GIFT OF A .V .Stubenrauch Talks on Manures. A SERIES OF FAMILIAR AND PRACTICAL TALKS BETWEEN THE AUTHOR AND THE DEACON, THE DOCTOR, AND OTHER NEIGHBORS, ON THE WHOLE SUBJECT OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. V-X^ BY JOSEPH HARRIS, M. S. AUTHOR OF " WALKS AND TALKS ON THE FARM," " HARRIS ON THE PJO," ETC. NEW YORK! ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 845 BROADWAY. Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1878, by the ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, In the Office of the Librarian ol Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. The Printers have got our " Talks on Manures " in type ; and the publishers want a Preface. The Deacon is busy hoeing his corn ; the Doctor is gone to Rice Lake, fishing ; Charley is cultivating mangels ; the Squire is hay- ing, and I am here alone, with a pencil in hand and a sheet of blank paper before me. I would far rather be at .work. In fact, I have only just come in from the field. Now, what shall I say ? It will do no good to apologize for the deficiencies of the book. If the critics condescend to notice it at all, nothing I can say will propitiate their favor, or moderate their censure. They are an independent set of fellows ! I know them well. I am an old editor myself, and nothing would pleaso me better than to sit down and write a slashing criticism of these " Talks on Manures." But I am denied that pleasure. The critics have the floor. All I will say hers, is, that the book is what it pretends to be. Some people seem to think that the " Deacon " is a fictitious char- acter. Nothing of the kind. He is one of the oldest farmers in town, and lives on the farm next to me. I have the very highest respect for him. I have tried to report him fully and correctly. Of my own share in the conversations I will say little, and of the Doctor's nothing. My own views are honestly given. I hold my- self responsible for them. I may contradict in one chapter what I have asserted in another. And so, probably, has the Deacon. I do not know whether this is or is not the case. I know very well that on many questions "much can be said on both sides"— and very likely the Deacon is sometimes on the south side of the fence and I on the north side ; and in the next chapter you may find the Deacon on the north side, and where would you have me go, ex- cept to the south side ? We cannot see both sides of the fence, if both of us walk on the same side ! I fear some will be disappointed at not finding a particular sub- ject discussed. I have talked about those things which occupy my own thoughts. 4G6908 iv PREFACE. There are some things not worth thinking about. There are others beyond my reach. I have said nothing about manures for cotton or for the sugar- cane— not because I feel no interest in the matter, but because I have had no experience in the cultivation of these important crops. I might have told what the crops contain, and could have given minute directions for furnishing in manure the exact quantity of plant-food which the crops remove from the soiL But I have no faith in such a system of farming. The few cotton-planters I have had the pleasure of seeing were men of education and rare ability. I cannot undertake to offer them advice. But I presume they will find that, if they desire to increase the growth of the cotton-plant, in nine cases out of ten they can do it, provided the soil is properly worked, by supplying a manure containing available nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. But the proper proportion of these ingredients of plant-food must be ascertained by experiment, and not from a mere analysis of the cotton-plant. I have much faith in artificial manures. They will do great things for American agriculture — directly, and indirectly. Their general use will lead to a higher system of farming — to better cul- tivation, more root and fodder crops, improved stock, higher feed- ing, and richer manure. But it has been no part of my object to unduly extol the virtues of commercial manures. That may be left to the manufacturers. My sympathy is with the farmer, and especially with the farmer of moderate means, who finds that improved farming calls foi more and more capital. I would like to encourage such a man. And so, in point of fact, would the Deacon, though he often talks as though a man who tries to improve his farm will certainly come to poverty. Snch men as the Beacon are useful neighbors if their doubts, and head -shakings, and shoulder-shrnggings lead a young and enthusiastic farmer to put more energy, industry, and economy into his business. It is well to listen to the Deacon — to hrar all his objections, and then to keep a sharp look-out for the dangers and difficulties, and go-ahead. CONTENTS. CHAPTER L Farming as a Business.— High Farming and Good Farming.— Summer-fallow- ing and Plowing under Clover.— We must raise larger Crops per Acre.— Destruction of Weeds.— Farming is Slow Work.— It requires Personal At- tention >j CHAPTER II. What is Manure ?— The definitions given by the Deacon and the Doctor 19 CHAPTER in. Something about Plant-food.— All soils on which plants grow contain it.— The Season. -Water, Shade, Light, and Mulch, not Manures.-Several Def- initions of Manure 21 CHAPTER IV. Natural Manure. -Accumulated Plant food in the Soil.— Exhaustion of the Soil.— Why our Crops are so Poor.— How to get Larger Crops.— We must Drain, Cultivate thoroughly, and Make Richer Manure 23 CHAPTER V. Swamp-muck and Peat as Manure. — Draining Swamp-land. — Composition of Peat and Muck 29 CHAPTER VL What is Potential Ammonia 31 CHAPTER VII. Tillage is Manure.— The Doctor's Lecture on Manure 32 CHAPTER VI1L Summer-fallowing.— Mr. Lawes' crop every other year.— Wheat after Bar- ley.— For Larger Crops raise less frequently, and Manure Higher ; also keep better Stock, and Feed Higher 34 CHAPTER IX. How to Restore a Worn-out Farm — The Author's Farm.— Tillage renders the Plant-food stored in the soil available. — Cultivated Lands contain less Plant-food, but are more productive. — Grass alone will not make rich land. 37 CHAPTER X. How to Make Manure. — We must get it out of the Land 41 CHAPTER XI. The Value of the Manure depends upon the Food — not upon the Animal 43 CHAPTER XII. Foods which Make Rich Manure.— Table giving the composition of 31 kinds of Food, and the value of the Manure they yield. — Cotton-seed Cake. — English and German Clover. — Nitrogenous matter in Rich and Poor Foods. — Manure from Corn compared with that from Straw 45 5 VI CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XIII. Horse-manure and Farm-yard Manure.— Why the one is richer than the oth- er.—Amount of Manure from a Horse.— Composition of Farm-yard Ma- nure.—We draw and spread a ton to get 33 Ibs. of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash CHAPTER XIV. Fermenting Manure.— Composition of Manure when Fresh and in it8 stages of Fermentation.— Loss in Fermentation and from Leaching.— Tables show- ing the composition of Manure at different stages.-Fermenting makes Manure more Soluble 5- CHAPTER XV. Keepin^ Manure under Cover. -Dr. Vcelcker's Experimcnts.-Manurc Fer- mented Outside and Under Cover. -Loss from keeping Manure spread in the Barn-yard.-Keeping well-rotted Manure in a Heap.-Conclusions from Dr. Vcelcker's Experiments 59 CHAPTER XVI. An English Plan of Keeping Manure.— Bos feeding of Cattle.— Spreading Manure at once.-Piling in Heaps in the Field. -Old Sods and Ashes from CharredSods °9 CHAPTER XVII. Soluble Phosphates in Farm yard Manure.— Fermented, the Manure has the most.— Over 40 per cent, of the Phosphoric Acid is Soluble 12 CHAPTER XVni. How the Deacon makes Manure. —A good plan for making poor Manure 74 CHAPTER XIX. How John Johnston Manages His Manure. -Summer-fallows for Wheat.— Does not plow under Clover.— Value of Manure from different foods.— Piling Manure.— Applies Manure to Grass-land in Fall, and Plows under in Spring for Corn.— His success due to the Effect of Manure on Grass.— It brought in Red Clover 7G CHAPTER XX. The Author's Plan of Managing Manure.— Piles as fast as it is Made.— What it is Made of.— Horse and Cow Manure Together.— Horse Manure for Bed- ding Pigs.— To Prevent Freezing.— Liquid Manure from Pigs.— Bedding Sheep.-Piling in the Field.— Where the Piles should In- Made.— Manure in a Basin.— Reasons for Piling.— What we Gain by Fermenting Manure S3 CHAPTER XXI. Management Continued.— Why We Ferment Manure.— Dr. Voelckor's Experi- ments showing the Loss when Manure is spread in Yards.— Fermenting adds Nothing to Manure, but makes it more available.— Mr. Lnwcr-' Experi- ments on Wheat and Barley.— Dr. Vcelcker's Results.— Ell wanger & Barry's Experience. — Loss of Ammonia by Fermenting. — Waste from Leaching. — How to Save the Liquid Manure from Cows 94 CHAPTER XXn. Manure on Dairy Farms. — Wheat removes much more Nitrogen than Cheese. — Manures for Daily Farms. — Letter from Hon. Harris Lewis. — How to make more and better Manure on Dairy Farms. — How to save and apply it.— Lt-t- ter from T. L. Hanson, Esq 101 CONTENTS. VII CHAPTER XXIII. Management of Manures on Grain Farms.— Letter from Hon. Geo. Geddes.— Grain on Dairy Farms. — Sheep on Grain Farms. — Visit to John Johnston. — Mr. Lawes' Wheat-field.— Mr. Geddes and Clover.— Gypsum and Clover as Manures Ill CHAPTER XXIV. The Cheapest Manure a Farmer can use. — Clover vs. Tillage. — As Plant- Food.— Constituents of a Crop of Clover, as compared with one of Wheat.— Making a Farm Rich by Growing Clover 127 CHAPTER XXV. Dr. Voelcker's Experiments on Clover.— Lawes and Gilbert's on Wheat- Clover Roots per Acre.— Manures for Wheat. — Liebig's Manure Theory. — Peruvian Guano on Wheat. — Manures and the Quality of Wheat. — Ammonia. —Over 50 Bushels of Wheat to the Acre 135 CHAPTER XXVI. Experiments on Clover Soils from Burcott Lodge Farm, Leighton Buzzard.— Soil from Part of 11-acre Field twice Mown for Hay. — Soil from do. once Mown for Hay and left for Seed.— Amount of Rootsleft in the Soil by differ- ent Crops.— Manures for Wheat 149 CHAPTER XXVII. Lawes and Gilbert's Experiments on Wheat.— Most Valuable and Instructive Tables now first made accessible to the American Farmer. — The growth of Wheat Year after Year on the same Land, unmannred, with Farm-yard Ma- nure, and with various Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers 170 CHAPTER XXVIII. Lime as a Manure.— Prof. Way's Experiments.— The uses of Lime in the Soil.— Lime in this Country.— Composts with Lime 215 CHAPTER XXIX. Manures for Barley.— Composition of Barley, grain and straw.— Valuable Ta- bles giving the Results of Lawes and Gilbert's Experiments on the growth of Barley, Year after Year, on the same Land, without Manure, and with different kinds of Manure. — Manure and Rotation of Crops 227 CHAPTER XXX. Manures for Oats. — Experiments at Rolhamsted. — Experiments of Mr. Bath of .Virginia.— At Moreton Farm 252 CHAPTER XXXI. Manures for Potatoes.— Peruvian Guano for Potatoes.— Manure from different Foods.— Eperiments at Moreton Farm.— Mr. Hunter's Experiments 255 CHAPTER XXXII. What Crops should Manure be Applied to ?— How, and When ?— John J. Thomas' manner of Applying Manure. — Top Dressing. — Doct. Voelcker's Experiments 265 CHAPTER XXXIII. Manures on Permanent Meadows and Pastures.— Experiments at Rothamstcd.271 VIII CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XXXIV. Manures for Special Crops. — Hops. — Indian Corn. — Turnips. — Mangel-Wurzel or Sugar-Bouts. — Cabbages, Parsnips, Lettuce, Onions, etc 274 CHAPTER XXXV. Manures for Gardens and Orchards. — Market Gardens. — Seed-growing Farms. — Private Gardens. — Hot-beds. — Manure for Nurserymen. — Fruit Growers. — Heu-Mauure 294 CHAPTER XXXVI. Different Kinds of Manures.— Cow Manure.— Sheep Manure.— Buying Manure. —Liquid Manure.— Nightsoil and Sewage.— Peruvian Guano.— Salts of Am- monia and Nitrate of Soda 302 CHAPTER XXXVII. Bone-Dust and Superphosphate of Lime. — Bone furnishes Nitrogen as well as Phosphate of Lime.— Increasing the Availability of Bone with Sulphuric Acid :;i 1 CHAPTER XXXVIII. Special Manures.— Liebig's Views.— Special Manure for Wheat and Turnips. — Rothamsted Experiments 3~° CHAPTER XXXIX. Value of Fertilizer?.— Cost, per pound of the Essential Constituents of Ferti- lizers.—Value of Guanos.— Potash as a Manure 324 APPENDIX. Letter from Edward Jessop.— From Dr. E. L. Stnrtcvant.— From M. C. Weld. —From Peter Henderson.— From J. B. M. Anderson.— Manure Statistics of Long Island.— Letter from J. H. Rushmore.— Letter from John E. Backus. —Manure in Philadelphia.— Various other Letters 332 TALKS ON MANURES. CHAPTER I. FARMING AS A BUSINESS. " Farming is a poor business," said the Deacon. " Take the com crop. Thirty bushels per acre is a fair average, worth, at 75 cents per bushel, $22.50. If we reckon that, for each bushel of corn, we get 100 Ibs. of stalks, this would be a ton and a half per acre, worth at $5 per ton $7.50." Total receipts per acre for corn crop $30 00 Expenses.— Preparing the land for the crop $5 00 Planting and seed 1 50 Cultivating, three times, twice in a row both ways 5 00 Hoeing twice 3 00 Cutting up the corn 1 50 Husking and drawing in the corn 4 00 Drawing in the stalks, etc 1 00 Shelling, and drawing to market 2 00 Total cost of the crop . £23 00 Profit per acre $7 00 " And from this," said the Deacon, *' we have to deduct interest on land and taxes. I tell you, farming is a poor business." "Yes," I replied, "poor farming is a wry poor business. But good farming, if we have good prices, is as good a business as I want, and withal as pleasant. A good farmer raises 75 bushels (9) 10 TALKS OX JI A NUKES, of corn per acre, instead of 30. He would get for his crop, including stalks ................................ ........ $75 00 Expenses.— Preparing laud for the crop .................. $5 00 Planting and seed ........................... 1 50 Cultivating ................................. 5 00 Hoeing ..................................... 3 00 Catting up the corn ......................... 1 50 Husking and drawing ....................... 10 00 Drawing in the stalks ....................... 3 00 Shelling, etc ................................. G 00 - $35 00 Profit per acre $40 00 Take another case, which actually occurred in this neighborhood. The Judge is a good farmer, and particularly successful in raising potatoes and selling them at a good price to hotels and private families. He cultivates very thoroughly, plants in hills, and puts a handful of ashes, plaster, and hen-manure, on the hill. In 1873, his crop of Peachblows was at the rate of 208 bushels per acre. Of these, 200 bushels were sold at GO cents per bii^s-l. There were 8 bushels of small potatoes, worth say 12£ cents per bushel, to feed out to stock. Mr. Sloe, who lives on an adjoining farm, had three acres of Pcachblow potatoes the same year. The yield was 100 bushels per acre — of which 25 bushels were not large enough for market, he got 50 cents per bushel for the others. The account of the two crops stands as foil;* Expenses Rr Acre: Mr. Sloe Judge. Plowing, harrowing, rolling, marking, plant- in0" and covering § 8 00 $ 8 00 Seed 5 00 5 00 Hoein0" cultivating etc 7 00 10 00 Dicro-jncr 10 00 10 00 Receipts Ftr Acre: 75 1) ii in els (3) (50" 30 00 37 50 33 00 25 " @12£c 3 12 200 bus1iclc' (5) 60c 40 02 120 00 8 " @12£c 1 00 Profit per acre 810 (52 Since then, Mr. Sloe has been making and using more manure, and the year before last (1875) his crop of potatoes averaged over FARMING AS A BUSINESS. 11 200 bushels per acre, and on the sandy knolls, where more manure was applied, the yield was at least 250 bushels per acre. " Nevertheless," said the Deacon, " I do not believe in * high farming.' It will not pay." " Possibly not," I replied. "It depends on circumstances; and these we will talk about presently. High farming aims to get large crops every year. Good farming produces equally large crops per acre, but not so many of them. This is what I am trying to do on my own farm. I am aiming to get 35 bushels of wheat per acre, 80 bushels of shelled corn, 50 bushels of barley, 90 bushels of oats, 300 bushels of potatoes, and 1,200 bushels of mangel-wurzel per acre, on the average. I can see no way of paying high wages except by raising large crops per acre. But if I get these large crops it does not necessarily follow that I am practising 'high farming.' " To illustrate: Suppose I should succeed in getting such crops by adopting the following plan. I have a farm of nearly 300 acres, one quarter of it being low, alluvial land, too wet for cultivation, but when drained excellent for pasturing cows or for timothy meadows. I drain this land, and after it is drained I dam up some of the streams that flow into it or through it, and irrigate wherever I can make the water flow. So much for the low land. The upland portion of the farm, containing say 200 acres, ex- clusive of fences, roads, buildings, garden, etc., is a naturally fertile loam, as good as the average wheat land of Western New York. But it is, or was, badly " run down." It had been what people call " worked to death ; " although, in point of fact, it had not been half-worked. Some said it was " wheated to death," others that it had been " oated to death," others that it had been " grassed to death," and one man said to me, " That field has had sheep on it until they have gnawed every particle of vegetable matter out of the soil, and it will not now produce enough to pasture a flock of geese." And he was not far from right — notwithstanding the fact that sheep are thought to be, and are, the best animals to enrich laud. But let me say, in passing, that I have since raised on that same field 50 bushels of barley per acre, 33 bushels of Diehl wheat, a great crop of clover, and last year, on a part of it, over 1,000 bushels of mangel-wurzel per acre. But this is a digression. Let us carry out the illustration. "What does this upland portion of the farm need ? It needs underdrain- ing, thorough cultivation, and plenty of manure. If I had plenty of manure, I could adopt high farming. But where am I to get plenty of manure for 200 acres of laud? "Make it," says the 12 TALKS ON MANURES. Deacon. Very good ; but what shall I make it of ? " Make it out of your straw and stalks and hay." So I do, but all the straw and stalks and hay raised on the farm when I bought it would not make as much manure as " high farming " requires for five acres of land. And is this not true of half the farms in the United States to day ? What then, shall we do ? The best thing to do, theoretically, is this : Any land that is pro- ducing a fair crop of grass or clover, let it lie. Pasture it or mow it for hay. If you have a field of clayey or stiff loamy land, break it up in the fall, and summer-fallow it the next year, and sow it to wheat and seed it down with clover. Let it lie two or three years in clover. Then break it up in July or August, "fall-fallow" it, and sow it with barley the next spring, and seed it down again with clover. Sandy or light land, that it will not pay to summer-fallow, should have all the manure you can make, and be plowed and planted with corn. Cultivate thoroughly, and either seed it down with the corn in August, or sow it to barley or oats next spring, and seed it down with clover. I say, tfieoretically this is the best plan to adopt. But practically it may not be so, because it may he absolutely necessary that we should raise something that we can sell at once, and get money to live upon or pay interest and taxes. But the gentlemen who so strenuously advocate high farming, are not perhaps often troubled with considerations of this kind. Meet- ing them, therefore, on their own ground, I contend that in my case " high farming " would not be as profitable as the plan hinted at above. The rich alluvial low land is to be pastured or mown ; the upland to be broken up only when necessary, and when it is plowed to be plowed well and worked thoroughly, and got back again into clover as soon as possible. The hay and pasture from the low land, and the clover and straw and stalks from the upland, would enable us to keep a good many cows and sheep, with more or less pigs, and there would be a big pile of manure in the yard every spring. And when this is once obtained, you can get along much more pleasantly and profitably. " But," I may be asked, " when you have got this pile of manure can not you adopt high farming '• '' X<>. My manure pile would contain say : 60 tons of clover-hay; 20 tons wheat-straw ; 25 tons oat, barley, and pea-straw ; 40 tons meadow-hay ; 20 tons corn- stalks ; 20 tons corn, oats, and other grain ; 120 tons mangel-wurzel and turnips. FAEMING AS A BUSINESS. 13 This would give me about 500 tons of well-rotted manure. I should want 200 tons of this for the mangels and turnips, and the 300 tons I should want to top-dress 20 acres of grass land intended for corn and potatoes the next year. My pile of manure, there- fore, is all used up on 25 to 30 acres of land. In other words, I use the unsold produce of 10 acres to manure one. Is this " high farming ? " I think in my circumstances it is good farming, but it is not high farming. It gives me large crops per acre, but I have comparatively few acres in crops that are sold from the farm. "High farming," if the term is to have any definite meaning at all, should only be used to express the idea of a farm so managed that the soil is rich enough to produce maximum crops every year. If you adopt the system of rotation quite general in this section — say, 1st year, corn on sod; 2d, barley or oats; 3d, wheat; 4th, clover for hay and afterwards for seed ; 5th, timothy and clover for hay ; and then the 6th year plowed up for corn again — it would be necessary to make the land rich enough to produce say 100 bushels shelled corn, 50 bushels of barley, 40 bushels of wheat, 3 tons clover-hay, and 5 bushels of clover-seed, and 3 tons clover and timothy-hay per acre. This would be moderate high farming. If we introduced lucern, Italian rye-grass, corn-fodder, and mangel- wurzel into the rotation, we should need still richer land to produce a maximum growth of these crops. In other words, we should need more manure. The point I am endeavoring to get at, is this : Where you want a farm to be self-supporting — where you depend solely on the pro- duce of the farm to supply manure — it is a sheer impossibility to adopt high farming on the whole of your land. I want to raise just as large crops per acre as the high farmers, but there is no way of doing this, unless we go outside the farm for manure, without raising a smaller area of such crops as are sold from the farm. I do not wish any one to suppose that I am opposed to high farm- ing. There is occasionally a farm where it may be practised with advantage, but it seems perfectly clear to my mind that as long as there is such an unlimited supply of land, and such a limited sup- ply of fertilizers, most of us will find it more profitable to develop the latent stores of plant-food lying dormant in the soil rather than to buy manures. And it is certain that you can not adopt high farming without either buying manure directly, or buying food to feed to animals that shall make manure on the farm. And you must recollect that high farming requires an increased 14 TALKS ON MANURES. supply of labor, and hired help is a luxury almost as costly as artificial fertilizers. We have heard superficial thinkers object to agricultural papers on the ground that they were urging farmers to improve their land and produce larger crops, " while," say they, " we are producing so much already that it will not sell for as much as it costs to produce it." My plan of improved agriculture does not necessarily imply the production of any more wheat or of any more grain of any kind that we sell than we raise at present. I would simply raise it on fewer acres, and thus lessen the expense for seed, cultivr.ti r., harvesting, etc. I would raise 30 bushels of wheat per acre every third year, instead of 10 bushels every year. If we summer-fallowed and plowed under clover in order to pro- duce the 30 bushels of wheat once in three years, instead of 10 bushels every year, no more produce of any kind would be raised. But my plan does not contemplate such a result. On my own farm I seldom summer-fallow, and never plow under clover. I think I can enrich the farm nearly as much by feeding the clover to animals and returning the manure to the land. The animals do not take out more than from five to ten per cent of the more valu- able elements of plant-food from the clover. And so my plan, while it produces as much and no more grain to sell, adds grcntlv to the fertility of the land, and gives an increased production of beef, mutton, wool, butter, cheese, and pork. " But what is a man to do who is poor and has poor land ? " If he has good health, is industrious, economical, and is possessed of a fair sharo of good common sense, he need have no doubt as to being able to renovate his farm and improve his own fortune. Faith in good farming is the first requisite. If this is weak, it will be strengthened by exercise. If you have not faith, act as though you had. TTork hard, but do not be a drudge. A few hours' vigorous labor will accomplish a great deal, and encourage you to continued effort. Be prompt, systematic, cheerful, and enthusiastic, Go to bed early and get up when you wake. But take sleep enough. A man had better be in bed than at the tavern or grocery. Let not friends, even, keep you up late ; u manners is mannersv but s^ill your elth's your elth." " But what has this to do with good farming ? " More than chemistry and all the science of the schools. Agriculture is an art and must be followed as such. Science will help — help enormouslv — but it will never enable us to dispense with industry. Chemistry FARMING AS A BUSINESS. 15 throws great light on the art of cooking, but a farmer's wife will roast a turkey better than a Liebig. When Mr. James O. Sheldon, of Geneva, N. Y., bought his farm, LIs entire crop of hay the first year was 76 loads. He kept stock, and bought more or less grain and bran, and in eleven years from that time his farm produced 430 loads of hay, afforded pasture for his large herd of Shorthorn cattle, and produced quite as much grain as when he first took it. Except in the neighborhood of large cities, "high farming" may not pay, owing to the fact that we have so much land. But whether this is so or not, there can be no doubt that the only profitable system of farming is to raise large crops on such land as we culti- vate. High farming gives us large crops, and many of them. At present, while we have so mu'ch land in proportion to population, we must, perhaps, be content with large crops of grain, and few of them. We must adopt the slower but less expensive means of enriching our land from natural sources, rather than the quicker, more artificial, and costly means adopted by many farmers in England, and by market gardeners, seed-growers, and nurserymen in this countiy. Labor is so high that we can not afford to raiso a small crop. If we sow but half the number of acres, and double the yield, we should quadruple our profits. I have made up my mind to let the land lie in clover three years, instead of two. This will lessen the number of acres under cultivation, and enable us to bestow more care in plowing and cleaning it. And the land will be richer, and produce better crops. The atmosphere is capable of supplying a csrtain quantity of ammonia to the soil in rains and dews every year, and by giving the wheat crop a three years sup- ply instead of two years, we gain so much. Plaster the clover, top-dress it in the fall, if you have the manure, and stimulate its growth in every way possible, and consume all the clover on tho land, or in the barn-yarcl. Do not sell a single ton ; let not a weed grow, and the land will certainly improve. The first object should be to destroy weeds.^ I do not know how it is in other sections, but with us the majority of farms are com- pletely overrun with weeds. They are eating out the life of the land, and if something is not done to destroy them, even exorbitant- ly high prices can not make farming profitable. A farmer yester- day was contending that it did npt pay to summer-fallow. He has taken a run-down farm, and a year ago last spring he plowed up ten acres of a field, and sowed it to barley and oats. The re- mainder of the field he summer-fallowed, plowing it four times, and rolling and harrowing thoroughly after each plowing. After 16 TALKS OX MANUliES. the barley and oats were off, be plowed the land once, harrowed it, and sowed Mediterranean wheat. On the summer-fallow he drilled in Diehl wheat. He has just threshed, and got 22 bushels per acre of Mediterranean wheat after the spring crop, at one plowing, and 26 bushels per acre of Diehl wheat on the summer- fallow. This, he said, would not pay, as it cost him $20 per acre to summer- fallow, and he lost the use of the land for one season. Now this may be all true, and yet it is no argument against sum- mer-fallowing. Wait a few years. Farming is slow work. .Mr. George Geddes remarked to me, when I told him I was trying to renovate a run-down farm, "you will find it the work of your life." We ought not to expect a big crop on poor, run-down land, simply by plowing it three or four times in as many mouths. Time is required for the chemical changes to take place in the soil. But watch the effect on the clover for the next two years, and when the land is plowed again, see if it is not in far better condition than the part not summer-fallowed. I should expect the clover on the summer-fallow to be fully one-third better in quantity, and of bet- ter quality than on the other part, and this extra quantity of clover will make an extra quantity of good manure, and thus we h:ive the means of going on with the work of improving the farm. " Yes," said the Doctor, " and there will also be more clover- roots in the soil."/ " But I can not afford to wait for clover, and summer-fallowing," writes an intelligent New York gentleman, a dear lover of good stock, who has bought an exhausted New England farm, " I must have a portion of it producing good crops right off." Very well. A farmer with plenty of money can do wonders in a short time. Set a gang of ditchers to work, and put in underdrains where most needed. Have teams and plows enough to do the work rapidly. As soon as the land is drained and plowed, put on a heavy roller. Then sow 500 Ibs. of Peruvian guano per acre broadcast, or its equivalent in some other fertilizer. Follow with a Shares' harrow. This will mellow the surface and cover the guano without dis- turbing the sod. Follow with a forty-toothed barrow, and roll ngain, if needed, working the land until there is three or four inches of fine, mellow surface soil. Then mark off the land in rows as straight as an arrow, and plant corn. Cultivate thoroughly, and kill every weed. If the ditchers can not get through until it is too late to plant com, drill in beans on the last drained part of the field. Another good crop to rais3 on a stock farm is corn-fodder. This can be drilled in from time to time as the land can be got FARMING AS A BUSINESS. 17 ready. Put on half a ton of guano per acre and harrow in, and then mark off the rows three feet apart, and drill in four bushels of corn per acre. Cultivate thoroughly, and expect a great crop. By the last of July, the Ayrshire cows will take kindly to the suc- culent corn-fodder, and with three or four quarts of meal a day, it will enable each of them to make 10 Ibs. of butter a week. For the pigs, sow a few acres of peas. These will do well on sod-land, sown early or late, or a part early and a part late, as most convenient. Sow broadcast and harrow in, 500 Ibs. of Pe- ruvian guano per acre and 200 Ibs. of gypsum. Drill in three bushels of peas per acre, or sow broadcast, and cover them with a Shares' harrow. Commence to feed the crop green as soon as the pods are formed, and continue to feed out the crop, threshed or unthreshed, until the middle of November. Up to this time the bugs do comparatively little damage. The pigs will thrive won- derfully on this crop, and make the richest and best of manure. I have little faith in any attempt to raise root crops on land not previously well prepared. But as it is necessary to have some mangel-wurzel and Swede turnips for the Ayrshire cows and long-wool sheep next winter and spring, select the cleanest and richest land that can be found that was under cultivation last season. If fall plowed, the chances of success will be doubled. Plow the land two or three times, and cultivate, harrow, and roll until it 13 as mellow as a garden. Sow 400 Ibs. of Peruvian guano and 300 Ibs. of good superphosphate per acre broadcast, and har- row them in. Ridge up the land into ridges 2^ to 3 ft. apart, with a double mould-board plow. Roll down the ridges with a light roller, and drill in the seed. Sow the mangel-wurzel in May — the earlier the better — and the Swedes as soon afterwards as the land can be thoroughly prepared. Better delay until June rather than bow on rough land. The first point on such a farm will be to attend to the grassland. This affords the most hopeful chance of getting good returns the first year. But no time is to be lost. Sow 500 Ibs. of Peruvian guano per acre on all the grass land and on the clover, with 200 Ibs. of gypsum in addition on the latter. If this is sown early enough, so that the spring rains dissolve it and wash it into the soil, great crops of grass may be expected. " But will it pay ? " My friend in New York is a very energetic and successful business man, and he has a real love for farming, and I have no sort of doubt that, taking the New York business and the farm together, they will afford a very handsome profit. Furthermore, I have no doubt that if, after he has drained it, he 18 TALKS ON MANURES. would cover the whole i'arm with 500 Ibs. of Peruvian guano per acre, or its equivalent, it would pay him better than any other agricultural operation he is likely to engage in. By the time it was on the land the cost would amount to about $20 per acre. If he sells no more grass or hay from the farm than he would sell if he did not use the guano, this $20 may very properly be added to the permanent capital invested in the farm. And in this aspect of the case, I have no hesitation in saying it will pay a high rate of interest. His bill for labor will be as much in one case as in the other ; and if he uses the guano he will probably double his crops. His grass lands will carry twenty cows instead of ten, and if he raises the corn-fodder and roots, he can probably keep thirty cows better than he could otherwise keep a dozen ; and, having to keep a herdsman in either case, th3 cost of labor will not bs much in- creased. " But you think it will not pay ? " It will probably not pay him. I do not think liia business would pay me if I lived on my farm, and went to New York only once or twice a week. If there is one business above all others that requires constant atten- tion, it is farming — and especially stock- farming. But my friend is right in saying that he cannot afford to wait to enrich his land by clover and summer-fallowing. His land costs too much ; he has a large barn and everything requisite to keep a large stock of cattle and sheep. The interest on farm and buildings, and the money expended in labor, would run on while the dormant matter in the soil was slowly becoming available under the influence of good tillage. The large barn must be filled at once, and the only way to do this is to apply manure with an unsparing hand. If he lived on the farm, I should have no doubt that, by adopting this course, and by keeping improved stock, and feeding liberally, he could make money. Perhaps he can find a man who will sin- fully manage the farm under his direction, but the probabilities are that his present profit and pleasure will come from the grat- ification of his early love for country life. WHAT IS MANUilE? 19 CHAPTER II. WHAT IS MANURE? " What is the good of asking such a question as that ? " said the Deacon ; " we all know what manure is." " Well, then," I replied, " tell us what it is?" " It is anything that will make crops grow better and bigger" re- plied the Deacon. " That is not a bad definition," said I ; " but let us see if it is a true one. You have two rows of cabbage in the garden, and you water one row, and the plants grow bigger and better. Is water manure ? You cover a plant with a hand-glass, and it grows big- ger and better. Is a hand-glass manure ? You shelter a few plants, and they grow bigger and better. Is shelter manure ? You put some pure sand round a few plants, and they grow big- ger and better. Is pure sand manure ? I think we shall have to reject the Deacon's definition." Let us hear what the Doctor has to say on the subject. " Manure," replied the Doctor, " is the food of plants.'" " That is a better definition," said I ; " but this is really not answering the question. You say manure is plant-food. But what is plant-food ?" " Plant-food," said the Doctor, " is conipossd of twclvo ele- ments, and, possibly, sometimes one or two more, which we need not here talk about. Four of these elements are gases, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. When a plant or animal is burnt, these gases are driven off. The ashes which remain are composed of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia; sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and silica. In other words, the ' food of plants ' is composed of four organic, or gaseous elements, and eight inorganic, or mineral elements, of which four have acid and four alkaline properties." " Thank you, Doctor," said the Deacon, " I am glad to know what manure is. It is the food of plants, and the food of plants is composed of four gases, four acid and four alkaline elements. I seem to know all about it. All I have wanted to make my land rich was plenty of manure, and now I shall know where to get it — oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen ; these four atmos- pheric elements. Then potash, soda, magnesia, and lime. I know what these four are. Then sulphur, phosphorous, silica 20 TALKS ON MANURES. (sand,) and chlorine (salt). I sball soon have rich land and big crops." Charley, who has recently come home from college, where he has been studying chemistry, looked at the Deacon, and was evi- dently puzzled to understand him. Turning to the Doctor, Char- ley asked modestly if what the Doctor had said in regard to the composition of plant -food could not be said of the composition of all our animals and plants. "Certainly," replied the Doctor, "all our agricultural plants and all our animals, man included, are composed of these twelve elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen; phosphorus, sulphur, silica, chlorine, potash, soda, magnesia, and lime." Charley said something about lime, potash, and soda, not being " elements ;" and something about silica and chlorine not being found in animals. " Yes," said I, " and he has left out iron, which is an important constituent of all our farm crops and animals." Neither the Doc- tor nor the Deacon heard our remarks. The Deacon, who loves an argument, exclaimed : " I thought I knew all about it. You told us that manure was the food of plants, and that the food of plants was composed of the above twelve elements ; and now you tell us that man and beast, fruit and flower, grain and grass, root, stem, and branch, all are composed or made up of these same dozen elements. If I ask you what bread is made of, you say it is composed of the dozen elements aforesaid. If I ask what wheat- straw is made of, you answer, the dozen. If I ask what a thistle is made of, you say the dozen. There are a good many milk-weeds in my strawberry patch, and I am glad to know that the rnilk-wccd and the strawberry are both composed of the same dozen elements. Manure is the food of plants, and the food of plants is composed of the above dozen elements, and every plant and animal that we eat is also composed of these same dozen elements, and so I sup- pose there is no difference between an onion and an omelet, or between bread and milk, or between mangel-wurzel and manure." "The difference," replied the Doctor, "is one of proportion. Mangels and manure are both composed of the same elements. In fact, mangels make good manure, and good manure makes good mangels." The Deacon and the Doctor sat down to a game of backgam- mon, and Charley and I continued the conversation more seriously. SOMETHING ABOUT PLANT-FOOD. 21 CHAPTER III. SOMETHING ABOUT PLANT-FOOD. " The Doctor is in the main correct," said I; "but he does not fully answer the question, * What is manure ? ' To say that manure is plant-food, does not cover the whole ground. All soils on which plants grow, contain more or less plant-food. A plant can not create an atom of potash. It can not get it from the atmosphere. We find potash in the plant, and we know that it got it from the soil, and we are certain, therefore, that the soil contains potash. And so of all the other mineral elements of plants. A soil that will produce a thistle, or a pig-weed, contains plant-food. And so the definition of the Doctor is defective, inasmuch as it makes no distinction between soil and manure. Both contain plant-food." " What is your definition of manure ? " asked Charley ; " it would seem as though we all knew what manure was. We have got a great heap of it in the yard, and it is fermenting nicely." " Yes," I replied, " we are making more manure on the farm this winter than ever before. Two hundred pigs, 120 large sheep, 8 horses, 11 cows, and a hundred head of poultry make considerable manure ; and it is a good deal of work to clean out the pens, pile the manure, draw it to the field, and apply it to the crops. We ought to know something about it ; but we might work among manure all our lives, and not know what manure is. At any rate, we might not be able to define it accurately. I will, however, try my hand at a definition. " Let us assume that we have a field that is free from stagnant water at all seasons of the year ; that the soil is clean, mellow, and well worked seven inches deep, and in good order for putting in a crop. What the coming 'season' will be we know not. It may be what we call a hot, dry summer, or it may be cool and moist, or it may be partly one and partly the other. The * season' is a great element of uncertainty in all our farming calculations ; but we know that we shall have a season of some kind. We have the promise of seed-time and harvest, and we liave never known the promise to fail us. Crops, however, vary very much, accord- ing to the season ; and it is necessary to bear this fact in mind. Let us say that the sun and heat, and rain and dews, or what we call ' the season,' is capable of producing 50 bushels of wheat per acre, but that the soil I have described above, does not produce over 20 bushels per acre. There is no mechanical defect in the soil. The seed is good, it is put in properly, and at the right time, 22 i. TALKS OX MANURES. and in the best manner. No weeds choke the wheat plants or rob them of their food ; but that field does not produce as much wheat by 30 bushels per acre as the season is capable of producing. Why? The answer is evident. Because the wheat plants do not find food enough in the soil. Now, anything that will furnish this food, anything that will cause that field to produce what the climate or season is capable of producing, is manure. A gardener may increase his crops by artificial heat, or by an increased supply of water, but this is not manure. The effect is due to improved climatic conditions. It has nothing to do with the question of manure. We often read in the agricultural papers about ' shade as manure.' We might just as well talk about sunlight as ' ma- nure.' The effects observed should be referred to modifications of tlic climate or season; and so in regard%to mulching. A good mulch may often produce a larger increase of growth than an ap- plication of manure. But mulch, proper, is not manure. It is climate. It checks evaporation of moisture from the soil. We might as well speak of rain as manure as to call a mulch manure. In fact, an ordinary shower in summer is little more than a mulch. It docs not reach the roots of plants ; and yet we see the effect of the shower immediately in the increased vigor of the plants. They are full of sap, and the drooping leaves look refreshed. We say the rain has revived them, and so it has ; but probably not a particle of the rain has entered into the circulation of the plant. The rain checked evaporation from the soil and from the leaves. A cool night refreshes the plants, and fills the leaves with sap, pre- cisely in the same way. All these fertilizing effects, however, belong to climate. It is inaccurate to associate cither mulching, sunshine, shade, heat, dews, or rain, with the question of manure, though the effect may in certain circumstances be precisely the same." Charley evidently thought I was wandering from the point. " Yon think, then," said he, " manure is plant-food that tlie soil needs f" " Yes," said I, " that is a very good definition — very good, indeed, though not absolutely accurate, because manure is manure., whether a particular soil needs it or not." Unobserved by us, the Deacon and the Doctor had been listening to our talk. — " I would like," said the Deacon, " to hear you give a better definition than Charley has given." — "Manure," sikl^I, "is anything containing an element or elements of plant-food, which, if the soil needed it, would, if supplied in sufficient quantity, and in an available con- dition, produce, according to soil, season, climate, and variety, a maximum crop." NATURAL MANURE. 23 CHAPTER IV. NATURAL MANURE. We often hear about "natural" manure. I do not like the term, though I believe it originated with me. It is not accurate ; not definite enough. " I do not know what you mean by natural manure," said the Deacon, " unless it is the droppings of animals."—" To distinguish them, I suppose," said the Doctor, "from artificial manures, such as superphosphate, sulphate of ammonia, and nitrate of soda." — " 'No ; that is not how I used the term. A few years ago, we used to hear much in regard to the ' exhaustion of soils. ' I thought this phrase conveyed a wrong idea. When new land produces large crops, and when, after a few years, the crops get less and less, we were told that the farmers were exhausting their land. I said, no ; the farmers are not exhausting the soil ; they are merely exhausting the accumulated plant-food in the soil. In other words, they are using up the natural manure. " Take my own farm. Fifty years ago, it was covered with a heavy growth of maple, beech, black walnut, oak, and other trees. These trees had shecl annual crops of leaves for centuries. The leaves rot on the ground ; the trees also, age after age. These leaves and other organic matter form what I have called natural manure. When the land is cleared up and plowed, this natural manure decays more rapidly than when the land lies undisturbed ; precisely as a manure-pile will ferment and decay more rapidly if turned occasionally, and exposed to the air. The plowing and cultivating renders this natural manure more readily available. The leaves decompose, and furnish food for the growing crop." EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL. " You think, then," said the Doctor, " that when a piece of land is cleared of the forest, harrowed, and sown to wheat ; plowed and planted to corn, and the process repeated again and again, until the land no longer yields profitable crops, that it is the < natural manure,' and not the soil, that is exhausted ? " " I think the soil, at any rate, is not exhausted, and I can easily conceive of a case where even the natural manure is very far from being all used up." " Why, then," asked the Deacon, " is the land so poor that it will scarcely support a sheep to the acre ? " 24 TALKS ON MANURES. " Simply because the natural manure and other plant-food which the soil contains is not in an available condition. It lies dead and inert. It is not soluble, and the roots of the plants can- not get enough of it to enable them to thrive ; and in addition to this, you will find as a matter of fact that these poor ' exhausted ' farms are infested with weeds, which rob the growing crops of a large part of the scanty supply of available plant-food." "But these weeds," said the Deacon, "are not removed from the farm. They rot on the land ; nothing is lost." " True," said I, " but they, nevertheless, rob the growing crops of available plant-food. The annual supply of plant-food, instead of being used to grow useful plants, is used to grow weeds." "I understand that," said the Deacon, "but if the weeds are left on the land, and the useful plants are sold, the farmer who keeps his land clean would exhaust his land faster than the care- less farmer who lets his land lie until it is overrun with thistles, briars, and pig-weed. You agricultural writers, who are con- stantly urging us to farm better and grow larger crops, seem to overlook this point. As you know, I do not take much stock in chemical theories as applied to agriculture, but as you do, here is a little extract I cut from an agricultural paper, that seems to prove that the better you work your land, and the larger crops you raise, the sooner you exhaust your land." The Deacon put on his spectacles, drew ^iis chair nearer the lamp on the table, and read the following : " There is, on an average, about one-fourth of a pound of potash to every one hundred pounds of soil, and about one-eighth of a pound of phosphoric acid, and one-sixteenth of a pound of sul- phuric acid. If the potatoes and the tops arc continually removed from the soil, it will soon exhaust the potash. If the wheat and straw arc removed, it will soon exhaust the phosphate of lime ; if corn and the stalks, it will soon exhaust the sulphuric acid. Unless there is a rotation, or the mate-rial the plant requires is supplied from abroad, your crops will soon run out, though the soil will continue rich for other plants." " That extract," said I, " carries one back twenty-five years. We used to have article after article in this strain. We were told that ' always taking meal out of the tub soon comes to the bot- tom,' and always taking potash and phosphoric acid from the soil will soon exhaust the supply. But, practically, there is really little danger of our exhausting the land. It does not pay. The farm- er's resources will be exhausted long before he can exhaust his farm." NATURAL MANURE. 25 "Assuming," said the Doctor, who is fond of an argument, " that the above statement is true, let us look at the facts. An acre of soil, 12 inches deep, would weigh about 1,600 tons; and if, as the writer quoted by the Deacon states, the soil contains 4 ozs. of potash in every 100 Ibs. of soil, it follows that an acre of soil, 12 inches deep, contains 8,000 Ibs. of potash. Now, potatoes con- tain about 20 per cent of dry matter, and this dry matter con- tains, say, 4 per cent of ash, half of which is potash. It follows, therefore, that 250 bushels of potatoes contain about 60 Ibs. of potash. If we reckon that the tops contain 20 Ibs. more, or 80 Ibs. in all, it follows that the acre of soil contains potash enough to grow an annual crop of 250 bushels of potatoes per acre for one hundred years." "I know farmers," said Charley, "who do not get over 50 bushels of potatoes per acre, and in that case the potash would last five hundred years, as the weeds grown with the crop arc left on the land, and do not, according to the Deacon, exhaust the soil." " Good for you, Charley," said the Doctor. " Now let us see about the phosphoric acid, of which the soil, according to the above statement, contains only half as much as it contains of pot- ash, or 4,000 Ibs. per acre. " A crop of wheat of 80 bushels per acre," continued the Doc- tor, " contains in the grain about 2G Ibs. of ash, and we will say that half of this ash is phosphoric acid, or 13 Ibs. Allowing that the straw, chaff, etc., contain 7 Ibs. more, we remove from the soil in a crop of wheat of GO bushels per acre, 20 Ibs. of phosphoric acid, and so, according to the above estimate, an acre of soil con- tains phosphoric acid to produce annually a crop of wheat and straw of 30 bushels per acre for two Jiundred years. " The writer of the paragraph quoted by the Deacon," continued the Doctor, " selected the crops and elements best suited to his purpose, and yet, according to his own estimate, there is sufficient potash and phosphoric acid in the first 12 inches of the soil to enable us to raise unusually largo crops until the nc<;t Centennial in 1970. " But let us take another view of the subject," continued tne Doctor. " No intelligent farmer removes all the potatoes and tops, all the wheat, straw, and chaff, or all the corn and stalks from his farm. According to Dr. Salisbury, a crop of corn of 75 bush- els per acre removes from the soil 600 Ibs. of ash, but the grain contains only 46 Ibs. The other 554 Ibs. is contained in the stalks, etc., all of y/hich are usually retained on the farm. It follows 0 26 TALKS OX MANURES. from this, that when only the grain is sold off the farm, it takes more than thirteen crops to remove as much mineral matter from the soil as is contained, in the whole of one crop. Again, the ash of the grain contains less than 3 per cent of sulphuric acid, so that the 46 Ibs. of ash, in 75 bushels of corn, contains less than 1| Ibs. of sulphuric acid, and thus, if an acre of soil contains 2,000 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, we have sufficient for an annual crop of 75 bushels per acre for fifteen hundred years ! " As I said before," continued the Doctor, " intelligent farmers seldom, sell their straw, and they frequently purchase and consume on the farm nearly as much bran, shorts, etc., as is sent to market with the grain they sell. In the ' Natural History of New York,' it is stated that an acre of wheat in Western New York, of 30 bushels per acre, including straw, chaff, etc., removes from the soil 144 Ibs. of mineral matter. Genesee wheat usually yields about 80 per cent, of flour. This flour contains only 0.7 per cent of mineral matter, while fine middlings contain 4 per cent ; coarse middlings, 5 } per cent; shorts, 8 per cent, and bran 8£ per cent of mineral matter or ash. It follows from this, that out of the 144 Ibs. of mineral matter in the crop of wheat, less than 10 Ibs. is contained in the flour. The remaining 134 Ibs. is found in the straw, chaff, bran, shorts, etc., which a good farmer is almost sure to feed out on his farm. But even if the farmer feeds out none of his wheat-bran, but sells it all with his wheat, the 30 bushels of wheat remove from the soil only 26 Ibs. of mineral matter; and it would take more than five crops to remove as much mineral mat- ter as one crop of wheat and straw contains. Allowing that half the ash of wheat is phosphoric acid, 30 bushels remove only 13 Ibs. from the soil, and if the soil contains 4,000 Ibs., it will take three hundred and seven crops, of 30 bushels each, to exhaust it." " That is to say," said Charley, " if all the straw and chaff is re- tained on the farm, and is returned to the land without loss of phosphoric acid." " Yes," said the Doctor, " and if all tlic bran and shorts, etc., were retained on the farm, it would take eight hundred crops to exhaust the soil of phosphoric acid; and it is admitted that of all the elements of plant-food, phosphoric acid is the one first to be exhausted from the soil." I have sold some timothy hay this winter, and propose to do so whenever the price suits. But some of my neighbors, who do not hesitate to sell their own hay, think I ought not to do so, because I " write for the papers"! It ought to satisfy them to know that I bring back 30 cwt. of bran for every ton of hay I NATUKAL MANURE. 27 sell. My rule is to sell nothing but wiieat, barley, beans, potatoes, clover-seed, apples, wool, mutton, beef, pork, and butter. Every- thing else is consumed on the farm — corn, peas, oats, mustard, rape, mangels, clover, straw, stalks, etc. Let us make a rough estimate of how much is sold and how much retained on a hun- dred-acre farm, leaving out the potatoes, beans, and live-stock. We have say : Sold. 15 acres wheat, @ 40 bushels per acre 18 tons. 5 " barley, @ 50 " " 6 " 15 " clover seed, 4 " " 1* ton. Total sold 25$ tons. Kctained on the farm. 15 acres corn, @ 80 bushels per acre 03i tons. Corn stalks from do 40 5 acres barley straw 8 10 " oats and peas, equal 80 bushels of oats 1C* Straw from do 20 15 acres wheat-straw i 25 15 " clover-hay , 25 Clover-seed straw 10 15 acres pasture and meadow, equal 40 tons hay 40 5 " mustard, equal 10 tons hay 10 5 " rape, equal 10 tons hay 10 5 " mangels, 25 tons per acre, equal to 3 tons dry 15 Leaves from do 3 Total retained on the farm 252* tons. It would take a good many years to exhaust any ordinary soil by such a course of cropping. Except, perhaps, the sandy knolls, I think there is not an acre on my farm that would be exhausted in ten thousand years, and as some portions of the low alluvial soil will grow crops without manure, there will be an opportunity to give the poor, sandy knolls more than their share of plant-food. In this way, notwithstanding the fact that we sell produce and bring nothing back, I believe the whole farm will gradually increase in productiveness. The plant-food annually rendered available from the decomposition and disintegration of the inert organic and mineral matter in the soil, will be more than equal to that exported from the farm. If the soil becomes deficient in any- thing, it is likely that it will be in phosphates, and a little super- phosphate or bone-dust might at any rate be profitably used en the rape, mustard, and turnips. The point in good farming is to develop from the latent stores 28 TALKS ON MANURES. in the soil, and to accumulate enough available plant-food for the production of the largest possible yield of those crops which we sell. In other words, we want enough available plant-food in the soil to grow 40 bushels of wheat and 50 bushels of barley. I think the farmer who raises 10 tons for every ton he sells, will soon reach this point, and when once reached, it is a comparatively easy matter to maintain this degree of fertility. WHY OUR CROPS ARE SO POOR. " If the soil is so rich in plant-food," said the Deacon, " I again ask, why are our crops so poor ? " The Deacon said this very quietly. He did not seem to know that he had asked one of the most important questions in the whole range of agricultural science. It is a fact that a soil may contain enough plant-food to produce a thousand large crops, and yet the crops we obtain from it may be so poor as hardly to pay the cost of cultivation. The plant-food is there, but the plants cannot get at it. It is not in an available condition ; it is not sol- uble. A case is quoted by Prof. Johnson, where a soil was an- alyzed, and found to contain to the depth of one foot 4,652 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, but only 63 Ibs. of this was in an available con- dition. And this is equally true of phosphoric acid, potash, ar.d other Clements of plant-food. No matter how much plant-food there may be in the soil, the only portion that is of any immediate value is the small amount that is annually available for the growth of crops. HOW TO GET LARGER CROPS. " I arn tired of so much talk about plant-food," said the Deacon ; " what we want to know is how to make our land produce larger crops of wheat, corn, oats, barley, potatoes, clover, and grass." This is precisely what I am trying to show. On my own farm, the three leading objects are (1) to get the land drained, (2) to make it clean and mellow, and (3) to get available nitrogen for the cer; al crops. After the first two objects arc accomplished, the measure of productiveness will be determined by the amount of available nitrogen in the soil. How to get available nitrogen, therefore, is my chief and ultimate object in all the operations on the farm, and it is here that science can help me. I know how to get nitro- gen, but I want to get it in the cheapest way, and then to be sure that I do not waste it. There is one fact fully established by repeated experiment and general experience — that 80 Ibs. of available nitrogen per acre, SWAMP-MUCK OE PEAT AS MANUHE. 29 applied in manure, will almost invariably give us a greatly in- creased'yield of grain crops. I should expect, on my farm, that on land which, without manure, would give me 15 bushels of wheat per acre, such a dressing of manure would give me, in a favorable season, 35 or 40 bushels per acre, with a proportional increase of straw ; and, in addition to this, there would be considerable nitro- gen left for the following crop of clover. Is it not worth while making an earnest effort to get this 80 Ibs. of available nitrogen ? I have on my farm many acres of low, mucky land, bordering on the creek, that probably contain several thousand pounds of nitrogen per acre. So long as the land is surcharged with water, this nitrogen, and other plant-food, lies dormant. But drain it, and let in the air, and the oxygen decomposes the organic matter, and ammonia and nitric acid are produced. In other words, we get available nitrogen and other plant-food, and the land becomes capable of producing large crops of corn and grass ; and the crops obtained from this low, rich land, will make manure for the poorer, upland portions of the farm. CHAPTER, V. SWAMP-MUCK OR PEAT AS MANURE. o " It would pay you," said the Deacon, " to draw out 200 or 300 loads of muck from the swamp every year, and compost it with your manure." This may or may not be the case. It depends on the composi- tion of the muck, and how much labor it takes to handle it. " What you should do," said the Doctor, " is to commence at the creek, and straighten it. Take a gang of men, and be with them with yourself, or get a good foreman to direct operations. Commence at «, and straighten the creek to Z>, and from b to c (see map on next page). Throw all the rich, black muck in a heap by itself, separate from the sand. You, or your foreman, must be there, or you will not get this done. A good ditcher will throw out a great mass of this loose muck and sand in a day ; and yon want him to dig, not think. You must do the thinking, and tell him which is muck, and which is only sand and dirt. When thrown up, this muck, in our dry, hot climate, will, in the course of a few 30 TALKS ON MANUEES. months, part with a large amount of water, and it can then be drawn to the barns and stables, and used for bedding, or for composting with manure. Or if you do not want to draw it to the barn, get some refuse lime from the lime-kiln, and mix it with the muck after it has been thrown up a few weeks, and is partially dry. Turn over the heap, and put a few bushels of lime to every cord of the muck, mixing the lime and muck together, leaving the heap in a compact form, and in good shape, to shed the rain. " When you have straightened, and cleaned out, and deepened the creek," continued the Doctor, "commence at z on the new creek, and cut a ditch through the swamp to y. Throw the muck on one side, and the sand on the other. This will give you some MAP OF CBEEK. good, rich muck, and at the same time drain your swamp. Then cut some under-drains from y towards the higher land at w, r, and A, and from / to x. These will drain your land, and set free the inert plant-food, and such crops of timothy as you will get from this swamp will astonish the natives, and your bill for medical at- tendance and quinine will sink to zero." The Doctor is right. There is money and health in the plan. Prof. S. W. Johnson, as chemist to the Conn. State Ag. Society, made accurate analyses of 33 samples of peat and muck sent him by gentlemen from different parts of the State. The amount of WHAT IS POTENTIAL AMMONIA? 31 potential ammonia in the chemically dry peat was found to vary from 0.58 in the poorest, to 4.06 per cent in the richest samples. In other words, one deposit of muck may contain seven times as much nitrogen as another, and it would be well before spending much money in drawing out muck for manure to send a sample of it to some good chemist. A bed of swamp-muck, easily acces- sible, and containing 8 per cent of nitrogen, would be a mine of wealth to any farmer. One ton of such muck, dry, would contain more nitrogen than 7 tons of straw. " It would be capital stuff," said the Deacon, " to put in your pig-pens to absorb the urine. It would make rich manure." " That is so," said I, " and the weak point in my pig-breeding is the want of sufficient straw. Pigs use up more bedding than any other animals. I have over 200 pigs, and I could use a ton of dry muck to each pig every winter to great advantage. The pens would be drier, the pigs healthier, and the manure richer." The Doctor here interrupted us. "I see," said he, "that the average amount of ammonia in the 33 samples of dry peat analyzed by Professor Johnson is 2.07 per cent. I had no idea that muck was so rich. Barn-yard manure, or the manure from the horse stables in the cities, contains only half a per cent (0.5) of ammonia, and it is an unusually rich manure that contains one per cent. We are safe in saying that a ton of dry muck, on the average, contains at least twice as much potential ammonia as the average of our best and richest stable-manure." CHAPTER VI. WHAT IS POTENTIAL AMMONIA? " You say," said the Deacon, " that dry muck contains twice as much 'potential ammonia'' as manure?' ' " Yes," said the Doctor, " it contains three or four times as much as the half-rotted straw and stalks you call manure." "But what do you mean," asked the Deacon, "by 'potential ammonia? ' " ;: It is a term," said the Doctor, " we used to hear much more fre- quently than we do now. Ammonia is composed of 14 Ibs. of nitrogen and. 3 Ibs. of hydrogen ; and if, on analysis, a guano or 32 TALKS ON MANURES. other manure was found to contain, in whatever form, 7 per cent of nitrogen, the chemist reported that he found in it 8£ per cent of ' potential ' ammonia. Dried blood contains no ammonia, but if it contained 14 per cent of nitrogen, the chemist would be justi- fied in saying it contained 17 per cent of potential ammonia, from the fact that the dried blood, by fermentation, is capable of yield- ing this amount of ammonia. We say a ton of common horse- manure contains 10 or 12 Ibs. of potential ammonia. If perfectly fresh, it may not contain a particle of ammonia ; but it contains nitrogen enough to produce, by fermentation, 10 or 12 Ibs. of am- monia. And when it is said that dry swamp-muck contains, on the average, 2.07 per cent of potential ammonia, it simply means that it contains nitrogen enough to produce this amount of am- monia. In point of fact, I suppose muck, when dug fresh from the swamp, contains no ammonia. Ammonia is quite soluble in water, and if there was any ammonia in the swamp-muck, it would soon be washed out. The nitrogen, or ' potential ammonia,' in the muck exists in an inert, insoluble form, and before the muck will yield up this nitrogen to plants, it is necessary, in some way, to ferment or decompose it. But this is a point we will discuss at a future meeting." CHAPTEK VII. TILLAGE IS MANURE. The Doctor has been invited to deliver a lecture on manure before our local Farmers' Club. " The etymological meaning of the word manure," he said, " is hand labor, from main, hand, and ouvrer, to work. To manure the land originally meant to culti- vate it, to hoe, to dig, to plow, to harrow, or stir it in any way so as to expose its particles to the oxygen of the atmosphere, and thus render its latent elements assimilable by plants. " When our first parent," he continued, " was sent forth from the Garden of Eden to till the ground from whence he was taken, he probably did not know that the means necessary to kill the thorns and thistles enhanced the productiveness of the soil, yet such was undoubtedly the case. TILLAGE IS MANURE. 33 " The farmer for centuries was simply a * tiller of the ground.' Guano, though formed, according to some eminent authorities, long ages before the creation of man, was not then known. The coprolites lay undisturbed in countless numbers in the lias, the greensand, and the Suffolk crag. Charleston phosphates were unknown. Superphosphate, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, and kainit were not dreamed of. Nothing was said about the mineral manure theory, or the exhaustion of the soil. There were no frauds in artificial fertilizers ; no Experiment Stations- The earth, fresh from the hands of its Creator, needed only to be 'tickled with a hoe to laugh with a harvest.' Nothing was said about the value of the manure obtained from the consumption of a ton of oil-cake, or malt-combs, or bran, or clover-hay. For many centuries, the hoe, the spade, and the rake constituted Adam's whole stock in trade. "At length," continued the Doctor, "a great discovery was ma'de. A Roman farmer — probably a prominent Granger — stum- bled on a mighty truth. Manuring the land — that is, hoeing and cultivating it — increased its fertility. This was well known — had been known for ages, and acted upon ; but this Roman farmer, Stercutius, who was a close observer, discovered that the droppings of animals had the same effect as hoeing. No wonder these idol- atrous people voted him a god. They thought there would be no more old-fashioned manuring ; no more hoeing. " Of course they were mistaken," continued the Doctor, " our arable land will always need plowing and cultivating to kill weeds. Manure, in the sense in which we now use the term, is only a partial substitute for tillage, and tillage is only a partial substitute for manure ; but it is well to bear in mind that the words mean the same thing, and the effects of both are, to a cer- tain extent, identical. Tillage is manure, and manure is tillage." 34 TALKS OX MANURES. CHAPTER VIII. SUMMER-FALLOWING. This is not the place to discuss the merits, or demerits, of fallow- ing. But an intelligent Ohio farmer writes me : — " I see that you recommend fallow plowing, what arc your reasons ? Granting that the immediate result is an increased crop, is not the laud im- poverished ? Will not the thorough cultivation of corn, or pota- toes, answer as well ? " And a distinguished farmer, of this State, in a recent communication expressed the same idea — that summer- fallowing would soon impoverish the land. But if this is the case, the fault is not in the practice of summer-fallowing, but in growing too many grain crops, and selling them, instead of consuming them on the farm. Take two fields ; summer-fallow one, and sow it to wheat. Plant the other to corn, and sow wheat after it in the fall. You get, say 35 bushels of wheat per acre from the summer-fallow. From the other field you get, say, 30 bushels of shelled corn per acre, and 10 bushels of wheat afterwards. Now, where a farmer is in the habit of selling all his wheat, and consuming all his corn on the farm, it is evident that the practice of summer-fallowing will impoverish the soil more rapidly than the system of growing corn followed by wheat — and for the simple reason that more wheat is sold from the farm. If no more grain is sold in one case than in the other, the summer-fallowing will not impoverish the soil any more than corn growing. My idea of fallowing is this: — The soil and the atmosphere furnish, on good, well cultivated land, plant-food sufficient, say, for 15 bushels of wheat per acre, every year. It will be sometimes more, and sometimes less, according to the season and the character of the soil, but on good, strong limestone land this may be taken as about the average. To grow wheat every year in crops of 15 bushels per acre, would impoverish the soil just as much : summer-fallow and get 30 bushels of wheat every other year. It is the same thing in either case. But in summer-fallowing, we clean the land, and the profits from a crop of 30 bushels per acre every other year, are much more than from two crops of 15 bush- els every year. You know that Mr. Lawes has a field of about thirteen acres that he sows with wheat every year. On the plot that receives no manure of any kind, the crop, for twenty years, averaged 16J bushels per acre. It is plowed twice every year, and SUMMER-FALLOWING. 35 the wheat is hand-hoed in the spring to keep it clean. A few years ago, in a field adjoining this experimental wheat field, and that is of the same character of land, he made the following experiment. The land, after wheat, was fallowed, and then sown to wheat ; then fallowed the next year, and again sown to wheat, and the next year it was sown to wheat after wheat. The following is the re- sult compared with the yield of the continuously unmanured plot in the experimental field that is sown to wheat every year : 1. YEAB — No. 1 — Fallow No crop. No. 2 — Wheat after wheat 15 bushels 3* pecks per acre. 2. YEAR— No. 1— Wheat after fallow 37 " — " " No. 2— Wheat after wheat 13 " 3* " " 3. YEAR — No. 1 — Fallow after wheat No crop. No. 2 — Wheat after wheat 15 bushels 3£ pecks per acre. 4. YEAR— No. 1— Wheat after fallow 42 " — " " No. 2— Wheat after wheat 21 " Oi " " 5. YEAR-NO. 1— Wheat after wheat 17 " li " " No. 2— Wheat after wheat 17 " — Taking the first four years, we have a total yield from the plot sown every year of 66 bushels 2£ pecks, and from the two crops alternately fallowed, a total yield of 79 bushels. The next year, when wheat was sown after wheat on the land previously fallowed, the yield was almost identical with the yield from the plot that has grown wheat after wheat for so many years. So far, these results do not indicate any exhaustion from the practice of fallowing. On the other hand, they tend to show that we can get more wheat by sowing it every other }rear, than by cropping it every year in succession. The reason for this may be found in the fact that in a fallow the land is more frequently ex- posed to the atmosphere by repeated plo wings and harrowings ; and it should be borne in mind that the effect of stirring the land is not necessarily in proportion to the total amount of stirring, but is according to the number of times that fresh particles of soil are exposed to the atmosphere. Two plowings and two harrowings in one week, will not do as much good as two plowings and two harrowings, at different times in the course of three or four months. It is for this reason that I object, theoretically, to sowing wheat after barley. We often plow the barley stubble twice, and spend considerable labor in getting the land into good condition ; but it is generally all done in the course of ten days or two weeks. We do not get any adequate benefit for this labor. We can kill weeds readily at this season, (August), but the stirring of the soil does not develope the latent plant-focd to the extent it would if the 38 TALKS OX MANURES. work was not necessarily done in such a limited period. I say theoretically, for in point of fact I do sow wheat after barley. I do so because it is very convenient, and because it is more immediately profitable. I am satisfied, however, that in, the end it would be more profitable to seed down the barley with clover. We must raise larger crops ; and to do this we must raise them less frequently. This is the key-note of the coming improved system of American agriculture, in all sections where good laud is worth less than one hundred dollars per acre. In the neighborhood of large cities, and wherever land commands a high price, we must keep our farms in a high state of fertility by the purchase of manures or cattle foods. Those of us in the interior, where we can not buy manure, must raise fewer grain crops, and more clover. We must aim to raise 40 bushels of wheat, 50 bushels of barley, 80 bushels of oats, and 100 bushels of shelled corn, and 5 bushels of clover-seed per acre. That this can be done on good, well-drained land, from the unaided resources of the farm, I have no doubt. It may give us no more grain to sell than at present, but it will enable us to produce much more mutton, wool, beef, cheese, butter, and pork, than at present. " But, then, will there be a demand for the meat, wool, etc.?" The present indications are highly favorable. But we must aim to raise good meat. The low-priced beef and mutton sold in our markets are as unprofitable to the consumer as they are to the pro- ducer. We must feed higher, and to do this to advantage we must have improved stock. There is no profit in farming without good tillage, larger crops, improved stock, and higher feeding. The de- tails will be modified by circumstances, but the principles are the same wherever v-gn-culture is practised. HOW TO EESTOKE A WOKX-OUT FARM. 37 CHAPTER IX. HOW TO RESTORE A WORN-OUT FARM. I have never yet seen a " worn-out " or u exhausted farm." I know many farms that are " run down." I bought just such a farm a dozen or more years ago, and I have been trying hard, ever since, to bring it up to a profitable standard of productiveness — and am still trying, and expect to have to keep on trying so long as I keep on farming. The truth is, there never was a farm so rich, that the farmer did not wish it was richer. I have succeeded in making the larger part of my farm much more productive than it ever was before, since it was cleared from the original forest. But it is far from being as rich as I want it. The truth is, God sent us into this world to work, and He has given us plenty to do, if we will only do it. At any rate, this is true of farming. He has not given us land ready to our hand. The man who first cleared up my farm, had no easy task. He fairly earned all the good crops he ever got from it. I have never begrudged him one particle of the " natural manure " he took out of the land, in the form of wheat, corn, oats, and hay. On the dry, sandy knolls, he probably got out a good portion of this natural manure, but on the wetter and heavier portions of the farm, he probably did not get out one-hundredth part of the natural manure which the land contained. Now, when such a farm came into my possession, what was I to do with it ? " Tell us what you did," said the Doctor, " and then, perhaps, we can tell you what you ought to have done, and what you ought to have left undone." " I made many mistakes." " Amen," said the Deacon ; " I am glad to hear you acknowl- edge it." " Well," said the Doctor, "it is better to make mistakes in trying to do something, than to hug our self-esteem, and fold our hands in indolence. It has been said that critics are men who have failed in their undertakings. But I rather think the most disagreeable, and self-satisfied critics, are men who have never done anything, or tried to do anything, themselves." The Deacon, who, though something of an old fogy, is a good deal of a man, and possessed of good common sense, and much ex- 38 TALKS OX MANURES. perience, took these remarks kindly. " Well," said he to me, " I must say that your farm has certainly improved, but you did things so differently from what we expected, that we could not see what you were driving at." " I can tell you what I have been aiming at all along. 1st. To drain the wet portions of the arable land. 2d. To kill weeds, and make the soil mellow and clean. 