Tasmanian Na Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $5.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. A COMMON DOLPHIN AT LAUNCESTON R.H. Green anil E.O.G. Scott Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston Introduction The Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis Linne is a cosmopolitan species. It is characteristically gregarious and while the common social unit ranges from a dozen to a few hundred individuals, there are numerous accounts of much larger aggregations. One of the most striking is a report from north of Cape Kidnappers, New Zealand, where a great herd of dolphins, travelling south in formation, was estimated to be a kilometre wide, extend for about 51 kilometres and to number, conservatively, about a quarter of a million animals (Robson 1976). Unlike the Pilot Whale G/obicepha/a melaena and False Killer Whale Pseudor- ca crass,dens the Common Dolphin is seldom subject to stranding in very large numbers, animals that come ashore either do so as a result of ZTs inTasma^r? dea ? 0 " ai,ing at the «me. Guiler (llyS) fists nine stran- maPesandtwo iUT t ? 47 ? 1977 and gives measurements of two December 197?J?hIn‘ J he t ° 1 n ]y stra nd.ng involving large numbers was in Island Thpcp . about 1 00 came ashore on the Channel side of Bruny -t ; , t W ? bel,ev6d t0 be " from a ver V lar 9 e school” observed constantly breaking water in an area of about 1 5km x 8km" In his survey of Tasmanian Cetacea, Pearson (1936) makes reference to observations by S co tt and Lord (1921) on food but presents no specific 0n Ca r6C0r ^- neke ^ g ®3) gives four mass strandings from a total of 27 stmnd- tS M f Tasmania and V| ctoria, while Gaskin (1968) records 1 5 tSXSZST Ze3 ' and ' a " eXCaP ' ° ne - a ^ «' of a 2 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1 985 In a paper on this species, Scott and Lord (1921) give dimensions of nine skulls, with locality reports from Tamar Heads, River Derwent, Scamander, North-West Coast and King Island. Of the nine skulls examined by them, six were noted as being in the Queen Victoria Museum; no additions of relevant material had since been made to that institution's collection until the stran¬ ding of the present specimen. On the morning of 7 July 1 983 a report was received at the Queen Vic¬ toria Museum of a dead dolphin on the bank of the North Esk River in Royal Park, Launceston. At this point, about 60 kilometres from the sea, the water is fresh, though somewhat muddy and polluted. It is subject to marked tidal influences with an average variation in height, in the first week in July, of 3.5 metres. External Features When the report was received one of us (Scott) visited the site, took some measurements (Table 1) and made a note on coloration. The animal, a female, had been stranded by the receding tide and was lying, entangled in loose branches, beneath a willow tree. It had obviously been dead for some days. The ground colour was very dark brown, in places approaching black but lighter, medium grey on the chin, top of head back to blow hole and much of the ventral surface. The latter colour may have been, at least in part, a result of post-mortem decay. There was no evidence of any well defined colour pattern usually associated with this species, certainly no in- dication of "the most elaborate flank markings to be found in any cetacean (Watson, 1981, p. 270). Other Features Including Skull On 1 2 August when a second inspection was made by one of us (Green), the carcase, still at the original site of stranding, appeared to have undergone very little change. At this visit the abdomen was opened: the TABLE 1. Dimensions (in centimetres) of a female Common Dolphin stranded at Launceston in August 1983, using the method of Norris (1961). Length to caudal notch. Length to centre of eye. Length of gape. Length to blow hole. Length to anterior insertion of flipper . . . Length to mid point of genital aperture . . Projection of lower jaw beyond upper . . Half girth at dorsal origin . . . .. Eye: horizontal diameter. Eye: vertical diameter. Length of blow hole. Length of flipper, anterior insertion to tip Length of flipper, axilla to tip. Height of dorsal fin. Length of dorsal fin base. Width of flukes, tip to tip. 205 .34 . 24 .35 .51 146 . .2 .58 . .2 . .4 . .2 .29 .16 .16 .12 .42 January 1985 • Tasmanian Naturalist 3 stomach was empty; there was no evidence of pregnancy. The head was removed and the skull subsequently cleaned in a dermistid beetle colony at the Museum; it has been added to the collection, Reg. No. 1983/1/66. Dimensions of the skull were compared with those given by Scott and Lord (1921) for this species and found to be within the range of measurements quoted by them. There were 43 teeth each side of the max¬ illa and 53 each side of the mandible. References: Gaskin, D.E. 1968. The New Zealand Cetacea. Fisheries Research Bulletin No 1. New Zealand Marine Dept., Wellington. Guiler, Eric R. 1978. Whale strandings in Tasmania since 1945 with notes on some seal reports. Paps. Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. 112, 189-213. Norris, K.S. 1961. Standardized methods for measuring and recordinq data on the small cetaceans. J. Mammal. 42, 471-476. Pearson, J. 1 936. The whales and dolphins of Tasmania Part 1 External characters and habits. Paps. Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. (1935), 163-192, figs. 1 ** 1 5 . Robson, F.D. 1976. Thinking Dolphins, Talking Whales. A H & A W Reed Wellington. ScotCH.n. and Lord C.El 921. Studies of the Tasmanian Cetacea. Part IV. Paps. Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. (1920), 1-10 pis 1-5 “: 4 V 983 WhBle S,,and ' ng ' acciden ' °' desi 9" Am. Nat. Hist. 21 '"I'iadway'.^S.w "*"'*' 0 "*“ te ° f "* Wor ' d ' Hu,chls °" A aoV The , v Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post - Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor. D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. A BIG THAIMKYOU TO THE STATE GOVERNMENT The Tasmanian Naturalist has successfully appealed to the State Govern¬ ment for a $500 grant to help support its continued publication. Recent in¬ creases in the costs of printing and postage have threatened our continued ex¬ istence. Responding to our request, the Premier, Mr Gray, sought advice through the Minister for National Parks as to the value of this publication for the work of various government departments, and, as a result of favourable com¬ ment being received, the Premier has made a grant of $500 available to assist in the publication of our journal. We are grateful to the State Government for its recognition o t e role that this publication plays in helping to disseminate knowledge of the unique flora, fauna and other aspects of natural history of our State. The grant will help us greatly to maintain publication at the present stan- REPRINTING OF TASMANIAN BIRDS' In addition to publishing the Tasmanian Naturalist, the Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club (TFNC) has also compiled the very successful field booklet a sm an|a n irds , which sold out its original print run as well as a later reprint run. Originally published by The Jacaranda Press, the publication has now been 9 nnri OVer by TFNC . itsel *- The Club has recently authorised a reprinting of copies o asmanian Birds, as market research has indicated a continued eman or this pocket-sized introduction to the Tasmanian avifauna. The 1 Ocm x 1 3.3cm booklet, containing 83 colour photographs of 77 species, in- eludes illustrations of all species endemic to Tasmania. Brief notes on food, habit and habitat accompany each photograph. The booklet is now available in various bookstores and outlets throughout the State 2 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1986 TASMANIAN TREE FERNS A VEGETATIVE KEY AND DESCRIPTIONS F. Duncan and M. Neyland Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service Introduction The attractiveness of tree ferns is undeniable. Whether they occur in groves or as isolated individuals occupying a moist niche in an otherwise dry environ¬ ment, their luxuriance and primeval appearance invite inspection. The following key and descriptions of Tasmanian species of tree ferns are designed to assist those who wish to classify as well as inspect. To simplify diagnoses, the key uses vegetative characters only. More detailed comparisons of the vegetative and reproductive features and habitat preferences of the species are given in Table 1. The key and descriptions are confined to true tree ferns, i.e. the five Tasma¬ nian species which regularly form trunks which may exceed one metre in height in mature individuals. These species (nomenclature follows Jones and Cleme- sha, 1 980) are Dicksonia an'.arctica, Cyathea australis, Cyathea cunninghamii, Cyathea marcescens and Todea barbara. It should be noted that mature in¬ dividuals of three other species ( Polystichum proliferutn, Blechnum nudum, and Diplazium australe ) may also form trunks, but these rarely exceed 30cm in height. Descriptions of the latter species, as well as the five species of tree ferns, are contained in several publications (see references). Key to, and Descriptions of, Tasmanian Tree Ferns Identification of species in the following key is based on characters of the frond. Note that it is important to examine the base of the stipe (i.e. the frond is not broken off above its base). Species can be classified using dead fronds, either from amongst the litter or still hanging down, if they are in good condi¬ tion. Identification of specimens can be checked by referring to other characters listed in Table 1. A glossary of technical terms used in the key and in Table 1 is given in the Appendix. Figdre 1 shows the differences in tubercle and scale characters of Cyathea australis and Cyathea cunninghamii. Key A. Stipe smooth near base B. Stipe base hairless. Todea barbara * B. Stipe base covered with soft reddish hairs . Dicksonia antarctica *A. Stipe rough near base C. Stipe base dark brown, with tubercles pointed. Cyathea australis *C. Stipe base black, with tubercles rounded or truncated D. Most pinnules petiolate. Cyathea cunninghamii * D. Most pinnules joined to rhachis. Cyathea marcescens Records from the Public The National Parks and Wildlife Service is currently compiling an atlas of Tasmanian ferns, using the standard 10km national map grid for plotting distributions of all fern species. Presently known distributions for tree ferns, based on herbarium, literature and reliable field records are shown in Figure 2. April 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 2 cm « 5 ' ' ' i* i * * • * i, » m. . Figure 1. Stipe base and scales of Cyathea australis (A) and Cyathea cunninghamii (B). 4 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1986 Table 1. Characteristics of Tasmanian tree ferns. Species Maxinum trunk dimensions Trunk features Maximum frond length Stipe features Dicksonia antarctica Soft tree fern 15m tall 100cm diam Trunk often buttressed, sanetimes divided. Old fronds persistent on upper trunk less so in older plants. 450cm Stipes smaoth. Bases with soft reddish brown hairs. Cyathea australis Rough tree fern 12m tall 30+cm diam Buttress developed in older plants. Stipe bases persistent on upper trunk, lower trunk fibrous. 450cm Bases with dark shiny scales. Stipe base covered with sharp tubercules extending up stipe. Cyathea cunninghamii Slender tree fern 20m tall 15cm diam Trunk slender. Stipe bases persistent on trunk. Often moss covered. 300cm Bases with thin brcwn scales, stipes rough with short tubercules mainly near base. Cyathea marcescens Skirted tree fern 10m tall 40cm diam Buttress developed in older plants. Trunk fibrous. Fronds very persistent on trunk. 500cm Base with long dark brcwn glossy scales. Stipe base thick, black, tuberculate. Todea barbara King fern 150cm tall 200cm diam • Trunk barrel shaped, black and fibrous on outside, bearing many crowns of fronds. Doesn't always form trunk. 200cm Stipes smooth. Base hairless. Information on occurences of tree ferns (and associated ferns and fern allies) from grid squares with no current records would be appreciated by the Ser¬ vice. Similarly, location and habitat information (including numbers of young and mature individuals) for Cyathea marcescens and Cyathea cunninghamii, the rarest of the Tasmanian tree ferns, would also be appreciated. If in doubt about the identity of a species, a specimen of frond (including the base of the stipe) and fertile material (if possible) should also be sent for verification. Other information (trunk height and diameter, habitat, location) should also be supplied. Acknowledgements . . . We thank Dr. M.J. Brown, Dr. S.J. Jarman and Mr. M. Garrett for their com- merits on the draft. Funding for both of us is provided by the Commonwealth April 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 Frond divisions Texture and colour of mature fronds Reproduction Habitat and distribution Tripinnate Stiff, dark glossy green above, light below. Sori marginal, protected by recurved leaf margin forming a two valved cup. Widespread annd camion. Fern gullies and wet forests. Southern Qld., NSW, Vic, Tas, SA (extinct) Tripinnate Soft, light green, above, green or bluish below. Sori in rcws, parallel to main pinnule vein on underside of frond. Indusia absent. Fern gullies, wet forests, creek banks. Open forest in higher rainfall areas. Qld, NSW, Vic, Tas. Tripinnate Soft, dark green above, lighter belcw. Sori circular, in rows. Covered by cup shaped indusia. Very protected fern gullies. Southern Qld, NSW (?), Vic, Tas, N.Z. Tripinnate Soft, dark green above. Sori in rows at base of pinnae, small scalelike indusia. Spores absent. Found only where C. australis and C. cunninghamii occur together. Believed to be a hybrid. Vic, Tas. Bipinnate Leathery, bright shiny green. Sori covering pinnules towards base of frond. Indusia absent. Coastal, predominantly in the north. Gullies, rock crevices and creek banks. Northern and Southern Qld, NSW, Vic, Tas, SA (rare), N.Z., South Africa Government through the Heritage Commission (F.D.), and the Australian Na¬ tional Parks and Wildlife Service (M.N.). References Jones, D.L. and Clemesha, S.C. 1981. Australian Ferns and Fern Allies. Revised Edition. A.H. and A.W. Reed, Sydney. Wakefield, N.A. 1955. Ferns of Victoria and Tasmania. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. Clifford, H.T. and Constantine, J. 1980. Ferns, Fern Allies and Conifers of Australia . University of Queensland Press, Brisbane. Willis, J.H. 1 970. A Handbook to Plants in Victoria. Volume L Ferns, Conifers and Monocotyledons. Second Edition. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1986 April 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 Figure 2. Presently known locations of Tasmanian tree ferns. 