberry tree, Arbutus unedo. Mammee apple, Mammta americana. CLASS II. — VINE-FRUIT CULTURE. SUBCLASS i. — Viticulture, comprising : Wine grape, Vitis vinifera. Fox grape, Vitis labrusca. Summer grape, Vitis cestivalis. Post-oak grape, Vitis cestiralis linsecomii. Muscadine and Scuppernong grapes, Vitis rotundi folia. Sand grape, Vitis rupestris. River-bank grape, Vitis rulpina. And other native species of Vitis. SUBCLASS 2. — Passifloraceous fruits. Granadilla, Passiftora edulis. And others. 146 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY CLASS III.— SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE. SUB-CLASS i. — Bush-fruits. Group a. — Riibaceous fruits (cane-fruits), or bramble-fruits. Raspberry, Rubus idceus. Black-cap raspberry, Rttbus occidentalis. Red raspberry, Rubus strigosus. Wineberry, Rubus ph&nicolasius. Blackberry, Rubus villosus. Northern dewberry, Rubus canadensis. Southern dewberry, Rubus trivialis. Pacific dewberry, Rubus vitifolius. Group b. — Ribaceous fruits. Currant, Ribes rub rum. Black currant, Ribes nigrum. Buffalo currant, Ribes aureum. Gooseberry, Ribes grossularia. American gooseberry, Ribes oxyacan- thoides. Group c. — Miscellaneous bush- fruits. Juneberry, Amelanchier oblongifolia. Buffalo berry, Shcpheidia argetitea. Goumi, Elceagnus multiflora (£. longipes). Caraunda, Carissa carundus. SUBCLASS 2. — Strawberry culture. Garden strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis. Hautbois strawberry, Fragaria moschata. Alpine strawberry, Fragaria vesca. Virginian strawberry, Fragaria virginiana. SUBCLASS 3. — Cranberry culture. Common cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS IN GENERAL 147 CLASS IV. — NON-WOODY OR HERD-LIKE FRUITS. SUBCLASS i. — Musaceous fruits. Banana, Musci sapientium. Plantain, Musa paradisica. SUBCLASS 2. — Pineapple. Common pineapple, Ananas sativus. SUBCLASS 3. — Cactaceous fruits. Prickly pear, Opuntia tuna, and others. Indian fig, Opuntia ficus-indica. Barbadoes gooseberry, Pereskia aculeata. SUBCLASS 4. — Miscellaneous herb-like fruits. Cyphomandra, Cyphomandra betacea. Ceriman, Monstera deilciosa. XV THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES THERE are probably something like five hundred varieties of apples now known and propagated by name in North America ; the number of named varieties available in collec- tions and elsewhere is doubtless above one thousand ; while those described in our Amer- ican literature runs considerably above two thousand. Obviously it is impossible for any one man to know them all. Any scheme of classification which would group together those varieties of like characteristics would plainly be a great relief to the man who han- dles or studies apples. Only once in this country has any general scheme of classification ever been attempted for apples. This was the purely artificial system of Dr. Warder, referred to below. The only essays toward a natural classifica- tion have been infrequent and of the most fragmentary character. One of the most striking of these was made by a joint com- mittee appointed by the state horticultural 148 THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 149 societies of Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and South Dakota, in 1898. This committee met in La Crosse, Wisconsin, August 30 and 31, 1898, "in order," as it was said, "to revise and simplify the nomenclature of the Russian apples." The service performed by the com- mittee, however, was much more important and far reaching than the mere revision of names, for their report really presented a sys- tematic and natural classification of the varie- ties discussed. The arrangement was doubt- less open to some criticism — such things are seldom perfect — and it covers comparatively few varieties, and those of small general in- terest ; yet the principle of the classification is vital and unexceptionable.* Groups of Russian Apples The committee, at the outset of its work, unanimously adopted the following resolution as a preamble to their findings : The varieties here grouped as members of the same families, while in a few cases differing somewhat in characteristics of tree, are so nearl)r identical in fruit that for exhibition and commercial purposes they are practically the same and should be so considered. * The full report of the committee may be found in the Min- nesota. Horticulturist, 27 : 41. 189 ). (Minn. Hort. Soc. Rpt., 27.) 150 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY In the succeeding paragraph of the report it was suggested that " the word ' group ' or •type ' may be used if preferred for the word ' family.' " The present writer greatly prefers the word "group," since the word "family" is used in a special sense in the classification of plants. The committee then proceeded to divide the Russian apples into fourteen groups, as follows, a few addenda being given at the end of the report : 1. Hibernal group, including Hibernal, Lieby or Recumbent, Yellow Arcadian, Juicy Burr (spurious*), Romenskoe (spurious), Silken Leaf, Zuzoff (spurious), Pendent Ear, Omensk (spurious), Romna (spurious), Ostrakoff, U. S. D. A. (spurious). 2. Duchess Group. — Duchess, Duchess of Oldenburg, or Oldenburg, Arabian, Borovinka, White Krim, Anisette, Glass Green. 3. Long field Group. — Longfield, English Pippin, Good Peasant (spurious), No. 387 (spurious). 4. Charlamoff Group. — Charlamoff, Peterson's Char- lamoff, Champanskoe, Pointed Pipka, Champagne. 5. Romna Group. — Romna, Romenskoe. 6. Cross Group. — Into this group is put the variety No. 413 of the United States Department of Agri- culture. The following minute is then entered: " The * In these names "the word 'spurious' indicates that the name preceding it properly belongs to another variety with which it has been mixed." THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 151 name Cross was adopted as the official name of the No. 413 of the United States Department, which has also been disseminated under the name of Large Anis. It is distinct from Cross 15 M, 8 M, Skrischapfel, and Cross Vor, the synonomy of which was not taken up." 7. Christmas Group. — In this group only the one variety, Christmas, known also as No. 310, was mentioned. 8. Antonovka Group. — Antonovka, No. 224, Vargul, German Calville (spurious), Russian Gravenstein, Bergamot. 9. Anisim Group. — Anisim, 14 M and 18 M of Budd, Zuzoff of Tuttle, Good Peasant of Patten, Borsdorfer of Wragg, Peterson's Anisim, Swedish Borsdorfer of Patten. 10. Golden White Group. — Large Long White of Tut- tle & Mitchell, Golden White of Tuttle & Mitchell, White Russet of Tuttle & Mitchell, No. 4 Orel of Budd, No. 5 Orel of Budd, No. 56 Vor (spurious), Winter Stripe, Tuenarius of Patten. Under this group the following rather curious minute is entered: " The name does not describe the apple, but is adopted until the true name can be ascertained." 11. Repka Malenka Group. — Repka Malenka, Little Seedling, Green Sweet (spurious). 12. Yellow Sweet Group. — Yellow Sweet, Green Sweet of Patten. 13. Transparent Group. — Yellow Transparent, White Transparent, Red Duck (spurious), Charlottenthaler, Enthaler, Thaler, Erdbeer Streifling, Nitchner's Erd- beer. 152 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY 14. Anis Group.— Anis, No. 317, Kursk Anis, Red Anis, 32 M, Russian Green, Blue Anis, Yellow Anis, Pink Anis, Striped Anis, Getman. There were a number of varieties of Rus- sian apples which the committee did not class- ify, but for which they "adopted descriptions." Their work, though incomplete, is one of the very few American examples of the natural method of classification applied to apples. In order to find anything like a general classification of apples according to a natural system, we are obliged to go to Germany — the land whence come many of our ideas concern- ing the science of classification in general. There are several more or less natural sys- tems proposed in various German pomological works, but the one which seems to the present writer to be in all ways best and most con- sistent is the Diel-Lucas system. The Ger- man outline is translated herewith, and a few running explanations added : Diel-Lucas Grouping of Apples* CLASS I. — CALVILLES. Size for the most part medium. Form nearly always regularly tapering toward the eye, and nearly always plainly ribbed. * Translated from Lucas. " Einleitung in das Studium der Pomologie," p. 132. Stuttgart, 1877. THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 153 (Note —These varieties in America are sel- dom ribbed as they are in Europe, but the Calvilles always show the ribbed appearance around the basin, as in Harvey or Bellflower.) Skin fine and smooth, only in exceptional cases somewhat russeted, nearly always becoming oily when ripe, covered with bloom. Flesh soft, spongy, aromatic, mostly with a slight strawberry or raspberry flavor, here and there marked with red under the skin. Core almost or quite open, the cells separated. The Calvilles, while a large and important group in European pomology, are not notably represented in our American lists. Harvey {Fall Harvey] is perhaps one of the most typical of this group. The well-known Grav- enstein belongs to this group also. CLASS II. — CHIMNEY APPLES. Size medium to very large. Form variable, including round-oblate (baking apples ?), long conic (sheepnoses), cylindrical (true chimney apples), frequently irregular by reason of the ribs, the two sides of the fruit hardly ever equal. Skin smooth, seldom or never becoming oily, tough. Flesh granular, spongy, somewhat coarse, seldom spicy, usually specifically sour or sweet. Core large, irregular, open. These are called Chimney apples, appar- 154 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY ently, on account of their prevailing cylin- drical shape, like an old-fashioned chimney- pot. The group is hardly known in America. The writer is unable to give a single example belonging clearly to this class. CLASS III. — GULDERLINGE. Size small to medium. Form more or less ribbed about the basin, some oblate-round, tapering slightly toward the eye (Calville hybrids), some spherical or cylindrical (the true Gulderlinge). Skin smooth, often a trifle russeted, mostly yel- low-green, seldom colored. Flesh fine, somewhat resembling the Reinettes, medium solid, subacid, sweet or very sweet and aromatic. Core open, with cells separated. This group (called in French Calvilles bdtardes, or hybrid Calvilles) may be best represented by our Bellflower. The less well- known Boiken is also referred to this group by Dr. Lucas. CLASS IV.— ROSE APPLES. Size small, medium, or large. Form for the most part regular, usually faintly ribbed about the basin and sometimes at the sides, usually long conic. Skin smooth and fine, with bloom, shining when THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 155 rubbed, yielding a rich aroma, seldom marked with russet. Flesh soft, spongy, yielding easily to the touch, frequently red under the skin, of fine rose- like aromatic flavor. Core usually closed. In this country this would probably be called the Astrachan group. Red Astrachan belongs here ; also, according to Dr. Lucas, White Astrachan and Wagener. CLASS V.— PIGEONS. Size small to medium. Form spherical, somewhat elongated, not regu- larly ribbed, nor entirely without ribs. Skin smooth, shining, lightly covered with bloom, seldom showing slight russet markings. flesh finely granular, medium firm, but juicy and aromatic. Core often four-parted, sometimes open, some- times closed. These are called Pigeon apples, or Pigeons, because the bluish-looking bloom overlying the skin looks somewhat like the plumage of a pigeon. The fruit is considered second rate in Europe, and the type seems never to have gained a footing in America. Downing describes Pigeon and Pigeonette, evidently taking both descriptions from the English pomologist Hogg. 156 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY CLASS VI. — POUND APPLES. RAMBOS. Size large to very large. Form variable, mostly irregular or unequal, or both, mostly round or round-oblate, mostly with a single obscure rib. Skin smooth and shining, thick and tough. Core mostly very large and open, but sometimes closed. There are a great many different Rambos in Europe, many of which have been intro- duced here. There are several " Pound apples " and Rambos native to America also, but which ones might be referred to this group is a matter of considerable doubt. The only well-known variety referred to this class by Dr. Lucas is Alexander. The Rambo of Downing would hardly qualify in this group. CLASS VII.