3d. To make more manure." "You have also bought some bone-dust, superphosphate, and other artificial manures." "True; and if I had had more money I would have bought more manure. It would have paid well. I could have made my land as rich as it is now in half the time." I had to depend principally on the natural resources of the land. I got out of the soil all I could, and kept as much of it as possible on the farm. One of the mistakes I made was, in breaking up too much land, and putting in too much wheat, barley, oats, peas, and corn. It would have been better for my pocket, though possibly not so good for the farm, if I had left more of the land in grass, and also, if I had summer-fallowed more, and sown less barley and oats, and planted less corn. " I do not see how plowing up the grass land," said the Deacon, "could possibly be any better for the farm. You agricultural writers are always telling us that we plow too much land, and do not raise grass and clover enough." " What I meant by saying that it would have been better for my pocket, though possibly not so good for the farm, if I had not plowed so much land, may need explanation. The land had been only half cultivated, and was very foul. The grass and clover fields did not give more than half a crop of hay, and the hay was poor in quality, and much of it half thistles, and other weeds. I plowed this land, planted it to corn, and cultivated it thoroughly. But the labor of keeping the corn clean was costly, and absorbed a very large slice of the profits. But the corn yielded a far larger produce per acre than I should have got had the land lain in § And as all this produce was consumed on the farm, we made more manure than if we had plowed less land." I have great faith in the benefits of thorough tillage — or, in other words, of breaking up, pulverizing, and exposing the soil to the decomposing action of the atmosphere. I look upon a good, strong soil as a kind of storehouse of plant-food. But it is not an easy matter to render this plant-food soluble. If it were any less solu- ble than it is, it would have all leached out of the land centuries ago. Turning over, and fining a manure-heap, if other conditions HOW TO RESTOKE A WORN-OUT FARM. o9 are favorable, cause rapid fermentation with the formation of car- bonate of ammonia, and other soluble salts. Manjr of our soils, to the depth of eight or ten inches, contain enough nitrogenous mat' terin an acra to produce two or three thousand pounds of ammonia. By stirring the soil, and exposing it to the atmosphere, a small portion of this nitrogen becomes annually available, and is taken up by the growing crops. And it is so with the other eleme .ts of plant-food. Stirring the soil, then, is the basis of agriculture. It has been said that we must return to the soil as much plant-food as we take from it. If this were true, nothing could be sold from the farm. What we should aim to do, is to develop as much as possible of the plant-food that lies latent in the soil, and not to sell in the form of crops, cheese, wool, or animals, any more of this plant-food than we annually develop from the soil. In this way the " condition " of the soil would remain the same. If we sell less than we develop, the condition of the soil will improve. By " condition," I mean the amount of available plant-food in the soil. Nearly all our farms are poorer in plant-food to-day than when first cleared of the original forest, or than they were ten, fifteen, or twenty years later. In other words, the plants and animals that have been sold from, the farm, have carried off a con- siderable amount of plant-food. We have taken far more nitro- gen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc., out of the soil, than we have returned to it in the shape of manure. Consequently, the soil must contain less and less of plant -food every year. And yet, while this is a self-evident fact, it is, nevertheless, true that many of these self -same farms are more productive now than when first cleared, or at any rate more productive than they were twenty-five or thirty years ago. Sometime ago, the Deacon and I visited the farm of Mr. Dewey, of Monroe Co., N. Y. He is a good farmer. He does not practice " high farming " in the senso in which I n.se that term. His is a good example of what I term slow farming. He raises large crops, but comparatively few of them. On his farm of 300 acres, he raises 40 acres of wheat, 17 acres of Indian corn, and 23 acres of oats, barley, potatoes, roots, etc. In other words, he has 80 acres in crops, and 220 acres in grass — not permanent grass. He lets it lie in grass five, six, seven, or eight years, as he deems best, and then breaks it up, and plants it to corn. The land he intends to plant to corn next year, has been in grass for seven years. He will put pretty much all his manure on this land. After corn, it will be sown to oats, or barley ; then sown to wheat, and seeded down again. It will then lie in grass three, four, five, six, or seven 40 TALKS ON MANURES. years, until he needs it again for corn, etc. This is "slow farm- ing," but it is also good farming — that is to say, it gives largo yields per acre, and a good return for the labor expended. The soil of this farm is richer to-day in available plant-food than •when first cleared. It produces larger crops per acre. Mr. D. called our attention to a fact that establishes this point. An old fence that had occupied the ground for many years was removed some years since, and the two fields thrown into one. Every time this field is in crops, it is easy to see where the old fence was, by the short straw and poor growth on this strip, us compared with the land on each side which had been cultivated for years. This is precisely the result that I should have expected. If Mr. D. was a poor farmer — if he cropped his land frequently, did not more than half-cultivate it, sold everything he raised, and drew back no manure — I think the old fence-strip would have given the best crops. The strip of land on which the old fence stood in Mr. Dewey's field, contained more plant-food than the soil on either side of it. But it was not available. It was not developed. It was latent, inert, insoluble, crude, and undecomposed. It was so much dead capital. The land on either side which had been cultivated for years, produced better crops. Why ? Simply because the stirring of the soil had developed more plant-food than had been removed by the crops. If the stirring of the soil developed 100 Ibs. of plant- food a year, and only 75 Ibs. were carried off in the crops — 25 Ibs. being left on the land in the form of roots, stubble, etc. — the land, at the expiration of 40 years, would contain, provided none of it was lost, 1,000 Ibs. more available plant-food than the uncultivuU-d strip. On the other hand, the latter would contain 3,000 Ibs. more actual plant food per acre than the land wrhich had been cultivated — but it is in an unavailable condition. It is dead capital. I do not know that I make myself understood, though I would like to do sc, because I am sure there is no point in scientific farm- ing of greater importance. Mr. Geddes calls grass the "pivotal crop" of American agriculture. He deserves our thanks for the word and the idea connected with it. But I am inclined to think the pivot on which our agriculture stands and rotates, lies deeper than this. The grass crop creates nothing — developes nothing. The untilled and unmanured grass lands of Herkimcr County, in this State, arc no richer to-day than they were 50 years ago. The pastures of Cheshire, England, except those that have been top- dressed with bones, or other manures, arc no more productive than HOW TO MAKE MANURE. 41 they were centuries back. Grass alone will not make rich land. It is a good " savings bank." It gathers up and saves plant-food from running to waste. It pays a good interest, and is a capital institution. But the real source of fertility must be looked for in the stores of plant-food lying dormant in the soil. Tillage, under- draining, and thorough cultivation, are the means by which we develop and render this plant-food available. Grass, clover, peas, or any other crop consumed on the farm, merely affords us the means of saving this plant-food and making it pay a good interest. CHAPTER X. HOW TO MAKE MANURE. If we have the necessary materials, it is not a difficult matter to make manure ; in fact, the manure will make itself. We some- times need to hasten the process, and to see that none of the fer- tilizing matter runs to waste. This is about all that we can do. We cannot create an atom of plant-food. It is ready formed to our hands ; but we must know where to look for it, and how to get it in the easiest, cheapest, and best way, and how to save and use it. The science of manure-making is a profound studj7. It is intimately connected with nearly every branch of agriculture. If weeds grow and decay on the land, they make manure. If we grow a crop of buckwheat, or spurry, or mustard, or rape, or clover, and mow it, and let it lie on the land, it makes manure ; or if we plow it under, it forms manure ; or if, after it is mown, we rake up the green crop, and put it into a heap, it will ferment, heat will be produced by the slow combustion of a portion of the carbonaceous and nitrogenous matter, and the result will be a mass of material, which we should all recognize as " manure." If, in- stead of putting the crop into a heap and letting it ferment, we feed it to animals, the digestible carbonaceous and nitrogenous matter will be consumed to produce animal heat and to sustain the vital functions, and the refuse, or the solid and liquid drop- pings of the animals, will be manure. If the crop rots on the ground, nothing is added to it. If it fer- ments, and gives out heat, in a heap, nothing is added to it. If it 42 TALKS OX JIAXUKES. is passed through an animal, and produces heat, nothing is added to it. I have heard people say a farmer could not make manure unless he kept animals. We might with as much truth say a farmer cannot make ashes unless he keeps stoves; and it would be just as sensible to take a lot of stoves into the woods to make ashes, as it is to keep a lot of animals merely to make manure. You u,u make the ashes by throwing the wood into a pile, and burning it ; and you can make the manure by throwing the material out oi which the manure is to be made into a pile, and letting it ferment. On a farm where neither food nor manure of any kind is pur- chased, the only way to make manure is to get it out of the land. " From the land and from the atmosphere," remarked the Doc- tor. " Plants get a large portion of the material of which they are composed from the atmosphere." " Yes," I replied, " but it is principally carbonaceous matter, which is of little or no value as manure. A small amount of am- monia and nitric acid are also brought to the soil by rains and dews, and a freshly-stirred soil may also sometimes absorb more or less ammonia from the atmosphere ; but while this is true, so f.ir us making manure is concerned, we must look to the plant- food existing in the soil itself. " Take such a farm as Mr. Dewey's, that we have already referred to. No manure or food has been purchased ; or at any rate, not one-tenth as much as has been sold, and yet the farm is more productive to-day than when it was first cleared of the forest. He has developed the manure from the stores of latent plant-food previously existing in the soil • and this is the way farmers gen- erally make manure." VALUE OP MANURE. 43 CHAPTEB XI. THE VALUE OF MANURE DEPENDS ON THE FOOD— NOT ON THE ANIMAL. " If," said I, " you should put a ton of cut straw in a heap, wet it, and let it rot down into manure ; and should place in another heap a ton of cut corn-fodder, and in another heap a ton of cut clover- hay, wet them, and let them also rot down into manure ; and in another heap a ton of pulped-turnips, and in another heap a ton of corn-meal, and in another heap a ton of bra-n, and in another a ton of malt-sprouts, and let them be mixed with water, and so treated that they will ferment without loss of ammonia or other valuable plant-food, I think no one will say that all these different heaps of manure will have the same value. And if not, why not ? " " Because," said Charley, " the ton of straw docs not contain as much valuable plant-food as the ton of corn-fodder, nor the ton of corn-fodder as much as the ton of clover-hay." " Now then," said I, " instead of putting a ton of straw in one heap to rot, and a ton of corn-fodder in another heap, and a ton of clover in another heap, we feed the ton of straw to a cow, and the ton of corn-fodder to another cow, and the ton of clover to another cow, and save all the solid and liquid excrements, will the manure made from the ton of straw be worth as much as the manure made from the ton of corn-fodder or clover-hay ? " " No," said Charley.—" Certainly not," said the Doctor.—" I am not so sure about it," said the Deacon ; " I think you will get more manure from the corn-fodder than from the straw or clover-hay." " We are not talking about bulk," said the Doctor, "but value." " Suppose, Deacon," said he, " you were to shut up a lot of your Brahma hens, and feed them a ton of corn-meal, and should also feed a ton of corn-meal made into slops to a lot of pigs, and should save all the liquid and solid excrements from the pigs, and all the manure from the hens, which would be worth the most ? "— " The hen-manure, of course," said the Deacon, who has great faith in this kind of " guano," as he calls it. " And yet," said the Doctor, " you would probably not get more than half a ton of manure from the hens, while the liquid and solid excrements from the pigs, if the corn-meal was made into a thin slop, would weigh two or three tons." 44 TALKS ON MANURES. " More, too," said the Deacon, " the way you feed your store pigs." " Very well ; and yet you say that the half ton of hen-manure made from a ton of corn is worth more than the two or three tons of pig-manure made from a ton of corn. You do not seem to think, after all, that mere bulk or weight adds anything to the value of the manure. Why then should you say that the manure from a ton of corn-fodder is worth more than from a ton of straw, because it is more bulky ? " " You, yourself," said the Deacon, "also say the manure from the ton of corn-fodder is worth more than from the ton of straw." — " True," said I " but not because it is more bulky. It is worth more because the ton of corn-fodder contains a greater quantity of valuable plant-food than the ton of straw. The clover is still richer in this valuable plant-food, and the manure is much more valuable ; in fact, the manure from the ton of clover is worth as much as the manure from the ton of straw and the ton of corn- fodder together." " I would like to see you prove that," said the Deacon, " for if it is true, I will sell no more clover-hay. I can't get as much for clover-hay in the market as I can for rye-straw." "I will not attempt to prove it at present," said the Doctor; " but the evidence is so strong and so conclusive that no rational man, who will study the subject, can fail to be thoroughly con- vinced of its truth." " The value of manure," said I, " does not depend on the quan- tity of water which it contains, or on the quantity of sand, or silica, or on the amount of woody fibre or carbonaceous matter. These things add little or nothing to its fertilizing value, except in rare cases ; and the sulphuric acid and lime are worth no more than the same quantity of sulphate of lime or gypsum, and the chlorine and soda are probably worth no more than so much com- mon salt. The real chemical value of the manure, other things being equal, is in proportion to the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, that the manure contains. "And the quantity of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash found in the manure is determined, other things being equal, by the quantity of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash contained in the food consumed by the animals making the manure." FOODS WHICH MAKE EICII MANURE. 45 CHAPTER XII. FOODS WHICH MAKE RICH MANURE. The amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, contained in different foods, has been accurately determined by many able and reliable chemists. The following table was prepared by Dr. J. B. Lawes, of Roth- amsted, England, and was first published in this country in the l " Genesee Farmer," for May, 1860. Since then, it has been re- peatedly published in nearly all the leading agricultural journals of the world, and has given rise to much discussion. The follow- ing is the table, with some recent additions : PER CENT. Value of manure in dollars and cents from 1 ton (2,000lbs.)offood J| if. t^ P ^% *"* ^ CO £ Iff! C§ fxi C3 "^ *i*t ftj 1 1. Linseed cake 2. Cotton-seed cake * 88.0 89.0 89.0 90.0 81.0 84.5 84.0 88.0 94.0 85.0 88.0 85.0 84.0 95.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 84.0 84.0 82.5 82 0 84.0 85.0 83.0 12.5 11.0 8.0 24.0 13.5 15.0 7.00 8.00 8. CO 4.00 3.00 2.40 2.00 3.00 8.50 1.75 1.30 1.70 2.20 2.60 2.85 5.60 6.20 6.60 7.50 6.00 5.55 5.95 5.00 4 50 5.50 1.00 .68 .68 1.00 .70 1.00 4.92 7.00 5.75 3 38 2.20 1.84 1.63 1.89 5.23 i.is 1.87 1.35 1.60 1.17 6.44 7.52 7.95 1.25 0.88 0.90 0.85 0.55 0.37 0.48 0.09 0.13 0.11 0.32 0.13 0.42 1.65 3.12 1.76 1.37 1.27 0.96 0.66 0.90 2.12 6!35 0.50 0.55 0.65 0.50 .46 .49 .45 .30 .50 .11 0.89 0.65 O.G3 0.93 0.25 0.18 0.29 0.43 0.23 0.36 4.75 6.50 5.00 3.80 4.00 3.40 4.20 4.30 4.20 1.25 1.80 1.80 1.65 1.70 2.00 2.60 2.58 2.55 2.50 1.50 0.90 oleo 0.50 0.60 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.35 0.20 0.22 19.72 27.83 21.01 15.65 15.75 13.38 16.75 16.51 18.21 4.81 6.65 7.08 6.32 6.65 7.70 13.53 14.36 14.59 9.64 6.43 3.87 3.74 2.68 2.25 •2.90 1.07 .91 .88 1.50 .80 1.14 4 Linseed. 6 Peas 7 Tares 8 Lentils 9 Malt-dust 10. Locust beans 11 Indian-meal 12 Wheat 13 Barley 14 Malt 15. Oats 16 Fine pollard t 17. Coarse pollard $ 18 Wheat-bran 19. Clover-hay 20 Meadow-hay 21. Bean-straw 22. Pea-straw 23 Wheat- straw 24. Barley-straw 23. Oat-straw 20. Mangel-wurzel 27. Swedish turnips 28. Common turnips . . 29. Potatoes. 3D. Carrots 31. Parsnips * The manure from a ton of undecorticated cotton-seed cake is worth $15.74; that from a ton of cotton-seed, after being ground and sifted, is worth $13.25. The grinding and sifting, in Mr. Lawes' experiments, removed about 8 percent of husk and cotton, economical food. Cotton-seed, so treated, proved to be a verj t Middlings, Canielle. % Shipstuf rich and 46 TALKS ON MANURES. Of all vegetable substances used for food, it will be seen that decorticated cotton-seed cake is the richest in nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash, and consequently makes the richest and most valuable manure. According to Mr. Lawes' estimate, the manure from a ton of decorticated cotton-seed cake is worth $27.86 in gold. ilapc-cake comes next. Twenty-five to thirty years ago, rape- cake, ground as fine as corn-meal, was used quite extensively on many of the light-land farms of England as a manure for turnips, and not unfrequently as a manure for wheat. Mr. Lawes used it for many years in his experiments on turnips and on wheat. Of late years, however, it has been fed to sheep and cattle. In other words, it has been used, not as formerly, for manure alone, but for food first, and manure afterwards. The oil and other car- bonaceous matter which the cake contains is of little value for manure, while it is of great value as food. The animals take out this carbonaceous matter, and leave nearly all the nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash in the manure. Farmers who had found it profitable to use on wheat and turnips for manure alone, found it still more profitable to use it first for food, and then for manure afterwards. Mr. Lawes, it will be seen, estimates the manure pro- duced from the consumption of a ton of rape-cake at $21.01. Linseed-oil cake comes next. Pure linseed-cake is exceedingly valuable, both for food and manure. It is a favorite food with all cattle and sheep breeders and feeders. It has a wonderful effect in improving the appearance of cattle and sheep. An Eng- lish farmer thinks he cannot get along without "cako" for his calves, lambs, cattle, and sheep. In this country, it is not so ex- tensively used, except by the breeders of improved stock. It is so popular in England that the price is fully up to its intrinsic value, and not unfrequently other foods, in proportion to the nutritive and manurial value, can be bought cheaper. This fact shows the value of a good reputation. Linseed-cake, however, is often adul- terated, and farmers need to be cautious who they deal with. When pure, it will be seen that the manure made by the consump- tion of a ton of linseed-cake is worth $19.72. Malt-dust stands next on the list. This article is known by dif- ferent names. In England, it is often called " malt-combs ;" here it is known as " malt-sprouts" or " malt-roots" In making barley into malt, the barley is soaked in water, and afterwards kept in a warm room until it germinates, and throws out sprouts and roots. It is then dried, and before the malt is used, these dried sprouts and roots are sifted out, and arc sold for cattle-food. They weigh FOODS WHICH MAKE RICH MANUJIE. 47 from 22 to 25 Ibs. per bushel of 40 quarts. They are frequently mixed at the breweries with the " grains," and are sold to milkmen at the same price — from 12 to 15 cents per bushel. Where their value is not known, they can, doubtless, be sometimes obtained at a mere nominal price. Milkmen, I believe, prefer the " grains " to the malt-dust. The latter, however, is a good food for sheep. It has one advantage over brewer's " grains." The latter contain 76 per cent of water, while the malt-dust contains only 6 per cent of water. We can afford, therefore, to transport malt-dust to a greater distance than the grains. We do not want to carry water many miles. There is another advantage : brewer's grains soon ferment, and become sour ; while the malt-dust, being dry, will keep for any length of time. It will be seen that Mr. Lawcs esti- mates the value of the manure left from the consumption of a ton of malt-dust at $18.21. Tares or vetches, lentils, linseed or flaxseed, beans, wheat, bran, middlings, fine mill-feed, undecorticated cotton-seed cake, peas, and cotton-seed, stand next on the list. The value of these for manure ranging from $13.25 to $16.75 per ton. Then comes clover-hay. Mr. Lawes estimates the value of the manure from the consumption of a ton of clover-hay at $9.64. This is from early cut clover-hay. When clover is allowed to grow until it is nearly out of flower, the hay would not contain so much nitrogen, and would not be worth quite so much per ton for manure. When mixed with timothy or other grasses, or with weeds, it would not be so valu- able. The above estimate is for the average quality of good pure English clover-hay. Our best farmers raise clover equally as good ; but I have seen much clover-hay that certainly would not come up to this standard. Still, even our common clover-hay makes rich manure. In Wolfl's Table, given in the appendix, it will be seen that clover-hay contains only 1.97 per cent of nitro- gen and 5.7 per cent of ash. Mr. Lawes' clover contains more nitrogen and ash. This means richer land and a less mature, con- dition of the crop. The cereal grains, wheat, barley, oats, and Indian corn, stand next on the list, being worth from $6.32 to $7.70 per ton for manure. " Meadow-hay," which in the table is estimated as worth $6.43 per ton for manure, is the hay from permanent meadows. It is a quite different article from the " English Meadow-hay " of New England. It is, in fact, the perfection of hay. The meadows are fre- quently top-dressed with composted manure or artificial fertilizers, 43 TALKS ON MANURES. and the hay is composed of a number of the best grasses, cut early and carefully cured. It will be noticed, however, that even this choice meadow-hay is not as valuable for manure as clover-hay. English be^n-straw is estimated as worth $3.87 per ton for manure. The English " horse bean," which is the kind here alluded to, has a very stiff, coarse long straw, and looks as though it was much inferior as fodder, to the straw of our ordinary white bc-ans. See Wolffs table in the appendix. Pea-straw is estimated at $3.74 per ton. When the peas are not al- lowed to grow until dead ripe, and when the straw is carefully cured, it makes capital food for sheep. Taking the grain and straw together, it will be seen that peas are an unusually valuable crop to grow for the purpose of making rich manure. The straw of oats, wheat, and barley, is worth from $2.25 to $2.90 per ton. Barley straw being the poorest for manure, and oat straw the richest. Potatoes are worth $1.50 per ton, or nearly 5 cents a bushel for manure. Tlio manurial value of roots varies from 80 cents a ton for carrots, to $1.07 for mangel-wurzel, and $1.14 for parsnips. I am very anxious that there should be no misapprehension as to the meaning of these figures. I am sure they are well worth the careful study of every intelligent farmer. Mr. Lawcs has been engaged in making experiments for over thirty years. There is no m:m more competent to speak with authority en such a subject. The figures showing the money value of the manure made from the different foods, are based on the amount of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash, which they contain. Mr. Lawes has been buying and using artificial manures for many years, and is quite competent to form a correct conclusion as to the cheapest sources of obtaining nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. He has cer- tainly not overestimated their cost. They can not be bought at lower rates, either in England or America. But of course it docs not follow from this that these manures are worth to the farmer the price charged for them ; that is a matter depending on many conditions. All that can be said is, that if you are going to buy commercial manures, you will have to pay at least as much for the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as the price fixed upon by Mr. Lawes. And you should recollect that there are other in- gredients in the manure obtained from the food of animals, which are not estimated as of any value in the table. For instance, there is a large amount of carbonaceous matter in the manure of animals, FOODS WHICH MAKE EICH MANURE. 49 which, for some crops, is not without value, but which is not here taken into account. Viewed from a farmer's stand-point, the table of money values must be taken only in a comparative sense. It is not claimed that the manure from a ton of wheat-straw is worth $2.68. This may, or may not, be the case. But if the manure from a ton of wheat- straw is worth $2.68, then the manure from a ton of pea-straw is worth $3.74, and the manure from a ton of corn-meal is worth $6.65, and the manure from a ton of clover-hay is worth $9.64, and the manure from a ton of wheat-bran is worth $14.59. If the manure from a ton of corn meal is not worth $6.65, then the manure from a ton of bran is not worth $14.59. If the manure from the ton of corn is worth more than $3.65, then the manure from a ton of bran is worth more than $14.59. There need be no doubt on this point. Settle in your own mind what the manure from a ton of any one of the foods mentioned is worth on your farm, and you can easily calculate what the manure is worth from all the others. If you say that the manure from a ton of wheat-straw is worth $1.34, then the manure from a ton of Indian corn is worth $3.33, and the manure from a ton of bran is worth $7.30, and the manure from a ton of clover-hay is worth $4.82. In this section, however, few good farmers are willing to sell straw, though they can get from $8.00 to $10.00 per ton for it. They think it must be consumed on the farm, or used for bedding, or their land will run down. I do not say they are wrong, but I do say, that if a ton of straw is worth $2.68 for manure alone, then a ton of clover-hay is worth $9.64 for manure alone. This may be accepted as a general truth, and one which a farmer can act upon. And so, too, in regard to the value of corn-meal, bran, and all the other articles given in the table. There is another point of great importance which should be men- tioned in this connection. The nitrogen in the better class of foods is worth more for manure than the nitrogen in straw, corn- stalks, and other coarse fodder. Nearly all the nitrogen in grain, and other rich foods, is digested by the animals, and is voided in solution in the urine. In other words, the nitrogen in the manure is in an active and available condition. On the other hand, only about half the nitrogen in the coarse fodders and straw is digesti- ble. The other half passes off in a crude and comparatively un- available condition, in the solid excrement. In estimating the value of the manure from a ton of food, these facts should be remembered. 3 50 TALKS ON 3IAXUEES. I have said that if the manure from a ton of straw is worth $2.63, the manure from a ton of corn is worth $6.65 ; but I will not reverse the proposition, and say that if the manure from a ton of corn is worth $6.65, the manure from a ton of straw is wrorth $2.68. The manure from the grain is nearly all in an available condition, while that from the straw is not. A pound of nitrogen in rich manure is worth more than a pound of nitrogen in poor manure. This is another reason why we should try to make rich manure. CHAPTER XIII. HORSE MANURE AND FARM- YARD MANURE. The manure from horses is generally considered richer and better than that from cows. This is not always the case, though it is probably so as a rule. There are three principal reasons for this. 1st. The horse is usually fed more grain and hay than the cow. In other words, the food of the horse is usually richer in the val- uable elements of plant-food than the ordinary food of the cow. 2d. The milk of the cow abstracts considerable nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, etc., from the food, and to this extent there is less of these valuable substances in the excrements. 3d. The excrements of the cow contain much more water than those of the horse. And consequently a ton of cow-dung, other things being equal, would not contain as much actual manure as a ton of horse-dung. Boussingault, who is eminently trustworthy, gives us the follow- ing interesting facts : A horse consumed in 24 hours, 20 Ibs. of hay, 6 Ibs. of oats, and 43 Ibs. of water, and voided during the same period, 3 Ibs. 7 ozs. of urine, and 38 Ibs. 2 ozs. of solid excrements. The solid excrements contained 231 Ibs. of water, and the urine 2 Ibs. 6 ozs. of water. According to this, a horse, eating 20 Ibs. of hay, and 6 Ibs. of oats, per day, voids in a year nearly seven tons of solid excrements, and 1,255 Ibs. of urine. It would seem that there must have been some mistake in col- lecting the urine, or what was probably the case, that some of it must have been absorbed by the dung ; for 3£ pints of urine per day is certainly much less than is usually voided by a horse. HOESE MANURE AND FARM-YARD MANURE. 51 Stockard gives the amount of urine voided by a horse in a year at 3,000 Ibs. ; a cow, 8,000 Ibs. ; sheep, 380 Ibs. ; pig, 1,200 Ibs. Dr. Vcelcker, at the Royal Agricultural College, at Cirencester, England, made some valuable investigations in regard to the com- position of farm-yard manure, and the changes which take place during fermentation. The manure was composed of horse, cow, and pig-dung, mixed with the straw used for bedding in the stalls, pig-pens, sheds, etc. On the 3d of November, 1854, a sample of what Dr. Voelcker calls " Fresh Long Dung," was taken from the " manure-pit " for analysis. It had lain in the pit or heap about 14 days. The following is the result of the analysis : FRESH FARM- YARD MANURE. HALF A TON, OR 1,000 LBS. Water 661.7 Ibs. Organic matter 282.4 u Ash 55.9 " 1,000.0 Ibs. Nitrogen 6.43 " " Before you go any farther," said the Deacon, " let me under- stand what these figures mean ? Do you mean that a ton of manure contains only 12f Ibs. of nitrogen, and 111 Ibs. of ash, and that all the rest is carbonaceous matter and water, of little or no value"? — "That is it precisely, Deacon," said I, "and further- more, a large part of the ash has very little fertilizing value, as will be seen from the following : DETAILED COMPOSITION OP THE ASH OF FRESH BARN-YARD MANUEE. Soluble silica 21.59 Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 10.04 Phosphate of lime 5.35 Oxide of iron, alumina, with phosphate 8.47 Containing phosphoric acid 3.18 Lime 21.31 Magnesia 2.76 Potash 12.04 Soda 1.30 Chloride of sodium 0.54 Sulphuric acid 1.49 Carbonic acid and loss 15.11 100.00 Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, are the most valuable in- gredients in manure. It will be seen that a ton of fresh barn-yard manure, of probably good average quality, contains: Nitrogen 12 J Ibs. Phosphoric acid 6i " Potash.. 13i " 52 TALKS ON MANURES. I do not say that these are the only ingredients of any value in a ton of manure. Nearly all the other ingredients are indispen- sable to the growth of plants, and if we should use manures con- taining nothing but nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, the time would come when the crops would fail, from lack of a sufficient quantity of, perhaps, magnesia, or lime, sulphuric acid, or soluble silica, or iron. But it is not necessary to make provision for such a contingency. It would be a very exceptional case. Farmers who depend mainly on barn-yard manure, or on plowing under green crops for keeping up the fertility of the land, may safely calculate that the value of the manure is in proportion to the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, it contains. "We draw out a ton of fresh manure and spread it on the land, therefore, in order to furnish the growing crops with 12f Ibs. of nitrogen, G£ Ibs. of phosphoric acid, and 13J Ibs. of potash. Less than 33 Ibs. in all ! We cannot dispense with farm-yard manure. We can seldom buy nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as cheaply as we can get them in home-made manures. But we should clearly under- stand the fact that we draw out 2,000 Ibs. of matter in order to get 33 Ibs. of thcs3 fertilizing ingredients. We should try to make richer manure. A ton of manure containing GO Ibs. of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, costs no more to draw out and spread, than a ton containing only 30 Ibs., and it would be worth nearly or quite double the money. How to make richer manure we will not discuss at this time. It is a question of food. But it is worth while to enquire if we can not take such manure as we have, and reduce its weight and bulk without losing any of its nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. CHAPTER XIV. FERMENTING MANURE. Dr. Yoelcker placed 2,838 Ibs. of fresh mixed manure in a heap Nov. 3, 1854, and the next spring, April 30, it weighed 2,026 Ibs., a shrinkage in weight of 28.6 per cent. In other words 100 tons of such manure would be reduced to less than 71 £ tons. The heap was weighed again, August 23d, and contained 1,904 Ibs. It was again weighed Nov. 15, and contained 1,97-1 Ibs. FEKMENHXG MANURE. 53 The following table shows the composition of the heap when first put up, and also at the three subsequent periods : TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF THE WHOLE HEAP ; FRESH FARM-YARD MANURE (NO. I.) EXPOSED— EXPRESSED IN LBS. When put i/2) Nov. 3, 1854. April 30. 1855. Aug. 23, 1855. Nov. 15, 1855. Wci°iit of manure in Ibs 2 838 2 026 1 004. Arat. of water in the manure Amt. of dry matter in the manure Consisting of — Soluble organic matter f 1,877.9 900.1 70 38 1.330.1 6S9.9 86 51 1,505.3 488.7 5S S3 I,4fi65 507.5 54 04 Soluole mineral matter J Insoluble organic matter , Insoluble mineral matter (_ 43.71 731.07 11494 57.88 389.74 155 77 39.16 243.22 147 49 36.89 214.92 201 65 Containing nitrogen . ... 960.1 4 23 (589.9 607 488.7 3 76 £07.5 3 65 Equal to ammonia 5.12 7.37 4 56 4 36 Containin\ 3, 1S34. 1855. 1856, .lv/.3:j. 1855. Water 00 17 GO. «3 c,:, a-, 71 >v) Soluble organic matter Soluble inorganic matter 148 1 r>t 8.88 2 '.17 4.37 1 07 •J.T1 1 '7 Insoluble organic matter. . 25 ?o 1^ It I'l ••:! 1 ° 20 10 89 Insoluble mineral matter •1 05 4 00 7 GO 7 39 10 °1 Containing nitrogen 100.00 149 100.00 100.00 30 100.00 jg 100.00 18 Equal lo ammonia 181 33 .30 88 21 Containing nitrogen. .. . •1'it 17 50 47 47 [Equal to ammonia SOB si 71 69 K| Total amount of nitrogen 0 13 .74 .80 00 86 Equal to ammonia 7SO 80 1 07 85 Ammonia in a free state .034 .019 .008 .010 .006 Ammonia in form of salts easily de- composed hy quicklime Total amt. of organic matter Total amt. of mineral substances.. .088 28.24 6.69 .004 7.87 .088 S8.fi i 10.55 15.15 9 30 .041 IR.W 12.08 It will be seen that two-thirds of the fresh manure is water. After fermenting in an exposed heap for six months, it still con- FERMENTING MANURE. 55 tains about the same percentage of water. When kept in the heap until August, the percentage of water is much greater. Of four tons of such manure, three tons are water. Of Nitrogen, the most valuable ingredient of the manure, the fresh dung, contained O.G4 per cent ; after fermenting six months, it contained 0.89 per cent. Six months later, it contained O.G5 per cent, or about the same amount as the fresh manure. Of mineral matter, or ash, this fresh farm-yard manure con- tained 5.59 per cent; of which 1.54 was soluble in water, and 4.05 insoluble. After fermenting in the heap for six months, the ma- nure coritained 10.55 per cent of ash, of which 2.86 was soluble, and 7.G9 insoluble. Six months later, the soluble ash had de- creased to 1.97 per cent. The following table shows the composition of the manure, at different periods, in the dry state. In other words, supposing all the water to be removed from the manure, its composition would be as follows : COMPOSITION OF FRESH FARM YARD MANURE (NO. I.) EXPOSED. CALCULATED DRY. Whenput up, Nov. 3, 1854. Feb. 14, 1855. April 30, 1855. Aug. 23; 1835. Nov.' 15, 1855. Soluble organic matter 7.33 12.79 12.54 12.04 10.65 Soluble inorganic matter . 4 55 984 8.39 8.03 727 76 15 61 12 5649 49 77 42 35 Insoluble mineral matter 11.97 16.25 22.58 30.16 39.73 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 44 91 88 .77 72 Equal to ammonia . ... 53 1.10 1.06 .93 .88 1 46 1.53 1.75 1.92 1.85 Equal to ammonia . . . 1.77 1.88 2.12 2.33 2.24 Total amount of nitrogen 1.90 2.46 2.63 2.69 2.57 Equal to ammonia 2.30 2.98 3.18 3.26 3.12 Ammonia in free state .10 .062 .023 .041 .023 Ammonia in form of salts easily decom- posed by quicklime .26 .212 .249 .154 .159 Total amount of organic matter 83.48 73.01 69.03 61.81 53.00 Total amount of mineral substances . . 16.52 26.09 30.97 38.19 47.00 " A comparison of these different analyses," says Dr. Voeleker, " points out clearly the changes which fresh farm-yard manure un- dergoes on keeping in a heap, exposed to the influence of the weather during a period of twelve months and twelve days. " 1. It will be perceived that the proportion of organic matter steadily diminishes from month to month, until the original per- centage of organic matter in the dry manure, amounting to 83.48 per cent, becomes reduced to 53 per cent. "2. On the other hand, the total percentage of mineral matter rises as steadily as that of the organic matter falls. 56 TALKS ON MANUBES. "3. It will be seen tliat the loss in organic matter affects the percentage of insoluble organic matters more than the percentage of soluble organic substances. " 4. The percentage of soluble organic matters, indeed, increased considerably during the first experimental period ; it rose, namely, from 7.33 per cent to 12.79 per cent. Examined again on the 30th of April, very nearly the same percentage of soluble organic matter, as on February the 14th, was found. The August analysis shows but a slight decrease in the percentage of soluble organic matters, while there is a decrease of 2 per cent of soluble organic matters when the November analysis is compared with the February an- alysis. " 5. The soluble mineral matters in this manure rise or fall in the different experimental periods in the same order as the soluble organic matters. Thus, in February, 9.84 per cent of soluble mineral matters were found, whilst the manure contained only 4.55 per cent, when put up into a heap in November, 1854. Gradually, however, the proportion of soluble mineral matters again dimin- ished, and became reduced to 7.27 per cent, on the examination of the manure in November, 1855. " C. A similar regularity will be observed in the percentage of nitrogen contained in the soluble organic matters. " In the insoluble organic matters, the percentage of nitrogen regularly increased from November, 1854, up to the 23d of Au- gust, notwithstanding the rapid diminution of the percentage of insoluble organic matter. For the last experimental period, the percentage of nitrogen in the insoluble matter is nearly the same as on August 23d. " 8. With respect to the total percentage of nitrogen in the fresh manure, examined at different periods of the year, it will be seen that the February manure contains about one-half per cent more of nitrogen than the manure in a perfectly fresh state. On the 30th of April, the percentage of nitrogen again slightly increased; on August 23d, it remained stationary, and had sunk but very lit- tle when last examined on the 15th of November, 1855. " This series of analyses thus shows that fresh farm-yard manure rapidly becomes more soluble in water, but that this desirable change is realized at the expense of a large proportion of organic matters. It likewise proves, in an unmistakable manner, that there is no advantage in keeping farm-yard manure for too long a period ; for, after February, neither the percentage of soluble or- ganic, nor that of soluble mineral matter, has become greater, FERMENTING MANURE. 57 and the percentage of nitrogen in the manure of April and August is only a very little higher than in February." "Before you go any further," said the Deacon, u answer me this question : Suppose I take five tons of farm-yard manure, and put it in a heap on the 3d of November, tell me, 1st, what that heap will contain when first made; 2d, what the heap will contain April 30th ; and, 3d, what the heap will contain August 23d." Here is the table : CONTENTS OF A HEAP OF MANURE AT DIFFERENT PERIODS, EXPOSED TO RAIN, ETC. When put up, Aov. 3. April 30. Aug. 23. Nov. 15. Total weight of manure in heap 10 000 7 188 7025 6 954 Water in the heap of manure Total organic matter 6.617 2 824 4,707 1,678 5.304 I,0o4 5,167 947 Total inorganic matter 559 753 657 840 Total nitrogen in heap 64 3 63 9 463 46.0 Total soluble organi" matter 248 305 207 190 Total insoluble organic matter 2576 1,373 857 757 Soluble mineral matter Insoluble mineral matter ... '154 405 204 549 138 519 130 710 Nitrogen in soluble matter 149 21.4 13 2 12.9 Nitrogen in insoluble matter. . . 49.4 42.5 33.1 33.1 The Deacon put on his spectacles and studied the above table carefully for some time. " That tells the whole story," said he, " you put five tons of fresh manure in a heap, it ferments and gets warm, and nearly one ton of water is driven off by the heat." " Yes," said the Doctor, "you see that over half a ton (1,146 Ibs.) of dry organic matter has been slowly burnt up in the heap ; giv- ing out as much heat as half a ton of coal burnt in a stove. But this is not all. The manure is cooked, and steamed, and softened by the process. The organic matter burnt up is of no value. There is little or no loss of nitrogen. The heap contained 64.3 Ibs. of nitrogen when put up, and 63.9 Ibs. after fermenting six months. And it is evident that the manure is in a much more active and available condition than if it had been applied to the land in the fresh state. There was 14.9 Ibs. of nitrogen in a soluble condition in the fresh manure, and 21.4 Ibs. in the fermented manure. And what is equally important, you will notice that there is 154 Ibs. of soluble ash in the heap of fresh manure, and 204 Ibs. in the heap of fermented manure. In other words, 50 Ibs. of the insoluble mineral matter had, by the fermentation of the manure, been ren- dered soluble, and consequently immediately available as plant- food. This is a very important fact." The Doctor is right. There is clearly a great advantage in fer- menting manure, provided it is done in such a manner as to pre- 58 TALKS OX MANURES. vent loss. We have not only less manure to draw out and spread, but the plant-food which it contains, is more soluble and active. The table we have given shows that there is little or no loss of valuable constituents, even when manure is fermented in the open air and exposed to ordinary rain and snows during an English winter. But it also shows that when the manure has been fer- mented for six months, and is then turned and left exposed to the rain of spring and summer, the loss is very considerable. The five tons (10,000 Ibs.,) of fresh manure placed in a heap on the 3d of November, are reduced to 7,138 Ibs. by the 30th of April. Of this 4,707 Ibs. is water. By the 23d of August, the heap is re- duced to 7,025 Ibs., of which 5,304 Ibs. is water. There is nearly 600 Ibs. more water in the heap in August than in April. Of total nitrogen in the heap, there is 64.3 Ibs. in the fresh manure, 63. 9 Ibs. in April, and only 46.3 Ibs. in August. This is a great loss, and there is no compensating gain. We have seen that, when five tons of manure is fermented for six months, in winter, the nitrogen in the soluble organic matter is increased from 14.9 Ibs. to 21.4 Ibs. This is a decided advantage. But when the manure is kept for another six months, this soluble nitrogen is decreased from 21.4 Ibs. to 13.2 Ibs. We lose over 8 Ibs. of the most active and available nitrogen. And the same remarks will apply to the valuable soluble mineral matter. In the five tons of fresh manure there is 154 Ibs. of soluble mineral matter. By fermenting the heap six months, we get 204 Ibs., but by keeping the manure six months longer, the soluble mineral matter is reduced to 138 Ibs. We lose 66 Ibs. of valu- able soluble mineral matter. By fermenting manure for six months in winter, we greatly im- prove its condition; by keeping it six months longer, we lose largely of the very best and most active parts of the manure. KEEPING MANURE UNDER COVEB. 59 CHAPTER XV. KEEPING MANURE UNDER COVER Dr. Vcelcker, at the same time he made the experiments alluded to in the preceding chapter, placed another heap of manure under cover, in a shed. It was the same kind of manure, and was treated precisely as the other— the only difference being that one heap was exposed to the rain, and the other not. The following table gives the results of the weighings of the heap at different times, and also the percentage of loss : MANURE FERMENTED UNDER COVER IN SHED. TABLE SHOWING THE ACTUAL WEIGHINGS, AND PERCENTAGE OF LOSS IN WEIGHT, OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAP (NO. II.) FKESH FARM-YARD MANURE UNDEB SHED, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE YEAR. Wtvjht of Man ure inLbs. Loss in original weight in Lbs. Percent- age of Put np on the 3d of November 1854 3,258 Weighed on the 30th of April, 1855, of 6 months or after a lapse 1,613 1,645 50.4 Weighed on the 23d of August, 1855 of 9 months and 20 days , or after a lapse 1,297 1,961 60.0 Weighed on the 15th of November, lapse of 12 months and 12 days 1855, or after a 1,235 2,023 62.1 It will be seen that 100 tons of manure, kept in a heap under cover for six months, would be reduced to 49.6-10 tons. Whereas, when the same manure was fermented for the same length of time in the open air, the 100 tons was reduced to only 71.4-10 tons. The difference is due principally to the fact that the heap exposed contained more water, derived from rain and snow, than the heap kept under cover. This, of course, is what we should expect. Let us look at the results of Dr. Vcelcker's analyses : CO TALKS OX MANURES. TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAP (NO. II.) FRESH FARM- YARD MANURE UNDER SHED, IN NATURAL STATE AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE YEAR. WFienput n p. Xor 3, 1S54. Feb. 14, 1855. Apr. 30. 1855. 4W.S* 18». Xor. 15, 1855. Water 66.17 67.3^ 56.89 43.43 41. G6 *Soluble organic matter L'.4S 2.63 4.63 4.13 5.37 Soluble inorganic matter 1.54 2.12 3.33 3.05 4.43 tlnsoluble organic matter Insoluble mineral matter 2576 4.03 20.46 7.47 25.43 9.67 20.01 23.38 27.6!) 20.85 *Containinc" nitrogen 100.00 149 100.00 17 100.00 27 103.00 26 100.00 42 Equal to ammonia tContaining nitrogen Equal to ammonia .181 .494 599 JO .53 70 .92 1 11 .31 1.01 1 23 .51 1.09 1 31 Total amount of nitrogen .643 75 1.19 1.27 1.51 Equal to ammonia .780 90 1.43 1 51 Ammonia in free state Ammonia in form of salts easily de- composed by quicklime Total amount of onrauic matter Total amount of mineral substance.. .034 .083 KJM .022 .054 23.09 9.5',) .U55 .101 30.06 13.05 .015 .103 30.14 .019 .146 33.06 TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAP (NO. II.) FRESH FARM- YARD MANURE UNDER SHED, CALCULATED DRY, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE YEAR. When put up. Nov. 3, 1854. Feb. 14, 1855. Apr. 30, 1855. Avr?.23. ISO. \">-. 15, 1855. *Soluble organic matter 1 7.33 8.04 10.74 7.30 920 4.55 6.48 7.8-1 5 39 7 59 76.15 62.60 58.99 45 '<: 47 46 Insoluble mineral matter 11.97 22.88 22.43 41.31 35.75 *Containing nitrogen . Equal to ammonia 100.00 .41 53 100.00 .88 fi1} 100.00 •W 100.00 .40 100.00 .7: 83 tContaining nitrogen 1 16 1 '1 2 1 I I 78 1 88 Equal to ammonia Total amount of nitrogen 1.77 1 90 2.14 2 30 2.5!) 2 77 2.16 2 21 220 o eg Equal to ammonia 2 30 2 80 3 35 o 72 3 08 Ammonia in free state Ammonia in form of salts, easily de composed by quicklime .10 26 .037 165 .127 °r!i •C2C iea .032 °"0 Total amount of organic matter Total amount of mineral substance . 83.48 16.52 70.64 29.36 f.9.7:', CO 27 46.73 B6*ftt 43.3-1 The above analyses are of value to those who Imy fresh and fer- mented manure. They can form some idea of what they are get- ting. If they buy a ton of fresh manure in November, they get 12| Ibs. of nitrogen, and 30f Ibs. of soluble mineral matter. If KEEPIXG MANURE UNDER COVER. 61 they buy a ton of the same manure that has been kept under cover until February, they get, nitrogen, 15 Ibs. ; soluble minerals, 42£ Ibs. In April, they get, nitrogen, 23| Ibs. ; soluble minerals, 67| Ibs. In August, they get, nitrogen, 25 J- Ibs. ; soluble minerals, 61 Ibs. In November, when the manure is over one year old, they get, in a ton, nitrogen, 30£ Ibs. ; soluble minerals, S8£ Ibs. When manure has not been exposed, it is clear that a purchaser can afford to pay considerably more for a ton of rotted manure than for a ton of fresh manure. But waiving this point for the present, let us see how the matter stands with the farmer who makes and uses the manure. What does he gain by keeping and fermenting the manure under cover ? The following table shows the weight and composition of the entire heap of manure, kept under cover, at different times : TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION O? ENTIRE EXPERIMENTAL HEAP (NO. II.) FRESH FARM-YARD MANURE, UNDER SHED. Wlienput up, Nov. 3, 1854. April 30, 1855. Aug. 23, 1855. Nov. 15, 1855. Weight of manure B>6. 3258. Ibs. 1 613. Ibs. 1,297. B)s. 1 2£5. Amount of water in the manure 2 153 917.6 6G3.2 514.5 Amount of dry matter 1 102 695 4 733 8 720 5 *Consisting of soluble organic matter. . . Soluble mineral matter 80.77 50 14 74.68 5451 53.50 39.55 66.28 54.68 •(•Insoluble organic matter 839 17 410.21 337.32 341.97 Insoluble mineral matter 131 92 15597 303.37 257.57 *Containin°' nitrogen 1,102. 4 F5 695.4 438 733.8 3.46 720.5 5.25 Equal to ammonia 5.83 5.33 4.29 6.37 tContaininf nitrogen 1600 14.88 13.08 13.54 Equal to ammonia .... ... 19.52 17.40 15.88 16.41 Total amount of nitrogen in manure Equal tn amnriiOTiiji . . ...... 20.C3 25.40 1926 22.79 16.51 20.03 18.79 22.81 The manure contains ammonia in free state . ... 1.10 .83 .19 .23 The manure contains ammonia in form of salts, easily decomposed by quick- lime 2.R6 1.62 1.33 1.80 919.94 484.92 390.88 408.25 Total amount of mineral matter 182.00 210.48 342.92 312.35 This is the table, as given by Dr. Ycelcker. For the sake of comparison, we will figure out what the changes would be in a heap of five tons (10,000 Ibs.) of manure, when fermented under cover, precisely in the same way as we did with the heap fer- mented in the open air, exposed to the rain. The following is the table : TALKS ON MANURES. CONTENTS OF A HEAP OF MANURK AT DIFFERENT PERIOD3. FERMENTED CXDBB COVER. \\licn put up, Aov.3. April 30. Aug. 23. Nov. 15. Total weight of manure in heap "Water in the heap of niauurc Total organic matter Total iuoryauic matter Total nitrogen in heap lb.<. 10.000 0,617 559 61 3 tt>s. 4.1XK) 2,822 1.490 (MO 59 B>8. 4,000 1,737 1.205 1,057 50 8 B>s. 3,7!K) 1,579 1,253 968 5? ° Total soluble organic matter 2-18 165 °03 5 Insoluhlc organic matter 2 ~'^ti 1 -'(i'l 1 040 1 049 Soluble mineral matter 154 Hi7 ].,-> 168 Insoluble mineral matter 478 190 Nitrogen in soluble matter 14 0 134 10 4 159 Nitrogen in insoluble matter. . . . 1'.' 1 45.G 40.4 41.3 Total dry matter in heap 3SS3 2038 2263 2,211 It \vill be seen that the heap of manure kept under cover con- tained, on the 30th of April, less soluble organic matter, kss soluble mineral matter, less soluble nitrogenous matter, and hss total ni- trogen than the heap of manure exposed to the weather. This is precisely what I should have expected. The heap of manure in the shed probably fermented more rapidly than the heap out of doors, and there was not water enough in the manure to retain the carbonate of ammonia, or to favor the production of organic acids. The heap was too dry. If it could have received enough of the liquid from the stables to have kept it moderately moist, the result would have been very different. We will postpone further consideration of this point at present, and look at the results of another of Dr. Vcelcker's interesting experiments. Dr. Voelcker wished to ascertain the effect of three common methods of managing manure : 1st. Keeping it in a Iwap in the open air in the barn-yard, or field. 2d. Keeping it in a heap under cover in a shed. 3d. Keeping it spread out over the barn-yard. " You say these are common methods of managing manure," remarked the Deacon, " but I never knew any one in this country take the trouble to spread manure over the yard." " Perhaps not," I replied, " but you have known a good many farmers who adopt this very method of keeping their manure. They do not spread it — but they let it lie spread out over the yards, just wherever it happens to be." Let us see what the effect of this treatment is on the composi- tion and value of the manure. We have examined the effect of keeping manure in a heap in KEEPING MANURE UNDER COVER. 63 the open air, and also of keeping it in a heap under cover. Now let us see how these methods compare with the practice of leav- ing it exposed to the rains, spread out in the yard. On the 3rd of November, 1854, Dr. Vcelcker weighed out 1,652 Ibs. of manure similar to that used in the preceding experiments, and spread it out in the yard. It was weighed April 30, and again August 23, and November 15. The following table gives the actual weight of the manure at the different periods, also the actual amount of the water, organic matter, ash, nitrogen, etc. : TABLB SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND COMPOSITION OP ENTIRE MASS OF EXPERI- MENTAL MANUIiE (NO. III.), FRESH FARM-YAKD MANUBE, SPREAD IN OPEN TAKD AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE TEAR. IN NATURAL STATE. When put up, Nov. 3, 1854. April 30, 1855. Aug. 23, 1855. Nov. 15, 1855. Weight of manure . . fl>s. 1 632 B>s. 1,429. B>s. 1,012. B>8. 950 Amount of water in the manure Amount of dry matter 1,093. 559. 1.143. 285.5 709.3 302.7 622.8 327.2 ""Consisting of soluble organic matter. . . Soluble mineral matter 40.97 2543 16.55 14.41 4.96 6.47 3.95 552 tlnsoluble organic matter Insoluble mineral matter 425.67 60.93 163.79 90.75 106.81 184.46 94.45 223.28 *Containing nitrogen 559.03 3 23 285.50 1.19 302.70 00 327.20 32 Equal to ammonia 3 93 1 44 73 39 tContaining nitrogen 6 21 6.51 3 54 356 Equal to ammonia 754 799 4 29 4 25 Total amount of nitrogen in manure Equal to ammonia 9.49 11.52 7.70 9.34 4.14 502 3.88 4 64 The manure contains ammonia in free state . . 55 -14 .13 0055 The manure contains ammonia in form of salts, easily decomposed by quick- lime . 1 45 62 55 28 Total amount of organic matter 4*56 04 InO 34 111 77 18 40 Total amount of mineral matter . . . 92.36 105.16 190.93 228.80 " One moment," said the Deacon. " These tables are a little confusing. The table you have just given shows the actual weight of the manure in the heap, and what it contained at different periods." — "Yes," said I, "and the table following shows what 100 Ibs. of this manure, spread out in the yard, contained at the different dates mentioned. It shows how greatly manure deterio- rates by being exposed to rain, spread out on the surface of the yard. The table merits careful study." TALKS ON MANURES. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAP (NO. III.), FRESH FARM- YARD MANURE, SPREAD IN OPEN YARD, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE YEAR. IN NATURAL STATE. When put iq), .\ Me Afh. I- (10,COO LBS.) 'i-i ,^3 ^ 5 % ^ lv II e I «^ •g 4T Jsj ^ £ Sol. Insol. & § S 8 Fresh manure •190 38 6 fiS 5 57 3 9 9 154 aQ5 559 57 3 95 5 44 6 4 5 147 658 805 " It will be seen from the above figures that rotted manure con- tains more soluble phosphate of lime than fresh manure. " But it does not follow from this fact that any of the insoluble phosphates in fresh manure have been rendered soluble during the fermentation of the manure. " There are more insoluble phosphates in the rotted manure than in the fresh, but we do not conclude from this fact that any of the phosphates have been rendered insoluble during the process of fermentation — neither are we warranted in concluding that an}r of them have been rendered soluble, simply because we find more soluble phosphates in the rotted manure." " Very true," said the Doctor, " but it has been shown that in the heap of manure, during fermentation, there was an actual in- crease of soluble mineral matter during the first six months, and, to say the least, it is highly probable that some of this increase of soluble mineral matter contained more or less soluble phosphates, arid perhaps Dr. Vcelcker had some facts to show that such was the case, although he may not have published them. At any rate, he evidently thinks that the phosphates in manure are ren- dered more soluble by fermentation." " Perhaps," said I, " we can not do better than to let the matter rest in that form. I am merely anxious not to draw definite con- clusions from the facts which the facts do not positively prove. I arn strongly in favor of fermenting manure, and should be glad to have it shown that fermentation does actually convert insoluble phosphates into a soluble form." There is one thing, however, that these experiments clearly prove, and that is, that there is a far larger quantity of soluble 74 TALKS ON MANURES. phosphates in manure than is generally supposed. Of the total phosphoric acid in the fresh manure, 43 per cent is in a soluble condition ; and in the rotted manure, 40 per cent is soluble. This is an important fact, and one which is generally over- looked. It enhances the value of farm-yard or stable manure, as compared with artificial manures. But of this we may have more to say when we come to that part of the subject. I want to make one remark. I think there can be little doubt that the proportion of soluble phosphates is greater in rich manure, made from grain- fed animals, than in poor manure made principally from straw. In other words, of 100 Ibs. of total phosphoric acid, more of it would be in a soluble condition in the rich than in the poor ma- nure. C n A T T E E XVIII. HOW THE DEACON MAKES MANURE. " I think," said the Deacon, " you are talking too much about the science of manure making. Science is all well enough, but practice is better." " That depends," said I, "on the practice. Suppose you tell us how you manage your manure." " Well," said the Deacon, " I do not know much about plant- food, and nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, but I think manure is ;i good thing, and the more you have of it the better. I do not be- lieve in your practice of spreading manure on the land and letting it lie exposed to the sun and winds. I want to draw it out in the spring and plow it under for corn. I think this long, coarse manure loosens the soil and makes it light, and warm, and porous. And then my plan saves labor. More than half of my mamnc is handled but once. It is made in the yard and sheds, and lies there until it is drawn to the field in the spring. The manure from the cow and horse stables, and from the pig-pens, is thrown into the yard, and nothing is done to it except to level it down occasionally. In proportion to the stock kept, I think I make twice as much manure as you do." " Yes," said I, " twice as much in bulk, but one load of my manure is worth four loads of your long, coarse manure, composed HOW THE DEACON MAKES MANURE. 75 principally of corn-stalks, straw, and water. I think you are wiso in not spending much time in piling and working over such manure." / The Deacon and I have a standing quarrel about manure. We differ on all points. He is a good man, but not what we call a good farmer. He cleared up his farm from the original forest, and he has always been content to receive what his land would give him. If he gets good crops, well, if not, his expenses are moderate, and he manages to make both ends meet. I tell him he could double his crops, and quadruple his profits, by better farming — but though he cannot disprove the facts, he is unwilling to make any change in his system of farming. And so he continues to make just as much manure as the crops he is obliged to feed out leave in his yards, and no more. He does not, in fact, make any manure. He takes what comes, and gets it on to his land with as little labor as possible. It is no use arguing with such a man. And it certainly will not do to contend that his method of managing manure is all wrong. His error is in making such poor manure. But with such poor stuff as he has in his yard, I believe he is right to get ricl of it with the least expense possible. I presume, too, that the Deacon is not altogether wrong in regard to the good mechanical effects of manure on undrainetl and indif- ferently cultivated laud. I have no doubt that he bases his opinion on experience. The good effects of such manure as he makes must be largely due to its mechanical action — it can do little towards supplying the more important and valuable elements of plant-food. I commend the Deacon's system of managing manure to all such as make a similar article. But I think there is a more excellent way. Feed the stock better, make richer manure, and then it will pay to bestow a little labor in taking care of it.. 76 TALKS OX MANUIiES. CHAPTER XIX. HOW JOHN JOHNSTON MANAGES HIS MANURE. One of the oldest and most successful farmers, in the State of New York, is John Johnston, of Geneva. He has a farm on the borders of Seneca Lake. It is high, rolling land, but needed under draining. This has been thoroughly done — and done with great profit and advantage. The soil is a heavy clay loam. Mr. John- ston has been in the habit of summer-fallowing largely for wheat, generally plowing three, and sometimes four times. He has been a very successful wheat-grower, almost invariably obtaining large crops of wheat, both of grain and straw. The straw he feeds to sheep in winter, putting more straw in the racks than the sheep can cat up clean, and using what they leave for bedding. The sheep run in yards enclosed with tight board fences, and have sheds under the barn to lie in at pleasure. Although the soil is rather heavy for Indian corn, Mr. Johnston succeeds in growing large crops of this great American cereal. Corn and stalks arc both fed out on the farm. Mr. J. has not yet practised cutting up his straw ard stalks into chaff. The land is admirably adapted to the growth of red clover, and great crops of clover and timothy-hay are raised, and feel out on the farm. Gypsum, or plaster, is sown quite freely on the clover in the spring. Comparatively few roots are raised — not to exceed an acre — and these only quite recently. The main crops are winter wheat, spring barley, Indian corn, clover, and timothy-hay, and clover-seed. The materials for making manure, then, arc wheat and barley straw, Indian corn, corn-stalks, clover, and timothy-hay. These are all raised on the farm. /iJut Mr. Johnston has for many years purchased linseed-oil cake, to feed to his sheep and cattle. This last fact must not bo overlooked. Mr. J. commenced to feed oil-cake when its value was little known here, and when he bought it for, I think, seven or eight dollars a ton. lie continued to use it even when he had to pay fifty dollars per ton. 3Ir. J. has great faith in manure — and it ij a faith resting on good evidence and long experience. If he had not fed out so much oil-cake and clover-hay, he would not have found his manure so valuable. " How much oil-cake does he use ? " asked the Deacon. " He gives his sheep, on the average, about 1 Ib. each per day." HOW JOHN JOHNSTON MANAGES HIS MANURE. 77 If he feeds out a ton of clover-hay, two tons of straw, (for feed and bedding,) and one ton of oil-cake, the manure obtained from this quantity of food and litter, would be worth, according to Mr. Lawes' table, given on page 45, $34.72. On the other hand, if he fed out one ton of corn, one ton of clover-hay, and two tons of straw, for feed and bedding, the manure would be worth $21.65. If he fed one ton of corn, and three tons of straw, the manure would be worth only $14.69. He would get as much manure from the three tons of straw and one ton of corn, as from the two tons of straw, one ton of clover- hay, and one ton of oil-cake, while, as before said, the manure in the one case would be worth $14.69, and in the other $34.72. In other words, a load of the good manure would be worth, when spread out on the land in the field or garden, more than two loads of the straw and corn manure. To get the samo amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, you have to spend more than twice the labor in cleaning out the stables or yards, more than twice the labor of throwing or wheeling it to the maaure pile, more than twice the labor of turning the manure in the pile, more than twice the labor of loading it on the carts or wagons, more than twice the labor of drawing it to the field, more than twice the labor of unloading it into heaps, and more than twice the labor of spreading it in the one case than in the other, and, after all, twenty tons of this poor manure would not produce as good an effect the first season as ten tons of the richer manure. " Why so " ? asked the Deacon. " Simply because the poor manure is not so active as the richer manure. It will not decompose so readily. Its nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash, are not so available. The twenty tons, may, in the long run, do as much good as the ten tons, but I very much doubt it. At any rate, I would greatly prefer the ten tons of the good manure to twenty tons of the poor — even when spread out on the land, ready to plow under. What the difference would bo in the value of the manure in the yard, you can figure for your- self. It would depend on the cost of handling, drawing, and spreading the extra ten tons." The Deacon estimates the cost of loading, drawing, unloading, and spreading, at fifty cents a ton. This is probably not far out of the way, though much depends on the distance the manure has to be drawn, and also on the condition of the manure, etc. 73 TALKS ON MANURES. The four tons of feed and bedding will make, at a rough estimate, about ten tons of manure. This ten tons of straw and corn manure, according to Mr. Lnwes' estimate, is worth, in the field. .$14.60 And if it costs fifty cents a load to get it on the land its Viilue, in, the yard, would be $9.69 — or nearly ninety-seven cents a ton. The ten tons of good manure, according to the same estimate, is worth, in the field, $34.72, and, consequently, would be worth, in the yn.rd, $29.72. In other words, a ton of poor manure is worth, in the yard, ninety-seven cents a ton, and the good manure $2 97. And so in describing John Johnston's method of managing manure, this fact must be borne hi mind. It might not pay the Deacon to spend much labor on manure worth only ninety seven cents a ton, while it might pay John Johnston to bestow some con- siderable time and labor on manure worth $2.97 per ton. " But is it really worth this sum ? " asked the Deacon. " In reply to that," said I, " all I claim is that the figures are com- parative. If your manure, made as above described, is worth ninety-seven cents a ton in the yard, <^A John Johnston's manure, made as stated, is certainly worth, at least, $2.97 per ton in the yard." Of this there can be no doubt. " If you think," I continued, " your manure, so made, 13 worth only half as much as Mr. Lawes' estimate; in other words, if your ten tons of manure, instead of being worth $14.69 in the field, is worth only $7.35 ; then John Johnston's ten tons of manure, instead of being worth $34.72 in the field, is worth only $17.36." " That looks a little more reasonable," said the Deacon, " John Johnston's manure, instead of being worth $2.97 per ton in the yard, is worth only $1 48 per ton, and mine, instead of being worth ninety- seven cents a ton, is worth forty-eight and a half cents a ton." The Deacon sat for a few minutes looking at these figures. " They do not seem so extravagantly high as I thought them at first," he said, " and if you will reduce the figures in Mr. Lawcs' table one-half all through, it will bo much nearer the truth. I think my manure is worth forty-eight and a half cents a ton in the yard, and if your figures are correct, I suppose I must admit tuat John Johnston's manure is worth $1.48 per ton in the yard." I was very glad to get such an admission from the Deacon. ITe did not see that he had made a mistake ia the figures, and so I got him to go over the calculation again. HOTV JOHN JOHNSTON MANAGES HIS MANURE. 79 " You take a pencil, Deacon,* said I, " and write down the figures : Manure from a ton of oil-cake $19.72 Manure from a ton of clover-hay 9.G4 Manure from two tons of straw 5.33 $3173 " This would make about ten tons of manure. We have agreed to reduce the estimate one-half, and consequently we have $17.36 as the value of the ten tons of manure." 4 ' This is John Johnston's manure. It is worth $1.73 per ton in the field. " It costs, we have estimated, 50 cents a ton to handle the manure, and consequently it is worth in the yard $1.23 per ton." " This is less than we made it before," said the Deacon. " Never mind that," said I, " the figures are correct. Now write down what your manure is worth : Manure from 1 ton of corn §6.05 Manure from 3 tons of straw 8.04 $14.09 " This will make about ten tons of manure. In this case, as in the other, we are to reduce the estimate one-half. Consequently, we have $7.35 as the value of this ten tons of manure in the field, or 73£ cents a ton. It costs, we have estimated, 50 cents a ton to handle the manure, and, therefore, it is worth in theyard,23i cents a ton." " John Johnston's manure is worth in the yard, $1.23 per ton. The Deacon's manure is worth in the yard, 23| cents per ton." " There is some mistake," exclaimed the Deacon, " you said, at first, that one load of John Johnston's manure was worth as much as two of my loads. Now you make one load of his manure worth more than five loads of my manure. This is absurd." " Not at all, Deacon," said I, " you made the figures yourself. You thought Mr. Lawcs' estimate too high. You reduced it one- half. The figures are correct, and you must accept the conclusion. If John Johnston's manure is only worth $1.23 per ton in the yard, yours, made from 1 ton of corn and 3 tons of straw, is only worth 23^ cents per ton." " And now, Deacon," I continued, " while you have a pencil in your hand, I want you to make one more calculation. Assuming that Mr. Lavves' estimate is too high, and we reduce it one-half, 80 TALKS ON MANURES. figure up whnt manure is worth when mado from straw alone. Yon take 4 tons of wheat straw, feed out part, and use part for bedding. It will give you about 10 tons of manure. And this 10 tons cost you 50 cents a ton to load, draw out, and spread. Now figure ; " Four tons of straw is worth, for manure, according to Mr. Lawes' table, $2.68 per ton. We have agreed to reduce the figures one half, and so the 10 tons of manure from the 4 tons of straw is worth . . .x\:'<> Drawing out 10 tons of manure at 50 ccuts 5.03 Value of 10 tons of straw -manure in yard $0.30 " In other words, if John Johnston's manure is worth only $1.23 per ton in the yard, the straw-made manure is worth only a littlo over 3£ cents a ton in the yard." " That is too absurd," said the Deacon. " Very well," I replied, "for once I am glad to agree with you. But if this is absurd, then it follows that Mr. Lawcs' estimate of the value of certain foods for manure is not so extravagant as you supposed — which is precisely what I wished to prove." " You have not told us how Mr. Johnston manages his manure," said the Deacon. " There is nothing very remarkable about it," I replied. " There are many farmers in this neighborhood who adopt the samo method. I think, however, John Johnston was the first to recom- mend it, and subjected himself to some criticism from some of the so-called scientific writers at the time. " His general plan is to leave the manure in the yards, basements, and shccis, under the sheep, until spring. He usually sells his fat sheep in March. As soon as the sheep are removed, the manure is cither thrown up into loose heaps in the yard, or drawn dircr-tly to the field, where it is to be used, and made into a heap there. The manure is not spread on the land until the autumn. It re- mains in the heaps or piles all summer, being usually turned once, and sometimes twice. The manure becomes thoroughly rotted." Mr. Johnston, like the Deacon, applies his manure to the corn crop. But the Deacon draws out his fresh green manure in the spring, on sod-land, and plows it under. Mr. Johnston, on the other hand, keeps his manure in a heap through the summer, HOW JOHN JOHNSTON MANAGES HIS MANURE. 81 spreads it on the sod in September, or the first week in October. Here it lies until next spring. The grass and clover grow up through manure, and the grass and manure are turned under next spring, and the land planted to corn. Mr. Johnston is thoroughly convinced that he gets far more benefit from the manura when applied on the surface, and left ex- posed for several months, than if he plowed it under at once. I like to writs and talk about John Johnston. I like to visit him. He is so delightfully enthusiastic, believes so thoroughly in good farming, and has been so eminently successful, that a day spent in his company can not fail to encourage any farmer to re- newed efforts in improving his soil. " You must drain," he wrote to me; "when I first commence:! farming, I never made any money until I began to underdrain." But it is not underdraining alone that is th.3 cause of his eminent success. When he bought his farm, " near Geneva," over fifty years ago, thero was a pile of manure in the yard that had lain there year after year until it was, as ha said, " as black as my hat." The former owner regarded it as a nuisance, and a few months before young Johnston bought the farm, had given some darkies a cow on condition that they would draw out this manure. They drew out six loads, took the cow — and that was the last seen of them. Johnston drew out this manure, raised a good crop of wheat, and that gave him a start. He s.iys he has been asked a great many times to what he owes his success as a farmer, and ho has replied that he could not tell whether it was u dung or credit." It was probably neither. It was the man — his intelligence, industry, and good common sens?. That heap of black mould was merely an instrument in his hands that he could turn to good account. His first crop of wheat gave him " credit," and this also he used to advantage. He believed that good farming would pay, and it was this faith in a generous soil that made him willing to spend the money obtained from. th3 first crop of wheat in enriching the Lind, and to avail himself of his credit. Had he lacked this faith — had he hoarded every sixpence he could have ground out of the soil, who would have ever heard of John Johnston ? He has be?!i liberal with his crops and his animals, and has ever found them grateful. This is the real lesson which his life tenches. He once wrote me he had something to show me. He did not toll me what it was, and when I got there, he took me to a field of grass that was to be mown for hay. The field had been in winter wheat the year before. At the tiino of sowing the wheat, the b2 TALKS OX MANUKES. whole field was seeded down with timothy. No clover was sown cither then or in the spring ; but after the wheat was sown, ho put on a slight dressing of manure on two portions of the field that lie thought were poor, lie told the man to spread it out of the wagon just as thin as he could distribute it evenly over the land. It was a very light manuring, but the manure was rich, and thor- oughly rotted. I do not recollect whether the effect of the manure was particularly noticed on the wheat ; but on the grass, the fol- lowing spring, the effect was sufficiently striking. Those two por- tions of the field where the manure was spread were covered Kith a splendid crop of red clover. You could sec the exact line, in both cases, where the manure reached. It looked quite curious. No clover-seed was sown, and yet there was as fine a crop of clover as one could desire. On looking into the matter more closely, we found that there was more or less clover all over the field, but where the manure was not used, it could hardly be seen. Tho plants were small, and the timothy hid them from view. But where the manure was used, these plants of clover had been, stimulated in their growth until they covered the ground. The leaves were broad and vigorous, while in the other case they were small, and almost dried up. This is probably the right explanation. The manuro did not " bring in the clover ;" it simply increased the growth of that already in the soil. It shows the value of manure for grass. This is what Mr. Johnston wanted to show me. "I. might written and told you, but you would not have got a, clear idea of the matter." This is true. One had to see the great luxuriance of that piece of clover to fully appreciate the effect of the manure. Mr. J. said the manure on that grass was worth $00 an acre — Unit is, on the three crops of grass, before the field is again plowed. I have no doubt that this is true, and that the future crops on t.:c land will also be benefited — not directly from the manure, per- haps, but from the clover-roots in the soil. And if the field w;-ve pastured, the effect on future crops would be very decided. MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANUKE. 