8 April 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist Appendix 1. Terms used in Key and Table 1. Frond...full leaf of fern Stipe.stalk of frond, from trunk to first divisions bearing leaflets Tubercles ..knobby projections Bipinnate .frond is twice divided Tripinnate.frond is thrice divided Pinnules .smallest segment of the divided fronds Petiolate.attached to the rhachis by the mid-vein only Sori.clusters containing spores on the underside of fertile pinnules Indusia . . membranes which cover or partly cover immature sori in many ferns Rhachis. axes or framework of the frond above the stipe. frond tertiary rhachis secondary rhachis primary rhachis pinnules joined to rhachis (e.g. Cyathea Australis) pinnules p*Uolatc (e g • Cyathea cunnin^harnii ) Stylised tripinnate frond of Cyathea spp. Printed by Advance Publicity Company, North Lindisfarne PS V-s- f -J No. 86 JULY 1986 - 4 AUG 1986 The Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A # Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. FOOD OF THE SOUTHERN BOOBOOK NINOX NOVAESEELANDIAE R.H. Green * J.L. Rainbird* and P.B. McQuillan t *Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston tDepartment of Agriculture, Hobart A series of regurgitated pellets and sundry loose material comprising the un¬ digested remains of prey species taken by Southern Boobooks were collected by Mr Peter Duckworth from beneath two diurnal roost sites on the east coast of Tasmania: Mayfield, 20km south of Swansea and Rostrevor at Triabunna. The Mayfield site was in an old derelict farm building where two boobooks were roosting and where, in six visits, 64 pellets were collected between June 1979 and January 1981. The Rostrevor site was in an old machinery shed where one boobook roosted and where, in nine visits, 25 pellets were collected between July 1978 and February 1980. The material has been lodged with the Queen Victoria Museum, photographed, measured and analysed to determine the species taken. The results are given in Table 1. In determining the numbers of mammals and birds, cranial material only was counted; in frogs, paired pelvic bones and in spiders, pairs of chelicerae. Insect remains were numerous in all the pellets. These were mainly from medium sized (1-3cm long) nocturnal beetles. One pellet from Mayfield col¬ lected on 24 August 1 980 contained the remains of about 50 specimens of 2 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1986 Table 1 . Analysis of 90 pellets and other such loose material regurgitated by the Southern Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae at Mayfield and Rostrevor. Col¬ umn 1 gives the percentage of pellets in which a species was found; 2, the number of individuals found in pellets; 3, the number of individuals found in loose material; 4, total number of individuals in the pellets and loose material. *From Mayfield samples only. Prey Species Bat Eptesicus sp. House Mouse Mus musculus 1 2 8 8 3 4 2 2 15 23 Rat (Juvenile)* (Rattus) sp. Rabbit (Juvenile)* Oryctolagus cuniculus House Sparrow Passer domesticus Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris European Goldfinch Cardeulis cardeulis 1 1 1 1 7 2 1 7 7 5 2 1 1 8 8 7 Striated Pardalote* Pardalotus striatus Golden Whistler Pachycephala pectoralis Small Bird Brown Tree Frog* Litoria ewingi Shore Crab* (fam. Grapsidae) Trapdoor Spider (fam. Ctenizidae) Insects (mainly Coleoptera, see text) 3 7 18 26 31 1 1 61 113 253 100 3 2 57 1 366 numerous Tasmanian Naturalist 3 July 1986 Xylonychus piliger - a rare endemic scarabaeid beetle known to form mating swarms on late winter evenings. Other scarabaeoid beetles recovered from pellets included Elephastomus proboscideus (8 pellets), Pharochilus politus (2 pellets), Aphodius tasmaniae (2 pellets), and Heteronyx sp. (5 pellets). Ceram- bycid beetles were well represented, including Phoracantha fallax (3 pellets), p. synonyma (1 pellet), Coptocercus rubripes (1 pellet), Phylctaenodes pustulosus and Tessaromma sericans (2 pellets each). Together with chrysomelid beetles, Paropsis spp. (5 pellets), elaterids (1 pellet) and cryp- torhynchine weevils (2 pellets), these beetles tend to be active on tree trunks at night. Trap-door spiders (fam. Ctenizidae) were abundant in samples collected at both sites in summer. These are presumably captured as they wander over open ground at night. Dried fibrous grassy material in some pellets may have been accidentally consumed when taking ground-dwelling prey such as spiders. Pellets, the average size of which was 24mm x 14mm, did not reflect any significant difference in prey selection at the two collecting sites except for tree-frogs in the Mayfield sample and their complete absence from the Rostrevor sample. Frogs were not found in pellets collected during the sum¬ mer months, probably because they were not active and abroad in the warmer weather. All pellets contained the remains of more than one species and reflected the rather varied diet of an opportunistic predator. Nick Mooney (pers. comm.) found the gut of one Southern Boobook to con¬ tain 10 Tasmanian Froglets Ranidella tasmaniensis, 1 Brown Froglet R. signifera and 2 Brown Tree Frogs Litoria ewingi . An examination of a series of alcohol preserved gut contents of Southern Boobooks in the museum's collec¬ tions was found to include remains of Pigmy Possum Cercartetus nanus , Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa, some undetermined small birds, scorpions, mole crickets, insects, spiders and earthworms. Opportunistic feeding by the Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae also is sug¬ gested by Green and Rainbird (1 985), but whereas that predator was found to feed almost exclusively on small mammals and birds, the Southern Boobook was found to take mostly insects and spiders. Though there is some overlap of prey species such as the House Mouse and small birds, the analyses of pellet composition from these two nocturnal predators, which both live in sclerophyll forest and woodland, illustrate predatory activities and prey selection relative to their body size. The Masked Owl ranges in body weight from 1 10Og in females to 450g in males whereas the Southern Boobook ranges from 290g to 140g. References / v Green R.H. and J.L. Rainbird. 1985. Food of the Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae. Tasm. Nat. 82, 5-7. - ! * 4 AUG m 4 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1986 A SUBSTANTIAL DECLINE IN NUMBERS OF THE SOUTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL AT HEARD ISLAND Harry Burton Antarctic Division, Department of Science, Kingston Introduction The 1985 Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE) to the Australian Territory of Heard Island had, as one of its major goals, the task of censusing the population of the Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina L.) on the island over the pupping period, as part of an international program aimed at monitoring the total population of these seals. Monitoring of the Southern Ocean marine ecosystem has the purpose of making sure that changes to all parts of the ecosystem, induced by harvesting certain species, can be discerned before permanent damage is done to significant elements of that ecosystem by continued overharvesting. Effective and economically feasible monitoring is a most difficult thing to do, and many years are certain to pass before the ''health" of even portions of the Southern Ocean ecosystem can be reliably checked from one year to the next. Regular census¬ ing of island populations of birds and mammals that are important consumers within the pelagic food chain is one likely way of doing this. The period on the island was originally scheduled to have been the whole of October. However, when the relief ship, the "Nella Dan", became beset in ice at Amundsen Bay, Antarctica, the time at Heard Island was extended to 56 days, October 1 to November 25, before the substitute relief ship, the "Icebird", arrived to remove the members of the expedition from the island. The extra time allowed more work to be done on all programs, and also allow¬ ed a survey of sealer's relics on the island to be completed. Choice of Elephant Seal for Censusing Elephant Seals breeding at Heard Island were selected for censusing for several reasons. They are known to range widely at sea and principally feed on fish and squid south of the Antarctic Convergence. Their large size and presence ashore on exposed beaches makes censusing readily possible and accurate; and they are numerous enough to reach a sizeable biomass (40,000 tonnes, McCann 1 985) and so make the results of any census relevant to a considerable part of the food chain. The importance of Elephant Seals has been appreciated in some general sense for many years. For a century these seals and whales were the one part of the Antarctic food chain that could be significantly exploited. Oil produc¬ tion from Heard Island did not cease until the 1 930's, although by that time the scale of operation was much reduced compared to earlier days. The very first ANARE to Heard Island in 1948 counted the Elephant Seals in the Four Bays area close to the camp and this remained an important task for suc¬ ceeding expeditions until the close of the camp in 1955. Unfortunately not much of this work was published, but enough was written up for it to be clear that the breeding cows that had come ashore to pup during October approx¬ imately numbered 30,000 animals for the whole island during the early fifties. I July 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 Since that time several researchers, principally South African, have shown that fluctuations in the numbers of Elephant Seals have occurred; and that in the last decade all trends have been negative in those islands (Marion, Crozet, Kerguelen) censused in the Indian Ocean. The Elephant Seals on Heard Island are more numerous than on any other island in the region excepting lies Kerguelen, and the question of how the population has altered in the past 30 years is therefore of importance. Methods of Censusing A census of the whole island, by counting seals hauled out on beaches, necessitated two parties, one at Atlas Cove and the other at Spit Bay (see Fig. 1). Daily counts of all seals hauled ashore in selected study sites (including Four Bays, which was censused between 1948 and 1955) were made bet¬ ween October 3 and November 24, 1 985. This period of 52 days overlapped the peak in seal cow numbers (for example, see Fig. 2, which gives the counts made at West Bay) and provides sufficient data to estimate Elephant Seal populations on Heard Island in the future if the census is done on any day bet¬ ween October 1 and November 3. This is the period in which sufficient rele¬ vant age classes of seals exist on shore for acceptable accuracy in a census. Aerial photography of all the island beaches, that was planned to coincide with ground truth counts, was not possible as the "Nella Dan" failed to return to Heard Island. The helicopters with specially modified camera mounts were only used on one day with the Linhof camera (October 2) for a seal census flight along the northern beaches of Heard Island during the initial landing. Figure 1. Map of Heard Island, showing elephant seal concentrations on beaches examined in 1985. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1986 Figure 2. Population numbers of elephant seal cows ashore at West Bay in 1952 and 1985. Some hand held 35mm photography was also done of the small island at the tip of the Spit on October 5. Twenty-four large Elephant Seal harems were seen; cow numbers will be counted from the photographs. Unfortunately time was not given for scientific flying following the relief of the party by "Icebird" on November 25; and so Long Beach was never counted. This was the only beach omitted from the census. The nonavailability of the Nella Dan helicopters to census northern beaches such as Church Rock, Saddle Point, Cape Bidlingmaier and Gilchrist and Compton Beaches was compensated to a large extent by the use of LARCs as sea transport. By this means the census was completed on all the northern and eastern beaches that were not reached by foot. r July 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 During the census, all Elephant Seals were classified into the following categories, reflecting factors such as age, sex and reproductive status, viz. adult bulls, bachelors, challengers, beachmasters, subadults, yearlings, cows, black pups and weaned pups. Dead pups were also recorded. Thus the population structure of the seals was censused as well as the total numbers. Beach type was recorded and significant changes to beaches, particularly between Capsize Beach and the Spit have evidently occurred in the thirty years since the last census. The once eight kilometre long spit was broken by a wave washed and channeled section about two kilometres across which isolated the final two kilometres of the Spit and made it an island. Although substantial areas of beach had been thus lost to the Spit itself, new sandy beaches had been created between Capsize Beach and the Southern Spit Coast which at least equalled the lost area. Results and Discussion October 1 5 was the day of maximum numbers of cows ashore, averaged over all study sites. This same date is also applicable on lies Kerguelen (Angot 1 954, van Aarde 1 980). The new coastline that was created between Cap¬ size Beach and the Southern Spit Coast was well used by the seals; 2804 cows were found on it in 28 harems. An estimate has been made for Long Beach on the basis of adjusted counts from earlier years, and although the confidence limits are wide, the conclusion is unarguable. The number of Elephant Seals on Heard Island has dropped dramatically between 1948-55 and 1985. An estimate of Elephant Seal numbers on Heard Island in the early 1 950s was that of Carrick and Ingham (1 960). They used a whole island count of pups and a composite of cow counts on several dates to obtain a figure of 23,000 breeding cows, 17,688 of them on the Spit. However, the count of animals on the Spit was done on the 27, 28, 29 October 1 949. These dates were, on average, 1 3 days past the day of max¬ imum numbers (October 1 5) which has now been established by this present work. The 1985 data allow a more accurate estimate than was possible in the 1 950s because it is now known that 65 per cent of the cows were present on October 28 compared to October 1 5. Thus, assuming a similar haulout pattern in 1 949, the 1 7,688 cows on Oc¬ tober 28 would be equivalent to 27,21 2 cows on October 1 5. This 27,21 2 becomes 30,236 for a whole island cow total (the Spit is 90 per cent of the whole island, Carrick and Ingham 1 962) and increases to 31,827 for a pup production figure (total cows on maximum day equal 95 per cent of pup pro¬ duction). The pup production in 1 985 (13,1 1 1) was only approximately 40 per cent of that in 1 949 (31,827). A population decrease of 60 per cent in a long-lived (20 years maximum known) species like the Elephant Seal is a very significant change. There is no doubt that some changes must have occurred in the seal's environment to bring this about. As there have not been any changes recognised during the terrestrial period of the Elephant Seal's existence on any of the islands studied where the population decrease has been shown, it is likely that the unknown factors controlling the seal population belong to that period of life spent in the marine environment. Whether increased preda¬ tion is an effective factor (Van Aarde, 1 980) or whether food is limiting the seal numbers is now known. Both are possible but evidence is scant. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1986 However, it is relevant to note that at least some aspects of the atmospheric circulation at Heard Island have altered between 1950 and 1980, in that cyclones tracked significantly further north (Radok and Watts, 1 975; Allison and Keage, in press). Ocean temperatures at the island also significantly in¬ creased (Allison and Keage, in press). It is likely that these changes in more readily measured parameters indicate that other parameters of the ocean en¬ vironment have altered in many ways which are not yet appreciated. Phytoplankton and zooplankton are dependent on water currents for their location of course, as well as being dependent on factors such as temperature for their growth rates and thus competitive abundance. If these food sources for fish and squid changed in any of several ways (abundance, timing, loca¬ tion), then the fish and squid populations, upon which the Elephant Seals substantially rely for food, would adjust in response. The decades since 1 950 have seen the Kerguelen Shelf change from a non¬ existent fishery to one where very substantial catches are now taken annually by far-ranging east European fishing fleets. Elephant Seals and fishing boats are, at first sight, likely to be competitive, but the degree of competition is ex¬ tremely difficult to assess. It may be that inexperienced weaned pups in their first year of life, feeding within the island shelf waters, have suffered an in¬ creased mortality as a consequence of the operation of this relatively new fishery. Further monitoring will be necessary to confirm the trend of population decrease and to measure it on a one to three yearly basis. Has the population now stabilised, for example, or is it continuing to fall? The Elephant Seal cen¬ sus on Heard Island has picked up a very significant signal, indicating some major ecosystem adjustment in the marine environment. The interpretation of that signal must wait on further information. References Allison, I.F. and Keage, P.L. (in press). The glaciers of Heard Island, their en¬ vironment and recent changes in their extent. I.G.S. in USSR, Sept. 1985. Angot, M. 1954. Observations sur les mammiferes marins de I'Archipel de Kerguelen, avec une etude detaillee de relephant de mer, Mirounga leonina (L.). Mammalia 18, 1-111. Carrick, R. and Ingham, S.E. 1960. Ecological studies of the Southern Ele¬ phant Seal (Mirounga leonina (L.) at Macquarie Island and Heard Island. Mammalia 24(3), 325-342. Carrick, R., and Ingham, S.E. 1962. Studies on the Southern Elephant Seal, Mirounga leonina (L.). V. Population Dynamics and Utilization. C.S.l.R.O. Wildlife Research 7(2), 198-206. McCann, T.S. 1 985. Size, status and demography of Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) populations. In: Ling, J.K., Bryden, M.M., (eds.), Studies of Sea Mammals in South Latitudes . South Australian Museum, Adelaide, pp. 1-1" 7 * Radok, U. and Watts, D. 1 975. A synoptic background to glacier variations of Heard Island. In: Snow and Ice Symposium, IAHS Publication 104. pp.42-56. Van Aarde, R.J. 1980. Fluctuations in the population of Southern Elephant Seals (Mirounga leonina) at Kerguelen Island. South African Journal of Zoology 15, 99-106. Printed bv Advance Publicity Company, North Lindisfarne Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor BONESEED - AIM INTRODUCED PLANT WHICH THREATENS TASMANIA'S NATIVE PLANT SPECIES David Ratkowsky' and Jamie Bayly-Stark 2 '117 York Street, Dynnyrne and National Parks and Wildlife Service, Magnet Court, Sandy Bay, Tas. 7005 Chrysanthemoides monilifera . a member of the daisy family Asteraceae, was introduced into Australia in the mid-1 9th century from South Africa, where it is native in the Cape Province. The earliest specimens were reported in Sydney in 1 852, in Melbourne in 1858 and in Adelaide in 1 892. The species was favoured by the settlers because of its ability to bind together sandy soils, thus preventing erosion along beachfronts. The people who advocated its introduction into Australia because of this property, and because of the plant’s attractive yellow flowers, did not anticipate that it would spread out of control, posing a threat to Australia's native vegetation. As so often happens when a species is introduced into a totally different environment which lacks the predators that keep it under control in its native habitat, the species has spread in an uncontrolled fashion, and is now declared to be a noxious weed in Victoria, Queensland and South Australia. C. monilifera occurs in six known subspecies, of which two are naturalized in Australia. Subspecies mtimdata occurs in New South Wales and southern Queensland, where it is usually called bitou bush, and tends to be difficult to control, because it is very invasive and not easily pulled up. Subspecies monilifera occurs in Tasmania and other southern Australian mainland states, is generally known as Boneseed, because of its hard seed contained in a fleshy fruit known botanically as a drupe (such as a peach or plum). The seeds are spread by birds and other animals. Tasmanian Naturalist October 1986 Boneseed has become widespread in Tasmania, and although restricted to coastai areas at the present time, it is said to have the potential to colonise h gher altitudes such as the Central Plateau. In northern Tasmania, it occurs along the north coast solidly from a little east of Burnie to east of Sulphur Lreek, and thereon spasmodically to Turners Beach. Boneseed has not been reported between Devonport and Port Sorell, nor through the Asbestos Range National Park from Port Sorell to Greens Beach. There is a significant amount of Boneseed at Greens Beach itself, growing right down to the high tide mark. oneseed was common at Bridport, but a determined community effort has virtually eliminated it from that area. Other concerted efforts by concerned community groups have been made in Ulverstone and in Scottsdale. There is also a considerable infestation at Bicheno around Lookout Rock, throuqh the town and in the vicinity of the Sea Life Park. A community effort was started there last year in an attempt to make inroads into the population level. It was also reported at Coles Bay, but apparently that has been eliminated throuqh the combined effort of National Parks and Wildlife and the Department of Agriculture. In the Launceston area, it is not uncommon in the Tamar Valley from Kelso down to Launceston, occurring in the Cataract Gorge, predominantly on the south side from the cliffs above the Penny Royal Gunpowder Mill complex up to the First Basin and up to the Trevallyn Dam. In Hobart, it is well entrenched in the Domain, and can also be found in the hills behind Glenorchy, Hobart and the eastern shore suburbs. The Channel Highway from Lower Sandy Bay to Kingston, Tinderbox and Margate have thick infestations, as do other parts of the Derwent Estuary, such as Dodges Ferry. There is also a large population in the area between Cradoc and Wattle Grove south of Huonville. Here, Boneseed is doing very well in disturbed wet forests. Although Boneseed is an invasive plant tending to form monocultures, it can be eliminated by concerted community action. Young seedlings can easily be pulled out by the application of gentle pressure. Nevertheless, the species is difficult to control, because even if all plants in an area are pulled out, there usually remain large quantities of viable seeds that germinate in subsequent years. Because of this, ongoing pullouts are needed over periods of decades to ensure that no new seed source eventuates. Alternatively, fire may be us¬ ed, as even a light burn destroys mature plants and seedlings alike and stimulates germination of seed in the soil. However, fire is a dangerous instru¬ ment which may even be misused by trained firefighting personnel. One in¬ stance of incorrect use was an attempt to reduce top growth of a grass along sand dunes in a beach area which resulted in the destruction of, or severe damage to, Banksias growing in the area. As a result, Boneseed bushes ger¬ minated near the base of many of the destroyed trees and have, to a large ex¬ tent, pushed out the native vegetation. Nevertheless, when used properly, fire can be an asset in Boneseed control. Community groups can take advantage of fires by following up and pulling the seedling flush. Boneseed occurs both on public and private lands, and education of the public about the threat posed by this species is essential. Another form of control can be October 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 Boneseed (Chrvsanihemoides monilifera). Drawing by Dennis Morris, and used with the permission of the Tasmanian Department of Agriculture. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1986 effected by the use of safe chemicals. Big plants of Boneseed may be cut throuqh the main stem and the cut cross-section painted immediately with 'Round-up' or some other proprietary chemical. The chemical travels down to the roots killing the plant completely and thereby preventing resprouting. The Bridport community experience in virtually eliminating Boneseed from their area should serve as an encouragement to other communities wishing to rid their surroundings of this potential scourge. Information as to how to go about attacking this problem on a local community level may be obtained by writing £°:-; e L eph0nin9 the De P artment of Agriculture or the National Parks and Wildlife Service. A leaflet on Boneseed has been prepared by the Department of Agriculture and is now available at Department of Agriculture offices throughout the State. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Tasmanian Department of Agriculture Weeds Of¬ ficers Brian Hyde-Wyatt and Wayne Watson for much useful information. The World Congress of Herpetology announces the FIRST WORLD CONGRESS OF HERPETOLOGY 11-19 September 1 989 at the University of Kent, Canterbury (U.K.) This international congress will be the first of a series occurring at regular in¬ tervals around the world. Such a meeting will enable all persons interested in herpetology to meet and exchange information to promote the advance of knowledge and the conservation of the world's amphibians and reptiles. The congress will consist of topical symposia, poster sessions, plenary speakers, workshops, displays, excursions, and meetings of ancillary groups. Subjects and moderators of symposia will be announced well in advance so that poten¬ tial participants can volunteer. The meeting will be open to all persons. Registration will begin 1 January 1988. For further details and mail listing, write: Dr. Ian R. Swingland, World Con¬ gress of Herpotology, Rutherford College, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NX, United Kingdom. Sponsoring organizations and individuals are welcome. For further details write: Dr. Marinus S. Hoogmoed, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands. October 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 BREEDING RECORD OF THE DELICATE SKINK LEIOLOPISMA DELICATA IN SOUTHERN TASMANIA Mark and Erik Wapstra 21 1 Roslyn Avenue, Blackmans Bay, Tas. 71 52 On 14 February 1 986 we collected 53 eggs of the Delicate Skink Leiolopisma delicata from an area of 2x1 m next to the oval of Blackmans Bay Primary School. The eggs were in at least 11 clusters containing 3-5 eggs each. The nests were found exposed when large chunks, about 1 m high, of the bank of a storm water creek had cracked off after heavy rain. The nests were about 20cm above the level of the creek and about 1.5m away. The bank was almost pure clay and hard. Near some of the nests the clay was moist and softer. Most of the 53 eggs collected were entirely dried out but 1 8 were still firm and full. Egg lengths varied from 0.9 to 1.3cm with their shape differing from elongated to more round. A few were cut open and the contents thought to be Three-lined Skinks Leiolopisma trilineata because of their dark sides. At the time of collection, about 2.30pm, no L. delicata or L. trilineata were seen near the next site although some skinks, believed to be Metallic Skinks L. metallica , were observed. The eggs were placed in a small aquarium on an electric pet blanket, in moist soil kept at 26-33°C. Five of the 18 good eggs hatched and were confirmed to be L. delicata. The first two hatched on 22 February 1 986, the next two on 6 March 1986 and the final one on 8 March 1 986. The eggs after the lizards had hatched had a small hole in the shell with some liquid coming out when squeezed. The lizards were uniform brown above with the tail being darker. The sides were also darker fading into light to medium grey underneath. Their lengths at birth were about 32mm. They were fed a variety of small insects scooped from tall grass with a net. By 16 June 1986 two had grown to 45 and 48mm respective¬ ly. A third had not grown so fast and lost part of its tail, measuring 32mm only. The remaining two hatchlings could not be found and had probably died. By 1 6 June 1 986 it was clear that we could no longer find enough food for the lizards, so they were killed and submitted to the Queen Victoria Museum in Launceston, and allocated Reg. No. 1986/3/41. Green (1981) described the known distribution of L. delicata in Tasmania, and gave Hobart as the southernmost known record. The breeding site at Blackmans Bay (43°00' 147° 1 9') thus becomes the most southerly recorded locality for the species. Acknowledgement We thank Mr. David Rounsevell of the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service for confirming the identification of the 3 specimens. 6 References Tasmanian Naturalist October 1986 Green, R.H. 1981. Distribution of the Delicate Skink. Tasmanian Naturalist 68: 8. BOOK REVIEWS Sex in Nature by Chris Catton and James Gray Published by Croom Helm, London and Sydney, 1985, 224pp. Recommended Retail Price $32.50 Reviewed by D.A. Ratkowsky This profusely illustrated book, containing excellent colour and black-and- white photographs, provides a good introduction to the role that sex plays in the reproduction of species in the natural world. Although the book is heavily biased towards animal sexual behaviour, plants and 'primitive' life forms do get a mention. The book is divided into ten chapters, the first of which deals with asexual reproduction which is characteristic of amoebae, algae, bacteria and other simple organisms. The multifarious ways sperm and egg can unite is the subject of the second chapter. Chapter 3 is devoted to the various ways natural creatures hunt for a partner, utilizing sight, sound and smell, and Chapter 4 deals with the mechanisms that have evolved to improve their chances of finding a mate. The fifth chapter considers the development of self-fertilisation, hermaphrodism and parthenogenesis which render un¬ necessary the search for a mate. Ritual courtship and mating success is the subject of the sixth chapter. In Chapter 7, one finds a section on fighting amongst males for dominance, and a description of the various ways males try to maximise their reproductive success. The eighth chapter considers the female point of view, detailing the means at their disposal for trying to guarantee that their genes will be passed on to the next generation. The relatively length Chapter 9 deals with parenthood, and the final chapter is devoted to human sexuality. Australian content in this book includes photographs of the fawn-breasted bower bird, red kangaroos fighting, the superb lyrebird and drawings of Aboriginal rock paintings. The description on the jacket maintains that the book, "although aimed primarily at the amateur interested in natural history, should also prove useful to more serious students". Anyone who has wondered why some animals produce lavish numbers of eggs when others are sparing, why some plants and animals are brilliantly coloured whereas others are drab, why some animals exist in large family groups whereas others are solitary, will find answers to these questions in this book. October 1986 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 The Oxford Dictionary of Natural History Edited by Michael Allaby Published by the Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985 Recommended Retail Price $50.00 Reviewed by L.E. Wall This book is exactly what its title says - A dictionary of natural history. It contains over 12,000 entries, written by a team of experts in all fields of natural history, and its coverage is worldwide. I quote from the fly-leaf: "It will be of value to students as well as to those who derive pleasure from the wildlife around them, or even from well-tended gardens, and who wish to support personal observations by reading and wat¬ ching films, but need ready access to authoritative explanations of unfamiliar expressions." A further quote from the Foreword by that eminent biologist, David Atten¬ borough, sums it all up. "Here, for each of many thousands of scientific terms, are those few words of definition that will enable you, whether scien¬ tist, naturalist, or both, to understand the word and the sentence in which it is embedded. The entries have been assembled and defined by over fifty experts from a dozen different disciplines. I know of no other compilation that is so up-to-date and so comprehensive....! am delighted - and relieved - to have at last a volume at my elbow that will illuminate my way through the fascinating literature of natural history, no matter where it may lead me." It is a very valuable reference work for all serious naturalists, whether amateur or professional. Birds and Other Vertebrates of South West Tasmania by Gary White Published by the author, Sydney, 1985, 58pp. Paper Cover, Recommended Retail Price $4.95 Reviewed by D.G. Hird Despite the worldwide renown of the South West as an area of scenic beau¬ ty and natural value, the region is still poorly known from the natural history viewpoint. In its emphasis on coastal environments, this volume follows the author s previous work, Islands of South-West Tasmania. While small and of checklist format, this book is one of the first dedicated to the fauna of the area. Checklists serve to stimulate the interest of visitors as well as providing regional benchmark data for more serious studies. For an area as physically challenging as the South West, visitors initially attracted by this aspect often return with a thirst for more detail. Another benefit is the timeliness value of accurate checklists in documenting changes in range and perhaps abundance i q S o P q Ci6S * F ° r exam P ,e ' the exotic blackbird, first released from Hobart Zoo in 1923 (Eric Guiler, pers. comm.) has its recorded range extended from that recorded in the Bird Atlas of Tasmania. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1986 While the veracity of its information has not been comprehensively check¬ ed, the only production fault detected was a font error on page 23. It is pleas¬ ing to note the adoption of South West which, without a hyphen, conforms with the Nomenclature Board recommendation. Birds and Other Vertebrates of South West Tasmania is commended as a contribution towards an eventual comprehensive natural history of Tasmania's characteristic and endemic environments. The Natural History of Otters by Paul Chanin Published by Croom Helm Ltd., London, 1985, 179pp. Paper Cover, Recommended Retail Price $19.95 Reviewed by D.G. Hird In the context of Australia's mammal fauna, perhaps the question of most direct relevance with respect to otters is why didn't they become established here? Three species are indigenous to the Indonesian archipelago, including the Eurasian otter familiar to those having seen Hugh Miles' Scottish TV documentary on otters. With an abundance of Australo-Papuan habitat ap¬ parently suited to otters, our aquatic mammals might have been extended beyond the platypus and water rats had otters been able to transcend the moat of Wallace's Line. The Natural History of Otters is nonetheless a laudable exposition of its par¬ ticular aspect of modern popular mammalogy. Evolutionary relationships, distributions, ecology and behaviour are elucidated in a rigorous yet readable style. A salutory chapter covers otters and man; as with the platypus and Australian water rats, otters have been intensively hunted for the fur trade. The resultant decline, together with habitat alteration, has left otters rare to locally extinct in much of Western Europe. The Natural History of Otters is a volume in the Croom Helm Mammal Series, published in conjunction with the (British) Mammal Society. It is to be hoped volumes of this quality and detail may soon become available on Australian mammals. /so FORESTER KANGAROO Original drawing by Janet P? jo WE Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. THE VEGETATION OF KENTFORD FOREST STATE RESERVE, KING ISLAND Stephen Harris National Parks and Wildlife Service Introduction The present article results from a visit on the 1 April, 1985. The visit was prompted by the need to record the plant species and character of the vegetation in this Nature Reserve. The vegetation was sampled by walking two transects the north-south length of the reserve. Few studies of the vegetation have been done on King Island although several special lists exist, both published (e.g. Campbell 1887, Anon. 1972) and unpublished. It is important to know the flora and vegetation communities represented in existing reserves so that deficiencies in the reserve system can be more accurately determined. History of the Reserve The area comprising the reserve was a piece of surplus land remaming from the War Service Land Settlement Scheme and was administere y t e Closer Settlement Board. The block was advertised for sale by ten er m t e "King Island News" on 12th and 19th September, 1973. This resulted in the Field Naturalists Club of King Island and the Council Clerk of the King Island Municipality writing to the Forestry Commission seeking \ts reseT - tion. The Field Naturalists Club commented on the importance o ne as habitat for the strong billed honeyeater "'...together w!t oner o birds — and there are very'few forest areas left on the is an rence of Eleocarptts reticulums was also mentioned. 2 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1987 As a result of these representations and following an inspection of the area by the then Minister responsible for National Parks and Wildlife the Na¬ tional Parks and Wildlife Service proceeded to acquire the land. The acquisi¬ tion was completed on 24th June, 1 974 and the reserve comprising 36.69 hectares was proclaimed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 and gazetted on 23rd July, 1975 as the Pegarah Forest State Reserve. Due to confusion with the State Forest block at Pegarah about 8km to the north, the name of the State Reserve was changed to Kentford Forest State Reserve on 18th March 1981. There are some rough overgrown vehicle tracks through parts of the reserve. These were probably used as access for the cutting of wood for farm use. The 9m wide access from the Kentford Road is used as a farm track and is trodden by cattle. The reserve is pretty well fenced but some relatively recent cutting of paperbark trees for fenceposts has occurred in¬ side the northern boundary. Climate, Geology and Soils The study area is subject to westerly air streams which bring a low to moderate rainfall. The average annual rainfall recorded at Currie is about 1016mm. There is no orographic rainfall because of the low lying topography of the island. Due to a strong maritime influence winters are mild, summers warm, and frosts are extremely rare. The bedrock in the area comprises comparatively unmetamorphosed sediments of Precambrian age (Jennings and Cox, 1978). A low ridge of lateritic ironstone occurs on part of the block and appears to have some ef¬ fect on vegetation regrowth. The soils in the area have been mapped (Richley, 1984) as duplex and uniform silty loam soils. There is a deep vegetable litter on much of the block. The Reserve is mostly flat with no permanent creeks or other incised drainage. A shallow linear depression with no free water at the time of in¬ spection, is the nearest feature to a creek that there is. Ground water drainage is into the Ettrick River system. Vegetation Three formations have been recorded for the reserve. The boundaries were mapped from a 1 980 aerial photograph and checked in the field when the plant species for all combined formations were listed. Trees dominate two of the formations while shrubs, herbs and sedges characterise the third. The principal species and general characteristics of each formation is given below. Eucalyptus brookerana open forest This formation covers most of the reserve. Occasional specimens of Eucalyptus globulus occur. There is a dense intermediate layer of Melaleuca ericifolia which tend to form an unbroken canopy between the taller eucalypts. A solitary umbrageous specimen of Elaeocarpus reticulatus was January 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 observed. The ground cover comprises mainly a dense litter layer with some small herbs and shrubs including Coprosma quadrifida (heavily browsed), Viola hedercicea, Pimelea spp. and Drymophila cyanocarpa. The climbers Par- sonia straminea and Clematis aristata were evident also. The course of a shallow drainage line is marked by occasional clumps of Blec/mum minus. Vegetation; Kentford Forest State Reserve 4 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1987 Melaleuca ericifolia closed scrub This is similar to the previously described formation except that eucalypts are absent. Because of the closed canopy, species diversity may be marginally lower but this is not apparent. In the north west corner of the block, blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and Monotoca glauca occurs. The climbers Billardiera lon gift ora and Clematis aristata also occur. Acacia open shrubland This formation is represented within the reserve by a small area open along an old track on a laterite soil. The area was possibly once cleared but is being successfully recolonised by a number of shrubs including Acacia mucronata, Leptospermum scoparium, Pultenaea juniperina, Pomaclerris ape tala, Phebalium squamaeum, Banksia marginal a, Acacia vert ici/lata var. ver¬ ticil lata and gorse (Ulex europaeus). This is most likely the area reported by the King Island Field Naturalists Club in 1975 (N.P.W.S. files) to have con¬ tained at that time "3 large shrubs of gorse and many smaller plants, approx¬ imately 50 in alT'. This formation includes rushes, sedges and herbs (e.g. Gahnia grandis , Juncus australis , Schoenus apogon , Centaurium erythraea) and has a comparatively high species diversity. Species diversity is only higher than this on the edges of the reserve where there is more light, and where contiguity with farmland provides a source of invasions, particularly by ex¬ otic grasses and herbs. Flora A total of 37 native vascular species was recorded from the reserve, (see Appendix). Only one of these species (Monotoca glauca) is a Tasmanian endemic. The species comprise the following life forms: 1 1 trees, 6 shrubs, 3 climbers, 2 ferns, 7 herbs, 4 grasses, 2 sedges and 2 rushes. Six exotic species (1 shrub, 3 grasses and 2 herbs) were also recorded. The native flora of the reserve represents about 10 percent of the native vascular flora of King island. The survey was carried out at the end of summer but a search during spring and summer may yield a small number of additional species, par¬ ticularly orchids and other geophytes. Only 2 species are of biogeographic interest. Viola hederacea subsp. cleistogamoides is a recently erected taxon (Adams, 1982) with few records in Tasmania, though it is probably widespread at least in the north of the State. The Tasmanian distribution of Elaeocarpus reticulatus is restricted to King Island and isolated localities on Flinders Island. The specimen noted during this survey is the only known occurrence of the species within the State Reserve system. The species has an intermittent occurrence on forested non-allocated Crown land on King Island, and also occurs in the Pegarah State Forest, and on uncleared private freehold land at Reekara. The Blechnum minus is the robust variety with fronds more than 1 metre and pinnae with wavy margins. January 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 Discussion The comparatively low number of species recorded from the reserve can be attributed to three main factors. Firstly, King Island itself is species poor, compared to the Tasmanian mainland, and to islands of similar size (e.g. Flinders Island). Although much of the native vegetation has been cleared, the low species diversity is mainly a function of broad topographical and geological uniformity. Consequently there are a smaller number of habitats than would otherwise be expected for an island of its size. This situation is reflected in the reserve itself, with only three habitats being identified: a shallow drainage channel, a rocky laterite outcrop, and the remainder of the reserve being flat land. However, the second and main reason for the low number of species in the reserve is the dense and extensive cover provided by Melaleuca ericifolia. The dense litter buildup and the low light levels reaching the ground have eliminated shrub and ground layer species associated with earlier succes- sional stages and has inhibited further development of these layers. It is in¬ teresting that highest species diversities were recorded on the area of open shrubland, where light penetration and litter buildup are not inhibiting. The third factor is related to the frequency of fire. Elsewhere on King Island, highest species diversities are associated with early successional stages (1-7 years) in heaths on recent sand. In the absence of fire the heathland is replaced by scrub, often of similar composition and diversity to that observed in the reserve. However, heaths are absent from more fertile PreCambrian substrates, suggesting that after fire or other disturbance a more rapid reversion to Melaleuca scrub is likely (F. Duncan and M.J. Brown, pers. comm.). Forests and scrub of similar structure and composition to those of the reserve are widespread on Cambrian and PreCambrian substrates elsewhere on King Island. They appear to owe their origin to a severe fire in the mid 1 930 s (F. Duncan and M.J. Brown, pers. comm.). It is likely that the forests of Kentford Forest State Reserve also date from this event. In the absence of further fire, such communities could maintain their present structure and composition for hundreds of years with the eucalypt component eventually dying out. It is likely though, that fire will sooner or later eliminate the present vegetation and start the succession at the beginning again. Acknowledgements I thank Fred Duncan for helpfully commenting on a draft of this paper, and for identifying some of the plant species. References Adams, L. 1982. FI. Australia 8 : 386 6 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1987 Anon. 1972. Plant List, for King Island, Bass Strait, Victorian Naturalist 89 : 287-299. Curtis, W.M. 1963. The Student's Flora of Tasmania, Part II. Govt. Printer, Hobart. Curtis, W.M. 1 967. The Student's Flora of Tasmania, Part III. Govt. Printer, Hobart. Curtis, W.M., and Morris, D.l. 1 975. The Student's Flora of Tasmania, Part I (Second Edition). Govt. Printer, Hobart. Gray, A.M. 1979. A new species of Eucalyptus from Tasmania. Aust. For. Res. 9:1 1 1-18. Jennings, D.J. and Cox, S.F. 1978. Geological Atlas 1:250,000 Series SK55-1 King Island, Dept, of Mines. Richley L.R. 1 984. Land Systems of Tasmania Region 1. Dept, of Agriculture. Willis, J.H. 1970. A Handbook to Plants in Victoria, Volume 1 (Second Edition). Melb. Univ. Press, Melbourne. APPENDIX Vascular plants observed in the Kentford Forest State Reserve. Except where authorities are given after species names, species nomenclature follows Curtis (1 963, 1 967) and Curtis and Morris (1 975) for