— RAMBO-REINETTES. Size medium to large. Form more or less irregular, like the Calvilles, and strongly ribbed about the basin. Skin moderately thick, seldom entirely smooth, usually marked with russet, self-colored, or with a blush on the sunny side, never striped. Flesh variable, sometimes fine, sometimes coarse- granular, sprightly subacid or sweetish. Core mostly with wide cells, open or closed. This group includes, according to Dr. THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 157 Lucas, the Canada Reinette, not well known in this country, and the famous Rhode Island Greening. CLASS VIII. — SELF-COLORED REINETTES. Size small to large. Form round or oblate, regular and smooth. Skin sometimes smooth and shining, sometimes marked with russet, in certain varieties be- coming unctuous, without any red coloring, or only with a little on the sunny side. (Note. — European apples are as a whole much less highly colored than American apples.) Flesh firm or spongy, finely granular, sprightly subacid and sometimes very finely flavored. Core generally regular and closed. There are no American apples which can be certainly referred to this group. CLASS IX. — BORSDORF REINETTES. Size small, medium at the most. Form very regular, round or oblate. Skin smooth, shining, somewhat warty and rus- seted, self-colored, splashed or moderately striped. Flesh solid, very fine grained, very characterist- ically sweet or wine-sweet flavor. Core nearly always regular and closed. Borsdorf, the type of this group, has been introduced to America, but has not become popular or widely distributed. 158 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY CLASS X.— RED REINETTES. Size small, medium, or large. Form variable, sometimes round or oblate, some- times oblong, usually regular. Skin shining, generally smooth, only occasionally marked with russet, splashed or striped on greenish yellow, clear yellow, but never golden yellow, ground; the red generally clear and unmixed with russet. Flesh fine, firm, mostly rich and aromatic, mild subacid flavor, here and there marked with red under the skin. Core variable. Baumann's Reinette, Reinette Coulon, and Barcelona Pearmain, described in Downing, are referred to this group. None of them, however, is now known in America. CLASS XL— RUSSETS. Size small, medium, or large. Form round or oblate, and mostly very regular. Skin rough with russet markings, mostly self- colored, seldom showing any red, the color being grayish green, greenish yellow, or dull yellow; the red, when it appears, mixed with russet. Flesh fine, rich, sweet or sweetish, and distinctly aromatic. Core regular and closed. Such well-known russets as Roxbury and Golden Russet plainly belong here. THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 159 CLASS XII. — GOLD REINETTES. Size medium to large. Form oblate, round or oblong, sometimes regular, sometimes ribbed. Skin medium smooth, seldom entirely smooth, more or less russeted, especially on the sunny side, any red color being thereby made impure, the ground color rich yellow or golden yellow, the markings sometimes splashed, sometimes striped. Fruit smoother on young trees, rougher on older ones. Flesh very fine, juicy, rich, usually yellowish, very aromatic, and for the most part of de- cidedly wine-sugary flavor. Core variable. Ribston (pippin) and Blenheim (pippin) are referred to this group. Probably Hub- bardston and King would also classify here. CLASS XIII.— STRIPED APPLES (Streiflinge). Size small, medium, or large — never very large. Form variable, apt to be roundish, or conical and ribbed. Skin smooth, shining, some thin and some tough skinned, usually covered with bloom, striped and splashed, but seldom touched with russet. Flesh sometimes firm and coarse grained, some- times spongy, often red under the skin, gen- erally distinctly acid, seldom sweetish or sweet, mostly without aroma. Core usually regular and closed. 1(JO SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY This class, though a large one according to Dr. Lucas, and divisible into five orders, seems to be unrepresented in America. CLASS XIV.— POINTED APPLES. Size mostly medium large, only seldom very large. Form long conic or truncated conic, often ir- regular. Skin smooth, shining, fine, seldom with bloom, self-colored or splashed, never striped. Flesh loose and mellow, sweetish, subacid or purely acid. Core regular, mostly closed. A small group, ill defined and unrecogniz- able among American apples. CLASS XV.— OBLATE APPLES. Size small, medium or large. Form distinctly oblate, or oblate-conic, always broader than high. Skin smooth, shining, tough, self-colored or splashed, never striped, usually covered with bloom. Flesh white or greenish white, mostly firm, seldom mellow or spongy, distinctly either sweet or sour, never really aromatic. Core mostly regular and closed. Hawthornden is the only apple known in THE CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES 161 America of those referred to this group by Dr. Lucas. Perhaps Maiden Blush might typify the group. Dr. Warder's Classification The work which has been done in America in the classification of apples, as has already been said, is meagre in the extreme. The standard work of Downing attempts no clas- sification beyond arranging the names of va- rieties in alphabetical order. Thomas gave a rough, arbitrary arrangement to the differ- ent varieties of apples in his fruit book ;* but the single important attempt at a classifica- tion of apples was made by Dr. John A. Warder, f This scheme was entirely arbi- trary, but was an excellent classification of its kind. It has all the convenience inherent in the arbitrary method, and even to-day is very useful to the working pomologist ; in fact, it is the only available key which may assist one in finding the name of an unknown apple. The great drawrback to its use is that so many of the varieties of to-day are not given in * Thomas, "American Fruit Culturist." New York. Various editions. f Warder, " American Pomology," p. 379. Orange Judd Co., New York, 1867. 162 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Dr. Warder's book. His arrangement may be seen at a glance from the following out- line: f Order I. Regular. CLASS I. OBLATE, OR FLAT, APPLKS Order II. Irregular. f Section i Sweet. Section 2. Sour. Section i Sweet. Section 2. Sour. Subsection i. — Pale, or blushed more or less, but self-colored, not striped. Subsection 2. — Striped or splashed. ^Subsection 3. — Russeted. Subsection i. — Pale, or blushed more or less, but self-colored, not striped. Subsection 2.T-Striped or splashed. Subsection 3. — Russeted. Subsection i. — Pale, or blushed more or less, but self-colored, not striped. Subsection 2. — Striped or splashed. Subsection 3. — Russeted. Subsection I. — Pale, or blushed more or less, but self-colored, not striped. Subsection 2. — Striped or splashed. Subsection 3. — Russeted. CLASS II.— CONICAL APPLES. CLASS III. — ROUND, OR GLOBU- LAR, APPLES. CLASS IV. — OBLONG APPLES. f These three classes are divided into orders, sections, and sub- sections, precisely like Class I., out- lined above. XVI THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS IN the classification of pears we meet the same difficulties which we have already met in dealing with apples, only in the present case they are even more pronounced. As compared with apples, pears have never been at all well known in America. They have been comparatively unpopular. It is very rare to find a good judge of varieties of pears, even among the most expert pomologists of the country. In recent years Kieffer, Le Conte, and Garber pears — particularly the first — have been extensively disseminated. These are doubtless hybrids, combining the characters of two species, Pyrus communis and Pyrus sinensis. They have characters, therefore, considerably different from the ordinary gar- den pears, which are derived directly from Pyrus communis. This difference in botan- ical characters has been the commonly accept- ed basis of classification in recent nursery catalogs and similar publications. Pears of 163 164 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY the Kieffer group are spoken of as hybrids, or varieties are simply referred in so many words to the Kieffer group. No further at- tempt at classification is usually made. Still, the pears ought to be more carefully classified, and doubtless some student of po- mology will soon offer that service to his Amer- ican brethren. In the meantime it will be worth while to review one or two of the best European classifications, to see what they suggest along this line. What seem to be the most methodical clas- sifications are given by Lucas, who provides both a natural and an artificial arrangement, with the expectation that the two shall be used together. It will be seen on examina- tion that neither one is so exact and satisfac- tory as the same author's classification of apples. The " natural " system, in particular, comes back to an artificial basis at many points. We will now take up the natural system devised by Lucas for the classification of pears.* The classes and characterizations are * Lucas, " Pomologische Tafeln." Stuttgart, 1869. Also, " Einleitung in das Studium der Pomologie," p. 180. Stutt- gart, 1877. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS 165 translated as fully and literally as possible, and then some remarks are added in each case, showing whether or not any American examples of the class can be named. In this matter no attempt has been made to go fur- ther than to name some of the varieties speci- fied by Lucas as representative of each class. It ought to be borne in mind always in studying any European literature on pears that this fruit is comparatively much more important in Germany and France than in America ; it is much more popular, better understood, and very much finer distinctions are made in characterization and classifica- tion. Lucas' Natural Classification for Pears i. BEURR£S (Butterbirnen; Butter Pears}. — Fruit with completely melting flesh, in shape true pyriform, or truncate obconic, and regular, without ribs or ridges, of divers colors; mostly longer than broad, seldom as broad as long; never strongly flattened at the stem end, but always tapering toward the stem, and usually obtusely pointed. This is the largest group in the classifica- tion, numbering many of the most prominent varieties. Of those named by Lucas the fol- lowing are best known in America: Urban- 166 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY iste, Josephine de Malines, Doyenne d'Hiver, Diel. 2. HALF BEURRE"S (Halb Butterbirnen). — These are very similar to the Beurres in external appearance, but differ specifically in the character of the flesh, which is only half melting. No important American varieties can now be identified with this group. Beurre de Ni- velles, named here by Lucas, is described by Downing. 3. BERGAMOTTES. — With flesh completely melting, as in the Beurres, and therefore much the same in quality; but more round or oblate in form, and flat- tened at the stem end. Bergamotte d'Esperen and Olivier de Serres are typical of the Bergamottes. 