83 CHAPTER XX. MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANURE. One of the charms and the advantages of agriculture is that a farmer must think for himself. He should study principles, and apply them in practice, as best suits his circumstances. My own method of managing manure gives me many of the advantages claimed for the Deacon's method, and John Johnston's, also. " I do not understand what you mean," said the Deacon ; " my method differs essentially from that of John Johnston." " True," I replied, " you use your winter-made manure in the spring ; while Mr. Johnston piles his, and gets it thoroughly fer- mented ; but to do this, he has to keep it until the autumn, and it does not benefit his corn-crop before the next summer. He loses the use of his manure for a year." I think my method secures both these advantages. I get my winter-made manure fermented and in good condition, and yet have it ready for spring crops. In the first place, I should remark that my usual plan is to cut up all the fodder for horses, cows, and sheep. For horses, I some- times use long straw for bedding, but, as a rule, I prefer to run everything through a feed-cutter. We do not steam the food, and we let the cows and sheep have a liberal supply of cut corn-stalks and straw, and what they do not eat is thrown out of the mangers and racks, and used for bedding. I should state, too, that I keep a good many pigs, seldom having less than 50 breeding sows. My pigs are mostly sold at from two to four months old, but we probably average 150 head the year round. A good deal of my manure, therefore, comes from the pig-pens, and from two basement cellars, where my store hogs sleep in winter. In addition to the pigs, we have on the farm from 150 to 200 Cotswold and grade sheep ; 10 cows, and 8 horses. These are our manure makers. The raw material from which the manure is manufactured con- sists of wheat, barley, rye, and oat-straw, corn-stalks, corn-fodder, clover and timothy-hay, clover seed-hay, bean-straw, pea-straw, potato-tops, mangel-wurzel, turnips, rape, and mustard. These arc all raised on the farm ; and, in addition to the home-grown oats, peas, and corn, we buy and feed out considerable quantities 8i TALKS ON MANURES. of bran, shorts, fine-middlings, malt-combs, corn-ineal, and a little oil-cake. I sell wheat, rye, barley, and clover-seed, apples, and potatoes, and sometimes cabbages and turnips. Probably, on the average, for each $100 I receive from the sale of these crops, I purchase $25 worth of bran, malt-combs, corn-meal, and other feed for animals. My farm is no\v rapidl}' increasing in fertility a:id productiveness. The crops, on the average, are certainly at least double what they were when I bought the farm thirteen years ago ; and much of this increase has taken place during tha last five or six years, and I expect to sec still greater improvement year by year. " Never mind all that," said the Deacon ; " we all know that manure will enrich land, and I will concede that your farm has greatly improved, and can not help but improve if you continue to make and use as much manure." " I expect to make more and more manure every year," said I. " The larger the crops, the more manure we can make ; and the more manure we make, the larger the crops," The real point of difference between my plan of managing ma- nure, and the plan adopted by the Deacon, is essentially this : I aim to keep all my manure in a compact pile, where it will slowly ferment all winter. The Deacon throws his horse-manure into a heap, just outside the stable door, and the cow-manure into an- other heap, and the pig-manure into another heap. Those heaps are more or less scattered, and arc exposed to the rain, and snow, and frost. The horse-manure is quite likely to ferment too rap- Uly, and if in a large heap, and the weather is warm, it not unlikely "fire-fangs" in the center of the heap. On the other hand, the cow-manuro lies cold and dead, and during the winter freezes into solid lumps. I wheel or cart all my manure into one central heap. The main object is to keep it as compact as possible. There arc two advan- tages in this: 1st, the manure is less exposed to the ram, an.l (3d), when freezing weather sets in, only a few inches of the ex- ternal portion of the heap is frozen. I have practised this plan for several years, and can keep my heap of manure slowly fer- menting during the whole winter. But in order to ensure this result, it is necessary to begin mak- ing the heap before winter sets in. The plan is this : Having selected the spot in the yard most convenient for mak- ing the heap, collect all ths manure that can be found in the sheep- MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANURE. 85 yards, sheds, cow and horse stables, pig-pens, and hen-house, to- gether with leaves, weeds, and refuse from the garden, and wheel or cart it to the intended heap. If you set a farm-man to do the work, tell him you want to make a hot-bed about five feet high, six feet wide, and six feet long. I do not think I have ever seen a farm where enough material could not be found, say in November, to make such a heap. And this is all that is needed. If the ma- nure is rich, if it is obtained from animals eating clover-hay, bran, grain, or other food rich in nitrogen, it will soon ferment. But if the manure is poor, consisting largely of straw, it will be very de- sirable to make it richer by mixing with it bone-dust, blood, hen- droppings, woollen rags, chamber-lye, and animal matter of any kind that you can find. The richer you can make the manure, the more readily will it ferment. A good plan is to take the horse or sheep manure, a few weeks previous, and use it for bedding the pigs. It will absorb the liquid of the pigs, and make rich manure, which will soon ferment when placed in a heap. If the manure in the heap is too dry, it is a good plan, when you are killing hogs, to throw on to the manure all the warm water, hair, blood, intestines, etc. You may think I am making too much of such a simple matter, but I have had letters from farmers who have tried this plan of managing manure, and they say that they can not keep it from freezing. One reason for this is, that they do not start the heap early enough, and do not take pains to get the manure into an active fermentation before winter sets in. Much depends on this. In starting a fire, you take pains to get a little fine, dry wood, that will burn readily, and when the fire is fairly going, put on larger sticks, and presently you have such a fire that you can burn wood, coal, stubble, sods, or anything you wish. And so it is with a manure-heap. Get the fire, or fermen- tation, or, more strictly speaking, putrefaction fairly started, and there will be little trouble, if the heap is large enough, and fresh material is added from time to time, of continuing the fermenta- tion all winter. Another point to be observed, and especially in cold weather, is to keep the sides of the heap straight, and the top level. You must expose the manure in the heap as little as possible to i£»st and cold winds. The rule should be to spread every wheel-bar- rowful of manure as soon as it is put on the heap. If left un- spread on top of the heap, it will freeze ; and if afterwards cov- ered with other manure, it will require considerable heat to melt it, and thus reduce the temperature of the whole heap. 86 TALKS ON MANURES. It is far less work to manage a heap of manure in this way than may be supposed from my description of the plan. The truth is, I liiid, in point of fact, that it is not an easy thing to manage ma- nure hi this way ; and I fear not one farmer in ten will succeed the first winter he undertakes it, unless he gives it his personal at- tention. It is well worth trying, however, because if your heap should freeze up, it will be, at any rate, in no worse condition than if managed in the ordinary way ; and if you do succeed, even in part, you will have manure in good condition for immediate use in the spring. As I have said before, I keep a good many pigs. Now pigs, if fed on slops, void a large quantity of liquid manure, and it is not always easy to furnish straw enough to absorb it. When straw and stalks are cut into chaff, they will absorb much more liquid than when used whole. For this reason we usually cut all our straw and stalks. We also use the litter from the horse-stable for bedding the store hogs, and also sometimes, when comparatively dry, we use the refuse sheep bedding for the same purpose. Where the sheep barn is contiguous to the pig-pens, and when the sheep bedding can be thrown at once into the pig-pens or cellar, it is well to use bedding freely for the sheep and lambs, and remove it frequently, throwing it into the pig-pens. I do not want my sheep to be compelled to cat up the straw and corn-stalks too close. I want them to pick out what they like, and then throw away what they leave in the troughs, for bedding Sometimes we take out a five-bushel basketful of these direct from the troughs, for bedding young pigs, or sows and pigs in the pens, but as a rule, we use them first for bedding the sheep, and then afterwards use the sheep bedding in the fattening or store pig-pens. *•' And sometimes," remarked the Deacon, " you use a little long F.I raw for j*our young pigs to sleep on, so that they can bury tlu-m- selvcs in the straw and keep warm." 14 True," I replied. " and it is not a rnd plan, but we are not now talking about the management of pigs, but how we treat our manure, and how we manage to have it ferment all winter." A good deal of our pig-manure is, to borrow a phrase from the pomologists, "double-worked." It is horse or shecp-manr.re, used for bedding pigs and cows. It is saturated with urine, and is much richer in nitrogenous material than ordinary manure, and consequently will ferment or putrify much more rapidly. Usually pig-manure is considered "cold," or sluggish, but this double- MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANURE. 87 worked pig-manure will ferment even more rapidly than sheep or horse-manure alone. Unmixed cow-manure is heavy and cold, and when kept in a heap by itself out of doors, is almost certain to freeze up solid dur- ing the winter. We usually wheel out our cow-dung every day, and spread on the manure heap. This is one of the things that needs attention. There will be a constant tendency to put all the cow-dung together, instead of mixing it with the lighter and more active manure from the horses, sheep, and pigs. Spread it out and cover it with some of the more strawy manure, which is not so liable to freeze. Should it so happen — as will most likely be the case — that on looking at your heap some morning when the thermometer is below zero, you find that several wheel-barrowf uls of manure that were put on the heap the day before, were not spread, and are now crusted over with ice, it will bs well to break up the barrowfuls, even if necessary to use a crowbar, and place the frozen lumps of manure on the outside of the heap, rather than to let them lie in the center of the pile. Your aim should be always to keep the center of the heap warm and in a state of fermentation. You do not want the fire to go out, and it will not go out if the heap is prop- erly managed, even should all the sides and top be crusted over with a layer of frozen manure. During very severe weather, and when the top is frozen, it is a good plan, when you are about to wheel some fresh manure on to the heap, to remove a portion of the frozen crust on top of the heap, near the center, and make a hole for the fresh manure, which should be spread and covered up. When the heap is high enough, say five feet, we commence an- other heap alongside. In doing this, our plan is to clean out some of the sheep-sheds or pig-pens, where the manure has accumulated for some time. This gives us much more than the daily supply. Place this manure on the outside of the new heap, and then take a quantity of hot, fermenting, manure from the middle of the old heap, and throw it into the center of the new heap, and then cover it up with the fresh manure. I would put in eight or ten bushels, or as much as will warm up the center of the new heap, and start fermentation. The colder the weather, the more of this hot manure should you take from the old heap — the more the better. Fresh manure should be added to the old heap to fill up the hole made by the removal of the hot manure. 88 TALKS OX MANURES. " You draw out a great many loads of manure during the winter," said the Deacon, " and pile it in the field, and I have al- ways thought it a good plan, as you do the work when there is little else to do, and when the ground is frozen." Yes, this is an improvement on my old plan. I formerly used to turn over the heap of manure in the barn -yard in March, or as soon as fermentation had ceased. The object of turning the heap is (1st,) to mix the manure and make it of uniform quality ; (3d,) to break the lumps and make the manure fine ; and (3d,) to lighten up the manure and make it loose, thus letting in the air and inducing a second fermentation. It is a good plan, and well repays for the labor. In doing the work, build up the end and sides of the new heap straight, and keep the top flat. Have an eye on the man doing the work, and see that he breaks up the manure and mixes it thoroughly, and that he goes to the bottom oftJie heap. My new plan that the Deacon alludes to, is, instead of turning the heap in the yard, to draw the manure from the heap in the yard, and pile it up in another heap in the field where it is to be used. This has all the effects of turning, and at the same time saves a good deal of team-work in the spring. The location of the manure-heap in the field deserves some consideration. If the manure is to be used fc^ root-crops or po- tatoes, and if the land is to be ridged, and the manure put in the ridges, then it will be desirable to put the heap on the head- land, or, better still, to make two heaps, one on the headland top of the field, and the other on the headland at the bottom of thefield,as shown in the annexed engraving. We draw the manure with a cart, the horse walking between two of the riuirt-s (D), and the wheels of the cart going in C and E. The manure is pulled out at the back end of the cart iiuo small heaps, about five paces apart. ___ "That is what I object to with you A, B, Manure Heaps ; C, agricultural writers," said the Doctor ; " y < m D,E, Ridges, 2kft. ajxirt. say 'about five paces,' and sometimes ' about five paces would mean 4 yards, and sometimes G yards ; and if you CSH O O 0 0 0 0 n ? E 0 0 0 0 0 OH MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANUBE. 89 put 10 tons of manure per acre in the one case, you would put 15 tons in tho ot'-.er — which makes quite a difference in the dose." The Doctor is right. Let us figure a little. If your cart holds 20 bushels, and if the manure weighs 75 Ibs. to the bushel, and you wish to put on 10 tons of manure per acre, or 1,500 bushels, or 13^- cart-loads, then, as there are 43,560 square feet in an acre, you want a bushel of manure to 29 square feet, or say a space 2 yards long, by nearly 5 feet wide. Now, as our ridges are 2£ feet apart, and as our usual plan is to manure 5 ridges at a time, or 12-J- feet wide, a load of 20 bushels of manure will go over a space 46£ feet long, nearly, or say 15£ yards ; and so, a load would make 3 heaps, 15£ feet apart, and there would be 6| bushels in each heap. If the manure is to be spread on the surface of the land, there is no necessity for placing the heap on the headland. You can make the heap or heaps. — " Where most convenient," broke in the Dea- con.— " No, not by any means," I replied; "for if that was the rule, the men would certainly put the heap just where it happened to be the least trouble for them to draw and throw off the loads." The aim should be to put the heap just where it will require the least labor to draw the manure on to the land in the spring. On what wre call " rolling," or hilly land, I would put the heap on the highest land, so that in the spring the horses would be going down hill with the full carts or wagons. Of course, it would be very unwise to adopt this plan if the rnanurs was not Field, 40x20 Sods, showing Position of two Heaps of Manure, a, a. drawn from the yards until spring, when the land was soft; but I am now speaking of drawing out the manure in the winter, when there is sleighing, or when the ground is frozen. No farm- er will object to a little extra labor for the teams in the winter, if it will save work and time in the spring. 90 TALKS ON MANURES. If tha land is level, then the heap or heaps should be placed where the least distance will have to be traveled in drawing the manure from the heap to the land. If there is only one heap, the best point would be in the center of the field. If two heaps, and the field is longer than it is broad, say 20 rods wide, and 40 rods long, then the heaps should be made as shown on the previous page. If the field is square, say 40 x 40 rods, and we can have four heaps of manure, then, other things being equal, the best points for the heaps are shown in the annexed figure : :o RODS >saodor Field, 40x40 Tfocfs, showing Ibsttion of four JZsaps of Uauure, a. a, a, a. Having determined where to make the heaps, tho next question is in regard to size. We make one about 8 feet wide and 6 feet high, the length being determined by the quantity of the manure we have to draw. In cold weather, it is well to finish the heap each day as far as you go, so that the sloping side at the end of the heap will not be frozen during the night. Build up the sides square, so that the top of the heap shall be as broad as the bottom. You will have to see that this is done, for the average farm- man, if left to himself, will certainly narrow up the heap like the roof of a house. The reason he does this is that he throws the manure from the load into the center of the heap, and he can not build up the sides straight and square without getting on to the heap occasional ly, and placing a layer round the outsides. He MY OWN PLAN OF MANAGING MANURE. 91 should be instructed, too, to break up the lumps, and mix the ma- nure, working it over until it is loose and fine. If there are any frozen masses of manure, place them on the east or south outside, and not in the middle of the heap. If there is any manure in the sheds, or basements, or cellars, or pig-pens, clean it out, and draw it at once to the pile in the field, and mix it with the manure you are drawing from the heap in the yard. We generally draw with two teams and three wagons. We have one man to fill the wagon in the yard, and two men to drive and unload. When the man comes back from the field, he places his empty wagon by the side of the heap in the yard, and takes off the horses and puts them to the loaded wagon, and drives to the heap in the field. If we have men and teams enough, we draw with three teams and three wagons. In this case, we put a reliable man at the heap, who helps the driver to unload, and sees that the heap is built properly. The driver helps the man in the yard to load up. In the former plan, we have two teams and three men ; in the latter case, we have three teams and five men, and as we have two men loading and unloading, instead of one, we ought to draw out double the quantity of manure in a day. If the weather is cold and windy, we put the blankets on the horses un- der the harness, so that they will not be chilled while standing at the heap in the yard or field. They will trot back lively with the empty wagon or sleigh, and the work will proceed briskly, and the manure be less exposed to the cold. " You do not," said the Doctor, " draw the manure on to the heap with a cart, and dump it, as I have seen it done in England ? " I did so a few years ago, and might do so again if I was piling manure in the spring, to be kept over summer for use in the fall. The compression caused by drawing the cart over the manure, has a tendency to exclude the air and thus retard fermentation. In the winter there is certainly no necessity for resorting to any means for checking fermentation. In the spring or summer it may be well to compress the heap a little, but not more, I think, than can be done by the trampling of the workman in spreading the manure on the heap. " You do not," said the Doctor, " adopt the old-fashioned English plan of keeping your manure in a basin in the barn-yard, and yet I should think it has some advantages." 92 TALKS OX MANURES. " I practised it here," said I, " for some years. I plowed and scraped a large hole or basin in the yard four or five feet deep, with a gradual slope at one end for convenience in drawing out the loads — the other sides being much steeper. I also made a tank at the bottom to hold the drainage, and had a pump in it to pump the liquid back on to the heap in dry weather. We threw or wheeled the manure from the stables and pig-pens into this basin, but I did not like the plan, for two reasons : (1,) the manure being spread over so large a surface froze during winter, and (2,) during the spring there was so much water in the basin that it checked fermentation." Now, instead of spreading it all over the basin, we commenced a small heap on one of the sloping sides of the basin ; with a horse and cart we drew to this heap, just as winter set in, every bit of manure that could be found on the premises, and everything that would make manure. When got all together, it made a heap seven or eight feet wide, twenty feet long, and three or four feet high. We then laid planks on the heap, and every day, as the pig-pens, cow and horse stables were cleaned out, the manure was wheeled on to the heap and shaken out and spread about. The heap soon commenced to ferment, and when the cold weather set in, although the sides and some parts of the top froze a little, the inside kept quite warm. Little chimneys were formed in the heap, where the heat and steam escaped. Other parts of the heap would be covered with a thin crust of frozen manure. By taking a few forkfuls of the latter, and placing them on the top of the "chimneys," they checked the escape of steam, and had a tendency to distribute the heat to other parts of the heap. In this way the fermentation be- came more general throughout all the mass, and not so violent at any one spot. " But why be at all this trouble ? " — For several reasons. First. It saves labor in the end. Two hours' work, in winter, will save three hours' work in the spring. And three hours' work in the spring is worth more than four hours' work in the winter. So that we save half the expense of handling the manure. 3d. When manure is allowed to lie scattered about over a large surface, it is liable to have much of its value washed out by the rain. In a com- pact heap of this kind, the rain or snow that falls on it is not more than the manure needs to keep it moist enough for fermentation. 3d. There is as much fascination in this fermenting heap of manure as there is in having money in a savings bank. One is continually trying to add to it. Many a cart-load or wheel-barrow- ful of material will be deposited that would otherwise be allowed MY OWN PLAN OP MANAGING MANURE. 93 to run to waste. 4th. The manure, if turned over in February or March, will be in capital order for applying to root crops ; or if your hay and straw contains weed-seeds, the manure will be in good condition to spread as a top-dressing on grass-land early in the spring. This, I think, is better than keeping it in the yards all summer, and then drawing it out on the grass land in Septem- ber. You gain six months' or a year's time. You get a splendid growth of rich grass, and the red-root seeds will germinate next September just as well as if the manure was drawn out at that time. If the manure is drawn out early in the spring, and spread out immediately, and then harrowed two or three times with a Thomas' smoothing-harrow, there is no danger of its imparting a rank flavor to the grass. I know from repeated trials that when part of a pasture is top-dressed, cows and sheep will keep it much more closely cropped down than the part which has not been manured. The idea to the contrary originated from not spread- ing the manure evenly. " But why ferment the manure at all ? Why not draw it out fresh from the yards ? Does fermentation increase the amount of plant-food in the manure ? " — No. But it renders the plant-food in the manure more immediately available. It makes it more soluble. We ferment manure for the same reason that we de- compose bone-dust or mineral phosphates with sulphuric acid, and convert them into superphosphate, or for the same reason that we grind our corn and cook the meal. These processes add nothing to the amount of plant-food in the bones or the nutriment in the corn. They only increase its availability. So in fermenting manure. When the liquid and solid excrements from well-fed animals, with the straw necessary to absorb the liquid, are placed in a heap, fermentation sets in and soon effects very important changes in the nature and composition of the materials. The in- soluble woody fibre of the straw is decomposed and converted into humic and ulmic acids. These are insoluble ; and when manure consists almost wholly of straw or corn stalks, there would be little gained by fermenting it. But when there is a good propor- tion of manure from well feel animals in the heap, carbonate of ammonia is formed from the nitrogenous compounds in the manure, and this ammonia unites with the humic and ulmic acids and forms humate and ulmate of ammonia. These ammoniacal salts are soluble in water — as the brown color of the drainings of a manure heap sufficiently indicates. Properly fermented manure, therefore, of good quality, is a much more active and immediately useful fertilizer than fresh, un- 94 TALKS OX MANURES. fermented manure. There need be no loss of ammonia from evaporation, and the manure is far less bulky, and costs far less labor to draw out and spread. The only loss that is likely to occur is from leaching, and this must be specially guarded against. CHAPTER XXI. THE MANAGEMENT OF MANURES.— CONTINUED. WHY DO WE FERMENT MANURE? However much farmers may differ in regard to the advantages or disadvantages of fermenting manure, I have never met with one who contended that it was good, either in theory or practice, to leave manure for months, scattered over a barn-yard, exposed to the spring and autumn rains, and to the summer's sun and wind. All admit that, if it is necessary to leave manure in the yarils, it should be cither thrown into a basin, or put into a pile or heap, where it will be compact, and not much exposed. We did not need the experiments of Dr. Vrelcker to convince us that there was great waste in leaving manure exposed to the leaching action of our heavy rains. We did not know exactly how much we lost, but we knew it must be considerable. No one ad- vocates the practice of exposing manure, and it is of no use to dis- cuss the matter. All will admit that it is unwise and wasteful to allow manure to lie scattered and exposed over the barn-yards any longer than is absolutely necessary. We should either draw it directly to the field and use it, or we should make it into a compact heap, where it will not receive more rain than is needed to keep it moist One reason for piling manure, therefore, is to preserve it from loss, until we wish to use it on the land. " We all admit that," said the Deacon, " but is there anything actually gained by fermenting it in the heap ? " — In one sense, DO ; but in another, and very important sense, yes. When we cook corn -meal for our little pigs, we add nothing to it. We have no more meal after it is cooked than before. There are no more starch, or oil, or nitrogenous matters in the meal, but we think the pigs can digest the food more readily. And so, in fermenting THE MANAGEMENT OF MANURES. 95 manure, we add nothing to it ; there is no more actual nitrogen, or phosphoric acid, or potash, or any other ingredient after fer- mentation than there was before, but these ingredients are rendered more soluble, and can be more rapidly taken up by the plants. In this sense, therefore, there is a great gain. One thing is certain, we do not, in many cases, get anything like as much benefit from our manure as the ingredients it con- tains would lead us to expect. Mr. Lawes, on his clayey soil at Rothamsted, England, has grown over thirty crops of wheat, year after year, on the same land. One plot has received 14 tons of barn-yard manure per acre every year, and yet the produce from this plot is no larger, and, in fact, is frequently much less, than from a few hundred pounds of artificial manure containing far less nitrogen. For nineteen years, 1852 to 1870, some of the plots have received the same manure year after year. The following shows the aver- age yield for the nineteen years : Wheat Straw per acre. per acre. Plot 5.— Mixed mineral manure, alone 17 bus. 15 cwt. u 6. — Mixed mineral manure, and 200 Ibs. ummo- niacal salts 27 bus. 25 cwt. " 7. — Mixed mineral manure, and 400 Ibs. ammo- niacal salts S6 bus. 30 cwt. " 9. — Mixed mineral manure, and 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda 37 bus. 41 cwt. " 2. — 14 tons farm-yard Jung 86 bus. 84 cwt. The 14 tons (31,360 Ibs.) of farm-yard manure contained about 8,540 Ibs. organic matter, 868 Ibs. mineral matter, and 200 Ibs. ni- trogen. The 400 Ibs. of aminoniacal salts, and the 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda, each contained 82 Ibs. of nitrogen; and it will be seen that this 82 Ibs. of nitrogen produced as great an effect as the 200 Ibs. of nitrogen in barn-yard manure. Similar experiments have been made on barley, with even more striking results. The plot dressed with 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime, and 200 Ibs. ammoniacal salts per acre, produced as large a crop as 14 tons of farm-yard manure. The average yield of barley for nineteen crops grown on the same land each year was 48 bus. and 28 cwt. of straw per acre on both plots. In other words, 41 Ibs. of nitrogen, in ammoniacal salts, produced as great an effect as 200 Ibs. of nitrogen in farm-yard manure ! During the nineteen years, one plot had received 162,260 Ibs. of organic matter, 16,492 Ibs. of mineral matter, and 3,800 Ibs. of nitrogen ; while the other had received only 5,700 Ibs. mineral matter, and 779 Ibs. of nitrogen— and yet one has produced as large a crop as the other. 96 TALKS ON MANURES. Why this difference ? It will not do to say that more nitrogen was applied in the farm-yard manure than was needed. Mr. Lawes says : " For some years, an amount of ammonia-salts, con- taining 82 Ibs. of nitrogen, was applied to one series of plots (on barley), but this was found to be too much, the crop generally being too heavy and laid. Yet probably about 200 Ibs. of nitrogen was annually supplied in the dung, but with it there was no over- luxuriance, and DO more crop, than where 41 Ibs. of nitrogen was supplied in the form of ammonia or nitric acid." It would seem that there can be but one explanation of these accurately-ascertained facts. The nitrogenous matter in the ma- nure is not in an available condition. It is in the manure, but the plants can not take it up until it is decomposed and rendered sol- uble. Dr. Vo3lcker analyzed " perfectly fresh horse-dung," and found that of free ammonia there was not more than one pound in 15 tons ! And yet these 15 tons contained nitrogen enough to furnish 140 Ibs. of ammonia. " But," it may be asked, " will not this fresh manure decompose in the soil, and furnish ammonia ? " In light, sandy soil, I pre- sume it will do so to a considerable extent. We know that clay mixed with manure retards fermentation, but sand mixed with manure accelerates fermentation. This, at any rate, is the case when sand is added in small quantities to a heap of fermenting manure. But I do not suppose it would have the same effect when a small quantity of manure is mixed with a large amount of sand, as is the case when manure is applied to land, and plowed under. At any rate, practical farmers, with almost entire unanimity, think well-rotted manure is better for sandy land than fresh manure. As to how rapidly, or rather how slowly, manure decomposes in a rather heavy loamy soil, the above experiments of Mr. Lawes afford very conclusive, but at the same time very discouraging evidence. During the 19 years, 3,800 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 16,492 Ibs. of mineral matter, in the form of farm-yard manure, were ap- plied to an acre of land, and the 19 crops of barley in grain and straw removed only 3,724 Ibs. of mineral matter, and 1,064 Ibs. of nitrogen. The soil now contains, unless it has drained away, 1,736 Ibs. more nitrogen per acre than it did when the experiments commenced. And yet 41 Ibs. of nitrogen in an available condit'on is sufficient to produce a good large crop of barley, and 82 Ibs. per acre furnished more than the plants could organize. " Those are very interesting experiments," said the Doctor, " an1 show why it is that our farmers can afford to pay a higher price for nitrogen and phosphoric acid in superphosphate, and other ar- THE MANAGEMENT OF MANURES. 97 tificial manures, than for the same amount of nitrogen and phos- phoric acid in stable-manure." We will not discuss this point at present. What I want to as- certain is, whether we can not find some method of making our farm-yard manure more readily available. Piling it up, and let- ting it ferment, is one method of doing this, though I think other methods will yet be discovered. Possibly it will be found that spreading well-rotted manure on the surface of the land will be one of the most practical and simplest methods of accomplishing this object. "We pile the manure, therefore," said Charley, "first, because we do not wish it to lie exposed to the rain in the yards, and, second, because fermenting it in the heap renders it more soluble, and otherwise more available for the crops, when applied to the land." That is it exactly, and another reason for piling manure is, that the fermentation greatly reduces its bulk, and we have less labor to perform in drawing it out and spreading it. Ellwanger & Barry, who draw several thousand loads of stable-manure every year, and pile it up to ferment, tell me that it takes three loads of fresh manure to make one load of rotted manure. This, of course, has reference to bulk, and not weight. Three tons of fresh barn-yard manure, according to the experiments of Dr. Vcslcker, will make about two tons when well rotted. Even this is a great saving of labor, and the rotted manure can be more easily spread, and mixed more thoroughly with the soil — a point of great importance. lc Another reason for fermenting manure," said the Squire, " is the destruction of weed-seeds." " That is true," said I, " and a very important reason ; but I try not to think about this method of killing weed-seeds. It is a great deal better to kill the weeds. There can be no doubt that a fer- menting manure-heap will kill many of the weed-seeds, but enough will usually escape to re-seed the land." It is fortunate, however, that the best means to kill weed-seeds in the manure, are also the best for rendering the manure most efficient. I was talking to John Johnston on this subject a few days ago. He told me how he piled manure in his yards. " I commence," he said, " where the heap is intended to be, and throw the manure on one side, until the bare ground is reached." " What is the use of that ?" I asked. " If you do not do so," he replied, " there will be some portion of 5 98 TALKS OX MANURES. the manure under the heap that will be so compact that it will not ferment, and the weed-seeds will not be killed." " You think," said I, " that weed-seeds can be killed in this way? " " I know they can," he replied," but the heap must be carefully made, so that it will ferment evenly, and wrhen the pile is turned, the bottom and sides should be thrown into the center of the heap." , LOSS OF AMMONIA BY FERMENTING MANURE. If you throw a quantity of fresh horse-manure into a loose heap, fermentation proceeds with great rapidity. Much heat is produced, ami if the manure is under cover, or there is not rain enough to keep the heap moist, the manure will "fire-fang" and a large pro- portion of the carbonate of ammonia produced by the fermentation will escape into the atmosphere and be lost. As I have said before, we use our horse-manure for bedding the store and fattening pigs. We throw the manure every morning and evening, when the stable is cleaned out, into an empty .-tall near the door of the stable, and there it remains until wanted to bed the pigs. We find it is necessary to remove it frequently, especially in the summer, as fermentation soon sets in, and the escape of the ammonia is detected by its well known pungent smell. Throw this manure into the pig-cellar and let the pigs trample it down, and there is no longer any escape of ammonia. At any rate, I have never perceived any. Litmus paper will detect ammonia in an atmosphere containing only one se vent}' live thousandth part of it; and, as Prof. S. W. Johnson once remarked, "It is certain that a healthy nose is not far inferior in delicacy to litmus paper." I feel sure that no ammonia escapes from this horse-manure after it is trampled down by the pigs, although it contains an additional quantity of " potential ammonia " from the liquid and solid droppings of these animals. Water has a strong attraction for ammonia. One gallon of ice- cold water will absorb 1,150 gallons of ammonia. If the manure, therefore, is moderately moist, the ammonia is not likely to escape. Furthermore, as Dr. Ycslcker has shown us, during the fermentation of the manure in a heap, ulmic and liuiric, creuic and aprocrenic acids are produced, and these unite with the ammonia and "fix" it — in other words, they change it from a volatile gas into a non-volatile salt. If the hoap of manure, therefore, is moist enough and large enough, all the evidence goes to show, that there is little or no loss of ammonia. If the centre of the heap gets so hot and so dry that the ammonia is not retained, there is still no necessity for loss. THE MANAGEMENT (X? MANURES. 99 The sides of the heap are cool and moist, and will retain the car- bonate of ammonia, the acids mentioned also coming into play. The ammonia is much more likely to escape from the top of the heap than from the sides. The heat and steam form little chim- neys, and when a fermenting manure-heap is covered with snow, these little chimneys are readily seen. If you think the manure is fermenting too rapidly, and that the ammonia is escaping, trample the manure down firmly about the chimneys, thus closing them up, and if need be, or if convenient, throw more manure on top, or throw on a few pailfuls of water. It is a good plan, too, where convenient, to cover the heap with soil. I sometimes do this when piling manure in the field, not from fear of losing ammonia, but in order to retain moisture in the heap. With proper precautions, I think we may safely dismiss the idea of any serious loss of ammonia from fermenting manure. THE WASTE OF MANURE FROM LEACHING. As we have endeavored to show, there is little danger of losing ammonia by keeping and fermenting manure. But this is not the only question to be considered. We have seen that in 10,000 Ibs. of fresh farm-yard manure, there is about 64 Ibs. of nitrogen. Of this, about 15 Ibs. are soluble, and 49 Ibs. insoluble. Of mineral matter, we have in this quantity of manure, 559 Ibs., of which 154 Ibs. are soluble in water, and 405 Ibs. insoluble. If we had a heap of five tons of fermenting manure in a stable, the escape of half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia would make a tremendous smell, and we should at once use. means to check the escape of this pre- cious substance. But it will be seen that we have in this five tons of fresh manure, nitrogenous matter, capable of forming over 180 Ibs. of carbonate of ammonia, over 42 Ibs. of which is in a soluble condition. This may be leached day after day, slowly and imperceptibly, with no heat, or smell, to attract attention. How often do we see manure lying under the eaves of an un- spouted shed or barn, where one of our heavy showers will satu- rate it in a few minutes, and yet where it will lie for hours, and days, and weeks, until it would seem that a large proportion of its soluble matter would be washed out of it ! The loss is unques- tionably very great, and would be greater if it were not for the coarse nature of the material, which allows the water to pass through it rapidly and without coming in direct contact with only the outside portions of the particles of hay, straw, etc., of which the manure is largely composed. If the manure was ground up very fine, as it would be when prepared for analysis, the loss of 100 TALKS ON MANUKES. soluble matter would be still more serious. Or, if the manure was first fermented, so that the particles of matter would be more or less decomposed and broken up fine, the rain would wash out a large amount of soluble matter, and prove much more injurious than if the manure was fresh and unfermented. " That is an argument," said the Deacon, " against your plan of piling and fermenting manure." " Not at all," I replied ; " it is a strong reason for not letting manure lie under the eaves of an unspouted building — especially good manure, that is made from rich food. The better the manure, th2 more it will lose from bad management. I have never recommended any one to pile their manure where it would receive from ten to twenty times as much water as would fall on the sur- face of the heap." " But you do recommend piling manure and fermenting it in the open air and keeping the top flat, so that it will catch all the rain, and I think your heaps must sometimes get pretty well soaked." " Soaking the heap of manure," I replied, " does not wash out any of its soluble matter, provided you carry the matter no further than the point of saturation. The water may, and doubtless does, wash out the soluble matter from some portions of the manure, but if the water does not filter through the heap, but is all absorbed by the manure, there is no loss. It is when the water passes through the heap that it runs away with our soluble nitrogenous and min- eral matter, and with any ready formed ammonia it may find in the manure." How to keep cows tied up in the barn, and at the same time save all the urine, is one of the most difficult problems I have to deal with in the management of manure on my farm. The best plan I have yet tried is, to throw horse-manure, or sheep-manure, back of the cows, where it will receive and absorb the urine. The plan works well, but it is a question of labor, and the answer will depend on the arrangement of the buildings. If the horses are kept near the cows, it will be little trouble to throw the horse- litter, every clay, under or back of the cows. In my own case, my cows are kept in a basement, with a tight barn -floor overhead. When this barn-floor is occupied with sheep, we keep them well-bedded with straw, and it is an easy matter to throw this soiled bedding down to the cow-stable below, where it is used to absorb the urine of the cows, and is then wheeled out to the manure-heap in the yard. At other times, we use dry earth as an absorbent. MANUKE OX DAIIIY-FAKMS. 101 CHAPTER XXII. MANURE ON DAIRY-FARMS. Farms devoted principally to dairying ought to be richer and more productive than farms largely devoted to the production of grain. Nearly all the produce of the farm is used to feed the cows, and little is sold but milk, or cheese, or butter. When butter alone is sold, there ought to be no loss of fertilizing matter — as pure butter or oil contains no nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash. It contains nothing but carbonaceous matter, which can be removed from the farm without detriment. And even in the case of milk, or cheese, the advantage is all on the side of the dairyman, as compared with the grain-grower. A dollar's worth of milk or cheese removes far less nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash, than a dollar's worth of wheat or other grain. Five hundred Ibs. cf cheese contains about 25 Ibs. of nitro- gen, and 20 Ibs. of mineral matter. A cow that would make this amount of cheese would eat not less than six tons of hay, or its equivalent in grass or grain, in a year. And this amount of food, supposing it to be half clover and half ordinary meadow-hay, would contain 240 Ibs. of nitrogen and 810 Ibs. of mineral matter. In other words, a cow eats 240 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 25 Ibs. are re- moved in the cheese, or not quite 10£ per cent, and of mineral matter not quite 2^ per cent is removed. If it takes three acres to produce this amount of food, there will be 8£ Ibs. of nitrogen removed by the cheese, per acre, while 30 bushels of wheat would remove in the grain 32 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 10 to 15 Ibs. in the straw. So that a crop of wheat removes from five to six times as much nitrogen per acre as a crop of cheese ; and the removal of mineral matter in cheese is quite insignificant as compared with the amount removed in a crop of wheat or corn. If our grain- growing farmers can keep up the fertility of their land, as they undoubtedly can, the dairymen ought to be making theirs richer and more productive every year. " All that is quite true," said the Doctor, " and yet from what I have seen and heard, the farms in the dairy districts, do not, as a rule, show any rapid improvement. In fact, we hear it often alleged that the soil is becoming exhausted of phosphates, and that the quantity and quality of the grass is deteriorating/' 102 TALKS OX MANURES. "There may be sorno truth in this," said I, "and yet I will hazard the prediction that in no other branch of agriculture shall we witness a more decided improvement during the next twenty- five years than on farms largely devoted to the dairy. Grain-grow- ing farmers, like our friend the Deacon, here, who sells his grain and never brings home a load of manure, and rarely buy?, even ;\ ton of bran to feed to stock, and who sells more or less hay, must certainly be impoverishing their soils of phosphates much more rapidly than the dairyman who consumes nearly all his produce on the farm, and sells little except milk, butter, cheese, young calves, and old cows." "Bones had a wonderful effect," said the Doctor, "on the old pastures in the dairy district of Cheshire in England." " Undoubtedly," I replied, "and so they will here, and so would well-rotted manure. There is nothing in this fact to prove that dairying specially robs the soil of phosphates. It is not phosphates that the dairyman needs so much as richer manure." " What would you add to the manure to make it richer?" asked the Doctor. "Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potaah," I repli " But how ? " asked the Deacon. " I suppose," said the Doctor, " by buying guano and the German potash salts." " That would be a good plan," said I ; " but I would do it by buy- ing bran, mill-feed, brewer's-grains, malt-combs, corn-meal, oil- cake, or whatever was best and cheapest in proportion to value. Bran or mill-feed can often be bought at a price at which it will pay to use it freely for manure. A few tons of bran worked into a pile of cow-dung would warm it up and add considerably to its value. It would supply the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, in which ordinary manure is deficient. In short, it would convert poor manure into rich manure." " Well, well," exclaimed the Deacon, " I knew you talked of mix- ing dried-blood and bone-dust with your manure, but I did not think you would advocate anything quite so extravagant as taking good, wholesome bran and spout-feed and throwing it on to your manure-pile." " Why, Deacon," said I, "we do it every day. I am putting about a ton of spout-feed, malt-combs and corn-meal each week into my manure-pile, and that is the reason why it ferments so readily even in the winter. It converts my poor manure into good, rich, well-decomposed dung, one load of which is worth three loads of your long, strawy manure." MANURE OX DAIUY-FAEMS. 103 " Do you not wet it and let it ferment before putting it in the pile?" "No, Deacon," said I, "I feed the bran, malt-combs and corn- meal to the cows, pigs, and sheep, and let them do the mixing. They work it up fine, moisten it, break up the particles, take out the carbonaceous matter, which we do not need for manure, and the cows and sheep and horses mix it up thoroughly with the hay, straw, and corn-stalks, leaving the whole in just the right con- dition to put into a pile to ferment or to apply directly to. the land." " Oh ! I see," said the Deacon, " I did not think you used bran for manure." u Yes, I do, Deacon," said I, " but I use it for food first, and this is precisely what I would urge you and all others to do. I feel sure that our dairymen can well afford to buy more mill-feed, corn-meal, oil-cake, etc., and mix it with their cow-dung — or rather, let the cows do the mixing." LETTER FROM THE HOK HARRIS LEWIS. I wrote to the Hon. Harris Lewis, the well-known dairyman of Herkiiner Co., N. Y., asking him some questions in regard to mak- ing and managing manure on dairy farms. The questions will b3 understood from the answers. He writes as follows: " My Friend Harris. — This being the first leisure time I have had since the receipt of your last letter, I devote it to answering your questions : ' ' 1st. I have no manure cellar. 14 1 bed my cows with dry basswood sawdust , saving all the liquid manure, keeping the cows clean, and the stable odors down to a tolerable degree. This bedding breaks up the tenacity of the cow-manure, rendering it as easy to pulverize and manage as clear horse-manure. I would say it is just lovely to bed cows with dry basswood sawdust. This manure, if left in a large pile, will ferment and burn like horse-manure in about 10 days. Hence I draw it out as made where I desire to use it, leaving it in small heaps, con- venient to spread. " My pigs and calves are bedded with straw, and this is piled and rotted before using. " I use most of my manure on grass land, and mangels, some on corn and potatoes ; but it pays me best, when in proper condition, to apply all I do not need for mangels, on meadow and pasture. "Forty loads, or about 18 to 20 cords is a homoeopathic dose for an acre, and this quantity, or more, applied once in three years to grass land, agrees with it first rate. 104 TALKS ON MANURES. " The land where I grow mangels gets about this dose every year. " I would say that my up-land meadows have been mown twice each year for a great many years. " I have been using refuse salt from Syracuse, on my mangels, at the rate of about six bushels per acre, applied broadcast in two applications. My hen-manure is pulverized, and sifted through a common coal sieve. The fine I use for dusting the mangels after they have been singled out, and the lumps, if any, are used to warm up the red peppers. " I have sometimes mixed my hen-manure with dry muck, in the proportion of one bushel of hen-manure to 10 of muck, and received a profit from it too big to tell of, on corn, and on mangels. " I have sprinkled the refuse salt on my cow-stable floors some- tunes, but where all the liquid is saved, I think we have salt enough for most crops. " I have abandoned the use of plaster on my pastures for the reason that milk produced on green-clover is not so good as that produced on the grasses proper. I use all the wood ashes I can get, on my mangels as a duster, and consider their value greater than the burners do who sell them to me for 15 cts. a bushel. I have never used much lime, and have not received the expected benefits from its use so far. But wood ashes agree with my land as well as manure does. The last question you ask, but one, is this: ' What is the usual plan of managing manure in the dairy districts ? ' The usual method is to cut holes in the sides of the stable, about every ten feet along the whole length of the barn behind Hie cow?, and pitch the manure out through these holes, under the eaves of the barn, where it remains until too much in the way, when it is drawn out and commonly applied to grass land in lumps as big as your head. This practice is getting out of fashion a little now, but m-arly one-half of all the cow-manure made in Herkimer Co. is lost, wasted. " Your last question, * What improvement would you suggest,' I answer by saying it is of no use to make any to these men, it would be wasted like their manure. " The market value of manure in this county is 50 cts. per big load, or about one dollar per cord." " That is a capital letter," said the Deacon. " It is right to tlie point, and no nonsense about it." "He must make a good deal of manure," said the Doctor, "to be able to use 40 loads to the acre on his meadows and MANURE ON DAIRY-FARMS. 105 pastures once in three years, and the same quantity eveiy year on his field of mangel- wui'zel." " That is precisely what I have been contending for," I replied ; " the dairymen can make large quantities of manure if they make an effort to do it, and their farms ought to be constantly improving. Two crops of hay on the same meadow, each year, will enable a farmer to keep a large herd of cows, and make a great quantity of manure — and when you have once got the manure, there is no dif- ficulty in keeping up and increasing the productiveness of the land." HOW TO MAKE MORE AND BETTER MANURE ON DAIRY FARMS. " You are right," said the Doctor, "in saying that there is no dif- ficulty in keeping up and increasing the productiveness of our dairy farms, when you have once got plenty of manure — but the difficulty is to get a good supply of manure to start with." This is true, and it is comparatively slow work to bring up a farm, unless you have plenty of capital and can buy all the artificial manure you want. By the free use of artificial manures, you could make a farm very productive in one or two years. But the slower and cheaper method will be the one adopted by most of our young and intelligent dairymen. Few of us are born with silver spoons in our mouths. We have to earn our money before we can spend it, and we are none the worse for the discipline. Suppose a young man has a farm of 100 acres, devoted principally to dairying. Some of the land lies on a creek or river, while other portions are higher and drier. In the spring of the year, a stream of water runs through a part of the farm from the adjoining hills down to the creek or river. The farm now supports ten head of cows, three horses, half a dozen sheep, and a few pigs. The land is worth $75 per acre, but does not pay the interest on half that sum. It is getting worse instead of better. Weeds are multiplying, and the more valuable grasses are dying out. What is to be done ? In the first place, let it be distinctly understood that the land is not exhausted. As I have before said, the productiveness of a farm does not depend so much on the absolute amount of plant-food which the soil contains, as on the amount of plant-food which is immediately available for the use of the plants. An acre of land that produces half a ton of hay, may contain as much plant-food as an acre that produces three tons of hay. In the one case the plant-food is locked up in such a form that the crops cannot absorb it, while in the other it is in an available condition. I have no doubt there are fields on the farm I am alluding to, that contain 106 TALKS ON MANURES. 3,000 Ibs. of nitrogen, and an equal amount of phosphoric acid, per acre, in the first six inches of the surface soil. This is as much nitrogen as is contained in 100 tons of meadov;- hay, and more phosphoric acid than is contained in 350 tons of meadow-hay. These are the two ingredients on which the fertility of our farms mainly depend. And yet there are soils containing this quantity of plant-food that do not produce more than half a ton of hay per acre. In some fields, or parts of fields, the land is wet and the plants cannot take up the food, even while an abundance of it is within reach. The remedy in this case is under-draining. On other fields, the plant-food is locked up in insoluble combinations. In this case we must plow up the soil, pulverize it, and expose it to the oxygen of the atmosphere. We must treat the soil as my mother used to tell me to treat my coffee, when I complained that it was not sweet enough. " I put plenty of sugar in," she said, " and if you will stir it up, the coffee will be sweeter." The sugar lay un- dissolved at the bottom of the cup ; and so it is with many of our soils. There is plenty of plant-food in them, but it needs stirring up. They contain, it may be, 3,OCO Ibs. of nitrogen, and other plant-food in still greater proportion, and we arc only getting a crop that contains 18 Ibs. of nitrogen a year, and of this probably the rain supplies 9 Ibs. Let us stir up the soil and see if •we cannot set 100 Ibs. of this 3,000 Ibs. of nitrogen free, and get three tons of hay per acre instead of half a ton. There arc men who own a large amount of valuable property in vacant city lots, who do not get enough from them to pay their taxes. If they would sell half of them, and put buildings on the other half, they might soon have a handsome income. And so it is with many farmers. They have the elements of 100 tons of hay lying dor- ment in every acre of their land, while they are content to receive half a ton a year. They have property enough, but it is unprocluc tive, while they pay high taxes for the privilege of holding it, and high wages for the pleasure of boarding two or three hired men. \Yc have, say, 3,000 Ibs. of nitrogen locked up in each acre of our soil, and we get 8 or 10 Ibs. every year in rain and dew, and yet, practically, ail that we want, ta make our farms highly productive, is 100 Ibs. of nitrogen psr acre per annum. And furthermore, it should be remembered, that to keep our farms rich, after we have once got them rich, it is not necessary to de- velope this amount of nitrogen from the soil every year. In the case of clover-hay, the entire loss of nitrogen in the animal and in the milk would not exceed 15 per cent, so that, when we feed out MANURE ON DAIRY-FARMS. 107 100 Ibs. of nitrogen, we have 85 Ibs. left in the manure. We want to develope 100 Ibs. of nitrogen in the soil, to enable us to raise a good crop to start with, and when this is once done, an annual development of 15 Ibs. per acre in addition to the manure, would keep up the productiveness of the soil. Is it not worth while, therefore, to make an earnest effort to get started ? — to get 100 Ibs. of nitrogen in the most available condition in the soil ? As I said before, this is practically all that is needed to give us large crops. This amount of nitrogen represents about twelve tons of average barn-yard manure — that is to say, twelve tons contains 100 Ibs. of nitrogen. But in point of fact it is not in an imme- diately available condition. It would probably take at least two years before all the nitrogen it contains would be givc-n up to the plants. We want, therefore, in order to give us a good start, 24 tons of barn-yard manure on every acre of land. How to get this is the great problem which our young dairy farmer has to solve. In the grain-growing districts we get it in part by summer- fallowing, and I believe the dairyman might often do the same thing with advantage. A thorough summer-fallow would not only clean the land, but would render some of the latent plant- food available. This will be organized in the next crop, and when the dairyman has once got the plant-food, he has decidedly the advantage over the grain-growing farmer in his ability to retain it. He need not lose over 15 per cent a year of nitrogen, and not one per cent of the other elements of plant-food. The land lying on the borders of the creek could be greatly benefited by cutting surface ditches to let off the water; and later, probably it will be found that a few underdrains can be put in to advantage. These alluvial soils on the borders of creeks and rivers arc grand sources of nitrogen and other plant-food. I do not know the fact, but it is quite probable that the meadows which Harris Lewis mows twice a year, are on the banks of the river, and are perhaps flooded in the spring. But, be this as it may, there is a field on the farm I am alluding to, lying on the creek, which now produces a bountiful growth of weeds, rushes, and coarse grasses, which I am sure could easily be made to produce great crops of hay. The creek overflows in the spring, and the water lies on some of the lower parts of the field until it is evaporated. A few ditches would allow all the water to pass off, and this alone would be a great improvement. If the field was flooded in May or June, and thoroughly cultivated and harrowed, the sod would be suffi- ciently rotted to plow again in August. Then a thorough harrow- ing, rolling, and cultivating, would make it as mellow as a garden, 108 TALKS ON MANURES. and it could be seeded down with timothy and other good grasses the last of August, or beginning of September, and produce a good crop of hay the next year. Or, if thought better, it might be sown to rye and seeded down with it. la either case the land would be greatly improved, and would be a productive meadow or pasture for years to come — or until our young dairyman could afford to give it one of Harris Lewis' " homoeopathic " doses of 40 loads of good manure per acre. He would then be able to cut two crops of hay a year— and such hay ! But we are anticipating. That stream which runs through the farm in the spring, and then dries up, could be made to irrigate several acres of the land adjoining. This would double, or treble, or quadruple, .(" hold on," said the Deacon,) the crops of grass as far as the water reached. The Deacon does not seem to credit this statement ; but I have seen wonderful effects produced by such a plan. What I am endeavoring to show, is, that these and similar means will give us larger crops of hay and grass, and these in turn will enable us to keep more cows, and make more manure, and the manure will enable us to grow larger crops on other portions of the farm. I am aware that many will object to plowing up old grass land, and I do not wish to be misunderstood on this point. If a farmer has a meadow that will produce two or three tons of hay, or support a cow, to the acre, it would be folly to break it up. It is already doing all, or nearly all, that can be asked or desired. But suppose you have a piece of naturally good land that does not produce a ton of hay per acre, or pasture a cow on three acres, if such land can be plowed without great difficulty, I would break it up as early in the fall as possible, and summer-fallow it thoroughly, and seed it down again, heavily, with grass seeds the next August. If the land does not need draining, it will not forget this treatment for many years, and it will be the farmer's own fault if it ever runs down again. In this country, where wages are so high, we must raise large crops per acre, or not raise any. Where land is cheap, it may some- times pay to compel a cow to travel over three or four acres to get her food, but we cannot affortl to raise our hay in half ton crops ; i^ costs too much to harvest them. High wages, high taxes, and high-priced laud, necessitate high farming; and by high fanning, I mean growing large crops every year, and on every portion of the farm ; but high wages and low-priced li;i 57 Potash 134* Soda, chloride of sodium, oxide of iron, sand, etc 58 " Four tons of clover-hay, the produce of one acre, thus contain a large amount of nitrogen, and remove from the soil an enormous quantity of mineral matters, abounding in lime and potash, and containing also a good deal of phosphoric acid. "Leaving for a moment the question untouched, whether the nitrogen contained in the clover, is derived from the soil, or from the atmosphere, or partly from the one, and partly from the other, no question can arise as to the original source from which the mineral matters in the clover produce arc derived. In relation, therefore, to the ash-constituents, clover must be regarded as one of the most exhausting crops usually cultivated in this country. This appears strikingly to be the case, when we compare the pre- ceding figures with the quantity of mineral matters which an aver- age crop of wheat removes from an acre of land. " The grain and straw of wheat contain, in round numbers, in 100 parts : Grains of Wheat. Slraw. Water 15.0 16.0 Nitrogenous substances, flesh-forming matter)* 11.1 4.0 Nim-nitrofjenous substances 7'-.\:2 74.9 Mineral matter, (ash) 1.7 5.1 100.0 100.0 * Containing nitrogen 1.78 .64= EXPERIMENTS OX CLOVER. 139 " The ash of wheat contains, in 100 parts : Grain. Straw. Phosphoric acid 50.0 5.0 Sulphuric acid 0.5 2.7 Carbonic acid Silica 2.5 67.0 Lime 3.5 5.5 Magnesia 11.5 2.0 Potash 30.0 13.0 Soda, chloride of sodium, oxide of iron, sand, etc 2.0 4.8 Total . 1UU.U 1UO.O " The mean produce of wheat, per acre, may be estimated at 25 bushels, which, at 60 Ibs. per bushel, gives 1,500 Ibs. ; and as the weight of the straw is generally twice that of the grain, its pro- duce will be 3,000 Ibs. According, therefore, to the preceding data, there will be carried away from the soil : In 1,500 Ibs. of the grain . . 25 Ibs. of mineral food, (in round numbers). In 3,000 Ibs. of the straw. . 150 Ibs. of mineral food, (in round numbers). Total 175 Ibs. " On the average of the analyses, it will be found that the com- position of these 175 Ibs. is as follows : Phosphoric acid . 12.5 Ibs. Sulphuric acid 0.1 ' Carbonic acid Silica 0.6 Lime 0.9 Magnesia 2.9 Potash 7.5 Soda, chloride of sodium, oxide of iron, sand, etc, j 0.5 ' I 25. Ibs. 150. Ibs. In the grain. In the straw. 7.5~lbs7 4.0 " Total. 100.5 8.2 3.0 19.5 7.3 20.0 Ibs. 4.1 " 101.1 " 9.1 " 5.9 " 27.0 " 7.8 '• 175. Ibs. " The total quantity of ash constituents carried off the land, in an average crop of wheat, thus amounts to only 175 Ibs. per acre, whilst a good crop of clover removes as much as 672 Ibs. " Nearly two-thirds of the total amount of mineral in the grain and straw of one acre of wheat, consists of silica, of which there is an ample supply in almost every soil. The restoration of silica, there- fore, need not trouble us in any way, especially as there is not a single instance on record, proving that silica, even in a soluble condition, has ever been applied to land, with the slightest advan- tage to corn, or grass-crops, which are rich in silica, and which, for this reason, may be assumed to be particularly grateful for it in a soluble state. Silica, indeed, if at all capable of producing a bene- ficial effect, ought to be useful to these crops, either by strengthen- ing the straw, or stems of graminaceous plants, or otherwise bene- fiting them ; but, after deducting the amount of silica from the 140 TALKS OX MANURES. total amount of mineral matters in the wheat produced from one acre, only a trifling quantity of other and more valuable fertilizing ash constituents of plants will be left. On comparing the relative amounts of phosphoric acid, and potash, in an average crop of wheat, and a good crop of clover-hay, it will be seen that one acre of clover-hay contains as much phosphoric acid, as two and one- half acres of wheat, and as much potash as the produce from five acres of the same crop. Clover thus unquestionably removes from the land very much more mineral matter than docs wheat ; wheat, notwithstanding, succeeds remarkably well after clover. " Four tons of clover-hay, or the produce of an acre, contains, us already stated, 224 Ibs. of nitrogen, or calculated as ammonia, 272 Ibs. " Assuming the grain of wheat to furnish 1.78 per cent of nitrogen, and wheat-straw, .64 per cent, and assuming also that 1,500 Ibs. of corn, and 3,000 Ibs. of straw, represent the average produce per acre, there will be in the grain of wheat, per acre, 26.7 Ibs. of nitro- gen, and in the straw, 19.2 Ibs., or in both together, 46 Ibs. of nitrogen ; in round numbers, equal to about 55 Ibs. of ammonia, which is only about one-fifth the quantity of nitrogen in the pro- duce of an acre of clover. Wheat, it is well known, is specially benefited by the application of nitrogenous manures, and as clover carries off so large a quantity of nitrogen, it is natural to expect the yield of wheat, after clover, to fall short of what the land might be presumed to produce without manure, before a crop of clover was taken from it. Experience, however, has proved the fallacy of this presumption, for the result is exactly the oppo- site, inasmuch as a better and heavier crop of wheat is produced than without the intercalation of clover. What, it may be asked, is the explanation of this apparent anomaly ? " In taking up this inquiry, I was led to pass in review the cele- brated and highly important experiments, undertaken by Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the continued growth of wheat on the same soil, for a long succession of years, and to examine, likewise carefully, many points, to which attention is drawn, by the same authors in their memoirs on the growth of red clover by different manures, and on the Lois Weedon plan of growing wheat. Abun- dant and most convincing evidence is supplied by these indefatiga- ble experimenters, that the wheat-producing powers of a soil are not increased in any sensible degree by the liberal supply of all the mineral matters, which enter into the composition of the ash of wheat, and that the abstraction of these mineral matters from the soil, in any much larger proportions than can possibly take place EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVEK. 141 under ordinary cultivation, in no wise affects the yield of wheat, provided there be at the same time a liberal supply of available nitrogen within the soil itself. The amount of the latter, there- fore, is regarded by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, as the measure of the increased produce of grain which a soil furnishes. " In conformity with these views, the farmer, when he wishes to increase the yield of his wheat, finds it to his advantage to have recourse to ammoniacal, or other nitrogenous manures, and depends more or less entirely upon the soil, for the supply of the neccessary mineral or ash-constituents of wheat, having found such a supply to be amply sufficient for his requirements. As far, therefore, as the removal from the soil of a large amount of mineral soil-constitu- ents, by the clover-crop, is concerned, the fact viewed in the light of the Rotharnsted experiments, becomes at once intelligible ; for, notwithstanding the abstraction of over 600 Ibs. of mineral matter by a crop of clover, the succeeding wheat-crop does not suffer. Inasmuch, however, as we have seen, that not only much mineral matter is carried off the land in a crop of clover, but also much nitrogen, we might, in the absence of direct evidence to the con- trary, be led to suspect that wheat, after clover, would not be a good crop ; whereas, the fact is exactly the reverse. "It is worthy of notice, that nitrogenous manures, which have such a marked and beneficial effect upon wheat, do no good, but in certain combinations, in some seasons, do positive harm to clover. Thus, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in a series of experi- ments on the growth of red-clover, by different manures, obtained 14 tons of fresh green produce, equal to about three and three- fourths tons of clover hay, from the unmanured portion of the experimental field ; and where sulphates of potash, soda, and mag- nesia, or sulphate of potash and superphosphate of lime were em- ployed, 17 to 18 tons, (equal to from about four and one-half to nearly five tons of hay), were obtained. When salts of ammonia were added to the mineral manures, the produce of clover-hay was, upon the whole, less than where the mineral manures were used alone. The wheat, grown after the clover, on the unmanured plot, gave, however, 29^ bushels of corn, whilst in the adjoining field, where wheat was grown after wheat, without manure, only 15£ bushels of corn per acre were obtained. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert notice especially, that in the clover-crop of the preceding year, very much larger quantities, both of mineral matters and of nitrogen, were taken from the land, than were removed in the unmanured wheat-crop in the same year, in the adjoining field. Notwithstanding this, the soil from which the clover had been 142 TALKS OX MANURES. taken, was in a condition to yield 14 bushels more wheat, per acre, than that upon which wheat had been previously grown ; the yield of wheat, after clover, in these experiments, being .fully equal to that in another field, where large quantities of manure were used. " Taking all these circumstances into account, is there not pre- sumptive evidence, that, notwithstanding the removal of a large amount of nitrogen in the clover-hay, an abundant store of availa- ble nitrogen is left in the soil, and also that in its relations towards nitrogen in the soil, clover differs essentially from wheat ? The results of our experience in the growth of the two crops, appear to indicate that, whereas the growth of the wheat rapidly ex- hausts the land of its available nitrogen, that of clover, on the contrary, tends somehow or other to accumulate nitrogen within the soil itself. If this can be shown to be the case, an intelligible explanation of the fact that clover is so useful as a preparatory crop for wheat, will be found in the circumstance, that, during the growth of clover, nitrogenous food, for which wheat is particularly grateful, is either stored up or rendered available in the soil. "An explanation, however plausible, can hardly be accepted £3 correct, if based mainly on data, which, although highly probable, are not proved to b3 based on fact. In chemical inquiries, especially, nothing must be taken for granted, that has not been proved by direct experiment. The following questions naturally suggest themselves in reference to this subject: What is the amount of nitrogen in soils of different characters? What i the amount more particularly after a good, and after an indifferent crop of clover? Why is the amount of nitrogen in soils, larger after clover, than after wheat and other crops? Is the nitrogen present i.i a condition in which it is available and useful to wheat? And lastly, are there any other circumstances, apart from the supply of nitrogenous matter in the soil, which help to account for the bene- ficial effects of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat ? "In order to throw some light on these questions, and, if pos- sible, to give distinct answers to at least some of them, I, years ago, when residing at Cirencester, began a scries of experiments ; and more recently, I have been fortunate enough to obtain the co- operation of Mr. Eobert Valentine, of Leighton Buzzard, who kindly undertook to supply me with materials for my analysis. " My first experiments were made on a thin, calcareous, clay soil, resting on oolitic limestone, and producing generally a fair crop of red-clover. The clover-field formed the slope of a rather steep hillock, and varied much in depth. At the top of the hill, the soil became very stony at a depth of four inches, so that it could only EXPEIUMENTS ON CLOVEK. 143 with difficulty be excavated to a depth of six inches, when the bare limestone-rock made its appearance. At the bottom of the field the soil was much deeper, and the clover stronger,.than at the upper part. On the brow of the hill, where the clover appeared to be strong, a square yard was measured out ; and at a little dhtmce off, where the clover was very bad, a second square yard was meas- ured; in both plots, the soil being taken up to a depth of six inches. The soil, where the clover was good, may be distinguished from the other, by being marked as No. 1, and that where it was bail, as Xo. 2. CLOVER-SOIL NO. }. (GOOD CLOVER). " The roots having first been shaken out to free them as much as possible from the soil, were then washed once or twice with cold distilled water, and, after having been dried for a little while in the sun, were weighed, when the square yard produced 1 Ib. 10£ oz. of cleaned clover-roots, in an air-dry state; an acre of land, or 4,840 square yards, accordingly yielded, in a depth of six inches, 3.44 tons, or 3£ tons in round numbers, of clover-roots. " Fully dried in a water-bath, the roots wero found to contain altogether 44.67 per cent of water, and on being burnt in a pla- tinum capsule, yielded G.089 of ash. A portion of the dried, finely powdered and well mixed roots, was burned with soda lime, in a combustion tube, and the nitrogen contained in the roots other- wise determined in the usual way. Accordingly, the following is the general composition of the roots from the soil No. 1 : Water 44.C75 Organic matter* 49.236 Mineral matter 6.089 Jmcco * Containing nitrogen 1.297 Equal to ammonia 1.575 u Assuming the whole field to have produced 3£ tons of clover- roots, per acre, there will be 99.636 Ibs., or in round numbers, 100 Ibs. of nitrogen in the clover-roots from one acre ; or, about twice as much nitrogen as is present in the average produce of an acre of wheat." " That is a remarkable fact," said the Deacon, "as I understand nitrogen is the great thing needed by wheat, and yet the roots alone of the clover, contain twice as much nitrogen as an average crop of wheat. Go on Charley, it is quite interesting." "The soil," continues Dr. Vcelcker, "which had been separated from the roots, was passed through a sieve to deprive it of any stones it might contain. It was then partially dried, and the nitro- 144 TALKS OX MANURES. gen in it determined in the usual manner, by combustion with soda- lime, when it yielded .313 per cent of nitrogen, equal to .38 of ammonia, in one combustion ; and .373 per cent of nitrogen, equal to .46 of ammonia, in a second determination. " That the reader may have some idea of the character of this soil, it may be stated, that it was further submitted to a general analysis, according to which, it was found to have the following composition : GENERAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL, NO. 1. (GOOD CLOVER). Moisture 18.73 Organic matter* 9.72 Oxide of iron and alumina 13.24 Carbonate of lime 8.82 Magnesia, alkalies, etc 1.72 Insoluble silicious matter, (chiefly clay) 47.77 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 313 Equal to ammonia 380 "The second square yard from the brow of the hill, where the clover was bad, produced 13 ounces of a'.r-dry, and partially clean roots, or 1.75 tons per acre. On analysis, they were found to have the following composition : CLOVER-ROOTS, NO. 2. (BAD CLOVER). Water 55.733 ( )ruanic matter* 39.408 Mineral matter, (ash) 4.860 100.000 * Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia .901 " The roots on the spot where the clover was very bad, yielded only 31 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, or scarcely one-third of the quantity which was obtained from the roots where the clover was good. " The soil from the second square yard, on analysis, was found, when fresd from stones by sifting, to contain in 100 parts: COMPOSITION OF SOIL, NO. 2. (BAD CLOVER). Water 17.34 Oriranic matter* 9.64 Oxide of iron and alumina 11.89 Carbonate of lime 14.50 Magnesia, alkalies, etc 1.53 Insoluble silicious matter 45.20 100.00 2(1' 1 Total amount of nitrogen per acre 2 2 <>l " Compared with the amount of nitrogen in the soil from the brow of the hill, about 11 cwt. more nitrogen was obtained in the soil and roots from the bottom of the hill, where the clover was more luxuriant. " The increased amount of nitrogen occurred in line root-fibres and other organic matters of the soil, and not in the coarser bits of roots which were picked out by the hand. It may be assumed that the finer particles of organic matter are more readily decom- posed than the coarser roots ; and as there was a larger amount of nitrogen in this than in the preceding soil, it may be expected that the land at the bottom of the hill, after removal of the clover, was in a belter agricultural condition for wheat, than that on the brow of the hill. EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVEE-SOILS. 