dicotyledons, and Willis (1970) for monocotyledons and pteridophytes. Tasmanian endemic species are prefixed by an "e", and introduced species by an "i". PTERIDOPHYTA : FILICINAE Blechnaceae Dennstaedtiaceae Blechnum minus Pteridium esculcntum ANGIOSPERMAE : DICOTYLEDONEAE Apiaceae Apocynaceae Asteraceae Chenopodiaceae Elaeocarpaceae Epacridaceae Fabaceae Hydrocotvie ja vanica Parsonsia straminea Olearia ramulosa Rhagodia haccata E/aeocarpus reticu/atus e Monotoca glauca Pultenaea juniperina Gentianaceae Mimosaceae Haloragaceae ' Myrtaceae i U/c. v europaeus Centaurium erythraca A cacia melanoxylon Acacia mucronata Acacia verticiUata var. verticillata Gonocarpus tetterioidcs DC Eucalyptus brookerana A.M. Gray Eucalyptus globulus Lcptospermum scoparittm January 1987 Pittosporaceae Proteaceae Ranunculaceae Rhamnaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Scrophulariaceae Solonaceae Thymelaeaceae Violaceae Cyperaceae Poaceae i i i Juncaceae Liliaceae 7 Melaleuca ericifolia Melaleuca squarrosa Billardiera longiflora Banksia marginata Clematis aristata Pomaderris apetala Coprosma quadrifida Phebalium squameum Parentucellia sp. Solatium nigrum Pimelea drupacea Pimelea linifolia Viola hecleracea subsp. hederacea Viola hederacea subsp. cleistogamoides L. Adams £ Gahnia grandis Schoen us apogon Agrostis avenacea Agroslis tenuis Anthoxanthum odoratum Dantlionia semiannularis Deleuxia quadriseta Holcus lanatus Microlaena stipoides Juncus australis Juncus vaginatus Drymophila cyanocarpa Tasmanian Naturalist ANGIOSPERMAE : MONOCOTYLEDONEAE BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS AND GIANT-PETRELS FROM SOUTH GEORGIA T. Scarborough Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston An immature Black-browed Albatross, Diomedea melanophrys , recently accessed into the Queen Victoria Museum's collection by courtesy of Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service has been banded as a nestling at Bird Is., South Georgia on 1 5 April 1 985 by the British Antarctic Survey. It was found alive at Bakers Beach, Northern Tasmania, on 1 4 July 1985 by Ranger Jans Howe but died almost straight away, 90 days after being band¬ ed and having travelled at least 13,126km. It was found to be in a very starved condition, weighing only 2.25kg as compared to the normal weight of 2.81 -3.64kg (Serventy et al. 1971, p.72). The gut was empty except for some wing feathers of a Prion, Pachvptila sp. and fragments of cuttle-bone. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1987 The Queen Victoria Museum collection also includes another Black- browed Albatross, Reg. No 1962/2/6, banded on Bird Is. on 18 February 1 962 by the United States Antarctic Research Program and recovered on 1 7 June 1962 at Badger Head Beach, Northern Tasmania. There are also two Southern Giant-Petrels, Macronectes giganteus, in the collection, Reg. Nos. 1 962/2/7 and 1 975/2/1. The first was banded at Bird Is. on 2 February 1962 by United States Antarctic Research Program and recovered at Pipers Head, Northern Tasmania on 20 October 1962. The other was banded at Signy Is., South Orkney in March 1 974 by the British Antarctic Survey and recovered at Bridport, Northern Tasmania on 17 September 1 974. Migration from the breeding islands is probably circumpolar and wind assisted. Tickell (1967) gives information on long distance recoveries of Black-browed Albatross banded as chicks on South Georgia and Lockley (1974, p.100) gives somewhat similar data for the Southern Giant-petrel. These data indicate that in their first year the birds probably suffer from star¬ vation and stress which results in mortalities in Australian waters. A search for dead birds on our beaches in the winter months is always worthwhile and recoveries such as these can be a reward for the effort. References Lockley, R.M. 1974. Ocean Wanderers. Melbourne, Wren Publishing Pty. Ltd. Serventy, D.L., Vincent Serventy and John Warham. 1971. The Handbook of Australian Seabirds. Melbourne, A.H. and A.W. Reed Ltd. Tickell, W.L.N. 1967. Movements of Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatross in the South Atlantic. The Emu 66: 357-368. MASKED OWL EATS KOOKABURRA T. Scarborough Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston An adult female Masked Owl, Tyto novaehollandiae, salvaged as a road kill by Mrs. L. Thorne at Sidmouth, West Tamar on 29 July 1986 was recently accessed into the Queen Victoria Museum collection as a study skin, Reg. No. 1986/2/1 18. Upon preparation the stomach was found to contain the right leg of a Laughing Kookaburra, Dacelo novaeguineae. This supports the evidence of Green and Rainbird (1 985) that the Masked Owl in¬ cludes a range of introduced bird and mammal species as a major part of its diet. References Green, R.H. and Rainbird, J.L. 1985. Food of the Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae. Tasmanian Naturalist 82: 5-7. Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. [Edrtor s Note: as this issue went to press it was announced that Michael Sharland, a Life Member of TFNC, had died at the age of 87. An obituary will appsar latGr.j Michael Sharland's TASMANIAN BIRDS) an unusual origin. Communicated by D.G. Hird ™ HrH C nfl' V 1 SP ° ke r th Michael Sharland who revealed to me that books on bird life are not always written in the calm of a study with helpful FoMnSance Michael Sh*' f )ut . sometimes in unu sual places and at odd times, in an airW^hon Sharla " d wr °te his first book on birds -Tasmanian Birds- m an airforce hangar at Richmond, NSW, during World War Two. card^h^wmilri^ro 8 W °«? Sit ' n the meSS room after tea - drinking or playing door aet a lamn 6P ° t0 '| vrite - He wou ld enter the hangar by a small side mostly on his own 90 " 19, 3nd v y rite * or P ef haps a couple of hours, relying anvwav) It wnnlri ? iem ° rY r ^ tder tdan on literature (which he didn't have, aht w t In 6 f 0Ut 10pm when he had finished the day. The night watchman was always alerted to the purpose of the light. mat to be^nublifhpH 'p aS ' 1 9 l. 46 ' the first popular book of its tYP e and for- Checklist of 1 RR 7 I ttV 0 ^ Works on Tasrr| anian Birds had included Legge's Descriptive Ust of' 1 q V s r c °™Prehensive Handbook of 1 91 0, and Lord's taken bv thp anth a : Tasl ' ,ani(W Birds included two-tone photographs ded as MH Uri K 9 6 192 °' S and 1930 ' s; some ° f these are highly regartTd^ dhot ^raphy. It was also (Tasmania^n ^Hi^tnfi ^ > Tasmania, a recent article by Gillian Lord (lasmaman Historical Research Assoc. Papers & Proc 33 oo87-102 1986). gives further information on this general subject ' 2 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1987 UNUSUAL ORGANISMS IN TASMANIAN LAKES Roger Croome Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania Tasmania has many hundreds of waterbodies, some deep, glacial and nutrient-poor (e.g. Lake St. Clair), some shallow and nutrient-enhanced (e.g. Lake Crescent), and many that are small and darkly coloured due to dissolv¬ ed humic material (e.g. South East Cape Lagoon). Some 200 have been analysed for basic water chemistry (Buckney and Tyler 1 973a, 1 973b) but the majority have been sampled once only, or not at all. Biologically, only a handful have been investigated in detail (Sorell, Crescent, Great, Leake, Tooms, Fidler, Chisholm). It is doubly significant then, that a few recent investigations of Tasma¬ nian lakes have yielded major discoveries in both lake ecology and aquatic biology. This paper discusses a few of the more exciting biological findings. Mallomonas plumosa Croome et Tyler (Fig. 1) M. plumosa is a single-celled member of the Chrysophyta, the yellow- green algae. The cell has a covering of silica scales, plumes and spines, all of which are synthesised within the cell before being deposited on the surface. It was discovered in Lake Leake and Tooms Lake in 1 970, but its formal description had to await use of electron microscopy as a routine tool in algal taxonomy. Its description (Croome and Tyler 1983) aroused immediate in¬ terest in phycological circles due to both its beautiful appearance and unusual form. Of particular interest was its possession of two such disparate processes as the plumes of the anterior scales and the bristles of the body scales. Figures 1-6. Transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM) electron micrographs of the organisms mentioned in the text. Fig. 1. TEM of the yellow-green alga Mallomonas plumosa showing the unusual apical plumes (arrow), long ser¬ rated bristles and rounded body scales. Bar indicates 10 microns. Fig.2. SEM of the yellow-green alga Mallomonas splendens showing its distinctive body scales and anterior and posterior bristles. Bar indicates 10 microns. Fig.3. SEM of the bacterial consortium “Chlorochromatium aggregation ” showing the outer envelope of tightly packed photosynthetic bacteria. Bar indicates 1 micron. Fig.4. TEM of the tiny green alga Scourfieldia caeca. Bar indicates 5 microns. Fig.5. SEM of the golden-brown alga Prorocentrum foveolala showing its highly sculptured surface and one of its two flagella. Bar indicates 10 microns. Fig.6. SEM of the 'sun animacule' Raphidoeystis tubifera showing its distinctive trumpet-like scales. Bar indicates 10 microns. April 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 4 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1987 It is still relatively common in Lake Leake and Tooms Lake, and is also present in several other Tasmanian lakes, and a few in mainland Australia, including one on Fraser Island, Queensland. It has also been reported to us by a colleague from New Zealand. Mallomonas splendens (West) Playfair emend. Croome, Dlirrschmidt et Tyler (Fig. 2) M. splendens was described by West (1909) from Yan Yean Reservoir, Melbourne, but has since been seen throughout Australia, and from In¬ donesia, India, Malaysia and, surprisingly, Holland (see Croome, Dlirr- schmidt and Tyler 1985). It, too, is a striking chrysophyte. as attested by its name, its yellow- green colour showing vividly through its clear silica scales, it commonly has four bristles protruding from either end of the cell, and glides evenly through the water through the action of its single flagellum. In Tasmania it can most easily be found in Lake Chisholm and Lake Mikany in the north-west, and in South East Cape Lagoon. ‘Chlorchromatium aggregatum* Lauterborn (Fig. 3) ‘C. aggregatum’ is not a single organism (hence the inverted commas) but rather a consortium of two different types of bacteria. Green in colour, it inhabits an unusual habitat in Lake Fidler, adjacent to the Gordon River. Lake Fidler is unique in Australia, in that it is permanently stratified, with fresh water at the surface and saline water (approximately 1/1 Oth seawater) at the bottom. The saline water has high levels of dissolved H 2 S, and reaches to within 3 metres of the surface, so that light (for photosynthesis) just reaches it. A unique array of micro-organisms inhabits the zone across which the salinity charge occurs, including ‘C. aggregation’ (Croome and Tyler 1984a, 1984b). The consortium's green colour is due to an outer envelope of photosyn¬ thetic bacteria, which actively photosynthesise using H 2 S as an electron donor (and releasing sulphur) rather than the usual H 2 0 (and releasing ox¬ ygen). A large central bacterium within the consortium probably uses the sulphur released during photosynthesis, and most likely gives the consor¬ tium motility via a flagellum (not shown in Fig. 3 as I have never been able to observe it, despite examining many highly motile consortia). ‘C. aggregation 9 has been reported from similar lakes in the USSR, Nor¬ way, and North America, but never in the concentrations we have observed in Lake Fidler (up to 640 million consortia per litre). Scourfieldia caeca (Korsh.) Belcher et Swale (Fig. 4) 5. caeca is another of the organisms inhabiting the 0 2 /H 2 S interface in April 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 Lake Fidler. It is a small (3-5 micron long) green, naked, highly motile flagellate alga present in Lake Fidler in very high numbers (up to 1 300 million cells per litre) (Croome and Tyler 1 985). It actively maintains a well defined position in the water column (sometimes in a layer less than 5cm thick) at extremely low levels of light, and is a major component of the lake's biota. 5. caeca has previously been found only in small ponds in Britain, and its discovery in Tasmania was certainly a surprise. Prorocentrum foveolata Croome et Tyler (Fig. 5) Prorocentrum is a genus of dinoflagellate (golden-brown) algae, and is usually thought of as exclusively marine. Two new species (P. foveolata and P. playfairi) have been discovered recently in Tasmania from manifestly fresh waters (Croome and Tyler 1987). P. foveolata is found in Little Lake Waterhouse and Blackmans Lagoon (North-east), while P. playfairi is prevalent (up to 2000 cells/litre) in Lake Garcia (West coast) and also occurs in Perched Lake (adjacent to the Gordon River) and Lake Chisholm (North-west). The cells are enclosed by two large cellulose valves, and are propelled by two flagella. The two species are clearly related to many of the 40 or so species known from the sea, some of which have been implicated in the production of toxins which lead to ciguateric fish poisoning. We presently have P. playfairi in culture and it will be interesting to see if its biochemical pathways are similar to those of its marine relatives. Raphidocystis tubifera Penard (Fig. 6) R. tubifera is a unicellular, free-living heliozoean, or 'sun animacule'. The cell is covered by numerous siliceous scales, looking remarkably like trumpets, between which pseudopodia protrude to capture particulate mat¬ ter and prey organisms. R. tubifera is one of several special of heliozoeans which have been discovered and described from Tasmania (Croome 1986, 1987a, 1987b), and has been found in Lakes Fidler, Mikany, Chisholm, Bellinger and Garcia, and Great Lake. The above organisms are but a sample of those which we have discovered and described from Tasmanian waters, and the reader is referred to the references for further information. With regard to endemicity, it can be said that endemic distributions of freshwater algae (and heliozoeans) are rare, and when they do occur they are perhaps due to the patchiness of scientific observations rather than to the actual distribution of the organisms. However, the chrysophyte alga Mallomonas plumosa is of such striking appearance that its presence in Europe, Japan, or North America could hardly have gone un-noticed. It is thus possible that A7. plumosa will prove to be endemic to Australasia. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1987 References Buckney, R.T. and Tyler, P.A. 1973a. Chemistry of Tasmanian inland waters. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie 58:61-78. Buckney, R.T. and Tyler, P.A. 1 973b. Chemistry of some sedgeland waters, Lake Pedder, south-west Tasmania. Australian Journal of Marine and Fresh water Research 24:267-273. Croome, R.L. 1 986. Observations of the Heliozoan genera Acanthocystis and Raphidocystis from Australia. Archiv filr Protistenkunde 131:1 89-1 99. Croome, R.L. 1987a. Pinaciophora columna n.sp., P. tasmanica n.sp., and P. apora n.sp., new Heliozoeans from Australia, and a report of P. fluviatilis Greeff from Antarctica. Archiv filr Protistenkunde (in press). Croome, R.L. 1 987b. Observations of the Heliozoean genera Acanthocystis , Raphidiophrys , Clathrulina and Pompholyxophrys (Protozoa , Sarcodina) from Australian fresh waters. Archiv filr Protistenkunde (in press). Croome, R.L. and Tyler, P.A. 1983. Mallomonasplumosa (Chrysophyceae), a new species from Australia. British Phycological Journal 18:151-1 58. Croome, R.L. and Tyler, P.A. 1984a. Microbial microstratification and crepuscular photosynthesis in meromictic Tasmanian lakes. Verhand- lungen Internationale Vereinigung Limnologie 22:121 6-1223. Croome, R.L. and Tyler, P.A. 1984b. The micro-anatomy and ecology of t( Chlorochromatium aggregatum” in two meromictic lakes in Tasmania. Journal of General Microbiology 1 30:271 7-2723. Croome, R.L., Dlirrschmidt, M. and Tyler, P.A. 1985. A light and electron microscopical investigation of Mallomonas splendens (West) Playfair. Nova Hedwigia 41 -.463-470. Croome, R.L. and Tyler, P.A. 1985. The micro-anatomy and ecology of Scourfieldia caeca (Korsh.) Belcher et Swale in two meromictic lakes in Tasmania. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 36:413-419. Croome, R.L. and Tyler, P.A. 1987. Prorocentrum playfairi sp. nov. and P. foveolata sp. nov. (Dinophyta: Prorocentrales) from Australian freshwaters. British Phycological Journal (in press). PSYLLIDS IN TASMANIA K.L. Taylor Division of Entomology, CSIRO, Hobart In the northern hemisphere, the psyllids (Psylloidea) are known as jump¬ ing plant lice, which is an appropriate name because they are small and most of them have the ability to jump. In Australia they are known as lerp insects, a name which should be used only for one out of the four major families represented here. The Aborigines used the name lerp (originally “laap", according to some authors) for the white saccharine substance found on the leaves of some Eucalyptus trees. The name means “sugar'', and no doubt applied to “man¬ na", which is exuded from many eucalypts in inland Australia, probably in April 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 response to feeding by sap-sucking insects such as eurymelids and psyllids. A Hobart school teacher appears to have been the first to publish the name lerp (Dobson, 1851) for the white covering or scale built by Glycapsis eucalypti (Dobson), which he found in the Domain on E. viminalis. Lerps are built by the immature stages (nymphs) of psyllid species belonging to only one family, Spondyliaspididae, and these species breed on¬ ly on species of Eucalyptus. Each species is usually specific to one, or a closely related group, of eucalypt species, so much so that the host tree species can often be identified by the psyllid lerps found on it. In Tasmania, the only lerps with a significant sugar content belong to species of Glycaspis. Starches are the main constituent of these lerps, and of all others which have been chemically analysed. Most lerps in other genera contain little or no sugar. Excreted in liquid form by the nymph from the tip of its abdomen, these compounds rapidly solidify, so that the nymph is able to weave its lerp in a pattern characteristic for its species. The most striking Tasmanian lerp is a large yellow one, about the size of a fingernail. It is built by Creiis longipennis on E. viminalis and related species. Three others, Cardiaspina spin if era, C. squamula and an undescribed species of Creiis , are also found on E. viminalis at higher altitudes. Hyalinaspis rubra , which builds a clear glassy lerp like a mussel shell, is very common on the monocalypt group, E. amygdalina , E. tenuiramis , E. coccifera , E. obliqua and others. In some species of Glycaspis , the nymph causes the formation of a bubble-shaped gall on the upper side of the leaf, with a small opening on the under side, which is plugged by lerp material until it is time for the adult in¬ sect to emerge. These are often seen on E. pulchella ; the gall is in the middle of the narrow leaf, which bends away from the gall on each side at an angle of about 90°. Some lerp-building species in other genera also cause rolling of the tips or edges of the leaves, with fragile bi-valve lerps underneath the rolled edges. In the Aphalaridae, tribe Ctenarytainini, we have a group of genera which are all free living, although the species of two of them are nearly always found associated with lerp-building species. Their nymphs use the deserted lerps for shelter, and Froggatt (1900, p. 269) actually described the nymphs of one of them as those of the lerp-building species. The aphalarids are easy to recognize because their nymphs secrete long white filaments and their shelters (deserted lerps, rolled leaves or leaf mines) are usually filled with this white woolly material. Other genera, such as Ctenary- taina, which is well represented in Tasmania, feed on the growing tips of Eucalyptus , Melaleuca , Leptospermum and other Myrtaceae. One species, C. eucalypti , is almost invariably present on the juvenile leaves of the blue gum, with copious white powdery exudate. Another species occurs on Boronia. The large family Psyllidae is also well represented in Tasmania. On most of the wattles (Acacia spp.) there is at least one, sometimes two or three species, of Acizzia and/or Psylla . Many other native trees and shrubs are host to species in this family, but very few of these species have been described. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1987 Finally, many species of the large family Triozidae are found in Tasmania. The best known genus is Schedotrioza> all species of which form spherical woody galls on Eucalyptus leaves. The nymphs are completely enclosed in their galls, and the adult insects can only emerge when the gall begins to dry out and split open. This only happens at a time when fresh spr¬ ing growth, where females can lay their eggs, is available on other trees or branches of the same tree (Taylor, 1985). As in the Psyllidae, there are many species of Trioza on a wide range of other native plants. Most of them cause shallow cup-galls or other distortion of the leaves. These can often be found on several species of Callistemon. Aacanthocnema , another triozid genus, occurs on Casuarina. Some species are found at very high density in favourable seasons. At least one, probably two other triozid genera, also occur on Casuarina. Their nymphs are found partly wrapped around the branchlets or at their bases. There are probably some psyllids on Tasmanian rain forest hosts, although none has yet been recorded. There are some rain forest species in Queensland and New South Wales, representing only one or two genera in each of the remaining four psyllid families. Most of them are typically Indo- Malayan. References Dobson, J. 1 851. On laap or lerp, the cup-like coverings of Psyllidae found on the leaves of certain Eucalypti. Pap. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1:235-241. Froggatt, W.W. 1900. Australian Psyllidae. Part I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W. 25:250-302. Taylor, G.S. 1985. The taxonomic status of Schedotrioza multitudinea (Masked) (Psylloidea: Triozidae) with notes on its biology. J. Aust. ent. Soc. 24:305-312. Psyllids and lerps. (1-2) Cardiaspina fisce/la Taylor: (1) adult female (2) nymph (3) Cardiaspina spinifmi Froggatt, lerp; (4) Cardiaspina squamula Taylor, lerp; (5) Glycaspis sp., lerp. [1-2 (1x8), reproduced by permission from the Australian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 10, p. 301, 1962; 3-5 (x3), drawn by Kathy McQuillan.] The Tasmanian Registered by Australia Post - Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. THE SHORT-TAILED SHEARWATER COLONIES OF KING ISLAND I.J. Skira 1 and G. Davis 2 1 National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hobart, Tas. 2 22 Hill Street, Bellerive, Tas. 7018 Introduction Short-tailed Shearwaters Puffinus tenuirostris first began to breed on •ng I. at the turn of the century. The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria ex¬ pedition to King I. in 1 887 did not locate a single burrow although shear¬ waters were nesting on the New Year Is. (Campbell 1 888). Where the birds ,rst nested is not certain. The then oldest resident, Mr. Hickmott Grave, in¬ terviewed in the King I. News of 1 April 1970, said that "the first rookery was established near Stokes Point and the next just south of Wickham". However we were told by Mr. Len Sullivan, the vice-president of the King I. leld Naturalists Club, that when his father came here in 1 898, Short-tailed Shearwaters were coming in to the Dromedary area (Seal Rocks) but could not establish due to the now extinct feral pigs. According to Mr. Sullivan, about 40 years ago the Dromedary was only about one quarter of its present size. The colonisation of King I. by Short-tailed Shearwaters was rapid. A cor¬ respondent for the King I. News of 4 October 1916 reported many thousands of Short-tailed Shearwaters landing at Grassy. At a King I. municipal council meeting in 1936 the increase in Short-tailed Shearwaters was commented upon, as the extension "to many points around the coast of 2 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1987 King I. being very rapid of late” (King I. News 3 March 1936). The council saw no need for special sanctuaries. In 1938, 11 colonies were known (Fauna Board Files H4/50). These were Stokes Point, Surprise Bay (Seal Rocks), Catarique Point, Whistler Point, West of Wickham Lighthouse, Cape Wickham, Rocky Point, Sea Elephant (north of Cowper Point), Bold Head, Grassy and Red Hut. The file also said that the colony west of the lighthouse was first started in 1923. Green and McGarvie (1971) listed, in addition to these, Boulder Point, Martha Lavinia, Cowper Point and on the coast west of Loorana. Naarding (1980) added Naracoopa Beach, Fraser Bluff, Sandblow Point, Badger Box and the Wash and Springs to Green and McGarvie's list. Until now no accurate estimates were available of the size of the col¬ onies. Green and McGarvie (1971) listed the colonies they found and guess¬ ed the size of some of the larger ones. Naarding (1980) estimated the size of each and obtained burrow densities for eleven of them. Methods Between 1 and 11 February 1985 and 31 January to 10 February 1 986 visits were made to each colony. Each colony was measured on the ground and the area determined by scale drawings. The burrow density was estimated by counting burrows on straight line transects 2m wide, as described in Skira and Wapstra (1980). The number and length of transects varied at each colony. The number of burrows was estimated by multiplying the mean burrow density by area. The range in the number of burrows is given by 95% confidence limits of ±2 SE of the mean density. Results and Discussion The 19 known colonies on King I. cover 141 ha and are estimated to contain 547,960 burrows. This is approximately 5% of the 1 1.4 million burrows in Tasmania (Skira et al. 1986). We only added Barrier Creek to Naarding's list. The increase in new colonies does not necessarily mean that they did not exist when lists were made, but that they may have been unknown. We did not find any burrows at Stokes Point and Loorana. These colonies are now most likely extinct. Sea Elephant could not be located either, possibly because we did not search the right area. The mean density of burrows was 0.39 burrows/m 2 with a range of 0.19 — 0.70. This density compares to a mean of 0.75 for colonies elsewhere in Tasmania. The reason for the lower density is because almost all colonies are on sand dunes. Green and McGarvie (1971) surmised that the colonies at Seal Rocks and Red Hut were up to 200 acres in area. Naar¬ ding's (1 980) estimate of the area for all the colonies was only 10% greater than ours. Our experience is that it is very easy to overestimate areas par¬ ticularly that of large colonies, and that a tape measure is essential in obtain¬ ing estimates in the field. July 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 Figure 1 Table 1 4 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1987 Table 1. Size of the Short-tailed Shearwater colonies on King Island. Estimates for colonies 6 and 8 are each based on a single transect and no range values are available. Area Burrow Number of burrows Colony (ha) density Mean 95% confidence (burrows/m J ) limits for mean 1 . Wash and Springs 12.82 0.46 59150 37850-80400 2. Cape Farewell 5.31 0.46 24650 21900-27350 3. Cape William Lighthouse 2.58 0.32 8350 7050-9650 4. Cape Wickham 3.71 0.40 14800 8400-21300 5. Rocky Point and Disappointment Bay 7.06 0.40 27950 18200-37750 6. Boulder Point 3.05 0.70 21200 — 7. Martha Lavinia 3.97 0.28 11200 4900-17450 8. Cowper Point 4.04 0.19 7700 — 9. Naracoopa Beach (Blowhole) 2.28 0.33 7600 3350-11800 10. South of Fraser Bluff 0.38 0.43 1750 1490-1950 11. Barrier Creek 0.25 0.63 1550 1200-1850 12. Bold Head 19.5 0.35 68200 53050-83300 13. Grassy 5.42 0.47 26000 22050-29950 14. Sandblow Point 2.98 0.42 12500 10150-14900 15. Red Hut Point 18.98 0.45 85400 62650-108200 16. Seal Rocks 26.66 0.31 82650 72000-93300 17. Catarique Point 4.88 0.20 9760 7800-11700 18. Badger Box 3.64 0.44 16000 15300-16750 19. Whistler Point 13.72 0.44 61700 44050-79350 141.23 0.39 547960 The colonies were well vegetated predominantly by succulents or native scrub. Tussock grass Poa poiformis was rarely found. The majority of col¬ onies were relatively free of erosion although most showed signs of cattle grazing. During dry summers cattle may magnify existing erosion. This is certainly the case at Cape Wickham where large sandblows have buried many burrows. At Seal Rocks and Catarique Point severe fires in the past have also destroyed vegetation causing sandblows. All colonies are serviced by tracks except for Cowper Point where the track ends about 600m from the colony. Some of the smaller colonies may be affected by over-harvesting July 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 of chicks but harvesting is not as intensive as it was 10 years ago due to a decrease in the human population to 2500 and a change in eating habits compared with earlier years. The turn of the century corresponded with an expansion in the range of shearwaters in North West Tasmania. Colonies were previously unknown or very small on Robbins, Walker, Hunter and Three Hummock Is. (Burnie Ad¬ vocate 26 March 1977; Atkinson 1890; P.J. Maguire pers. comm.). There was also no Short-tailed Shearwaters on Albatross I. in late November 1 894 when eggs could have been expected (Le Souef 1 895). They now breed on the island (Brothers and Davis 1985). Furthermore, commercial harvesting on Trefoil and Steep Is. was limited in this period (Burnie Advocate 26 March 1977; Buckby 1984). The cause of the expansion is not known. It could have been brought about either by deterioration of existing colonies or an increase in numbers. Sea levels reached their present level 6000 to 7000 years ago (Jennings 1971) and until several hundred years ago the shearwaters were probably in equilibrium with their environment. Their breeding limit in terms of distribu¬ tion and numbers was probably reached. In the last 2 to 300 years there has been an unprecedented slaughter in both the Southern and Northern Hemisphere of seals, whales and fish stocks, disrupting the food chain. This may have made more food available for Short-tailed Shearwaters which feed predominantly on krill, squid and fish (Ogi et al. 1980, Skira 1986). The population therefore increased. Colonization of King I. by Short-tailed Shearwaters coincided with human settlement possibly providing areas suitable for burrowing. We may still be seeing increases due to suitable habitat being available in spite of harvesting. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Jim and Mae Patterson for the extensive hospitality provided to us on King I. References Atkinson, E.D. 1890. Notes of a short trip to the islands of western Bass Strait. Viet. Nat . 