4. HALF BERGAMOTTES. — Round-oblate, or round, flattened at both ends, like the Bergamottes, but dif- fering in the character of the flesh, which is only half melting. Lucas names only one example in this group — namely, Doyenne de Juillet, described by Downing under the name Doyenne d'Ete. 5. LONG GREENS (Vertes longues). — Flesh melting or half melting; form long, the axial diameter at least one-fourth greater than the transverse diameter; color green, with little or no russeting, even when fully ripe showing only green or greenish-yellow color. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS 167 The varieties St. Germain and Angleterre, belonging to this group, are described by Downing, but are not generally known in this country. 6. BOTTLE PEARS (Calebasses). — Flesh melting or half melting; form long — at least, one-fourth longer than broad; color greenish yellower yellow, mostly overlaid with a cinnamon-colored or red-gray russet. This group apparently takes its name from the form of the fruit, which is supposed to resemble a bottle somewhat. The variety Clairgeau, rather well known in America, may be taken as representative. 7. BON CHRETIENS. — Flesh melting or half melting; form variable and irregular, the two diameters equal or unequal. This remarkably equivocal characterization is made by Lucas to answer for one of the most important groups in his repertory. This is the type known the world over usually by the name Bon Chretien, but in this country as Bartlett. 8. RUSSELETTES. — Small or medium large, with melting or half-melting, cinnamon-spicy flesh; form long; color red, at least, on the sunny side, mostly rusty. This name, " Russelettes," is taken direct from Lucas. It means fruits with a little 168 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY nose, but its appropriateness to this group is not pointed out. The variety Beurre Gif- fard, found in old collections in America, is classified here by Lucas. 9. MUSCATS. — Size small or medium; season sum- mer or early autumn; form variable, but mostly long; flavor distinctly musky. Lucas does not name any variety as repre- senting this group. 10. ASSEZ BONS. — Here belong all medium-sized and large table pears, with melting or half-melting flesh, of long or longish form, which have not been included in the foregoing nine groups. In this characterization Lucas' "natural" system admittedly breaks down. This group is made merely a catch-all for those varieties not elsewhere classifiable. The Windsor, said by Downing to be "very commonly known in some parts of this country as the Summer Bell pear," is named by Lucas in this group. 11. AROMATICS (Gewiirzbirneti). — Here are to be included all small oblate or roundish pears, having the same minor characteristics as the Assez Bons, but of somewhat larger size. No variety is named for this group by Lucas. 12. LONG COOKING PEARS. — Flesh hard or turnipy, or very seldom half melting, very seldom fit for eat- THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS 169 ing raw; not bitter, but usually insipid, sweet; longer than broad. The varieties described by Downing under names of Martin Sec and Pound (Louise bonne (PHiver) are the only ones which I am able to identify with this group from the notes given by Lucas. 13. ROUND COOKING PEARS. — Quality as in the preceding class, but differing in form, the breadth being equal to or greater than the height. No examples can be identified. 14. LONG PERRY PEARS. — Pears not suitable for eating raw; with either breaking, turnipy, or half- melting flesh, having a distinctly bitter or astringent flavor, and are long or medium long in form None of our American varieties seem to belong to this category. 15. ROUND PERRY PEARS. — Pears having the same inner characteristics as the foregoing, but roundish in form. Lucas' Arbitrary System for Pears As an example of the arbitrary system of classification applied to pears, we can not do better than to examine the one made by the same author — Lucas. He divides all varieties into three groups, according to the season of ripening — viz., 170 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY summer pears, autumn pears, and winter pears. Each one of these groups is next divided into four parts, according to the form of the fruit — viz., oblate pears, round or roundish pears, longish pears (those which average one-fourth longer than broad), and long pears. This gives twelve groups. Each of these is next subdivided into three orders, according to color — viz., green or yellow pears, colored pears, and russeted pears. Each of these orders is further split up into three sub-orders, according to the form of the calyx — viz., open calyx, closed calyx, decidu- ous calyx.* This arrangement may be summarized as follows: I. Season— summer, autumn, winter. II. Form — oblate, round, longish, long. III. Color — uncolored, colored, russeted. IV. Calyx — open, closed, deciduous. Outlining this for the first class — summer pears — we can still more easily see the scope of the classification. When carried out in full it divides the pears into 108 groups. * On this point the translation is purposely inexact, with the intention of making the plan more intelligible. The German literally is as follows: («) regular, star-shaped calyx; (b) erect, leafy calyx; (c) incomplete, trumpet-shaped, or absent calyx. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS ( Open calyx a. Uncolored-j Closed calyx i-j ^iosea calyx ( Deciduous calyx SUMMER PEARS / i. Oblate ( Open calyx "i b. Colored -j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx ( Open calyx If. Russet -j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx i Open calyx fa. Uncolored-j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx 2. Round or roundish ( Open calyx < />. Colored J Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx ( Open calyx lr. Russet -j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx {Open calyx Closed calyx Deciduous calyx 3. Medium long {Open calyx Closed calyx Deciduous calyx !Open calyx Closed calyx Deciduous calyx 1 | Open calyx a. Uncolored-j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx 4. Long ( Open calyx b. Colored -j Closed calyx ( Deciduous calyx iOpen calyx Closed calyx Deciduous calyx 172 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Waugh's Artificial Classification The writer of these lines not long ago pre- pared a tentative classification of pears on arbitrary lines which may properly be repro- duced here.* The classification rests upon three separate characters, as follows: I. Form— The pears may be divided into four classes, according to form of the fruit, as fol- lows: 1. Round or oblate pears; those not tapering toward the stem. 2. Obconic pears; those tapering more or less toward the stem, but not constricted into a neck. 3. Pyriform pears; those having a visibly con- stricted neck. 4. Irregular pears: those markedly irregular, and not conforming to any of the foregoing classes. II. Season — Each of these four classes may be divided into three orders according to the season of ripening of the fruit — i.e., summer pears, autumn pears, and winter pears. III. Color — Each of these twelve orders may be divided into three groups, according to the color of the fruit, as follows: i. Uncolored fruit — i.e., fruit which is pure green, or, when ripe, pure yellow. * Country Gentleman, 67 : 1016. Albany, N. Y., 1902. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS 173 2. Colored fruit; such as is marked distinctly with red in the sun. 3. Russeted fruit; such as is distinctly marked more or less with russet. Following this outline, we may readily ana- lyze any number of varieties into thirty-six groups, and these groups may be further sub- divided by characters of calyx, basin, etc., into many smaller sections if one's convenience seems to be served thereby. Just to show how this works we may try it on a few varieties, as follows : I. Round or oblate, (rt) Summer. (^) Autumn. 1. Green or yellow. 2. Red. 3. Russet — Merriam. (c) Winter. 3. Russet — Bergamotte d'Esperen. II. Obconic (a) Summer. 1. Green or yellow — Bloodgood. 2. Red— Buffum, Manning's Elizabeth. (If) Autumn. i. Green or yellow — Ontario, Urbaniste, Cornice. 2 Red — Flemish Beauty, Howell, Seckel. 3. Russet — Hardy, Boussock, Angouleme, Sheldon. 124 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY (f) Winter. 1. Green or yellow— Lawrence. 2. Red— Clairgeau. 3. Russet — Anjou, Dana's Hovey. III. Pyriform. (a) Summer. 1. Green or yellow — Brandywine, Jargonelle. 2. Red — Tyson, Giffard, Clapp, Bartlett. (£) Autumn. 1. Green or yellow — Dix, Onondaga. 2. Red — Louise bonne de Jersey. 3. Russet — Bosc, Souvenir d'Esperen, Diel. (c) Winter. 1. Green or yellow — Vicar of Winkfield. 3. Russet — Winter Nelis. IV. Irregular. (b) Autumn. 2. Red— Goodale. These varieties are classified as shown above merely for the purpose of illustrating the scheme, and not as a result of careful study of the pears themselves. It would be a real service to pomology if some one who has access to a large collection of varieties of pears would work out such a classification as this for the use of the rest of us who are less fortunately situated. XVII THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEACHES SYSTEMATIC study of varieties of peaches in this country is of recent origin. Apparently the first important contribution to the subject was made by Professor R. H. Price, in his Texas Experiment Station Bulletin 39, pub- lished in 1896. In this he proposes to divide the cultivated peaches into several natural groups. These groups he characterizes fully, and into them he distributes a majority of the varieties then known in Texas. All the more recent classifications have been founded on this one, and are like it in some degree. In his "Cyclopedia of American Horticul- ture" (3: 1227), published in 1901, Professor L. H. Bailey gives a natural classification for peaches very closely modeled on the Price classification. In W. G. Johnson'sbook, " The Peach Crop,"* the present writer in turn has outlined a natural classification of peaches, which, with a few changes of names and de- scriptive terms, follows the same outline. It *Orange Judd Co., New York. 175 176 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY seems best, under the circumstances, to give only one of these outlines here, and doubt- less the latest one can be properly offered. This divides the cultivated varieties into five natural groups, named and characterized as follows : /. Perskin Group (or typical peaches). — These are round, more or less pointed, marked with an indis- tinct suture; flesh yellow or white, and characteris- tically soft and juicy; pits roundish or elliptical, pointed, deeply corrugated, mostly clinging to the flesh or only partially free. This group includes all the commonest old-fashioned varieties, such as the Crawfords, Oldmixon, Alexander, Amsden, Salway, etc. 2. Chinese Cling Group. — Trees broad-headed, open, spreading or even drooping, usually very vigorous, hardy, and prolific; foliage large, flat, almond-like, dark green, retaining its color late in the fall, when it changes to a grayish-green tint; glands reniform in the pure type; flowers very large, light pink in the pure type, but smaller and darker colored in some of the mixed descendants; fruit large, often enormously so, generally long oval and compressed, creamy white, with a delicate blush in the pure type, but white or yellow in the mixed descendants; skin very delicate and thin in the pure type, with a delicate marbled or stippled appearance, but firmer in many of the recent varieties; flesh fine grained, soft, juicy melting in the pure type, but firmer in mixed descendants ; THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEACHES 177 stone somewhat flat, with medium corrugations, ad- hesion various; season variable, but early varieties predominating. Chinese Cling is the type of this group; but Belle of Georgia, Waddell, and Hiley are, perhaps, the best known commercial types. Elberta, best known of all, belongs to this group, but its characters do not conform nicely to those of the pure type. j. Honey Group.