149 CHAPTER XXVI. EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS FROM BURCOTT LODGE FARM, LEIGHTON BUZZARD. " The soils for the next experiments, were kindly supplied to me, in 1866, by Robert Valentine, of Burcott Lodge, who also sent me some notes respecting the growth and yield of clover-hay and seed on this soil. " Foreign seed, at the rate of 12 Ibs. per acre, was sown with a crop of wheat, which yielded five quarters per acre the previous year. " The first crop of clover was cut down on the 25th of June, 1866, and carried on June 30th. The weather was very warm, from the time of cutting until the clover was carted, the thermome- ter standing at 80° Fahr. every day. The clover was turned in the swath, on the second day after it was cut; on the fourth day, it was turned over and put into small heaps of about 10 Ibs. each; and on the fifth day, these were collected into larger cocks, and then stacked. " The best part of an 11-acre field, produced nearly three tons of clover-hay, sun-dried, per acre ; the whole field yielding on an aver- age, 2^ tons per acre. This result was obtained by weighing the stack three months after the clover was carted. The second crop was cut on the 21st of August, and carried on the 27th, the weight being nearly 30 cwt. of hay per acre. Thus the two cuttings pro- duced just about four tons of clover-hay per acre. " The 11 acres were divided into two parts. About one-half was mown for hay a second time, and the other part left for seed. The produce of the second half of the 11-acre field, was cut on the 8th of October, and carried on the 10th. It yielded in round numbers, 3 cwt. of clover-seed per acre, the season being very unfavorable for clover-seed. The second crop of clover, mown for hay, was rather too ripe, and just beginning to show seed. " A square foot of soil, 18 inches deep, was dug from the second portion of the land which produced the- clover-hay and clover- seed. SOIL FROM PART OF 11-ACRE FIELD TWICE MOWN FOR HAY. " The upper six inches of soil, one foot square, contained all the main roots of 18 strong plants ; the next six inches, only small root fibres, and in the third section, a six-inch slice cut down at a 150 TALKS ON MANURES. depth of 12 inches from the surface, no distinct fibres could be found. The soil was almost completely saturated with rain when it was dug up on the 13th of September, 1866 : Lbs. The upper six inches of soil, one foot square^weighed 60 The second The third " ^ " These three portions of one foot of soil, 18 inches deep, were dried nearly completely, and weighed again ; when the first six inches weighed 51£ Ibs. ; the second six inches, 51 Ibs. 5 oz. ; and the third section, 54 Ibs. 2 oz. " The first six inches contained 3 Ibs. of silicious stones, (flints), which were rejected in preparing a sample for analysis; in the two remaining sections there were no large sized stones. The soils were pounded down, and passed through a wire sieve. " The three layers of soil, dried and reduced to powder, were mixed together, and a prepared average sample, when submitted to analysis, yielded the following results: COMPOSITION OF CLOVER-SOIL, 18 INCHES DEEP, FROM PART OF 11-ACRE FIELD, TWICE MOWN FOR HAY. ( Organic matter 5. % Oxides of iron 6.83 Alumina 7.12 Carbonate of lime 2.13 Soluble in hy- Magnesia 2.01 drochloric acid. Potash 67 Soda 08 Chloride of sodium 02 Phosphoric acid 18 Sulphuric acid 17 Insoluble silicious matter, 74.G1. Consisting of : Alumina 4.37 Lime, (in a state of silicate) 4.07 Insoluble in acid Magnesia 46 Potash 19 Soda .23 Silica .. 65.29 " This soil, it will be seen, contained, in appreciable quantities, not only potash and phosphoric acid, buit all the element} of fertil- ity which enter into the composition of good arable land. It may be briefly described as a stiff clay soil, containing a sufficiency of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, to meet all the requirements of the clover-crop. Originally, rather unproductive, it has been much improved by deep culture ; by being smashed up into rouirh clods, early in autumn, and by being exposed in this state to the crum- bling effects of the air, it now yields good corn and forage crops. EXrEIlIMENTS ON CLOVEE-SOILS. 151 ** In separate portions of the three layers of soil, the proportions of nitrogen and phosphoric acid contained in each layer of six inches, were determined and found to be as follows : Sott dried at 212 deg. Fahr. 1st six "M six 3d six inches, inches, inches. Percentage of phosphoric acid 249 .184 .172 Nitrogen 1.62 .092 .064 Equal to ammonia .198 .112 .078 " In the upper six inches, as will be seen, the percentage of both phosphoric acid and nitrogen, was larger than in the two follow- ing layers, while the proportion of nitrogen in the six inches of sur- face soil, was much larger than in the next six inches ; and in the third section, containing no visible particles of root-fibres, only very little nitrogen occurred. " In their natural state, the three layers of soil contained : 1st six 2d six 3d six inches, incites, inches. Moisture 17.16 18.24 16.62 Phosphoric acid 198 .109 .143 Nitrogen 134 .075 .053 Equal to ammonia 162 .091 .064 76s. 76,?. Ibs. Weight of one foot square of soil 60 61 63 " Calculated per acre, the absolute weight of one acre of this land, six inches deep, weighs : Lbs. 1st six inches 2,613,600 2d six inches 2,657,160 3d six inches 2,746^280 " No great error, therefore, will be made, if we assume in the subsequent calculations, that six inches of this soil weighs two and one-half millions of pounds per acre. " An acre of land, according to the preceding determinations, contains : 1st six inches. 2d six inches, 3cZ six inches, Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Phosphoric acid 4,950 2,725 3,575 Nitrogen 3,350 1,875 1,325 Equalto ammonia _*»°j>? 2,275 1,600 " The proportion of phosphoric acid in six inches of surface soil, ' it will be seen, amounted to about two-tenths per cent ; a propor- tion of the whole soil, so small that it may appear insufficient for the production of a good corn-crop. However, when calcu- lated to the acre, we find that six inches of surface soil in an acre of land, actually contain over two tons of phosphoric acid. An aver- age crop of wheat, assumed to be 25 bushels of grain, at 60 Ibs. per 152 TALKS OX MANURES. bushel, and 3,000 Ibs. of straw, removes from the land on which it is grown, 20 Ibs. of phosphoric acid. The clover-soil analyzed by me, consequently contains an amount of phosphoric acid in a depth of only six inches, which is equal to that present in 247} average crops of wheat ; or supposing that, by good cultivation and in favorable seasons, the average yield of wheat could be doubled, and 50 bushels of gram, at CO Ibs. a bushel, and 6,000 Ibs. of straw could be raised, 124 of such heavy wheat-crops would con- tain no more phosphoric acid than actually occurred in six inches of this clover-soil per acre. " The mere presence of such an amount of phosphoric acid in a soil, however, by no means proves its sufficiency for the produc- tion of so many crops of wheat ; for, in the first place, it can not be shown that the whole of the phosphoric acid found by analysis, occurs in the soil in a readily available combination ; and, in the second place, it is quite certain that the root-fibres of the wheat- plant can not reach and pick up, so to speak, every particle of phosphoric acid, even supposing it to occur in the soil in a form most conducive to ' ready assimilation by the plant.' " The calculation is not given in proof of a conclusion which would be manifestly absurd, but simply as an illustration of the enormous quantity in an acre of soil six inches deep, of a constitu- ent forming the smaller proportions of the whole weight of an acre of soil of that limited depth. It shows the existence of a prac- tically unlimited amount of the most important mineral constitu- ents of plants, and clearly points out the propriety of rendering available to plants, the natural resources of the soil in plant- food ; to draw, in fact, up the mineral wealth of the soil, by thor- oughly working the land, and not leaving it unutilized as so much dead capital." " Good," said the Deacon, " that is the right doctrine." " The roots," continues Dr. Voclcker, " from one square foot of soil were cleaned as much as possible, dried completely at 212°, and in that state weighed 240 grains. An acre consequently con- tained 1,493} Ibs. of dried clover-roots. " The clover-roots contained, dried at 212° Fahr. , Organic matter* 81.33 Mineral matter, f (ash) 18.67 100.00 * Yielding nitrogen 1.6S5 Equal to ammonia 1 .'.;x"> •t Including insoluble eilicious matter, (clay and sand) 11.67 EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 153 " Accordingly the clover-roots in an acre of land furnished 24£ Ibs. of nitrogen. We have thus : Us. of nitrogen. In the six inches of surface soil 3,350 In large clover-roots 24£ In second six inches of soil 1,875 Total amount of nitrogen in one acre of soil 12 inches deep 5,349? Equal to ammonia ?,374i Or in round numbers, two tons six cwt. of nitrogen per acre ; an enormous quantity, which must have a powerful influence in en- couraging the luxuriant development of the succeeding wheat- crop, although only a fraction of the total amount of nitrogen in the clover remains may become sufficiently decomposed in time to be available to the young wheat-plants. CLOVER-SOIL FROM PART OF 11-ACRE FIELD OF BURCOTT LODGE FARM, LEIGHTON BUZZARD, ONCE MOWN FOR HAT, AND LEFT AFTERWARDS FOR SEED. " Produce 2-£ tons of clover-hay, and 3 cwt. of seed per acre. " This soil was obtained within a distance of five yards from the part of the field where the soil was dug up after the two cuttings of hay. After the seed there was some difficulty in finding a square foot containing the same number of large clover-roots, as that on the field twice mown ; however, at last, in the beginning of November, a square foot containing exactly 18 strong roots, was found and dug up to a depth of 18 inches. The soil dug after the seed was much drier than that dug after the two cuttings of hay : The upper six inches deep, one foot square, weighed 55 Ibs. The next " " " 58 " Thethird " " " 60 " " After drying by exposure to hot air, the three layers of soil weighed : The upper six inches, one foot square 49 $ Ibs. Thenext " " 50i " Thethird " " 51* " "Equal portions of the dried soil from each six-inch section were mixed together and reduced to a fine powder. An average sample thus prepared, on analysis, was found to have the follow- ing composition : 154 TALKS ON MANURES. COMPOSITION OF CLOVER-SOIL ONCE MOWN FOR HAY, AND AFTERWARDS LEFT FOR SEED. DRIED AT 212° FAHR. Organic matter 5.34 Oxides of iron 6.07 Alumina 4.51 Carbonate of lime 7.51 Magnesia 1.27 Soluble in hy- drochloric acid. Insoluble in acid Potash . Soda 10 Chloride of sodium 03 Phosphoric acid 15 Sulphuric acid 19 ( Insoluble silicious matter, 73.84. Consisting of : Alumina 4.14 Lime (in a state of silicate) 2.G<) Magnesia 68 Potash 24 Soda 21 Silica 65.88 99.59 *' The soil, it will be seen, in general character, resembles the pre- ceding sample ; it contains a good deal of potash and phosphoric acid, and may be presumed to be well suited to the growth of clover. It contains more carbonate of lime, and is somewhat lighter than the sample from the part of the field twice mown for hay, and may be termed heavy calcareous clay. " An acre of this land, 18 inches deep, weighed, when very nearly dry: Lbs. Surface, six inches 2.407,900 Next " 2,444,200 Third " 2,480,500 "Or in round numbers, every six inches of soil weighed per acre 2£ millions of pounds, which agrees tolerably well with the actual weight per acre of the preceding soil. " The amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in each six-inch layer was determined separately as before, when the following results were obtained : IN DRIED SOIL. First Second TJiird sixincfies, sic inches, six iitc/te*. Percentage of phosphoric acid.., .159 .166 .140 Nitrogen 189 .134 .089 Equal to ammonia 229 .162 .108 "An acre, according to these determinations, con tains in the three separate sections : EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 155 First Second Third six inches, six inches, six inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Phosphoric acid 3,975 4,150 3,500 Nitrogen 4,725 3,350 2,225 Equal to ammonia 5,725 4,050 2,700 " Here, again, as might naturally be expected, the proportion of nitrogen is largest in the surface, where all the decaying leaves dropped during the growth of the clover for seed are found, and wherein root-fibres are more abundant than in the lower strata. The first six inches of soil, it will be seen, contained in round numbers, 2|- tons of nitrogen per acre, that is, considerably more than was found in the same section of the soil where the clover was mown twice for hay ; showing plainly, that during the ripening of the clover seed, the surface is much enriched by the nitrogen- ous matter in the dropping leaves of the clover-plant. " Clover-roots. — The roots from one square foot of this soil, freed as much as possible from adhering soil, were dried at 212°, and when weighed and reduced to a fine powder, gave, on analysis, the following results : Oganic matter* 64.76 Mineral matterf 35.24 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 1.702 Equal to ammonia 2.066 t Including clay and sand (insoluble silicious matter) 26.04 " A square foot of this soil produced 582 grains of dried clover- roots, consequently an acre yielded 3,622 Ibs. of roots, or more than twice the weight of roots obtained from the soil of the same field where the clover was twice mown for hay. " In round numbers, the 3,622 Ibs. of clover-roots from the land mown once, and afterwards left for seed, contained 51^ Ibs. of nitrogen. " The roots from the soil after clover-seed, it will be noticed, were not so clean as the preceding sample, nevertheless, they yielded more nitrogen. In 64.76 of organic matter, we have here 1.702 of nitrogen, whereas, in the case of the roots from the part of the field where the clover was twice mown for bay, we have in 81.33 parts, that is, much more organic matter, and 1.635, or rather less of nitrogen. It is evident, therefore, that the organic matter in the soil after clover-seed, occurs in a more advanced stage of decomposition, than found in the clover-roots from the part of the field twice mown. In the manure, in which the decay of such and similar organic remains proceeds, much of the non-nitrogen- ous, or carbonaceous matters, of which these remains chiefly, 156 TALKS ON MANURES. though not entirely, consist, is transformed into gaseous carbonic acid, and what remains behind, becomes richer in nitrogen and mineral matters. A parallel case, showing the dissipation of car- bonaceous matter, and the increase in the percentage of nitrogen and mineral matter in what is left behind, is presented to us in fresh and rotten dung ; in long or fresh dung, the percentage of organic matter, consisting chiefly of very imperfectly decom- posed straw, being larger, and that of nitrogen and mineral matter smaller, than in well-rotted dung. " The roots from the field after clover-seed, it will be borne in mind, were dug up in November, whilst those obtained from the land twice mown, were dug up in September; the former, there- fore, may be expected to be in a more advanced state of decay than the latter, and richer in nitrogen. " In an acre of soil, after clover seed, we have : Lbs. Nitrogen in first six inches of soil 4,725 Nitrogen in roots 51 i Nitrogen in second six inches of soil 3,350 Total amount of nitrogen, per acre, in twelve inches of soil... .JtyjiSJI " Equal to ammonia, 9,867 Ibs. : or, in round numbers, 3 tons and 12J cwts. of nitrogen per acre; equal to 4 tons 8 cwts. of ammonia. " This is a very much larger amount of nitrogen than occurred in the other soil, and shows plainly that the total amount of nitrogen accumulates especially in the surface-soil, when clover is grown for seed ; thus explaining intelligibly, as it appears to me, why wheat, as stated by many practical men, succeeds better on land where clover is grown for seed, than where it is mown for hay. "All the three layers of the soil, after clover-seed, are richer in nitrogen than the same sections of the soil where the clover was twice mown, as will be seen by the following comparative state- ment of results : I. CLOTEU-SOIL TWICE MOWX. n. CLOVER-SOIL ONCE ifov/x AND THEN LEFT FOR SEED. Upper Second 6 inches. Third 0 inches. 1 /'/"">• 0 inches. 6 inches. Lmcc*t (> inches. IV-rciTitage of nitrogen in dried soil .108 .198 .092 .112 .004 .078 .189 .229 .102 .OS9 .103 Equal to ammonia "This difference in the amount of accumulated nitrogen in clover-land, appears still more strikingly on comparing the total EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 157 amounts of nitrogen per acre in the different sections of the two portions of the 11-acre field. PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN PER ACRE. First Second Third six inches, six inches, six inches. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. I. In soil, clover twice mown* ) 3,350 1,875 1,335 II. In soil, clover once mown and seeded >• afterwards! ) 4,725 3,350 2,225 } * I. Clover twice mown ............... V 4,050 2,275 1,600 ) 5, Equal to ammonia : I. Clover twice mow t II. Clover seeded .................... 5,725 4,050 2,700 Lbs. I. Nitrogen in roots of clover twice mown .................. ) 24i II. Nitrogen in clover, once mown, and grown for seed after- V wards ................................................... ) 5H I. Weight of dry roots per acre from Soil I ................. [ 1,493 i II. Weight of dry roots per acre from Soil II ................. j 3,623 Total amount of nitrogen in 1 acre, 12 inches deep of Soil I*. ) 5,249s Total amount of nitrogen in 1 acre, 12 inches deep of Soil lit. j 8,12G£ Excess of nitrogen m an acre of soil 12 inches deep, calculated j 0 KQOI as ammonia in part of field, mown once and then seeded.. . . j *&*~* * Equal to ammonia ...................................... ) 6,374? fEqual to ammonia ...................................... j" 9,867 " It will be seen that not only was the amount of large clover- roots greater in the part where clover was grown for seed, but that likewise the different layers of soil were in every instance richer in nitrogen after clover-seed, than after clover mown twice for hay. " Reasons are given in the beginning of this paper which it is hoped will have convinced the reader, that the fertility of land is not so much measured by the amount of ash constituents of plants which it contains, as by the amount of nitrogen, which, to- gether with an excess of such ash constituents, it contains in an available form. It has been shown likewise, that the removal from the soil of a large amount of mineral matter in a good clover-crop, in conformity with many direct field experiments, is not likely in any degree to affect the wheat-crop, and that the yield of wheat on soils under ordinary cultivation, according to the experience of many fanners, and the direct and numerous experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, rises or falls, other circumstances being equal, with the supply of available nitrogenous food which is given to the wheat. This being the case, we can not doubt that the benefits arising from the growth of clover to the succeeding wheat, are mainly due to the fact that an immense amount of nitrogenous food accumulates in the soil during the growth of clover. 158 TALKS OX MANURES. "This accumulation of nitrogenous plant-food, specially useful to cereal crops, is, as shown in the preceding experiments, much greater when clover is grown for seed, than when it is made into hay. This affords an intelligible explanation of a fact long observed by good practical men, although denied by others who decline to accept their experience ao resting upon trustworthy evi- dence, because, as they say, land cannot become more fertile when a crop is grown upon it for seed, which is carried off, than when that crop is cut down and the produce consumed on the laud. The chemical points brought forward in the course of this inquiry f show plainly that mere speculation as to what can take place in a soil, and what not, do not much advance the true theory of cer- tain agricultural practices. It is only by carefully investigating subjects like the one under consideration, that positive proofs are given, showing the correctness of intelligent observers in the fields. Many years ago, I made a great many experiments relative to the chemistry of farm-yard manure, and then showed, amongst other particulars, that manure, spread at once on the land, need not there and then be plowed in, inasmuch as neither a broiling sun, nor a sweeping and drying wind will cause the slightest loss of ammonia; and that, therefore, the old-fashioned farmer who carts his manure on the laud as soon as he can, and spreads it at once, but who plows it in at his convenience, acts in perfect accordance with correct chemical principles involved in the management of farm-yard manure^ On the present occasion, my main object has been to show, not merely by reasoning on the subject, but by actual experiments, that the larger the amounts of nitrogen, potash, soda, lime, phosphoric acid, etc., which are removed from the land in a clover-crop, the better it is, nevertheless, made thereby for produc- ing in the succeeding year an abundant crop of wheat, other cir- cumstances being favorable to its growth. " Indeed, no kind of manure can be compared in point of efficacy for wheat, to the manuring which the land gets in a really good crop of clover. The farmer who wishes to derive the full benefit from his clover-lay, should plow it up for wheat as soon as possi- ble in the autumn, and leave it in a rough state as long as is admis- sible, in order that the air may find free access into the land, and the organic remains left in so much abundance in a good crop of clover be changed into plant-food ; more especially, in other words, in order that the crude nitrogenous organic matter in the clover- roots and decaying leaves, may have time to become transformed into nmmoniacal compounds, and these, in the course of time, into nitrates, which I am strongly inclined to think is the form in which EXPERIMENTS OX CLOVER-SOILS. 159 nitrogen is assimilated, par excellence by cereal crops,and in which, at all events, it is more efficacious than in any other state of com- bination wherein it may be used as a fertilizer. " When the clover-lay is plowed up early, the decay of the clover is sufficiently advanced by the time the young wheat-plant stands in need of readily available nitrogenous food, and this being uni- formly distributed through the whole of the cultivated soil, is ready to benefit every single plant. This equal and abundant dis- tribution of food, peculiarly valuable to cereals, is a great advan- tage, and speaks strongly in favor of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat. " Nitrate of soda, an excellent spring top-dressing for wheat and. cereals in general, in some seasons fails to produce as good an effect as in others. In very dry springs, the rainfall is not sufficient to wash it properly into the soil and to distribute it equally, and in very wet seasons it is apt to be washed either into the drains or into a stratum of the soil not accessible to the roots of the young wheat. As, therefore, the character of the approaching season can not usually be predicted, the application of nitrate of soda to wheat is always attended with more or less uncertainty. " The .case is different, when a good crop of clover-hay has been obtained from the land on which wheat is intended to be grown afterwards. An enormous quantity of nitrogenous organic matter, as we have seen, is left in the land after the removal of the clover- crop ; and these remains gradually decay and furnish ammonia, which at first and during the colder months of the year, is retained by the well known absorbing properties which all good wheat- soils possess. In spring, when warmer weather sets in, and the wheat begins to make a push, these ammonia compounds in the soil are by degrees oxidized into nitrates ; and as this change into food peculiarly favorable to young cereal plants, proceeds slowly but steadily, we have in the soil itself, after clover, a source from which nitrates are continuously produced ; so that it does not much affect the final yield of wheat, whether heavy rains remove some or all of the nitrate present in the soil. The clover remains thus afford a more continuous source from which nitrates are produced, and greater certainty for a good crop of wheat than when recourse is had to nitrogenous top-dressings in the spring. SUMMARY. " The following are some of the chief points of interest which I have endeavored fully to develope in the preceding pages : "1. A good crop of clover removes from the soil more potash, 160 TALKS ON MANURES. phosphoric acid, lime, and other mineral matters, which enter into the composition of the ashes of our cultivated crops, than any other crop usually grown in this country. " 2. There is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as hi the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. "3. Notwithstanding the large amount of nitrogenous matter and of ash-constituents of plants, in the produce of an acre, clover is an excellent preparatory crop for wheat. " 4. During the growth of clover, a large amount of nitrogenous matter accumulates in the soil. " 5. This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface soil, is due to decaying leaves dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abundance of roots, containing, when dry, from one and three- fourths to two per cent of nitrogen. " 6. The clover-roots are stronger and more numerous, and more leaves fall on the ground when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay ; in consequence, more nitrogen is left after clover-seed, than after hay, which accounts for wheat yield- ing a better crop after clover-seed than after hay. " 7. The development of roots being checked, when the produce, in a green condition, is fed off by sheep, hi all probability, leaves still less nitrogenous matter in the soil than when clover is allowed to get riper and is mown for hay ; thus, no doubt, account- ing for the observation made by practical men, that, notwithstand- ing the return of the produce hi the sheep excrements, wheat is generally stronger, and yields better, after clover mown for hay, than when the clover is fed off green by sheep. " 8. The nitrogenous matters in the clover remains, on their gradual decay, are finally transformed into nitrates, thus affording a continuous source of food on which cereal crops specially delight to grow. " 9. There is strong presumptive evidence that the nitrogen which exists in the air, in shape of ammonia and nitric acid, and descends, in these combinations, with the rain which falls on the ground, satisfies, under ordinary circumstances, the requirements of the clover-crop. This crop causes a large accumulation of nitrogenous matters, which are gradually changed in the soil into nitrates. The atmosphere thus furnishes nitrogenous food to the succeeding wheat indirectly, and, so to say, gratis. " 10. Clover not only provides abundance of nitrogenous food, but delivers this food in a readily available form (as nitrates), more gradually and continuously, and, consequently, with more cer- EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 161 tainty of a good result, than such food can be applied to the laud in the shape of nitrogenous spring top-dressings." " Thank you Charley," said the Doctor, " that is the most re- markable paper I ever listened to. I do not quite know what to think of it. We shall have to examine it carefully." *' The first three propositions in the Summary," said I, " are un- questionably true. Proposition No. 4, is equally true, but we must be careful what meaning we attach to the word ' accumulate.' The idea is, that clover gathers up the nitrogen in the soil. It does not increase the absolute amount of nitrogen. It accumulates it — brings it together." " Proposition Ko. 5, will not be disputed ; and I think we may accept No. 6, also, though we can not be sure that allowing clover to go to seed, haU anything to do with the increased quantity of clover-roots." " Proposition No. 7, may or may not be true. We have no proof, only a ' probability ; ' and the same may be said in regard to propositions Nos. 8, 9, and 10." The Deacon seemed uneasy. He did not like these remarks. He had got the impression, while Charley was reading, that much more was proved than Dr. Vcelcker claims in his Summary. " I thought," said he, " that on the part of the field where the clover was allowed to go to seed, Dr. Vcelcker found a great in- crease in the amount of nitrogen." " That seems to be the general impression," said the Doctor, " but in point of fact, we have no proof that the growth of clover, either for hay or for seed, had anything to do with the quantity of nitro- gen and phosphoric acid found in the soil. The facts given by Dr. Vcelcker, are exceedingly interesting. Let us look at them : " "A field of 11 acres was sown to winter- wheat, and seeded down in the spring, with 12 Ibs. per acre of clover. The wheat yielded 40 bushels per acre. The next year, on the 25th of June, the clover was mown for hay. We are told that ' the best part of the field yielded three tons (6,720 Ibs.) of clover-hay per acre; the whole field averaging 2£ tons (5,600 Ibs.) per acre.' " " We are not informed how much land there was of the * best part,' but assuming that it was half the field, the poorer part must have yielded only 4,480 Ibs. of hay per acre, or only two- thirds as much as the other. This shows that there was consider- able difference in the quality or condition of the land. " After the field was mown for hay, it was divided into two parts : one part was mown again for hay, August 21st, and yielded about 162 TALKS ON MANURES. 30 cwt. (3,300 Ibs.) of hay per acre ; the other half was allowed to grow six or seven weeks longer, and was then (October 8th), cut for seed. The yield was a little over 6£ bushels of seed per acre. Whether the clover allowed to grow for seed, was on the richer or poorer half of the field, we are not informed. " Dr. Vcelcker then analyzed the soil. That from the part of the field mown twice for hay, contained per acre : First six Second six Third six Total, IS. inches. inches. inches. inches deep. Phosphoric acid 4,950 2,725 3,575 11,250 Nitrogen 3,350 1,875 1,335 6,550 "The soil from the part mown once for hay, and tfien for seed, contained per acre : First six Second six Third six Total, 18 inches. inches. inches. inches deep. Phosphoric acid 3,975 4,150 3,500 11,625 Nitrogen 4,725 3,350 2/325 10,300 " Dr. Vcelcker also ascertained the amount and composition of the clover-roots growing in the soil on the two parts of the field. On the part mown twice for hay, the roots contained per acre 24£ Ibs. of nitrogen. On the part mown once for hay, and then for seed, the roots contained 51£ Ibs. of nitrogen per acre." " Now," said the Doctor, " these facts are very interesting, out there is no sort of evidence tending to show that the clover has any- thing to do with increasing or decreasing the quantity of nitrogen or phosphoric acid found in the soil." " There was more clover-roots per acre, where the clover was allowed to go to seed. But that may be because the soil happened to be richer on this part of the field. There was, in the first six inches of the soil, 3,350 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, on one-half of the field, and 4,725 Ibs. on the other half; and it is not at all surprising that on the latter half there should be a greater growth of clover and clover-roots. To suppose that during the six or seven weeks while the clover was maturing its seed, the clover-plants could accumulate 1,375 Ibs. of nitrogen, is absurd." "But Dr. Vo3lcker," said the Deacon, "states, and states truly, that * more leaves fall on the ground when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay ; and, consequently, more nitro- gen is left after clover-seed than after hay, which accounts for wheat yielding a better crop after clover-seed than after hay.' " " This is all true," said the Doctor, " but we can not accept Dr. Voclcker's analyses as proving it. To account in this way for the 1,375 Ibs. of nitrogen, we should have to suppose that the clover- plants, in going to seed, shed one hundred tons of dry clover-leaves EXPERIMENTS OX CLOVER-SOILS. 163 per acre ! The truth of the matter seems to be, that the part of the field on which the clover was allowed to go to seed, was naturally much richer than the other part, and consequently produced a greater growth of clover and clover-roots." We can not find anything in these experiments tending to show that we can make land rich by growing clover and selling the crop. The analyses of the soil show that in the first eighteen inches of the surface-soil, there was 6,550 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, on one part of the field, and 10,300 Ibs. on the other part. The clover did not create this nitrogen, or bring it from the atmosphere. The wheat with which the clover was seeded down, yielded 40 bushels per acre. If the field had been sown to wheat again, it probably would not have yielded over 25 bushels per acre — and that for want of available nitrogen. And yet the clover got nitrogen enough for over four tons of clover-hay ; or as much nitrogen as a crop of wheat of 125 bushels per acre, and 7| tons of straw would remove from the land. Now what does this prove ? There was, in 18 inches of the soil on the poorest part of the field, 6,550 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre. A crop of wheat of 50 bushels per acre, and twice that weight of straw, would require about 92 Ibs. of nitrogen. But the wheat can not get this amount from the soil, while the clover can get double the quantity. And the only explantion I can give, is, that the clover- roots can take up nitrogen from a weaker solution in the soil than wheat-roots can. " These experiments of Dr. Yoelcker," said I, " give me great en- couragement. Here is a soil, * originally rather unproductive, but much improved by deep culture ; by being smashed up into rough clods early in autumn, and by being exposed in this state to the crumbling effects of the air.' It now produces 40 bushels of wheat per acre, and part of the field yielded three tons of clover-hay, per acre, the first cutting, and 5J- bushels of clover-seed after- wards—and that in a very unfavorable season for clover-seed." You will find that the farmers in England do not expect to make their land rich, by growing clover and selling the produce. After they have got their land rich, by good cultivation, and the liberal use of animal and artificial manures, they may expect a good crop of wheat from the roots of the clover. But they take good care to feed out the clover itself on the farm, in connection with turnips and oil-cake, and thus make rich manure. 164 TALKS ON MANURES. And so it is in this country. Much as we hear about the value of clover for manure, even those who extol it the highest do not depend upon it alone for bringing up and maintaining the fertility of their farms. The men who raise the largest crops and make the most money by farming, do not sell clover-hay. They do not look to the roots of the clover for making a poor soil rich. They arc, to a man, good cultivators. They work their land thoroughly and kill the weeds. They keep good stock, and feed liberally, and make good manure. They use lime, ashes, and plaster, and are glad to draw manure from the cities and villages, and muck from the swamps, and not a few of them buy artificial manures. In the hands of such farmers, clover is a grand renovating crop. It gathers up the fertility of the soil, and the roots alone of a large crop, often furnish food enough for a good crop of corn, potatoes, or wheat. But if your land was not in good heart to start with, you would not get the large crop of clover; and if you depend on the clover-roots alone, the time is not far distant when your large crops of clover will be things of the past, AMOUNT OF ROOTS LEFT IN THE SOIL BY DIFFERENT CROPS. We have seen that Dr. Voelcker made four separate deter- minations of the amount of clover-roots left in the soil to the depth of six inches. It may be well to tabulate the figures obtained : CLOVER-BOOTS, IN SIX INCHES OP SOIL, PEB ACBE. Phos- Air-dry jtino- phoric roots, per roots, acid in roots, acre. per acre. per acre. No. 1. £ ^ Good Clover from brow of the hill 7703 100 41 2. 3920 31 H I *•« f " 3. £ I Good Clover from bottom of the field.... 7569 61 27 " 4. |Thin " " brow " hill.... 80.4 60 81 " 5. Heavy crop of first-year clover mown twice for bay 244 " 6. Heavy crop of first-year clover, mown once for hay, and then for seed. . 5H u 7. German experiment, 10$ inches deep 8921 74* I have not much confidence in experiments of this kind. It is so easy to make a little mistake ; and when you take only a square foot of land, as was the case with Nos. 5 and 6, the mistake is mul- tiplied by 43,560. Still, I give the table for what it is worth. EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 165 Nos. 1 and 2 are from a one-year-old crop of clover. The field was a calcareous clay soil. It was somewhat hilly ; or, perhaps, what we here, in Western New York, should call " rolling land." The soil on the brow of the hill, " was very stony at a depth of four inches, so that it could only with difficulty be excavated to six inches, when the bare limestone-rock made its appearance." A square yard was selected on this shallow soil, where the clover was good ; and the roots, air-dried, weighed at the rate of 7,705 Ibs. per acre, and contained 100 Ibs. of nitrogen. A few yards distance, on the same soil, where the clover was bad, the acre of roots con- tained only 31 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre. So far, so good. We can well understand this result. Chemistry has little to do with it. There was a good stand of clover on the one plot, and a poor one on the other. And the conclusion to be drawn from it is, that it is well worth our while to try to secure a good catch of clover. "But, suppose," said the Doctor, "No. 2 had happened to have been pastured by sheep, and No. 1 allowed to go to seed, what magi3 there would have been in the above figures ! " Nos. 3 and 4 are from the same field, the second year. No. 4 is from a square yard of thin clover on the brow of the hill, and No. 3, from the richer, deeper land towards the bottom of the hill. There is very little difference between them. The roots of thin clover from the brow of the hill, contain five Ibs. more nitrogen per acre, than the roots on the deeper soil. If we can depend on the figures, we may conclude that on our poor stony "knolls," the clover has larger and longer roots than on the richer parts of the field. We know that roots will run long distances and great depths in search of food and water. Nos. 5 and 6 are from a heavy crop of one-year-old clover. No. 5 was mown twice for hay, producing, in the two cuttings, over four tons of hay per acre. No. 6 was in the same field, the only difference being that the clover, instead of being cut the second time for hay, was allowed to stand a few weeks longer to ripen its seed. You will see that the latter has more roots than the former. There are 24£ Ibs. of nitrogen per acre in the one case, and 51£ Ibs. in the other. How far this is due to difference in the condition of the land, or to the difficulties in the way of getting out all the roots from the square yard, is a matter of conjecture. Truth to tell, I have very little confidence in any of these figures. It will be observed that I have put at the bottom of the table, the result of an examination made in Germany. In this case, the nitro- gen in tho roots of an acre of clover, amounted to 191^ Ibs. per 166 TALKS ON MANURES. acre. If we can depend on the figures, we must conclude that there were nearly eight times as much clover-roots per acre in the Ger- man field, as in the remarkably heavy crop of clover in the English field No. 5. " Yes," said the Deacon, " but the one was 10J inches deep, and the other only six inches deep ; and besides, the German experi- ment includes the ' stubble ' with the roots." The Deacon is right ; and it will be well to give the complete table, as published in the American Agriculturist : TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF ROOTS AND STUBBLE LEFT PER ACRE BY DIFFER- ENT CROPS, AND THE AMOUNT OF INGREDIENTS WHICH THEY CONTAIN PER ACRE. *|IJ* ** W- v2 ^ xli b^i! £'lfls 4 ^iF Lucern (4 years old) <> 07^ 1 130 4 1 201.6 Red-Clover (1 year old) . 8 !i-i 6 191 6 1 Ml') 'J Esparsettc ( 3 years old) 5930 9 123 2 Rye . . 05 3 5 004 3 102 S Rape •1 177 Oats 3 331 9 O|J (j ] 11-17 3 ~>20 0 Wheat 3 476 1 fH'i ^ Peas Serradella . 3 150 1 64 8 515 6 Buckwheat . . . 2 19") 6 47 9 465 5 Barley l!99l'4 22^8 891.1 CONTENTS OF THE ASHES, IN POUNDS, PER ACR2. | I "§ | || f2 Lucern Red-Clover Esparsctte 197.7 2,i2.9 1328 24.2 48.4 287 36.7 58.3 426 26.4 20.0 13.8 18.7 26.1 206 38.5 74.8 297 Rye 73 2 14 3 31 2 43 3 11 8 24 4 Swedish Clover 13(5.1 17.6 2o.9 5.7 13.2 242 Rape 163 9 12 9 34 7 20 9 30 8 31 9 Oats 85 5 11 2 248 18 8*8 29 Lupine. .. 805 11 2 Ifi 5 3 5 7 13 8 Wheat 767 10 1 28 4 11 7 4 11 8 Peas . . 71 7 11 11 2 7 q 4 14 3 Serradella 798 134 8 8 48 9 18 4 Buckwheat 80 7 2 88 4 2 6 6 11 Barley 42.2 5.5 9.5 3.5 5.5 11.2 It may be presumed, that, while these figures are not absolutely, they are relatively, correct. In other words, we may conclude, that red-clover leaves more nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, in the roots and stubble per acre, than any other of the crops named. EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-SOILS. 167 The gross amount of dry substance in the roots, and the gross amount of ash per acre, are considerably exaggerated, owing to the evidently large quantity of dirt attached to the roots and stubble. For instance, the gross amount of ash in Lucern is given as 1,201.6 Ibs. per acre ; while the total amount of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, is only 342.2 Ibs. per acre, leaving 859.4 Ibs. as sand, clay, iron, etc. Of the 1,919.9 Ibs. of ash in the acre of clover-roots and stubble, there are 1,429.4 Ibs. of sand, clay, etc. But even after deducting this amount of impuri- ties from a gross total of dry matter per acre, we still have 7,492.2 Ibs. of dry roots and stubble per acre, or nearly 3£ tons of dry roots per acre. This is a very large quantity. It is as much dry matter as is contained in 13 tons of ordinary farm-yard, or stable-manure. And these 3J tons of dry clover-roots contain 191^ Ibs. of nitrogen, which is as much as is contained in 19 tons of ordinary stable-ma- nure. The clover- roots also contain 74| Ibs. of phosphoric acid per acre, or as much as is contained in from 500 to GOO Ibs. of No. 1 rectified Peruvian guano. " But the phosphoric acid," said the Doctor, " is not soluble in the roots." True, but it was soluble when the roots gathered it up out of the soil. " These figures," said the Deacon, " have a very pleasant look. Those of us who have nearly one-quarter of our land in clover every year, ought to be making our farms very rich." " It would seem, at any rate," said I, " that those of us who have good, clean, well-drained, and well-worked land, that is now pro- ducing a good growth of clover, may reasonably expect a fair crop of wheat, barley, oats, corn, or potatoes, when we break it up and plow under all the roots, which are equal to 13 or 19 tons of stable- manure per acre. Whether we can or can not depend on these figures, one thing is clearly proven, both by the chemist and the farmer, that a good clover-sod, on well-worked soil, is a good pre- paration for corn and potatoes." MANURES FOR WHEAT. Probably nine-tenths of all the wheat grown in Western New York, or the " Genesee country," from the time the land was first cleared until 1870, was raised without any manure being directly ap- plied to the land for this crop. Tillage and clover were what the farmers depended on. There certainly has been no systematic ma- nuring. The manure made during the winter, was drawn out in the spring, and plowed under for corn. Any manure made during the summer, in the yards, was, by the best farmers, scraped up and 168 TALKS ON MANURES. spread on portions of the land sown, or to be sown, with wheat. Even so good a farmer and wheat-grower as John Johnston, rarely used manure, (except lime, and latterly, a little guano), directly for wheat. Clover and summer-fallowing were for many years the dependence of the Western New York wheat-growers. " One of the oldest and most experienced millers of Western New York," remarked the Doctor, "once told me that ' ever since our farmers began to manure their land, the wheat-crop had deterio- rated, not only in the yield per acre, but in the quality and quantity of the flour obtained trom it.' It seemed a strange remark to make ; but when he explained that the farmers had given up summer- fallowing and plowing in clover, and now sow spring crops, to be followed by winter wheat with an occasional dressing of poor manure, it is easy to see how it may be true." "Yes," said I, "it is not the manure that hurts the wheat, but the growth of spring crops and weeds that rob the soil of far more plant-food than the poor, strawy manure can supply. We do not now, really, furnish the wheat-crop as much manure or plant-food as we formerly did when little or no manure was used, and when we depended on summer-fallowing and plowing in clover." We must either give up the practice of sowing a spring crop, before wheat, or we must make more and richer manure, or wo must plow in more clover. The rotation, which many of us now adopt — corn, barley, wheat — is profitable, provided we can make our land rich enough to produce 75 bushels of shelled corn, 50 bushels of barley, and 35 bushels of wheat, per acre, in three years. This can be done, but we shall either require a number of acres of rich low laud, or irrigated meadow, the produce of which will make manure for the upland, or we shall have to purchase oil cake, bran, malt-combs, or refuse beans, to feed out with our straw and clover-hay, or we must purchase artificial manures. Unless this is done, we must summer-fallow more, on the heavier clay soils, sow less oats and barley ; or we must, on the lighter soils, raise and plow under more clover, or feed it out on the farm, being careful to save and apply the manure. " Better do both," said the Doctor." " How ? " asked the Deacon. "You had better make all the manure you can," continued the Doctor, " and buy artificial manures besides." " The Doctor is right," said I, " and in point of fact, our best farmers are doing this very thing. They are making more manure and buying more manure than ever before ; or, to state the matter correctly, they are buying artificial manures ; and these increase the EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER-S'OILS. 169 crops, and the extra quantity of straw, corn, and clover, so ob- tained, enables them to make more manure. They get cheated sometimes in their purchases ; but, on the whole, the movement is a good one, and will result in a higher and better system of farming." I am amused at the interest and enthusiasm manifested by some of our farmers who have used artificial manures for a year or two. They seem to regard me as a sad old fogy, because I am now de- pending almost entirely on the manures made on the farm. Years ago, I was laughed at because I used guano and superphosphate. It was only yesterday, that a young farmer, who is the local agent of this neighborhood, for a manure manufacturer, remarked to me, " You have never used superphosphate. We sowed it on our wheat last year, and could see to the very drill mark how far it went. I would like to take your order for a ton. I am sure it would pay." " We are making manure cheaper than you can sell it to me, " I replied, " and besides, I do not think superphosphate is a good manure for wheat." — " Oh," he exclaimed, " you would not say so if you had ever used it." — " Why, my dear sir," said I, " I made tons of superphosphate, and used large quantities of guano before you were born; and if you will come into the house, I will show you a silver goblet I got for a prize essay on the use of superphos- phate of lime, that I wrote more than a quarter of a century ago. I sent to New York for two tons of guano, and published the result of its uso on this farm, before you were out of your cradle. And I had a ton or more of superphosphate made for me in 1856, and some before that. I have also used on this farm, many tons of superphos- phate and other artificial manures from different manufacturers, and one year I used 15 tons of bone-dust." With ready tact, he turned the tables on me by saying : " Now I can understand why your land is improving. It is because you have used superphosphate and bone-dust. Order a few tons." By employing agents of this kind, the manufacturers have suc- ceeded in selling the farmers of Western New York thousands of tons of superphosphate. Some farmers think it pays, and some that it does not. We are more likely to hear of the successes than of failures. Still there can be no doubt that superphosphate has, in many instances, proved a valuable and profitable manure for wheat in Western New York. From 200 to 300 Ibs. are used por acre, and the evidence seems to show that it is far better to drill in tJie manure with the seed than to sow it broadcast. My own opinion is, that these superphosphates are not the most 170 TALKS OX MANURES. economical artificial manures that could be used for wheat. They contain too little nitrogen. Peruvian guano containing nitrogen equal to 10 per cent of ammonia, would be, I think, a much more effective and profitable manure. But before we discuss this ques- tion, it will be necessary to study the results of actual experiments in the use of various fertilizers for wheat. CHAPTER XXVII. LAWE3 AND GILBERT'S EXPERIMENTS ON T7HEAT. I hardly know how to commence an account of the wonderful experiments made at Rothamsted, England, by John Bennett Lawes, Esq., and Dr. Joseph II. Gilbert. Mr. Lawes' first syste- matic experiment on wheat, commenced in the autumn of 1843. A field of 14 acres of rather heavy clay soil, resting on chalk, was selected for the purpose. Nineteen plots were accurately measured and staked off. The plots ran the long way of the field, and up a slight ascent. On each side of the field, alongside the plots, there was some land not included, the first year, in the experiment proper. This land was either left without manure, or a mixture of the manures used in the experiments was sown on it. I have heard it said that Mr. Lawes, at this time, was a believer in what was called " Liebig's Mineral Manure Theory." Licbig had said that " The crops on a field, diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure." And enthusiastic gentlemen have been known to tell farmers who were engaged in drawing out farm-yard manure to their land, that they were wasting their strength ; all they needed was the mineral elements of the manure. " And you might," they said, " burn your manure, and sow the ashes, and thus save much time and labor. The ashes will do just as much good as the manure itself." Whether Mr. Lawes did, or did not entertain such an opinion, I do not know. It looks as though the experiments tb.3 first year or two, were made with the expectation that mineral manures, or the ashes of plants, were what the wheat needed. The following table gives the kind and quantities of manures used per acre, and the yield of wheat per acre, as carefully cleaned for market. Also the total weight of grain per acre, and the weight of straw and chaff per acre. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 171 o i-ip- tT~. ~? I Farmyard gWg-gg g"gP I ^«»«rc- £.Trfa.3 g B, «* &*_«_ io'2,'-i i-N>»oto *^ S— Phosphate E? ^ r*: S?£S2sooo: • • : : o^ : • : : » g* of S- ^ o* 2-' Magnesia3 J3 5" cocoMCpwoswco wytC303ico3-i -i»*w Buperphos- & CB : : : 2oooooooooooooS: •' : S^S" phate of »_ P- _ *• | '_ Lime.3 P » 3 ^ Sulphate N g.: : : 2S5S§5: :::: :«::::::.:: 8g » p °° • Ammonia. % *::::'£:::::: |: :::::::: £: 5s 5ap3 Cote g | ; I ^y p->-"r^^|^2u^t:J'r;5J'-i'r;g1-'!r'^ "s* ^ 3*0 ^ K « | 2SSgS2o22gg2ggggggg^t" "^^~ ^ P. 8 ooocomocooimGoococoosooiOwTCoom- Bushel. d ,__.._ . ,JS« 3 »_lK*|^l_*l_l^^|_l^>_l^-r>_ _ _^ I_L U* |_l _ I 7^^ ^ ^m?<' and Chaff. § ^ |"7b^ Pro~- P- 8 . . . ||||||§S§SiS|§§ii3||g! ^^(C^^ S |_ OOOOO^K^COMS^." | ^^ Corn. I I Chaff. Total~Prd- duce. > o s 5» >>; a^s^ 95 ~t & {& 2 & 00 ce «p «e Q9Q9tc GO 00 OP oo OB go go jC -3 -3 po 00 Si O p Oi O CO _4- .*- -1 p> O O S> Or to '^ Va U '*. '*• o b b bs b» w o bs bs ^ Straw. 172 TALKS ON MANURES. These were the results of the harvest of 1844. The first year oZ these since celebrated experiments. If Mr. Lawes expected that the crops would be in proportion to the minerals supplied in the manure, he must have been greatly disappointed. The plot without manure of any kind, gave 15 bushels of wheat per acre; 700 Ibs. of superphosphate of lime, made from burnt bones, produced only 33 Ibs. or about half a bushel more grain per acre, and 4 Ibs. less straw than was obtained without manure. 640 Ibs. of superphosphate, and 65 Ibs. of com- mercial sulphate of ammonia (equal to about 14 Ibs. of ammonia), gave a little over 19 $• bushels of dressed wheat per acre. As com- pared with the plot having 700 Ibs. of superphosphate per acre, this 14 Ibs. of available ammonia per acre, or, say 1H Ibs. nitrogen, gave an increase of 324 Ibs. of grain, and 252, Ibs. of straw, or a total increase of 576 Ibs. of grain and straw. On plot No. 19, 81 Ibs. of sulphate ammonia, with minerals, pro- duces 24£ bushels per acre. This yield is clearly due to the am- monia. The rape-cake contains about 5 per cent of nitrogen, and is also rich in minerals and carbonaceous matter. It gives an increase, but not as large in proportion to the nitrogen furnished, as the sul- phate of ammonia. And the same remarks apply to the 14 tons of farm-yard manure. "We should have expected a greater increase from such a liberal dressing of barn-yard manure. I think the explanation is this: transparent glass, slightly deliquescent in the air, which was ground to a pow- der under edge-stones. 3 The manures termed superphosphate of lime, phosphate of potass, phosphate of soda, and phosphate of magnesia, were made by acting upon bone-ash by means of sulphuric acid in the first instance, and in the case* of the alkali salts and the maguesian one neutralizing the compound thus obtained by means of cheap preparations of the respective bases. For the superphosphate of lime, the proportions were 5 parts bone-ash, 3 parts water, and 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1.84; and for the phosphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, they were 4 parts bone-ash, water as needed, 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1.84. and equivalent amounts, respectively, of pearl-ash, soda-ash, or a mixture of 1 part medicinal carbonate of magnesia, and 4 parts magnesian limestone. The mixtures, of course, all lost weight considerably by the evolution of water and carbonic acid. 4 Made with unburnt bones. 6 In this first season, neither the weight nor the measure of the offal corn was recorded separately ; and in former papers, the bushels and pecks of total"corn (including offal) have erroneously been given as dressed corn. To bring the records more in conformity with those relating to the other years. 5 per cent, by weight, has been deducted from the total corn previously stated as dressed corn, and is recorded as offal corn ; this being about the probable proportion, judging from the character of the season, the bulk of the crop, and the weight per oushel of the dressed corn. Although not strictly correct, the statements of dressed corn, as amended in this somewhat arbitrary way, will approximate more nearly to the truth, and be more comparable with those relating to other seasons, than those hitherto recorded. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 173 The manure had not been piled. It was probably taken out fresh from the yard (this, at any rate, was the case when I was at Rothamsted), and plowed under late in the season. And on this heavy land, manure will lie buried in the soil for months, or, if un- disturbed, for years, without decomposition. In other words, while this 14 tons of barn-yard manure, contained at least 150 Ibs. of nitrogen, and a large quantity of minerals and carbonaceous matter, it did not produce a bushel per acre more than a manure containing less than 12 Ibs. of nitrogen. And on plot 19, a manure containing less than 15 Ibs. of available nitrogen, produced nearly 4 bushels per acre more wheat than the barn-yard manure contain- ing at least ten times as much nitrogen. There can be but one explanation of this fact. The nitrogen in the manure lay dormant in this heavy soil. Had it been a light sandy soil, it would have decomposed more rapidly and produced a better effect. As we have before stated, John Johnston finds, on his clay-land, a far greater effect from manure spread on the surface, where it decomposes rapidly, than when the manure is plowed under. The Deacon was looking at the figures in the table, and not pay- ing much attention to our talk. " What could a man be thinking about," he said, " to burn 14 tons of good manure ! It was a great waste, and I am glad the ashes did no sort of good." After the wheat was harvested in 1844, the land was immedi- ately plowed, harrowed, etc. ; and in a few weeks was plowed again and sown to wheat, the different plots being kept separate, as before. The following table shows the manures used this second year, and the yield per acre : 174 TALKS ON MANURES. c a i-o ^_ Farmyard Manure. Silicate of Potass.1 2 £| P s S^ff ^g1 Bone-ash. a 1 Muriatic &3f | tfwatto. f* tO Ammonia. gSl CarVnateof a ? \ Ammonia. g1 1 Tapioca. , § o '-i be is 'wt yi w ic o is ic i* s be cc b» o b' ao be bi •* I SwMl. ' ^ 83SSisSiS2iSsSsI8? | 'zr*' °*11- 51 Total Corn. s «ra?r antf j w /fl' /'/Y»- « (for/» ' straw). Chaff. TWa/ S> § Produce. • s 5 <9/fa/ Corn to K),i » is io bs -3 t^ o . lo co >-i co c» >-i io 1^ C'am to 100 Straw. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 175 The season of 1845 was more favorable for wheat, than that of 1844, and the crops on all the plots were better. On plot No. 3, which had no manure last year, or this, the yield is 23 bushels per acre, against 15 bushels last year. Last year, the 14 tons of barn-yard manure gave an increase of only 5£ bushels per acre. This year it gives an increase of nearly 9 bushels per acre. "Do you mean," said the Deacon, " that this plot, No. 2, had 14 tons of manure in 1844, and 14 tons of manure again in 1845 ? " " Precisely that, Deacon," said I, " and this same plot has receiv- ed this amount of manure every year since, up to the present time — for these same experiments are still continued from year to year at Rothamsted." " It is poor farming," said the Deacon, "and I should think the land would get too rich to grow wheat." "It is not so," said I, "and the fact is an interesting one, and teaches a most important lesson, of which, more hereafter." Plot 5, last year, received 700 Ibs. of superphosphate per acre. This year, this plot was divided ; one half was left without ma- nure, and the other dressed with 252 Ibs. of pure carbonate of ammonia per acre. The half without manure, (5a), did not pro- duce quite as much grain and straw as the plot which had received no manure for two years in succession. But the wheat was of better quality, weighing 1 Ib. more per bushel than the other. Still it is sufficiently evident that superphosphate of lime did no good so far as increasing the growth was concerned, either the first year it was applied, or the year following. The carbonate of ammonia was dissolved in water and sprinkled over the growing wheat at three different times during the spring. You see this manure, which contains no mineral matter at all, gives an increase of nearly 4 bushels of grain per acre, and an increase of 887 Ibs. of straw. " Wait a moment," said the Deacon, " is not 887 Ibs. of straw to 2 The manures termed superphosphate of lime and phosphate of potass, were made by acting upon bone-ash by means of sulphuric acid, and in the case of the potass salt neutralizing the compound thus obtained, by means of pearl-ash. For the superphoshate of lime, the proportions were, 5 parts bone-ash. 3 parts water, and 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1.84 ; and for the phosphate of potass, 4 parts bone ash, water as needed, 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1.84; and an equivalent amount of pearl-ash. The mixtares.'of course, lost weight consider- ably by the evolution of water and carbonic acid. 3 The medicinal carbonate of ammonia; it was dissolved in water ard top- dressed. 4 Plot 5. was 2 lands wide (in after years, respectively, 5a and 56) ; 51 ccnMst- ing of 2 alternate one-fourth lengths across both lands, and 52 of the 2 remain- ing one-fourth lengths. 6 Top-dressed at once. « Top-dressed at 4 intervals. T Peruvian. 8 Ichaboe. 176 TALKS OX MANUKES. 4 bushels of grain an unusually large proportion of straw to grain ? I have heard you say that 100 Ibs. of straw to each bushel of wheat is about the average. And according to this experiment, the carbonate of ammonia produced over 200 Ibs. of straw to a bushel of grain. How do you account for this." " It is a general rule," said 1, "that the heavier the crop, the greater is the proportion of straw to grain. On the no-manure plot, we have, this year, 118 Ibs. of straw to a bushel of dressed grain. Taking this as the standard, you will find that the increase from manures is proportionally greater in straw than in grain. Thus in the increase of barn-yard manure, this year, we have about 133 Ibs. of straw to a bushel of grain. I do not believe there is any manure that will give us a large crop of grain without a Btill larger crop of straw. There is considerable difference, in this respect, between different varieties of wheat. Still, I like to see a good growth of straw." "It is curious," said the Doctor, " that 3 cwt. of ammonia-salts alone on plots 9 and 10 should produce as much wheat as was obtained from plot 2, where 14 tons of barn-yard manure had been applied two years in succession. I notice that on one plot, the ammonia-salts were applied at once, in the spring, while en the other plot they were sown at four different times — and that the former gave the best results." The only conclusion to be drawn from this, is, that it is desirable to apply the manure early in the spring — or better still, in the autumn. " You are a great advocate of Peruvian guano," said the Deacon, "and yet 3 cwt of Peruvian guano on Plot 13, only produced an increase of two bushels and 643 Ibs. of straw per acre. The guano at $60 per ton, would cost $9.00 per acre. This will not pay." This is an unusually small increase. The reason, probably, is to be found in the fact that the manure and seed were not sown until March, instead of in the autumn. The salts of ammonia are quite soluble and act quickly ; while the Peruvian guano has to decom- pose in the soil, and consequently needs to be applied earlier, especially on clay land. " I do not want you," said the Deacon, " to dodge the question why an application of 14 tons of farmyard-manure per acre, every year for over thirty years, does not make the land too rich for wheat." " Possibly," said I, " on light, sandy soil, such an annual dressing of manure would in the course of a few years make the land too EXPERIMENTS OX WHEAT. 17? rich for wlieat. But on a clayey soil, such is evidently not the case. And tiie fact is a very important one. When we apply manure, our object should be to make it as available as possible. Nature preserves or conserves the food of plants. The object of agricul- ture is to use the food of plants for our own advantage. "Please be a little more definite," said the Deacon, " for I must confess I do not quite see the significance of your remarks." 44 What he means," said the Doctor, " is this : If you put a quan- tity of soluble and available manure on land, and do not sow any crop, the manure will not be wasted. The soil will retain it. It will change it from a soluble into a comparatively insoluble form. Had a crop been sown the first year, the manure would do far more good than it will the next year, and yet it may be that none of the manure is lost. It is merely locked up in the soil in such a form as will prevent it from running to waste. If it was not for this principle, our lands would have been long ago exhausted of all their available plant-food." " I think I understand," said the Deacon ; " but if what you say is true, it upsets many of our old notions. We have thought it de- sirable to plow under manure, in order to prevent the ammonia from escaping. You claim, I believe, that there is little danger of any loss from spreading manure on the surface, and I suppose you would have us conclude that we make a mistake in plowing it under, as the soil renders it insoluble." " It depends a good deal," said I, " on the character of the soil. A light, sandy soil will not preserve manure like a clay soil. But it is undoubtedly true that our aim in all cases should be to apply manure in such a form and to such a crop as will give us the great- est immediate benefit. Plowing under fresh manure every year for wheat is evidently not the best way to get the greatest benefit from it. But this is not the place to discuss this matter. Let us look at the result of Mr, Lawes' experiments on wheat the third year : " 178 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH op TABLE III.— MANURES AND PRODUCE; 3RD SEASON, 1845-6. 1 MANURES PER ACRE. i |l Ash from 8 loads (3,888 Ibs.) \Y/icat-8traic. 1- 66 is 3 .4 ^j r^s Pearl-ash. •2 II Sup oj trphosi ' Zimt ihte jl X'llpliate of Am- monia. Muriate of Am- monia. 1 0 1 2 3 4 Hi 6a 66 7a 76 8a 86 9a 96 lOa 106 lla 116 12a 126 13a 136 14a 146 15a 156 16a 166 17a 176 18.7 186 19 20) 21 r 22f Tons. Ibs. Ibs. 886 Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 224 Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. U Unma 224 •- 224 224 •• •• ] Straw 224» 448 448 . 2241 4-18 448 •US 418 112 112 448 448 448 448 448 112 112 112 112 201 221 •• •• 994 Unma 2-.H Hired 224 22 1 234 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 204 224 224 224 112 ;r mi 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 mures. 224 224 112 lia 112 224 224 224 112 221 112 112 115 112 112 112 112 112 448 448 448 448 448 418 448 448 448 448 •• 180 180 .. 9DO 9no 84 84 994 Mixtu re of tl 67 67 67 67 67 67 60 60 60 60 60 60 84 81 84 84 84 84 ic res due ofm ost o f the oth< Top-dressed in the Spring. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 179 WHEAT, YEAR AFTER TEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. MANURES AND SEED (OLD BED LAMMAS), SOWN AUTUMN, 1845. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. 'NCREASE ^ ACRE BY MANURE. 8 , Dressed Corn. S 8 S-rf I •s | j ~ « ii~ •g •i g| g § t Jf | i *fe If 5^ 1 £<^ ^ 8 I |&l 1 i P 1 Is 1 ft | Bush.P'cks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 28 If 62.3 134 1906 2561 4467 699 1048 1747 7.3 74.4 1 22 Of 62.6 120 1509 1953 3462 302 440 742 8.1 77.3 2 27 Of 63.0 113 1826 2454 4280 619 941 1560 6.6 74.4 3 17 3f 63.8 64 1207 1513 2720 •• •• 7.4 79.7 4 25 3f 63.5 130 1777 2390 4167 570 877 1447 7.8 74.3 5ajl 19 Oi 63.7 87 1305 1541 2846 98 28 126 84.6 27 0 63.0 126 1827 2309 4136 620 796 1416 79.1 1 7, \ J 23 Si (33.4 100 1598 1721 3319 391 208 599 92.8 56 j g 30 Of 63.3 165 2076 2901 4977 869 1388 2257 71.6 20 li 63.7 102 1400 1676 3076 193 163 356 7.0 66 29 Of 63.5 114 1967 2571 4538 760 1058 1818 5.3 76.5 7a 22 Si 63.0 97 1534 1968 3502 327 405 732 6.8 77.9 76 31 3 63.4 150 2163 3007 5170 9E6 1494 2450 7.5 72.6 8a 22 3} 63.5 101 1549 1963 3512 342 450 792 7.1 78.9 86 29 Of 63.6 132 1988 2575 4563 181 10(>2 1843 7.2 77.2 9a 23 2f 63.0 122 1614 2033 3647 407 520 927 7.9 79.4 96 28 Si 63.3 114 1942 2603 4545 735 1000 1825 7.0 74.6 lOa 27 H 63.6 109 1850 2244 4094 643 731 1374 6.4 '82.4 106 17 Si 63.8 92 1216 1455 2671 9 -58 -49 7.8 83.6 lla 23 If 63.3 145 1628 2133 3761 421 620 1041 9.8 76.3 116 30 Oi 63.2 155 2055 2715 4770 848 1202 2050 6.1 75.7 24 H 63.0 125 1661 2163 3824 454 650 1104 7.9 76.8 126 28 2f 63.4 136 1955 2554 4509 748 1041 1789 7.4 76.5 13a 24 0 63.5 136 1660 2327 3987 453 814 1267 9.1 71.3 136 29 If 63.2 138 1998 2755 4753 791 1242 2033 7.3 72.5 14a 23 2i 63.0 117 1605 2031 3636 398 518 916 7.7 79.0 146 26 2i 63.4 124 1812 2534 4356 605 1021 1626 7.4 71.5 15a 31 If- 62.5 147 2112 S936 5048 905 1423 2328 7.5 71.9 156 27 2f 63.0 117 1861 2513 4374 654 1000 1654 5.9 74.0 16a 23 3 62.5 108 1592 2067 3659 385 554 939 7.0 77.0 166 30 1 62.7 122 2019 2836 4855 812 1323 2135 6.6 71.2 17a 33 2f 62.8 129 2241 3278 5519 1034 1765 2799 5.8 68.3 176 30 2 63.0: 113 2034 2784 4818 827 1271 2098 5.9 |73.0 18a 31 0 162.8 103 2048 2838 4886 841 1325 2166 5.1 i?2.2 186 21 1 62.0 157 1474 1893 3367 267 380 647 6.6 177.1 19 28 3 62.0 107 1889 2425 4314 682 912 1594 5.8 177.9 20) 21 I 22 f 180 TALKS ON MANURES. This year, the seed and manures were sown in the autumn. And I want the Deacon to look at plot 0. 3 cwt. of Peruvian guano here gives an increase of 10| bushels of wheat, and 1,048 Ibs. of straw per acre. This will pay well, even on the wheat alone. But in addition to this, we may expect, in our ordinary rotation of crops, a far better crop of clover where the guano was used. In regard to some of the results this year, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have the following concise and interesting remarks : "At this third experimental harvest, we have on the continu- ously unmanured plot, namely. No. 3, not quite 18 bushels of dressed corn, as the normal produce of the season ; and by its side we have on plot 105 — comprising one-half of the plot 10 of the previous years, and so highly manured by ammoniacal salts in 1845, but now unmanured — rather more than 17| bushels. The near approach, again, to identity of result from the two unmanured plots, at once gives confidence in the accuracy of the experiments, and shows us how effectually the preceding crop had, in a practi- cal point of view, reduced the plots, previously so differently cir- cumstanced both as to manure and produce, to something like an uniform standard as regards their grain-producing qualities. " Plot 2 has, as before, 14 tons of farm-yard manure, and the produce is 27i bushels, or between 9 and 10 bushels more than without manure of any kind. " On plot 10a, which in the previous year gave by ammoniacal salts alone, a produce equal to that of the farm-yard manure, we have again a similar result : for two cwts. of sulphate of ammonia has now given 1,850 Ibs. of total corn, instead of 1,826 Ibs., which is the produce on plot 2. The straw of the latter, is, however, slightly heavier than that by the ammoniacal salt. "Again, plot 5a, which was in the previous season unmanured, was now subdivided: on one-half of it (namely, Sa1) we have the ashes of wheat-straw alone, by which there is an increase of rather more than one bushsl per acre of dressed corn ; on the other half (or 5a2) we have, besides the straw-ashes, two cwts. of sulphate of ammonia put on as a top-dressing : two cwts. of sulphate of am- monia have, in this case, only increased the produce beyond that of 5a' by 7-J bushels of corn and 768 Ibs. of straw, instead of by 93/4 bushels of corn and 789 Ibs. of straw, which was the increase obtained by the same amount of ammoniacal salt on lOn, as com- pared with 105. " It will be observed, however, that in the former case the am- moniacal salts were top-dressed, but in the latter they were drilled at the time of sowing the seed ; and it will be remembered that hi EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 181 1845 the result was better as to corn on plot 9, where the salts were sown earlier, than on plot 10, where the top-dressing extended far into the spring. We have had several direct instances of this kind in our experience, and we would give it as a suggestion, in most cases applicable, that manures for wheat, and especially ammoniacal ones, should be applied before or at the time the seed is sown ; for, although the apparent luxuriance of the crop is greater, and the produce of straw really heavier, by spring rather than autumn sowings of Peruvian guano and other ammoniacal manures, yet we believe that that of the corn will not be increased in an equivalent degree. Indeed, the success of the crop undoubtedly depends very materially on the progress of the underground growth during the winter months ; and this again, other things being equal, upon the quantity of available nitrogenous constituents within the soil, with- out a liberal provision of which, the range of the fibrous feeders of the plant will not be such, as to take up the minerals which the soil is competent to supply, and in such quantity as will be required during the after progress of the plant for its healthy and favorable growth." These remarks are very suggestive and deserve special attention. " The next result to be noticed," continue Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, "is that obtained on plot 6, now also divided into two equal portions designated respectively Ga and 6k Plot No. 6 had for the crop of 1844, superphosphate of lime and the phosphate of magnesia manure, and for that of 1845, superphosphate of lime, rape-cake, and ammoniacal salts. For this, the third season, it was devoted to the trial of the wheat-manure manufactured under the sanction of Professor Liebig, and patented in this country. " Upon plots 6'f, four cwts. per acre of the patent wheat-manure were used, which gave 20|- bushels, or rather more than two bushels beyond the produce of the unmanured plot ; but as the manure contained, besides the minerals peculiar to it, some nitro- genous compounds, giving off a very perceptible odor of ammonia, some, at least, of the increase would be due to that substance. On plot 65, however, the further addition of one cwt. each of sulphate and muriate of ammonia to this so-called ' Mineral Manure,' gives a produce of 29^- bushels. In other words, the addition of ammcni- acal salt, to Liebig's mineral manure has increased the produce by very nearly 9 bushels per acre beyond that of the mineral manure alone, whilst the increase obtained over the unmanured plot, by 14 tons of farm-yard manure, was only 9J bushels ! The following table gives the results of the experiments the fourth year, 1846-7. 182 TALKS OX MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GKOWTH or TABLE IV.— MANURES AND PRODUCE ; 4TH SEASON, 1846-7. MANURES PER ACRE. | . Superphosphate of Lime. s I 4S 1 a ?p •« N B § s tt ^ 1 ^5 v§ 5 i 4 •£ ^ 4> •X s 150 150 96 .. 150 150 lOa 150 150 106 •• •• • • .. 150 150 .. lla 100 100 150 150 ' 116 .. 100 100 150 150 12a .. 100 100 150 150 116 100 100 150 150 13a .. 100 100 150 Ififl 136 .. 100 100 150 150 14a 100 100 150 150 146 100 100 150 150 15a .. SCO 200 300 5CO 156 -• 200 200 300 .. 500 IGa 100 100 150 150 166 100 100 150 150 17a 100 100 160 1EO 176 100 100 200 200 18o 100 100 150 150 186 •• 100 100 150 KO • 19 100 100 SCO 500 20 Unmanured. 21} 22 f Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures. •• EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. WHEAT, TEAK AFTER TEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. MANURES AND SEED (OLD BED LAMMAS), SOWN END OF OCTOBER, 1846. 183 PRODUCE PER ACRE, «fec. INCREASE & ACR BY MANURE. Dressed Corn. i rC . 0 1 a § ll J •S 2 .§ •§ ' Q ^CQ ^ •g 5 ^ & =L |' | | $! 1 1 | I 1 || 5 ^ | S| g | | a 5 ? i £ & § I ^g <3 1 1 & a Bush.P'cks Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 3D 2t 61.1 156 2031 3277 5308 908 1375 2583 8.2 61.9 i 32 1 61.2 147 2119 3735 5854 996 1833 2829 7.2 56.7 2 29 3} 62.3 117 1931 3628 5603 858 1726 2584 6.2 54.6 3 16 3t 61.0 95 1123 1902 3025 .. .. 8.9 59.0 4 27 It 61.9 82 1780 2943 4728 657 1046 1703 4.7 60.3 5a 23 0 61.8 130 1921 3412 5333 798 1510 2309 7.1 56.3 56 32 2 61.4 136 2132 3721 5853 1003 1819 2827 6.6 57.2 63 24 3J 62.1 122 1663 2786 4449 540 884 1424 7.8 59.6 66 24 It 61.6 127 1632 2803 4435 509 901 1410 8.2 58.2 7a 27 3t 61.7 118 1834 3151 4985 711 1249 I960 6.8 58.2 76 25 It 61.5 125 1682 2953 4635 559 1051 1610 7.9 56.9 8a 32 It 62.1 102 2115 3683 5798 992 1781 2773 5.5 57.4 86 33 3 61.7 123 2020 3720 5749 897 1818 2715 6.3 54.3 / | 22 3 62.5 1477 2506 3983 228 604 " 53.9 is 23 2 61.0 1755 3052 4807 632 1150 57.5 96 26 0 61.3 123 1717 2838 4575 594 956 1550 60.1 103 25 3 61.5 118 1702 2891 4593 579 989 1568 7.3 58.8 106 23 at 61.2 133 1705 2374 4579 582 972 1554 8.2 59.3 lla 30 at 61.6 142 2044 3517 5561 921 1615 2536 6.3 59.5 116 29 if 61.8 123 1941 3203 5144 818 1301 2119 6.7 60.6 122 29 2 62.0 124 1953 3452 5405 830 1550 2380 6.6 57.1 125 27 Ot 61.8 121 1796 3124 4920 673 1222 1895 7.1 574 133 23 2t 62.5 108 1959 3306 5265 836 1404 2240 5.5 57.3 136 27 It >2.3 96 1801 3171 4972 678 1269 1947 5.3 56.7 14a 23 Of 62i8 175 1914 3362 5306 821 1460 2281 59.5 146 28 3i 62.8 166 1853 3006 4862 733 1104 1837 is 61.7 15a 32 3 63.0 151 2214 3876 6090 1091 1974 3065 7.2 57.1 156 3,2 0 62.6 137 2140 3617 5757 1017 1715 2732 6.6 59.1 18a 29 1} 62.3 132 1959 3417 5376 836 1515 2351 6.9 57.3 156 34 2i 62.6 119 2283 4012 6295 1160 2110 3270 5.2 56.9 17a 33 3 62.3 119 2222 4027 6249 1099 2125 3224 5.6 55.1 176 35 It 62.0 117 2314 4261 6575 1191 2359 3550 6.4 54.3 18i 32 Of 62.7 142 2160 3852 6012 1037 1950 2987 69 56.0 186 29 It 62.9 181 2029 4164 6193 906 2262 3168 .7 48.7 19 32 3 62.8 140 2195 4202 6397 1072 2300 3372 .7 52.2 20 21 1 20 Ot 62.5 70 1332 2074 3406 209 172 381 .9 64.2 22 f 184 TALKS OX MANURES. Here again, I want the Deacon to look at plot 0, where 500 Ibs. Peruvian guano, sown in October, gives an increase of nearly 14 bushels of dressed wheat and 1,375 Ibs. of straw per acre. On plot 2, where 14 tons of barn-yard manure have now been applied four years in succession (56 tons in all), there is a little more straw, but not quite so much grain, as from the 500 Ibs. of guano. " But will the guano," said the Deacon, " be as lasting as the manure ? " " Not for wheat," said I. " But if you seed the wheat down with clover, as would be the case in this section, we should get consid- erable benefit, probably, from the guano. If wheat was sown after the wheat, the guano applied the previous season would do little good on the second crop of wheat. And yet it is a matter of fact that there would be a considerable proportion of the guano left in the soil. The wheat cannot take it up. But the clover can. And we al) know that if we can grow good crops of clover, plowing it under, or feeding it out on the land, or making it into hay and saving the manure obtained from it, we shall thus be enabled to raise good crops of wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and corn, and in this sense guano is a ' lasting ' manure." " Barnyard-manure," said the Doctor, " is altogether too ' last- ing.' Here we have had 56 tons of manure on an acre of land in four years, and yet an acre dressed with 500 Ibs. of guano produces just as good a crop. The manure contains far more plant-food, of all kinds, than the guano, but it is so * lasting ' that it does not do half as much good as its composition would lead us to expect. Its * lasting ' properties are a decided objection, rather than an ad- vantage. If we could make it less lasting — in other words, if we could make it act quicker, it would produce a greater effect, and possess a greater value. In proportion to its constituents, the barn-yard manure is far cheaper than the guano, but it has a less beneficial effect, because these constituents are not more com- pletely decomposed and rendered available." " That," said I, " opens up a very important question. "We have more real value in manure than most of us are as yet able to bring out and turn to good account. The sandy-land farmer has an ad- vantage over the clay-land farmer in this respect. The latter has a naturally richer soil, but it costs him more to work it, and manure does not act so rapidly. The clay-land farmer should use his best endeavors to decompose his manure." " Yes," said the Doctor, " and, like John Johnston, he will prob- ably find it to his advantage to use it largely as a top-dressing on the suiiace. Exposing manure to the atmosphere, spread out on EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 185 the land for several months, and harrowing it occasionally, will do much to render its constituents available. But let us return to Mr. Lawes"' wonderful experiments.'" "On eight plots," said I, " 300 Ibs. of ammonia-salts were used without any other manures, and the average yield on these eight plots was nearly 26 bushels per acre, or an average increase of 9 bushels per acre. The same amount of ammonia-salts, with the addition of superphosphate of lime, gave an increase of 13 bushels per acre. 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts, with superphosphate of lime, gave an increase of nearly 16 bushels per acre, or three bushels per acre more than where 14 tons of barn-yard manure had been used four years in succession. " I hope, after this, the Deacon will forgive me for dwelling on the value of available nitrogen or ammonia as a manure for wheat." " I see," said the Deacon, " that ground rice was used this year for manure ; and in 1845, tapioca was also used as a manure. The Connecticut Tobacco growers a few years since used corn-meal for manure, and you thought it a great waste of good food." I think so still. But we will not discuss the matter now. Mr. Lawes wanted to ascertain whether carbonaceous matter was needed by the growing wheat-plants, or whether they could get all they needed from the soil and the atmosphere. The enormous quanti- ties of carbonaceous matter supplied by the barn-yard manure, it is quite evident, are of little value as a manure for wheat. And the rice seems to have done very little more good than we should expect from the 22 Ibs. of nitrogen which it contained. The large quantity of carbonaceous matter evidently did little good. Avail- able carbonaceous matter, such as starch, sugar, and oil, was in- tended as food for man and beast — not as food for wheat or tobacco. The following table gives the results of the experiments the fifth year, 1847-8. 186 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF TABLE V.— MANURES AND PRODUCE ; 5lH SEASON, 1847-8. ' MANURES PER ACRE. Farm-yard Ma- nure. Pearl-ash. j 1 fca •2 | Superphosphate cf Lime. Superphosphate of Lime. Sulphate of Ammo- nia. ^ 1 Rape- Cuke. I % If "S*1^ Muriatic Acid. 0 1 2 3 4 5a 55 Ga Go la 75 8a 85 9a 95 103 105 lla 115 12a 125 l:Ja 135 lla 145 15a 105 IGa 165 17a 175 18* 186 19 20 21 22 Tons. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 2240 Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 14 Unma Uumai aurcd. 800 300 200 200 100 100 .. 200 200 200 400 200 400 200 200 200 200 200 150 150 m 150 300 150 150 150 150 150 200 300 250 200 200 200 150 150 250 200 200 200 150 150 500 500 500 •• •• •• •• 800 300 200 200 100 100 €> •• •• •• •• 150 150 150 150 150 150 203 150 200 ino 2(10 150 200 150 150 200 200 150 150 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 300 200 103 •• 200 200 200 2CO 200 200 200 200 200 BOO 200 200 200 200 200 200 203 200 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 1EO 200 200 200 150 150 200 150 200 150 2:^0 150 200 300 SOO 150 150 200 200 150 150 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 303 300 300 lured. 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 •• .. | .. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. WHEAT, YEAR AFTER TEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. MANURES AND SEED (OLD EED LAMMAS) SOWN AUTUMN, 1847. 187 PRODUCE PER ACHE, ETC. INCREASE $ ACRB BY MANURE. I Dressed Corn. fe | . 1 3 1 •t Is 1 | 1 || ! § 1 | 8 '"i i>§ -» 3 | "ge s- s 3 g st •** "55 ^ ' § h i 5 "3 % K <2> G Bush. Pks.ilbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ihs. Ibs. 0 19 Of 53.4 138 1259 2074 3333 307 362 669 13.4 60.7 1 16 Of 59.6 160 1124 1735 2859 172 23 195 16.3 64.7 2 2.1 2f 58.2 210 1705 3041 4746 753 1329 2082 13.8 56.0 3 14 3 57.3 106 952 1712 2664 .. 12.1 55.6 4 24 01 58.5 172 1583 2713 4296 631 1001 1632 |12.0 53.3 5a 29 81 59.2 144 1911 3266 5177 959 1554 2513 7.9!fiS.5 56 33 31 59.1 107 1932 3533 5465 980 1821 2801 6.8i57."5 24 31 53.8 214 1672 2878 4550 720 1166 1886 \ 14. 6 , 58.0 66 26 3 56.9 216 1737 29G8 4705 785 1256 2041 114.0585 7a 30 31 59.4 106 1936 3038 5024 934 1376 2360 I 5.7 62 6 76 29 31 5D.6 187 1963 3413 5376 1011 1701 2712 10.3 57.5 8a 19 3 56.2 154 1263 2317 3580 311 605 916 13.6 54.5 19 Of 59.4 127 1267 2148 3115 315 436 751 11.1 58.8 Ca 18 21 56.7 125 1181 1945 3126 229 233 462 11.660.7 96 25 OJ 53.3 208 166:) 2918 4587 717 1206 1923 13.9;57.1 10a 19 1 53.1 215 1334 8367 3701 382 655 1037 19.0 56.3 105 25 Cl 57.8 155 1(504 2926 4530 652 1214 1866 10.6 54.8 lla 29 11 59.6 233 1934 3274 5253 1032 1562 2594 13.1 C0.6 115 24 3 57.9 207 1041 281)8 4539 689 1186 1875 14.1 55.4 12a £9 3 5:>.3 174 1938 3390 5328 986 1678 2664 9.3 57.2 125 26 Of 59.2 167 1717 2830 4597 765 1168 1933 10.7 59.6 13d 29 11 57.9 253 1955 3290 5245 1003 1578 2581 14 7J 59 4 1.36 25 31 58.4 224 1730 3072 4802 778 1360 2138 14.6 56i3 146 300 200 100 200 150 200 200 |j 300 200 103 200 150 200 200 176 300 200 100 200 150 200 200 300 200 100 200 150 200 200 186 • • 300 200 100 200 150 .. 200 200 • • 19 203 200 300 500 20 Unmanured. , St Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. 195 HARVEST OP 1849 THE FIELD WAS TILE-DRAINED IN EVERT ALTERNATE FURROW, (RED CLUSTER), SOWN IN AUTUMN, 1849. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. INCREASE $ ACR BY MANURE. 1 Dressed Corn. \ p S t* ^" S 1 * I ,— „ 1 1 .0 . 1 • | | •o |SQ 1 1 | 8 1 il 'a 5 a 51 si S R 3 •a •* i H* s &i i 1 <§ 1 g S 5 Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 19 li 60.8 42 1220 2037 3257 218 318 536 3.5 59 9 i 2 28 2 61.9 93 1861 3-245 5108 859 1526 2335 5.4 57 3 3 15 3i 60.6 44 1002 1719 2721 4 5 r>3 2 4 27 3 61.2 87 1785 3312 5097 783 1593 2376 .1 53.9 5a 29 3} 60.4 171 1974 4504 6473 972 2785 3757 .5 43.8 56 30 3 50.4 160 2018 4379 639T 1016 2660 3676 .6 46.1 6a 30 fl 61.1 119 1960 31)27 5887 958 2208 3166 .3 [49.9 66 29 3* 61.3 148 1980 3959 5939 978 2240 \ 3-218 .0 50.0 la 32 1 61.0 167 2131 4485 6S19 1132 276U 3898 .4 47.9 76 32 CJ 61.2 150 2112 4-280 6392 1110 2561 3671 .6 49.4 ta 23 3 61.1 101 1856 3407 5263 854 16S8 2542 .5 54.5 86 30 1 61.0 103 1948 3591 5539 946 1S72 2818 .6 54.2 9a 30 1* >0.4 118 1951 3550 5501 919 1881 2780 .3 550 96 lOa 27 2* 26 3* 60.8 60.2 80 100 176-2 1721 3165 3089 4927 4810 760 719 1446 i 2206 1370 : 2089 .7 55.7 .1 55.7 106 17 3J 61.1 76 1171 1949 3120 189 230 399 .8 60.1 lla 30 8J 61.0 121 2001 3806 5807 999 2087 3086 .4 52.6 116 29 ij 61.1 145 1940 3741 5631 938 2022 2960 .0 31.9 12 i 29 3t 61.5 94 1935 3921 5856 933 2202 3135 .1 19.4 126 30 3* 61.4 115 2013 3905 5918 1011 2186 3197 .9 51.5 13a 31 3f 60.2 105 2027 4025 6053 1025 2307 3332 .4 :.0.3 136 30 IJ 61.0 111 1964 4008 5972 962 2289 3251 .0 19.0 14(Z 31 1} 61.1 102 2023 4052 6075 1021 2333 3354 .3 19.9 146 31 ij 61.5 65 1995 4015 6010 903 2296 3289 .2 149.7 15a 26 OJ 61.5 90 1693 3321 5014 691 1602 2293 5.7 51.0 156 33 ci 61.0 59 1942 3'J2S 5868 910 2207 3147 3.0 49.5 Ita 33 2* 60.8 108 2134 5103 7237 1132 88M 4516 5.3 41.8 16!» 33 3 60.4 122 2159 4615 6774 1157 2896 4053 6.0 46.8 17a 31 1 61.2 73 1985 4126 ! 6111 983 2407 a390 3.8 48.1 176 29 2} 61.5 139 19fil 4031 5995 959 2315 3-2:4 7.7 48.6 18a 29 3* 61.2 110 1934 3927 5861 932 2208 C140 6.1 49.3 186 23 2i 60.9 103 1845 3344 5689 843 2125 2968 5.7 48.0 19 29 0 60.8 88 1850 a527 5377 848 1808 2T.56 4.9 52.4 20 14 0 59.1 40 063 1639 2507 —134 —80 -214 4.5 53.0 |U .. \ .. \ 196 TALKS ON MANURES. The summer of 1850 was unusually cool and unfavorable for wheat. It will be seen that on all the plots the yield of grain is considerably lower than last year, with a greater growth of straw. You will notice that 106, which last year gave, with ammo- nia-salts alone, 32£ bushels, this year, with superphosphate, potash, soda, and sulphate of magnesia, gives less than 18 bushels, while the adjoining plot, dressed with ammonia, gives nearly 27 bushels. In other words, the ammonia alone gives 9 bushels per acre more than this large dressing of superphosphate, potash, etc. On the three plots, 8a, 86 and 9a, a dressing of ammonia-salts alone gives in each case, a larger yield, both of grain and straw, than the 14 tons of barn-yard manure on plot 2. And recollect that this plot has now received 98 tons of manure in seven years. " That," said -the Doctor, " is certainly a very remarkable fact." " It is so," said the Deacon. "But what of it ? " asked the Squire, " even the Professor, here, does not advise the use of ammonia-salts for wheat." 41 That is so," said 1, "but perhaps I am mistaken. Such facts as those just given, though I have been acquainted with them for many years, sometimes incline me to doubt the soundness of my conclusions. Still, on the whole, I think I am right." " We all know,'1 said the Deacon, " that you have great respect for your own opinions." " Never mind all that," said the Doctor, " but tell us just what you think on this subject." 41 In brief," said I, " my opinion is this. We need ammonia for wheat. But though ammonia-salts and nitrate of soda can often be used with decided profit, yet I feel sure that we can get ammo- nia or nitrogen at a less cost per Ib. by buying bran, malt-roots, cotton-seed cake, and other foods, and using them for the double purpose of feeding stock and making manure." " I admit that such is the case, " said the Doctor, " but here is a plot of land that has now had 14 tons of manure every year for seven years, and yet there is a plot along side, dressed with am- monia-salts furnishing less than half the ammonia contained in the 14 tons of manure, that produces a better yield of wheat." " That," said I, " is simply because the nitrogen in the manure is not in an available condition. And the practical question is, how to make the nitrogen in our manure more immediately avail- able. It is one of the most important questions which agricultural science is called upon to answer. Until we get more light, I fee] EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 197 sure in saying that one of the best methods is, to feed our animals on richer and more easily digested food." The following table gives the results of the eighth season of 1850-51. 198 TALKS OX MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GBOWTH OP TABLE VIII.— MANURES AND PRODUCE J 8TH SEASON. 1850-51. 0 1 2 3 4 Sa 56 6a 66 In 76 8a 85 95 106 lla 116 12s 126 136 146 165 17a 176 18* 186 19 20) 21V 22 f MANURES PER ACRE. d H : : :::::: : | £: : g Farm-yard Manure. (0 £* Cut Wheat-straw and Chaff. j Sulphate of Potass. Soda-Ash. Sulphate of Mag- MM. Superphosphate oj Lime. I IbsT f IbsT : g j Itape- ( | 1 1 Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 600 Ibs. 430 Ibs. 203 Ibs. 830 Ibs. 453 Ibs. lured. 233 233 2)3 233 230 2K) 233 l.Y) 163 153 153 153 153 230 400 300 300 200 200 200 no 300 310 DO 30 1003 1030 5030 - 3-)) 3 ».) .j) ) 330 233 230 20 230 200 230 100 100 100 100 100 100 •• 300 230 100 230 150 166 20 no no no 200 $0 no 200 200 200 200 400 300 300 300 200 200 200 200 300 00 X) 00 00 200 00 00 00 00 00 00 200 300 300 200 200 00 200 500 500 230 233 233 no 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 no 200 150 150 150 150 150 153 150 150 150 150 150 150 200 200 • 336' 21) no 3 )!) 3'J:) 200 231 no 200 200 200 200 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 .. 200 Unma nurcd. -j •• •• ;; :; Top-dressed in March, 1851. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. MANURES AND SEED (RED CLUSTEK), SOWN AUTUMN, 1850. 199 PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. INCREASE $ ACRE BY MANURE. | Dressed Corn. s * . ^ IT e* 8 S g 1 § Xl s i s $3 i fcg i | I II 51 "9 i 1 ; i fl 1 1 Q 1s3 e I 1 i i | Bush. Fks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 18 34 61.9 125 1296 1862 3158 213 235 448 10.769.6 1 18 H 61.7 124 12*51 1845 3096 168 218 386 11.067.8 2 29 24 63.6 166 2049 3094 5143 966 1467 2433 8.866.2 3 15 34 61.1 114 1083 1627 2710 .. 11.8 06.6 4 28 04 62.6 159 1919 2949 4868 836 1322 2158 9.0 65.1 5a 36 0 03.3 194 2473 4131 6604 1390 2504 3894 8.6 59.9 56 37 3} 63. 3 t 213 2611 4294 6905 1528 2667 4195 8.9 00.8 6a 33 li 63.3! 154 2271 3624 5895 1188 1997 3185 I 7.2 02.6 66 31 0} 52.3 189 2119 3507 5626 1036 1880 2916 9.8 GO. 4 36 34 63.0 201 2524 4587 7111 1441 2960 4401 8.7 55.0 76 37 14 63.0 178 2532 4302 6834 1449 2675 4124 7.6 58.8 Sa 26 Of 02.8 141 1785 2769 4554 702 1142 1844 8.6 04.5 86 27 2i 62.6 137 1863 2830 4693 780 1203 1983 7.9 05.8 31 14 62.4 182 2142 3252 5394 1059 1625 2684 9.3 65.9 '96 29 0* 62. 0| 170 1970 2942 4912 887 1315 2202 9.5 67.0 lOa 28 34 it. 9 179 1966 3070 5036 sm 1443 2326 10.0 64.0 106 28 24 62.5 149 1937 3048 4985 854 1421 2275 8.3 63.5 Ma 32 2J 62.3 181 2216 3386 5002 11.33 1759 2892 8.9 65.4 116 31 2i 62.5 181 2163 3802 5465 1080 1675 2755 9.1 65.5 12a 32 3 63.1 165 2234 3000 5834 1151 1973 3124 8.0 62.0 126 32 2J 62.5 166 2203 3581 5784 1120 1954 3074 8.2 61.5 13a 30 2* 62.6 180 2102 3544 5646 1019 1917 2936 9.4 59.3 136 30 Sir 62.31 160 2083 3440 5523 1000 1813 2813 8.3 60.5 14a 31 0} 62.9 168 2120 3605 5725 1037 1978 3015 8.6J58.8 146 31 04 62.8 165 2121 3537 5658 1038 1910 2948 8.4 59.9 15'< 27 04 62.7; 138 1839 3041 4880 756 1414 2170 8.1 60.5 156 30 2* 62.9 148 2077 3432 5509 994 1805 2799 7.6 60.5 16a 36 3} 63.5 161 2499 4234 6733 1416 2607 4023 6.9 59.0 166 36 2f (53.4 176 2501 4332 6&S3 1418 2705 4123 7.6 57.7 17a 31 84 63.3 131 2149 3537 5746 : 1066 1970 3036 6.559.7 176 30 2i 63.1 152 2079 3406 5485 996 1779 2775 7.961.0 18a 30 31 63.0 139 2083 3390 5473 1000 1763 2703 7.264.1 186 31 Of 62.4 143 2090 3586 5676 1007 1959 2966 7.358.3 19 30 1 T>2.4 144 2031 3348 5379 948 1721 2669 7.760.7 20 14 1 ;60.8 89 956 1609 8665 -127 —18 -145 10.259.4 21! 22 f 17 3i 61.9 127 1232 1763 2995 149 136 285 11.569.9 200 TALKS OX MANURES. The plot continuously unmanured, gives about 16 bushels of wheat per acre. The plot with barn-yard manure, nearly 30 bushels per acre. 400 Ibs. of ammonia-salts alone, on plot 9«, 31£ bushels ; on 9&, 29 bushels ; on 10a and 106, nearly 29 bushels each. This is remark- able uniformity. 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts and a large quantity of mineral manures in addition, on twelve different plots, average not quite 32 bushels per acre. "The superphosphate and minerals," said the Deacon, "do not seem to do much good, that is a fact." You will notice that 33G Ibs. of common salt was sown on plot 16a. It does not seem to have done the slightest good. Where the salt was used, there is 2 Ibs. less grain and 98 Ibs. less straw than on the adjoining plot 165, where no salt was used, but otherwise manured alike. It would seem, however, that the quality of the grain was slightly improved by the salt. The salt was sown hi March as a top-dressing. "It would have been better," said the Deacon, " to have sown it in autumn with the other manures." " The Deacon is right," said I, " but it so happens that the next year and the year after, the salt was applied at the same time as the other manures. It gave an increase of 94 Ibs. of grain and 61 Ibs. of straw in 1851, but the following year the same quantity of salt used on the same plot did more harm than good." Before we leave the results of this year, it should be observed that on 82, 5,000 Ibs. of cut straw and chaff were used per acre. I do not recollect seeing anything in regard to it. And yet the result was very remarkable — so much so indeed, that it is a matter of regret that the experiment was not repeated. This 5,000 Ibs. of straw and chaff gave an increase of more than 10 bushels per acre over the continuously unmanured plot. "Good," said the Deacon, "I have always told you that you under-estimated the value of straw, especially hi regard to its mechanical action." I did not reply to this remark of the good Deacon. I have never doubted the good effects of anything that lightens up a clay soil and renders it warmer and more porous. I suppose the great benefit derived from this application of straw must be attributed to its ameliorating action on the soil. The 5,000 Ibs. of straw and chaff produced a crop within nearly 3 bushels per acre of the plot ma- nured every year with 14 tons of barn-yard manure. "lam surprised," said the Doctor, " that salt did no good. I EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 201 have seen many instances in which it has had a wonderful effect on wheat." " Yes," said I, " and our experienced friend, John Johnston, is very decidedly of the opinion that its use is highly profitable. He sows a barrel of salt per acre broadcast on the land at the time he sows his wheat, and I have myself seen it produce a decided im- provement in the crop." We have now given the results of the first eight years of the ex- periments. From this time forward, the same manures were used year after year on the same plot. The results are given in the accompanying tables for the follow- ing twelve years— harvests for 1852-53-54-55-56-57-58-59-60- 61-62 and 1863. Such another set of experiments are not to be found in the world, and they deserve and will receive the careful study of every intelligent American farmer, " I am with you there," said the Deacon. " You seem to think that I do not appreciate the labors of scientific men. I do. Such experiments as these we are examining command the respect of every intelligent farmer. I may not fully understand them, but I can see clearly enough that they are of great value." 202 TALKS OX MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. TABLK IX.— MANURES per Acre per Annum (with the exceptions explained in the Notes on p. 203), for 12 Years iu succession — namely, for the 9th, 10th, llth, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17tl:, 18th, 19th, and 20th Seasons; that is, for the crops of Harvests 1852-53-54-55-56-57-58-59-60-61-62 and 1863.* 0 1 2 3 4 66 6a 66 7a 76 8a 86 9a' 963 lOa 106 lla 116 12a 126 13a 136 14a 146 15a 156 16a 166 Jlja 'J186 19 20 21 22 Manures per Acre per Annum for 12 Years, 1851-2 to 1862-3 inclusive, except in the cases explained in the Notes on p. 203. Tons. Unma Unma \ V I! r Ibs. 600 <3 Ibs. 400 l_ £ Ibs. 200 Superphosphate of Lime. 2 |i Ibs." 1 ~lbs. Ibs. I Ibs. *> 11)3. 600 111. ft 11)9. 450 Ibs. Ibs. Hired Hired 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 200 200 200 200 200 200 no 200 200 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 wo 200 200 200 no 200 200 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 •• • • 100 100 200 200 300 300 100 100 200 200 300 300 550 550 500 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 400 300 400 400 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 400 400 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 200 200 • •• 300 300 550 550 420 420 100 100 100 100 • 336* 300 300 300 300 200 200 200 200 Unma rmre<] 300 300 300 300 200 200 200 200 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 150 150 500 200 300 ioo ioo * For the particulars of tlie produce of each separate eeasou, eec Tables X.-XXI. inclusive. EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 203 NOTES TO TABLE IX. (p. 202.) 1 For the IQtk and succeeding seasons— -the sulphate of potass was reduced from 600 to 400 Ibs. per acre per annum on Plot 1, and from 300 to 200 Ibs. on all the other Plots where it was used ; the sulphate of soda from 400 to 200 Ibs. on Plot 1, to 100 Ibs. on all the Plots on which 200 Ibs. had previously been applied, and from 550 to 336£ Ibs. (two-thirds the amount) on Plots 12a and 12Z> ; and the sulphate of magnesia from 420 to 280 Ibs. (two-thirds the amount) on Plots 14# and 14b. 3 Plot 9a — the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and the superphosphate of lime, were applied in the 12th and succeeding seasons, but not in the 9th, 10th, and llth ; and the amount of nitrate of soda was for the 9th season only 475 Ibs. per acre, and for the 10th and llth seasons only 275 Ibs. 3 *Plot 96— in the 9th season only 475 Ibs. of nitrate of soda were applied. * Common salt— not applied after the 10th season. 8 Plots 17a and 17&, and 180 and 185— the manures on these plots alternate : that is, Plots 17 were manured with ammonia-salts in the 9th season; with the sulphates of potass, soda, and magne- sia, and superphosphate of lime, in the 10th ; ammonia-salts again in the llth; the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, again in the 12th, and so on. Plots 18, on the other hand, had the sulphates of potass, soda, and magne- sia, and superphosphate of lime, in the 9th season ; ammonia-salts in the 10th, and so on, alternately. 204 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF WHEAT, YEAR AFTER TEAR, ON THE SAME LAXD. TABLE X.— PRODUCE of the 9rn SEASON, 1851-2. SEED (Red Cluster) sown No- vember 7, 1851 ; Crop cut August 24, 1852. TABT.E XI.— PRODUCE of the IOTH SEA- SON, 1853. SEED (Red Rostock) sown M:uvh 16; Crop cut September 10, and carted September 20, 1853. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. For the Manures see pp. 202 (For the Manures sec pp. 202 and 203.) and 2U3). . Dressed Corn. s g Dressed Corn. § 1 1 11? « 8 j J^- ,=!> a || 1 I'l B |c| F 6 N * EM ^ Bush. Pks. 11)S. HH. Ibs. Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 15 0?4 55.8 1 919 0 9 49. 599 M06 1 13 1 1 6 1 ; 46. 404 2 27 214 5S -.> lip; &178 2 19 OX 51. 1120 1 1'.l2 3 13 314 56.6 860 8457 3 5 3-4 45. 1778 4 13 1J4 57.:} 870 •Jill 4 7 1 46. 446 2116 5a 16 3 57.5 1038 2941 5rt 10 0 48.9 587 2538 56 17 0»4 57.3 8007 56 10 1 is \t 611 2741 6a 20 3 57.6 1283 8880 6£ 61 9 2950 8553 7a 32 2M 59.4 2084 5995 76 45 IX 61.8 2944 8440 76 33 1J4 59.5 2138 6296 8a 47 1% 61.4 3065 9200 8a 29 3 B8.8 1909 5747 86 49 2X 61.8 3208 9325 86 33 024 58.7 2153 6495 9a 38 3 60.7 2456 6598 9a 29 2X 58.3 1932 5878 96 38 3X 60.7 2480 6723 96 25 IX 57.3 1G05 4817 10a 34 IX 60.5 2211 5808 lOa 19 3% 57.1 1285 3797 106 39 0% 61.6 2535 7003 106 28 OX 58.9 1805 5073 lla 44 2 61.1 2859 8006 lla 18 3 55.3 1210 3694 116 43 OX 61.2 2756 7776 116 24 2X 56.3 1580 4733 12a 45 3 >2 62.2 2966 84G9 ISa 30 0*4 59.5 1940 5478 126 45 IX 62.2 2939 8412 126 33 2 60.2 2172 6182 45 OX 62 2 2913 8311 13a 29 0 59.9 1924 5427 136 43 3X 62.2 2858 8403 136 32 2 60.4 2110 5980 14a 45 1# 62.2 2946 8498 14a 29 3 60.0 1954 5531 146 44 OX 62.2 2863 8281 146 33 1% 60.0 2158 5161 15a 43 l«i 62.1 2801 7099 15a 31 3J4 60.0 2030 5855 156 43 1 62.4 2810 8083 156 33 3 60.6 2193 6415 Ma 49 214 61.7 3230 9932 lOa 33 1J4 58.2 2100 6634 166 50 0?4 61.7 3293 9928 166 32 2 58.2 2115 7106 17rt 45 3 62.1 2948 8218 17a •tO O4X lo ii'4 60.8 1227 3203 176 42 2J4 62.2 2732 7629 176 17 OX 60.3 1110 2914 18a 24 0' 61.2 1526 3944 32 3% 60 9 2127 6144 186 23 2x3i 61.0 1511 3888 186 33 l*i 60.8 2170 6385 19 41 0?i 61.7 2666 7343 19 30 OX 58 7 1967 5818 20 22 3 60.8 1445 3662 20 17 2X 61.1 1155 2986 21 32 O'i 61.2 2030 5470 21 24 1M 60.8 1533 3952 31 3 61.0 1994 5334 22 24 2X 60.1 1553 4010 206 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH or WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. TABLE XIV.— PRODUCE of the 13TH TABLE XV.— PRODUCE op THE 14-rn SEASON, 1855-0. SEED died Kostock) SI.-ASON. 1856-7. SEED (Ked Rostock) sown November 13, 1855; Crop cut sown November 6, 18i 36: Crop cut August 26, and carted September 3. August 13, and carted Aiuraat 22, 1856. 1857. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. (For the Manures sec pp. 202 (For the Manures pee pp. 202 and 203.) and 203.) Jj Dressed Corn. 1-a S Dressed Corn. ^ . 9 jj> §^ B^ . gh K 1 5^ § ^"~r ^ a i ^ •w*^ /2 59.0 1118 2650 2 30 1 '4 58i6 6594 2 41 0?^ 60.4 2587 5910 3 14 2 ;"i 1 .'{ 892 2450 3 19 58.3 2813 4 10 ix 55.5 1020 4 22 58.8 1386 2958 5a 18 8*4 56.5 1167 8178 5a 22 3»4 59.0 1409 3026 56 20 1>4 56.2 1-JI7 3369 56 24 2>4 3247 6a 27 I'* 68.8 1717 4767 6a 85 IX 59 9 2211 1068 66 28 OX 68.5 L7M 4848 66 35 lij 59 8 2193 7a 37 1 58.0 8818 7a 43 1*4 60.5 6468 76 36 67.6 •J-J 1 1 76 46 IX 60.3 8908 6793 8a 40 OX 56.8 2507 7688 8a 47 3 60.8 8068 86 37 8% 57.1 2400 I-} V.I 86 48 3J4 60.6 3129 7S99 9a 32 IX 57.2 2019 BBM 9a 43 3 60.1 6634 06 26 0 56.3 1679 4831 96 36 0?4 58.0 2220 5203 lOa 24 034 55 6 1505 4323 lOa 29 OX 58.0 1816 4208 106 27 2% 57.2 1727 4895 106 34 2 58.6 2185 5060 lla 31 3X 57.3 2001 5518 lla 39 0 58.5 2432 5375 116 30 2X 57.5 1946 5389 116 39 0% 58.0 2397 5317 33 3'/, 58.7 2102 5949 12a 43 3X 60 4 2747 6884 126 58.8 2079 5804 126 43 2 60.4 27 29 6312 13a 32 1?4 58 6 2036 5779 I3a 42 3 60.6 2714 6421 136 30 3 '4 58.9 2008 5659 136 43 2 60 5 2739 6386 lla 35 O1^ 58.6 2195 6397 14a 43 3 60.5 2781 6439 146 34 024 59.0 2102 6279 146 42 3'i 60.3 2699 6351 15a 80 OX 59.1 1923 BAM 15rt 42 1't 60.4 2681 6368 156 42 0 59.4 2045 5797 156 44 1*4 60.0 27G5 G543 16a 38 OX 58.5 2426 7955 16a 48 3'i 60.5 3131 7814 166 37 3 58.7 2450 7917 166 50 0 60.5 3194 7897 SSg 31 2X 59.0 1983 5541 17a 26 2S4' 59.1 1642 3700 176 30 IV 59.1 1935 5400 176 25 394 58.8 !>:$ 3523 18a 17 3X 57,8 1140 3152 18a 41 014 59.7 6009 186 18 0 57.7 1131 3069 186 40 OJ4 59.8 2519 5884 19 32 1 58.9 2059 5621 19 41 2X 59.5 26CO 5793 20 17 t)& 57.7 1075 2963 20 19 2\' 58.4 1213 2777 21 22 IX 58.0 1398 8987 21 24 0 60.8 15S8 22 21 1% 57.8 1351 3849 22 23 OX 60.6 1491 3298 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 207 EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. TABLE XV7.— PIIODUCE of the 15TH TABLE XVII.— PRODUCE of the 16TH SEASON, 1857-8. SEED (Red Rostock) sown November 3 and 11, 1857 ; Crop SEASON. 1858-9. SEED (Red Rostock) sown November 4, 1858; Crop cut cut August 9, and carted August 20, August 4, and carted August 20, 1859. 1858. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. (For the Manures sec pp. 202 (For the Manures see pp. 202 and 203.) and 203.) | Dressed Corn. sts 1 Dressed Corn. Ih * & ?a 1 £ e/-^ & 5^ | iff o» 11 I ill >i I p | iii Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 20 3 61.2 1332 3234 0 21 234 54.0 1254 3564 1 16 114 60.7 1055 2685 1 19 3 55.0 1189 3489 2 38 334 62.6 2512 6349 2 36 0% 56.5 2263 7073 3 18 0 60.4 1141 2811 3 18 1J4 52.5 1051 3226 4 19 OX 61.1 1206 2879 4 19 OK 55.0 1188 3418 5a 18 2^ 61.5 1187 2719 5a 20 2}^ 56.0 1277 3600 56 19 1 61.4 1227 2870 56 20 2X 56.0 1273 3666 Get 28 2-4; 62.1 1818 4395 Get 29 24 56.5 1808 5555 66 29 OX 62.1 1850 4563 66 30 OX 56.5 1855 5708 7a 38 214 61.9 2450 6415 7a 34 2% 55.9 2097 6774 76 39 2J4 62.3 2530 6622 76 34 2X 55.9 2089 6892 41 3K 61.8 2680 7347 Sa 34 3 'i" 54.0 2068 7421 86 41 3tf 61.7 2675 7342 86 34 OK 53.4 2007 7604 9a 37 2^ 60.8 2384 6701 9a 30 0 54.5 1806 7076 96 23 2 58.8 1470 4158 96 24 2K 50.5 1412 5002 lOa 22 3X 59.6 1439 3569 lOa 18 3K 51.5 1207 3937 106 27 3 61.4 1775 4390 106 25 2 52.5 1500 4920 lla 30 3X 60.5 1977 4774 lla 26 34 51.4 1628 5155 116 33 03^ 60.4 2099 5117 116 27 834 51.3 1698 5275 12a 37 3% 62.1 2437 6100 12a 34 2X 54.5 20GO 6610 126 37 OK 62.1 2387 6060 126 34 3X 54.8 2115 6858 13a 37 o£ 62.1 2384 6077 13a 34 OK 55.0 2037 6774 136 37 OK 62.7 2397 6074 136 34 3X 55.0 2087 6894 14a 37 3J^ 62.1 2413 6150 14a 34 IK 54.5 2054 6817 146 38 1)4 62.0 2436 6146 146 34 234 54.5 2074 6774 15a 35 IX 62.6 2285 5800 15a 34 OK 55.0 2053 6826 156 37 2 62.8 2436 6134 156 35 OK 55.0 2095 7088 16a 41 3 62.1 2702 7499 16a 34 3K 52.6 2026 7953 166 42 04 62.1 2717 7530 166 34 IK 52.6 2005 7798 17a 33 1?4 62.5 2150 5353 17a 21 1J4 55.0 1247 3730 176 33 3^ 62.5 2181 5455 176 19 3 54.5 1168 3541 18a 22 3K 62.3 1472 3480 18a 32 3i£ 55.5 1973 6506 186 20 2% 62.4 1338 3305 186 32 2 56.0 1980 6630 19 33 1J4 62.5 2177 5362 19 30 2 55.5 1903 5926 20 17 0 60.3 1089 2819 20 17 3'.i 52.5 10.39 3256 21 24 IK 61 5 1574 3947 21 26 14 54.0 1538 4723 22 23 0 61.5 1412 3592 22 24 OM 55.0 1460 4140 208 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OP WHEAT, YEAB AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. TABLE XVIII.— PRODUCE of the HTH TABLE XIX.— PRODUCE of the ISTH SEASON. 1859-60. SEED (Red Rostock) SEASON. 1860-1. SEEU (Red Rostock) sown November 17, 1859; Crop cut sown November 5, 1860; Crop cut September 17 and 19, and carted Octo- August 20, and carted August 27, ber 5, 1860. 1861. PRODUCE PER ACHE, ETC. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. Tor the Manures sec pp. 202 (For the Manures see pp. 202 and 203.) and 203.) 4S Dresced Corn. I* 1 Dressed Corn. . ll g* . & . E 1> s^ ^ . 8r» s *»3 •Vi*5S ^ C si S ^ *A*^ ^ C ~* ** 1 "§,| "3 ill 1 §1 3 Sis 1 P 1 I |«1 g •S^s Bush. Pks. Ibs. 11)9. Ibc Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. ib?. 0 14 Ig 53.5 826 2271 0 15 1'i 57.6 1001 2769 1 52.8 717 2097 1 12 3}£ 57.6 828 2215 2 32 1 «J 1864 .7)01 2 31 34 60.5 2202 5303 3 12 3X 52.6 738 2197 3 57.4 736 1990 4 14 2 53.0 832 2352 4 11 3X 58.0 863 2193 5a 15 2^ 54.0 903 2483 5a 15 1 V 59.1 1017 2." 10 56 16 OX 53.1 <. »:,.-, a: :•!>.-• 56 ir. IX 59.0 1082 2692 6a 21 OX 53 7 1210 33! « 6a 27 1 '4 59.5 17:..-) 4328 66 22 3 '4' 54.2 3719 66 27 8-4 59.4 1818 4501 7a 27 3tf 5 1 3 161 -2 4615 7a 35 2^ 59.0 2268 5764 76 27 2.U 54.3 1.Y.I7 47.-II 76 IM 59.0 2183 5738 8a 30 3 52.8 IT. VI 5639 8a •36 0 58 V3 2290 86 31 2?^ 52.3 1787 5600 86 31 0?^ 58.5 2190 5985 9a 32 2X 51.5 1858 6635 9a 33 3 56.8 2162 6607 96 19 2.li 48.5 1155 4285 96 13 3 53.9 909 3079 10o 15 OX 49.5 905 3118 lOa 12 3X 55.0 854 2784 106 18 2X 51.0 1060 ! 3420 106 15 55.5 1033 3196 lla 22 IX 51.0 1270 3773 lla 23 Is* 55.3 1466 4032 116 22 14 51.2 1307 4000 116 25 0?i 55.8 1578 4223 28 OX 53.4 1648 4878 I2a 32 1'i 58.1 2009 5201 126 26 2'i 53.5 1577 4664 126 33 l?i 58.7 2144 5481 13a 26 0-i£ 54.3 1575 4568 I3a 33 1'4 59.9 2168 5486 136 27 OX 53.8 1600 4637 136 35 0 60.0 2304 5794 14a 27 IX 53.7 1583 4636 14a as o«.( 59.1 2125 5502 146 27 0* 53.2 1563 4666 146 33 3?.£ 59.3 2173 5476 15a 25 IX 53 8 1510 4387 15a 34 1 '.£ GO 0 2188 5506 156 28 0 54.0 1614 4701 156 34 3 GO 2 9MD 5727 IGa 32 2 52 0 1856 5973 16a 36 1?^ 58.0 2338 15701 166 32 3 51.7 1889 6096 166 37 2 58.6 (iTTo 17a 24 0-4' 54.1 1409 4109 17a 19 1 59.3 1999 176 26 14 54.3 1548 4518 176 18 05£ 59.1 1166 2829 18a 15 1U 54.5 929 2649 18a 32 IX 59.6 2050 r.lll 186 16 I,1* 51.6 963 2700 186 33 14 59.5 2122 5116 19 24 04 53.0 1435 4178 19 32 2 58.8 2107 5345 20 12 OJf 51.5 72-2 2155 20 13 OWf 57 9 872 2340 21 15 2 52 5 803 2639 21 16 58.2 1109 8749 22 13 3.U 53.8 847 2111 ' 22 19 53. 5 1 1306 3263 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. 209 EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF WHEAT, YEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THE SAME LAND. TABLE XX.— PRODUCE of the 19TH TABLE XXI.— PRODUCE of 11 e 20TH SEASON, 1861-2. SEED (Red Rostock) sown October 25, 1861 ; Crop cut SEASON, 1862-3. SEED (Red Rostock) sown November 17, 1862; Crop cut August 29, and carted September 12, August 10, and carted August 18, 1802. 1868. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. PRODUCE PER ACRE, ETC. (For the Manures sec pp. 202 (For the Manures see pp. 202 and 203.) aud 203.) | Dressed Corn. ll \ ij Dressed Corn. !~ * & Js 1 Igf si 9 ?| 1 Iff I fl 1 !«* I |l 1 i§§ Bush. Pks. Ibs. lb« Ibs. Bush. Pks. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 19 3X 58.5 1228 3258 0 22 0/2 62.6 1429 3,254 1 16 294; 58. 0 1024 2772 1 20 3 62.8 1334 3.079 2 38 IX 61.0 2447 6642 \ 2 44 0 63.1 2886 7,165 3 16 0 57.8 996 2709 3 17 1 62.7 1127 2,727 4 16 2X 58.5 1049 2711 4 20 1 62.3 1303 2,957 5a 17 3% 59.0 1119 2959 r-.a 19 2!£ 63.0 1283 2,970 56 17 2X 59.0 1101 8961 56 19 3 63.0 1296 3,0(54 Bfl 27 2 59.5 1715 4554 Gtt 39 IX 62.3 2522 6,236 66 28 3K 59.8 1797 4897 66 39 3 62.3 2534 6,250 7a 35 2*4- 59.3 2200 6106 la 53 I**" 62.6 3477 9.330 76 3(5 0% 59.5 2265 6178 76 54 0 62.5 3507 9,385 8a 39 3 59.2 2477 7200 Sa 56 2^ 62.3 3668 10.383 86 39 Ql/z 59.0 2452 7087 86 54 314 62.3 3559 10,048 9a 43 1% 59.5 2688 S738 9a 55 214" 62.1 3576 9,888 96 25 3X 56.3 1641 4897 96 41 1% 62.5 2723 6,920 lOa 23 0*4 56.5 1457 4050 IGa 39 OX 62.6 2587 6,068 106 24 314 57.5 1600 4443 106 43 214 62.8 2858 6.914 lid 26 2% 58.0 1706 4548 lla 45 0 62.5 2979 7,212 116 27 0*4 58.0 1734 4007 116 46 2 62.1 3060 7,519 12a 34 15 58.0 2096 5745 12a 54 2?^ 62.1 3533 8,976 126 33 0% 58.0 2025 5634 126 53 1 62.2 3454 8,819 18a 31 3% 58.0 1953 5542 13a 53 1 62.6 3453 9,192 136 32 2% 58.0 2019 5691 136 53 1J4 62.5 3439 9,238 14a 30 1% 58.0 18S6 5283 14a 54 1& 62.5 3527 8,986 146 32 0;4! 58.1 2008 5558 146 53 1% 62.5 3450 8,749 15a 30 1»£ 58.3 1872 5268 15a 48 l^i 62.5 3114 8,276 156 58.3 2029 5787 ; 156 48 0 62.9 3127 8,240 IGa 30 1 '4 58.0 2225 6752 IGa 56 2% 62.4 3710 10.717 106 30 OX 57.5 2233 6730 106 55 0^4 63.3 3607 10,332 17a 27 3X 58.1 1747 4827 17a 21 Gl/2 62.8 1370 3,288 176 27 2*4 58.1 1685 4762 176 21 IX 62.8 1389 3,292 ISa 18 IX 58.5 1168 3161 ISa 46 IX 62.6 3006 7,889 186 18 1% 58 5 1195 8836 186 46 02£ 62.8 3009 7,737 19 23 IX 57.2 1479 4132 19 46 2^ 62.9 3054 7,577 20 12 IX 57.3 818 2335 20 17 2% 62.5 1137 2.609 21 20 IX 53.1 1273 3466 21 27 2/a 62 5 1796 4.279 22 20 OJ4 58.0 1250 3430 22 29 3 62.4 1907 4,599 210 TALKS OX MAXUEES. The ninth season (1851 -2), was unusually cold in June and wet in August. It will be seen that the wheat, both in quantity and quality, is the poorest since the commencement of the experi- ments. The unmanured plot gave less than 14 bushels of dressed grain per acre; the plot with barn-yard manure, less than 28 bushels, and the best yield in the whole series was not quite 29 bushels per acre, and only weighed 55 Ibs. per bushel. On the same plot, the year before, with precisely the same manure, the yield was nearly 37 bushels per acre, and the weight per bushel, G3^ Ibs. So much for a favorable and an unfavorable season. The tenth season (1852-3), was still more unfavorable. The autumn of 1853 was so wet that it was impossible to work the land and sow the wheat until the 16th of March 1853. You will sec that the produce on the unmanured plot was less than 6 bushels per acre. With barn-yard manure, 19 bushels, and with a heavy dressing of ammonia-salts and minerals, not quite 26 bushels per acre. With a heavy dressirg of superphosphate, not quite 9£ bushels per acre, and with a full dressing of mixed mineral manures and superphosphate, 10 bushels per acre. The weight per bushel on the uumanured plot was 45 Ibs. ; with mixed mineral manures, 48.J- Ibs. ; with ammonia-salts alone, 48£ Ibs. ; with barn-yard manure, 51 Ibs. ; and with ammonia-salts and mixed mineral manures, 52£ Ibs. Farmers are greatly dependent on the season, but the good farmer, who keeps up the fertility of his land stands a better chance of making money (or of losing less), than the farmer who depends on the unaided products of the soil. The one gets 6 bushels per acre, and 1,413 Ibs. of straw of very inferior quality; the other gets 20 to 23 bushels per acre, and 5,000 Ibs. of straw. And you must recollect that in an unfavorable season we are pretty certain to get high prices. The eleventh season (1853-4,) gives us much more attractive- looking figures ! We have over 21 bushels per acre on the plot which has grown eleven crops of wheat in eleven years without any manure. With barn-yard manure, over 41 bushels per acre. With am- monia-salts alone (17a), 45| bushels. With ammonia-salts and mixed minerals, (165), over 50 bushels per acre, and 6,635 Ibs. of straw. A total produce of nearly 5J- tons per acre. The twelfth season (1854-5), gives us 17 bushels of wheat per acre on the continuously unmanured plot. Over 34| bushels on the plot manured with barn-yard manure. And I think, for the first time since the commencement of the experiments, this plot pro- EXPERIMENTS OX WHEAT. 211 duces the largest yield of any plot in the field. And well it may, for it has now had, in twelve years, 168 tons of barn-yard manure per acre ! Several of the plots with ammonia-salts and mixed minerals, are nearly up to it in grain, and ahead of it in straw. The thirteenth season (1855-6), gives 14£ bushels on the unmanur- cd plot ; over 36£ bushels on the plot manured with barn-yard ma- nure ; and over 40 bushels on 8a, dressed with 600 Ibs. ammonia- salts and mixed mineral manures. It will be noticed that 800 Ibs. ammonia-salts does not give quite as large a yield this year as 600 Ibs. I suppose 40 bushels per acre was all that the season was capa- ble of producing, and an extra quantity of ammonia did no good. 400 Ibs. of ammonia-salts, on 7.5 75. Nitrogen Ibs. 32. 16. 9.5 1. 3.5 0.5 Ibs. 33. 17. 11.5 1.5 4. 12. 11),. 13. 7. 2(1.5 !). 3. 99.5 J Ibs.- IS. 5. 18*5 10.5 2.5 G.-J. Ihs. 45. 23. 30. 10. 6.5 100. Phosphoric acid. Potash Lime Magnesia Silica A few years ago, when the midge destroyed our wheat, many farmers in Western New York raised "winter barley," instead-of " winter wheat," and I have seen remarkably heavy crops of this winter barley. It is not now grown with us. The maltsters would not pay as much for it as for spring barley, and as the niidgo troubles us less, our farmers are raising winter wheat again. Where, as with us, we raise winter wheat and spring barley, the difference between the two crops, taking the above estimate of yield and proportion of grain to straw, would be : 1st. Almost identical composition in regard to nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, potash, lime, and magnesia ; but as it has more straw, the wheat-crop removes a larger amount of silica than barley. 2d. The greatest difference is in the length of time the two crops are in the ground. We sow our winter wheat the last of August, or the first and second week in September. Before win- ter sets in, the wheat-plant often throws out a bunch of roots a foot in length. During the winter, though the thermometer goes down frequently to zero, and sometimes 10° to 15° below zero, yet if the land is well covered with snow, it is not improbable that the roots continue to absorb more or less food from the ground, and store it up for future use. In the spring, the wheat commences to grow before we can get the barley into the ground, though not to any considerable extent. I have several times sown barley as soon as the surface-soil was thawed out five or six inches deep, but with a bed of solid frozen earth beneath. 3d. Two-rowed barley does not ripen as early as winter wheat, but our ordinary six-rowed barley is ready to harvest the same time as our winter wheat. MANURES FOR BARLEY. 229 4th. "We sow our barley usually in May, and harvest it in July, The barley, therefore, has to take up its food rapidly. If we ex-1 pect a good growth, we must provide a good supply of food, and have it in the proper condition for the roots to reach it and absorb it; in other words, the land must be not only rich, but it must be so well worked that the roots can spread out easily and rapidly in search of food and water. In this country, you will find ten good wheat-growers to one good barley grower. "That is so," said the Deacon; "but tell us about Mr. Lawes' experiments. I have more confidence in them than in your spec- ulations. And first of all what kind of land was the barley grown on?" " It is," said I, "rather heavy land — as heavy as what the men call ' clay-spots,' on my farm." "And on those clay-spots," said the Deacon, "you either get very good barley, or a crop not worth harvesting." " You have hit it exactly, Deacon," said I. " The best barley I have this year (1878) is on these clay-spots. And the reason is, that we gave. them an extra plowing last fall with a three-horso plow. That extra plowing has probably given me an extra 30 bushels of barley per acre. The barley on some of the lighter por- tions of the field will not yield over 25 bushels per acre. On the clay-spots, it looks now (June 13) as though there would be over 50 bushels per acre. It is all headed out handsomely on the clay- spots, and has a strong, dark, luxuriant appearance, while on the sand, the crop is later and has a yellow, sickly look." " You ought," said the Doctor, " to have top-dressed these poor, sandy parts of the field with, a little superphosphate and nitrate of soda." " It would have paid wonderfully well," said I, " or, perhaps, more correctly speaking, the loss would have been considerably less. We have recently been advised by a distinguished writer, to apply manure to our best land, and let the poor land take care of itself. But where the poor land is i.i the same field with the good, we are obliged to plow, harrow, cultivate, sow, and harvest the poor spots, and the question is, whether we shall make them capa- ble of producing a good crop by the application of manure, or bo at all the labor and expense of putting in and harvesting a crop of chicken-feed and weeds. Artificial manures give us a grand chance to make our crops more uniform." " You are certainly right there," said the Doctor, "but let us examine the Rothamsted experiments on barley." You will find the results in the following tables. The manures 230 TALKS ON MANURES. used, arc in many respects the same as were adopted in the wheat experiments already given. The mineral or ash constituents -were supplied as follows : Potash — as sulphate of potash. Soda— as sulphate of soda. Magnesia — as sulphate of magnesia. Lime — as sulphate, phosphate, and superphosphate. PJwsphoric acid — as bone-ash, mixed with sufficient sulphuric acid to convert most of the insoluble earthy phosphate of lime into sulphate and soluble superphosphate of lime. Sulphuric acid — hi the phosphatic mixture just mentioned ; in sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia ; in sulphate of am- monia, etc. Chlorine — in muriate of ammonia. Silica — as artificial silicate of soda. Other constituents were supplied as under: Nitrogen — as sulphate and muriate of ammonia; as nitrate of soda ; in farm-yard manure ; in rape-cake. Non-nitrogenous organic matter, yielding by decomposition, car- bonic acid, and other products — in yard manure, in rape-cake. The artificial manure or mixture for each plot was ground up, or otherwise mixed, with a sufficient quantity of soil and turf-ashes to make it up to a convenient measure for equal distribution over the land. The mixtures so prepared were, with proper precautions, sown broadcast by hand; as it has been found that the application of an exact amount of manure, to a limited area of land, can be best accomplished in that way. The same manures were used on the same plot cacli year. Any exceptions to this rub arc mentioned in foot-notes. MANURES FOR BARLEY. 231 EXPERIMENTS ON THE GROWTH OF BARLEY, TEAR AFTER YEAR, ON THS SAME LAND, WITHOUT MANURE, AND WITH DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OF MANURE. Hoos FIELD, ROTHAMSTED, ENGLAND. TABLE i.— SHOWING, taken together with the foot-notes, THE DESCRIPTION AND QUANTITIES OF TH3 MANURES APPLIED PER ACRE ON EACH PLOT, IX EACH YEAR OF THE TWENTY, 1852-1871 INCLUSIVE. [N. B. This table has reference to all the succeeding Tables]. Plots. MANURES PEB ACRE, PER ANNUM (unlens otherwise stated in the foot-notes] . Plots. 1 O. Unmanured continuously I 1 O. 2 O. 3% cwts. Superphosphate of Lime * 2 O. 3 O. 200 Ibs. t Sulphate of Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. | Sulphate Magnesia i 3 O- 4 O. 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass. 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3>< cwts. Superpho.-puate 4 O. 1 A. 200 Ibs. Ammonia-salts 1 1 A. 2 A. 203 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, 3>^ cwts. Superphosphate 2 A. 3 A. 200 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, 2uO Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia 3 A. 4 A. 200 Ibs. Ammonia salts, 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3>£ cwts. Su- perphosphate 4 A. fl A\. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda 1 AA." 2 AA. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 3% cwts. Superphosphate 2 AA. I 3 AA. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, ICO Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia 3 AA. 4 AA. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3>£ cwts. Su- | perphosphate 4 AA.J 1 AAS. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 400 Ibs. IT Silicate Soda 1 AAS.l 2 AAS. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 400 Ibs. IT Silicate Soda, 3% cwts. Su- perphosphate 2 AAS. 1 1 3 AAS. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 40J Ibs. V Silicate Soda, 200 Ibs. t Sul- phate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate I Magnesia 3 AAS. 1 4 AAS. ;275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda, 400 Ibs. If Silicate Soda, 200 Ibs. t Sul- I phate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sulphate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate i Magnesia, 3% cwts. Superphosphate 4 AAS.. !1 C. llOOO Ibs. Rape-cake -1 C.I 2 C. J1000 Ibs. Rape-cake, 3}^ cwts. Superphosphate 2 C. 3 c. 1000 Ibs. Rape-cake, 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sul- I phate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia 3 C. 4 C. 1000 Ibs. Rape-cake, 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 100 Ibs. t Sul- phate Soda, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3>£ cwts. Super- phosphate 4 C. „ +4.51 N. 2;5 Ibs. Nitrate Soda IN.) 11 1 2 N. 275 Ibs. Nitrate Soda (550 Ibs. Nitrate for 5 years, 18-53, 4, 5, 6, J-ff and 7) 2N.) M. 100 Ibs. it Sulphate Sod*, 100 Ibs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3}^ cwts. Superphosphate (.commencing 1855; 1852, 3, and 4, unmanured) M. 5 O. 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 3% cwts. Superphosphate (2CO Ibs. Ammonia-salts also, for the first year, 1852, only) 5 O. 5 A. 200 Ibs. t Sulphate Potass, 3>£ cwts. Superphosphate, 200 Ibs. Ammonia-salts 5 A. -51 Dnmanured continuously l)fi * J2 Ashes i burnt-soil and turf ) 2J 7 H Tons Farmyard-Manure 7 NOTSS TO TABLE I. •"3V£ cwts. Superphosphate of Lime'"— in all cases, made from 200 Ibs. Bone- ash, 150 Ibs. Sulphuric acid sp. gr. 1.7 (and wateri. t Sulphate Potass— 300 Ibs. per annum for the first 6 years, 1852-7. i Sulphate Soda— 200 Ibs. per annum for the first 6 years, 1852-7. § The " Ammonia-salts "—in all cases equal parts of Sulphate and Muriate of Am- monia of Commerce. II Plots " AA " and " AAS "—first 6 years. 1852-7, instead of Nitrate of Soda, 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts per annum ; next 10 years, 1858-67, 200 Ibs. Ammonia-salts per annum ; 1868, and since, 275 Ibs. Nitrate of Soda per annum. 275 Ibs. Nitrate of Soda is reckoned to contain the same amount of Nitrogen as 200 Ibs. " Ammonia-salts. If Plots "AAS"— the application of Silicates did not commence until 1864; in '61-5-C, and 7, 200 Ibs. Silicate of Soda and 200 Ibs. Silicate of Lime were applied per acre, but in 1868, and since, 400 Ibs. Silicate of Soda, and no Silicate of Lime. These plots comprise, respectively, one half of the original " A A " plots, and, excepting the addition of the Silicates, have been, and are, in other respects, manured in the same ** 2000 Ibs. Kape-cake per annum for the first 6 years, and 1000 Ibs. only, each year elnce. tt 300 Ibs. Sulphate Potass, and 3vg cwts. Superphosphate of Lime without Nitrate of Soda, the lirst year 1 1852); Nitrate alone each yearBince. tt Sulphate Soda— 200 Ibs. per annum Ib55, G, and 7. 232 TALKS ON MANUUES. ExrEi».iME:cT3 ON TUB GROWTH op BARLEY, TEAR AFTER TEAR, ON TIOXS OF MANURE, Iloos TABLE II.— DUES3ED [N.B. The double vertical lines show that there was a change in the de-scrip- Table /., and foot-notes 1 O. 2 O. 3 O. 4 O. Means 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. Mean* 1 AA. 2 AA. 3 AA. 4 AA. Means 1 AAS. 2 AAS. 3 AAS. 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 2 C. 3 C. 4 C. Means 1 N. 2 N. M. 5 O. 5 A. HARVESTS. 1852 bushels. 27 '4 •3* 1853 bush. 2534 33# 274 85* 33* J0ft_ ~384 41ft _51*- 4374 334 35# 83tf 38% 40* 36tf 33* 1*3%" 42 14 41'14 1854 bush. 35 40% 364 ff)i 1855 1856 1857 31 bus bush. bush. 33* 34ft 50 60,4 ai 51 jj 42 4 13 K 17 44^25 48 36»4 50% '31* 264 . H 214 285 38% 56^ 42 ^ 57% 84X BIX 34 'J I860 1861 1S62 186-3 bus bus bus bus bus 16J-4 Itiy, 22% !'.»% 15^ 25 21% 32% i5va.li 17X !^% 61 ?i 16% 28 32 '^ 35X 48% 424 p23ft 35% 43* 40V 52tf 57* I I I 8.) 7s 304 35* 404 (3-3 V) 1 29 254 as -^L i-3t% |37j8 27V 40.' 3 86^ 605^ 60* GO'i '51ft 35% 59.!tf '50% 35 'i 49% '50 .2^..' 5Ji; 49% 42 LL. i 51% 334 3.3>4 33 ?« 194 47 78 334 87XilBX •'111 1^7 15 50' 51 40% 20% 30?.i 367s •' 56 ^ 35ft 46* 55% ; 4SJ8 28% 36% 45% 41% 55?^ "~!~ I i I «v 11 51% :<: j 41 :;t;-;.i 50'8 45 55 52 1344 35 '4 51 l, 574 35 ,40V 5.3% 45ft 54ft 62 '-4- 53 37'4 364 54 JJ 41% 53% 044 6»X u 39 26«J 17', iI5'-4 14X 55 '40 (!) Averages of 4 years, 4 years, and 8 years. last 10 years, and total 17 years. (2) Averages of 9 years, (*) Averages MANURE FOR BAKLEY. 233 THE SAME LAND, WITHOUT MANURE, AND wira DIFFERENT DESCRIP- FlELD, ROTHAMSTED, ENGLAND. CORN PER ACRE— bushels. tion, or quantity, of Manure, at the period indicated, for particulars of which see thereto, p. 231.] HARVESTS. 18G4 bush. 24 3014 2(i* 3314 28% 3876 58'/2 4371 55% 1865 1SGG bus bush. 18 2% 23 24% 2971 48% 33*4 49% J39X WPS 50 /6 4 < 5/2 44% 34% 56% J48% ^9Y|41% 4t% |3476 547* 47J4 50 41 59% 52 48% 51 % 49% 53 43% 45 46% 18% B5« 48. 1571 22% 8* 20% 27% 50% 29% 503 88* 1867 bus 24.-;; 17 20% 19% 30% 44 33 43% 37% 29%! 4-1 } :«• 43 1868 bush. 1414 3776 32K 50% 45,* 45% 4014 20% 37% 25 34% 29% 27 44 27# 45% 36 29 %~ 4476 3G;i; 27% 27% 48 4\y, 34% 30% 49J4 38 46^4 32% 36% 4U% 44>£ 46 45% 38% 47i/2 45^ 43% !38% 47 46^ 141% 34% 41 19 S3 " 22^ 50% 48 *: 43% 37 39 % 19% >H 21 25% 62 19J4! 17.* 52%' 53V 33 36% 20^ inx 34% 16% 45;^ 39% 3576 25^ 25% 15 15* 15% 1869 1870 1871 bus 15% bus ! 13^ 18 18% 16% 18% bus 16% ^S s* 16% 21% 36% 45 % 41 5% 42 34% 35 J48I 4976 44% 491 40>; 42% 48% 46% 51% 47J4 37 421/2 41% 44 4 43% 4 52% 43% 47i/2 46% ' 44% !34%43^ 38% 4014 16% 16% 49% 41% 14% 15* 15%. 15% 48% 41% 45% 22% 20 43% 46%47X54J4 AVERAGE ANNUAL. bushels. 22% 27% 45% 35 46% 40% 89% 48% 38% 49% 44J4 49J 4514 47 4794 44 47% 43% 25 23% 45 bush. 23* 24% 21.* 81 ii 48% 35 46% 3414 49% 86% 49^ 42% 36% 47,14 42 43% 45% 43 tf 4714 45 37% 40^ 44% 20 tfe? IN _^SS_ bushels. 29 , 22% 27 /2 32^ 47 35 46J4 4034 37 49# 37% 49% 43% 37 48J4 42% 50 46% 43% 47% 45% 22%) 44% 22 21% 48M 1 0. 2 0. 3 O. 4 O. Means 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. Means 1 AA. 2 AA. 3 AA. 4 AA. Means 1 AAS. 2 AAS. 3 AAS. 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 2 C. 3 C. 4 C. Means 1 N. 2N. M. 5 O. 5 A. 1 r /. 2f6 (1853-'61), last 10 years, and total 19 years. (3) Averages of 7 years (1S55-'61), of 9 years (ISoS-'Gl), last 10 years, and total 19 years. 234 TALKS ON MANUKES. EXPERIMENTS ON TUB GROWTH OF BARLEIT, TEAR AFTER TEAR, ON THE MANURE. Hoos TABLE HI.— WEIGHT PER (N.B. The doutlc vertical lines show tliat there v as a change in the description, Talle I., and foot notes, 1 HARVESTS. 1852' 1853 1854 1855 1856 " 1S58 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1 0. 2 0. 3 O. 4 0. Means 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. Means 1 AA. 2 AA. 3 AA. 4 AA. Means 1 AAS. 2 AAS. 3 AAS. 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 2 0. 3 C. 4 C. Means 1 N. 2 N. M. 5 0. 5 A. •u 7 Ibs. 52.1 52.6 5-2.5 51.5 lb«. 51.4 51.8 51.9 52.1 Ibs. 53. G 51.0 53.6 54.0 Iba. 52.4 52.5 52.!) 63.1 52/T 51.8 51.3 52.2 52.0 Ibs. Ibs. 49.1 52.0 40.5 52.S -IS. 5 52.5 47.0 53.7 Ibs. 63.0 54.0 63.5 54.0 Ibs. Ibs. 4!M> 50.8 52.0 f.0.5 .l'J.5 60.3 5-2.5 51.3 Ibs. Ibs. 62.8 .-0.:; 53.3 52.0 62.8 51.S 51.0 52.0 Ibs. 53.6 54.2 54.5 54.8 52.2 52.0 | 53.8 47.8 48.5 4G.3 49.1 46.4 52.8 53. G 53.0 53.8 54.0 54.0 50.850.7 47.5 508 51.0 51.0 4T.5 50.8 51.0 51.1 53.1 51.5 53.5 51.8 51.0 51.5 49.4 50.5 54.0 54.3 53.0 55.3 54.3 56.5 50.7 50.5 50.9 51.4 52.4 5'2.r, 68.6 53.1 53.6 543 51.0 54.3 51.9 54.3 52.1 54.8, 50.9 52.7 54.1 51.8 47.6 53.3 53.7 49.3 :,0.9 52.6 51.'.) 54.9 49.1 4'.). 5 50.6 50.6 51.3 51.7 51.3 51.4 52.8 52.4 53.1 52.1 50.6 r.o.i 50.2 48.9 48.3 40.1 47.3 45.4 52.0 53.5 52.1 53.9 153.5 53.3 53.9 153.5 47.5 60.7 47.5 50.5 50.7 51.3 50.4 51.0 51.8 68.5 51.5 53.5 50.0 53.9 51.4 55.7 51.5 51.5 54.0 56.4 50.0 51.4 52.6 50.0 46.8 52.9 53.G -19.1 50.9 52.0 52.5 55.1 51.7 51.8 51.3 51.4 51.3 51.0 51.5 50.4 5-2.9 63,8 52.6 5-2.8 50.5 50.0 50.6 49.5 50.2 52.0 50.1 52.0 52.6 51.5 5-2.5 52.6 52.9 46.1 47.3 46.6 46J 53.2 53.8 54.1 51.1 53.5 52.8 53.5 53.1 52.0 51.5 51.7 51.0 52.0 51.5 51.8 51.1 51.0 54.1 68.6 54.3 54.5 55.3 53.5 51.0 54.3 51.5 51.3 52.8 r>i. r> 52.0 51.8 52.0 56.3 5(5.4 56.8 56.7 56.6 5-3.1 53.9 53.8 51.1 55.6 54.0 £4.1 572 51. G f»u>J (51.0) | 51.0 52.0 53.0 52.8 51.2 5L8 49.7 51.8 52.3 50.3 50.9 51.0 52.8 53.3 63.1 53.l' 53.8 52.8 53.6 53.9 46.6 50.0 4SA 49.3 47.5 46.6 60.0 5J.O 47.1 53.8 52.; 55.4 54.7 53.9 57.1 57.7 56.4 51.6 55.9 53.8 Means 56.0 51.1 52.0 52.9 52.8 54.3 55.6 54.6 rs ( 51.6 53.7 52.7 Kax 1 N. 56.5 53.8 52.8 52.7 55.5 54.8 55.8 54.G * ' J51.1 54.2 52.7 f() 2N. 56.3 54.4 52.9 53.9 51.0 54.0 55.3 55.0 (3) (51.8 54.2 53.2) (3) M. 57. fi 54.5 53.4 510 5(1.4 55.6 55.9 55.1 (*) (52.0 54.8 53.4; («) 5 0. 57.5 54.1 54.8 53.2 57.5 57.5 57.3 55.5 51.9 55.7 53.8 5 A. 56.0 53.0 51.3 59, 0 53.5 52.8 54.0 55.4 51.5 53.5 52.5 ji 53.8 53.9 51.8 52.5 53.8 52.9 54.6 54.9 51.6 53.6 52.6 2j 57.4 54.4 54.9 54.8 57.1 564 57.1 56.6 52.6 56.0 54.3 7 (1833-'6r>, last 10 years, and total 19 years. (3) Averages of 7 years (1S55-'C1), of 9 years (1853-'61), last 10 years, and total 19 years. 236 TALKS OX MANURES. EXPERIMENTS ON THE GROWTH OP BARLEY, YEAB A.FTER YEAH, ON -ran MANUBE. Hoos TABLB IV.— OFFAL [N.B. The double vertical lines show that there \vas n change in the description, Taile /., and foot-notes HAKVESTS. 1 1S53 1853 1S54 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1S61 1802 1863 I. 0. 2. 0. Ibs. 101 100 Ibs. 225 101 Ibs. 84 101 Ibs. 144 69 Ibs. 131 u Ibs. 93 106 Ibs. 86 103 Ibs. Ibs. 110 78 15!) 84 Ibs. 68 7S Ibs. 64 114 Ibs. 49 5S 3. 0. 183 151 (A 76 129 61 96 85 78 88 73 M 4. 0. 130 163 105 94 88 53 108 100 74 58 117 57 Means 116 159 89 96 102 78 93 |129 78 78 92 55 1. A. 218 253 £01 138 219 113 98 1<4 150 170 209 110 2. A. 260 244 150 184 121 88 114 274 151) 130 191 M 3. A. 252 336 191 177 180 91 M 175 115 1(.9 26.) 1C8 4. A. 273 274 138 142 125 70 117 253 150 110 150 81 Means 251 277 172 160 161 | 91 106 222 143 130 220 101 1. AA. 209 303 326 204 310 135 88 215 109 17321)6 110 2. AA. 315 251 329 181 188 133 134 320 118 190 13:5 143 3. A A. 318 236 884 212 890 I OS 118 »!5 122 138 ::oi '.'.-, 4. AA. 216 301 273 150 176 183 143 £85 141 179 191 66 Means 294 273 316 187 252 140 121 271 123 170 246 ; 103 1 AAS. I 2 AAS. 3 AAS 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 170 268 178 219 173 1:35 103 225 120l 154 164 85 2 C. 164 376 2:38 195 lf>1 169 148 171 156 150 128 109 3 C. 190 296 248 183 189 156 | 105 2-30 115 190 71 4 C. 144 277 227 222 205 168 | 125 350 153 204 174 06 Means 1CT 304 223 £05 182 157 120 216 136 178 161 83 1 N. 283 199 128 245 09 119 ' 205 I 140 225 04.-, 1£0 2 IT. (94)i 223 286 224 193 151 110 235 179 KK) 216 114 M. | 36 94 no 84 85 71 78 ma 40 5 O. 073) | G8 118 TO 90 101 71 110 13 13 193 41 5 A. 173 210 170 190 151 03 151 16S 193 188 210 61 . ( 1 120 200 144 116 152 72 T4 121 FS 73 75 61 fi|2 118 161 119 7:] !:..-> 105 81 IS 07 194 65 7 101 261 66 109 141 134 121 260 147 190 208 CO 0) Avcratjps of 4 years, 4 years, and 8 years. (-) Averages of 9 rears last 10 years, and total 17 years. (') Averages MAXTJKE FOP. BARLEY. 237 SAMS LAND, WITHOUT MANURE, AND WITH DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OF FIELD, ROTHAMSTED. CORN PER ACRE— IbS. or quantity, of Manure, at the period indicated, for particulars of which, see thereto, p. 231.] HARVESTS. AVERAGE ANNUAL. £ *$ 1 _ •i? * 1864 1865 1868 1867 1808 18(i9 1870 1871 •I- • ?"*- f^tt£ lls 11? Isi Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ihs. Ihs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ihs. 42 47 41 90 21 44 31 48 120 48 84 1 0. 69 38 21 53 29 89 18 33 16 52 74 2 O. 43 38 38 64 27 70 18 35 101 46 74 3 O. 41 28 55 60 25 C9 26 48 104 53 -58 4 0. 49 38 39 67 25 63 23 41 1C5 50 78 Means 99 58 94 115 49 139 23 105 174 107 111 1 A. 08 81 64 76 38 113 26 189 172 C4 133 2 A. 83 51 106 94 34 95 24 89 173 95 134 3 A. 110 CO 63 71 50 21 27 146 1C5 78 122 4 A. 89 63 82 89 43 92 25 132 \ 171 94 1£3 Means 110 64 148 110 46 64 33 133 £10 111 164 1 AA. 113 111 69 46 89 24 168 220 95 158 2 AA. 76 48 103 106 59 111 £6 133 214 113 164 3 AA. 46 76 133 119 43 78 30 90 2C8 87 148 4 AA. 71 75 124 101 48 86 31 131 215 102 159 Means 94 55 88 85 49 121 33 94 f 81 74 77 1 1 AAS. 53 86 93 G4 60 23 153 mJ 75 75 75 1 m 2 AAS. 70 50 141 79 £9 136 29 1T;0 ()1 85 84 85f() 3 AAS. 93 70 80 93 46 125 20 175 I 84 68 89j ; 4 AAS. 77 65 101 81 50 111 28 1S8 81 82 83 Means 78 as 104 109 43 09 25 78 175 83 129 1 C. 92 44 89 89 61 111 24 88 188 84 138 2 C. 90 66 94 91 39 91 37 141 192 91 142 3 C. 123 69 128 72 42 67 28 124 203 89 149 4 C. CG 66 104 90 47 85 28 103 192 87 1S9 Mcacs 74 98 124 119 61 150 33 99 L.J173 112 141 1 m 1 N. 84 104 88 35 98 33 171 1^1199 104 149 1 ( > 2N. 58 69 44 56 S3 61 25 58 (3) (77 64 69) (3) If. 78 35 48 56 20 75 23 41 (") (84 61 72) (*, 5 0. 91 94 53 74 33 63 30 144 160 87 124 5 A. 51 45 72 103 27 71 26 50 117 57 87 1 !« 51 47 51 83 21 57 23 41 107 64 85 2P 117 56 148 111 48 100 26 171 156 105 ro 7 (1853-61% last 10 yoars. and total 19 years. (s) Averages of 7 years (1833-'C1), of 9 years (1S53-X51), last 10 years, and total 19 years. 238 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS ON THE GBOWTH OF BARLEY, YEAR AFTER TEAR, ON THE MANURE. Hoos TABLE V.— BTUAW N.B. The double vertical lines show that there was a change in the descrip- Table 1., and foot notes 1 O. 2 O. 30. 4 O. Means 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. Means 1 AA. 2 AA. 3 AA. 4 AA. Means 1 AAS. 2 AAS. G AAS. 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 2 C. 3 C. 4 C. Means 1 N. 2 N. M. 5 O. 5 A. '1i HABVESTS. 1852 Cwts. 16* 16* 19* 17)4 8« ss 25* 20 % 2«i ;.< _28?i_ ~27*~ 1% 21% 1853 cwts. 18 17* 17* 20* 18J4 23% B* 25* 26% 23jL 26* 28* 2714 jrv 27* **{]» (2.-,*) | 25* 14* 24 15% 22% 1854 cwts. 20 22'4' 30^ 40 ri 40 36% 37* 44% 37% 49 42* 1S55 1.S.T, cwt cwt 17% 18" 9% 17%) 9 24*17* 29% 21* 27*17% 31_;21U 2S_ 19V 31 * 2ii* 36* 28% 4314 30* 42 Yz J37% 33% 27 38 '4 33?i 20 ' 15* 14% 31 26 ;5W 30 :; 28% lO's 10 Ji, 20% 16 S7J4 27*19% 23% 1857 is: .9 1^60 IMH cwt cwt cwt cwt •>., 11 «.»•-, 11 ^ 11* 10% 13 '« 9* 15% 13* 15% 8% 12% 11* 1 13% 14% 19% 20% 21% 25* 29% 16* 21>, 8 - 20% 25% 26% 28% 13*22 21*25* 21i4 31% 31*32* 18'< •-"• *i% 3 l«v-,2 1-G3 aijiW . 88% 30% 26* 29 S 10% 27i.i 24* :30H 18% 29?; S 14';'l9V 10 v 15* " 3-1 14% 0) Averages of 4 years, 4 years, and 8 years, last 10 years, and (2) Averages of 9 years total 17 years. (4) Averages MAXUKE FOE BAKLEY. 239 SAME LAND, WITHOUT MANURE, AND WITH DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OF FIELD, ROTKAMSTED. (AND CHAFF) PER ACRE— cwts. tion, or quantity, of Manure, at the period indicated, for particulars of which see thereto, p. 231.] HARVESTS. AVERAGE ANNUAL. 1 O. 2 O. 3 0. 4 0. Means 1 A. 2 A. 3 A. 4 A. Means 1 AA. 2 AA. 3 AA. 4 AA. Means 1 AAS. 2 AAS. 3 AAS. 4 AAS. Means 1 C. 2 C. 3 C. 4 C. Means 1 N. 2 N. M. 5 0. 5 A. 7 1864 1865 cwt 9- 9* 10 1866 1867 cwt 10* 12* 10% 12 1868 1869 cwt 11 8* 12% 1870 1871 cwts. 13% 14% 13% 16% Second ten Years, 1862- '71. Total Period 20 Years. 1852-'71. cwts. 12* 15% cwts. 12% 10* 12% cwts. 11% 9% 8% 10% cwt 6% 8 9% cwt 11 11* 14 CWtS. 10* 11 % 10% 12% cwts. 11* 13% 12* 14% 14% 9* 13 16/8 18* 11* 11% 9% 18* 32 20% 34% 8% 12% 14* 11% 12% 20% 32^ 19* 34% 28% 27% 19% 19 ?g 14% £0% 12* 17% 15 18% 23% 25% 19% 27* 21% 28% 17% 274 19% 23 184 27% 20* 28^ 26% 21* 22% 16% 26% 16 27* 244 23% 23* 23* 33Va 37* 16 23 17 24% 17* 28* 18* 28* 30% 144 21% 16* 25% B4% 38% 17% 23% 20% 18* 26% 32* 25% 32% 24 31% 25* 34* 29* 22* 30% 22% £04 24 32% 30% 20* 23% 24* 19% 29* 20* 29* 29 25% 27* 126% 3d 20% 20% 294 294 23% 16% 25* 22 26% 37* 30% 17 20% 20* 29% 36H 38 8 f21% <*H 24* Ur 21% 29% 26% 32 21 %1 31% J 26% 31% 31 22% 21% 8* 22 J21% 26% 24% 25% 25% 22* 24* 22% 33^ 27 33* 30% 35% 19% 33* 274 27% 8* 26% 27% 27 24% 244 24% 27% 19% 19% 21% 17% 18% 20% 29% 30% 28% 24* 26 25* 27* 26% 28* 27* 29% 31 24* 27% 13% 33% 13% 37% 25% 24% 19% 31% 184 29% »* 25% 28 21* 9% 10% 24% 8% 8% 25% 21% 23% 12% 10% 28 10* 21% 21% 12 10% 22% 9% 10% 27* 18% n% 10* 20% 10% 24X 24 27% 11% 154 36% 9% 10% 13*29* 19% 31 4 4?| 13* 21% 29% 7% 13 7% 13%' 19* 371/8 (*) (13% 14 13 26% 224 244 12% 11 % 28* 10% 11* 29% 12%) (J) 28/8 12% 12% 2S* (1853-61\ last 10 years, and total 19 years. of 9 years (1S53-'61), last 10 years, and tota] (3) Averages of 7 years (1855-'61), 19 years. 240 TALKS OX MANURES. The produce of barley the first season (1852), was, per acre : On the unmanured plot 27i bushels With superphosphate of lime 2SI potash, soda, and magnesia i?6f " and superphosphate 32* 14 tons barn-yard manure 33 200 Ibs. ammonia-salts alone 36f and superphosphate 381 and potash, soda, and magnesia 36 and superphosphate, potash, soda, and magnesia 401 " 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts alone 44i The 200 Ibs. of ammonia-salts contain 50 Ibs. of ammonia=41 Ibs. nitrogen. It will be seen that this 50 Ibs. of ammonia alone, on plot la, gives an increase of nearly 10 bushels per acre, or to be more accu- rate, it gives an increase over the unmanured plot of 503 Ibs. of grain, and 320 Ibs. of straw , while double the quantity of ammonia on plot la.a., gives an increase of 17£ bushels per acre — or an in- crease of 901 Ibs. of grain, and 1,144 Ibs. of straw. "Put that fact in separate lines, side by side," said the Deacon, " so that we can see it." Total Grain Straw Produce. 50 Ibs. of ammonia gives an increase of 503 Ibs. 704 Ibs. 1207 Ibs. 100 " " " " " " " ....901 " 1144 " 2045 " The first 50 Ibs. of ammonia gives an in- crease of 503 " 704 " 1207 " The second 50 Ibs. of ammonia gives an in- crease of COS " 540 " 738 " " That shows," said the Deacon, " that a dressing of 50 Ibs. per acre pays better than a dressing of 100 Ibs. per acre. I wish Mr. Lawes had sown 75 Ibs. on one plot." I wish so, too, but it is quite probable that in our climate, 50 Ibs. of available ammonia per acre is all that it will usually be profitable to apply per acre to the barley crop. It is equal to a dressing of 500 Ibs. guaranteed Peruvian guano, or 275 lb&. nitrate of soda. — " Or to how much manure ? " asked the Deacon. To about 5 tons of average stable-manure, or say three tons of good, well-rotted manure from grain-fed animals. " And yet," said the Deacon, " Mr. Lawcs put on 14 tons of yard manure per acre, and the yield of barley was not as much as from the 50 Ibs. of ammonia alone. How do you account for that?" Simply because the ammonia in the manure is not ammonia. It is what the chemists used to call " potential ammonia." A good deal of it is in the form of undigested straw and bay. The nitro- genous matter of the food which bas been digested by the animal MANURE FOK BAELEY. 241 and thrown off in the liquid excrements, is in such a form that it will readily ferment and produce ammonia, while the nitrogenous matter in the undigested food and in the straw used for bedding, decomposes slowly even under the most favorable conditions ; and if buried while fresh in a clay soil, it probably would not all de- compose in many years. But we will not discuss this at present. " The superphosphate does not seem to have done much good," saicl the Deacon ; " 3£ cwt. per acre gives an increase of less than two bushels per acre. And I suppose it was good superphosphate." There need be no doubt on that point. Better superphosphate of lime cannot be made. But you must recollect that this is pure superphosphate made from burnt bones. It contains no ammonia or organic matter. Commercial superphosphates contain more or less ammonia, and had they been used in these experiments, they would have shown a better result than the pure article. They would have done good in proportion to the available nitrogen they contained. If these experiments prove anything, they clearly indi- cate that superphosphate alone is a very poor manure for either wheat or barley. The second year, the unmanured plot gave 25£ bushels per acre. Potash, soda, and magnesia, (or what the Deacon calls "ashes,") 27f bushels ; superphosphate 33£, and " ashes " and superphos- phate, nearly 36 bushels per acre. 50 Ibs. of ammonia, alone, gives nearly 39 bushels, and ammonia and superphosphate together, 40 bushels. The superphosphate and " ashes " give a better account of them- selves this year ; but it is remarkable that the ammonia alone, gives almost as good a crop as the ammonia and superphosphate, and a letter crop than the ammonia and u ashes," or the ammonia, super- phosphate, and ashes, together. The 14 tons farm-yard manure gives over 36 bushels per acre. This plot has now had 28 tons of manure per acre, yet the 50 Ibs. of ammonia alone, still gives a better yield than this heavy dress- ing of manure. The third season (1854), was quite favorable for the ripening of wheat and barley. The seed on the experimental barley-field, was sown Feb. 24, and the harvest was late ; so that the crop had an unusually long season for growth. It was one of the years when even poor land, if clean, gives a good crop. The unmanured plot, it will be seen, yielded over 35 bushels per acre of dressed grain, weighing over 53£ Ibs. per bushel. The total weight of grain, was 1,963 Ibs. This is over 40 bushels per acre, of 48 Ibs. per bushel, which is the standard with us. 11 24:2 TALKS ON MANURES. The 14 tons of farm-yard manure produce nearly 56£ bushels per acre. 50 Ibs. of ammonia, on plot la 47f bushels per acre. 100 " " " " " la.a 564 " You -will see, that though the plot which has received 42 tons of manure per acre, produced a splendid crop ; the plot having nothing except 100 Ibs. of ammonia per acre, produced a crop equally good. "How much increase do you get from 50 Ibs. of ammonia," asked the Deacon, " and how much from 100 Ibs. ?" Equal Amer. Grain. btra.w. Jaushels. 50 Ibs of ammonia, gives an increase of 800 Ibs. 952 Ibs. 16J bush. 100 " " " " " " " 1,350 " 2,100 " 28 " If you buy nitrate of soda at of cents a Ib. , the ammonia will cost 20 cents a Ib. In the above experiment, 50 Ibs. of ammonia, costing $10, gives an increase of 16£ bushels of barley, and nearly half a ton of straw. If the straw is worth $4.00 per ton, the barley will cost 48 cents a bushel. Double the quantity of manure, costing $20, gives an increase of 28 bushels of barley, and over one ton of straw. In this case the extra barley costs 57 cents a bushel. On plot 2a.y 50 Ibs. of ammonia and 3^ cwt. of superphosphate, give 3,437 Ibs. of grain, equal to 71| of our bushels per acre. On plot 2a.n. 100 Ibs. of ammonia and 3$- cwt. of superphosphate, give 3,643 Ibs. of grain, which lacks only 5 Ibs. of 76 bushels per acre, and nearly 2-J- tons of straw. "That will do," said the Deacon/1 but I see that in 1857, this same plot, with the same manure, produced 66J- bushels of dressed grain per acre, weighing 53£ Ibs. to the bushel, or a total weight of 3,696 Ibs., equal to just 77 of our bushels per acre." " And yet," said the Doctor, " this same year, the plot which had 84 tons of farm-yard manure per acre, produced only 2,915 Ibs. of grain, or less than 61 of our bushels of barley per acre." The Squire happened in at this time, and heard the last remark. " What are you saying," he remarked, " about only 61 bushels of barley per acre. I should like to see such a crop. Last year, in this neighborhood, there were hundreds of acres of barley that did not yield 20 bushels per acre, and very little of it would weigh 44 Ibs. to the bushel." This is true. And the maltsters find it almost impossible to get six-rowed barley weighing 48 Ibs. per bushel. They told me, that they would pay $1.10 per bushel for good bright barley weighing 48 Ibs. per bushel, and for each pound it weighed less than this, they deducted 10 cents a bushel from the price. In other words, MANURE FOE BAELEY. 243 they would pay $1.00 a bushel for barley weighing 47 Ibs. to the bushel ; 90 cents for barley weighing 46 Ibs ; 80 cents for barley weighing 45 Ibs., and 70 cents for barley weighing 44 Ibs.— and at these figures they much preferred the heaviest barley. It is certainly well worth our while, if we raise barley at all, to see if we cannot manage not only to raise larger crops per acre, but to produce barley of better quality. And these wonderful experi- ments of Mr. Lawes are well worth careful examination and study. The Squire put on his spectacles and looked at the tables of figures. "Like everybody else," said he, "you pick out the big figures, and to hear you talk, one would think you scientific gentlemen never have any poor crops, and yet I see that in 18Gof there are three different crops of only 121, 121, and 13£ bushels per acre." " Those," said I, " are the three plots which have grown barley every year without any manure, and you have selected the worst year of the whole twenty." "Perhaps so," said the Squire, "but we have got to take the bad with the good, and I have often heard you say that a good farmer who has his land rich and clean makes more money in an unfavorable than in a favorable season. Now, this year 1860, seems to have been an unfavorable one, and yet your pet manure, superphosphate, only gives an increase of 148 Ibs. of barley — or three bushels and 4 Ibs. Yet this plot has had a tre- mendous dressing of 8£ cwt. of superphosphate yearly since 1852. I always told you you lost money in buying superphosphate. " " That depends on what you do with it. I use it for turnips, and tomatoes, cabbages, lettuce, melons, cucumbers, etc., and would not like to be without it; but I have never recommended any one to use it on wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, or potatoes, except as an experiment. What I have recommended you to get for barley is, nitrate of soda, and superphosphate, or Peruvian guano. And you will see that even in this decidedly unfavorable season, the plot 2a.a., dressed with superphosphate and 275 Ibs. of nitrate of soda, produced 2,338 Ibs. of barley, or 48| bushels per acre. This is an increase over the unmanured plots of 33£ bushels per acre, and an increase of 1,872 Ibs. of straw. And the plot dressed with superphosphate and 200 Ibs. of salts of ammonia, gave equally as good results." And this, mark you, is the year which the Squire selected as the one most likely to show that artificial manures did not pay. " I never knew a man except you," said the Squire," who wanted unfavorable seasons." 214 TALKS OX MANURES. I have never said I wanted unfavorable seasons. I should not dare to say so, or even to cherish the wish for one moment. But I do say, that when we have a season so favorable that even poorly worked land will produce a fair crop, we are almost certain to have prices below the average cost of production. But when we have an unfavorable season, such crops as barley, potatoes, and beans, often advance to extravagantly high prices, and the farmer who has good crops in such a season, gets something like adequate pay for his patient waiting, and for his efforts to improve his land. " That sounds all very well," said the Squire," but will it pay to use these artificial manures ? " I do not wish to wander too much from the point, but would like to remark before I answer that question, that I am not a special advocate of artificial manures. I think \ve can often make manures on our farms far cheaper than we can buy them. But as the Squire has asked the question, and as he has selected from Mr. Lawes' results, the year 1860, I will meet him on his own ground. He has selected a season specially unfavorable for the growth of barley. Now, in such an unfavorable year in this country, barley would be likely to bring, at least, $1.25 per bushel, and in a favor- able season not over 75 cents a bushel. Mr. Lawes keeps his land clean, which is more than can be said of many barley-growers. And in this unfavorable season of 1860, he gets on his three unmanured plots an average of 730 Ibs. of barley, equal to 15£ bushels per acre, and not quite 800 Ibs. of straw. Many of our fanners frequently do no better than this. And you must recollect that in such careful experiments as those of Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, great pains would be taken to get all the barley that grew on the land. With us, barley is cut with a reaper, and admirable as our machines are, it is not an easy matter to cut a light, spindling crop of barley perfectly clean. Then, in pitching the crop and drawing it in, more or less barley is scattered, and even after we have been over the field two or three times with a steel-tooth rake, there is still considerable barley left on the ground. I think we may safely assume that at least as much barley is left on the ground as we usually sow — say two bushels per acre. And so, instead of having 15£ bushels per acre, as Mr. Lawes had, we should only harvest 134 bushels. Of all our ordinary farm crops, barley is attended with the least labor and expense. We usually sow it after corn or potatoes. On such strong land as that of Mr. Lawes, we ought to plow the land MAKU14E FOR BAKLEY. 245 in the autumn and again in the spring, or at least stir up the land thoroughly with a two or three-horse cultivator or gang-plow. Let us say that the cost of plowing, harrowing, drilling, and rolling, is $5.00 per acre. Seed, $2.00. Harvesting, $2.00. Thresh- ing, 6 cents a bushel. lieceipts : 13i bushels barley @ 1.35 .............. $16.57 800 Ibs. of straw @ $4. per ton .......... 1.60 18.17 Putting in and harvesting the crop $9.CO Threshing 13* bushels (o> 6 c ....... 80— 9.80 Rent and profit per acre .............. $ 8.LY "That is a better showing than I expected," said the Squire, " and as barley occupies the land only a few months, and as we sow wheat after it, we cannot expect large profits." " Very well," said I, " Now let us take the crop, this same un- favorable year, on plot 2a.a.t dressed with superphosphate and nitrate of soda. The expense of plowing, harrowing, drilling, rolling, seed, and harvesting, would be about the same, or we will say $2.00 an acre more for extra labor in harvesting. And we will allow two bushels per acre for scatterings — though there is nothing like as much barley left on the ground when we have a good crop, as when we have a poor crop. But I want to be liberal. The yield on plot 2a.a., was 48| bushels per acre, and 2,715 Ibs. of straw. Receipts : 46* bushels© $1.25 ........................ $53.43 2,715 Ibs. straw @ $4. per ton .............. . 5.43 Putting in the crop and harvesting. . . $11.00 Threshing 46* bushels @ 6 c .......... 2.80 275 Ibs. nitrate of soda @ 4 c ......... 11.00 392 Ibs. superphosphate @ 2 c ....... 7.84 ~ 833.64 Rent and profit ..................................... $31.22 In ordinary farm practice, I feel sure we can do better than this. Growing barley year after year on the same land, is not the most economical way of getting the full value of the manure. There is much nitrogen and phosphoric acid left in the land, which barley or even wheat does not seem capable of taking up, but which would probably be of great benefit to the clover. 246 TALKS ON MANURES. MANURE AND ROTATION OF CROPS. The old notion that there is any real chemical necessity for a rotation of crops is unfounded. Wheat can be grown after wheat, and barley after barley, and corn after corn, provided we use the necessary manures and get the soil clean and in the right mechani- cal condition. " What, then, do we gain by a rotation ? " asked the Deacon. Much every way. A good rotation enables us to clean the land. We can put in different crops at different seasons. " So we could," broke in the Deacon, " if we sowed wheat after wheat, barley after barley, and corn after corn." True, but if we sowed winter-wheat after winter- wheat, there would not be time enough to clean the land. " Just as much as when we sow wheat after oats, or peas, or barley." "True again, Deacon," I replied, "but we are supposed to have cleaned the land while it was in com the previous year. I say sup- posed, because in point of fact, many of our farmers do not half clean their land while it is in corn. It is the weak spot in our agriculture. If our land was as clean as it should be to start with, there is no rotation so convenient in this section, as corn the first year, barley, peas, or oats the second year, followed by winter- wheat seeded down. But to carry out this rotation to the best ad- vantage we need artificial manures." "But will they pay?" asks the Deacon. "They will pay well, provided we can get them at a fair price and get fair prices for our produce. If we could get a good su- perphosphate made from Charleston phosphates for 1£ cent perlb., and nitrate of soda for 3| or 4 cents per lb., and the German pot- ash-salts for £ cent per lb., and could get on the average $1.25 per bushel for barley, and $1.75 for good white wheat, we could use these manures to great advantage." " Nothing like barn-yard manure," says the Deacon. No doubt on that point, provided it is good manure. Barn-yard manure, whether rich or poor, contains all the elements of plant- food, but there is a great difference between rich and poor manure. The rich manure contains twice or three times as much nitrogen and phosphoric acid as ordinary or poor manure. And this is the reason why artificial manures are valuable in proportion to the nitrogen and phosphoric acid that they contain in an available con- dition. When we use two or three hundred pounds per acre of a good artificial manure we in effect, directly or indirectly, convert MANURE FOR BARLEY. 247 poor manure into rich manure. There is manure in our soil, but it is poor. There is manure in our barn-yard, but it is poor also. Nitrogen and phosphoric acid will make these manures rich. This is the reason why a few pounds of a good artificial manure will produce as great an effect as tons of common manure. Depend upon it, the coming farmer will avail himself of the discoveries of science, and will use more artificial fertilizers. . But whether we use artificial fertilizers or farm-yard manure, we shall not get the full effect of the manures unless we adopt a judicious rotation of crops. When we sow wheat after wheat, or barley after barley, or oats after oats, we certainly do not get the full effect of the manures used. Mr. Lawes' experiments afford conclusive evidence on this point. You will recollect that in 1846, one of the plots of wheat (105), which had received a liberal dressing of salts of ammonia the year previous, was left without manure, and the yield of wheat on this plot was no greater than on the plot which was continu- ously unmanured. In other words, the ammonia which was left in the soil from the previous year, had no effect on the wheat. The following table shows the amount of nitrogen furnished by the manure, and the amount recovered in the crop, when wheat is grown after wheat for a series of years, and also when barley is grown after barley, and oats after oats. 248 TALKS ON MANURES. rH 10 »^ t- •* < as 10 in eo » J1MM 12222" illlj «.2^2cn lo'oeS 11 ii| <5 <;<;<;« 03 « 00 » 03 « .S.O.CJ2.0 >» 5000 & 5 p p o o •a-e'C'ats 0 a a a a a o a cj rt e9 ej £ £££££§ p 3 a s ^ « a a a a =^, c3 e3 =3 C3 es • SSSSS'S C5 C« t- CO B S S S 1-1 eo co cj -/^ pc ci yrs.). 3.— Mineral manures (8 yrs.) ; Rape-cake (<> yrs.) •1.— Mineral manures (8 yrs.); Ammonia-salts and 231 £ 28?^ 29^ ** 23 % six 23 ?.£ n 23 % 25?£ 5.— Mineral manures (8 yrs.) ; Ammonia-salts, for Bar- ley 1854 (20i«0 52% 20's 39J4 G.— Mineral manures (8 yrs.); Nitrate Soda, for Bar- ley, '54 and '55 (20.V) 54% .10- V% Produce of Barley per Acre. The yield of barley after turnips is less than it is after grain crops, and it is evident that this is due to a lack of available uitro- MANURE FOR BARLEY. 