— Fruit long and irregular in form, with a deep suture, and usually with a long, pointed apex; pits long, corrugated, and sharply pointed. Tree not hardy, suitable for planting only in the ex- treme southern states, along the Gulf of Mexico. The variety Honey is the one commonly grown. 4. Columbia Group. — Mostly large trees (Columbia itself being an exception to this rule); fruit late, firm, often streaked and mottled; pits small, oval, pointed. The variety Columbia, taken as the type, has been long known in the United States, but has never been cultivated on an extensive commercial scale. Other varieties are Cobler, La Reine, Lula, Texas, and Vic- toria. j. Peen-to Group. — Tree large and vigorous, willowy, with long, slender branches; leaves long and narrow; fruit much flattened endwise. (Though this is the most striking characteristic of the variety Peen-to it- self, the seedlings raised from this variety seldom show this peculiar form.) Skin white and mottled with red, much as in the Chinese Cling group, flavor sweet but peculiar; stone flattened endwise like the fruit. This is said to be a distinctly southern type, ranging farther south than any of the other peaches. 178 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Until very recently it was supposed to be too tender to be grown outside of Florida; but in 1902 the va- riety was discovered growing thriftily and fruiting nicely on the grounds of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, Amherst, Mass. The variety is said to grow in China as far north as Tien-Tsin. These things suggest that the Peen-to group may have a northern range much beyond that now assigned to it. The peaches are unusually easy of classifi- cation on purely arbitrary lines, and such classifications have accordingly been in most general use. The one which we may take as representative of them all, and which is, at the same time, one of the best yet devised, is the classification of John J. Thomas. This arrangement was used in the various editions of "The American Fruit Culturist."* The " Synopsis of Arrangement " follows, a few va- rieties being named in each group by way of illustration. These varieties are named and classified here exactly as given in Thomas' book. Many varieties of recent introduction might, perhaps, be used better by way of illus- tration ; but this would require not only a * The edition which I have in hand as I write this is dated 1885. In this volume the "Synopsis of Arrangement " for peaches is given oo p. 331. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PEACHES 179 thorough study of the varieties in question, but perhaps also some readjustment of the scheme of classification. For this reason, and equally because this is the general plan of the present book, the work of Mr. Thomas is taken just as it has been found. I. Free stones, or melters; flesh not clinging to the stone. 1. White flesh, or nearly white. (a) Glandless leaves, which are deeply and sharply serrate — Tillotson, Red Rare- ripe. Leaves crenate, with globose glands — Belle- grade, George IV., Hale Early, Troth. Leaves with reniform glands — Breevort, Morris White. 2. Flesh deep yellow. (a) Leaves crenate, globose glands — Barnard, Crawford Early, Crawford Late. (b) Leaves with reniform glands — Bergen. II. Clingstones, or Pavies. Flesh adhering to the stone, i. Flesh pale or light colored. (a) Leaves serrate, without glands— Newing- ton. (3) Leaves crenate, glands globose — Oldmixon Cling. (c) Leaves with reniform glands — Heath. 180 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY 2. Flesh deep yellow. (a) Leaves serrate, without glands — Orange Clingstone. (ft) Leaves with reniform glands — Lemon Clingy Tippecanoe. 3. Flesh purplish crimson. (a) Glands reniform— Blood Cling. XVIII THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS FROM the standpoint of classification the plums are the most diverse and complicated of all our fruits. They have received more critical study in this country, however, than any other class of fruits, and as a proper re- sult we have a much better system of classifi- cation for them than we have for apples or pears. The classification is more nearly natural, more scientific, and more useful. All our American plum classification has been done on purely natural lines ; at any rate, it has been planned on such lines. If it is unnatural or arbitrary at certain points it is only because it is seldom possible to see all the facts at once in any case so complex. The most recent, as well as the most com- prehensive, scheme of classification for plums, is that used in Waugh's " Plums and Plum Culture,"* and the general outline of this scheme will be followed here with the inter- *Waugh, " Plums and Plum Culture." Orange Judd Co., New York, 1900. 181 182 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY polation of only so much explanation as seems necessary to our present purpose. It will be seen at once that in this scheme the classification is made to rest almost wholly on a botanical basis. The plums belong to a great many different botanical groups, and when we have given these their proper char- acterization and arrangement we have really made a classification for the cultivated vari- eties derived from those species and botanical varieties. This method was first effectively used in this country for plums by Professor L. H. Bailey.* In the book on " Plums and Plum Culture " just mentioned the common European gar- den plums, derived from Prunus domestica, are subdivided considerably further than the purely botanical classification has usually been carried. Several natural types within this species are distinguished and classified, and this arrangement is also adopted in the fol- lowing outline. At the same time the Japa- nese plums are similarly classified into several more or less distinct natural groups. This classification runs as follows : *See especially Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin No. 38. 1892. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 183 I. EUROPEAN GARDEN PLUMS (Prunus doinestica}. — Leaves large, coarse, rough, thick, usually pubescent beneath, coarsely serrate; flowers large, white, showy; fruit various; stone large, usually compressed and roughened. This group contains several important types, the most conspicuous being the following: 1. REINE CLAUDE TYPE. — Leaves comparatively large, broad, and flat, with very coarse serrations; fruit nearly spherical, green or tardily turning to a dull, creamy yellow, flesh rather firm or even hard, green, clinging to the stone. Bavay, Green Gage, McLaugh- lin, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Lawrence, and many other varieties belong here. 2. DAME AUBERT TYPE. — Tree large; leaves large, coarse; fruit very large, oval, compressed, with more or less of a neck; flesh yellow. Yellow Egg (Magnum Bonuni] and Golden Drop represent this type. 3. THE PRUNES. — Fruit medium to large, always oval or ellipsoid, usually with one side of the oval straighter than the other, compressed; color blue or purple; flesh mostly greenish-yellow, firm; stone usually free in a large cavity. Represented best by Fellenberg and German Prune. 4. THE PERDRIGONS. — Fruit medium to large, spherical or oblate, sometimes distinctly depressed at the apex, usually with a deep suture, blue or purple; flesh greenish-yellow, rather firm. Not well repre- sented in America, but typified in Goliath and Royal Tours. 5. DIAMOND TYPE.— Fruit mostly large, oval, very slightly compressed, always dark solid blue in color, with a heavy bloom which also appears to be blue; 184 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY flesh yellow, very firm, usually clinging to the stone. Well-known plums, such as Kingston, Quackenboss, Gueii, Arctic, etc. 6. BRADSHAW TYPE.— Fruit large, obovoid, pinkish o purplish, with thin skin and moderately soft, yellow, juicy flesh; quality excellent in all cases. Here be- long Bradshaw, Pond, Sharp (Victoria), Field, Duane Purple, and a few others. 7. LOMBARD TYPE. — Closely resembling the fore- going, but differing in certain respects, more or less, as follows: Fruit usually smaller, more nearly oval, bluish, purplish, or pinkish-purple, more opaque in appearance than in the Bradshaw group; quality in- ferior to Bradshaw. In this group I would place Lombard, Communia Merunka, etc. II. DAMSONS (Prunus domestica damascend). — Differ from Prunus domestica in being dwarfer, wood shorter jointed, leaves smaller, more sharply serrate; fruit small, oval, usually blue, very sour. Cluster Damson, French Damson, and several other named varieties are propagated in America. Ill MYROB ALANS (Prunus cerasifcrd). — Differs from Prunus "domestica in having a more slender habit, smoother, shinier leaves, smaller flowers, softer, juicier fruit. The variety (possibly there are several differ- ent varieties) known as Cherry, or Early Cherry, is the best type of this group. De Caradeuc and Mari- anna are best known, but do not show pure Myro- balan characters. IV. JAPANESE PLUMS (Prunus triflora}. — Flowers usually densely fasicated; leaves smooth, glabrous, mostly flat, obovate or oblongovate, prominently THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 185 pointed and evenly and finely serrate; fruit with firm flesh and usually small, clinging stone. Represented by several rather diverse varieties, among which the following types are readily distinguishable: 1. BOTAN TYPE. — Fruit roundish but always more or less pointed; flesh yellow; skin mostly heavily sprinkled or splashed with red, never solid red or yel- low. Abundance, Burbank, Chabot. 2. RED JUNE TYPE. — Fruit usually small to medium, frequently oblong, compressed; color solid red or yel- low; flesh firm, meaty, dry; flavor flat; quality poor. Red June, Kerr, Willard, Ogon. 3. SATSUMA TYPE. — Fruit large, round, pointed, dark red; flesh firm, red. Satsuma. 4. KELSEY TYPE. — Tree tender; fruit large, oval, flattened; yellow skin and flesh. Kelsey. This type is closely related to the Red June type, and perhaps the two ought to be grouped together. 5. HALE TYPE. — Tree very vigorous, upright grower, coming tardily into bearing; fruit medium to large, round or round-oblate, with a comparatively long stem, transparent yellowish skin (very different from the opaque tomato yellow of Ogon), considerably washed and splashed with red or purplish red; flesh rather soft and juicy. Hale, October Purple. 6. BERGER TYPE. — Fruit small, somewhat cherry- like, usually round-oblate, sometimes slightly com- pressed, usually with a distinct suture; color yellow or red; flesh hard and dry; quality generally poor; ripening very early. Berger, Earliest of All, Engre. V. GONZALES GROUP (Prunus triflora robusta}. — A comparatively homogeneous group, made up of hy- 186 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY brids between Prunus triflora on one side, and, on the other, Prunus hortulana or Prunus angustifolia. Characterized by very vigorous, upright, or spreading growth; long, willowly branches, which are usually red or reddish; leaves broad obovate, shining, finely serrate; fruit red or yellow, intermediate in texture between the Japanese and the Wildgoose plums. Represented by Gonzales, Golden, Nona, Yates, etc. VI. OMAHA GROUP (Prunus triflora rusticd). — Very vigorous-growing upright tree, with large, stiff, rather straight branches; leaves large, a little coarse, irregu- larly serrate; fruit large, usually cordate or conic; flesh yellow, firm. Hybrids between Prunus triflora and Prunus americana. Omaha typifies the group, but there are no other conformable varieties in gen- eral propagation. VII. WICKSON GROUP (Prunus triflora recta). — Tree upright, with slender, willowy, greenish branches; leaves rather small, stiff, green, ovate, somewhat con- duplicate; fruit usually red, large; flesh yellow, firm; flavor peculiar, somewhat resembling the Simon plum. Hybrids between Prunus triflora and Prunus simonii. Wickson is typical. President and Bartlett are other varieties. VIII. SIMON PLUM (Prunus simonii}. — Tree dis- tinctly upright, branches slender and willowy; leaves oblong, lanceolate, conduplicate, closely serrate; flowers borne singly or in pairs; fruit oblate, dull, red, with a very short stem; flesh firm, poor quality; stone roundish, rough, somewhat spongy. Native to China. Cultivated for market. There is as yet only one pure variety, the Simon plum. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 187 IX. AMERICANA GROUP (Prunus americana}. — Tree rather small, but in extreme cases reaching a height of of fifteen to twenty-five feet; short jointed, dark col- ored, hard wood, thorny; leaves large, coarse, rough, more or less pubescent, especially underneath, coarsely double-serrate; petioles seldom glandular; fruit mostly dull red, occasionally yellow; flesh yellow, soft, juicy; skin tough, frequently astringent. Native to the Mississippi Valley generally. Represented by. hundreds of varieties, which, however, are very simi- lar to one another. Typical named varieties are Hawkeye, De Soto, Stoddard. X. NIGRA GROUP {Prunus americana nigra]. — Some- what like the foregoing group, but bark darker col- ored; leaves broader and more obtusely pointed, less conspicuously double serrate; petioles always glan- dular; fruit dark colored, compressed. Native to this continent; general range from Ontario and New York, north and east. Cheney and Aitkin are repre- sentative varieties. XI. VAN BUREN TYPE. — Certain plums, resembling Prunus americana in general appearance, have leaves and young shoots strongly pubescent. These varie- ties seem to occur in nature most frequently in the southwestern states — Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. This variation has been recognized botanically in the name Prunus americana mollis. Varieties in cultiva- tion which show this characteristic pubescence are Van Buren and Wolf. XII. MINER TYPE (Prunus americana mineri). — Closely related to Prunus americana; differing chiefly in having leaves a trifle smoother, not so coarsely and 188 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY markedly double serrate; fruit much as in the Amer- cana group, but with thinner skin, which has a pecul- iar crackling quality when broken between the teeth. Indigenous distribution doubtful. Typified by Miner. Other varieties are Forest Rose and Surprise. XIII. WAYLAND TYPE (Prumis hortulana waylandi}. Branches long, bending willowy when young; leaves large to very large, oval or slightly obovate, tapering at the point, glabrous above, finely tomentose be- neath, especially on the veins, margins rather finely oppressed serrate, petioles with two to six glands; flowers appearing rather late in long, dense clusters along the branches; fruit red or yellow, firm, late ripening, cling. Indigenous in south central Missis- sippi Valley. Best represented by Wayland and Golden Beauty. XIV. WILDGOOSE TYPE (Prunus hortulana). — Tree medium size, spreading, with slender branches and a somewhat peach-like habit ; leaves usually rather small, narrow ovate, thin and firm, somewhat peach- like, closely and finely glandular serrate; fruit spher- ical or slightly oblong, bright colored and glossy, nearly always brilliant transparent red, with a thin bloom; skin thin; flesh yellow, soft, stringy, juicy. Occurs naturally at various stations in the Mississippi Valley. Wildgpose is the type. Other varieties are Whitaker, Downing, Dunlap, Kroh, Milton, etc. XV. CHICASAWS (Prunus angustifolid). — Tree small, slender, often only a bush, somewhat thorny; leaves small, shining, smooth, conduplicate, closely and finely serrate; fruit red or yellow, soft, yellow flesh; clinging to the small, rough stone. Spontaneous in THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 189 the southern states. Best represented by such varie- ties as Newman, Munson, and Robinson. XVI. SAND PLUMS (Prunus angustifolia watsoni). — Much like the foregoing, but dwarfer, never reaching a height of more than eight feet, usually only four to five feet; branches short jointed, zigzagged, and thorny; leaves small, conduplicate, finely serrate; fruit small, much like that of the Chickasavv group. Native in Kansas. The variety Strawberry, found only in large collections, is the best named repre- sentative. XVII. MISCELLANEOUS PLUMS. — Even these sixteen diverse groups will not accommodate all the culti- vated plums-. There are still a number of varieties to be accounted for. These fall mostly into two classes, though without any necessary resemblance of individual varieties in each class. These are: 1. HYBRID PLUMS. — Such as are derived from the combination of various species in the foregoing list, and are yet not provided for in the three hybrid groups named above. 2. MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES are represented by one or two varieties each, but are not of sufficient imme- diate or presumptive economic value to justify their special mention in a list of plums for orchard plant- ing. The most important botanical groups thus re- served are as follows: Primus subcordata, P. maritima, P. gracilis, P alleghenensis. Arbitrary Classification Any one who looks over the foregoing natural arrangement of plums, even super- 190 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY ficially, will be satisfied that a general arti- ficial classification is impracticable. The various species differ so materially in some cases that there is hardly enough common ground left for the foundation of an arbitrary system. In the large groups, however, as among the Domestica or the Japanese plums, an artificial classification might be contrived so as to be fairly useful. The best arbitrary classification of this sort is the one designed by Dr. Hogg,* cov- ering the Domesticas and the Damsons. This outline is transcribed herewith: I. Fruit round. i. Summer shoots smooth. (A) Skin dark. (a) Flesh separating from the stone — Nectarine, Peach, Prince of Wales. (b) Flesh adhering to the stone— Bel- gian Purple, Sultan. « (A) Skin pale. (a) Flesh separating from the stone — Boddaert, Bryanston, Hand, Green Gage, Reine Claude, f * Robert Hogg, "Fruit Manual," p. 532 (ed. 4). London, f These are the varieties named by Dr. Hogg, or, at least, a part of them. Many varieties not known in America have beem omitted. Several of the varieties as grown in America would not suit the characterization given for them in this out- line. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 191 (b] Flesh adhering to the stone — Lu- combes Nonsuch, McLaughlin. 2. Summer shoots downy. (A] Skin dark t (a) Flesh separating from the stone- Columbia, Royal Tours. (fy Flesh adhering to the stone — Mo- rocco. (£) Skin pale. (a) Flesh separating from the stone — Apricot, Drap d'Or, Lawrence. (!>} Flesh adhering to the stone — Huling Superb. II. Fruit oval. 1. Summer shoots smooth. (A) Skin dark. (a] Flesh separating from the stone — Agen, Czar, Fellenberg. (/•) Flesh adhering to the stone — Blue Imperatrice, Lombard, Pond, Prince Engelbert, Smith, Orleans (Vic- t>- toria). (B) Skin pale. (a) Flesh separating from the stone- — Transparent Gage, Ouillin's Golden. (b) Flesh adhering to the stone — Coe Golden Drop, Jefferson, Downton Imperatrice. 2. Summer shoots downy. (A) Skin dark. (a) Flesh separating from the stone — Diamond, Damson, Red Perdrigon. 192 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY (&) Flesh adhering to the stone — Belle de Septembre, Goliath, Blue Per- drigon. (£). Skin pale. (a) Flesh separating from the stone — Washington, Prince Imperial. (/>) Flesh adhering to the stone — Den- niston Superb, White Damson. Most of the Japanese plums may be readily classified according to the following arbitrary plan, here published for the first time: I. Skin Red. 1. Self-colored; solid, dull red. (A). Flesh yellow. (a) Form round or oblate — Maru. (fr) Form oblong or compressed — Red June, Willard. (£} Flesh red — Satsuma. Striped, dotted, or splashed with red. (A] More or less conic and pointed — Abun- dance, Burbank, Berckmans, Chabot. (J3) Round or oblate — Hale, October Purple. II. Skin yellow. i Form round or oblate — Ogon. 2. Form oval or compressed — Kelsey, Kerr. 3. Form conic, somewhat pointed — Georgeson. The Americana plums number more vari- eties than the Japanese plums, and almost as many as the Domesticas. It would be a great help to have an analytical key for them — that THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLUMS 193 is, to have a good arbitrary classification. The varieties are so much alike, however, that many of them cannot be distinguished with certainty by the best experts living; and under such a condition it would be impracticable to attempt their separation by means of an arbitrary key. XIX THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHERRIES THE cherries seem to divide naturally into several comparatively distinct classes. These classes are so far separate and distinct that nearly every pomologist who has studied them has been able to recognize and describe them, and various pomologists are, therefore, fairly well agreed as to the limits of these dif- ferent groups. There is still some disagree- ment, to be sure, and at many points it seems impossible to reconcile one particular classifi- cation with another ; but these discrepancies and contradictions are less important than with most other classes of fruit. We have, at the outset, two distinctly dif- ferent botanical species, Prunus avium and P. cerasus, giving us our sweet cherries and our sour cherries respectively. There is very seldom any doubt as to whether a given variety comes from one or the other of these species. Beyond this point we may divide the two species into several fairly well-marked 194 THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHERRIES 195 groups, as will be seen from a study of the various classifications reproduced herewith. One of the briefest and best arrangements of cherries, according to their natural types, is that made by O. Thomas. This has been commonly overlooked because of its rather obscure publication in a nursery catalog.* The outline of this classification is translated and described herewith : 1. GUIGNES. — Sweet cherries, with soft flesh. — Black Tartarian, Elton. 2. BIGARREAUX. — Sweet cherries, with firm flesh. — Black Hawk, Powhattan. 3. MERISES. — " Which are recognized by the flavor, ordinarily honey-like, relieved by a slight bitterish taste, and by the aspect of the tree, which resembles the wild Merisier of the woods." Not an important group, from the cultural standpoint, as may be judged from the fact that not enough varieties are named in it to enable one to identify the group with our Amer- ican varieties. 4. ENGLISH CHERRIES. — Sour-sweet sorts, "distin- guished by the form of the trees, which mostly have branches strong and erect, not spreading so much as the preceding, and lending themselves much better to pruning in special forms." This description seems to characterize the so-called Dukes, and the text goes on "Guide Pratique de 1'Amateur de Fruits," p. 5, 2d cd. Paris and Nancy. 1895. 196 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY to name in this section such varieties as May Duke, Reine Hortense, and Belle de Choisy. 5. AMARELLES. — Sour cherries, with watery flesh, dwarf trees, and small foliage. Here belong Mont- morency and its near relatives. 