251 gen in the soil. In other words, the turnips leave less available nitrogen in the soil than grain crops. After alluding to the facts given in the foregoing table, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert say : " There is evidence of another kind that may be cited as show- ing that it was of available nitrogen that the turnips had rendered the soil so deficient for the after-growth of barley. It may be as- sumed that, on the average, between 25 and 30 Ibs. of nitrogen would be annually removed from the Rothamsted soil by wheat or barley grown year after year without nitrogenous manure. But it is estimated that from the mineral-manured turnip-plots there were, over the 10 years, more than 50 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre per annum removed. As, however, on some of the plots, small quan- tities of ammonia-salts or rape-cake were applied in the first two years of the ten of turnips, it is, perhaps, more to the purpose to take the average over the last 8 years of turnips only ; and this would show about 45 Ibs. of nitrogen removed per acre per annum. An immaterial proportion of this might be due to the small amounts of nitrogenous manures applied in the first two years. Still, it may be assumed that about 1|- time as much nitrogen was removed from the land for 8, if not for 10 years, in succession, as would have been taken in an equal number of crops of wheat or barley grown without nitrogenous manure. No wonder, then, that considerably less barley has been grown in 3 years after a series of mineral-manured turnip-crops, than was obtained in an- other field after a less number of corn-crops. "The results obtained in Barn-field afford a striking illustration of the dependence of the turnip-plant on a supply of available ni- trogen within the soil, and of its comparatively great power of exhausting it. They are also perfectly consistent with those in Hoos-field, in showing that mineral manures will not yield fair crops of barley, unless there be, within the soil, a liberal supply of available nitrogen. The results obtained under such very different conditions in the two fields are, in fact, strikingly mutually con- firmatory." 252 TALKS ON MANURES. CHAPTER XXX. MANURES FOR OATS. " What is the use of talking about manure for oats," said the Deacon, " if land is not rich enough to produce oats without ma- nure, it certainly will not pay to manure them. We cau use our manure on some crop that will pay better." " That is precisely what we want to know," said I. " Very likely you are right, but have you any evidence ? " " Evidence of what ? " "Have you any facts that show, for instance, that it will pay better to use manure for wheat or barley lhan for oats? " " Can't say that I have, but I think manure will pay better on wheat than on oats." Mr. Lawes is making a series of experiments on oats. Let us take a hasty glance at the results of the first two seasons : EXPERIMENTS ON OATS AT ROTHAMSTED. MANURES PER ACRE. Grain, in ftlMJMb. Straw, cwls. Weight per bushel, Ibs. 1869. 1870. 1869. 1870. 1869. 1870. 1 — No manure 30?i 45 MM 7.-, i.t (i'J'.i «x 16 % 19H 37# 8051 36^ 50 19 14 MX 367s 54 4»X 49*8 9^ 9% 17^ 2S?a 23 38£ 362£ »# 37# 39V 38# 3Si/, 35 S5tf 34,'.i 30 85 Ji 35 « 2.— Mixed Alkalies and Superphosphate of Lime 3. — 400 B>B. Ammonia-Mitt 4. — Mixed Alkalies and Superphosphate, and 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts 5.— 550 fl>s. Nitrate of Soda (>.— Mixed Alkalies, Superphosphate, and 550 Ibs. Nitrate of Soda It seems clear that, for oats, as for barley and wheat, what we most need in manure, is available nitrogen. The first year, the no-manure plot produced 36| bushels of oats per acre, weighing 36£ Ibs. per bushel, and plot 3, with ammonia- salts alone, 56£ bushels, and with nitrate of soda alone, on plot 5, 62J bushels per acre, both weighing 38£ Ibs. per bushel. In other words, 82 Ibs. of available nitrogen in the salts of ammonia gave an increase of about 20 bushels per acre, and the same quantity of nitrogen in nitrate of soda an increase of 26 buslu-ls per acre. The next year, the season seems to have been a very unfavor- MANURES FOIi OATS. 253 able one for oats. The no-manure plot produced less than 17 bushels per acre ; and the " ashes " and superphosphate on plot 2, give an increase of less than 3 bushels per acre. But it will be seen that on plot 3 the ammonia-salts do as much good in this un- favorable season as in the favorable one. They give an increase of over 20 bushels per acre. "A few such facts as this," said the Deacon, " would almost persuade me that you are right in contending that it is in the un- favorable seasons, when prices are sure to be high in this country, that a good farmer stands the best chance to make money." " Where mixed alkalies and superphosphate," said the Doctor, " are added to the ammonia, the increase from the ammonia is far greater than where ammonia is used alone. In other words, by comparing plot 2 and plot 4, you will see that the ammonia gives an increase of 30£ bushels per acre in 1869, and 31| bushels in 1870." The truth of the matter probably is this : 100 Ibs. of available ammonia per acre is an excessive supply, when used alone. And in fact Mr. Lawes himself only recommends about half this quantity. Whether it will pay us to use artificial manures on oats depends on the price we are likely to get for the oats. When the price of oats psr Ib. and oat-straw is as high as barley and barley-straw per Ib. , then it will pay a Uttte better to use manure on oats than on barley. As a rule in this country, however, good barley is worth more per Ib. than good oats ; and it will usually pay better to use artificial manures on barley than on oats. Some years ago Mr. Bath, of Virginia, made some experiments on oats with the following results : JBitshds of oats per acrs. No. 1—200 Ibs. Superphosphate 22 No. 2—200 Ibs. Peruvian guano 48? No. 3—100 Ibs. Peruvian guano 32 The oats were sown March 13, and the crop harvested July 4. In 1860, 1 made some experiments with gypsum, superphosphate, and sulphate of ammonia as a top-dressing on oats. The land was a clover-sod, plowed about the middle of May, and the oats sown May 20. On the 26th of May, just as the oats were coming up, the manures were sown broadcast. The oats were sown too late to obtain the best results. On another field, where the oats were sown two weeks earlier, the crop was decidedly better. The oats were cut August 28. The following is the result : 254 TALKS ON MANURES. EXPERIMENTS ON OATS AT MOKETON FABM, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Buehel* Plots. MANUKES PEIt ACHE. or Oats IK /' <.!<•>< . No 1 30 Ji 3 4 5 »>00 Ibs. (Jvp.sum (Sulphate of Lime)... . 300 Ibs. Superphosphate of Lime 300 )bs. Sulphate of Ammonia 300 Ibs. Superphosphate of Lime, and 300 47 50 50 lb.-». Sulphate ot Ainmoiiia 51 Weight Straw per Butkd j>< /• aen in Ibx. in tbfi. l.'.M These experiments were made when my land was not as ck-au as it is now. I presume the weeds got more benefit from the- am- monia than the oats. To top-dress foul laud with expensive arti- ficial manures is money thrown away. If the land had been plowed in the autumn, and the seed and manures could have been put in early in the spring, I presume we should have had more favorable results. " Are you not ashamed to acknowledge," said the Deacon, *' that you have ever raised oats weighing only 22 Ibs. per bushel." No. I have raised even worse crops than this — and so has the Deacon. But I made up my mind that such farming did not pay, and I have been trying hard since then to clean my land and get it into better condition. And until this is done, it is useless to talk much of artificial manures. The most striking result is the effect of the gypsum. It not only gave an increased yield of 11 bushels per acre, but the oats were of decidedly better quality, and there was nearly half a ton more straw per acre than on the plot alongside, where no manure was used. The superphosphate was a good article, similar to that used in Mr. Lawes' experiments. MANURES FOR POTATOES. 255 CHAPTEE XXXI. MANURES FOR POTATOES. Some time ago, a farmer in Pennsylvania wrote me that he wanted " to raise a first-rate crop of potatoes." I answered him as follows through the American Agriculturist : " There are many ways of doing this. But as you only enter on the farm this spring, you will work to disadvantage. To obtain the best results, it is necessary to prepare for the crop two or three years beforehand. All that you can do this year is to select the best land on the farm, put on 400 Ibs. of Peruvian guano, culti- vate thoroughly, and suffer not a weed to grow. A two or three- year-old clover-sod, on warm, rich, sandy loam, gives a good chance for potatoes. Do not plow until you are ready to plant. Sow the guano broadcast after plowing, and harrow it in, or apply a tablespoonful in each hill, and mix it with the soil. Mark out the rows, both ways, three feet apart, and drop a fair-sized potato in each hill. Start the cultivator as soon as the rows can be dis- tinguished, and repeat every week or ten days until there is danger of disturbing the roots. "We usually hill up a little, making a broad, fl:it hill. A tablespoonful of plaster, dusted on the young plants soon after they come up, will usually do good. We recommend guano, because in our experience it does not increase the rot. But it is only fair to add, that we have not found even barn-yard manure, if thoroughly rotted and well mixed with the soil the fall previous, half so injurious as some people would have us suppose. If any one will put 25 loads per acre on our potato land, we will agree to plant and run the risk of the rot. But we would use some guano as well. The truth is, that it is useless to expect a large crop of potatoes, say 350 bushels per acre, without plenty of manure." This was written before the potato-beetle made its appearance. But I think I should say the same thing now — only put it a little stronger. The truth is, it will not pay to " fight the bugs" on a poor crop of potatoes. We must select the best land we have and make it as rich as possible. "But why do you recommend Peruvian guano," asked the Doctor, " rather than superphosphate or ashes ? Potatoes contain a large amount of pptash, and one would expect considerable benefit from an application of ashes." " Ashes, plaster, and hen-dung," said the Judge, " will at any rate 256 TALKS o:r MANURES. pay well on potatoes. I have tried this mixture again and again, and always with good effect. " " I believe in the hen-dung," said I, " and possibly in the plaster, but on my land, ashes do not seem to be specially beneficial on potatoes, while I have rarely used Peruvian guano without good effect; and sometimes it has proved wonderfully profit- able, owing to the high price of potatoes." Sometime ago, I had a visit from one of t'ae most enterprising and successful farmers in Western New York. "What I want to learn," he said, "is how to make manure enough to keep my land in good condition. I sell nothing but beans, potatoes, wheat, and apples. I feed out all my corn, oats, stalks, straw, and hay on the farm, and draw into the barn-yard the potato-vines and everything else that will rot into manure. I make a big pile of it. But the point with me is to find out what is the best stock to feed this straw, stalks, hay, oats, and corn to, so as to make the best manure and return the largest profit. Last year I bought a lot of steers to feed in winter, and lost money. This fall I bought 68 head of cows to winter, intending to sell them in the spring." "What did they cost you ? " " I went into Wyoming and Cattaraugus Counties, and picked them up among the dairy farmers, and selected a very fair lot of cows at an average of $22 per head. I expect to sell them as new milch cows in the spring. Such cows last spring would have been worth $60 to $70 each." " That will pay. But it is not often the grain-grower gets such a chance to feed out his straw, stalks, and other fodder to advantage. It cannot be adopted as a permanent system. It is bad for the dairyman, and no real help to the grain-grower. The manure is not rich enough. Straw and stalks alone can not be fed to advantage. And when you winter cows to sell again in the spring, it will not pay to feed grain. If you were going to keep the cows it would pay well. The fat and flesh you put on in the winter would be re- turned in the form of butter and cheese next summer." " Why is not the manure good ? I am careful to save everything, and expect seven or eight hundred loads of manure in the spring." " You had 60 acres of wheat that yielded 25 bushels per acre, and have probably about 50 tons of wheat straw. You had also 30 acres oats, that yielded 50 bushels per acre, say 35 tons of straw. Your 20 acres of corn produced 40 bushels of shelled corn per acre ; say the stalks weigh 30 tons. And you have 60 tons of MANURES FOK POTATOES. 257 hay, half clover and half timothy. Let us see what your manure from this amount of grain and fodder is worth. Manures from 50 tons wheat-straw, @ $2.63 $ 134.00 35 tons oat-straw, @ $2.90 101.50 30 tons corn-stalks, @ $3.58 107.40 30 tons timothy-hay, @ $6.43 . . 192.90 30 tons clover-hay, @ $9.64 289.20 14 tons oats (1,500 bush.), @ $7.70 107.80 24 tons corn (800 bushels), @ $6.65 159.60 Total . . 213 tons $1,092.40 " This is the value of the manure on tJie land. Assuming that there are 600 loads, and that the labor of cleaning out the stables, piling, carting, and spreading the manure is worth 30 cents per load, or $180, we have $912.40 as the net value of the manure. " Now, your 250-acre farm might be so managed that this amount of manure annually applied would soon greatly increase its fertility. But you do not think you can afford to summer-fallow, and you want to raise thirty or forty acres of potatoes every year." " I propose to do so," he replied. " Situated as I am, close to a good shipping station, no crop pays me better. My potatoes this year have averaged me over $100 per acre." "Very good. But it is perfectly clear to my mind that sooner or later, you must either farm slower or feed higher. And in your case, situated close to a village where you can get plenty of help, and with a good shipping station near by, you had better adopt the latter plan. You musjt feed higher, and make richer manure. You now feed out 213 tons of stuff, and make 600 loads of manure, worth $912.40. By feeding out one third, or 71 tons more, you can more than double the value of the manure. 50 tons of bran or mill-feed would give manure worth $ 729.50 21 tons decorticated cotton-seed cake 585.06 ~8i~314.56 " Buy and feed out this amount of bran and cake, and you would have 800 loads of manure, worth on tlie land $2,226.96, or, estimat- ing as before that it cost 30 cents a load to handle it, its net value would be $1,986.96." I am well aware that comparatively few farmers in this section can afford to adopt this plan of enriching their land. .We want better stock. I do not know where I could buy a lot of steers that it would pay to fatten in the winter. Those farmers who raise good grade Shorthorn or Devon cattle are not the men to sell them half-fat at low rates. They can fatten them as well as I can. For some time to come, the farmer who proposes to feed liberally, 258 TALKS ON MANTJKES. will have to raise his own stock. He can rarely buy well-bred ani- mals to fatten. A good farmer must be a good farmer throughout. He can not be good in spots. His land must be drained, well- worked, and free from weeds. If he crops heavily he must manure heavily, and to do this he must feed liberally — and he can not afford to feed liberally unless he has good stock. " I have, myself, no doubt but you are right on this point," said the Doctor, " but all this takes time. Suppose a farmer becomes satisfied that the manure he makes is not rich enough. To tell him, when he is anxious to raise a good crop of potatoes next year, that he must go to work and improve his stock of cattle, sheep, and swine, and then buy bran and oil-cake to make richer manure, is somewhat tantalizing." This is true, and in such a case, instead of adding nitrogen and phosphoric acid to his manure in the shape of bran, oil-cake, etc., he can buy nitrogen and phosphoric acid in guano or in nitrate of soda and superphosphate. This gives him richer manure ; which is precisely what he wants for his potatoes. His poor manure is not so much deficient in potash as in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and consequently it is nitrogen and phosphoric acid that he will probably need to make his soil capable of producing a large crop of potatoes. I have seen Peruvian guano extensively used on potatoes, and almost always with good effect. My first experience with it in this country, was in 1852. Four acres of potatoes were planted on a two-year-old clover-sod, plowed in the spring. On two acres, Peruvian guano was sown broadcast at the rate of 300 Ibs. per acre and harrowed in. The potatoes were planted May 10. On the other two acres no manure of any kind was used, though treated exactly alike in every other respect. The result was as follows : No manure 119 bushels per acre. 300 Ibs. Peruvian guano 205 " The guano cost, here, about 3 cents a lb., and consequently nine dollars' worth of guano gave 84 bushels of potatoes. The potatoes were all sound and good, but where the guano was used, they were larger, with scarcely a small one amongst them. In 1857, 1 made the following experiments on potatoes, in the same field on which the preceding experiment was made in 1852. In this case, as before, the land was a two-year-old clover-sod. It was plowed about the first of May, and harrowed until it was in a good mellow condition. The potatoes were planted in hills 3i MANTJEES FOE POTATOES. 259 feet apart each way. The following table shows the manures used and the yield of potatoes per acre. EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES AT MORETON FAEM. 1 i! Is s; v DESCRIPTION OF MANURES USED, AND QUANTITIES 1* , -jS 0s APPLIED PER ACRE. °i.§ ° ^^ 1 Is 1|| Is g* 111 1 No manure . 95 2 140 45 3 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime 132 37 4. 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia, and 300 Ibs. superphos- phate of lime 179 84 5 40J lb« of unleached wood-ashes. 100 5 6. 7 100 Ibs. plaster, (gypsum, or sulphate of lime,) 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes and 100 Ibs. plaster 101 110 6 15 8. 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes, 150 Ibs. sulphate of am- monia and 100 Ibs. plaster 109 14 9. 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime, 150 Ibs. sulphate of am- monia and 400 Ibs. unleacbed wood-ashes 138 43 The superphosphate of lime was made expressly for experimen- tal purposes, from calcined bones, ground fine, and mixed with sulphuric acid in the proper proportions to convert all the phos- phate of lime of the bones into the soluble superphosphate. It was a purely mineral article, free from ammonia and other organic matter. It cost about two and a half cents per pound. The manures were deposited in the hill, covered with an inch or two of soil, and the seed then planted on the top. Where super- phosphate of lime or sulphate of ammonia was used in conjunction with ashes, the ashes were first deposited in the hill and covered with a little soil, and then the superphosphate or sulphate of am- monia placed on the top and covered with soil before the seed was planted. Notwithstanding this precaution, the rain washed the sulphate of ammonia into the ashes, and decomposition, with loss of ammonia, was the result. This will account for the less yield on plot 8 than on plot 2. It would have been better to have sown the ashes broadcast, but some previous experiments with Peruvian guano on potatoes indicated that it was best to apply guano in the hill, carefully covering it with soil to prevent it injuring the seed, than to sow it broadcast. It was for this reason, and for the greater convenience in sowing, that the manures were applied in the hill. The ash of potatoes consists of about 50 per cent of potash, and this fact has induced many writers to recommend ashes us a manure for this crop. It will be seen, however, that in this instance, at 260 TALKS ON MANURES. least, they have very little effect, 400 Ibs. giving an increase of only fire bushels per acre. One hundred pounds of plaster per acre gave an increase of six bushels. Plaster and ashes combined, an increase per acre of 15 bushels. One fact is clearly brought out by thcsa experiments : that this soil, which has been under cultivation without manure for many years, is not, relatively to other constituents of crops, deficient in potash. Had such been the case, the sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate of lime — manures which contain no potash — would not have given an increase of 84 bushels of potatoes per acre. There was sufficient potash hi the soil, in an available condition, for 179 bushels of potatoes per acre ; and the reason why the soil without manure produced only 95 bushels per acre, was owing to a deficiency of ammonia and phosphates. Since these experiments were made, Dr. Voelcker and others have made similar ones in England. The results on the whole all point in one direction. They show that the manures most valuable for potatoes are thos3 rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and that occasionally potash is also a useful addition. " There is one thing I should like to know," sai,l the Doctor. " Admitting that nitrogen and phosphoric acid and potash are the most important elements of plant-food, how many bushels of po- tatoes should we be likely to get from a judicious application of these manures ? " "There is no way," saicl I, "of getting at this with any degree of certainty. The numerous experiments that have been made in England seem to show that a given quantity of manure will produce a larger increase on poor land than on land in better condition." In England potatoes are rarely if ever planted without manure, and the land selected for this crop, even without manure, would usually be in better condition than the average potato land of this section, and consequently a given amount of manure, applied to potatoes here, would be likely to do more good, up to a certain point, than the same amount would in England. Let us look at some of the experiments that have been made in England : — In the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1873 is a prize essay on " Experiments upon Potatoes, with Potash Salts, on Light Land," by Charles D. Hunter, F. C. S., made on the farm of William Lawson, in Cumberland. Mr. Hun- ter " was charged with the manuring of the farm and the purchas- ing of chemical manures to the annual value of £2,000," or say $10,000. MANURES FOE POTATOES. 261 " Potatoes," says Mr. Hunter, " were largely grown on the farm, and in the absence of a sufficiency of farm-yard manure, potash naturally suggested itself as a necessary constituent of a chemical potato-manure. The soil was light and gravelly, with an open subsoil, and the rainfall from 29 to 38 inches a year." ' The first series of experiments was made in 1867. The follow- ing are some of the results : — £m7ielspcr acre. No manure 221 4 cwt. mineral superphosphate 225 4 cwt. mineral superphosphate and ) 040 4 cwt. of muriate of potash \ 15s tons farm-yard manure 293 " That does not say much for potash nud superphosphate," said the Deacon. " The superphosphate only produced four bushels more than the no manure, and the potash and superphosphate only fifteen bushels more than the superphosphate alone." It may be worth, while mentioning that one of the experimental plots this year was on a head-land, " where the cattle frequently stand for shelter." This plot was dressed with only eight and a half tons of manure, and the crop was over 427 bushels per acre, while a plot alongside, without manure, produced only 163 bushels per acre. " That shows the importance," said the Deacon, " of planting potatoes on rich land, rather than to plant on poor land and try to make it rich by applying manure directly to the crop." The following are some of the results in 1868 : Ihishels per acre. 1. No manure 232 )4 cwt. superphosphate ) 2 " muriate of potash V340 2 " sulphate of ammonia ) 3 . 20 tons farm-yard manure 342 j 4 cwt. superphosphate ( 074. 4- I 4 " muriate of potash J "Here again," said the Doctor, "superphosphate and potash alone give an increase of only forty-two bushels per acre, while on plot 2, where two hundred weight of muriate of potash is substi- tuted by two hundred weight of sulphate of ammonia, the increase is 108 bushels per acre. It certainly looks as though a manure for potatoes, so far as yield is concerned, should be rich in available nitrogen." 262 TALKS ON MANURES. The following are some of the results in 1869 : Bushels per acre. 1 . No manure 176 4 cwt. superphosphate 2. muriate of potash sulphate of ammonia 3. 4 cwt. superphosphate 189 A j 4 cwt. superphosphate ) .*QI (2 " sulphate of ammonia J^ )4 cwt. superphosphate i 2 " muriate of potash [-340 2 " sulphate of ammonia ) superphosphate i ^Q muriate of potash J 4 cwt. "This is a very interesting experiment," said the Doctor. " Superphosphat3 alone gives an increase of thirteen bushels. Superphosphate and potash an increase of seventy-three bushels. The potash, therefore, gives an increase of sixty bushels. Super- phosphate and ammonia give twelve bushels more than superphos- phate alone, and the reason it does not produce a better crop is owing to a deficiency of potash. When this is supplied the am- monia gives an increase (plots 5 and 6) of ninety-one bushels per acre." In 1870 the above experiments were repeated on the same land, •with the same general results. In 1871 some experiments were made on a sharp, gravelly soil, which had been over-cropped, and was in poor condition. The fol- lowing are the results : — Bushels per acre. 9 cwt. superphosphate lhate of am sulphate of ammonia ( 9 cwt. superphosphate. 2. -j 3* " muriate of potash V204 ( 3 " sulphate of ammonia ) 3 . No manure 70 ( 9 cwt. superphosphate ) 4J3i " muriate of potash V205 (3 " sulphate of ammonia ) 5. 20 tons farm-yard manure 197 " On this poor soil," said the Doctor, " the ammonia and super- phosphate gave an increase of 116 bushels per acre ; and 3^ hun- dred weight of muriate of potash an increase, on one plot, cf eighteen bushels, and on the other nineteen bushels per acre." In the same year, 1871, another set of experiments was made on a better and more loamy soil, which had been in grass for several years. In 1369 it was sown for hay, and in 1870 was broken up and sown to oats, and the next spring planted with potatoes. The following are some of the results: MANUBES FOE POTATOES. 263 Bushels per acre. 6i cwt. superphosphate ) 2i " muriate of potash V321 2i " sulphate of ammonia ) 9 ( 6i cwt. superphosphate ( Oqfi ^•}2* " sulphate of ammonia J 3. No manure 252 , ( 6i cwt. superphosphate ) g^ | 2i " muriate of potash J 5. 2£ cwt. sulphate of ammonia 238 6. 15 tons farm-yd,rd manure 305 u It is curious," said the Doctor, " that the plot with sulphate of ammonia alone should produce less than the no-manure plot." " The sulphate of ammonia," said I, " may have injured the seed, or it may have produced too luxuriant a growth of vine." Another series of experiments was made on another portion of the same field in 1871. The "no-manure" plot produced 337 bushels per acre. Manures of various kinds were used, but the largest yield, 351 bushels per acre, was from superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia; fourteen tons barn-yard manure produce 340 bushels per acre; and Mr. Hunter remarks: "It is evident that, when the produce of the unmanured soil reaches nine tons [336 bushels] per acre, there is but little scope for manure of any kind." " I do not see," said the Doctor, " that you have answered my question, but I suppose that, with potatoes at fifty cents a bushel, and wheat at $1.50 per bushel, artificial manures can be more profitably used on potatoes than on wheat, and the same is prob- ably true of oats, barley, corn, etc." I have long been of the opinion that artificial manures ccn be applied to potatoes with more profit than to any other ordinary farm-crop, for the simple reason that, in this country, potatoes, on the average, command relatively high prices. For instance, if average land, without manure, will produce fif- teen bushels of wheat per acre and 100 bushels of potatoes, and a given quantity of manure costing, say $25, will double the crop, we have, in the one case, an increase of : — 15 bushels of wheat at $1.50 $22.50 15 cwt. of straw 3.50 $26.00 Cost of manure 25.00 Profit from u«ing manure $1.00 in the other : — 109 bushels of potatoes at 50 cents £50.00 Cost of manure .. 25.00 Profit from using manure $25.00 264 TALKS ON MANURES. The only question is, whether the same quantity of the right kind of manure is as likely to double the potato crop as to double the wheat crop, when both are raised on average laud. " It is not an easy matter," said the Deacon, " to double the yield of potatoes." "Neither is it," said I, " to double the yield of wheat, but both can be done, provided you start low enough. If your land is clean, and well worked, and dry, and only produces ten bushels of wheat per acre, there is no difficulty in making it produce twenty bushels ; and so of potatoes. If the land be dry and well cultivated, and, barring the bugs, produces without manure 75 bushels per acre, there ought to be no difficulty in making it produce 150 bushels. " But if your land produces, without manure, 150 bushels, it is not always easy to make it produce 300 bushels. Fortunately, or unfortunately, our land is, in most cases, poor enough to stait with, and we ought to be able to use manure on potatoes to great advantage." '" But will not the manure," asked the Deacon," injure the quality of the potatoes ? " I think not. So far as my experiments and experience go, the judicious use of good manure, on dry land, favors the perfect ma- turity of the tubers and the formation of starch. I never manured potatoes so highly as I did last year (1877), and never had potatoes of such high quality. They cook white, dry, and mealy. We made furrows two and a half feet apart, and spread rich, well-rotted manure in the furrows, and planted the potatoes on top of the ma- nure, and covered them with a plow. In our climate, I am inclined to think, it would be better to apply the manure to the land for potatoes the autumn previous. If sod land, spread the manure on the surface, and let it lie exposed all winter. If stubble land, plow it in the fall, and then spread the manure in the fall or win- ter, and plow it under in the spring. WHAT CROPS SHOULD MANURE BE APPLIED TO. 265 CHAPTER XXXII. WHAT CROPS SHOULD MANURE BE APPLIED TO. " It will not do any harm on any crop," said the Deacon, " but on my farm it seems to be most convenient to draw it out in the winter or spring, and plow it under for corn. I do not know any farmer except you who uses it on potatoes." My own rule is to apply manure to those crops which require the most labor per acre. But I am well aware that this rule will have many exceptions. For instance, it will often pay well to use manure on barley, and yet barley requires far less labor than corn or potatoes. People who let out, and those who work farms "on shares" seldom understand this matter clearly. I knew a farmer, who last year let out a field of good land, that had been in corn the previous year, to a man to sow to barley, and afterwards to wheat on "the halves." Another part of the farm was taken .by a man to plant corn and potatoes on similar terms, and another man put in several acres of cabbage, beets, carrots, and onions on halves. It never seemed to occur to either of them that the conditions were un- equal. The expense of digging and harvesting the potato-crop alone was greater than the whole cost of the barley-crop ; while, after the barley was off, the land was plowed once, harrowed, and sowed to wintor wheat ; and nothing more has to be done to it until the next harvest. With the garden crops, the difference is even still more striking. The labor expended on one acre of onions or carrots would put in and harvest a ten-acre field of barley. If the tenant gets pay for his labor, the landlord would get say $5 an acre for his barley land, and $50 for his carrot and onion land. I am pretty sure the tenants did not see the matter in this light, nor the farmer either. Crops which require a large amount of labor can only be grown on very rich land. Our successful market-gardeners, seed-growers, and nurserymen understand this matter. They must get great crops or they cannot pay their labor bill. And the principle is ap- plicable to ordinary farm crops. Some of them require much more labor than others, and should never be grown unless the land is 12 266 TALKS ON MANURES. capable of producing a maximum yield per acre, or a close ap- proximation to it. As a rule, the least-paying crops are those which require the least labor per acre. Farmers are afraid to expend much money for labor. They are wise in this, unless all the con- ditions are favorable. But when they have land in a high state of cultivation — drained, clean, mellow, and rich — it would usually pay them well to grow crops which require the most labor. And it should never be forgotten that, as compared with nearly all other countries, our labor is expensive. No matter how cheap our land may be, we can not afford to waste our labor. It is too costly. If men would work for nothing, and board themselves, there are localities where we could perhaps afford to keep sheep that shear two pounds of wool a year ; or cows that make 75 Ibs. of butter. "We might make a profit out of a wheat crop of 8 bush- els per acre, or a corn-crop of 15 bushels, or a potato-crop o/ 50 bushels. But it cannot be done with labor costing from $1.00 to $1.25 per day. And I do not believe labor will cost much less in our time. The only thing we can do is to employ it to the best ad- vantage. Machinery will help us to some extent, but I can see no real escape from our difficulties in this matter, except to raise larger crops per acre. In ordinary farming, " larger crops per acre " means fewer acres planted or sown with grain. It means more summer fallow, more grass, clover, peas, mustard, coleseed, roots, and other crops that are consumed on the farm. It means more thorough cultiva- tion. It means clean and rich land. It means husbanding the ammonia and nitric acid, which is brought to the soil, as well as that which is developed from the soil, or which the soil attracts from the atmosphere, and using it to grow a crop every second, third, or fourth year, instead of every year. If a piece of land will grow 25 bushels of corn every year, we should aim to so manage it, that it will grow 50 every other year, or 75 every third year, or, if the climate is capable of doing it. of raising 100 bushels per acre every fourth year. Theoretically this can be done, and in one of Mr. Lawes' experi- ments he did it practically in the case of a summer-fallow for wheat, the one crop in two years giving a little more than two crops sown in succession. But on sandy land we should probably lose a portion of the liberated plant-food, unless we grew a crop of some kind every year. And the matter organized in the renovat- ing crop could not be rendered completely available for the next crop. In the end, however, we ought to be able to get it with little or no loss. How best to accomplish this result, is one of the WHAT CROPS SHOULD MANURE BE APPLIED TO. 267 most interesting and important fields for scientific investigation and practical experiment. We know enough, however, to be sure that there is a great advantage in waiting until there is a sufficient ac- cumulation of available plant-food in the soil to produce a large yield, before sowing a crop that requires much labor. If we do not want to wait, we must apply manure. If we have no barn-yard or stable-manure, we must buy artificials. HOW AND WHEN MANURE SHOULD BE APPLIED. This is not a merely theoretical or chemical question. We must take into consideration the cost of application. Also, whether we apply it at a busy or a leisure season. I have seen it recommended, for instance, to spread manure on meadow-land immediately after the hay-crop was removed. Now, I think this may be theoretically very good advice. But, on my farm, it would throw the work right into the midst of wheat and barley harvests ; and I should make the theory bend a little to my convenience. The meadows would have to wait until we had got in the crops — or until harvest operations were stopped by rain. I mention this merely to show the complex character of this question. On my own farm, the most leisure season of the year, except the winter, is immediately after wheat harvest. And, as already stated, it is at this time that John Johnston draws out his manure and spreads it on grass-land intended to be plowed up the following spring for corn. If the manure was free from weed-seeds, many of our best farm- ers, if they had some well-rotted manure like this of John John- ston's, would draw it out and spread it on their fields prepared for winter-wheat. In this case, I should draw out the manure in heaps and then spread it carefully. Then harrow it, and if the harrow pulls the manure into heaps, spread them and harrow again. It is of the greatest importance to spread manure evenly and mix it thor- oughly with the soil. If this work is well done, and the manure is well-rotted, it will not interfere with the drill. And the manure will be near the surface, where the young roots of the wheat can get hold of it. " You must recollect," said the Doctor, " that the roots can only take up the manure when in solution." " It must also be remembered," said I, " that a light rain of, say, only half an inch, pours down on to the manures spread on an acre of land about 14,000 gallons of water, or about 56 tons. If 268 TALKS ON MANUBES. you have put on 8 tons of manure, half an inch of rain would fur- nish a g.illon of water to each pound of manure. It is not difficult to understand, therefore, how manure applied on the surface, or near the surface, can be taken up by the young roots." " That puts the matter in a new light to me," said the Deacon. " If the manure was plowed under, five or six inches deep, it would require an abundant rain to reach the manure. And it is not one year in five that we get rain enough to thoroughly soak the soil for several weeks after sowing the wheat in August or September. And when it does come, the season is so far advanced that the wheat plants make little growth." My own opinion is, that on clayey land, manure will act much quicker if applied on, or near the surface, than if plowed under. Clay mixed with manure arrests or checks decomposition. Sand has no such effect. If anything, it favors a more active decompo- sition, and hence, manure acts much mere rapidly on sandy land than on clay land. And I think, as a rule, where a farmer advocates the application of manure on the surface, it will be found that he occupies clay land or a heavy loam ; while those who oppose the practice, and think manure should be plowed under, occupy sandy land or sandy loam. " J. J. Thomas," said I, " once gave me a new idea." " Is that anything strange," remarked the Deacon. " Arc ideas so scarce among you agricultural writers, that you can recollect who first suggested them ? " "Be that as it may," said I, "this idea has had a decided influ- ence on my farm practice. I will not say that the idea originated with Mr. Thomas, but at any rate, it was new to me. I hail always been in the habit, when spading in manure in the garden, of putting the manure in the trench and covering it up ; and in plowing it in, I thought it was desirable to put it at the bottom of the furrow where the next furrow would cover it up." " Well," said the Deacon, " and what objection is there to tho practice?" " I am not objecting to the practice. I do not say that it is not a good plan. It may often be the only practicable method of apply- ing manure. But it is well to know that there is sometimes a better plan. The idea that Mr. Thomas gave me, was, that it was very desirable to break up the manure fine, spread it evenly, and thor- oughly mix it with the soil. " After the manure is spread on the soil," said Mr. Thomas, " and before plowing it in, great benefit is derived by thoroughly harrow- ing the top-soil, thus breaking finely both the manure and the soil, WIIAT CHOPS SHOULD MANURE BE APPLIED TO. 2G9 and mixing them well together. Another way for the perfect dif- fusion of the manure among the particles of earth, is, to spread the manure in autumn, so that all the rains of this season may dis- solve the soluble portions and carry them down among the parti- cles, where they are absorbed and retained for the growing crop. "In experiments," continues Mr. Thomas, "when the manure for corn was thus applied in autumn, has afforded a yield of about 70 bushels per acre, when the same amount applied in spring, gave only 50 bushels. A thin coating of manure applied to winter- wheat at the time of sowing, and was harrowed in, has increased the crop from 7 to 10 bushels per acre — and in addition to this, by the stronger growth it has caused, as well as by the protection it has afforded to the surface, it has not unfrequently saved the crop from partial or total winter-killing. " In cases where it is necessary to apply coarse manures at once, much may be done in lessening the evils of coarseness by artificially grinding it into the soil. The instrument called the drag-roller — which is like the common roller set stiff so as not to revolve — has been used to great advantage for this purpose, by passing it over the surface in connection with the harrow. We have known this treatment to effect a thorough intermixture, and to more than double the crop obtained by common management with common manure." TOP-DRESSING WITH MANURE. The term " top-dressing " usually refers to sowing or spreading manures on the growing crop. For instance, we top-dress pastures or meadows by spreading manure on the surface. If we sow ni- trate of soda, or guano, on our winter-wheat in the spring, that would be top-dressing. We often sow gypsum on clover, and on barley, and peas, while the plants are growing in the spring, and this is top-dressing. " If the gypsum was sown broadcast on the land before sowing the seed," said the Deacon, " would not that be top-dressing also ? " Strictly speaking, I suppose that would not be top-dressing. Top-dressing in the sense in which I understand the term, is seldom ad opted, except on meadows and pastures as a regular sys- tem. It is an after-thought. We have sown wheat on a poor, sandy knoll, and we draw out some manure and spread on it in tho winter or early spring; or we top-dress it with hen-manure, or guano, or nitrate of soda and superphosphate. I do not say that this is better than to apply the manure at the time of sowing tho 270 TALKS OX MAXUKES. wheat, but if we neglect to do so, then top-dressing is a commend- able practice. Dr. Vcelcker reports the result of some experiments in top-dress- ing winter-wheat on the farm, of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, England. The manures were finuly sifted and mixed with about ten times their weight of fine soil, and sown broadcast on the growing wheat, March 22. A fine rain occurred the follow- ing day, and washed the manure into the soil. The following is the yield per acre : — No manure 27 bushels and 1984 Ibs. of straw. 281) Ibs. Peruvian gmuo 40 " 195 " nitrate of soda 38 " 180 " nitrate of soda, and 168 Ibs. of common salt 448 Ibs. Proctor's wheat-manure ...... 89 i 673 " " " « ...... 4-H 4 tons chalk-marl ...... . . 27 2576 2095 2736 9688 3032 1872 « The manures in each case cost $7.80 per acre, except the large dose of Proctor's wheat-manure, which cost $11.70 per acre. The wheat was worth $1.26 per bushel. Leaving the value of the straw out of the question, the profit from the use of the top dressing was : With guano $8.70 per acre. ' nitrate of soda 6.00 " nitrate of soda and common salt 9.33 " 448 Ibs. wheat-manure 7.94 " 672 " " " 10.10 The marl did no good. The nitrate of soda and common salt contained no phosphoric acid, and yet produced an excellent effect. The guano and the wheat-manure contained phosphoric acid as well as nitrogen, and the following crop of clover would be likely to get some benefit from it. John Johnston wrote in 1868, " I have used manure only as a top-dressing for the last 26 years, and I do think one load, used in that way, is worth far more than two loads plowed under on our stiff land." MANURES ON PERMANENT MEADOWS. 271 CHAPTER XXXIII. MANURES ON PERMANENT MEADOWS AND PASTURES. In this country, where labor is comparatively high, and hay often commands a good price, a good, permanent meadow fre- quently affords as much real profit as any other portion of the farm. Now that we have good mowing-machines, tedders, rakes, and loading and unloading apparatus, the labor of hay-making is greatly lessened. The only difficulty is to keep up and increase the annual growth of good grass, Numerous experiments on top-dressing meadows are reported from year to year. The results, of course, differ considerably, being influenced by the soil and season. The profit of the practice de- pends very much on the price of hay. In the Eastern States, hay generally commands a higher relative price than grain, and it not unfrequently happens that we can use manure on grass to decided advantage. The celebrated experiments of Messrs. Lawes & Gilbert with "Manures on Permanent Meadow-land" were commenced in 1856, and have been continued on the same plots every year since that time. " You need not be afraid, Deacon," said I, as the old gentleman commenced to button up his coat, " I am not going into the details of these wonderful experiments ; but I am sure you will be inter- ested in the results of the first six or seven years. The following table explains itself: 272 « H gS H 4 _a "I TALKS ON MANURES. cj eo •<*" o o t- oo o o i~i -., r-lfft CO^f JOO t- 00 Oi O Ti C* CO •>? MANURES ON PERMANENT MEADOWS. 273 These are all the figures I will trouble you with. The " mixed mineral manures " consisted of superphosphate of lime (composed of 150 Ibs. bone-ash and 150 Ibs. sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.7),3001bs. sulphate of potash, 200 Ibs. sulphate of soda, and 100 Ibs. sulphate of magnesia. The ammonia-salts consisted of equal parts sulphate and muriate of ammonia, containing about 25 per cent, of ammo- nia. The manures were sown as early as possible in the spring, and, if the weather was suitable, sometimes in February. The farmyard-manure was spread on the land, hi the first year, in the spring, afterwards in November or December. The hay was cut from the middle to the last of June ; and the aftermath was pas- tured off by sheep in October. " It is curious," said the Deacon, " that 400 Ibs. of ammonia-salts should give as great an increase in the yield of hay the first year as 14 tons of farmyard-manure, but the second year the farmyard- manure comes out decidedly ahead." " The farmyard-manure," said I, " was applied every year, at the rate of 14 gross tons per acre, for eight years— 1855 to 1863. After 1863, this plot was left without manure of any kind. The average yield of this plo*, during the first 8 years was 4,800 Ibs. of hay per acre. On the plot dresssd with 14 tons of farn^ard-manure and 200 Ibs. ammonia-salts, the average yield of hay for 8 years was 5,544 Ibs. per acre. After the eighth year the farmyard-manure was dis- continued, and during the next twelve years the yield of hay averaged 3,683 Ibs., or 1,149 Ibs. more than the continuously unma- nured plot. In 1859, superphosphate of lime was used alone on plot 3, and has been continued ever since. It seems clear that this land, which had been in pasture or meadow for a hundred years or more, was not deficient in phosphates. . " It does not seem," said the Deacon, " to have been deficient in anything. The twentieth crop, on the continuously unmanured plot was nearly 1£ ton per acre, the first cutting, and nearly f-ton the second cutting. And apparently the land was just as rich in 1875, as it was in 1856, and yet over 25 tons of hay had been cut and removed from the land, without any manure being returned. And yet we are told that hay is a very exhausting crop." " Superphosphate alone," said the Doctor, " did very little to increase the yield of hay, but superphosphate and ammonia pro- duced the first year, 1859, over a ton more hay per acre than the superphosphate alone, and when potash is added to the manure, the yield is still further increased." 274 TALUS ON MANURES. "Answer me one question," said the Deacon, " and let us leave the subject. In the light of these and other experiments, what do you consider the cheapest and best manure to apply to a perma- nent meadow or pasture?" " Rich, well-decomposed farmyard or stable manure," said I, "and if it is not rich, apply 200 Ibs. of nitrate of soda per acre, in addition. This will make it rich. Poor manure, made from straw, corn-stalks, hay, etc., is poor in nitrogen, and comparatively rich in potash. The nitrate of soda will supply the deficiency of ni- trogen. On the sea-shore fish-scrap is a cheaper source of nitrogen, and may be used instead of the nitrate of soda." CHAPTEH XXXIV. MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. MANURES FOR HOPS. " For hops," said the Doctor, "there is nothing better than rich, well-decomposed farmyard-manure — such manure as you are now making from your pigs that are bedded with stable-manure. " " That is so," said I, " and the better you feed your horses and pigs, the better will the manure be for hops. In England, Mr. Paine, of Surrey, made a series of experiments with different ma- nures for hops, and, as the result of four years trial, reported that rape-cake, singly, or in combination, invariably proved the best manure for hops. In this country, cotton-seed, or cotton-seed- cake, would be a good substitute for the rape-cake. Whatever ma- nure is used should be used liberally. Hops require a large amount of labor per acre, and it is, therefore, specially desirable to obtain a large yield per acre. This can be accomplished only by the most lavish expenditure of manure. And all experience seems to show that it must be manure rich in nitrogen. In the hop districts of England, 25 tons of rich farmyard-manure are applied per acre ; and in addition to this, soot and rags, both rich in nitrogen, have long been popular auxiliaries. The value of soot is due to the fact that it contains from 12 to 15 per cent of sulphate of am- monia, and the fact that it has been so long used with success as a manure for hops, seems to prove that sulphate of ammonia, which MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 275 can now bo readily obtained, could be used to advantage by our hop-growers — say at the rate, in addition to farm-yard manure, of 500 Ibs. per acre, sown broadcast early in the spring. MANURES FOR TOBACCO. When tobacco is grown for wrappers, it is desirable to get a largo, strong leaf. The richest land is selected for the crop, and large quantities of the richest and most stimulating manures are used. Like cabbages, this crop requires a large amount of plant-food per acre ; and, like them, it can only be grown by constant and high manuring. More manure must be used than the plants can take up out of the soil, and hence it is, that land which has been used for growing tobacco for some years, will be in high condition for other crops without further manuring. Farm-yard or stable-manure, must be the mainstay of the tobac- co-planter. With this, he can use artificial fertilizers to advantage — such as fish-scrap, woollen-rags, Peruvian guano, dried blood, slaughter-house offal, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, etc. For choice, high-flavored smoking-tobacco, the grower aims to get quality rather than quantity. This seems to depend more on the land and the climate than on the manures used. Superphos- phate of lime would be likely to prove advantageous in favor- ing the early growth and maturity of the crop. And in raising tobacco-plants in the seed-bed, I should expect good results from the use of superphosphate, raked into the soil at the rate of three or four Ibs. per square rod. MANURES FOR INDIAN CORN. We know less about the manurial requirements of Indian corn, than of almost any other crop we cultivate. We know that wheat, barley, oats, and grasses, require for their maximum growth a lib- eral supply of available nitrogen in the soil. And such facts and experiments as we have, seem to indicate that the same is also true of Indian corn. It is, at any rate, reasonable to suppose that, as Indian corn belongs to the same botanical order as wheat, barley, oats, rye, timothy, and other grasses, the general manurial require- ments would be the same. Such, I presume, is the case ; and yet there seem to be some facts that would incline us to place Indian corn with the leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, and beans, rather than with the cereals, wheat, barley, oats, etc. " Why so," asked the Deacon, " Indian corn does not have much in common with beans, peas, and clover? " 276 TALKS ON MANUEES. As we have shown, clover can get more nitrogen out of the soil, than wheat, barley, and oats. And the same is true of beans and peas, though probably not to so great an extent. Now, it would seem that Indian corn can get more nitrogen out of a soil, than wheat, barley, or oats — and to this extent, at least, we may consider Indian corn as a renovating crop. In other words, the Indian corn can get more nitrogen out of the soil, than wheat, barley, and oats — and when we feed out the corn and stalks on the farm, we have more food and more manure than if we raised and fed out a crop of oats, barley, or wheat. If this idea is correct, then Indian corn, when consumed on the farm, should not be classed with what the English farmers term " white crops," but rather with the " green crops." In other words, In Man corn is what old writers used to call a " fallow crop " — or what we call a renovating crop. If this is so, then the growth and consumption of Indian corn on the farm, as is the case with clover, should leave the farm richer for wheat, rather than poorer. I do not mean richer absolutely, but richer so far as the available supply of plant-food is concerned. " It may be that you are right," said the Doctor, " when corn is grown for fodder, but not when grown for the grain. It is the for- mation of the seed which exhausts the soil." If I could -be sure that it was true of corn-fodder, I should have little doubt that it is true also of corn as ordinarily grown for grain and stalks. For, I think, it is clear that the grain is formed at the expense of the stalks, and not directly from the soil. The corn-fodder will take from the soil as much nitrogen and phos- phoric acid as the crop of corn, and the more it will take, the more it approximates in character to clover and other renovating crops. If corn-fodder is a renovating crop, so is the ordinary corn-crop, also, provided it is consumed on the farm. " But what makes you think," said the Deacon, " that corn can get more nitrogen from the soil, than wheat ? " " That is the real point, Deacon," said I, " and I will ask you this question. Suppose you had a field of wheat seeded down to clover, and the clover failed. After harvest, you plow up half of the field and sow it to wheat again, the other half of the field you plow in the spring, and plant with Indian corn. Now, suppose you get 15 bushels of wheat to the acre, how much corn do you think you would be likely to get ? " " Well, that depends," said the Deacon, "but I should expect at least 30 bushels of shelled corn per acre." " Exactly, and I think most farmers would tell you tho same : MANURES FOB SPECIAL CROPS. 277 you get twice as much corn and stalks to the acre as you would of wheat and straw. In other words, while the wheat cannot find more nitrogen than is necessary to produce 15 bushels of wheat and straw, the corn can find, and does find, take up, and organize, at least twice as much nitrogen as the wheat." If these are facts, then the remarks we have made in regard to the value of clover as a fertilizing crop, are applicable in some de- gree to Indian corn. To grow clover and sell it, will in the end impoverish the soil ; to grow clover and feed it out, will enrich the land. And the same will be true of Indian corn. It will gather up nitrogen that the wheat-crop can not appropriate ; and when the corn and stalks are fed out, some 90 per cent of the nitrogen will be left in the manure. " You do not think, then," said the Doctor, " that nitrogen is such an important element in manure for corn, as it is in a manure for wheat." I have not said that. If we want a large crop of corn, we shall usually need a liberal supply of available nitrogen. But this is because a larger crop of corn means a much larger produce per acre, than a large crop of wheat. Forty bushels of wheat per acre is an unusually large crop with us ; but 80 bushels of shelled corn can be grown in a favorable season, and on rich, well-cultivated land. As the Deacon has said, 30 bushels of corn per acre can be grown as easily as 15 bushels of wheat ; and it is quite probable, in many cases, that a manure containing no nitrogen, might give us a crop of 35 or 40 bushels per acre. In other words, up to a cer- tain point, manures containing mineral, or carbonaceous matter, might frequently, in ordinary agriculture, increase the yield of In- dian corn ; while on similar land, such manures would have little effect on wheat. " That is so," said the Deacon, " we all know that plaster fre- quently increases the growth of corn, while it seldom does much good on wheat." But, after you have got as large a crop as the land will produce, aided by plaster, ashes, and superphosphate, say 40 bushels of shelled corn per acre, then if you want to raise 70 bushels per acre, you must furnish the soil with manures containing sufficient avail- able nitrogen. Some years ago, I made some careful experiments with artificial manures on Indian corn. " Oh, yes," said the Deacon, " they were made on the south lot, 278 TALKS OX MANURES. in front of my house, and I recollect that the N. Y. State Ag. Society awarded you a prize of $75 for them." " And I recollect," said I, " how you and some other neighbors laughed at me for spending so much time in measuring the land and applying the manures, and measuring the crop. But I wish I could have afforded to continue them. A single experiment, how- ever carefully made, can not be depended on. However, I will give the results for what they are worth, with some remarks made at the time : " The soil on which the experiments were made, is a light, sandy loam. It has been under cultivation for upwards of twenty years, and so far as I can ascertain has never been manured. It has been somewhat impoverished by the growth of cereal crops, and it was thought that for this reason, and on account of its light texture and nctive character, which would cause the manures to act imme- diately, it was well adapted for the purpose of showing the effect of different manurial substances on the corn-crop. " The land was clover-sod, two years old, pastured the previous summer. It was plowed early in the spring, and harrowed until in excellent condition. The corn was planted May 23, in hills 3£ feet apart each way. " The manures were applied in the hill immediately before the seed was planted. " With superphosphate of lime, and. with plaster (gypsum, or sulphate of lime), the seed was placed, directly on top of the ma- nure, as it is well known that these manures do not injure the germinating principle of even the smallest seeds. ** The ashes were dropped in the hill, and then covered with soil, and the seed planted on the top, so that it should not come in con- tact witli the ashes. " Guano and sulphate of ammonia were treated in the same way. "On the plots where ashes and guano, or ashes and sulphate of ammonia were both used, the ashes were first put in the hill, and covered with soil, and the guano or sulphate of ammonia placed on the top, and also covered with soil before the seed was planted. The ashes and superphosphate of lime was also treated in the same way. It is well known that unleached ashes, mixed either with guano, sulphate of ammonia, or superphosphate, mutually decom- pose each other, setting free the ammonia of the guano and sul- phate of ammonia, and converting the soluble phosphate of the superphosphate of lime into the insoluble form in which it existed before treatment with sulphuric acid. All the plots were planted on the same day, and the manures weighed and applied under my MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 279 own immediate supervision. Everything was done that was deemed necessary to secure accuracy. "The following table gives the results of the experiments: TABLE SHOWING THE RESfLTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON INDIAN CORN. £ !l li lg §i |i 4 'S. DESCRIPTIONS OF MANURES AND si «5» i» fca • ^s> i S 1 QUANTITIES APPLIED PER ACRE. ^£ o-a, ^b| ^§ 8* II <^- ll || !?l It 1?' -^ £ PQ ^ II si |- II SI 1 No manure 60 7 67 2. 100 Ibs. plaster (gypsum or sulphate of lime) 70 8 78 10 4 * < 3. 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes and 100 Ibs. plaster (mixed) 68 10 78 8 3 .j .j 4 150 Ibs sulphate of ammonia 90 15 105 °0 8 38 r» 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime 70 8 78 10 11 0. 7. 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia and 300 Ibs superphosphate of lime (mixed) 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes, (un- 85 5 SO £5 23 certain) 60 12 72 5 5 8. 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia and 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes (sown separately) 87 10 &7 f}1? 3 SO 9. 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime, 150 Ibs. sulph. ammonia, and 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes 100 8 108 40 1 41 10. 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes 60 8 68 1 1 11. 100 Ibs. plaster, 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes, 300 Ibs. superphos- phate of lime, and 200 Ibs. Peruvian guano 95 10 105 35 3 38 12 75 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia 78 10 88 18 3 21 18 200 Ibs Peruvian guano 88 13 101 28 34 14. 400 Ibs. unleached wood-ashes, 100 Ibs. plaster, and 500 Ibs. Peruvian guano 111 14 125 51 7 58 " The superphosphate of lime was made on purpose for these experiments, and was a pure mineral manure of superior quality, made from calcined bones ; it cost about 2^ cents per pound. The sulphate of ammonia was a good, commercial article, obtained from London, at a cost of about seven cents per pound. The ashes were made from beech and hard maple (Acer saccharinum} wood, and were sifted through a fine sieve before being weighed. The guano was the best Peruvian, costing about three cents per pound. It was crushed and sifted before using. In sowing the ashes on plot 7, ah error occurred in their application, and for the purpose of checking the result, it was deemed advisable to repeat the experiment on plot 10. " On plot 5, with 300 Ibs. of superphosphate of lime per acre, the plants canie up first, and exhibted a healthy, dark-green appear- 280 TALKS ON MANURES. ance, which they retained for some time. This result was not an- ticipated, though it is well known that superphosphate of lime has the effect of stimulating the germination of turnip-seed, and tho early growth of the plants to an astonishing degree; yet, as it has no such effect on wheat, it appeared probable that it would not produce this effect on Indian corn, which, in chemical composition, is very similar to wheat. The result shows how uncertain are all speculations in regard to the manurial requirements of plants. This immediate effect of superphosphate of lime on corn was so marked, that the men (who were, at the time of planting, somewhat inclined to be skeptical, in regard to the value of such small doses of manure), declared that * superphosphate beats all creation for corn.' The difference in favor of superphosphate, at the time of hoeing, was very perceptible, even at some distance. " Although every precaution was taken that was deemed ne- cessary, to prevent the manures from mixing in the hill, or from injuring the seed, yet, it was found, that those plots dressed with ashes and guano, or with ashes and sulphate of ammonia, were in- jured to some extent. Shortly after the corn was planted, heavy rain set in, and washed the sulphate of ammonia and guano, down into the ashes, and mutual decomposition took place, with more or less loss of ammonia. In addition to this loss of ammonia, these manures came up to the surface of the ground in the form of an excrescence, so hard that the plants could with difficulty penetrate through it. "It will be seen, by examining the table, that although the su- perphosphate of lime had a good effect during the eaily stages of the growth of the plants, yet the increase of ears of corn in the end did not come up to these early indications. On plot 5, with 300 Ibs. of superphosphate of lime per acre, the yield is precisely the same as on plot 2, with 100 Ibs. of plaster {sulphate of limc\ per acre. Now, superphosphate of lime is composed necessarily of soluble phosphate of lime and plaster, or sulphate of lime, formed from a combination of the sulphuric acid, employed in the manufacture of superphosphate, with the lime of the bones. In the 300 Ibs. of superphosphate of lime, sown on plot 5, there would be about 100 Ibs. of plaster; and as the effect of this dressing is no greater than was obtained from the 100 Ibs. of plaster, sown on plot 2, it fol- lows, that the good effect of the superphosphate of lime was due to the plaster that it contained. " Again, on plot 4, with 150 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia por acre, we have 90 bushels of ears of sound corn, and 15 bushels of ears of soft corn, ('nubbins,') per acre ; or a total increase over the MANURES FOE SPECIAL CHOPS. 281 plot without manure, of 38 bushels. Now, the sulphate of ammo- nia contains no phosphate of liine, and the fact that such a manure gives a considerable increase of crop, confirms the conclusion we have arrived at, from a comparison of the results on plots 2 and 5 ; that the increase from the superphosphate of lime, is not due to the phosphate of lime which it contains, unless we are to conclude that the sulphate of ammonia rendered the phosphate of lime in the soil more readily soluble, and thus furnished an increased quantity in an available form for assimilation by the plants — a conclusion, which the results with superphosphate alone, on. plot 5, and with superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia, com- bined, on plot 6, do not sustain. " On plot 12, half the quantity of sulphate of ammonia, was used as on plot 4, and the increase is a little more than half what it is where double the quantity was used. Again, on plot 13, 200 Ibs. of Peruvian guano per acre, gives nearly as great an increase of sound corn, as the 150 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia. Now, 200 Ibs. of Peruvian guano contains nearly as much ammonia as 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia, and the increase in both cases is evidently due to the ammonia of these manures. The 200 Ibs. of Peruvian guano, contained about 50 Ibs. of phosphate of lime ; but as the sul- phate of ammonia, which contains no phosphate of lime, gives as great an increase as the guano, it follows, that the phosphate of lime in the guano, had little, if any effect ; a result precisely simi- lar to that obtained with superphosphate of lime. " We may conclude, therefore, that on this soil, which has never been manured, and which has been cultivated for many years with the Ceralia—-or, in other words, with crops which remove a large quantity of phosphate of lirne from the soil — the phosphate of lime, relatively to the ammonia, is not deficient. If such was not the case, an application of soluble phosphate of lime would have given an increase of crop, which we have shown was not the case in any one of these experiments. " Plot 10, with 400 Ibs. of unleacheil wood-ashes per acre, pro- duces the same quantity of sound corn, with an extra bushel of 'nubbins' per acre, as plot 1, without any manure at all; ashes, therefore, applied alone, may be said to have had no effect what- ever. On plot 3, 400 Ibs. of ashes, and 100 Ibs. of plaster, give the same total number of bushels per acre, as plot 2, with 100 Ibs. of plaster alone. Plot 8, with 400 Ibs. ashes, and 150 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia, yields three bushels of sound corn, and five bushels of 'nubbins' per acre, less than plot 4, with 150 Ibs. sulphate of 282 TALKS ON MANURES. ammonia alone. This result may be ascribed to the fact previously alluded to— the ashes dissipated some of the ammonia. "Plot 11, with 100 Ibs. of plaster, 400 Ibs. ashes, 300 Ibs. of super- phosphate of lime, and 200 Ibs. Peruvian guano (which contains about as much ammonia as 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia), pro- duced precisely the same number of total bushels per acre, as plot 4, with 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia alone, and but 4 bushels more per acre, than plot 13, with 200 Ibs. Peruvian guano alone. It is evident, from these results, that neither ashes nor phosphates had much effect on Indian corn, on this impoverished soil. Plot 14 re- ceived the largest dressing of ammonia (500 Ibs. Peruvian guano), and produced much the largest crop ; though the increase is not so great in proportion to the guano, as where smaller quantities were used. " The manure which produced the most profitable result, was the 100 Ibs. of plaster, on plot 2. The 200 Ibs. of Peruvian guano, on plot 13, and which cost about $6, gave an increase of 14 bushels of shelled corn, and 6 bushels of 'nubbins.' This will pay at the present price of corn in Rochester, although the profit is not very great. The superphosphate of lime, although a very superior article, and estimated at cost price, in no case paid for itself. The same is true of the ashes. "But the object of the experiment was not so much to ascertain what manures will pay, but to ascertain, if possible, what constitu- ents of manures are required, in greatest quantity, for the maxi- mum growth of corn. * * Hitherto, no experiments have been made in this country, on Indian corn, that afforded any certain in- formation on this point. Indeed, we believe no satisfactory experi- ments have been made on Indian corn, in any country, that throw any definite light on this interesting and important question. A few years ago, Mr. Lawes made similar experiments to those given above, on his farm, at Rothamsted, England ; but owing to the coolness of the English climate, the crop did not arrive at maturity. " Numerous experiments have been made in this country, with guano and superphosphate of lime ; but the superphosphates used were commercial articles, containing more or less ammonia, and if they arc of any benefit to those crops to which they are applied, it is a matter of uncertainty whether the beneficial effect of the appli- cation is due to the soluble phosphate of lime, or to the ammonia. On the other hand, guano contains both ammonia and phosphate ; and we are equally at a loss to determine, whether the effect is at- tributable to the ammonia or phosphate, or both. In order, there- fore, to determine satisfactorily, which of the several ingredients MANURES FOR SPECIAL CHOPS. 283 of plants is required in greatest proportion, for the maximum growth of any particular crop, we must apply these ingredients sep- arately, or in such definite compounds, as will enable us to deter- mine to what particular element or compounds the beneficial effect is to be ascribed. It was for this reason, that sulphate of ammo- nia, and a purely mineral superphosphate of lime, were used in the above experiments. No one would think of using sulphate of ammonia at its price, [sulphate of ammonia is now cheaper, while Peruvian guano is more costly and less rich in ammonia], as an ordinary manure, for the reason, that the same quantity of ammo- nia can be obtained in other substances, such as barnyard-manure, Peruvian guano, etc., at a much cheaper rate. But these manures contain all the elements of plants, and we can not know whether the effect produced by them is due to the ammonia, phosphates, or any other ingredients. For the purpose of experiment, therefore, we must use a manure that furnishes ammonia without any ad- mixture of phosphates, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, etc., even though it cost much more than we could obtain the same amount of ammonia in other manures. I make these remarks in order to correct a very common opinion, that if experiments do not pay, they are useless. The ultimate object, indeed, is to ascertain the most profitable method of manuring ; but the means of obtaining this information, can not in all cases be profitable. " Similar experiments to those made on Indian corn, were made on soil of a similar character, on about an acre of Chinese sugar- cane. I do not propose to give the results in detail, at this time, and allude to them merely to mention one very important fact, the superphosphate of lime had a very marked effect. This manure was applied in the hill on one plot (the twentieth of an acre,) at the rate of 400 Ibs. per acre, and the plants on this plot came up first, and outgrew all the others from the start, and ultimately attained tho height of about ten feet ; while on the plot receiving no ma- nure, the plants were not five feet high. This is a result entirely different from what I should have expected. It has been supposed, from the fact that superphosphate of lime had no effect on wheat, that it would probably have little effect on corn, or on the sugar- cane, or other ceralia ; and that, as ammonia is so beneficial for wheat, it would probably be beneficial for corn and sugar-cane. The above experiments indicate that such is the case, in regard to Indian corn, so far as the production of grain is concerned, though, as we have stated, it is not true in reference to the early growth of the plants. The superphosphate of lime on Indian corn, stimulated the growth of the plants, in a very decided manner at first, so 284 TALKS ON MANURES. much so, that we were led to suppose, for some time, that it would give the largest crop ; but at harvest, it was found that it produced no more corn than plaster. These results seem to indicate, that superphosphate of lime stimulates the growth of stalks and leaves, and has little effect in increasing the production of seed. In raising Indian corn, for fodder or for soiling purposes, superphosphate of lime may be beneficial, as well as in growing the sorghum for sugar- making purposes, or for foddder — though, perhaps, not for seed." " In addition to the experiments given above, I also made the same season, on an adjoining field, another set of experiments on Indian corn, the results of which are given below. " The land on which these experiments were made, is of a some- what firmer texture than that on which the other set of experi- ments was made. It is situated about a mile from the barn-yard, and on this account, has seldom, if ever been manured. It has been cultivated for many years with ordinary farm crops. It was plowed early in the spring, and it was harrowed until quite mellow. The corn was planted May 30, 1857. Each experiment occupied one-tenth of an acre, consisting of 4 rows 3? feet apart, and the same distance between the hills in the rows, with one row without manure between each experimental plot. " The manure was applied in the hill, in the same manner as in the first set of experiments. "The barnyard-manure was well-rotted, and consisted princi- pally of cow-dung with a little horse-dung. Twenty two-horse wagon loads of this was applied per acre, and each load would probably weigh about one ton. It was put in the hill and covered with soil, and the seed then planted on the top. " The following table gives the results of the experiments : TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON INDIAN CORN, MADE NEAR ROCHESTER, N. T., IN THE TEAR 1857. DESCRIPTIONS OF MANURES, AND QUANTITIES APPLIED PEH ACRE. 1. No manure 2. 20 loads barn-yard manure 3. 150 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia 4. 300 Ibs. superphosphate of lime 5. 400 Ibs. Peruvian guano 6. 400 Ibs. of "Cancerine," or fish man'e MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 285 " As before stated, the land was of a stronger nature than that on which the first set of experiments was made, and it was evi- dently in better condition, as the plot having no manure produced 20 bushels of ears of corn per acre more than the plot without manure in the other field. " On plot 4, 300 Ibs. of superphosphate of lime gives a total in- crease of 11 bushels of ears of corn per acre over the unrnanured plot, agreeing exactly with the increase obtained from the same quantity of the same manure on plot 5, in the first set of experi- ments. " Plot 3, dressed with 150 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia per acre, gives a total increase of 28 bushels of ears of corn per acre, over the unmanured plot ; and an increase of 22| bushels of ears per acre over plot 2, which received 20 loads of good, well-rotted barn- yard-dung per acre. " Plot 5, with 400 Ibs. of Peruvian guano per acre gives the best crop of this series viz : an increase of 33 bushels of corn per acre over the unmanured plot, and 27£ over the plot manured with 20 loads of barnyard-dung. The 400 Ibs. of * Cancerine ' — an arti- ficial manure made in New Jersey from fish — gives a total in- crease of 18 bushels of ears per acre over the unmanured plot, and 12^ bushels more than that manured with barn-yard dung, though 5 bushels of ears of sound corn and 10 bushels of 'nubbins' per acre less than the same quantity of Peruvian guano." MANURES FOR TURNIPS. To raise a large crop of turnips, especially of ruta-bagas, there is nothing better than a liberal application of rich, well-rotted farm- yard-manure, and 250 to 300 Ibs. of good superphosphate of lime per acre, drilled in with the seed. I have seen capital crops of common turnips grown with no other manure except 300 Ibs. of superphosphate per acre, drilled with tlio seed. Superphosphate has a wonderful effect on the de- velopment of the roots of the turnip. And this is the secret of its great value for this crop. It increases the growth of the young plant, developing the formation of the roots, and when the turnip once gets full possession of the soil, it appropriates all the plant- food it can find. A turnip-crop grown with superphosphate, can get from the soil much more nitrogen than a crop of wheat. The turnip-crop, when supplied with superphosphate, is a good "scav- enger." It will gather up and organize into good food the refuse plant-food left in the soil. It is to the surface soil, what clover is to the subsoil. 286 TALKS OX MANUKES. To the market gardener, or to a farmer who manures heavily, common turnips drilled iu with superphosphate will prove a valu- able crop. On such land no other manure will be needed. I can- not too earnestly recommend the use of superphosphate as a ma- nure for turnips. For Swede turnips or ruta-bagas, it will usually be necessary, in order to secure a maximum crop, to use a manure which, in addi- tion to superphosphate, contains available nitrogen. A good dress- ing of rich, well-rotted manure, spread on the land, and plowed under, and then 300 Ibs. of superphosphate drilled in with the seed, would be likely to give a good crop. In the absence of manure, there is probably nothing better for the rutabagas than 300 Ibs. of so-called "rectified" Peruvian guano, that is, guano treated with sulphuric acid, to render the phosphates soluble. Such a guano is guaranteed to contain 10 per cent of ammonia, and 10 per cent of soluble phosphoric acid, and would be a good dressing for Swede turnips. The best way to use guano for turnips is to sow it broadcast on the land, and harrow it in, and then either drill in the turnip-seed en the flat, or on ridges. The latter is decidedly the better plan, provided you have the necessary implements to do the work cxpe- ditiously. A double mould-board plow will ridge up four acres a day, and the guano being previously sown on the surface, will be turned up with the mellow surface-soil into the ridge, where the seed is to be sown. The young plants get hold of it and grow so rapidly as to be soon out of danger from the turnip-beetle. MANURES FOR MANGEL-WURZEL OR SUGAR-BEETS. When sugar-beets are grown for feeding to stock, there is prob- ably little or no difference in the manurial requirements of sugar- beets and mangel-wurzel. Our object is to get as large a growth as possible consistent with quality. " Large roots," said the Deacon, " have been proved to contain less nutriment than small roots." True, but it does not follow from this that rich land, or heavy manuring is the chief cause of this difference. It is much more likely to be due to the variety selected. The seed-growers have been breeding solely for size and shape. They have succeeded to such an extent that 84 gross tons of roots have been grown on an acre. This is equal to over 94 of our tons per acre. " That is an enormous crop," said the Deacon; "and it would require some Jabor to put 10 acres of them in a cellar." "If they were as nutritious as ordinary mangels," said I, " that MANURES FOB SPECIAL CKOPS. 287 would be no argument against them. But such is not the case. In a letter just received from Mr. Lawes, (May, 1878,) he charac- terizes them as ' bladders of water and salts.' " Had the seed-growers bred for quality, the roots would have been of less size, but they would contain more nutriment. What we want is a variety that has been bred with reference to quality ; and when this is secured, we need not fear to make the land rich and otherwise aim to secure great growth and large-sized roots. It certainly is not good economy to select a variety which has been bred for years to produce large-sized roots, and then sow this seed on poor land for the purpose of obtaining small-sized roots. Better take a variety bred for quality, and then make the land rich enough to produce a good crop. We are not likely to err in making the land too rich for mangel- wurzel or for sugar-beets grown for stock. When sugar-beets are grown for sugar, we must aim to use manures favorable for the pro- duction of sugar, or rather to avoid using those which are un- favorable. But where sugar-beets are grown for food, our aim is to get a large amount of nutriment to the acre. And it is by no means clear to my mind that there is much to be gained by select- ing the sugar-beet instead of a good variety of mangel-wurzel. It is not a difficult matter, by selecting the largest roots for seed, and by liberal manuring, and continuously selecting the largest roots, to convert the sugar-beet into a mangel-wurzel. When sugar-beets are grown for food, we may safely manure them as we would mangel-wurzel, and treat the two crops pre- cisely alike. I usually raise from ten to fifteen acres of mangel-wurzel every year. I grow them in rotation with other crops, and not as the Hon. Harris Lewis and some others do, continuously on the same land. We manure liberally, but not extravagantly, and get a fair yield, and the land is left in admirable condition for future crops. I mean by this, not that the land is specially rich, but that it is very clean and mellow. " In 1377," said the Deacon, " you had potatoes on the land where you grew mangels the previous year, and had the best crop in the neighborhood." This is true, but still I do not think it a good rotation. A barley crop seeded with clover would be better, especially if the mangels were heavily manured. The clover would get the manure which had been washed into the subsoil, or left in such a condition that potatoes or grain could not take it up. 288 TALKS ON MANURES. There is one thing in relation to my mangels of 1876 which has escaped the Deacon. The whole piece was manured and well pre- pared, and clibbled in with mangels, the rows being 2£ feet apart, and the seed dropped 15 inches apart in the rows. Owing to poor seed, the mangels failed on about three acres, and we plowed up the land and drilled in corn for fodder, in rows 2| feet apart, and at the rate of over three bushels of seed per acre. We had a 'great crop of corn-fodder. The next year, as I said before, the whole piece was planted with potatoes, and if it was true that mangels are an " enriching crop," while corn is an "exhausting" crop, we ought to have had much better potatoes after the mangels than after corn. This was certainly not the case ; if there was any difference, it was in favor of the corn. But I do not place any confidence in an experiment of this kind, where the crops were not weighed and the results carefully ascertained. Mr. Lawes has made some most thorough experiments with dif- ferent manures on sugar-beets, and in 1876 he commenced a series of experiments with mangel-wurzel. The land is a rather stiff clay loam, similar to that on which the wheat and barley experiments were made. It is better suited to the growth of beets than of turnips. "Why so," asked the Deacon, "I thought that black, bottom land was best for mangels." "Not so, Deacon," said I, "we can, it is true, grow large crops of mangels on well-drained and well-manured swampy or bottom land, but the best soil for mangels, especially in regard to quality, is a good, stiff, well-worked, and well-manured loam." "And yet," said the Deacon, "you had a better crop last year on the lower and blacker portions of the field than on the heavy, clayey land." In one sense, this is true. We had dry weather in the spring, and the mangel seed on the dry, clayey land did not come up us well as on the cooler and moister bottom-land. We had more plants to the acre, but the roots on the clayey land, when they once got fair hold of the soil and the manure, grew larger and bet- ter than on the lighter and moister land. The great point is to get this heavy land into a fine, mellow condition. But to Mr. Lawes' experiments. They are remarkably interest- ing and instructive. But it is not necessary to go into all the de- tails. Suffice it to say that the experiments seem to prove, very conclusively, that beets require a liberal supply of available nitro- MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 289 gen. Thus, -without manure, the yield of beets was about 7£ tons of bulbs per acre. With 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda per acre, the yield was a little over 22 tons per acre. With 14 tons of farmyard-manure, 18 tons per acre. With 14 tons of farmyard manure and 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda, over 27| tons per acre. Superphosphate of lime, sulphates of potash, soda, and magne- sia, and common salt, alone, or with other manures, had compara- tively little effect. Practically, when we want to grow a good crop of beets or man- gels, these experiments prove that what we need is the richest kind of barnyard-manure. If our manure is not rich, then we should use, in addition to the manure, a dressing of nitrate of soda — say 400 or 500 Ibs. per acre. If the land is in pretty good condition, and we have no barn- yard-manure, we may look for a fair crop from a dressing of ni- trate of soda alone. "I see," said the Deacon, " that 550 Ibs. of nitrate of soda alone, gave an increase of 14J- tons per acre. And the following year, oa the same land, it gave an increase of 13| tons ; and the next year, on the same land, over 9 tons." " Yes," said I, " the first three years of the experiments (1871-2-3), 550 Ibs. of nitrate of soda alone, applied every year, gave an average yield of 19J tons of bulbs per acre. During the same three years, the plot dressed with 14 tons of barnyard-manure, gave an average yield of 16£ tons. But now mark. The next year (1874) all the plots were left without any manure, and the plot which had been previously dressed with nitrate of soda, alone, fell off to 3 tons per acre, while the plot which had been previously manured with barnyard-manure, produced 10 J tons per acre." " Good," said the Deacon, " there is nothing like manure." MANURES FOR CABBAGE, PARSNIPS, CARROTS, LETTUCE, ONIONS, ETC. I class these plants together, because, though differing widely in many respects, they have one feature in common. They are all artificial productions. A distinguished amateur horticulturist once said to me, " I do not see why it is I have so much trouble with lettuce. My land is rich, and the lettuce grow well, but do not head. They have a tendency to run up to seed, and soon get tough and bitter." I advised him to raise his own seed from the best plants — and especially to reject all plants that showed any tendency to go pre- 13 290 TALKS ON MANUEES. maturely to seed. Furthermore, I told him I thought if he would sow a little superphosphate of lime with the seed, it would greatly stimulate the early growth of the lettuce. As I have said before, superphosphate, when drilled in. with the seed, has a wonderful effect in developing the root-growth of the young plants of turnips, and I thought it would have the same effect on lettuce, cabbage, cauliflowers, etc. " But," said he, " it is not roots that I want, but heads." " Exactly," said I, " you do not want the plants to follow out their natural disposition and run up to seed. You want to induce them to throw out a great abundance of tender leaves. In other words, you want them to 4 head.' Just as in the turnip, you do not want them to run up to seed, but to produce an unnatural develop- ment of ' bulb.' " Thirty years ago, Dr. Gilbert threw out the suggestion, that while it was evident that turnips required a larger proportion of soluble phosphates in the soil than wheat ; while wheat required a larger proportion of available nitrogen in the soil, than turnips, it was quite probable, if we were growing turnips for seed, that then, turnips would require the same kind of manures as wheat. We want exceedingly rich land for cabbage, especially for an early crop. This is not merely because a large crop of cabbage takes a large amount of plant-food out of the soil, but because the cultivated cabbage is an artificial plant, that requires its food in a concentrated shape. In popular language, the plants have to be " forced." According to the analyses of Dr. Anderson, the outside leaves of cabbage, contain, in round numbers, 91 per cent of water ; and the heart leaves, 941 per cent. In other words, the green leaves con- tain 3£ per cent more dry matter than the heart leaves, Dr. Vcelcker, who analyzed more recently some "cattle-cab- bage," found 89£ per cent of water in the green leaves, and 83| per cent in the heart and inner leaves — thus confirming previous analyses, and showing also that the composition of cabbages varies considerably. Dr. Voelcker found much less water in the cabbage than Dr. Anderson. The specimen analyzed by Dr. V., was grown on the farm of the Royal Ag. College of England, and I infer from some incidental remarks, that the crop was grown on rather poor land. And it is probably true that a large crop of cabbage grown on rich land, con- tains a higher percentage of water than cabbage grown on poorer MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 291 land. On the poor land, the cabbage would not be likely to head so well as on the rich land, and the green leaves of cabbage con- tain more than half as much again real dry substance as the heart leaves. The dry matter of the heart leaves, however, contains more actual nutriment than the dry matter of the green leaves. It would seem very desirable, therefore, whether we are raising cabbage for market or for home consumption, to make the land rich enough to grow good heads. Dr. Voelcker says, " In ordinary seasons, the average produce of Swedes on our poorer fields is about 15 tons per acre. On weighing the produce of an acre of cabbage, grown under similar circumstances, I found that it amounted to 17-J tons per acre. On good, well-manured fields, however, we have had a much larger produce." In a report on the " Cultivation of Cabbage, and its comparative Value for Feeding purposes," by J. M. M'Laren, of Scotland, the yield of Swede turnips, was 29£ tons per acre, and the yield of cab- bage, 47£ tons per acre. " It is very evident," said the Deacon, " that if you grow cabbage you should make the land rich enough to produce a good crop — and I take it that is all you want to show." " I want to show," I replied, " that our market gardeners have reason for applying such apparently excessive dressings of rich manure to the cabbage-crop. They find it safer to put far more manure into the land than the crop can possibly use, rather than run any risk of getting an inferior crop. An important practical question is, whether they can not grow some crop or crops after the cabbage, that can profitably take up the manure left in the soil." Prof. E. Wolff, in the last edition of " Praktische Diingerlehre," gives the composition of cabbage. For the details of which, see Appendix, page 345. From this it appears that 50 tons of cabbage contain 240 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 1,600 Ibs. of ash. Included in the ash is 630 Ibs. of potash; 90 Ibs. of soda; 310 Ibs. of lime; 60 Ibs. of magnesia; 140 Ibs. of phosphoric acid ; 240 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, and 20 Ibs. of silica. Henderson, in " Gardening for Profit," advises the application of 75 tons of stable or barn-yard manure per acre, for early cab- bage. For late cabbage, after peas or early potatoes, he says about 10 tons per acre are used. Brill, in "Farm Gardening and Seed Growing," also makes the same distinction in regard to the quantity of manure used for early 292 TALKS ON MANTJEES. and late cabbage. He speaks of 70 to 80 tons or more, per acre, of well-rotted stable -manure as not an unusual or excessive dressing every year. Now, according to Wolffs table, 75 tons of fresh stable-manure, with straw, contains 820 Ibs. of nitrogen ; 795 Ibs. of potash ; 150 Ibs. soda ; 315 Ibs. of lime ; 210 Ibs. of magnesia; 420 Ibs. of phos- phoric acid ; 105 Ibs. sulphuric acid ; 2,655 Ibs. of silica, and 60 Ibs. of chlorine. u Put the figures side by side," said the Deacon, " so that we can compare them." Here they are : 75 tons Fresh Horse Manure. 50 tons Cabbage. 820 Ibs. 240 Ibs. Potash i(.>:> " 630 Phosphoric acid 4-20 " 140 Soda . 150 " 90 315 " 310 Magnesia 210 " 60 " That is rather an interesting table," said the Doctor. " In the case of lime, the crop takes about all that this heavy dressing of manure supplies — but I suppose the soil is usually capable of fur- nishing a considerable quantity." " That may be so," said the Deacon, " but all the authorities on market gardening speak of the importance of either growing cab- bage on land containing lime, or else of applying lime as a manure. Quinn, who writes like a sensible man, says in h's book, 'Money in the Garden,' ' A top-dressing of lime every third year, thirty or forty bushels per acre, spread broadcast, and harrowed in, just be- fore planting, pays handsomely.' " Henderson thinks cabbage can only be grown successfully on land containing abundance of lime. He has used heavy dressings of lime on land which did not contain shell", and the result was satisfactory for a time, but he found it too expensive. Experience seems to show that to grow large crops of perfect cabbage, the soil must be liberally furnished with manures rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. In saying this, I do not overlook the fact that cabbage require a large quantity of potash. I think, however, that when large quan- tities of stable or barn-yard manure is used, it will rarely be found that the soil lacks potash. What we need to grow a large crop of cabbage, is manure from well-fed animals. Such manure can rarely be purchased. Now, tlie difference between rich manure and ordinary stable or barn- MANUKES FOK SPECIAL CROPS. 293 yard-manure, consists principally in this : The rich manure con- tains more nitrogen and phosphoric acid than the ordinary stable- manure — and it is in a more available condition. To convert common manure into rich manure, therefore, we must add nitrogen and phosphoric acid. In other words, we must use Peruvian guano, or nitrate of soda and superphosphate, or bone- dust, or same other substance that will furnish available nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Or it may well be, where stable-manure can be bought for $1.00 per two-horse load, that it will be cheaper to use it in larger quan- tity rather than to try to make it rich. In this case, however, we must endeavor to follow the cabbage by some crop that has the power of taking up the large quantity of nitrogen and other plant- food that will be left in the soil. The cabbage needs a large supply of nitrogen in the soil, but re- moves comparatively little of it. We see that when 75 tons of manure is used, a crop of 50 tons of cabbage takes out of the soil less than 30 per cent of the nitrogen. And yet, if you plant cab- bage on this land, the next year, without manure, you would get a small crop. " It cannot be for want of nitrogen," said the Deacon. " Yes it can," said I. " The cabbage, especially the early kinds, must have in the soil a much larger quantity of available nitrogen than the plants can use." I do not mean by this that a large crop of cabbage could be raised, year after year, if furnished only with a large supply of avail- able nitrogen. In such a case, the soil would soon lack the necessary inorganic ingredients. But, what I mean, is this : \Hiere land has been heavily manured for some years, we could often raise a good crop of cabbage by a liberal dressing of available nitrogen, and still more frequently, if nitrogen and phosphoric acid were both used. You may use what would be considered an excessive quantity of ordinary stable-manure, and grow a large crop of cabbage ; but still, if you plant cabbage the next year, without manure of any kind, you will get a small crop ; but dress it with a manure con- taining the necessary amount of nitrogen, and you will, so far as the supply of plant-food is concerned, be likely to get a good crop. In such circumstances, I think an application of 800 Ibs. of ni- trate of soda per acre, costing, say $32, would be likely to afford a very handsome profit. For lettuce, in addition to well prepared rich land, I should sow 3 Ibs. of superphosphate to each square rod, scattered in the rows 294 TALKS ON MANURES. before drilling in the seed. It will favor the formation of fibrous roots and stimulate the growth of the young plants. In raising onions from seed, we require an abundance of rich, well-rotted manure, clean laud, and early sowing. Onions are often raised year after year on the same land. That this entails a great waste of manure, is highly probable, but it is not an easy matter to get ordinary farm-laud properly prepared for onions. It needs to be clean and free from stones and rubbish of all kinds, and when once it is in good condition, it is thought better to continue it in onions, even though it may entail more or less loss of fertility. " What do you mean," asked the Deacon, " by loss of manure ? " " Simply this," said I. " We use a far greater amount of plant- food in the shape of manure than is removed by the crop of onions. And yet, notwithstanding this fact, it is found, as a matter of ex- perience, that it is absolutely necessary, if we would raise a large and profitable crop, to manure it every year." A few experiments would throw much light on this matter. I should expect, when land had been heavily dressed every year for a few years, with stable-manure, and annually sown to onions, that 800 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia, or of nitrate of soda, or 1,200 Ibs. of Peruvian guano would give as good a crop as 25 or 30 tons of manure. Or perhaps a better plan would be to apply 10 or 15 loads of manure, and 600 Ibs. of guano, or 400 Ibs. sulphate of am- monia. CHAPTER XXXV. MANURES FOR GARDENS AND ORCHARDS. MANURE FOR MARKET-GARDENS. The chief dependence of the market-gardener must be on the stable-manure which he can obtain from the city or village. The chief defect of this manure is that it is not rich enough in avail- able nitrogen. The active nitrogen exists principally in the urine, and this in our city stables is largely lost. A to*! of fresh, unmixed horse-dung contains about 9 Ibs. of nitrogen. A ton of horse-urine, 31 Ibs. But this does not tell the whole story. The nitrogen in the dung is contained in the crude, undigested portions of the food. It is to a large extent insoluble and unavailable, while the nitrogen in the urine is soluble and active. MANURES FOE GARDENS AND ORCHARDS. 295 The market-gardener, of course, lias to take such manure as he can get, and the only points to be considered are (1), whether he had better continue to use an excessive quantity of the manure, or (2), to buy substances rich in available nitrogen, and either mix them with the manure, or apply them separately to the soil, or (3), whether he can use this horse-manure as bedding for pigs to be fed on rich nitrogenous food. The latter plan I adopt on my own farm, and in this way I get a very rich and active manure. I get available nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, at far cheaper rates than they can be purchased in the best commercial fertilizers. Pigs void a large amount of urine, and as pigs are ordinarily kept, much of this liquid is lost for want of sufficient bedding to absorb it. With the market-gardener or nurseryman, who draws large quantities of horse-manure from the city, this need not be the case. The necessary buildings can be constructed at little cost, and the horse-manure can be used freely. The pigs should be fed on food rich in nitrogen, such as bran, malt-combs, brewers1 grains, the refuse animal matter from the slaughter-houses or butchers' stores, fish-scrap, pea or lentil-meal, palm-nut cake, or such food as will furnish the most nitrogenous food, other things being equal, at the cheapest rate. The market -gardener not only requires large quantities of rich manure, but he wants them to act quickly. The nurseryman who sets out a block of trees which will occupy the ground for three, four, or five years, may want a " lasting manure," but such is not the case with the gardener who grows crops which he takes off the land in a few months. As long as he continues to use horse or cow-manure freely, he need not trouble himself to get a slow or lusting manure. His great aim should be to make the manure as active and available as possible. And this is especially the case if he occupies clayey or loamy land. On sandy land the manure will decompose more rapidly and act quicker. " There are many facts," said the Doctor, u that show that an artificial application 0? water is equivalent to an application of manure. It has been shown that market-gardeners find it neces- sary to apply a much larger amount of plant-food to the soil than the crops can take up. This they have to do year after year. And it may well be that, when a supply of water can be had at slight cost, it will be cheaper to irrigate the land, or water the plants, rather than to furnish such an excess of manure, as is now found necessary. Even with ordinary farm-crops, we know that they feel the effects of drouth far less on rich land than on poor land. In 296 TALKS ON MANUKES. other words, a liberal supply of plant-food enables the crops to flourish with less water ; and, on the other hand, a greater supply of water will enable the crops to flourish with a less supply of plant-food. The market-gardeners should look into this question of irrigation. MANURES FOR SEED-GROWING FARMS. In growing garden and vegetable seeds, much labor is neces- sarily employed per acre, and consequently it is of great import- ance to produce a good yield. The best and cleanest land is neces- sary to start with, and then manures must be appropriately and freely used. " But not too freely," said the Doctor, " for I am told it is quite possible to have land too rich for seed-growing." It is not often that the land is too rich. Still, it may well be that for some crops too much stable-manure is used. But in nine cases out of ten, when such manure gives too much growth and too little or too poor seed, the trouble is in the quality of the manure. It contains too much carbonaceous matter. In other words, it is so poor in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, that an excessive quantity has to be used. The remedy consists in making richer manures and using a less quantity, or use half the quantity of stable-manure, and apply the rectified or prepared Peruvian guano, at the rate of 300 Ibs. or 400 Ibs. per acre, or say 200 Ibs. superphosphate and 200 Ibs. nitrate of soda per acre. Where it is very important to have the seeds ripen early, a lib- eral dressing, say 400 Ibs. per acre, of superphosphate of lime, will be likely to prove beneficial. MANURE FOR PRIVATE GARDENS. I once had a small garden in the city, and having no manure, I depended entirely on thorough cultivation and artificial fertilizers, such as superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia. It was culti- vated not for profit, but for pleasure, but I never saw a more pro- ductive piece of land. I had in almost every case two crops a year on the same land, and on some plots three crops. No manure was used, except the superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia, and coal and wood ashes from the .house. About 5 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia was sown broadcast to the square rod, or worked into the soil very thoroughly in the rows where the seed was to be sown. Superphosphate was applied at the same rate, but instead of sowing it broadcast, I aimed to get it as near the seed or the roots of plants as possible. MANURES FOR GARDENS AND ORCHARDS. 297 Half a teaspoonful of the mixture, consisting of equal parts of superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia, stirred into a large three gallon can of water, and sprinkled on to a bed of verbenas, seemed to have a remarkable effect on the size and brilliancy of the flowers. Even to this day, although I have a good supply of rich barn- yard-manure, I do not like to be without some good artificial ma- nure for the garden. MANURE FOR HOT-BEDS. The best manure for hot-beds is horse or sheep-dung that has been used as bedding for pigs. "When fresh stable-manure is used, great pains should be taken to save all the urine. In other words, you want the horse-dung thoroughly saturated with urine. The heat is produced principally from the carbon in the manure and straw, but you need active nitrogenous matter to start the fire. And the richer the manure is in nitrogenous matter, and the more thoroughly this is distributed through the manure, the more readily will it ferment. There is also another advantage in having rich manure, or manure well saturated with urine. You can make the heap more compact. Poor manure has to be made in a loose heap, or it will not ferment ; but such manure as we are talking about can be trodden down quite firm, and still ferment rapid enough to give out the necessary heat, and this compact heap will continue to ferment longer and give out a steadier heat, than the loose heap of poor manure. MANURE FOR NURSERYMEN. Our successful nurseiymen purchase large quantities of stable and other manures from the cities, drawing it as fast as it is made, and putting it in piles until wanted. They usually turn the piles once or twice, and often three times. This favors fermentation, greatly reducing it in bulk, and rendering the manure much more soluble and active. It also makes the manure in the heap more uniform in quality. Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry tell me that they often ferment the manure that they draw from the stables in the city, and make it so fine and rich, that they get but one load of rotted manure from three loads as drawn from the stables. For some crops, they use at least 20 loads of this rotted manure per acre, and they esti- mate that each load of this rotted manure costs at least $5.00. H. E. Hooker places the cost of manure equally high, but seems willing to use all he can get, and does not think we can profitably employ artificial manures as a substitute. 298 TALKS ON MANUF.ES. In this I agree with him. But while I should not expect arti- ficial manures, when used alone, to prove as cheap or as valuable as stable-manure at present prices, I think it may well be that a little nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and superphosphate of lime, or dissolved Peruvian guano, might be used as an auxil- iary manure to great advantage. Mr. II. E. Hooker, once sowed, at my suggestion, some sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate on part of a block of nursery trees, and he could not perceive that these manures did any good. Ellvvanger & Barry also tried them, and reported the- same nega- tive result. This was several years ago, and I do not think any similar experiments have been made since. "And yet," said the Deacon, " you used these self same manures on farm-crops, and they greatly increased the growth." " There are several reasons," said the Doctor, u why these ma- nures may have failed to produce any marked effect on the nursery trees. In the first place, there was considerable prejudice against them, and the nurserymen would hardly feel like relying on tlic><.: manures alone. They probably sowed them on land already well manured ; and I think they sowed them too late in the season. I should like to see them fairly tried." So would I. It seems to me that nitrate of soda, and superphos- phate, or dissolved Peruvian guano, could be used with very great advantage and profit by the nurserymen. Of course, it would hardly be safe to depend upon them alone. They should be used either in connection writh stable-manure, or on land that had pre- viously been frequently dressed with stable-manure. MANURE FOR FRUIT-GROWERS. How to keep up the fertility of our apple-orchards, is becoming an important question, and is attracting considerable attention. There are two methods generally recommended — I dare not say generally practised. The one, is to keep the orchard in bare- fal- low ; the other, to keep it in grass, and top-dress with manure, and either eat the grass off on the land with sheep and pigs, or else mow it frequently, and let the grass rot on the surface, for rnulcli and manure. " You are speaking now," said the Deacon, " of bearing apple- orchards. No one recommends keeping a young orchard in grass. We all know that young apple trees do far better when the land is occupied with, corn, potatoes, beans, or some other crop, which can be cultivated, than they do on land occupied with wheat, barley, oats, rye, buckwheat, or grass and clover. And even with bearing MANURES FOR GARDENS AND ORCHARDS. 299 peach trees, I have seen a wonderful difference in an orchard, Lalf of •which was cultivated with corn, and the other half sown with •wheat. The trees in the wheat were sickly-looking, and bore a small crop of inferior fruit, while the trees in the corn, grew vigor- ously and bore a fine crop of fruit. And the increased value of the crop of peaches on the cultivated land was far more than wo can ever hope to get from a crop of wheat." " And yet," said the Doctor, " the crop of corn on the cultivated half of the peach-orchard removed far more plant-food from the soil, than the crop of wheat. And so it is evident that the differ- ence is not due wholly to the supply of manure in the surface-soil. It may well be that the cultivation which the corn received favored the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, and the formation of nitrates, and when the rain came, it would penetrate deeper into the loose soil than on the adjoining land occupied with wheat. The rain would carry the nitrogen down to the roots of the peach trees, and this will account for the dark green color of the leaves on the cultivated land, and the yellow, sickly-looking leaves on the trees among the wheat. HEN-MANURE, AND WHAT TO DO WITH IT. A bushel of corn fed to a hen would give no more nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, in the shape of manure, than a bushel of corn fed to a pig. The manure from the pig, however, taking the urine and solid excrement together, contain 82 per cent of water, while that from the hen contains only 56 per cent of water. Moreover, hens pick up worms and insects, and their food in such case would contain more nitrogen than the usual food of pigs, and the manure would be correspondingly richer in nitrogen. Hence it happens that 100 Ibs. of dry hen-manure would usually be richer in nitrogen than 100 Ibs. of dry pig-manure. But feed pigs on peas, and hens on corn, and the dry pig-manure would be much richer in nitrogen than the dry hen-manure. The value of the manure, other things being equal, depends on the food and not on the animal. Let no man think he is going to make his farm any richer by keeping hens, ducks, and geese, than he will by keeping sheep, pigs, and horses. "Why is it, then," asked the Deacon, "that hen-dung proves such a valuable manure. I would rather have a hundred Ibs. of hen-dung than half a ton of barnyard-manure ? " " And I presume you are right," said I, " but you must recollect that your hen-manure is kept until it is almost chemically dry. Let 300 TALKS ON MANURES. us figure up what the half ton of manure and the 100 Ibs. of hen- inanure would contain. Here are the figures, side by side : . 100 fox. dry Hen- Ma- nitre. ~\-i Ibs."" 51 " .'57 " Half f< Cow-Du H-i'it *ti 7?.") 11] 203 n ny Water (estimated) 8. Ash Nitrogen . pi :!'• 3 H Potash Phosphoric acid I would, myself, far rather have 100 Ibs. of your dry hen-manure than half a ton of your farmyard-manure. Your hens arc fed on richer food than your cows. The 100 Ibs. of hen-manure, too, would act much more rapidly than the half ton of cow-manure. It would probably do twice as much good-— possibly three or four times as much good, on the first crop, as the cow-manure. The ni- trogen, being obtained from richer and more digestible food, is in a much more active and available condition than the nitrogen hi the cow-dung. " If you go on," said the Deacon, " I think you will prove that I am right." " I have never doubted," said I, " the great value of hen-dung, as compared with barnyard-manure. And all I wish to show is, that, notwithstanding its acknowledged value, the fact remains that a given quantity of the same kind of food will give no greater amount of fertilizing matter when fed to a hen than if fed to a pig." I want those farmers who find so much benefit from an applica- tion of hen-manure, ashes, and plaster, to their corn and potatoes, to feel that if they would keep better cows, sheep, and pigs, and feed them better, they would get good pay for their feed, and the manure would enable them to grow larger crops. While we have been talking, the Deacon was looking over the tables. (See Appendix.) " I see," said he, " that wheat and rye contain more nitrogen than hen-manure, but less potash and phos- phoric acid." " This is true," said I, " but the way to compare them, in order to see the effect of passing the wheat through the hen, is to look at the composition of the air-dried hen-dung. The fresh hcn-dunir, according to the table, contains 56 per cent of water, while wheat contains less than 14£ per cent." Let us compare the composition of 1,000 Ibs. air-dried hen-dung with 1,000 Ibs. of air-dried wheat and rye, and also with bran, malt-combs, etc. MANURES FOE GARDENS AND OECI1ARDS. 301 Wheat Nitrogen. 30.8 Potash. 5.3 Phosphoric Acid. 7.9 Wheat Bran . 22.4 14.3 27.3 Rye . . .... . . 17.6 5.6 8.4 Rye Bran . . . 33.2 19.3 3i.3 Buckwheat . . 14.4 2.7 5.7 Buckwheat Bran . . 27.2 11.2 12.5 Malt-roots 36.8 20.6 18.0 Air-drv Hen-duns:. . . 32.6 17.0 30.8 " That table," said the Doctor, " is well worth studying. You sec, that when wheat is put through the process of milling, the miller takes out as much of the starch and gluten as he wants, and leaves you a product (bran), richer in phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen, than you gave him." " And the same is true," continued the Doctor, " of the hen. You gave her 2,000 grains of wheat, containing 41.6 grains of nitrogen. She puts this through the mill, together with some ashes, and bones, that she picks up, and she takes out all the starch and fat, and nitrogen, and phosphate of lime, that she needs to sus- tain life, and to produce flesh, bones, feathers, and eggs, and leaves you 1,000 grains of manure containing 32.6 grains of nitro- gen, 17.0 grains of potash, and 30.8 grains of phosphoric acid. I do not say," continued the Doctor, " that it takes exactly 2,000 grains of wheat to make 1,000 grains of dry manure. I merely give these figures to enable the Deacon to understand why 1,000 Ibs. of hen-dung is worth more for manure than 1,000 Ibs. of wheat." "I must admit," said the Deacon, " that I always have been trou- bled to understand why wheat-bran was worth more for manure than the wheat itself. I see now — it is because there is less of it. It is for the same reason that boiled cider is richer than the cider from which it is made. The cider has lost water, and the bran has lost starch. What is left is richer in nitrogen, and potash, and phosphoric acid. And so it is with manure. The animals take out of the food the starch and fat, and leave the manure richer in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash." " Exactly," said I, " Mr. Lawes found by actual experiment, that if you feed 500 Ibs. of barley-meal to a pig, containing 420 Ibs. of dry substance, you get only 70 Ibs. of dry substance in the manure. Of the 420 Ibs. of dry substance, 276.2 Ibs. are used to support res- piration, etc. ; 73.8 Ibs. arc found in the increase of the pig, and 70 Ibs. in the manure." The food contains 52 Ibs. of nitrogenous matter ; the increase of pig contains 7 Ibs., and consequently, if there is no loss, the ma- 302 TALKS ON MANURES. nure should contain 45 Ibs. of nitrogenous substance = to 7.14 Ibs. of nitrogen. " In other words," said the Doctor, " the 70 Ibs. of dry liquid and solid pig-manure contains 7.14 Ibs. of nitrogen, or 100 Ibs. would contain 10.2 Jbs. of nitrogen, which is more nitrogen than we now get in the very best samples of Peruvian guano." " And thus it will be seen," said I, " that though corn-fed pigs, leaving out the bedding and water, produce a very small quantity of manure, it is exceedingly rich." The table from which these facts were obtained, will be. found in the Appendix — pages 342-3. CHAPTER XXXVI. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANURE. COW-MANURE, AND HOW TO USE IT. " It will do more good if fermented," said a German farmer in the neighborhood, who is noted for raising good crops of cabbage, "but I like hog-manure better than cow-dung. The right way is to mix the hog-manure, cow-dung, and horse-manure together." " No doubt about that," said I, "but when you have a good many cows, and few other animals, how wo'-akl you manage the manure ? " " I would gather leaves and swamp-muck, and use them for bed- ding the cows and pigs. Leaves make splendid bedding, and they make rich manure, and the cow-dung and leaves, when made into a pile, will ferment readily, and make grand manure for — any- thing. I only wish I had all I could use." There is no question but what cow-manure is better if fermented, but it is not always convenient to pile it during the winter in such a way that it will not freeze. And in this case it may be the better plan to draw it out on to the land, as opportunity offers. " I have heard," said Charley, " that pig-manure was not good for cabbage, it produces ' ringers and toes,' or club-foot." Possibly such is the case when there is a predisposition to the disease, but our German friend says he has never found any ill- eflects from its use. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANURE. 303 "Cows," said the Doctor, "when giving a large quantity of milk, make rather poor manure. The manure loses what the milk takes from the food." " We have shown what that loss is," said I. " It amounts to less than I think is generally supposed. And in the winter, when the cows are dry, the manure would be as rich as from oxen, provided both were fed alike. See Appendix, page 343. It will there be seen that oxen take out only 4.1 Ibs. of nitrogen from 100 Ibs. of nitrogen consumed in the food. In other words, provided there is no loss, we should get in the liquid and solid excrements of the ox and dry cow 95.9 per cent, of the nitrogen furnished in the food, and a still higher per cent of the mineral matter. SHEEP-MANURE. According to Prof. Wolff's table of analyses, sheep-manure, both solid and liquid, contain less water than the manure from horses, cows, or swine. With the exception of swine, the solid dung is also the richest in nitrogen, while the urine of sheep is pre- eminently rich in nitrogen and potash. These facts are in accordance with the general opinions of farm- ers. Sheep-manure is considered, next to hen-manure, the most valuable manure made on the farm. I do not think we have any satisfactory evidence to prove that 3 tons of clover-hay and a ton of corn fed to a lot of fattening- slieep will afford a quantity of manure containing any more plant- food than the same kind and amount of food fed to a lot of fat- tening-cattle. The experiments of Lawes & Gilbert indicate that if there is any difference it is in favor of the ox. See Appendix, page 343. But it may well be that it is much easier to save the manure from the sheep than from the cattle. And so, practically, sheep may be better manure-makers than cattle — for the simple reason that less of the urine is lost. "As a rule," said the Doctor, "the dung of sheep contains far less water than the dung of cattle, though when you slop your breeding ewes to make them give more milk, the dung differs but little in appearance from that of cows. Ordinarily, however, sheep- dung is light and dry, and, like horse-dung, will ferment much more rapidly than cow or pig-dung. In piling manure in the win- ter or spring, special pains should be used to mix the sheep and horse-manure with the cow and pig-manure. And it may be re- marked that for any crop or for any purpose where stable-manure is deemed desirable, sheep-manure would be a better substitute than cow or pig-manure." 304 TALKS ON MANURES. MANURE FROM SWINE. The dry matter of hog-manure, especially the urine, is rich in nitrogen, but it is mixed with such a large quantity of water that a ton of hog-inaiiure, as it is usually found in the pen, is less valu- able than a ton of horse or sheep-manure, and only a little more valuable than a ton of cow-manure. As I have before said, my own plan is to let the store-hogs sleep in a basement-cellar, and bed tjiem with horse and sheep-manure. I have this winter over 50 sows under the horse-stable, and the manure from 8 horses keeps them dry and comfortable, and we are not specially lavish with straw in bedding the horses. During Ihe summer we aim to keep the hogs out in the pastures and orchards as much as possible. This is not only good for the health of the pigs, but saves labor and straw in the management of the manure. It goes directly to the land. The pigs are good grazers and distribute the manure as evenly over the land as sheep — in fact, during hot weather, sheep are even more inclined to hud- dle together under the trees, and by the side of the fence, than pigs. This is particularly the case with the larger breeds of sheep. In the winter it is not a difficult matter to save all the liquid and solid excrements from pigs, provided the pens are dry and no water comes in from the rain and snow. As pigs are often man- aged, this is the real difficulty. Pigs void an enormous quantity of water, especially when fed on slops from the house, whey, etc. If they are kept in a pen with a separate feeding and sleeping apart- ment, both should be under cover, and the feeding apartment may be kept covered a foot or so thick with the soiled bedding from the sleeping apartment. When the pigs get up in a morning, they will go into the feeding apartment, and the liquid will be dis- charged on the mass of manure, straw, etc. "Dried muck," said the Deacon, "comes in very handy about a pig-pen, for absorbing the liquid." " Yes," said I, " and even dry earth can be used to great advan- tage, not merely to absorb the liquid, but to keep the pens sweet and healthy. The three chief points in saving manure from pigs are : 1, To have the pens under cover ; 2, to keep the feeding apartment or yard covered with a thick mass of strawy manure and refuse of any kind, and 3, to scatter plenty of dry earth or dry muck on the floor of the sleeping apartment, and on top of the manure in the feeding apartment." "You feed most of your pigs," said the Deacon, " out of doors in the yard, and they sleep in the pens or basement cellars, and it DIFFERENT KINDS OF 305 seems to me to be a good plan, as they get more fresh air and ex- ercise than if confined." " We do not lose much manure," said I, u by feeding in the yards. You let a dozen pigs sleep in a pen all night, and as soon as they hear you putting the food in the troughs outside, they come to the door of the pen, and there discharge the liquid and solid excre- ments on the mass of manure left there on purpose to receive and absorb them. I am well aware that as pigs are often managed, we lose at least half the value of their manure, but there is no neces- sity for this. A little care and thought will save nearly the whole of it. BUYING MANURE BY MEASURE OR WEIGHT. The Deacon and I have just been weighing a bushel of different kinds of manure made on the farm. We made two weighings of each kind, one thrown in loose, and the other pressed down firm. The following is the result : WEIGHT OP MANURE PER BUSHEL, AND PEU LOAD OF 50 BUSHELS. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. KIND AND CONDITION OF MANURES. *j3 P1 pfc -S g>~ Weight $ Load of\ W bushels] Fresh hor^c-manure free from straw Ibs. 37^2 55 28 46 50 72 57 75 98 42 65 28 38 87 34 48 Ibs. 1875 2750 1400 2300 2500 3600 2850 3750 4900 2100 3250 1400 1900 4350 1700 2400 Fresh horse-manure as used forbeddin. of chaffed clover-hay, and all the turnips they would eat. They voided a large quantity of urine, but as the food was rich in nitrogen, the urine was doubtless nearly or quite as rich as that analyzed by Prof. Wolff, though that probably contained less water. If I was going to draw out liquid manure, I should be very care- ful to spout all the buildings, and keep the animals and manure as much under cover as possible, and also feed food rich in nitrogen. In such circumstances, it would doubtless pay to draw the urine full as well as to draw the solid manure. 308 TALKS OX MANURES. NIGHTSOIL AND SEWAGE. The composition of human excrements, as compared with the mean composition of the excrements from horses, cows, sheep, and swine, so far as the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are con- cerned, is as follows : TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORIC ACID, AND POTASH, IN ONE TON OF FRESH HUMAN EXCREMENTS, AND IN ONE TON OF 1'UEtH EXCREMENTS FROM HORSES, COWS, SHEEP, AND SWINE. SOLIDS. URINE. One ton (2000 Ibs). Nitro- gen. Phos- jrfioric acid. Potash. Nitro- gen. PhOS- phoric acid. Potash. Human i 20.0 Ibs. 21.8 Ibs. 5.0 Ibs. 12.0 Ibs. 3.7 lbs>. 4.01bs. Mean of horse, cow, sheep, and swine 9.4 •« 6.2 " 4.3 " 22.5 " 0.4 " 25.4 " One ton of fresh faeces contains more than twice as much nitro- gen, and more than three times as much phosphoric acid, as a ton of* fresh mixed animal-dung. The nitrogen, too, is probably in a more available condition than that in common barnyard-dung ; and we should not be far wrong in estimating 1 ton of faeces equal to 2i tons of ordinary dung, or about equal in value to carefully preserved manure from liberally-fed sheep, swine, and fattening cattle. " It is an unpleasant job," said the Deacon, " but it pays well to empty the vaults at least twice a year." " If farmers," said the Doctor, " would only throw into the vaults from time to time some dry earth or coal ashes, the contents of the vaults could be removed without any disagreeable smell." " That is so," said I, " and even where a vault has been shame- fully neglected, and is full of offensive matter, it can be cleaned out without difficulty and without smell. I have cleaned out a large vault in an hour. We were drawing manure from the yards with three teams and piling it in the field. We brought back a load of sand and threw half of it into the vault, and put the other half on one side, to be used as required. The sand and fasces were then, with a long-handled shovel, thrown into the wagon, and drawn to the pile of manure in the field, and thrown on to the pile, not more than two or three inches thick. The team brought back a load of sand, and so we continued until the work was done. Sand or dry earth is cheap, and we used all that was necessary to prevent the escape of any unpleasant gases, and to keep the material from ad- hering to the shovels or the wagon. 4 'Human urine," said tbe Doctor, uis richer in phosphoric acid, DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANURE. 309 but much poorer in nitrogen and potash than the urine from horses, cows, sheep, and swine." " Some years ago," said the Deacon, " Mr. H. E. Hooker, of Roch- ester, used to draw considerable quantities of urine from the city to his farm. It would pay better to draw out the urine from farm animals." " The figures given above," said I, " showing the composition of human excrements, are from Prof. Wolff, and probably are gener- ally correct. But, of course, the composition of the excrements would vary greatly, according to the food." It has been ascertained by Lawes and Gilbert that the amount of matter voided by an adult male in the course of a year is— fseces, 95 Ibs.; urine, 1,049 Ibs.; total liquid and solid excrements in the pure state, 1,144 Ibs. These contain : Dry substance— faeces, 231 Ibs.; urine, 341 ; total, 5Si Ibs. Mineral matter— faeces, 2£ Ibs.; urine, 12 ; total, 14s Ibs. Carbon— fasces, 10 Ibs.; urine, 12; total 22 Ibs. Nitrogen— faeces, 1.2 Ibs.; urine, 10.8; total, 12 Ibs. Phosphoric acid— faeces, 0.7 Ibs.; urine, 1.93 ; total, 2. 03 Ibs. Potash— faeces, 0.24 Ibs.; urine, 2.01; total, 2.25 Ibs. The amount of potash is given by Prof. E. Wolff, not by Lawes and Gilbert. The mixed solid and liquid excrements, in the condition they leave the body, contain about 95 per cent of water. It would re- quire, therefore, 20 tons of fresh mixed excrements, to make one ton of dry nightsoil, or the entire amount voided by a mixed family of 43 persons in a year. One hundred Ibs. ot fresh faeces contain 75 Ibs. of water, and 25 Ibs. of dry substance. One hundred Ibs. of fresh urine contain 96| Ibs. of water, and 3| Ibs. of dry substance. One hundred Ibs. of the dry substance of the fa?ces contain 5 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 5| Ibs. of phosphates. One hundred Ibs. of the dry substance of the urine contain 27 Ibs. of nitrogen, and lOf Ibs. of phosphates. These figures are from Lawes and Gilbert, and may be taken as representing the composition of excrements from moderately well- fed persons. According to Wolff, a ton of fresh human urine contains 12 IDS. of nitrogen. According to Lawes and Gilbert, 18 Ibs. The liquid carted from the city by Mr. Hooker was from well-fed adult males, and would doubtless be fully equal to the figures given by Lawes and Gilbert. If we call the nitrogen worth 20 cents a lb., 310 TALKS OX MANURES. and the phosphoric acid (soluble) worth 12£ cents, a ton of such urine would be worth, on the land, $4.06. "A ton of the fresh faeces," said the Deacon, "at the same esti- mate, would be worth (20 Ibs. nitrogen, at 20 cents, $4; 21| Ibs. phosphoric acid, at 12£ cents, $2.70), $6.70." " Not by a good deal," said the Doctor. " The nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the urine are both soluble, and would be imme- diately available. But the nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the faces would be mostly insoluble. We cannot estimate the nitrogen in the faeces at over 15 cents a lb., and the phosphoric acid at 5 cents. This would make the value of a ton of fresh foeces, on tlie land, $4.09." " This makes the ton of fasces worth about the same as a ton of urine. But I would like to know," said the Deacon, " if you really believe we could afford to pay $4 per ton for the stuff delivered on the farm ? " " If we could get the genuine article," said the Doctor, "it would be worth $4 a ton. But, as a rule, it is mixed with water, r.nd dirt, and stones, and bricks, and rubbish of all kinds. Still, it is un- questionably a valuable fertilizer." "In the dry-earth closets," said I, "such a large quantity of earth has to be used to absorb the liquid, that the material, even if used several times, is not worth carting any considerable distance. Dr. Gilbert found that 5 tons of absolutely dry earth, before usinr, contained 16.7 Ibs. of nitrogen. Af tei being used once, 5 tons of the dry earth contained 24.0 Ibs. " ' twice, " « « 3C.3 " three times,. " * * 44.6 " four times,.. " * ' 54.0 " five times, . . six times,.... 61.4 71.6 Dr. Voelcker found that five tons of dry earth gained about 7 Ibs. of nitrogen, and 11 Ibs. of phosphoric acid, each time it was used in the closets. If we consider each lb. of nitrogen with the phos- phoric acid worth 20 cents a lb., 5 tons of the dry earth, after being used once, would be worth $1.46, or less than 30 cents a ton, and after it had been used six times, five tons of the material would be worth $11.98, or about $2.40 per ton. In this calculation I have not reckoned in the value of the nitro- gen the soil contained before using. Soil, on a farm, is cheap. It is clear from these facts that any earth-closet manure a farmer would be likely to purchase in the city has not a very high value. It is absurd to talk of making " guano " or any concentrated fertil- izer out of the material from earth-closets. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANURE. 311 " It is rather a reflection on our science and practical skill," said the Doctor, " but it looks at present as though the only plan to adopt in large cities is to use enormous quantities of water and wash the stuff into the rivers and oceans for the use of aquatic plants and fishes. The nitrogen is not all lost. Some of it comes back to us in rains and dews. Of course, there are places where the sewage of our cities and villages can be used for irrigating purposes. But when water is used as freely as it ought to be used for health, the sewage is so extremely poor in fertilizing matter, that it must be used in enormous quantities, to furnish a dressing equal to an application of 20 tons of stable-manure per acre." " If," continued the Doctor, " the sewage is used merely as water for irrigating purposes, that is another question. The water itself may often be of great benefit. This aspect of the question has not received the attention it merits." PERUVIAN GUANO. Guano is the manure of birds that live principally on fish. Fish contain a high percentage of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and consequently when fish are digested and the carbon is burnt out of them, the manure that is left contains a still higher percent- age of nitrogen and phosphoric acid than the fish from which it was derived. Guano is digested fish. If the guano, or the manure from the birds living on fish, has been preserved without loss, it would con- tain not only a far higher percentage of nitrogen, but the nitrogen would be in a much more available condition, and consequently be more valuable than the fish from which the guano is made. The difference in the value of guano is largely due to a difference in the climate and locality in which it is deposited by the birds. In a rainless and hot climate, where the bird-droppings would dry rapidly, little or no putrefaction or fermentation would take place, and there would be no loss of nitrogen from the formation and escape of ammonia. In a damper climate, or where there was more or less rain, the bird-droppings would putrefy, and the ammonia would be liable to evaporate, or to be leached out by the rain. Thirty years ago I saw a quantity of Peruvian guano that con- tained more than 18 per cent of nitrogen. It was remarkably light colored. You know that the white part of hen-droppings consists principally of uric acid,which contains about 33 per cent of nitrogen. For many years it was not difficult to find guano containing 13 per cent of nitrogen, and genuine Peruvian guano was the cheap- 312 TALKS ON MANURES. est and best source of available nitrogen. But latterly, not only has the price been advanced, but the quality of the guano has de- teriorated. It has contained less nitrogen and more phosphoric acid. See the Chapter on " Value of Fertilizers," Page 324. SALTS OF AMMONIA AND NITRATE OF SODA. " I wish," said the Deacon, " you would tell us something about the ' ammonia-salts ' and nitrate of soda so long used in Lawes and Gilbert's experiments. I have never seen any of them." " You could not invest a little money to better advantage than to send for a few bags of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. You would then see what they are, and would learn more by using them, than I can tell you in a month. You use them just as you would common salt. As a rule, the better plan is to sow them broadcast, and it is important to distribute them evenly. In sowing common salt, if you drop a handful in a place, it will kill the plants. And so it is with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. Two or three pounds on a square rod will do good, but if you put half of it on a square yard, it will burn up the crop, and the other half will be applied in such a small quantity that you will see but little effect, and will conclude that it is a humbug. Judging from over thirty years' experience, I am safe in saying that not one man in ten can be trusted to sow these manures. They should be sown with as much care as you sow grass or clover-seed." "The best plan," said the Doctor, "is to mix them wi:h sifted coal-ashes, or with gypsum, or sifted earth." " Perhaps so," said I, " though there is nothing gained by mix- ing earth or ashes with them, except in securing a more even dis- tribution. And if I was going to sow them myself, I would much prefer sowing them unmixed. Any man who can sow wheat or barley can sow sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda." " Lawes and Gilbert," said the Deacon, " used sulphate and mu- riate of ammonia, and in one or two instances the carbonate of ammonia. Which is the best ? " " The one that will furnish cmmonia or nitrogen at the cheapest rate," said the Doctor, " is the best to use. The muriate of ammo- nia contains the most ammonia, but the sulphate, in proportion to the ammonia, is cheaper than the muriate, and far cheaper than the carbonate. Carbonate of ammonia contains 21£ per cent of ammonia. Sulphate of ammonia contains 25$ per cent of ammonia = 21 Y6 of nitrogen. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MANURE. 313 Muriate of ammonia contains 31 per cent of ammonia =25| of nitrogen. Nitrate of soda contains 162/5 per cent of nitrogen. Nitrate of potash, 13f per cent of nitrogen. From these figures you can ascertain, when you know the price of each, which is the cheapest source of nitrogen. " True," said I, " but it must be understood that these figures re- present the composition of a pure article. The commercial sul- phate of ammonia, and nitrate of soda, would usually contain 10 per cent of impurities. Lawes and Gilbert, who have certainly had much experience, and doubtless get the best commercial articles, state that a mixture of equal parts sulphate and muriate of ammo- nia contains about 25 per cent of ammonia. According to the fig- ures given by the Doctor, the mixture would contain, if pure, over 28 per cent of ammonia. In other words, 00 Ibs. of the pure article contains as much as 100 Ibs. of the commercial article." As to whether it is better, when you can buy nitrogen at the same price in nitrate of soda as you can in sulphate of ammonia, to use the one or the other will depend on circumstances. The nitrogen exists as nitric acid in the nitrate of soda, and as ammo- nia in the sulphate of ammonia. But there are good reasons to believe that before ammonia is used by the plants it is converted into nitric acid. If, therefore, we could apply the nitrate just where it is wanted by the growing crop, and when there is rain enough to thoroughly distribute it through the soil to the depth of six or eight inches, there can. be little doubt that the nitrate, in proportion to the nitrogen, would have a quicker and better effect than the sulphate of ammonia. "There is another point to be considered," said the Doctor. " Nitric acid is much more easily washed out of the soil than am- monia. More or less of the ammonia enters into chemical com- bination with portions of the soil, and may be retained for months or years." When we use nitrate of soda, we run the risk of losing more or less of it from leaching, while if we use ammonia, we lose, for the time being, more or less of it from its becoming locked up in in- soluble combinations in the soil. For spring crops, such as barley or oats, or spring wheat, or for a meadow or lawn, or for top- dressing winter-wheat in the spring, the nitrate of soda, provided it is sown early enough, or at any time in the spring, just previous to a heavy rain, is likely to produce a better effect than the sulphate of ammonia. But for sowing in the autumn on winter-wheat the ammonia is to be preferred. 14 314 TALKS ON MANURES. " Saltpetre, or nitrate of potash," said the Deacon, " does not contain as much nitrogen as nitrate of soda." "And yet," said the Doctor, " if it could be purchased at the same price, it would be the cheaper manure. It contains 46£ per cent of potash, and on soils, or for crops where potash is needed, we may sometimes be able to purchase saltpetre to advantage." " If I could come across a lot of damaged saltpetre," said I, " that could begot for what it is worth as manure, I should like to try it on my apple trees— one row with nitrate of soda, and one row with nitrate of potash. When we apply manure to apple tree?, the ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash, are largely retained in the first fev/ inches of surface-soil, and the deeper roots get hold of only those portions which leach through the upper layer of earth. Nitric acid, however, is easily washed down into the subsoil, and would soon reach all the roots of the trees." CHAPTER XXXVII. BONE-DUST AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. Bone-dust is often spoken of as a phosphatic manure, and it has been supposed that the astonishing effect bone-dust sometimes pro- duces on old pasture-land, is due to its furnishing phosphoric acid to the soil. But it must be remembered that bone-dust furnishes nitrogen as well as phosphoric acid, and we arc not warranted in ascribing the good effect of bones to phosphoric acid alone. Bones differ considerably in composition. They consist essen- tially of gelatine and phosphate of lime. Bones from young ani- mals, and the soft porous parts of all bones, contain more gelatine than the solid parts, or the bones from older animals. On the aver- age, 1,000 Ibs. of good commercial bone-dust contains 38 Ibs. of nitrogen. On the old dairy farms of Cheshire, where bone-dust produced such marked improvement in the quantity and quality of the pas- tures and meadows, it was usual to apply from 4,000 to 5,000 Ibs. per acre, and often mere. In other words, a dressing of bone-dust BONE-DUST AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 315 frequently contained 200 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre — equal to 20 or 25 tons of barn-yard manure. "It has been supposed," said the Doctor, " that owing to the removal of so much phosphoric acid in the cheese sold from the farm, that the dairy pastures of Cheshire had been exhausted of phosphoric acid, and that the wonderful benefits following an ap- plication of bone-dust to these pastures, was due to its supplying phosphoric acid." " I do not doubt," said I, " the value of phosphoric acid when applied in connection with nitrogen to old pasture lands, but I contend that the experience of the Cheshire dairymen with bone- dust is no positive proof that their soils were particularly deficient in phosphoric acid. There are many instances given where the gelatine of the bones, alone, proved of great value to the grass. And I think it will be found that the Cheshire dairymen do not find as much benefit from superphosphate as they did from bone-dust. And the reason is, that the latter, in addition to the phosphoric acid, furnished a liberal dressing of nitrogen. Futhermore, it is not true that dairying specially robs the soil of phosphoric acid. Take one of these old dairy farms in Cheshire, where a dressing of bone-dust, according to a writer in the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, has caused * a miserable covering of pink grass, rushes, and a variety of other noxious weeds, to give place to the most luxuriant herbage of wild clover, trefoil, and other succulent and nutritious grasses.' It is evident from this description of the pastures before the bones were used, that it would take at least three acres to keep a cow for a year. "I have known," says the same writer quoted above, "many a poor, honest, but half broken-hearted man raised from poverty to comparative independence, and many a sinking family saved from inevitable ruin by the help of this wonderful manure." And this writer not only spoke from observation and experience, but he showed his faith by his works, for he tells us that he had paid nearly $50,000 for this manure. Now, on one of these poor dairy farms, where it required 3 acres to keep a cow, and where the grass was of poor quality, it is not probable that the cows produced over 250 Ibs. of cheese in a year. One thousand pounds of cheese contains, on the average, about 45£ Ibs. of nitrogen ; 2£ Ibs. of potash, and 111 Ibs. of phosphoric acid. From this it follows, if 250 Ibs. of cheese are sold annually from three acres of pasture, less than one Ib. of phosphoric acid per acre is exported from the farm in the cheese. One ton of timothy-hay contains nearly 14£ Ibs. of phosphoric 316 ' TALKS ON MANURES. acid. And so a farmer who raises a ton of timothy-hay per acre, and sells it, sends off as much phosphoric acid in one year as such a Cheshire dairyman as I have alluded to did in fourteen years. What the dairymen want, and what farmers generally want, is nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Bone-dust furnishes both, and this was the reason of its wonderful effects. It does not follow from this, that bone-dust is the cheapest and best manure we can use. It is an old and popular manure, and usually commands a good price. It sells for all it is worth. A dozen years ago, I bought ten tons of bone-dust at $18 per ton. I have offered $25 per ton since for a similar lot, but the manufac- turers find a market in New York for all they can make. Bone-dust, besides nitrogen, contains about 23 per cent of phosphoric acid. " That does not give me," said the Deacon, " any idea of its value." " Let us put it in another shape, then," said I. " One ton of good bone-dust contains about as much nitrogen as 8f tons of fresh stable-manure, and as much phosphoric acid as 110 tons of fresh stable-manure. But one ton of manure contains more potash than 5 tons of bone-dust. Bone-dust, like barnyard-manure, does not immediately yield up its nitrogen and phosphoric acid to plants. The bone phosphate of lime is insoluble in water, and but very slightly soluble in water containing carbonic acid. The gelatine of the bones would soon decompose in a moist, porous, warm soil, provided it was not protected by the oil and by the. hard matter of the bones. Steaming, by removing the oil, removes one of the hindrances to decomposition. Reducing the bones as fine as possible is another means of increasing their availability. Another good method of increasing the availability of bone-dust is to mix it with barnyard-manure, and let both ferment together in a heap. I am inclined to think this the best, simplest, and most economical method of rendering bone-dust available. The bone-dust causes the heap of manure to ferment more readily, and the fermentation of the manure softens the bones. Both the ma- nure and the bones are improved and rendered richer and more available by the process. Another method of increasing the availability of bone-dust is by mixing it with sulphuric acid. BONE-DUST AND SUPEKPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 317 The phosphate of lime in bones is insoluble in water, though rain water containing carbonic acid, and the water in soils, slowly dissolve it. By treating the bones with sulphuric acid, the phos- phate of lime is decomposed and rendered soluble. Consequently, bone-dust treated with sulphuric acid will act much more rapidly than ordinary bone-dust. The sulphuric acid does not make it any richer in phosphoric acid or nitrogen. It simply renders them more available. " And yet," said the Doctor, " the use of sulphuric acid for * dis- solving ' bones, or rather phosphate of lime, introduced a new era in agriculture. It is the grand agricultural fact of the nineteenth century." "It is perhaps not necessary," said I, " to give any direction for treating bones with sulphuric acid. We have got beyond that. We can now buy superphosphate cheaper than we can make it from bones." " But is it as good ? " asked the Deacon. "Soluble phosphate of lime," said I, "is soluble phosphate of lime, and it makes no difference whether it is made from burnt bones, or from phosphatic guano, or mineral phosphate. That ques- tion has been fully decided by the most satisfactory experiments." "Before you and the Deacon discuss that subject," said the Doc- tor, " it would be well to tell Charley what superphosphate is." " I wish you would tell me," said Charley. " Well," said the Doctor, " phosphate of lime, as it exists in bones, is composed of three atoms of lime and one atom of phos- phoric acid. Chemists call it the tricalcic phosphate. It is also called the basic phosphate of lime, and not unfrequently the ' bone-earth phosphate.' It is the ordinary or common form of phosphate of lime, as it exists in animals, and plants, and in the various forms of mineral phosphates. " Then there is another phosphate of lime, called the dicalcic phosphate, or neutral phosphate of lime, or reverted phosphate of lime. It is composed of one atom of water, two atoms of lime, and one atom of phosphoric acid. " Then we have what we call superphosphate, or acid phosphate of lime, or more properly monocalcic phosphate. It is composed of two atoms of water, one atom of lime, and one atom of phos- phoric acid. This acid phosphate of lime is soluble in water. " The manufacture of superphosphate of lime is based on these facts. The one-lime phosphate is soluble, the three-lime phosphate is insoluble. To convert the latter into the former, all we have to do is to take away two atoms of 318 TALKS ON MANURES. " Sulphuric acid has a stronger affinity for liine than phosphoric acid. And when you mix enough sulphuric acid with finely ground three-lime phosphate, to take away two atoms of lime, you get the phosphoric acid united with one atom of lime and two atoms of water." " And what," asked the Deacon, " becomes of the two atoms of lime ? " " They unite with the sulphuric acid," said the Doctor, " and form plaster, gypsum, or sulphate of lime." "The molecular weight of water," continued the Doctor, " is 18 ; of lime, 56 ; of sulphuric acid, 80 ; of phosphoric acid, 143. " An average sample of commercial bone-dust," continued the Doctor, " contains about 50 per cent of phosphate of lime. If we take 620 Ibs. of finely-ground bone-dust, containing 310 Ibs. of three-lime phosphate, and mix with it 160 Ibs. of sulphuric acid (say 240 Ibs. common oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1.7), the sulphuric acid will unite with 112 Ibs. of lime, and leave the 142 Ibs. of phos- phoric acid united with the remaining 56 Ibs. of lime." "And that will give you," said the Deacon, "780 Ibs. of 'dis- solved bones,' or superphosphate of lime." " It will give you more than that," said the Doctor, " because, as I said before, the two atoms of lime (112 Ibs.) are replaced by two atoms (36 Ibs.) of water. And, furthermore, the two atoms of sulphate of lime produced, contained two atoms (36 Ibs.) of water. The mixture, therefore, contains, even when perfectly dry, 72 Ibs. of water." "Where does this water come from?" asked the Deacon. " When I was at Rothamsted," said 1, " the superphosphate which Mr. Lawes used in his experiments was made on the farm from animal charcoal, or burnt bones, ground as fine as possible — the finer the better. We took 40 Ibs. of the meal, and mixed it with 20 Ibs. of water, and then poured on 30 Ibs. of common sul- phuric acid (sp. g. 1.7), and stirred it up rapidly and thoroughly, and then threw it out of the vessel into a heap, on the earth-floor in the barn. Then mixed another portion, and so on, until we had the desired quantity, say two or three tons. The last year I was at Rothamsted, we mixed 40 Ibs. bone-meal, 30 Ibs. water, and 30 Ibs. acid ; and we thought the additional water enabled us to mix the acid and meal together easier and better." "Dr. Habirshaw tells me," said the Doctor, "that in making the ' Rectified Peruvian Guano ' no water is necessary, and none is used. The water in the guano and in the acid is sufficient to BONE-DUST AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 319 furnish the two atoms of water for the phosphate, and the two atoms for the sulphate of lime." " Such is undoubtedly the case," said I, " and when large quan- tities of superphosphate are made, and the mixing is done by ma- chinery, it is not necessary to use water. The advantage of using water is in the greater ease of mixing." " Bone-dust," said the Doctor, " contains about 6 per cent of water, and the sulphuric acid (sp. g. 1.7) contains about one-third its weight of water. So that, if you take 620 Ibs. of bone-dust, and mix with it 240 Ibs. of common sulphuric acid, you have in the mixture 117 Ibs. of water, which is 45 Ibs. more than is needed to furnish the water of combination." " The superphosphate produced from C20 Ibs. of bones, there- fore," continued the Doctor, " would contain : Phosphoric acid ) (142 Ibs. Lime >• acid phosphate •< 56 Water j ( 36 Sulphuric acid ) (160 Ibs. Lime >-sulphate of lime -< 113 Water.. ( ( 36 Organic matter, ash, etc., of the bones* 335 Total dry superphosphate 877 Moisture, or loss 45 Total mixture 9;^ Ibs. * Containing nitrogen, 233, B>s. " There is a small quantity of carbonate of lime in the bones," said I, " which would take up a little of the acid, and you will have a remarkably good article if you calculate that ,the 620 Ibs. of bone-dust furnish you half a ton (1,000 Ibs.) of superphosphate. It will be a better article than it is practically possible to make." " Assuming that it made half a ton," said the Doctor, " it would contain 14J per cent of soluble phosphoric acid, and 2J- per cent of nitrogen." "With nitrogen at 20 cents per lb., and soluble phosphoric acid at 12£c. per lb., this half ton of superphosphate, made from G20 Ibs. of good bone-dust, would be worth $22.50, or $45 per ton." " Or, to look at it in another light," continued the Doctor, " a ton of bone-dust, made into such a superphosphate as we are talk- ing about, would be worth $72.58." " How much," asked the Deacon, " would a ton of the bone-dust be considered worth before it was converted into superphosphate ? " " A ton of bone-dust," replied the Doctor, " contains 76 Ibs. of nitrogen, worth, at 18 cents per lb., $13.68, and 464 Ibs. phosphoric acid, worth 7 cents per lb., $32.48. In other words, a ton of bone- dust, at the usual estimate, is worth $46.16." 320 TALKS ON MANURES. " And," said the Deacon, " after it is converted into superphos- phate, the same ton of bones is worth $72.58. It thus appears that you pay $26.42 per ton for simply making the phosphoric acid in a ton of bones soluble. Is'nt it paying a little too much for the whistle ? " "Possibly such is the case," said I, "and in point of fact, I think bone-dust, especially from steamed or boiled bones, can be used with more economy in its natural state than in the form of superphosphate." Superphosphate can be made more economically from mineral phosphates than from bones— the nitrogen, if desired, being sup- plied from fish-scrap or from some other cheap source of nitrogen. But for my own use I would prefer to buy a good article of superphosphate of lime, containing no nitrogen, provided it can be obtained cheap enough. I would buy the animoniacal, or nitro- genous manure separately, and do my own mixing — unless the mixture could be bought at a less cost than the same weight of soluble phosphoric acid, and available nitrogen could be obtained separately. A pure superphosphate — and by pure I mean a superphosphate containing no nitrogen — can be drilled in with the seed without injury, but I should be a little afraid of drilling in some of the ammoniacal or nitrogenous superphosphates with small seeds. And then, again, the "nitrogen" in a superphosphate mixture may be in the form of nitric acid, or sulphate of ammonia, in one case, or, in another case, in the form of hair, woollen rags, hide, or leather. It is far more valuable as nitric acid or ammonia, because it will act quicker^ and if I wanted hair, woollen rags, horn-shavings, etc., I would prefer to have them separate from the superphosphate. CHAPTER XXXVIII. SPECIAL MANURES. Twenty-five to thirty years ago, much was said in regard to spe- cial manures. Fertilizers were prepared for the different crops with special reference to the composition of the plants. "But it was known then, as now," said the Doctor, " that all our agricultural plants were composed of the same elements." " True, but what was claimed was this : Some crops contain, for SPECIAL MANURES. 