6. GRIOTTES. — Very sour cherries, with trees re- sembling the preceding. This group, according to the author, seems to be typified in Morello, which he gives as a synonym of Griotte du Nord. It should be said, before going further, that these semi-generic terms, such as Amarelle, Biggareau, Griotte, etc., do not have the unequivocal significance which one is led to expect of them. Different writers use them in very different senses, as was pointed out by the present scribe in discussing this matter several years ago. * We have already referred several times to the systematic work of Dr. Lucas. His cherry classification is also worth study. It was de- rived partially from Dr. Truchsess, but was materially the work of Dr. Lucas himself, f The general outline was translated and pub- lished in this country by the present writer in 18984 It runs as follows: * Country Gentleman, 63 : 948. Albany, N. Y., 1898. t See Lucas' " Einleitung in das Studium der Pomologie," p. 196. Stuttgart, 1877. \ Country Gentleman, 63:928. Albany, N. Y., 1898. THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHERRIES lf)7 I. Sweet cherries. 1. BLACK HEARTS. — Fruit with colored juice, black skin, and soft flesh. 2. BLACK CRACKLING CHERRIES.— Fruit with col- ored juice, black skin, and hard flesh. 3. VARIEGATED HEARTS. — Fruit with colored juice, variegated skin, and soft flesh. 4. VARIEGATED CRACKLING CHERRIES. — Fruit with colored juice, variegated skin, and hard flesh. 5. YELLOW HEARTS. — Fruit with uncolored juice, yellow skin, and soft flesh. 6. YELLOW CRACKLING CHERRIES. — Fruit with uncolored juice, yellow skin, and hard flesh. II. Tall-growing Weichsels. 7. SWEET WEICHSELS. — Fruit with colored juice and dark skin. 8. GLASS CHERRIES. — Fruit with colored juice and hard flesh. III. Dwarf Weichsels. 9. WEICHSELS. — Fruit with colored juice and dark skin. 10. AMARELLES. — Fruit with uncolored juice and light-colored skin. IV. Hybrid cherries. n. HYBRID SWEET CHERRIES. — Growth like the sweet cherry; fruit like the Weichsel. 12. HYBRID SOUR CHERRIES. — Growth like the sour cherries; fruit like the sweet cherries. Each of these twelve classes is again sub- divided into three orders, according to the 198 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY form of the stone, whether they are round, egg-shaped, or long oval. To carry the clas- sification still further the cherry harvest was divided into six weeks, and the several varie- ties were distributed into these six periods. It will be remarked that this classification has a very arbitrary air, a quality which it shares with the preceding classification. Ap- pearances are somewhat deceitful in this case, however; for the types pointed out, even thus vaguely, are natural types; and it is simply the failure of the author, Truchsess or Lucas, to characterize them broadly enough. The latter part of the Truchsess-Lucas classifica- tion is palpably artificial, of course. The two classifications best known in this country are the one prepared by Professors L. H. Bailey and G. Harold Powell, and the one of John J. Thomas. The former was first presented in Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 98, and has more recently been re- published in the "Cyclopedia of American Horticulture," i : 291. It runs as follows : I. Sweet cherries — Prunus avium. i. MAZZARDS; inferior seedlings; fruit of various shapes and colors; common along roadsides. In the Middle Atlantic States the wild Maz- THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHERRIES !<)<) zard trees often attain great age and size, particularly in the Delaware-Chesapeake peninsula. There are no cultivated varieties, or practically none. 2. HEARTS, or heart-shaped; soft, sweet cherries, light or dark. Represented by Black Tar- tarian, Governor Wood. 3. BIGARRKAUX; heart-shaped, firm-fleshed, sweet cherries, like Napoleon and Windsor. 4. DUKES; light colored, somewhat acid flesh, such as May Duke and Reine Hortense. II. Sour cherries — Prunus ccrasus. 5. AMARELLES; light colored, sour cherries, with colorless juice, such as Early Richmond and Montmorency. 6. MORELLOS; dark colored, sour cherries, with dark colored juice. Morello, Ostheim, Gri- otte du Nord, Lutovka. The classification devised by Thomas may be studied from the following " Synopsis of Arrangement ": * I. HEARTS AND BIGARREAUX. — Fruit heart-shaped, in- clining to sweet; tree vigorous and regular in growth. 1. Fruit black, red, or crimson. Black Hawk, Black Tartarian. 2. Fruit bright red, or lighter. American Heart, Downer, Elton, Governor Wood, Napoleon. * Thomas, "American Fruit Culturist," p. 381. edition of 1885. New York. 200 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY II. DUKES AND MORELLOS. Fruit round, black, dark red, or crimson. 1. Fruit black, red, or crimson. May Duke, Morello. 2. Fruit bright red, or lighter. Belle de Choisy, Belle Magnifique, Early Richmond, Reine Hortense. Though this classification at first sight seems to be no more arbitrary than the others previously reviewed — than the Bailey- Powell classification, for example — it is, nevertheless, less natural in its result. This is shown in the circumstance that it throws together vari- eties which are obviously of different natural types, as May Duke and Morello. XX MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS BESIDES the staple fruits of the temperate re- gions of North America, which are discussed more fully in this book, there are a great many species of lesser importance which can be no- ticed here only in the most general and sum- mary manner. A large number of these second- ary fruits are actually grown, and are familiar to the ordinary person. The quince, the apri- cot, and the chestnut may serve as examples of this class. Other species are of secondary interest to us, more because they are grown outside the limits of our customary geography. All the tropical and subtropical fruits are of this class. Certain of them, as the orange, for instance, are of great commercial impor- tance in their proper latitude, and deserve as careful study from the men who grow them as the apple or the strawberry deserves from the fruit growers of Massachusetts or Ohio. But, as we have said, these fruits, for one reason or another, are of only incidental in- terest to the average pomologist ; and it seems 202 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY necessary, for practical reasons, to take ad- vantage of this fact by lumping them all off together in a single chapter. In case any pomologist should undertake a special study of any of these secondary fruits, he would naturally apply to them the same general methods which are here outlined for apples, pears, and peaches. He could devise some regular form of description which would assist him materially in keeping record of his observations. He would apply to the differ- ent varieties in hand the same rules of nomen- clature which have been found essential in dealing with other groups of fruits. And, finally, he would classify the varieties under survey, according to the principles laid down in Chapter XIII of this book. So far as the writer knows, no special form of description has ever been used in this country for any of the fruits discussed in the present chapter, nor has any classification of the varieties in any group been proposed beyond what is here set forth. The quince is closely related to the apple and pear. It may be described on the same blank form used for pears, or even on the one used for apples. There are only a few varie- MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 203 ties, hardly enough to warrant any classifica- tion, and these few all belong to one species. Though the fruits of the Japanese quince (Cydonia japonicd) and of Maule's quince (C. maulei) are edible, they are not of enough culinary value to have been recognized by fruit growers or fruit dealers. The medlar is a fruit mentioned in all the old European books on pomology and in most of the early American works, which were largely copied from the European. The medlar stands nearly midway between the quince and the hawthorns, having a sour fruit one to two inches in diameter. A number of varieties have received names, and have been perpetuated by grafting or budding. The tree or bush is perfectly hardy and fruitful in the middle latitudes of North America, but probably not one fruit grower among one hundred ever saw the plant, and not one in five hundred ever saw the fruit. The loquat (Eriobotrya japonicd], some- times erroneously called the Japanese medlar, and still more mischievously known as the Japan plum, is now considerably planted from Florida west to Texas, and the fruit comes somewhat regularly to northern markets in 204 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY the early spring. It is a small ovoid, pleas- antly acid fruit, a trifle smaller than a guinea- hen's egg. It shows the same tendency to variation which has given origin to our nu- merous varieties of strawberries and oranges, but as yet this tendency has not been taken advantage of for the establishment of distinct sorts through bud propagation. The apricot stands nearly midway between the peach and the plum, being, perhaps, a lit- tle more like the former. It may be described according to the same formula applied to peaches ; and almost exactly the same range of descriptive adjectives would be brought into play. There are two or three different species of trees which bear apricots, and the varieties would naturally be classified first by referring them to these parent species; or the varieties could be arbitrarily classified, as peaches sometimes are. The nectarine is the offspring of the peach, and so closely related to it that peaches and nectarines not infrequently grow on the same tree (without being separately budded in). In systematic pomology the nectarine is to be treated exactly like the peach. Mulberries come from trees of several dif- MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 205 ferent species, and this gives a botanical basis for their classification. They would be de- scribed after much the same pattern as that applied to blackberries and dewberries. They are so seldom cultivated for fruit in this country that they are hardly worth mention- ing. The persimmon is a delicacy of high repute among those persons who know it best. It already has some small place in our best fruit markets, and we may fairly expect that it will increase in commercial importance as time goes on. Several attempts have been made to cultivate persimmons in orchards, and these attempts have met with reasonable success. The persimmon is much unlike any of the other fruits which we have been considering, and would require a special scheme for its description. The varieties, of which a con- siderable number are recognized, are almost universally separated into two groups, accord- ing to their botanical pedigree. Some are known as native persimmons, having origi- nated from the American species. The others are known as Japanese persimmons or kakis, and are developed from another species, a native of the Orient. The varieties are also 206 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY sometimes classified according to the shape of the fruit. This method has been applied more particularly to the Japanese sorts, but is convenient for all kinds. Nuts are sometimes grown commercially, the trees being planted or tended primarily for their fruit. This brings them under the survey of pomology, and requires us to take some notice of them here. There are already a number of books, pamphlets, and bulletins on nuts, and in these may be found descrip- tions of varieties. The best examples of good descriptive work applied to nuts are to be found in Powell's bulletin on chestnuts (Delaware Experiment Station Bulletin No. 42), and Hume's bulletin on pecans (Florida Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54). The elaborate description form used by the Division of Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture, is shown in the accompanying engraving, page 207, greatly reduced in size. The nuts cultivated or collected in this coun- try comprise a considerable number of botan- ical species, and the botanical basis of classi- fication is naturally assumed for the most part in dealing with them. There are almonds, walnuts, hickory nuts, pecans, chestnuts, and United State*-* Depart me r-xt of" A-gfr-io DIVISION OF POMOLOG . PomolO(ica) Notet. SECTION I. Nu™. Dateof Receipt, " " Description, No. of Receipt, _. Journal page, Volume, Name and address of «cnder, Kind, Him., __ .....Purpow, Condition at time of receipt, _ _ _ Year of crop, _ Seuon, Order, Genus, , Spwie* Vari Hull, or involucre, persistence, ilehUcence. Form; general, vert, sect cross set Size,, weight of single nut... _ dimensions, Base,....,,., - Apex, Surface, — : Win-, or other appendage, . color, _ Shell; character, thickness, dehisence, inner structure, Cracking qualities, _-. Kernel; form, - — divisions; by shell, by cotyledon.,. plumpness. .'. _ -color, skin, _ umbilical sutur. Herb, arrange,..- Fomi, - Kmfl f — Variety, Hi-Hi, box, FIG. 34 DESCRIPTION FORM FOR NUTS 207 208 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY several others ; but these large group names correspond very closely to botanical species names. The species names even go further than the common names, as is usually the case, and subdivide groups which in popu- lar language have only a single name. Thus there are several separate species of walnuts, several of hickory nuts, and two or three at least among the chestnuts. Yet in certain species groups the varieties are now growing so numerous that some further classification would be very appropriate, as, for example, among chestnuts and pecans. The citrus fruits form a large group, com- prising several species, many of which are of great economic importance. In the regions where they are grown the description and dis- crimination of the varieties of citrus fruits and their intelligent classification are quite as important as the description and classifica- tion of apples, for instance. Indeed, the orange is to Florida and Southern California what the apple is to Maine and Ontario. There are very few American books on the citrus fruits in which the student may consult descriptions of varieties. The only descrip- tive form which has ever come to the writer's MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 209 notice is the rather complicated one origina- ting in the United States Department of Agriculture, Division of 'Pomology. This form is engraved and printed, much reduced in size, on page 210. The citrus fruits are classified almost exactly as the nuts are — according to the several botanical species from which they are sprung. Such common names as orange, tangerine, citron, lemon, lime, pomelo, kumquat are merely vernacular substitutes for the Latin botanical names. Some further classification seems to be de- sirable, but it has not yet been given. The olive is grown to a considerable extent in California. Varieties should be described on special forms, following somewhat the model of the blank used for plums. No classi- fication of varieties has ever been suggested — at least, not in this country. Palms of two species bearing fruit occur within the limits of North America. The cocoanut palm is found in Southern Florida, and the date palm grows and bears fruit in Arizona and Southern California. At present it seems hardly likely that the former will ever be of any commercial importance in this country; but the date palm gives reasonable tmiteci Sta.tee DIVISION or roMOLOOv. SECTION G. Otr« Knit.. <.«,-,... Ixmat, Lnra, Xo.offM.ipt, Nunc >iul •ddm of Kiufer Conditiou at time of raeipt. Flowera, pollen. SCORE-CARD FOR PLUMS Form I0 Size I5 Color I5 Uniformity 20 Quality 20 Freedom from blemishes 20 Total ioo SCORE-CARD FOR GRAPES Flavor 15 Form of Bunch 20 Size of Bunch 15 Size of Berry 10 Color 10 Firmness 5 Bloom 5 Freedom from Blemishes 20 Perfection . . . . • ioo A score-card for strawberries, suggested by Mr. J. R. Reasoner, of Illinois, is shown on the following page, with four varieties scored, to show the method of using it. 272 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY STRAWBERRY SCORES ^* 1 |f "»' s 1 •N* -H CHARACTER gl "S R « 'S g ** £ w £ B 1 Rootage 4. 5 4-5 4 4 5 5 Stock and foliage . . 4 4-5 4 5 7 Vitality, drouth proof . 5-5 4-5 5 5 10 Plant maker .... 10 10 6 5 5 Healthfulness, rust proof 4 4-5 3 3 5 Blossoms Staminate .... 5 4 4 Pistillate 25 Productiveness 20 20 16 14 10 Size 7 8 9 10 5 Shape 5 5 4 5 5 Color 5 5 4 5 8 Flavor 8 7 6 7 10 Firmness, shipping qual. 9 9 8 7 100 Totals .... 87 88.5 73 74 One of the most elaborate and carefully considered score-cards for fruits ever proposed in this country is the California score-card for oranges. This matter was fully discussed before the twenty-third session of the Ameri- JUDGING FRUITS 273 can Pomological Society in Washington, D. C., in 1 89 1, when the approaching World's Fair at Chicago gave the matter a special im- portance. The views of the California citrus fruit growers were rather fully presented by Mr. J. E. Cutter.* It should be said, how- ever, that the Florida citrus fruit growers, while not having such a definite system of their own for judging oranges and lemons, disagree materially from the schedule of points here presented from Mr. Cutter's report. CALIFORNIA SCORE-CARD FOR ORANGES Size 10 Form 5 Color 15 Bloom 2 Peel 10 Flesh 3 Weight 10 Peel 10 j Finish 3 | Protective quality 7 Fiber 8 Grain 4 Seed 8 Taste 30 Aroma 10 Citrous quality 10 Aroma 10 Total ioo American Pomological Society Proceedings, 23:154. 1891. 274 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Some further explanation of this schedule of points seems necessary. In size the following standards are pro- posed: Large " i26's," 3^ inches in diameter Medium " 176*8," 2f " " " Small "226V' 2-$ " Mandarins and Tangerines . 2^ " " " Three-eighths of an inch in excess of these standards is to be allowed without discount to "medium" and "small" fruit, one-half inch excess to "large" fruit. For each one- eighth inch deficiency in any size, a discount of i unit in the score is to be made. Thus, if " medium " oranges, or " 1 76*5," were found to measure 2# inches in diameter instead of the 2^ inches required by the standard, the difference of one-half inch would incur a dis- count of 4 units on the score of size, and the sample would score 6 instead of 10. In form oranges must be either round, oval, ovate, or pyriform, and discounts from the perfect score of 5 are to be made for lack of symmetry or form blemishes. Navel marks are not to be discounted except when of abnormal size or of bad form. Color is scored under three heads, as shown JUDGING FRUITS 275 by the card. The bloom should be percep- tible, and any deficiency or injury should be discounted. The peel should be of rich deep orange color, in natural condition, and should be discounted according- to the degree of deviation from this requirement. Rust, scale, and smut to be discounted 5 to 10 points, and fruit which gives visible evidence of hav- ing been cleaned of these defects should be subject to the same penalty. Peel which has been rubbed or polished, giving a gloss at the expense of breaking or pressing the oil cells, should be similarly discounted. The flesh should be rich, clear, and uniform, in any of the shades common to fine fruits. (The color of flesh should not be scored till after weight and peel, further down in the scale, have been determined.) As to weight, oranges should have a specific gravity of i; that is, they should have the weight of an equal volume of water. An ex- cess (buoyancy) of three-quarter ounce is allowed to "large " fruit, of one-half ounce to " medium," and of one-quarter ounce to "small," without discount. For the first one- half ounce of buoyancy in excess of allow- ance, a discount of i point is made, and 276 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY for each additional one-half ounce, 2 points. (Buoyancy may be determined easily by fas- tening small weights to the fruits with light rubber bands and placing the whole in water.) Peel counts 10 points, of which 3 go to finish, and 7 to protective quality. Finish requires that the peel should have smooth- ness and uniformity of surface, and should be pleasant to the touch. For protective qual- ity, firm and elastic texture is required, with abundant, compact, and unbroken oil cells ; and the peel should be one-eighth to three- sixteenths of an inch in thickness. Discount i point for the first thirty-second of an inch above or below required thickness, and 2 points for the second thirty-second of an inch shortage or excess. As the peel shrinks as the fruit cures, these standards are subject to some allowance for fruits freshly picked or for those thoroughly cured. In scoring fiber the judge considers the core and septa. The septa should be deli- cate and translucent. The maximum diame- ter of the core should be three-sixteenths of an inch in "large " fruit, and one-eighth of an inch in other grades. JUDGING FRUITS 277 The grain should be fine, firm, and com- pact. Seeds count against the fruit. One point is discounted for each of the first three seeds, and one-half point for each additional seed. Each rudiment is considered as a seed if any growth has developed, otherwise it is allowed without discount. Taste scores 30 if perfect, and is consid- ered under three heads — sweetness, citrus quality, and aroma. All the elements of taste here specified should be clear and de- finable ; the sweetness should be rich rather than heavy ; the citrus quality should be pro- nounced, showing abundant citric acid, but should be free from acerbity ; the aroma should be pervasive and agreeable. Deficiency in any of these elements is to be discount- ed, and excess of sweetness is likewise to be discounted ; also excess of acid in citrus quality. Any staleness or flavor of decay, or any unusual taste due to improper storage, etc., is to be discounted from aggregate of points under taste. A very similar scale of points for judging lemons was proposed at the same time. 278 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY Without analyzing it fully, we may recapitu- late it as follows : CALIFORNIA SCORE-CARD FOR LEMONS Size 7 Form 3 Color 10 Weight 10 Peel 10 Fiber 8 Grain 4 Seed 8 Taste 40 Total 100 When the problem before the committee is that of judging a large collection of fruits the difficulties naturally become much greater. Since the varieties in no two competing col- lections are the same, they cannot be checked off, plate against plate, and a direct compari- son made. Even if each variety is judged by the score-card and the scores averaged, the result is not necessarily a fair settlement of all claims. The varieties in one collection may be such as rank low for color or for qual- ity, judged in any single scale of points. And how can the judges say whether a Fallawater JUDGING FRUITS 279 scoring- 93 points may rightfully offset a Shia- wassee, scoring the same ? In such cases, where a thoroughgoing judgment is required, recourse may be had to some such plan as that adopted by the On- tario Fruit Growers' Association. To illus- trate, we may refer to the catalog of grapes " prepared for the guidance of judges of fruit at exhibitions." In this catalog all the va- rities likely to be exhibited are given a rating, showing what should be their natural stand- ing when each variety is properly grown. A few of the entries from the catalog on the following page will make the idea clearer. With a catalog of this sort in hand the fruit judge might rate each variety perfect when- ever it came up to the standard set for it. Its proper rating, in any case, could then be determined by dividing its actual score by the normal score as given in the catalog. Such a method is not practicable, however, in our present state of pomological development, ex- cept for very large competitions or very elab- orate fruit shows. In all such cases it would be necessary to work out many details very carefully in advance. 