321 instance, more phosphoric acid than other crops, and for these a manure rich in phosphoric acid was provided. Others contained a large proportion of potash, and these were called ' potash crops,' and the manure prescribed for them was rich in potash. And so with the other ingredients of plants." " I recollect it well," said the Doctor, " and, in truth, for several years I had much faith in the idea. It was advocated with con- summate ability by the lamented Liebig, and in fact a patent was taken out by the Musgraves, of Liverpool, for the manufacture of Liebig's Special Manures, based on this theory. But the manures, though extensively used by the leading farmers of England, and endorsed by the highest authorities, did not in the end stand the test of actual farm practice, and their manufacture was abandoned. And I do not* know of any experienced agricultural chemist who now advocates this doctrine of special manures. "Dr. Vcelcker says: * The ash-analyses of plants do not afford a sufficiently trustworthy guide to the practical farmer in selecting the kind of manure which is best applied to each crop.' " " Never mind the authorities," said the Deacon ; " what we want are facts." " Well," replied the Doctor, " take the wheat and turnip crop as an illustration. " We will suppose that there is twice the weight of wheat-straw as of grain ; and that to 10 tons of bulbs there is 3 tons of turnip- tops. Now, 100 Ibs. each of the ash of these two crops contain : Wheat crop. Turnip crop. Phosphoric acid 11.44 7.33 Potash 15.44 32.75 Sulphuric acid 2.44 11.25 Lime 5.09 19.28 Magnesia 3.33 1.56 " There are other ingredients," continued the Doctor, " but these are the most important. " Now, if you were going to compound a manure for wheat, say 100 Ibs., consisting of potash and phosphoric acid, what would be the proportions ? " The Deacon figured for a few moments, and then produced the following table : 100 LBS. SPECIAL MANUKE FOR WHEAT AND TURNIPS. Wheat manure. Turnip manure. Phosphoric acid 42£ Ibs. 181 Ibs. Potash 57£ " 811 " 100 Ibs. 100 Ibs. "Exactly," said tho Doctor, " and yet the experiments of Luwes 322 TALKS ON MANURES. and Gilbert clearly prove that a soil needs to be richer in available phosphoric acid, to produce even a fair crop of turnips, than to produce a large crop of wheat. And the experience of farmers everywhere tends in the same direction. England is the greatest turnip-growing country in the world, and you will find that where one farmer applies potash to turnips, or superphosphate to wheat, a hundred farmers use superphosphate as a special manure for the turnip crop." "And we arc certainly warranted in saying," continued the Doc- tor, " that the composition of a plant affords, in practical agriculture, and on ordinary cultivated soils, no sort of indication as to the com- position of tlie manure it is best to apply to the crop" " Again," continued the Doctor, " if the theory was a correct one, it would follow that those crops which contained the most nitro- gen, would require the most nitrogen in the manure. Beans, peas, and clover would require a soil or a manure richer in available ni- trogen than wh'eat, barley, or oats. We know that the very reverse is true — know it from actual, and repeated, and long-continued ex- periments like those of Lawes and Gilbert, and from the common experience of farmers everywhere." " You need not get excited," said the Deacon, " the theory is a very plausible one, and while I cannot dispute your facts, I must confess I cannot see why it is not reasonable to suppose that a plant which contains a large amount of nitrogen should not want a manure specially rich in nitrogen ; or why turnips which contain so much potash should not want a soil or manure specially rich in potash." "Do you recollect," said I, " that crop of turnips I raised on a poor blowing-sand ? " " Yes," said the Deacon, " it was the best crop of turnips I ever saw grow." " That crop of turnips," said I, " was due to a dressing of super- phosphate of lime, with little or no potash in it." "I know all that," said the Deacon. "I admit the fact that superphosphate is a good manure for turnips. "What I want to know is the reason why superphosphate is better for turnips than for wheat?" "Many reasons might be given," said the Doctor; "Prof. Yoelcker attributes it to the limited feeding range of the roots of turnips, as compared to wheat. ' The roots of wheat,' says Prof. Ycolcker, * as is well known, penetrate the soil to a much greater depth than the more delicate feeding fibres of the roots of turnips. Wheat, remaining on the ground two or three months longer than SPECIAL MANUKES. 323 turnips, can avail itself for a longer period of the resources of the soil; therefore in most cases the phosphoric acid disseminated through the soil is amply sufficient to meet the requirements of the wheat crop ; whilst turnips, depending on a thinner depth of soil during their shorter period of growth, cannot assimilate sufficient phosphoric acid, to come to perfection. This is, I believe, the main reason why the direct supply of readily available phosphates is so beneficial to root-crops, and not to wheat." "This reason," said I, "has never been entirely satisfactory to me. If the roots of the turnip have such a limited range, how are they able to get such a large amount of potash? " It is probable that the turnip, containing such a large relative amount of potash and so little phosphoric acid, has roots capable of absorbing potash from a very weak solution, but not so in re- gard to phosphoric acid." " There is another way of looking at this matter," said the Doc- tor. " You must recollect that, if turnips and wheat were grow- ing in the same field, both plants get their food from the same so- lution. And instead of supposing that the wheat-plant has the power of taking up more phosphoric acid than the turnip-plant, we may suppose that the turnip has the power of rejecting cr ex- cluding a portion of phosphoric acid. It takes up no more potash, than the wheat-plant, but it takes less phosphoric acid." But it is not necessary to speculate on this matter. For the present we may accept the fact, that the proportion of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen in the crop is no indication of the proper proportion in which these ingredients should be applied to the soil for these crops in manure. It may well be that we should use special manures for special crops ; but we must ascertain what these manures should be, not from analyses of the crops to be grown, but from experiment and experience. So*far as present facts throw light on this subject, we should conclude that those crops which contain the least nitrogen are the most likely to be benefited by its artificial application ; and the crops containing the most phosphoric acid, are the crops to which, in ordinary practical agriculture, it will be unprofitable to apply superphosphate of lime. " That," said the Doctor, "may be stating the case a little too strong." " Perhaps so," said I, " but you must recollect I am now speak- ing of practical agriculture. If I wanted to raise a good crop of cabbage, I should not think of consulting a chemical analysis 324 *•• TALKS ON MANUBES. of the cabbage. If I set out cabbage on an acre of land, which, without manure, would produce 16 tons of cabbage, does any one mean to tell me that if I put the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash which 10 tons of cabbage contain, on an adjoining acre, that it would produce an extra growth of 10 tons of cabbage. I can not believe it. The facts are all the other way. Plant growth is not such a simple matter as the advocates of this theory, if there be any at this late day, would have us believe." 0 H A P T B E XXXIX. VALUE OF FERTILIZERS. In 1857, Prof. S. W. Johnson, in his Report to the Connecticut Agricultural Society, adopted the following valuation : Potash 4 cents per lb. Phosphoric acid, insoluble in water 4i " " " ft " soluble " " ....12* " " " Nitrogen 17 " " " Analyses of many of the leading commercial fertilizers at that time showed that, when judged by this standard, the price charged was far above their actual value. In some cases, manures selling for $00 per ton, contained nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash worth only from $20 to $25 per ton. And one well-known manure, •which sold for $28 per ton, was found to be worth only $2.33 per ton. A Bone Fertilizer selling at $50 per ton, was worth less than $14 per ton. " In 1852," said the Doctor, " superphosphate of lime was manu- factured by the New Jersey Zinc Co., and sold in New York at $50 per ton of 2,000 Ibs. At the same time, superphosphate of lime made from Coprolites, was selling in England for $24 per ton of 2,240 Ibs. The late Prof. Mapes commenced making "Im- proved Superphosphate of Lime," at Newark, N. J., in 1852, and Mr. De Burg, the same year, made a plain superphosphate of lime in Brooklyn, N. Y. The price, in proportion to value, was high, and, in fact, the same may be said of many of our superphos- phate manures, until within the last few years. Notwithstanding the comparatively high price, and the uncer- tain quality of these commercial manures, the demand has Inrn steadily on the increase. We have now many honorable and in- VALUE OF FERTILIZERS. $ 325 telligent men engaged in the manufacture and sale of these artifi- cial manures, and owing to more definite knowledge on the part of the manufacturers and of the purchasers, it is not a difficult matter to find manures well worth the money asked for them. " A correct analysis," said I, u furnishes the only sure test of value. * Testimonials ' from farmers and others are pre-eminently unreliable. With over thirty years' experience in the use of these fertilizers, I would place far more confidence on a good and reli- able analysis than on any actual trial I could make in the field. Testimonials to a patent fertilizer are about as reliable as testimo- nials to a patent-medicine. In buying a manure, we want to know what it contains, and the condition of the constituents." In 1877, Prof. S. W. Johnson gives the following figures, show- ing " the trade- values, or cost in market, per pound, of the ordi- nary occurring forms of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as recently found in the New York and New England markets : Cents per pouK d. Nitrogen in ammonia and nitrates 24 " in Peruvian Guano, fine steamed bone, dried and fine ground blood, meat, and fish 20 " in fine ground bone, horn, and wool-dust 18 " in coarse bone, horn-shavings, and fish-scrap 15 Phosphoric acid soluble in water 121 " " reverted," and in Peruvian Guano 9 1 insoluble, in fine bone and fish guano 7 in coarse bone, bone-ash, and bone-black 5 in fine ground rock phosphate ... 3s Potash in high-grade sulphate 9 in kainit, as sulphate 71 " in muriate, or potassium chloride G " These c estimated values,' " says Prof. Johnson, " are not fixed, but vary with the state of the market, and are from time to time subject to revision. They are not exact to the cent or its fractions, because the same article sells cheaper at commercial or manufac- turing centers than in country towns, cheaper in large lots than in small, cheaper for cash than on time. These values are high i enough to do no injustice to the dealer, and accurate enough to serve the object of the consumer. "By multiplying the per cent of Nitrogen, etc., by the trade- value per pound, and then by 20, we get the value per ton of the several ingredients, and adding the latter together, we obtain the total estimated value per ton. U.'J5 Selling price per ton of 2,000 Ibs $21.80 The potash is not given, or this would probably add four or five dollars to its estimated value. " All of which goes to show," said the Deacon, " that the Peru- vian Government is asking, in proportion to value, from two to two and a half times as much for guano as was charged twenty- five or thirty years ago. That first cargo of guano, sold in New York under the new guarantee, in 1877, for $56 per ton, is worth no more than the Ichaboe guano sold in England hi 1845, for less than $22 per ton ! " And furthermore," continued the Deacon, " from all that I can learn, the guano of the present day is not only far poorer in nitro- gen than it was formerly, but the nitrogen is not as soluble, and consequently not so valuable, pound for pound. Much of the guano of the present day bears about the same relation to genuine old-fashioned guano, as leached ashes do to unleached, or as a ton of manure that has been leached in the barn-yard does to a ton that has been kept under cover." "True, to a certain extent," said the Doctor, "but you must recollect that this * guaranteed ' guano is now sold by analysis. You pay for what you get and no more." " Exactly," said the Deacon, " but what you get is not so good. A pound of nitrogen in the leached guano is not as available or as valuable as a pound of nitrogen in the unleached guano. An this fact ought to be understood." " One thing," said I, "seems clear. The Peruvian Government is charging a considerably higher price for guano, in proportion to its actual value, than was charged 20 or 25 years ago. It may VALUE OF FERTILIZERS. 329 be, that the guano is still the cheapest manure in the market, but at any rate the price is higher than formerly— while there has been no corresponding advance in the price of produce in the markets of the world." POTASH AS A MANURE. On land where fish, fish-scrap, or guano, has been used freely for some years, and the crops exported from the farm, we may ex- pect a relative deficiency of potash in the soil. In such a case, an application of unleached ashes or potash-salts will be likely to produce a decided benefit. Clay or loamy land is usually richer in potash than soils of a more sandy or gravelly character. And on poor sandy land, the use of fish or of guano, if the crops are all sold, will be soon likely to prove of little benefit owing to a deficiency of potash in the soil. They may produce good crops for a few years, but the larger the crops produced and sold, the more would the soil become deficient in potash. We have given the particulars of Lawes and Gilbert's experi- ments on barley. Mr. Lawes at a late meeting in London, stated that " he had grown 25 crops of barley one after the other with nitrogen, either as ammonia or nitrate of soda, but without potash, and that by the use of potash they had produced practically no better result. This year (1877), for the first time, the potash had failed a little, and they had now produced 10 or 12 bushels more per acre with potash than without, showing that they were coming to the end of the available potash in the soil. This year (1877), they obtained 54 bushels of barley with potash, and 42 bushels without it. Of course, this was to be expected, and they had expected it much sooner. The same with wheat ; he expected the end would come in a few years, but they had now gone on be- tween 30 and 40 years. When the end came they would not be sorry, because then they would have the knowledge they wcro seeking for." Dr. Vcelcker, at the same meeting remarked : " Many soils con- tained from li- to 2 per cent of available potash, and a still larger quantity locked up, in the shape of minerals, which only gradually came into play ; but the quantity of potash carried off in crops did not exceed 2 cwt. per acre, if so much. Now 0.1 per cent of any constituent, calculated on a depth of six inches, was equiva- lent to one ton per acre. Therefore, if a soil contained only 0.1 per cent of potash, a ton of potash might be carried off from a 330 TALKS ON MANURES. depth of 6 inches. But you had not only 0.1 per cent, but some- thing like 1£ per cent and upwards in many soils. It is quite true there were many soils from which you could not continuously take crops without restoring the potash." " In all of which," said the Doctor, " there is nothing new. It does not help us to determine whether potash is or is not deficient in our soil." " That," said I, " can be ascertained only by actual experiment Put a little hen-manure on a row of corn, and on another row a little hen-manure and ashes, and on another row, ashes alone, and leave one row without anything. On my farm I am satisfied that we need not buy potash-salts for manure. I do not say they would do no good, for they may do good on land not deficient in availa- ble potash, just as lime will do good on land containing large quantities of lime. But potash is not what my land needs to make it produce maximum crops. It needs available nitrogen, and possibly soluble phosphoric acid." The system of farming adopted in this section, is much more likely to impoverish the soil of nitrogen and phosphoric acid than of potash. If a soil is deficient in potash, the crop which will first indicate the deficiency, will probably be clover, or beans. Farmers who can grow large crops of red-clover, need not buy potash for manure. On farms where grain is largely raised and sold, and where the straw, and corn-stalks, and hay, and the hay from clover-seed arc retained on the farm, and this strawy manure returned to the land, the soil will become poor from the lack of nitrogen and phos- phoric acid long before there would be any need of an artificial supply of potash. On the other hand, if farmers should use fish, or guano, or superphosphate, or nitrate of soda, and sell all the hay, and straw, and potatoes, and root-crops, they could raise, many of our sandy soils would soon become poor in available potash. But even in this case the clover and beans would show the deficiency sooner than wheat or even potatoes. " And yet we are told," said the Deacon, " that potatoes contain no end of potash." "And the same is true," said I, " of root-crops, such as mangel- wurzel, turnips, etc., but the fact has no other significance than this : If you grow potatoes for many years on the same land and manure them with nitrogenous manures, the soil is likely to be speedily impoverished of potash." " But suppose," said the Deacon, " that you grow potatoes on tho VALUE OF FERTILIZERS. 331 same land without manure of any kind, would not the soil become equally poor in potash ?" " No," said I, " because you would, in such a case, get very small crops — small, not from lack of potash, but from lack of nitro- gen. If I had land which had grown corn, potatoes, wheat, oats, and hay, for many years without manure, or an occasional dress- ing of our common barnyard-manure, and wanted it to produce a good crop of potatoes, I should not expect to get it by simply applying potash. The soil might be poor in potash, but it is almost certain to be still poorer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid.' Land that has been manured with farm-yard or stable-manure for years, no matter how it has been cropped, is not likely to need potash. The manure is richer in potash than in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. And the same may be said of the soil. If a farmer uses nitrogenous and phosphatic manures on his clayey or loamy land that is usually relatively rich in potash, and will apply his common manure to the sandy parts of the farm, he will rarely need to purchase manures containing potash. APPENDIX. LETTER FROM EDWARD JESSOP, YOKE, PA. YORK, PA., March 16, 1876. Joseph Harris, Esq., Moreton Farm, RocJiester, N. Y. : DEAR SIR — Your favor of the 2:id of last month came safely to hand, and I am truly obliged to you for the reply to my question. — You ask, can I help you with facts or suggestions, on the subject of manure ? 1 fear not much ; but it may be useful to you to know what others need to know. I will look forward to the advent of "Talks on Manures" with much interest, hoping to get new light on a subject second to none in importance to the farmer. I have done a little at composting for some years, and am now having a pile of about forty cords, made up of stable-manure and earth taken from the wash of higher lands, turned and fined. The labor of digging and hauling the earth, composting in thin layers with manure, turning, and fining, is so great, I doubt whether it pays for most farm crops— this to be used for mangel-wurzel and market-garden. The usual plan in this county is to keep the stable-manure made dur- ing winter, and the accumulation of the summer in the barn-yard, where it is soaked by rain, and trampled fine by cattle, and in August and Sep- tember is hauled upon ground to be seeded with wheat and grass-seeds. I do not think there is much piling and turning done. My own conclusions, not based on accurate experiments, however, are, that the best manure I have ever applied was prepared in a covered pit on which cattle were allowed to run, and so kept well tramped — some drainage into a well, secured by pouring water upon it, when necessary, and the drainage pumped and distributed over the surface, at short intervals, particularly the parts not well tramped, and allowed to remain until it became a homogeneous mass, which it will do without having undergone so active a fermentation as to have thrown off a con- siderable amount of gas. The next best, composting it with earth, as above described, piled about five or six feet high, turned as often as convenient, and kept moist enough to secure fermentation. Or, to throw all the manure as made into a covered pit, until it is thoroughly mixed and made fine, by allowing hogs to run upon it and root at will ; and when prepared for even spreading, apply it as a top- dressing on grass-land — at any convenient time. As to how many loads of fresh manure it takes to make one of well- rotted manure, it may be answered approximately, three to one, but that would depend a good deal on the manner of doing it, and the amount of rough material in it. If well trodden by cattle under cover, and suf- ficient drainage poured over it, to prevent any violent fermentation, the 332 APPENDIX. 333 loss of weight, I think, would not be very great, nor the bulk lessened over one-half. Many years ago an old and successful farmer said to me, " if you want to get the full benefit of manure, spread it as a top-dressing on some growing crop," and all my experience and observation since tend to con- firm the correctness of his advice. While on this subject, allow me to protest against the practice of naming the quantity of manure applied to a given space, as so many loads, as altogether too indefinite. The bushel or cord is a definite quan- tity, which all can understand. The average price of good livery stable horse-manure at this place has I been for several years four dollars a cord. With two and a half miles to haul, I am trying whether keeping a flock of 50 breeding ewes, and feeding liberally with wheat bran, in addition to hay and pasture, will not produce the needed manure more cheaply. Respectfully yours, EDWARD JESSOP. P. S. — You ask for the average weight of a cord of manure, such as we pay four dollars for. I had a cord of horse-stable manure from a livery stable in York which had been all the time under cover, with several pigs running upon it, and was moist, without any excess of wet, loaded into a wagon-box holding an entire cord, or 123 cubic feet, tramped by the wagoner three times while loading. The wagon was weighed at our hay-scales before loading, and then the wagon and load together, with a net result for the manure of 4,400 Ibs. I considered this manure rather better than the average. I had another load, from a different place, which weighed over 5,000 Ibs., but on ex- amination it was found to contain a good deal of coal ashes. We never buy by the ton. Harrison Bros. & Co., Manufacturing Chemists, Phila- delphia, rate barnyard-manure as worth $5.77 per ton, and say that would be about $7.21 per cord, which would be less than li tons to the cord. If thrown in loosely, and it happened to be very dry, that might be pos- sible. Waring, in his " Handy Book of Husbandry," page 201, says, ha caused a cord of well-trodden livery stable manure containing the usual pro- portion of straw, to be carefully weighed, and that the cord weighed 7,080 Ibs. The load 1 had weighed, weighing 4,400 Ibs., was considered by the wagoner and by myself as a fair sample of good manure. In view of these wide differences, further trials would be desirable. Dana, in his "Muck Manual," says a cord of green cow-dung, pure, as dropped, weighs 9,289 Ibs. Farmers here seldom draw manure with less than three, more generally with four horses or mules ; loading is done by the purchaser. From the barn-yard, put on loose boards, from 40 to 60 bushels are about an aver- age load. In hauling from town to a distance of three to five miles, farmers gen- erally make two loads of a cord each, a day's work. From the barn-yard, 334 TALKS ON MANURES. a very variable number, per day. In my own case, two men with three horses have been hauling six and seven loads of sixty bushels, fine com- post, a distance of from one-half to three-fourths of a mile, up a long and rather steep hill, and spreading from the wagon, as hauled, upon grass-sod. Our larger farmers often have one driver and his team, two wagons, one loading, while the other is drawn to the field ; the driver slips off one of the side-boards, and with his dung-hook draws off piles at nearly equal distances, to be spread as convenient. EDWARD JESSOP. LETTER FROM DR. E. L. STURTEVANT, SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASS. SOUTH FBAMIXGHAM, MASS., April 2, 1S7G. FRIEND HARRIS— Manure about Boston is sold in various ways. First, according to the number of animals kept ; price varying so much, that I do not venture to name the figures. By the cord, to be trodden over while loading ; never by weight, so far as I can learn — price from 0 to $12.00 per cord, according to season, and various accidental circum- stances. During the past winter, manure has been given away in Boston. Handling, hauling to the railroad, and freight costing $4 per cord for carrying 30 miles out. Market-gardeners usually haul manure as a re- turn freight on their journeys to and from market. About South Fra- mingham, price stiff at $8 a cord in the cellar, and this may be considered the ruling suburban price. Very friendly yours, E. LEWIS STURTEVANT. LETTER FROM M. C. WELD. NEW YORK, Nov. 9, 1876. MY DEAR HARRIS — I don't know what I can write about manures, that would be of use. I have strong faith in humus, in ashes, leached and unleached, in lime, gas-lime, plaster, bones, ammonia ready formed, nitrates ready formed, not much in meat and blood, unless they are cheap. Nevertheless, they often are cheap, and produce splendid effects. I believe in sulphuric acid, with organic nitrogenous manures ; the com- posting of meat, blood, hair, etc., with peat and muck, and wetting it down with dilute sulphuric acid. I believe in green-manuring, heartily, and in tillage, tillage, tillage. Little faith in superphosphates and com- pounded manures, at selling prices. Habirshaw's guano is good enough. So much for my creed. Truly yours, M. C. WELD. LETTER FROM PETER HENDERSON. NEW TORE, Oct. 26, 1876. Mr. Joseph Harris: DEAR SIR— If you will refer to my work " Gardening for Profit," New Edition, page 34, you will get about all the information 1 possess on Manures, except that I do not say anything about price. In a general way it might be safe to advise that whenever a ton (it is always best to speak of manures by weight) of either cow, horse, hog, or other stable- manure can be laid on the ground for §3, it is cheaper than commercial fertilizers of any kind at their usual market rates. This $3 per ton, I APPENDIX. 335 think, would be about the average cost in New York, Boston, or Phila- delphia. We never haul it on the ground until we are ready to plow it in. If it has to be taken from the hog or cattle yards, we draw it out into large heaps, convenient to where it is to be put on the land, turning it, to keep it from burning or "fire-fanging," if necessary. None of our farmers or market-gardeners here keep it under cover. The expense of such covering and the greater difficulties in getting at it, for the immense quantities we use, would be greater than the benefits to be derived from keeping it under cover— benefits, in fact, which, I think, may be greatly overrated. Very truly yours, PETER HENDERSON. LETTER FROM J. M. B. ANDERSON, ED. "CANADA FARMER," TORONTO. " CANADA FARMER " OFFICE, TORONTO, March 29, 1876. J. Harris, Esq. : DEAR SIR— Tours of the 25th Inst. is to hand, and I shall be most happy to render you any assistance in my power. The work you under- take is in able hands, and I have every confidence that, when completed, it will form an invaluable acquisition to the agricultural literature of the day. Manure in this city is usually sold by the two-horse load— about It tons— at the rate of $1 per load, or 65 cents per ton. The load contains just about a cord of manure, consequently a cord will weigh about 1£ tons. With reference to the general management of manure in Canada, I may say that the system followed differs in no material respect from that of New York and the other Eastern States. It is usually kept over winter in the open barn-yard (rarely under cover, I am sorry to say), laid out on the land about the time of disappearance of last snow, and plowed in. In some cases it is not carted out until the land is ready for immediate plowing. With some of our more advanced farmers, the system has lately been adopted of keeping manure under cover and sprinkling it thoroughly at intervals with plaster and other substances. Tanks arc also becoming more common than formerly, for the preservation of liq- uid manure, which is usually applied by means of large, perforated hogs- heads, after the manner of street-watering. You ask, how the manure is managed at Bow Park, Brantford. That made during fall and winter is carefully kept in as small bulk as possible, to prevent exposure to the weather. In February and March it is drawn out and put in heaps 8 feet square, and well packed, to prevent the es- scape of ammonia. In spring, as soon as practicable, it is spread, and plowed under immediately. Manure made in spring and summer is spread on the field at once, and plowed under with a good, deep furrow Very truly yours, J. M. B. ANDERSON, Ed. Canada Farmer. MANURE STATISTICS OF LONG ISLAND. TKH MANURE TRADE OF LONG ISLAND— LETTER FROM J. H. EUSHMORE. OLD WESTBURT, Long Island, April 6, 1876. Joseph Harris, Esq. : DEAR SIR — The great number of dealers in manure in New York pro- 336 TALKS O^ 5TAXTJKES. eludes accuracy, yet Mr. Skidmore (who has been testifying volumi- nously before the New York Board of Health in relation to manure and street dirt), assures me that the accompanying figures are nearly correct. I enclose statement, from two roads, taken from their books, and the amount shipped over the other road I obtained verbally from the General Freight Agent, and embody it in the sheet of statistics. The Ash report I know is correct, as I had access to the books showing the business, for over ten years. I have made numerous applications, verbally, and by letter, to our largest market gardeners, but there seems to exist a general and strong disinclination to communicate anything worth knowing. I enclose the best of the replies received. Speaking for some of our largest gardeners, I may say that they cultivate over one hundred acres, and use land sufficiently near to the city to enable them to dispense with railroad transportation in bringing manure to their places and marketing crops. I have noticed that one of the shrewdest gardeners invariably composts horn-shavings and bone-meal with horse- manure several months before expecting to use it. A safe average of manure used per acre by gardeners, may be stated at ninety (90) tubs, and from two hundred to twenty hundred pounds of fertilizer in addi- tion, according to its strength, and the kind of crop. The following railroad manure statistics will give a gener.illy correct idea of the age of manure, when used : STATEMENT OF MANURE SENT FROM JAN. 1 TO DEC. SI, 1875. Over F. X. X. «f- (\ 7?. 11. Or.r Souther* R. E. January 1,531 tubs. 5,815 tubs. February 4,357 March 740 " 12,217 April 12,122 " 7,055 May 7,383 3,049 June 5,725 1,365 July 6,4734 685 August 6,370i 2,911 September 3,197 14,702 October 880 C60 November 512 840 December 1,406 4,0 .3 40,340 tubs. 57,07!) tubs. A tub is equal to 14 bushels. Hobson, Hurtado & Co. report the amount of Peruvian guano sold in this country last year at thirty thousand tons. Estimated number of horses in New York city, 100,000. Estimated product of manure per horse. Four cords. Estimated proportion of straw to pure excrement. One-half. Amount shipped direct from stables. Nearly all. Amount shipped on vessels. One-half. Length of time the unshipped manure remains in heaps. From three to four months. Average cost per horse, annually. S3. Greatest distance of shipment. Virginia. APPENDIX. 337 Average amount shipped via L. I. K. E. 60,000 tubs. Price of manure per tub delivered on cars or vessel. 80 cents. Average amount put on car. 40 tubs. STATISTICS OF Asn TRADE. — Time when ashes are delivered. From middle of June to middle of October. Places from which they are mostly shipped. Montreal, Belleville, and Toronto (Canada). Method of transportation. Canal boats. Average load per boat. About 8,000 bushels. Average amount annually sold. 360,000 bushels. Average cost delivered to farmers. 20? cents per bushel. Per Acre, about. Amount used by farmers for potatoes GO tubs. " " 'k " " cabbage (late).... 50 " " " " » " corn 13 " Amount of guano used on Long Island, as represented by the books of Chapman & Vauwyck, and their estimate of sales by other firms, 5,000 tons. The fertilizers used on the Island are bought almost exclusively by market gardeners or farmers, who do a little market gardening, as it is the general conviction that ordinary farm-crops will not give a compen- sating return for their application. Most market gardeners keep so little stock that the manure made on the place is very inconsiderable. Our dairy farmers either compost home-made manures with that from the city, spread it on the land for corn in the spring, or rot it separate, to use in the fall for wheat, on land that has been cropped with oats the same year. The manure put on for potatoes is generally estimated to enrich the land sufficient for it to produce one crop of winter grain, and from five to seven crops of grass, when it is again plowed and cultivated in rotation with, first, corn, second, potatoes or oats, and is reseeded in autumn of the same year. Fish and fish guano are largely used on land bordering the water, and adjacent to the oil-works. The average price for guano in bulk at oil- works is $12 per ton. The average price for fish en wharf is $1.50 per thousand, and it is estimated that, as a general average, 6,000 fish make a ton of guano. The fish, when applied to corn, are placed two at each hill, and plowed under at any time after the corn is large enough to cul- tivate. Seaweed is highly prized by all who use it, and it will produce a good crop of corn when spread thickly on the land previous to plowing. Very respectfully, J. H. RUSHMORE. LETTER FROM JOHN E. BACKUS. NEWTOWN, Long Island, N. T., March 2nd, 1876. Mr. G. H. Rushmore: DEAR SIR.— Some farmers and market-gardeners use more, and some less, manure, according to crops to be raised. I use about 30 good two- horse wagon-loads to the acre, to be applied in rows or broad-casted, as best for certain crops. I prefer old horse-dung for mo^t all purposes. 338 TALKS ON MANURES. Guano, as a fertilizer, phosphate of bone and blood are very good; they act as a stimulant on plants and vegetation, and are highly beneficial to some vegetation— more valuable on poor soil than elsewhere, except to produce a thrifty growth in plants, and to insure a large crop. By giving you these few items they vary considerably on different parts of the Island ; judgment must be used in all cases and all busi- ness. Hoping these few lines may be of some avail to Mr. Harris and yourself, I remain, yours, etc., JOHN E. BACK MANURE IN PHILADELPHIA. LETTER FROM JOSEPH IIEACOCK. JENKINTOWN, Montgomery Co., Pa., April 18th, 1876. Mr DEAR FRIEND HARRIS. — Stable-manure in Philadelphia, costs by the single four-horse-load, about $9 or $10. Mostly, the farmers who haul much of it, have it engaged by the year, and then it can be had for from $7 to $8 per load. Mostly, four horses are used, though we fre- quently see two and three-horse teams, aud occasionally, five or six horses are used. I have never seen any kind of dung hauled but that of horses. Cow-manure would be thought too heavy to haul so long a dis- tance. Sugar-house waste, spent hops, glue waste, etc, are hauled to a small extent. We live about 9 miles from the center of the city, and the road is very hilly, though otherwise a good one, being made of stone. The loads vary from 2i to 3i or 4 tons for four horses, according to the dryness of the manure. The wagons are made very strong, and wi'igh from 1,600 Ibs. to 2,300 or 2,400 Ibs., according to the number of horses that are to be used to them. I cannot say how many cords there are in an average load, but probably not less than two cords to four horses. One of my neighbors has a stable engaged by the year. He pays $2.50 per ton, and averages about three tons per load, and the distance from the stable in the city to his place, can not be less than 12 miles. His team goes empty one way and of course can not haul more than a load a day. In fact, can not average that, as it would be too hard on his horses. The horses used for the purpose are large and strong. Fifteen or twenty years ago, there was kept on most farms of 75 to 100 acres, a team purposely for hauling manure from the city. But it is different now, many of the farmers using artificial manures, as it costs so much less ; and others are keeping more stock, and so making their own manure. Still, there is a great deal hauled yet. And some of it to a distance of 20 miles. Though when hauled to this distance, the teams are loaded both ways. For instance, they will start to the city with a load of hay (35 to 50 cwt.), on Monday afternoon (Tuesday is the day of the Hay Market) ; and when they have their load of hay off on Tuesday, they load their manure and drive out five or six miles and put up for the night. Next morning they start about 3 o'clock, arriving home before noon, having been away two days. On Thursday afternoon, they start again. You can see that manuring in this way is very expensive. But farmers about here well know that if they do not manure well they raise APPENDIX. 339 but little. Probably about four loads are used per acre on the average. Each load is generally thrown off the wagon in one large heap near where wanted, and is allowed to lie until they use it. I can not tell how much it loses in bulk by lying in the heap. As to what crops it is used on, farmers do not think that they could go amiss in applying it to anything except oats. But it is probably used more for top-dressing mowing land, and for potatoes, than for any- thing else. The usual rotation is corn, potatoes, or oats, wheat seeded to clover and timothy, and then kept in grass from two to four years. Those who haul stable-manure, usually use bone-dust or superphosphate to a greater or less extent. Last December I built a pig-pen, 20 ft. x40 ft., li stories high. The upper story to be used for litter, etc. There is a four feet entry on the north side, running the length of the building. The remainder is divided into five pens, each 8 ft. x 16 ft. It is made so that in cold weather it can be closed up tight, while in warmer weather it can be made as open as an out-shed. I am very much pleased with it. The pigs make a great deal of manure, and I believe that it can be made much cheaper than it can be bought and hauled from Philadelphia. JOSEPH HEACOCK, JR. LETTER FROM HERMAN L. ROUTZAHN. MIDDLETOWN, Md., May llth, 1876. Joseph Harris, Esq. : I herewith proceed to answer questions asked. Wheat and corn are principal crops. Corn is fed now altogether to stock for the manure. There is but little soiling done. The principal method of- making manure is : Feeding all the com raised, as well as hay, oats, and roots, to cattle ; using wheat straw, weeds, etc., as bedding, throwing the manure in the yard (uncovered), and to cover the pile with plaster (by sowing broadcast), at least once a week. To this pile is added the manure from the hog-pens, hen-house, etc., and worked over thoroughly at least twice before using. It is then applied to corn by plowing under ; to wheat, as a top-dressing. For corn it is usually hauled to the field, thrown off in heaps 25 feet each way, a cart-load making two heaps. Spread just before the plow. For wheat, spread on directly after plow- ing, and thoroughly harrowed in. Applied broadcast for potatoes. Com- posts of different kinds are made and used same as in other localities, I presume. Artificial manures are going into disrepute (justly too). This is the plan now adopted by the farmers in this county (Frederick). Where woods are accessible, leaves and mould are hauled in and added to the manure-heap ; in fact, every substance that can be worked into the manure-heap is freely used. Well-rotted stable-manure is worth from $1.50 to $2.50 per cord, according to condition and locality. Very Respectf ully Yours, HERMAN L. ROUTZAHN. 340 TALKS ON MANURES. LETTER FROM PKOF. E. M. SHELTON, PROF. OF AGRICULTURE, KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, Kansas, May 5, 187G. DEAR SIR. — In reply to your first question, I would scy that stable- manure in this vicinity, is held in very light estimation. Indeed, by the householders of this city, and quite generally by the farmers, manure is re- garded as one of those things— like drouth and grasshoppers— with which a mysterious Providence sees fit to clog the operations of the husband- man. The great bulk of the stable-manure made in this city is, every spring, carted into ravines and vacant lots— wherever, iu short, with least expense it can be put out of reach of the senses. It must not be understood by this that manure has little influence on the growing crops in Kansas. Nowhere have I seen such excellent results from application of home-made fertilizers, as in Kansas. For those sterile wastes known as "Alkali lands," and " Buffalo wallows," manure is a speedy and certain cure. During two years of severe drouth, I have noticed that wherever manure had been supplied, the crop with- stood the effects of dry weather much better than where no application had been made. Four years ago, a strip across one of our fields was heavily manured ; this year this field is into wheat, and a dark band that may be seen half a mile shows where this application was made. These facts the better class of our farmers are beginning to appreciate. A few days ago, a neighbor, a very intelligent farmer, assured me that from manuring eight to ten acres every year, his farm was now in better condition than when be broke up the prairie fifteen years ago. I know of no analysis of stable or farmyard-manure made in Kansas. Concerning the weight of manures, I can give you a few facts, having had occasion during the past winter to weigh several loads used for experimental purposes. This manure was wheeled into the barnyard, chiefly from the cattle stalls, during the winter of 1874-5. It lay in the open yard until February last, when it was weighed and hauled to the fields. I found that a wagon-box, li x3 x9 feet, into which the manure was pitched, without treading, held with slight variations, when level full, one ton. At this rate a cord would Weigh very close to three tons. The greatest difficulty that we have to encounter in the management of manure grows out of our dry summers. During our summer months, unless sufficient moisture is obtained, the manure dries out rapidly, be- comes fire-fanged and practically worthless. My practice upon the Col- lege farm has been to give the bottom of the barn-yard a "dishing" form, so that it holds all the water that falls upon it. The manure I keep as flat as possible, taking pains to place it where the animals will keep it trod down solid. I have adopted this plan after having tried composting and piling the manure in the yards, and am satisfied that it is the only practical way to manage manures in this climate. There is no particular crop to which manure is generally applied APPENDIX. 341 in this State, unless, perhaps, wheat. The practice of applying manure as a top-dressing to winter-wheat, is rapidly gaining ground here. It is found that the manure thus applied, acting as a mulch, mitigates the effects of drouth, besides improving the quality of the grain. Very Respectfully Yours, E. M. SHELTON. LETTER FROM PROF. W. H. BREWER, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE IN SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF YALE COLLEGE. SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF TALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN, Conn., April 14th, 1876. Joseph Han-is, Esq., Rochester, N. Y. : MY DEAR SIR.— I have made inquiries relating to " the price of stable- manure in New Haven, and how far the farmers and gardeners haul it, etc. " I have not been to the horse-car stables, but I have to several livery stables, and they are all essentially the same. They say that but little is sold by the cord or ton, or by any weight or measure. It is sold either "in the lump," "by the month," "by the year," or " per horse." Some sell it at a given sum per month for all their horses, on a general estimate of their horses — thus, one man says, "I get, this year, $25 per mouth for all my manure, he to remove it as fast as it accumulates ; say one, two, or three times per week. He hauls it about five miles and composts it all before using." Another says, he sells per horse. " I get, this yeai% $13 per horse, they to haul it." The price per horse ranges from $10 to $15 per year, the latter sum being high. From the small or private stables, the manure is generally " lumped " by private contract, and is largely used about the city. It is hauled sometimes as much as 10 miles, but usually much less. But the larger stables often sell per shipment— it is sent by cars up the Connecticut Valley to "Westfield, etc., where it is often hauled several miles from the railroad or river. Much manure is sent by boat from New York to the Connecticut Valley tobacco lands. Boats (" barges ") are even loaded in Albany, go down the Hudson, up the Sound to Connecticut, to various places near Hartford, I am told. Two or three years ago, a man came here and exhibited to us pressed masses of manure— a patent had been taken out for pressing it, to send by R. R. (stable manure). I never heard anything more about it — and he was confident and enthusiastic about it. Yours truly, WM. II. BREWER. 342 TALKS ON MANUEES. FOOD, INCREASE, MANURE, ETC., OF FATTENING ANIMALS. The following table is given by Mr. J. B. Lawcs, of Rothamsted, Eng- land, showing the relation of the increase, manure, and loss by respira- tion, to the food consumed by different animals : •>.~>0 ///*. Oil-cake turni;* and I supply. 100 Total Dry Sub- stance of Food supply. Nitrogenous substance. Non-Nitrogenous sub- stance Mineral Matter Total dry substance Ibs. 218 808 83 1109 Ibs. 9.0 •° .0) 68 1.6 6S.6 Ibs. 323.0 81.4 •101.4 Ibs. 636 -j 636 0.8 52 0.2 29.1 7.4 36.5 57 3- 57'.3 4.1 7.2 1.9 8IIEEP. Ibs. Ibs. Nitrogenous substance. 177 7.5 Non-Nitrogenous sub- stance 671 Mineral matter '< (it Total dry substance i 912 12.5 •r>() UK. nr-c'il-f.'] ' tiirnii>* and supply. J Hid Ibs. 229- 201 Ibs. 648.5-j 5435 103 Total Dm stance of Food supply. 25.1 31.9 GO.l-j W.I 4.2 9.4 ncs. 500 Ibs. Barley meal produce 100 Ibs. increase^ and supply. 100 Total Dry Sub- stance of Food supply. . o" cj 0 cj .7 r>5.7 APPENDIX. 343 In the last edition of his book on Manure, " Praktische Dungerlehre," Dr. Emil Wollf, gives the following tables : Of 100 Ibs. of dry substance in the food, there is found in the excre- ments : DKY SUBSTANCE. Caw. Ox. Sheep. Horse. Mean. In the Dung.. : 38.0 lbs.,4o.6 Ibs. 46.9 Ibs. 4^.0 Ibs. 9.1 " 5.8 " i 6.6 " 3.6 " 47.1 " 151.4 " 153.5 " 145.6 " 43.1 Ibs. 6.3 " 49.4 " In the Urine Total dry substance in the Manure. . . Of 100 Ibs. of organic substance in the food, there is found in the ex- crements : ORGANIC SUBSTANCE. Cow. Ox. Sheep. Horse. Mean. In the Dung 3(5.5 Ibs ''3.9 IDs. 15.6 Ibs. 38.2 Ibs. 41.0 Ibs. In the Urine 6.0 " 3.2 " 3.9 " 2.5 " 3.9 " Total organic substance in Manure.. 42.5 " 47.1 " 19.5 " 40.7 " 44.9 " Of 100 Ibs. of nitrogen in the food, there is found in the excrements : NITROGEN. Cow. Ox. SJieep. Horse. Mean. In the Dung 45.5 Ibs. 151.0 Ibs. 18.3 " 38.6 tk C3.8 " 189.6 " 43.7 Ibs. 51.8 u 95.5 " 50.1 Ibs. 49.1 Ibs. 27.3 " .34.0 " 83.4 " 183.1 " In the Urine Total Nitrogen in Manure Of 100 Ibs. mineral matter in the food, there is found in the excrements : MINERAL MATTER. Cow. Ox. Sheep. Horse. Mean. In the Dung 53.9 lL'f». 70.8 Ibs. G3.2 Ibs. 85.6 Ibs. 68.4 Ibs. In the Urine 43.1 " 46.7 " 40.3 " 16.3 " 35.1 " Total mineral matter in Ma- nure !)7.0 " 117.5 " 103.5 " 101.9 " 103.5 " The excess of mineral matter is due to the mineral matter in the water drank by the animals. The following tables of analyses are copied in full from the last edition (1875), of Dr. Emil Wolff's Praktisclie Dungerlehre. The figures differ materially in many cases from those previously published. They represent the average results of numerous relia- ble analyses, and are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes connected with the subject of manures. In special cases, it will be well to consult actual analyses of the articles to be used. 344 TALKS ON MANURES. I.— TABLES FOR CALCULATING THE EXHAUSTION AND EN- RICHING OF SOILS. A.-IIARVEST PRODUCTS AND VARIOUS MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. Average quantity of water, nitrogen, and total ash, and the different ingredi- ents of the ash in 1000 Ibs. of fresh or air-dried substance. SUBSTANCE. i } , I I , J |i ' "ric A, -hi. sl 8 L-IUr. Meadow Hay 15 5 51 5 13 2 9 ? 86 4 1 •no Rye Grass 1 1.'! 163 582 202 2 0 4 3 1 3 6 2 185 Timothy ] i ; 15 5 62 1 20 4 1 5 4 5 1 9 7 2 1 s 22 1 17 8 58 4 21 2 1 2 6 1 54 3 4 " 1 16 3 Red Clover 1(10 1') 7 56 9 18 3 12 20 0 6 1 5 6 1 7 1 4 Red Clover, ripe White Clover 160 105 23 2 44.0 5f> 8 9.8 10 1 1.4 4 5 15.6 I'l 3 6.8 6 0 4.3 84 i.:; 4 ') 3.0 2 5 Alsike Clover 160 24 0 39.7 11 0 1 2 I-4 5 50 4 0 1 li 1.6 Crimson Clover 167 195 50 7 11 7 4 3 16 0 3 1 3 6 1 ? 82 100 23 0 62 1 1 "> 3 1 3 26 2 3 3 38 Esparsette Yellow Clover 167 167 21.3 22 1 45.8 557 13.0 11 9 1.:, 1 3 16.8 326 3.0 9 1 4.6 4 3 1.4 1 0 3.7 1 5 Green Vetch Hay 167 22 7 83 7 28 3 228 5 4 10 7 2 8 49 Green Pea Hay . . 167 22.9 62.4 23 -2 9 3 63 68 5 1 09 1G7 19 2 568 19 9 4 6 109 84 90 0.8 II.— GREEX FODDER. Meadow Grass in bloom Youunr Grass 700 801 5.4 5.6 18.1 20.7 4.6 11 6 0.8 04 8.0 2.2 1.1 0 (i 1.5 2.2 0.8 08 4.9 91 Rye Grass 784 57 20.4 72 07 1.5 04 22 08 65 Timothy Grass Rye-Fodder 100 7(iO 5.4 53 21.6 16.3 7.4 6 3 0.5 0 1 1.6 1 2 0.7 0 5 2.5 24 0.6 09 7.7 5.2 Green Oats Green Corn -Fodder. . . . Sorghum H 8.6 4.9 S.5 0.6 1.2 1 4 1.1 2.3 1 5 0.3 0.6 1 1 0.4 1.1 02 Green Rape 870 4.6 12.2 4.0 04 2.7 0 5 1.4 1 7 06 800 3.7 122 43 1 n 2.3 1 5 1.8 04 09, HI.— ROOT CROPS. Potatoes Jerusalem Artichoke... Man^ei-wurzel Suo-ar Beets 750 800 880 3.4 3.2 1.8 1 6 9.4 9.8 7.5 7 1 5.7 4.7 4.1 39 0.2 1.0 1.2 0 7 0.2 0.3 0.3 0 4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0 5 1.6 1.4 0.6 0 8 0.6 0.5 0.2 0 ? 0.2 1.0 0.9 0 1 Turnips 9°0 1 8 73 3 3 0 7 0 8 0 3 0 9 0 8 0 1 Carrots 8"iO 2.2 7.8 2 8 1 7 09 04 0 "» 09, Russia Turnips.... 870 2.1 11.6 47 1 ° 1 3 0 '1 1 7 1 *> 0.1 Succory 800 2.5 6.7 26 1 1 0 5 0 3 08 0 *> 0.3 Sugar Beet, upper part of root... 840 2.0 9.6 2.8 23 0.9 1,1 1,2 0.7 0.2 APPENDIX. 345 SUBSTANCE. 1 Nitrogen. i j j J Magnesia. II !i §£> 1 IV. — LEAVES & STEMS OF ROOT CROPS. Potato Vines, nearly ripe 770 49 197 43 04 6.4 33 1 6 1 3 09 Potato Vines, unripe. Jerusalem Artichoke. Mangel-wurzel 825 800 905 6.3 5.3 30 16.5 14.5 14 1 4.4 3.1 4 1 0.3 0.2 29 5.1 5.0 1.6 2.4 1.3 1 3 1.2 0.7 08 0.8 0.2 08 1.2 3.u 05 Sugar Beets 897 3 0 18 1 6 5 2 7 2 7 2 7 1 3 0 9 0 7 Turnips 89S 30 11 9 28 1 i 39 0 5 09 1 1 05 Carrots ... 8-» 5 1 26 0 29 5 ° 85 0 9 1 2 ^0 2 9 Succory 850 16 5 4 3 2 9 3 2 0 4 1 0 1 4 0 6 Russia Turnips 850 46 25 3 3 7 1 0 8'1 1 0 26 3 0 26 Cabbage, white 890 2 4 16 0 6 3 0 9 3 1 0 6 1 4 o \ 02 Cabbage Stems 8-?0 1.8 11 6 5 1 06 1.3 05 24 09 0.2 V. — MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS & REFUSE. Wheat Bran 131 22.4 53 5 14.3 02 1 7 88 273 ot 05 Rye Bran Barley Bran Oat Hulls 125 120 140 23.2 23.7 71.4 48.4 34 7 19.3 8.1 4 9 1.0 0.7 0 3 2.5 1.8 1 4 11.3 3.0 1 0 34.3 8.9 1 6 6.9 1 3 1.4 23.6 23 3 Pea Bran 140 • •« 22 7 103 0 2 4 1 2 2 3 I 09 09 Buckwheat Bran..... Wheat Flour 140 136 27.2 18 9 34.6 7 2 11.2 2 6 0.7 0 1 3.4 0 2 4.6 0 4 12.5 3 7 1.0 0.7 Rye Flour 1 \<> 168 16 9 6 5 0 3 02 1 4 8 5 • * . • •• Barley Meal Corn Meal 140 140 16.0 160 20.0 5 9 5.8 1 7 0.5 02 0.6 04 2.7 0 9 9.5 2 6 0.6 ... Green Malt 475 10 4 146 25 05 1 2 5 3 4 8 Dry Malt 75 16 0 26 6 4 g • • . 1 0 2 2 9 7 • •• 8 8 Brewer's Grains Beer 766 900 7.8 11.7 6 2 0.5 2 1 0.1 0 6 1.3 0 2 1.0 0 4 4.1 2 0 02 4.6 0 6 Malt-sprouts Potato Fibre 80 850 36.8 1 3 66.7 1 8 20.6 03 1.2 1.9 09 1.8 0 1 18.0 0 4 2.9 14.7 0 1 Potato Slump 918 1 6 5 0 2 2 04 03 0 4 1 0 0 4 0 2 Sugar-beet Pomace. . . Clarifying Refuse Sugar-beet Molasses. Molasses Slump 700 948 172 9->0 2.9 0.8 12.8 32 11.4 3.3 82.3 14 0 3.9 0.3 57.5 11 0 0.9 0.1 10.0 1 5 2.6 1.1 4.7 02 0.7 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.5 0 1 0.4 0.1 1.7 0 2 0.9 0.7 0.3 Rape-cake 150 485 54 6 124 1 8 6 8 7 0 19 2 3 2 2 8 Linseed Oil-cake Poppv-cake 115 100 45.3 52 0 50.8 7(5 9 12.4 2 3 0.7 2 3 4.3 270 8.1 6 2 16.1 31 2 1.6 1 9 6.4 4 5 Beech -nut-cake 100 381 43 3 6 5 4 g 132 3 6 9 7 0 6 0 8 Wai nut- cake ... 137 55 3 46 2 143 3 1 5 6 20 9 0 6 0 7 Cotton-seed-cake Cocoanut-cake 115 197 39.0 37 4 58.4 55 1 14.6 224 if 3 2.7 26 8.9 1 6 28.1 14 9 0.7 2 1 2.3 1 9 Palm-oil-cake VI.— STRAW. Winter Wheat Winter Spelt Winter Rye Spring Wheat Spring Rye Barley , 100 143 143 143 143 143 143 25.9 4.8 40 4.0 5.6 5.6 64 26.1 46.1 50.1 40.5 Ss.l 46.6 41 3 5.0 6.3 5.2 7.8 11.0 11.2 94 0.2 0.6 0.3 09 1.0 i'i 3.1 2.7 2.9 3.5 2.6 4.2 3 2 4.5 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.8 1 1 11.0 2.2 2.6 2.1 2.0 3.0 1 9 0.5 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1 5 0.8 31.2 36.0 22.9 18.2 26.1 21 5 Oats . 113 5 6 40 4 8 9 1 2 3 6 1 6 1 9 1 3 19 6 Indian Corn-stalks... Buckwheat Straw Pea Straw Field Bean. Garden Bean Common Vetch 150 160 160 160 160 100 4.8 13.0 10.4 16.3 13.0 41.9 51.7 44.0 43.9 40.0 44,1 9.6 24.2 10.1 18.5 12.8 6.3 6.1 1.1 1.8 1.1 3.2 6.9 4.0 9.5 16.2 9.8 11.1 15.G 2.6 19 3.5 3.3 2.5 3.7 5.3 6.1 3.5 3.2 3.9 2.7 1.2 2.7 2.7 1.6 1.7 3.3 11.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 1.9 3.6 3iG TALKS ON MANURES. StTBfTANCE. 1 loo IKO 160 143 143 143 143 143 143 140 150 143 140 120 140 100 100 150 140 120 1(50 180 8(1(5 C50 550 850 180 } 1 | I Lupine 9.4 5.6 7.2 7.5 5.6 5.8 4.8 6.4 2.3 16.8 7.2 6.4 41.4 40.8 48.7 9-2.5 121.4 82.7 84.0 120.0 71.2 4.1 54.5 18.1 73.2 54.7 30.4 7.0 6.8 33.2 81.4 66.8 40.7 151.0 2.1 13.9 13.0 16.3 36.7 61.2 48.1 19.0 58.5 15.8 41.7 18.4 32.0 19.2 50.7 16.6 13.6 122.3 ir>.9 18.3 14.2 36.6 17.9 17.0 22.2 27.0 29.8 13.0 8.0 11.1 18.4 8.5 4.8 7.9 5.3 li.l 4.6 2.4 35.3 8.7 11.8 15.4 9.4 0.3 0.3 4.6 20.1 23.0 11.4 30.3 1.3 6.1 4.0 3.9 6.8 17.7 19.0 3.7 2.3 5.4 1.4 1.0 0.6 2.6 18.0 2.1 4.S 15.9 5.3 5.5 5.1 5.7 5.6 2.6 4.5 4.4 3.4 3.7 2.6 3.8 0.(5 1.7 1.0 0.2 03 1.2 2.0 0.1 1.3 07 4.4 3.0 2.5 0.2 0.3 0.7 2.8 1.4 1.7 5.1 6.2 1.4 0.2 0.2 4.9 3.1 0.4 0.4 6!s 0.3 0.1 1.6 2.1 1.1 0.3 28.1 0.4 0.4 0-5 0-4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 Rape Poppy VIL— CHAFF. Winter Wheat .... Spring Wheat Winter Spelt Winter Rye Barley Awns Oats Indian Corn-cobs Field Beaas Lupine Rape Flax-seed hulls .. VIII.— COMMERCIAL PLANTS, ETC. Flax Stems Rotted Flax Stems Flax Fibre Hemp Stems Hops, entire plant.... Hops .. Hop Stems Tobacco Leaves Wine and Must Wine-grounds Grape Stems, etc Mulberry Leaves IX.— MATERIALS FOB BEDDING. Sedge Grass Rush Beech Leaves, August. " Autumn. Oak Leaves, August.. " '* Autumn. Fir Needles 140 140 5(50 150 550 150 475 450 950 ::: 8.0 8.0 5.0 Pine " Moss Fern . . .. 950 Heath 200 10.0 Sea-Weed 150 144 143 143 148 143 145 143 143 140 144 14.0 20.8 20.5 22.0 Ki.O 17.6 16.0 16.0 19.2 20.3 16.0 X.— GRAINS AND SEEDS. Winter Wheat Spring Wheat Spelt, without husk... Spelt, with husk Winter Rye Winter Barley Sprint* Barley Oats.. . Millet Indian Corn... 14.8 ]!.(> 14.7 1.8 4.0 2.0 3.5 12.1 4.0 (>."«> 6.8 3.6 3C>.3 15.4 6.8 3.6 3.6 20.3 18.1 11.1 IS.6 62,8 0.1 2.9 4.5 5.4 3.3 4.2 3.6 6.4 26.4 4.1 20.3 6.1 4.3 2.2 6.2 8.6 2.2 16.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.2 0.6 1.0 0.2 0.3 2.0 0.2 0.3 2.4 6.4 3.7 2.7 17.7 0.1 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.1 2.9 3.1 1.4 3.5 2.1 1.7 1.1 0.5 1.1 3.5 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.2 1.7 2.4 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.9 2.0 3.7 'J.I l.G 4.0 3.1 6.1 5.0 2.4 1.3 0.2 2.7 1.1 3.4 4.5 4.0 0.8 . 7.5 11.2 4.4 4.8 0.4 2.5 1.6 1.3 2.3 4.6 4.3 1.8 2.4 1.9 3.5 1.0 1.4 0.9 4.2 1.1 1.1 3.8 8.9 6.0 7.6 8.4 5.6 7.7 6.2 5.9 5.9 3.0 3.1 2.5 0.7 1.9 0.1 3.7 3.5 0.1 1.2 0.5 7.3 3.4 2.0 0.2 0.3 0.7 3.7 2.4 1.3 5 8 o!i 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.3 1.3 0.4 2.1 0.4 1.8 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.8 0.7 0.4 26.3 0.1 0.3 i.'i 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 APPENDIX. 347 SUBSTANCE. 1 .« 1 , Potash.. 1 , Magnesia. 1 •^J'S |'S ^ P t$ s; "•8 || Sorghum Buckwheat 140 140 14 4 16.0 11 8 3.3 2 7 0.5 0 7 0.2 0 5 2.4 1 5 8.1 5 7 0 2 1.2 0 1 Peas 143 35 8 23 5 9 Q 0 2 1 2 1 9 8 6 OQ 0'2 Field Beans 145 40 8 30 7 13 1 0 4 1 5 2 2 11 9 0 8 0 2 Garden Beans 150 39 0 27 4 12 0 0 4 1 8 2 0 9 7 1 I 0 2 Vetch 143 44 0 26 8 8 1 2 1 2 1 2 4 10 0 1 0 0 3 Lupine 130 56 6 34 1 10 2 0 1 3 0 4 0 14 3 1 5 0 2 Red Clover 150 30 5 38 3 13 5 0 4 2 5 4 9 14 5 0 9 05 White Clover Esparsette 150 160 33.8 38 4 12.3 11 0 0.2 I i 2.5 12 3 3.9 2 6 11 6 9 2 1.6 1 2 0.8 0 3 Ruta-bagas Sugar-Beet Carrots Succory 140 146 120 190 '.'.'. 48.8 45.3 74 8 54 6 9.1 11.1 14.3 6 5 8.5 4.2 3.5 4 6 it> 10.2 29.1 17 3 8.6 7 3 5.0 5 9 7.6 7.5 11.8 16 5 2.1 2.0 4.2 2 4 1.1 0.8 4.0 0 6 Turnips 125 34 6 7 6 0 4 6 1 3 1 14 0 2 5 0 2 Rape 118 31 2 39 1 9 6 0 6 55 4 g 16 5 0 9 05 Summer-Rape 120 34 9 7 7 52 4 7 14 9 2 3 Mustard 130 • . . 36 5 5 9 20 7 0 3 7 14*6 1 8 0 9 Poppy 147 28 0 52 9 7 2 0 5 18 7 5 0 16 6 1 0 1 7 Linseed 118 32 8 32 6 10 0 0 7 2 6 4 7 13 5 08 0 4 Hemp 199 26 1 45 3 9 4 0.4 10 9 2.6 16 9 0.1 5.5 Grape-seeds Horse-chestnuts, fresh Acorns, fresh XI.— VARIOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Cows1 Milk 110 492 550 875 10.2 5 1 25.0 12.0 9.6 6 2 7.2 7.1 6.2 1.5 6!i 0.6 8.4 1.4 0.7 1.3 2.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 6.0 2.7 1.4 1 7 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.3 0 3 0.1 Sheep " Cheese . . 860 450 5.5 45 3 8.4 67.4 1.8 2.5 0.3 26.6 2.5 6.9 0.1 0.2 3.0 11 5 0.1 02 Ox-blood 700 32 0 7 5 0.6 3.4 0.1 0.1 0 4 6.2 0.1 Calf-blood 800 29.0 7.1 0.8 2.9 0.1 0.1 0 6 0.1 Sheep-blood 790 32 0 7 5 0.5 3.3 0.1 0 1 0 4 0.1 Swine-blood Ox-flesh Calf flesh Swine-flesh Livin^ Ox . ... 800 770 780 740 507 29.0 36.0 34.9 34.7 26.6 7.1 12.6 12.0 10.4 46.6 1.5 5 2 4.1 3.9 1.7 2.2 i!6 0.5 1.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.8 20.8 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.9 4.3 5.8 4 6 18 6 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 6'i Living Calf Living Sheep 662 591 25.0 22 4 38.0 31 7 2 4 1.5 0.6 1.4 16.3 13.2 0.5 0.4 13.8 12.3 •• 0.1 0.2 Living Swine .... ... 598 20 0 21.6 1.8 0.2 9.2 0.4 8 8 Eggs Wool, washed Wool, unwashed 672 120 150 21 8 94.4 54.0 61.8 9 7 98.8 1.5 1.8 74.6 1.4 0.3 1.9 54.0 2.4 4.2 1.0 0.6 1.6 3.7 0.3 1.1 0.1 4.0 0.1 2.5 3 0 348 TALKS ON MANURES. B.-AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS MANURES. NAME OF FERTILIZER. i Organic Subetance. 1 Nitrogen. I 1 j Magnesia. Jljj I.— ANIMAL EXCRE- MENTS. (In 1000 parts of Ma- nure.) Fresh Faeces: Horse 757 838 655 820 901 938 B7S 967 713 775 646 724 710 750 790 982 -.7-2 963 933 955 519 560 566 771 14.8 12.6 24.0 5.7 27.8 14.0 8.5 6.0 211 145 314 150 71 85 83 28 254 203 318 250 246 192 145 7 198 24 51 30 308 255 262 134 51.4 53.4 27.0 56.9 56.6 79.0 68.5 as. 3 31.6 17.2 31.1 30.0 28.0 27.4 45.2 15.0 32.6 21.8 35.6 25.6 44.1 esio 10.7 29.9 135 16.0 150 173.0 185.0 172.0 95.0 33.8 34.0 49.0 37.4 15.6 7.0 25.0 60.7 4.4 5^5 6.0 15.5 19.5 4.3 5.8 3.4 8.3 4.5 4 5 5.0 5.8 1.5 10.0 6.0 7.0 3.5 17.6 16.3 10.0 5.5 13.0 9.0 2.0 6.5 9.7 11.7 10.2 3.8 3.5 1.0 1.5 15 0 1 '.) 22 6 8.3 5.3 4.0 li.7 6.0 5.2 6.3 5.0 4.9 2.5 20 2 1 2.0 10.0 8.5 6.2 9.5 2.3 0.3 0.9 0.3 6". 7 6^2 0.6 0.2 1.0 2.5 2.5 6.4 5.4 2 1 1.0 1.4 2.2 2 0 .5 .9 3 .0 .6 6 3.8 4 0 0.7 1.0 0.5 1.3 1.4 09 1.0 08 0.6 0.3 1.5 3.4 46 0.9 45 01 1.6 2.1 3.1 3.3 0.8 5.7 7.0 8.8 0.3 6.2 0.2 0.9 1.0 16.0 24.0 17.0 8.4 11.0 15 4 18.6 18.2 7.0 0.7 6.6 31.3 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.0 2.4 0 4 3.4 0.8 1.4 1.1 1.8 0.9 1.4 1.8 1.8 0.4 3.6 0.2 0.6 0.6 5.0 7.4 3 5 2.0 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.3 1 0 3.5 1.1 3.1 4.1 0^7 2.8 1.6 2.:! l.'.l 1.1 2 <; 3.0 0.1 10.9 1.7 2.6 2.8 17 S 16.4 14.0 5.4 13 0 13.5 2.1 13 9 6.3 1.0 5.5 23.2 0.6 0.4 1.4 0.4 0 6 1.3 3 0 0.8 0.7 0.6 1.5 0.8 1.2 l.fi 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.4 3.3 f.5 3.5 1.4 1.0 0.3 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 19. 6 7.2 17.5 15.0 0.8 0 3 0 1 17.7 10.8 12.5 KJ.S 17.0 0.2 1.9 0.2 0.2 20.2 »!o 14.li 1.7 lie 1.7 1.1 2.1 11.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 1 5 3.8 65 2.3 0.4 1.0 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.2 0.4 5.0 4.0 4.3 1.3 1.1 1.5 0.2 o!4 Cattle Swine Fresh Urine : Cattle Swine Fresh Dung (with straw :)* Horse Cattle Sheep Swine Common Barn-yard Manure : Fresh Moderately rotted.. Thoroughly rotted.. Drainage from Barn- yard Manure Human Faeces, fresh. " Urine, " Mixed human excre- ments, fresh Mixed human excre- ments, mostly liquid Dove Manure, fresh.. Hen " " .. Duck " " .. Geese " " .. II. — COMMERCIAL MA- NURES. (In 100 parts of Fer- tilizer.) Peruvian Guano Norway Fish-Guano. . Poudrette Pulverized Dead Ani- mals ... Flesh-Meal Dried Blood Horn-Meal and Shav- ings Bone-Mc.il * It is estimated that in the case of horses, cattle, and swine, one-third of the urine drains away. The following is the amount of wheat-straw used daily as hedding for each animal. Horse, 6 Ihs. ; Cattle, 8 Ibs. ; Swine, 4 Ibs., and sheep, 0.6 Ibs. APPENDIX. 349 NAMB OF FERTILIZER. I Or gat lie Substance. 3 "^ S ^ Potash. ! S 1 Phosphoric Acid. •s -S1" IT ts 53 1' I25 J (In 100 parts.) Bone-Meal from solid parts % 5.0 7.0 6 0 10.0 6.0 10.0 11.8 0 6 8.5 2.6 " 6 % 31.5 37.3 10.0 6.0 3.0 9.2 8.2 5'. 4 % 63.5 55.7 84.0 84.0 91.0 81.0 80.0 9l!5 92.0 97.4 % 3.5 4.0 1.0 0.5 6^5 0.4 6'l 0.1 % 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.7 iVo 0.3 % 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 1.2 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 3s!o 0.1 44'.3 % 33 0 29.0 43 0 37.0 46.0 41.5 39.1 48.1 43.5 37.5 45.1 40.1 21.8 37.2 45.4 0.5 0.2 1 4 20.5 3.0 1.2 31 0 % 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.5 0 5 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.3 2.4 0.2 0.2 0 1 % 25.2 20.0 320 26.0 35.4 34.8 20.6 37.6 35.0 as. 2 33.0 24.1 19.7 29.2 26.4 i!s 3.0 2.3 % 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.5 18.0 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.3 1.0 0.5 0 8 580 0.7 0.5 i'.4 44 0 % 3.0 3.5 5.0 15.0 6.5 0.8 0.5 9.0 1.0 5.0 5.5 20.8 22.0 3.3 7.5 3.0 1.5 29.0 8.0 3.0 2.0 4 0 % 0.2 0.2 6!a 0.2 1.5 0.6 0.1 3.1 1.5 1.6 1.5 0.1 1.4 1.7 0.2 48!2 Bone-Meal from soft parts Bone-black, before used Bone-black, spent Bone ash Baker Guano Jarvis Guano Estremadura Apatite.. Sombrero Phosphate. Navassa Phosphate. . . Nassau Phosphorite, rich Nassau Phosphorite, medium Westphalian Phos- phorite 2.5 fi *> 1 6 97.5 91.8 94.5 95.7 34io 46.5 8.6 95.0 80.8 2o!o 15 5 5.2 3.1 5.7 Hanover Phosphorite Coprolites Sulphate of Ammonia. Nitrate of Soda . Wool-dust and offal . . Lime-cake 2.0 4.3 4.0 2.6 10.0 6.5 23.0 5.0 90 0 3.5 5('i!o 47.0 68.4 Whale-oil refuse Common Salt Gypsum or Plaster.. . . Gas-lime 7.0 34 5 20.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 16.0 15.0 15 0 1.3 24.5 5.0 71.8 70 2 5.0 5.0 5".0 41.9 6.2 91.7 41.0 75.0 23 2 24.8 90.0 90.0 95.0 95.0 90.0 42.1 78.8 85.0 0 4 1.2 i!s 2.5 10,0 0.3 0.2 0.2 2.5 2.4 0.1 10.0 6.0 1.5 0.5 0.1 2.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 1.3 0.5 2.5 2.0 0.8 0.4 0.1 1.2 0.8 0 91 64.5 20.7 24.5 10.0 4.0 30.0 35.0 ? ? ? 9.5 25 9 ?8 9 1.5 0.3 2.5 1.5 1.5 5.0 6.0 1.5 3.2 3.0 1.0 0.9 0 1 i!s 6.0 0.4 6.5 4.5 0.6 0.2 0.1 10.5 21.8 90 1 12.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.3 8.5 5.0 15.0 28 5 98 ^ 3.0 9.1 20.0 4.0 16.0 18.0 18.0 ? ? ? 1.5 0.9 5 S 6!i 0.3 0.3 0.2 1.1 0.2 0.9 0.4 ? 1.8 1.3 6!2 0.9 Sugar-House Scum. . . Leached wood ashes. . Wood-soot Coal-soot Ashes from Deciduous trees Ashes from Evergreen trees Poat-ash.es. . . Bituminous coal-ashes Anthracite coal-ashes. III.— STTPERPHOS- PHATE, from Peruvian Guano Baker Guano Estremadnra Apatite.. Sombrero Phosphate. Navassa Phosphate... Nassau Phosphorite, rich 15.0 15.0 1ST) 2!5 85.0 82.5 85.0 " 0.5 0.3 o!i 03 0.5 ? 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 26 4 17.0 26.5 24.2 25.0 22.4 24.0 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 0 7 0.7 20.2 15.4 19.4 16.6 16.2 16.6 20.5 25.5 19.5 25.5 19.5 •21.0 19.5 28.8 0.6 2.3 3.2 13.5 9.3 "' Nassau Phosphorite, medium Bone-black 12.0 .. 15.0 8.0 13.023.8 15 5 13.0 88.0 77.0 03. 2 80.3 6*3 2.0 3.3 Bone-Meal Phospho-guano (manufactured.) ... 350 TALKS ON MANURES. 2.— TABLE SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN SOME MANUFACTURING PROCESSES. NAME OP MATERIAL. *« I8 1 s N 1 | Magnesia. J . 1. — BREWING. 1000 Ibs Barley contain Ibs. 855 13.2 Ibs. 15.2 Ibs 22 23 1.00 1.23 2.43 13.08 0.54 2.27 3.65 9.43 1.06 0.53 11.02 14.32 5.12 1.28 20.72 12.53 7.G7 3.41 16. 19 9 43 0.54 8.89 16.83 5.50 1.80 9.60 6.10 2.84 3.26 7.10 1.15 1.71 1.20 2.47 0.57 30.36 25.15 4 03 1.83 Ibs. 4.48 0.345 0.852 0.749 o!(SBO 0.023 O.IJ43 1.1W8 5.69 0.184 0.092 5.966 4.501 0.883 o -.'-Jl 5 605 3.011 1.325 1.273 3.993 5.69 0.086 5. 004 5.26 1.980 o.r, 18 2.672 1.505 0.247 1.258 3.914 0.336 0.668 0.380 1.7)1 0.872 9.426 9.175 0.171 0.054 Ibs. 0.58 0.167 0.039 0.0(59 1.171 O.ltiO 0.097 0.24 0.040 0020 0.300 0.37(5 0 195 0.049 0.620 0.329 0.293 0.19-2 0.430 0.24 0.266 0.57 0.154 0.050 0.396 1.333 0.687 0.646 0.379 0.108 o. :: • for Manure 102 " Richer in Plant-food than Wheat 301 Brewer, Prof. W. H., Letter from..3il Cabbage and Barn-yard Manure, Composition of 292 Composition of 290-292 Hog and Cow Manure f or.302 " Lime for 292 Manure for 275-290 Manure for Early and Late 291 " Needs a Large Supply cf Nitrogen in the Soil, Though it Removes but Little 593 " Potash for 292 " Special Manure for 323 Yield of per Acre 291 Cattle vs. Sheep as Manure-makers. 303 Cheese, from a Ton of Hay Ill u Plant-food in 101 " versus Beef 110 Clay Retains Ammonia 219 Clover and Indian Corn 275 " as a Renovating and Ex- hausting Crop 277 " as Manure 119-122 as Manure for Wheat 15S " Does it Get Nitrogen from the Atmosphere 133-138 352 INDEX. Clover, Dr. Voelckcr's Experiments on 135 " for Wheat 126 " Gathers Up Manure from the Sub-soil: 237 " Hay, Composition of ... .129-137 " Hay, English and German, for Manure 47 " II ow to Make a Farm Rich by Growing 13:3-163 " Letting it Rot on the Sur- face as Manure 134 " Nitrogen as a Manure for. ..141 " Pasturing by Sheep versus Mowing for Hay 137 " Flowing Under versus Feed- ing Out 123 " Roots, Amount of per Acre, 143_144_i:,5 " Roots, Composition of. . 145-147 " Seed, Amount of Roots per Acre 10-2 " Water Evaporated by r.'.-l " Why it Enriches Land 131 Coal-a*hc8 to Mix with Artincial Manures 312 Composting Cow-manure with Muck. Leaves, etc 302 Compost of 53 table -ma n ur 3 and Earth 332 Corn, as a Renovating Crop " Ashes for " Barn-yard Manure for 284 " Cost of Raising 9 " Crop, Composition of 25 " Experiments on 279 11 Guano for 279-284 " Manure for 275 " Meal for Manure 185 " Superphosphate for 279-284 " Fodder 275 " vs. Mangel- vvurzels... 288 " " Plaster for 277 " vs. Wheat, Yield per acre -... 276 Crops Best to Apply Manuro to 205 '• How to Get Larger 28-36 " Raised and Sold from the Farm 27 " Rotation of 116-163 " We Must Raise Larger per Acre 265 " Why so Poor 2S Cotton-seed Cake 46 Cow-manure 86-100 u " and How to Use it 303 " " Composition of 3 16 Cows, Feeding Grain to 110-113 t% Feeding in Winter for Ma- nure 256 Dairy Farms, Bone-dust on 315 Drainage from Barn-yard 306 Dry Earth for Pig Pens 304 Earth-closet Manure 310 " kk ik on Grass 2:25 Fallow, Fall 12 " for Wheat, How to — Mr. Lawes1 Experiments 35 " Summer, for Wheat 13-^4 Farm Dairy, Receipts and Expenses or.! " Hon. George Geddes' 11s) " Hon. Joseph Shull's 109 " John Johnston's 76-81-120 " Mr. Dcwey's 89 " Mr. Joseph O. Sheldon's 15 " to Restore a Worn Out 37 Farming, a Poor Business 9 Difference Between High and Good 11 " Faith in Good 14 " Good Does Not Lead to Overproduction 14 Slow Work 17 Fermenting Manure to Kill Weed- 97 Fir-h :>•» Manure 337 Food, Nothing Added to it by the Animal Gardens, Manure for Priv Geddes, Hon. George IT -117 Grains, Malt, English and German. 47 Gni>s ;i Saving's Bank 41 " Importance of Rich 113 " Manure for 120 Guano as a Ton-dressing for Win " for Barley 210 " for Oats " f»r lva> 17 11 for Potatoes " on Wheat liO-lSM-l Peruvian, Composition of.. 311 for Onions 2'Jl " " Price and Compo, ^ition of Now and80Y'nAgo.8S7 " " Rectified for Tur- nips 286 What it is 311 Gypsum 104-110-12(5 for Oats 2.VI " for Peas 17 " for Potatoes v: TTarison, T. L., Letter from 115 Hay, Best Manure for " Plant-food in 101 Heacock, Joseph, Letter from. . . Henderson, Peter, Letter from 334 Hen Manure 43-104-301 " " for Potatoes High Farming tk " versus Good Farming 11 Hops, Manure for 274 Ilorso-maimro, Compositioa of. . . .306 Hot-beds. Manure for 2U7 Human Excrements, Composition of 303 Indian Corn. Sec Corn Irrigation on Marki-t (iardi-ns. . . Jfssup. Iulw;ird. Letter from 332 Johnson, Prof. S. W., on the Value of Fertilizers Lawes' and Gilbert's Experin; on Barley Lawes' and Gilbert's Experiments on Oats 25-2 Lawes7 ami Cilberfs Kxperiments on Permanent Meadows 271 IXDEX. 853 Lawes' and Gilbert's Experiments on the Amount of Excrements Voided by Man 309 Lawes' and Gilbert's Experiments on Sugar beets and Maugel-wur- zels 288 La\ves' and Gilbert's Experiments on Wheat 170 Lawes' aiid Gilbert's Experiments, Potash Beneficial for Barley 329 Lawes' Table, Showing Composi- tion and Value of Foods 45 Lettuce, Manure for 289 Superphosphate for. . . 290-293 Lewis, Hon. Harris, Letter from 103 Liebig's Special Manures 321 Lime as Manure 215 "• Beneficial Eftcct of for Thirty Years 216 " Changes the Chemical and Physical Character of the Soil 224 Composting with Old Sods... 224 for Cabbage 293 Hastens the Maturity of the Crop 222 Impoverishes the Soil 222 in Connecticut 224 in Delaware 2C3 in New Jersey 223 in Pennsylvania 224 Mixed with Barn-yard Ma- nure 2C2 en Grass Land 2^3 on Lime-stone Land 217 Quantity per Acre 216 Sets Free Ammonia in the Soil 221 " Silicate Absorbs Ammonia from Atmosphere 219 " "When to Apply 223 " Why Beneficial 220 Liquid Manure 39(5 Lowland, Draining 89 Malt-combs 46 Maugel-wurzels for Manure 48 Manure forlG3-286-28S " Yield per Acre 11 Manure Absorbing Liquid 115 '• Amount from Feed and Bedding 73* " Amount Made by a Horse EO-S3S " Made by Horses, Cows, Sheep, and Pigs. . . 51 '• Amount Made on a 250-acre Farm 257 " Amount of Rain Eequircd to Dissolve 207 " Amount of Straw in Horse.335 " and Rotatu n of Crops. . . .24(5 Applying Artificial 312 - Applying Near the Surface. 267 Applying on the Surface... 173 " as Top-dressing 2ti9 " Barn -yard for Barley 240 " Barn-yard vs. Artificial for Indian Corn 2SI " Basin for 9.3 Manure Best for Hay 274 "• Bone-dust 314-310 Brings in Red Clover 82 Buying 306 Buying by Measure or Weight 305 Buying by the Load or Ton. 306 Cellar 114 Cheapest a Farmer Can Use. 127 Clover as 119-122 Clover-seed as 127 Comes from the Land 42 Common Salt as 200 Composition of Fresh Barn- yard 51 Composition of from Dif- ferent Animals 3C6 Composition of Heap at Different Periods 57 Corn-meal for 185 Cost of Hauling 333 Cost of Loading and Draw- ing 77 Cow 87-100 Dairy-farm, How to Save and Apply 114 Dr. Vceicker's Experiments on 51 Drawing Out to the Field.. 89 English Plan of Keeping. . . 69 Equivalent to Water 296 Farmyard for Potatoes 261 Fermenting in Winter.85-92-93 Fermenting, Shrinkage in.. 116 Fire-fang 84-98 Fish, as, on Long Island. . .337 Foods which Make Rich .... 45 for Cabbage, Parsnips, Onions, Carrots, Lettuce, etc 289 for Corn 80 for Grass 82 for Hops 274 for Hot-beds 297 for Indian Corn 275 for Mangel- wurzels and Sugar-beets '. 287 for Market Gardens 294 for Oats 252 for Potatoes 255 for Seed-growing Farms. . .296 for Sorghum or Chinese Sugar-cane 283 for Tobacco 275 for Turnips '.85-322 for Wheat 167 from Cows 302 from Earth-closet 310 from Oxen 303 from Pigs, Mr. Lawes' Ex- periments 301 from Sheep 303 Grain Farms, Management of 117 Guano. Price of Fow and Thirty Years Ago 328 Guano, Rectified Peruvian.319 Gypsum and Clover as 125 11 cap, Changes in 67 351 IXDEX. Manure Heap, Fermenting £3 " in Winter.. 84 " Piling in Field.. 83-89-90 " " Turning . 83 '•• Hen 43-104-301 " Horse " Horse and Farm-yard 5 J u How and When it Should be Applied 237 " How John Johnston Man- ages it 76 *' How Made and Used in Maryland 339 " How the Deacon Makes it.. 74 How to Make 41 " How to Make More 25 j " now to Make More and Bet- ter on Dairy Farma 103 " How to Make Poor, Rich, How to Make Richer 257 " How Much it Shrinks by Fermentation 332 " How Much Nitrogen in a Load of n; " in Kansas 340 in Philadelphia, Interest- ing Facts 338 11 Keeping Under Cover 5'.) " Lime as ..215 " Liquid -.. .. 3 'G " Management of in Canada. 333 " Mr. Lawes' Experiments with 95 " Loss from Leaching !)'.) " Management of 91 Market Value of 104 Mixed withLimc ','-» Natural 23 Night-soil as 30-! " Nitrate of Soda as 131 Not Available 95 " on Dairy Farm 101 " on Permanent Meadows and Pastures 271 " Preserved by the Soil 177 " Pigs' 8:5 " 'Piling 116 Potash as.... 329 " Price of in Boston 334 " Maryland 33J " " Now Haven.... 3 11 " New York 334 " per Horse in New York 336 Quantity Made on a Farm.. 12 Quantity of Used on Long Island. Interesting Sta- tistics 336 Reduced by Fermentation. 297 Richer in Plant-food than the Food from which it is Derived 301 Sea-weed as 337 Sheep 86 Should bo Broken Up Fine. 268 Soluble Phosphates in 72 Special 110-3.20 Manure, Specific Gravity of from Different Animals 305 " Spread in Open Yard 63 Stable, Management 332 Straw and Chaff as 200 " Superphosphate, How Made 317 " Swamp-Muck as " Tank 115 " the Author's Plan of Man- Tilla-.-'us' '. '. '. ! .' ' ' ' .' .'3 j-i-j i--,>2o Top-dressing for Wheat in 41 " " on Growing 333 " to What Crops Should it be Applied 265 " Value of 78 _ " Value of Depends on tho Food, Not on the Aoin Value of Si; Water in Weeds aa Wciirht of S.a-340 Well-rotted, Composition of 65 " Well-rotted, Loss from Leaching " What is it ? " Why Do We Ferment ? !i 4 Market Gardens, Irrig.ition in. ... " Manure for 294 " " Pig-manure on.. 235 Meadows. Manure for 271 Night soil .22 Nitrate of Potash Nitrate of Soda 134 " Acts Quicker than Ammonia :n:j " as a Top-dn for Wheat 270 Composition of 312 for Apple Trees.... 31 4 for Barley 213 for Oats for Onions 294 for Suirar-Beets 289 for Wheat 159 How to Apply 312 Price of in England.326 Nitrogen, Amount per Acre in the Soil 28-162 as Manure 28 in Soils l " Makes Poor Manure Rich 240 Nurserymen, Manure for 2!»7 Oats, Experiments on in Virginia.. 253 " Experiments on at Moreton Farm 254 " Lawes' and Gilbert's Experi- ments on " Manures for Oil-cake for Sheep 76 Onions, Manure for 294 Peas for Pigs 17 Pea-straw for Manure ... . . 48 INDEX. 355 Peat, Composition of 31 Phosphates 27 " Exhaustion of on Dairy Farms 101 " Soluble in Barn-yard Manure 72 Phosphoric Acid in Soils 106-226 " per Acre in Soils. 102 " Ketained hy the Soil 219 " Removed from the Farm by Hay, and by Milch Covvs.316 Pig Manure '43-86 " Composition of 300 " " for Cabbage 302 Pigs as Manure-Makers for Market Gardeners 205 Pigs' Bedding 31 %tl for Enriching Pasture-Land. . .304 " How to Save Manure from. . .304 " Manure from 301-:;04 Piling Manure „ J/7 Plant-food 21-105 k Amount of in an Acre. 24-3J " " in New and Cultivated Land T9 Plaster for Indian Corn . .277 Plowing in the Fall 17 Potash, Amount of in the Soil 25-329 •' as Manure 3.9 " as Manure for Wheat 215 lor Cabbages 292 ' ' for Potatoes 255-26 J " for Potatoes and Hoot- Crops 3CO u LTow to Ascertain when the Soil Needs 330 " in Nitrate of Potash 314 " Not a Special Manure for Turnips "22 " on Grass Land 273 our Soils not so likely to be Deficient in, as of Nitro- gen and Phosphoric Acid. 330 " Retained by the Soil 219 tl Value of in Artificial Ma- nures 320 Potatoes, after Root-Crops 287 *• Ammonia for 201 Cost of Raising 10 " Experiments on at More- ton Farm 259 " for Manure 48 " How to Raise a Large Crop 255 " Manures for 255 " Mr. Hunter's Experiments on in England 260 " on Rich Land 203 " Profits of Using Artificial Manures on 263 " Will Manure Injure Qual- ity of £6-1 Rape-cake 46 '•as Manure for Hops 274 Roots, Amount of Left in Soil by Different Crops 164 Root-crops 17 Rotation of Crops and Manures — 216 Unshmore, J. H., Letter from 335 Routzahn. H. L., Letter from 3 ,9 Salt as a Manure for Wheat ^70 " Common as Manure for Wheat. 200 " for Mangel-wurzels 104 Saw-dust for Bedding 103 Season, a Poor. Profitable for Good Farmers 213 and Manure for Oats 253 " Influence of on the Growth of Wheat 210 " Profit in Raising Oats in a Poor 253 " Profit in Raising Barley in a Poor 243 Seasons. Influence on Crops 21 Seed Growers, Manures for 296 Sewage 308 Sheep-Manure 303 " "• Composition of 306 " vs. Oxen as Manure Makers. 303 Slielton. Prof. E. M., Letter from .. 340 Soil, Composition of 144-150 Exhaustion of 23-27 from Earth-closet 225 Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid in 226 Plant-food in 105 WTeight of per Ac:e 221 Soils Absorb Ammonia from Atmos- phere 219 " Absorptive Powers of 217 Sorghum, Manures for 283 Special Manures 320 Straw 26 Amount of Manure from 124 and Chaff for Manure 200 for ilanures 48 on Grain Farms 118 Selling 123 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., Letter from 334 Superphosphate 116 for Barley 241 " for Indian Corn . .279 " for Potatoes 259 for Private Gar- dens 296 for Turnips. .285-322 " for Wheat 108-169 " from Bones, Com- position of... . 319 " from Mineral Phosphates... .320 " How Applied... 320 " on Dairy Farms . 315 " on Grass Lsnd . . .273 " Value of as Com Ered with Bone- tst 319 " What Crops Best for 243 of Lime Doctor is Made 317 of Lime, When Superphospate Tchs How it Superphosphate First Made in the United States 324 Surface Application of Manure.. 70- 268 Swamp-muck 29 " »• Composition of 31 Swine, see Pigs 356 INDEX. Thomas, J. J., Remarks on the Ap- plication of Manures 2C9 Tillage is Manure 32-1 21- 163-225 Tobacco, Manure for M75 Top -dressing with Manure 26!) Turnips, Do They Absorb Nitrogen from the Atmosphere... 250 " Impoverish the Soil More than Grain 250 " Manure for 285 " and Wheat, Special Ma nurcs for 321 Urine from Farm Animals Eicher than Human 309 " vs. Solid Manure 294 Valuation of Fertilizers 321 Water. Amount Given Off by Plants During Their Growth 131 Water Equivalent to Manure 2W Weeds i.Vi: !-'.» Weed-eeeds In Manure '.•? Weld. Col. M. C., Letter from. . Wheat, Ammonia for 192 " Artificial Manures for 'Should be Drilled in with Seed 1(W JG9 Wheat, Common Palt a? Manure for £00 Crop, Composition of . . , 138 " Effect of Manure on, in Poor Season 213 Influence of Season on 210 is it Deteriorating ? 18;) Larger Crops per Acre 1^:2 Lawee'and Gilbert's Exper- iments on 140-170 Manures for 3Ir. Lawes' Experiment? on. rjv! Nitrogen as Manure for 141 Plant-food in 101 Potash as Manure for 215 Straw and Chaff as a Manure for -200 Summer Fallowing for. . the 90th Crop on Same Land.213 Top-dressing for 2"0 vs. Corn, Comnanitive Yield of Well-rotted Manure for 267 WhyOiirCrops an- so I'oor.vlt Yield per Acre 11 JUST PUBLISHED, By S. B. REED, Architect. This is a valuable work which moots the wants of persons of moderate means, and will, it is believed, prove one of the MOST POPULAR ARCHITECTURAL BOOKS ever issued. It gives a wide range of design, from a dwelling costing $250 np to $8,000, and adapted to farm, village, and town residences. Nearly all of these plans have been tested by practical workings. They provide for heating, ventila- tion, etc., and give a large share of what are called Modern Improvements. One feature of the work imparts a value over any similar publications of the kind that ue have seen. 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