280 SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY CATALOG OF GRAPES ARRANGED FOR THE GUIDANCE OK JUDGES OF FRUIT VARIETIES 3 1 U Shipping Value Market Value 1 Agawam .... R L 9 10 9 28 Barry .... B M 5 8 6 19 Brighton .... R E 9 6 9 24 Catawba .... R L 9 8 10 27 Concord .... B M 7 6 8 21 Delaware R E » 10 7 10 27 Empire State . W L 3 4 4 II Early Victor B E 4 3 3 10 Faith W E 2 2 3 7 Goethe .... R L 8 5 5 18 Hartford B E 3 5 6 14 Isabella .... B L 3 7 6 16 Lady W E 1 3 5 15 Moore Diamond W E 7 7 8 22 Niagara .... W M 9 5 9 23 Salem .... R M 8 8 8 24 Vergennes . R L 7 9 7 23 Worden .... B E 9 4 8 21 Wilder .... B M 8 9 8 25 GLOSSARY The page numbers indicate where terms are denned specially referred to in the text. Acid, distinctly sour, 53. Anastigmat, a photographic lens having anastigmatic properties; one which is corrected for astigma- tism; specifically, one which comes into focus on all parts of the photographic plate at once, thus giving what is known as a " flat field " of view, 29. Apex, the end of a fruit or leaf opposite the stem, 58. Apical, pertaining to the apex; the apical end is the end opposite the stem. Areolar, applied to dots on the surface of fruits, which appear to have centers of one color, surrounded by more or less distinct rings of another shade, Basin, the depression at the apical, or "blossom " end of a fruit, especially one of the pome fruits, 46. Berry, any pulpy or juicy fruit with several seeds loosely set in the pulp; the gooseberry and grape are good examples. Bisexual, having both sexes represented; said of strawberry blossoms, 74. Bloom, the powdery or downy covering seen on ripe fruits, 52. 281 282 GLOSSARY Calyx, the outer set of floral leaves in a flower; inter- esting to the pomologist chiefly because these leaves usually hold on to apples, pears, and other pome fruits until ripening time, when they may be found in the basin or eye, 49. Cavity, the depression about the stem of a fruit, 43. Chalaza, the mark on the back of a grape seed, 92. Commercial pomology, the business of selling fruit, par- ticularly when the fruit is sold by the grower, 2. Compressed, flattened sidewise, 56. Drupe, a fruit having one single hard seed sur- rounded by flesh, as a cherry. Eye, the basin, with the calyx; applied to stone fruits, 47- Flat, applied to fruits which are extremely oblate, 38. Folded, the same as plaited, which see; used in the description of cavity or basin, 46. Hardiness, the degree in which a tree resists cold or other injurious influences. Usually applied to cold-resistance, but may be applied with equal propriety to the power of resisting heat, dis- ease, etc., 19. Hermaphrodite, having the organs of both sexes; said of strawberry blossoms, 74. Imperfect, having pistils only, while lacking stamens; applied to strawberry blossoms, 74. Irregular, applied to fruits in which the horizontal section is not circular; used also in describing the cavity or the basin of the fruit, 40. Lanate, wooly, with long, soft hairs. GLOSSARY 283 Lopsided, the same as oblique, 38. Nomenclature, the science of names; or a system of names applied to a particular series of objects; or a collection of terms used in a particular science or craft, 6, 98. Oblate, applied to fruits in which the vertical diameter, from stem end to apex, is distinctly less than the horizontal diameter, 36. Oblique, said of fruits in which the vertical axis and the horizontal diameter do not seem to cross at right angles, 38. Oblong, applied to fruits in which the vertical diame- ter, from stem end to apex, is greater than the horizontal diameter, 36. Orbicular, nearly circular in outline. Peduncle, a flower or fruit stalk, 83. Perfect, having both stamens and pistils; applied to strawberry blossoms, 74. Pistillate, bearing pistils only; applied to various im- perfect flowers, but especially to strawberry blossoms, 74. Plaited, applied to the cavity or to the basin when the irregularities are very deep, and when they appear to be folded, or plaited, 44. Pome, a fruit having a core normally containing several seeds, as an apple. Pomology, the science of fruits, i. Pomologist, one who studies, understands, or practices pomology. Practical pomology, the practice of fruit growing, i. Pyriform, pear-shaped. 284 GLOSSARY Raphe, the cord which runs from the chalaza over the top of a grape seed. Rapid rectilinear lens, a photographic lens made in two sections, with a diaphragm between, in such a manner as to prevent the distortion of lines. A poor lens renders straight lines as curves. A rectilinear lens should always render straight lines straight, 31. Regular, applied to fruits in which the horizontal section is circular or very nearly so. Used in a very similar sense in describing the cavity or the basin of the fruit, 40. Reniform, kidney-shaped, 21. Ribbed, applied to fruits having distinct longitudinal ribs, 40. Rugose, wrinkled. Self-colored, composed of one solid color; having only the ground color, 50. Shoulder, that portion of a cluster of grapes formed by a branch from the main stem, 88. Subacid, mildly sour, 53. Suture, the depression in the surface of many stone fruits, running from the stem toward the apex, 58. Sweet, without acidity, and having more or less sweet- ness to the taste, 53. Systematic pomology, the description, naming, and classification of fruits; pomological taxonomy, 5- Taxonomy, the science of classification; literally the science of names, 240. GLOSSARY 285 Tomentose, having a fine, matted, wooly covering; especially applied to leaves. Type, a group of fruits showing the same characters. Unequal, having one side larger than the other, 38. Wavy, having the cavity or the basin irregular in such a manner that the irregularities look like little waves, 44. 288 INDEX PAGE Olive 209 PACK Russian apples classified . . . 149 Ontario score-cards .... 268, 269 Oranges, score-card . ... 273 Samples for description .... 23 Score-cards 266-380 Palms 209 Season in fruits .-.-- Peaches, classification >75 Starr's score-card .-<>o Pears, classification 163 Strawberry description .... 68 Pedagogic value of systematic Sature jg pomology *37 Perfect and imperfect blossoms Persimmon 74 «>5 Taxonomy Thomas1 classification of X. Photographing fruits 26 cherries i.» Pineapple 212 Thomas' classification of Plums classification iSi Pome fruits peaches <7* Pomology in general Priority in names 108, "9 Warder's classification of ap- ples 161, .'i *> Productivity '9 Waugh's classification of Quince 202 peaches >:* Waugh's classification of pears 17* Reasoner's score-card 272 Waugh's classification of plums 1% [UNI vi — -aa- "A* TH€ r r» e* " » t r*o| / f | X /N OF / STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE TUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 439-441 Lafayette Street Marquette Building ~DOOKS sent to all parts of the world for catalog price Discounts for large quantities on appli- catie . Correspondence invited. Brief descriptive catalog free. Large illustrated catalog, six cents. Soils By CHARLES WILLIAM BCRKETT. Director Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The most complete and popular work of the kind ever published. As a rule, a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, but in this case it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his individuality. The story of the properties of the so_ils, their improvement and manage- ment, as well as a discussion of the problems of crop growing and crop feeding, make this book equally valuable to the farmer, student and teacher. There are many illustrations of a practical character, each one suggesting some fundamental principle in soil manage- ment 303 pages. $l/2 x 8 inches. Cloth. . . . . $1.25 Insects Injurious to Vegetables By Dr. F. H. CHITTENDEX, of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. A complete, practical work giving descriptions of the more important insects attacking vegetables of all kinds with simple and inexpensive remedies to check and destroy them, together with timely suggestions to prevent their recurrence. 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First-hand knowledge has been the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is presented in the light of individual study of the plant. If you have this book you have the latest and best that has been written upon the subject. Illustrated. 450 pages. Sl/2 x 8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Forage and Fiber Crops in America By THOMAS F. HUNT. This book is exactly what its title indicates. It is indispensable to the farmer, student and teacher who wishes all the latest and most important information on the subject of forage and fiber crops. Like its famous com- panion, "The Cereals in America," by the same author, it treats of the cultivation and improvement of every one of the forage and fiber crops. With this book in hand, you have the latest and most up-to-date information available. Illus- trated. 428 pages. 5^ x 8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Book of Alfalfa History. Cultivation and Merits. Its Uses as a Forage and Fertilizer. The appearance of the Hon. F. D. 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A practical guide to the culti- vation and propagation of Fruits, written from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at the least cost. It is up-to-date in every particular, and covers the entire practice of fruit culture, harvesting, storing, mar- keting, forcing, best varieties, etc., etc. It deals with principles first and with the practice afterwards, as the foundation, prin- ciples of plant growth and nourishment must always remain the same, while practice will vary according to the fruit, grower's immediate conditions and environments. Illustrated. 265 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Plums and Plum Culture By F. A. WAUGH. A complete manual for fruit growers, nurserymen, farmers and gardeners, on all known varieties of plums and their successful management. This book marks an epoch in the horticultural literature of America. It is a complete monograph of the plums cultivated in and indigenous to North America. It will be found indispensable to the scientist seeking the most recent and authoritative informa- tion concerning this group, to the nurseryman who wishes to handle his varieties accurately and intellingently, and to the cultivator who would like to grow plums successfully. Illus- trated. 391 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.50 Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing By F. A. WAUGH. A practical guide to the picking, stor- ing, snipping and marketing of fruit. The principal subjects covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and pack- ing, the fruit storage, evaporating, canning, statistics of the fruit trade, fruit package laws, commission dealers and dealing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can afford to be without this most valuable book. Illustrated. 232 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Systematic Pomology By F. A. 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A practical manual con- cerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of preventing their ravages. The author has endeav- ored to give such a concise account of the most important facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat them intelligently. 90 illustrations. 222 pages. 5x7 inches. Paper, 50 cents; cloth $1.00 Mushrooms. How to Grow Them By WILLIAM FALCONER. This is the most practical work on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms published in America. The author describes how he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings drawn from nature expressly for this work. 170 pages. 5 x7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 DATE DUE SB355 W35 Waugh, Frank Albert 1903 Systematic pomology. A 000 791 390 8 BIO-AGRICULTURAL LIBRART UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA 92502