6, 1 56-64. Brothers, N.P. and Davis, G. 1985. Bird observations on Albatross Island, 1981 to 1985. Bird. Obs . Assoc. Tasm. Rept. No. 14, 3-9. Buckby, P.Y. 1984. Around Circular Head. Denbar Publishers, Tasmania. Campbell, A.J. 1 888. Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria. Expedition to King Island, November, 1887. Official Report. Viet. Nat. 4, 129-64. Green, R.H. and McGarvie, A.M. 1971. The birds of King Island. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. 40, 1-42. Jennings, J.N. 1971. Sea level changes and land links. In: Mulvaney, D.J. and Golson, J. (eds.). Aboriginal man and environment in Australia. ANU Press, Canberra, pp. 1-13. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1987 Le Souef, D. 1 895. Notes on birds found nesting on Albatross Island in Bass Strait, Australia. Ibis 4, 413-23. Naarding, J.A. 1980. Study of the short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuiros- tris in Tasmania. National Parks and Wildlife Service. Tasmania. O 9 I' H., Kubodera, T. and Nakamura, K. 1 980. The pelagic feeding ecology of the short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris in the Subarctic Pacific region. J. Yamashina Inst. Ornith. 12, 157-82. Skira, I.J. 1986. Food of the short-tailed shearwater, Puffinus tenuirostris, in Tasmania. Aust. Wildl. Res. 13, 481-8. Skira, I.J. and Wapstra, J.E. 1980. Occupation of burrows as a means of estimating the harvest of short-tailed shearwaters in Tasmania. Emu 80, 233-8. Skira, I.J., Wapstra, J.E., Towney, G.N. and Naarding, J.A. 1 986. The con¬ servation of the short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris in Tasmania, Australia. Biol. Cons. 37, 225-36. Book Review SOUTHERN AUSTRALIAN LIVERWORTS by George A.M. Scott (with drawings by Rod Seppelt and photographs by Bruce Fuhrer). Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 2 Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1985, 216pp. Retail price approx. $20.00 Reviewed by David Ratkowsky The bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) tend to be much more poorly known than the flowering plants. Although the Tasmanian species were monographed by Leonard Rodway in the early part of this century, making the bryophytes of Tasmania better known than those of virtually any other Australian state, Rodway's treatment was badly out of date half a century later with many genuinely new species being discovered and with increasing recognition by most botanists that many taxa described as species in Rod- way's treatise were not deserving of specific rank. Also, Rodway's monograph contained no illustrations and therefore was not likely to be of use to anyone other than the most dedicated botanist. When George Scott moved from the University of Otago to Monash University in Melbourne, he perceived that modern works on the bryophytes of the southeastern Australian states was the most pressing botanical need in this region. His collaboration with lima Stone resulted in the publication of Mosses of Southern Australia in 1 976, a work which, with its excellent keys and fine illustrations by Celia Rosser, make it possible for the talented amateur to identify most of the mosses which occur in Tasmania. After publication of the book on mosses, Scott set to work on a similar treatment of the liverworts. His decision to limit himself to the liverworts of Victoria led to difficulties in finding a publisher who was prepared to take the risk of limited sales in a potentially restricted market. Happily, the Australian July 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 Bureau of Flora and Fauna agreed eventually to publish the book provided that he expand it to include the liverworts of other Australian states. This was done, although parts of the book still betray a bias towards the liver¬ worts of Victoria. I will return to this theme again later. Southern Australian Liverworts is a beautifully illustrated book, in which Australia's leading academic botanical photographer, Bruce Fuhrer, has ex¬ celled despite being confined, no doubt by cost, to black-and-white photography. Only the cover, with its reproduction of a painting by Celia Rosser, is in colour. Fuhrer's extraordinarily detailed photographs, including some of nature's smallest liverworts, the Lejeunaceae, provide a good basis for the amateur to identify and appreciate this relatively little studied group of non-flowering plants. The fine drawings of Tasmanian resident Rod Seppelt adequately supplement and complement the photography. The easy writing style of George Scott and his detailed, easy-to-use keys to the genera and species will lead the user to the right genus, even if they don't always give one the exact species. One reason why one will not find all the Tasmanian (and for some genera, Victorian) species in this book is due to the fact that some genera are badly in need of revision by competent bryologists specializing in those genera. For example, the genera Lepidozia , Kurzia and Telaranea in the Lepidoziaceae are likely to have more species, when a scholarly study is finally undertaken, than are described in this book. Similarly, in the Geocalycaceae, <( Lophocolea >f and “Chiloscyphus' 1 will have to await the publication of Engel and Schuster's monograph, before the exact number and status of each species becomes known. I use inverted commas on those genera, because a recent paper by Engel and Schuster [Nova Hedwigia 39: 385-463 (1984)] considers that the species previously known under Lophocolea should really be called Chiloscyphus species, whereas most species hitherto recognised under Chiloscyphus should be called Heteroscyphus species (confusing, isn't it?). Another reason why all the Tasmanian species are not listed is due to the book's origin as an exclusively Victorian work. Thus, of the Tasmanian species of Acromastigum, only A. colensoanum gets an appropriate treat¬ ment. Because A. anisostomum and A. mooreanum are not known from Vic¬ toria (although both occur in Tasmania), they receive a lesser description, appearing in a smaller boldface type than the Victorian species of that genus. A. cavifolium, also found in Tasmania, gets no mention at all. A further ex¬ ample of inadequate treatment is that of the Schistochilaceae. Only three species of this family are given in this book, although nine species are known from Tasmania, as described in the detailed treatment of Schuster and Engel [J. Hatton Bot. Lab. 58: 255-539 (1985)1. I make these points not to indicate an omission or inadequacy on the part of the author, but to emphasize the book's Victorian bias. Many Tasmanian species also occur in ew Zealand but not in mainland Australia. Thus, an adequate treatment of the Tasmanian species must take account of the trans-Tasman affinities of 8 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1987 the Tasmanian bryophyte flora. Nevertheless, some of the Tasmanian/New Zealand species can turn up in N.S.W. and Victoria, so it was pleasing for me to read (p. 88) that Trichocolea rigida, formerly known only from New Zealand and Tasmania, has recently been found in the Blackwood Ranges of Victoria. Among the Tasmanian species that are not mentioned ar e Acroscyphella phoenicorhiza, Haplomitrium gibbsiae, Herbertus oldfieldianus, Hygrolem- bidium australe, Isophyllaria attenuate , Treubia lacunosa and Triandrophyllum subtrifidum. And dare I also mention three other species new to Tasmania, Plagiochila ratkowskiana H. Inoue, Radula ratkowskiana Yamada, and Van- diemenia ratkowskiana Hewson, species all collected by my wife, Ann Ratkowsky? Lest the reader think my criticisms reflect a feeling on my part that this is not a good book, let me hasten to correct that impression. The publication of this book makes it possible for an interested amateur (and some profes¬ sionals!) to develop an interest in the liverwort flora of southern Australa, in¬ cluding Tasmania, and to have an excellent chance of identifying the species to generic level, if not to species level. That the book is seen to be a preliminary, rather than a definitive work, is made clear in the foreword pro¬ vided by the Bureau of Flora and Fauna: ''This number is a precursor to the Liverwort volume of the Flora of Australia .It is hoped that this precursor will stimulate further field work, observation and research with the liverwort flora in Australia." AIM ORANGE-CROWNED NEW HOLLAND HONEYEATER A.M. McGarvie 22 Huxley Street, Currie, King Island 7256 The New Holland Honeyeater is plentiful throughout King Island and is a regular visitor to gardens in Currie. Some three years ago I was told of one bird which had a bright orange patch on the top of the head. I assumed that the unusual coloration would be due to pollen collecting on the feathers of the crown while the bird was feeding, but shortly after I saw the bird myself and realized that the coloration was certainly not due to pollen. Like most of its kind, while busy feeding, this bird is quite approachable, and at various times I have had perfect views from as close as two metres and there is no doubt whatever that the coloration is natural and permanent. The organge patch is not merely a small spot, but completely covers the crown back to the level of the eyes. During late spring of last year, my neighbour suspected that the bird was nesting nearby, but could not locate the nest. However, a few weeks later the bird brought two recently fledged birds to her garden and both young had similar but slightly less extensive areas of orange on the crown. No. 91 OCTOBER, 1987 ISSN 0819-6826 Registered by Australia Post — Publication IMorTBfld495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE FRANKLIN RIVER AREA, TASMANIA Report on the Australian and New Zealand Scientific Exploration Society (ANZSES) expedition 1983 Helen E. Malcolm 5 Talinga Cres., Shepparton, Vic. 3630 Introduction In January 1983, the annual ANZSES expedition was to the Franklin River area of Tasmania. The aim of the three week scientific phase of the trip was to explore the area with regard to its geology, botany, ornithology and zoology. This article is a review of the findings of the Invertebrate Zoology group, to make the results more widely available to scientists who might otherwise not have access to them. The main aim of the Invertebrate Zoology group on this expedition was to fill in some of the gaps in our knowledge of the Franklin River area, which until recently had been poorly represented in Australian invertebrate collec¬ tions. Collecting methods were aimed at providing as complete a list as possible of the invertebrates in the area, with no attempt made to do quan¬ titative or ecological studies. Collecting was concentrated on the base camp (42° 27' 50"S 145° 46' 0"E) in as many habitats as possible. In addition, two nights were spent on the button grass plains, a light trap was set up for one night on the Jane River and collecting was done on Goodwins Peak, in nearby caves and along the track between the Gordon and Franklin Rivers. Collec- 2 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1987 ting took place between the 8th and 22nd of January 1 983. Some further collections were made in the expedition phase (24th Jan. - 6th Feb.) by the group who explored the coast south of Macquarie Harbour. Fifteen consecutive days of heavy rain during the scientific phase great¬ ly decreased the numbers of invertebrates collected. Flying insects were scarce, terrestrial habitats were flooded and aquatic habitats had artificial boundaries and unusual volumes of water. The Franklin, Gordon and Jane Rivers along with temporary and permanent creeks were sampled and flying insects, ground and vegetation dwellers were collected from rainforest, but¬ ton grass plains, caves, coastal areas and heathland. Collection and Preservation Standard invertebrate collecting methods included: sweep and dip nets, beating trays, Malaise net, pitfall traps, Berlese funnel, light trap and mer¬ cury vapour lamp. Because of the very wet conditions, most of our material was collected straight into alcohol or formalin, some after appropriate relaxation methods. Results Thanks to the efforts made by various taxonomic experts interested in the Franklin area, much of our collection could be identified at least to generic level. The identifications are intended as a guide to what was col¬ lected, so that in the future, workers on a particular group will know whether any specimens of that group were found in the area and are awaiting further identification. Work is continuing on the collections, all of which are lodged at recognised institutions (mostly at the Museum of Victoria). Phylum Mollusca (snails and slugs; 8 families, 1 2 species) Both aquatic and land molluscs were surprising in the small number of specimens and species collected with some notable absences (e.g. Planor- bidae, Ancylidae). The only aquatic locality which yielded any snails was one of the permanent creeks running into the Franklin River. Lake et al. (1 979) attribute this to the relatively low calcium content of the waters of south¬ west Tasmania, especially the acidic streams. Measurements of pH done on Wattle Camp Creek (no molluscs found) and the first main creek up river from the base camp showed values of 5-6 in both sites. The molluscan fauna found was mainly as expected, the exception be¬ ing an introduced slug Arion intermedius which would not be expected to be found in this 'wilderness' area. The record of Allocharopa legrandi appears to be a new distribution record, the species not previously having been recorded in south-west Tasmania (B.J. Smith, pers.comm.). Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta As in any general invertebrate collection, insects were the most October 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 Figure 1 . Locality map of area surveyed, showing collection sites. numerous both in number of species and number of specimens. Over 1,000 specimens, 1 2 orders and over 100 families of insects were collected from all habitats. Identification beyond the family level was only possible in certain groups. Only about 1 30 identifications were able to be made to generic or specific level, and those with interesting identifications or records are com¬ mented upon further below. Order Diptera (flies; 27 families) Culicidae (mosquitoes; 4 genera, 7 species). (Information and identifica¬ tions from E. Marks, pers.comm.). All the species collected have a fairly wide geographical distribution within Tasmania. Culiseta weindorferi and Aedes cunabulanus are known only from Tasmania. There are no published records of Coquillettidia from Tasmania (we found 5 specimens of a species near linealis). The adults probably have a restricted seasonal distribution which would help to account for their being missed by previous collectors. Dobrotworsky (1966) records Culiseta weindorferi as a day-biting species; the collecting of this species in the tent suggests it is also a night- biter. Order Hymenoptera (bees, ants & wasps; 1 3 families) Formicidae (ants). Only 10 species (in 5 genera) were collected and this was considered a very low count by Dr. Majer who identified them. Although this could be partly a reflection of collecting effort, ants did not appear to play a major role in the ground fauna of the area. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1987 Order Trichoptera (caddis flies; 12 families, 23 species) The disappointingly low number of both adult and larval Trichoptera is directly attributable to the weather. The heavy rain meant firstly that the mercury-vapour lamp was either not run or ineffective in attracting the adult caddis-flies and secondly that the large volume of water in the river made the habitat of the larvae inaccessible to collection. The most interesting specimen is that of Tascuna igrtola. It is the only representative of the family Oeconesidae in Australia and is restricted in distribution to a small area of Tasmania between Cradle Mountain National Park and the Gordon-Franklin junction. All the other species collected are common from south-west Tasmania (A. Neboiss, pers.comm.). Order Coleoptera (beetles; 26 families, 47 specific identifications) The beetles were represented by a large number of families, most of which were unremarkable. In the family Staphylinidae, a specimen of Myotophylus jonsoni was found on Mastocomvs fuscus (broad-toothed rat). Nothing is known of its biology but presumably it lives on fur debris. Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets etc.; 4 families) Notable in this order although not unexpected, were the specimens of the cave cricket Micropathus tasmaniensis. This is a dull brown cricket with very long antennae and adaptations to a life underground; an omnivorous scavenger on debris in and around caves. Other aquatic orders — Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies; 1 species), Plecoptera (stoneflies; 3 families) All these orders were disappointingly scarce in the collections whereas Tasmania, particularly the south-west, is well endowed with species from these orders. Of the specimens collected, Synthemiopsis gomphomacromioides (Odonata) and Eusthenia spectabilis (Plecoptera) are endemic to Tasmania, the former favouring particularly the pools and runnels of the button-grass swamps. Overall knowledge of taxonomy and distribution of the aquatic insects of south-west Tasmania is incomplete. In many cases it is virtually impossi¬ ble to match larval or nymph forms with that of the adult, making identifica¬ tion difficult. Hence many of the larval specimens in our collection can only be entered under order as 'unidentified' to await further work. Other insect orders Other orders collected with no particularly remarkable records were: Collembola (springtails; at least 4 species from 2 families), Hemiptera (bugs; 1 3 families, 11 identifications to genus/species), Mantodea (mantes; family Mantidae), Neuroptera (lacewings; Campion sp.), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies; 5 families). Class Crustacea Order Isopoda (slaters, etc.) (identification and information from A. Green, pers.comm.) Five species from families Styloniscidae and Philosciidae were collected, all of which have been found in wet forest elsewhere in Tasmania. Four species have been recorded only from Tasmania while Styloniscus squarrosus October 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 also occurs in Victoria. One as yet undescribed species of Styloniscus was collected. One coastal species was also found, the typical form of Ligia australiensis or shore slater and 2 other families were each represented by one specimen. Order Decapoda (crabs, crayfish, etc.) Only one specimen from this order was collected. It is Engaeus sp., one of the burrowing land crayfish. Lake et al. report that the 2 species of Engaeus found in south-west Tasmania are ''confined to the lowland forest areas" but this specimen was collected in a pitfall trap on the button-grass plain. Order Amphipoda (landhoppers, etc.) Representatives of this group were scarce because our collecting techniques were not geared towards the mostly minute species. The ter¬ restrial amphipods (8 species from family Talitridae) have been identified by Dr. J. Friend who is currently working on the taxonomy of this group. Class Arachnida Order Araneae (spiders) Specimens from 1 9 families of spiders were collected, ranging from the tiny flower spiders (Thomisidae) to the larger wolf-spiders (Lycosidae) and huntsmen (Sparassidae). While the species were mostly expected, in¬ teresting specimens among the collection were the 3 long-legged cave spiders Hickmania troglodytes found in a couple of caves in the collecting area. Mites and Ticks Most of the free-living mites could not be identified past sub-order (over 20 families). The tick, Ixodes tasmani, although collected from the ground and bushes, is a parasite on a variety of animals, most commonly the native mammal families Dasyuridae and Phalangeridae (Roberts, 1970). Other Classes/Orders Further specimens were obtained from the following groups: Diplopoda (millipedes; at least 4 families from Order Polydesmida), Chilopoda (cen¬ tipedes; 4 orders), Pseudoscorpionida (pseudoscorpions; 2 families). Phylum Annelida Class Oligochaeta (earthworms) All the worms collected are from the indigenous family Megascolecidae and the provisional identifications show that some are clearly new species (B. Jamieson, pers.comm.). Class Hirudinea (leeches) A small collection of leeches was made but are as yet unidentified. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1987 Phylum Platyhelminthes Class Turbellaria Aquatic flatworms Identifable only to family Dugesiidae which is the only family represented in Australia (R. St.Clair, pers.comm.) Terrestrial flatworms (information and identifications from L. Winsor, pers.comm.) The land planarians include at least 4 species of the family Geoplanidae. There are 20 species from this family recorded from Tasmania and our lack of variety may reflect some degree of seasonality noted during the drier mon¬ ths. The only other family known from Tasmania, The Rhynchodemidae, was not represented in our collections. Phylum Onycophora (information and identifications from L. Winsor, pers.comm.) Five specimens of the one species Peripatoides leuckarti (Sanger) of 'peripatus' were collected and represent the first fully documented account of this species in Tasmania. The only previous record is of a bleached specimen from Tasmania' lodged in the Macleay Museum, Uni. of Sydney, and collected nearly a century ago. This species can be readily distinguished from the other 2 species known from Tasmania as it has 1 5 pairs of legs and they have only 1 4. It can also be separated from other eastern Australian species with 1 5 pairs of legs because it is viviparous whereas the others are oviparous. Dissection of the specimens and jaw preparations showed a jaw mor¬ phology most closely approaching specimens of the same species from the Kirrama Range, N.E. Queensland. Conclusion A full species list is available, keyed to collecting methods and sites and number of specimens and will be published in due course by ANZSES. The above summary of results shows that even with inexperienced col¬ lectors, a wealth of information can be obtained about an area. New species and new locality records will continue to emerge as the material is worked on further. Acknowledgements I am particularly indebted to Dr. Brian Smith and Miss Elizabeth Matheson for assistance with equipment, identifications and report writing, to Ms. Rhyllis Plant for preparation of the locality maps and to the experts who did the identifications. Acknowledgement is due to ANZSES for permis¬ sion to publish this report. October 1987 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 References Dobrotworsky, N.V. 1 966. Mosquitoes of Tasmania and Bass Strait Islands. Proc.Linn.Soc.N.S.W. 97:121-146. Lake, P.S., Swain, R., Richardson, A.M. and Coleman, D. 1 979. Freshwater Environments and their Fauna. In: Gee, H., Fenton, J., (eds.), The South- West Book, Wm. Collins & ACF, pp. 103-108. Roberts, S.H.S. 1970. Australian Ticks. CSIRO, Melbourne. OBITUARY - M.S.R. SHARLAND L.E. Wall 63 Elphinstone Road, Mt. Stuart, Tasmania 7000 Michael Stanley Reid Sharland, one of the old school of bird students, a senior member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union and a past office-bearer of the Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club, died at Hobart on Wednesday, 11 February 1 987 at the age of 87 years. He was a man of many parts with a deep history in his native State of Tasmania as well as in ornithology as a whole, and he was one of Australia's foremost photographers with wonderful photos of birds and historical sub¬ jects. He was a journalist by profession, although in more recent times his chief concern was the maintenance of our historical heritage as former secretary of the Scenery Preservation Board. This work included the restora¬ tion of several buildings as part of the convict settlement of Port Arthur and the old home "Entally" as Hadspen, which was one of his dearest loves. Tasmanian national parks also came under his control. His early training in journalism was with Hobart's daily paper, "The Mer¬ cury", with which he was closely associated for over sixty years, and he has always been highly regarded in that field. In 1927, he transferred to "The Sydney Morning Herald" before moving again to Melbourne where he was employed by "The Argus" and for a short time also as a correspondent of Reuters in London. It was in his very early days at Campbell Town in the Tasmanian Midlands that he took a keen interest in natural history, par¬ ticularly in birds, and it did not take him long to bring his knowledge in this field to the attention of "The Mercury", as a result of which he started con¬ tributing a column under the name of "Peregrine" to that paper's weekly magazine, "The Illustrated Tasmanian Mail", and this continued in Satur¬ day's "Mercury" after the magazine ceased publication in about 1931. "Peregrine's" nature notes continued without a break for 60 years, which is believed to be a record. During World War II he served as Chief Photographer with the Australian Paratroop Battalion. On the cessation of hostilities, he returned to Tasmania and his old friends at "The Mercury" for a brief period before accepting the position of Secretary to The Scenery Preservation Board which he held from 1 947-1961. During this time he also held appointments as a member of the Tasmanian Naturalist 8 October 1987 Animals and Birds Protection Board, the Nomenclature Board and as Honorary Ornithologist to the Tasmanian Museum. In addition to his other posts, he took an active interest in the Royal Zoological Society of N.S.W. whilst he resided in Sydney and was elected a Fellow of that Society. On his return to Tasmania he was instrumental in re¬ juvenating the Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club and in 1971 in the forma¬ tion of the Bird Observers Association of Tasmania. He was elected a Life Member of both these bodies. Michael Sharland was a regular contributor to "The Emu" for many years and his papers were often illustrated with his excellent photographs which became well-known. In later years, he won two international awards with his bird photographs which were always in black-and-white. He claimed that this medium allowed him greater definition and character. He also wrote articles for the "Tasmanian Naturalist", "Gould League (N.S.W.) Notes", "Australian Museum Magazine", "The Bird Observer" and "Australian Bird Watcher", and for the now-defunct magazines "Wildlife" and "Walkabout". Not only was he a regular contributor to "The Emu", he also acted as Tasmanian State Secretary of the R.A.O.U. from 1945-1963 and as such was a member of Council. He was President of the R.A.O.U. during 1949-1951. He undertook the following expeditions in connection with his ornithological pursuits: — 1924 — Lake Eyre (4 months) 1926 — Lord Howe Island (2 months) 1947 — Kimberleys (6 months) 1948 — Great Australian Bight Islands (1 month) 1 967 — Cape York. Additionally, he made a number of overseas visits, primarily for family reasons, but always paying close attention to natural history subjects. These included United Kingdom, Europe, North and South America, Africa and New Zealand. He was the author of the following books:- Tasmanian Birds (1945, 1958, 1981); Stones of a Century (1952); Tasmanian Wild Life (1961); A Territory of Birds (1964); Tasmania (1966); Oddity and Elegance (1966); Birds of the Sun (1967); These Verdant Plains (1971); Tasmanian National Parks (1972); Once Upon a Time (1976); and Tracks of the Morning (1981). His official duties with the Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club included: - President (1945-1948; 1954-1955), Vice President (1922-1924; 1949-1953; 1965-1972), Honorary Secretary (1941-1942) and Editor of the Tasmanian Naturalist (1 946-1 950; 1 965-1 968). Our sympathies are expressed to his wife, Iris, who often accompanied him on his excursions, his son, Roger, and his daughter, Elizabeth. ifTSSSSSST) |°S?o - 5 rm No. 92 ANUARY, 1988 ISSN 0819-6826 The Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post - Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.A. Ratkowsky Annual Subscription: $8.00 ^ach author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. THE 'HOT' SPRING AT KIMBERLEY Roger Croome Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania Present address: Rural Water Commission of Victoria, Armadale, Vic. 3143 Introduction Staff and students of the Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, visited the Kimberley Springs State Reserve (between Elizabeth Town and Sheffield) on 30 October 1986, to investigate the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the spring. The Reserve contains an interesting aquatic environment, and the findings, together with related geo-chemical information, are detailed below. Results and Observations The spring is the focal point of the Kimberley Springs State Reserve, providing warm water (around 24°C) to a pool approximately 13m wide, 20m long, and 1.2m deep (Fig. 1). The water enters via the floor at the pool, near its centre, and a small stream leaves the pool and flows across the Reserve, eventually discharging into the Mersey River. The geology of the Kimberley area, and the possible origin of the spring water, have been discussed by Matthews (1978), who concluded that the water probably comes very quickly to the surface from a depth of about 350m, and has contact with a deposit of either limestone or dolomite. z Tasmanian Naturalist January 1988 Three water samples were taken for chemical analysis, one from the spring at its source in the centre of the pool (Fig. 1), one from an adjacent 'cold' well, and one from the nearby Mersey River. The results are given in Table 1. Figure 1. Sketch of the 'Hot' Spring area of the Kimberley Springs State Reserve. 1. Clear sandy area with continuous flow of spring water. 2. Adja¬ cent area covered with sticks and leaves which 'opens' occasionally to allow other bursts of spring water to enter the pool. 3. Bottom of pool and stream covered by Spirogyra. 4. Stream bank covered by Typha angustifolia and other emergent macrophytes. 5. Approximate collecting site of Spirodela sp ?. Table 1 . Analytical results of samples collected on 30 October 1986. (Ionic concentrations in milli-equivalents per litre). Analyses were done by the Tasmanian Government Analyst, using standard analytical techniques. Kimberley Spring Nearby well Mersey River pH 7.9 5.4 7.4 Temperature °C 24.1 13.5 — Conductivity at 25°C p ,mho/cm 385 154 70 Calcium 3.50 0.13 0.54 Magnesium 1.03 0.22 0.13 Sodium 0.52 1.04 0.15 Potassium 0.04 0.02 0.01 Bicarbonate* 1.89 0.05 0.30 Chloride 0.48 0.99 0.15 Sulphate 0.18 0.05 0.08 * De-gassing noticed, particularly in spring sample, prior to analysis and value likely to be an underestimate by around 50 per cent. January 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 The temperature of the spring water at its source was 24.1 °C. This agrees with a temperature of 24°C recorded on 26 January 1978 (Mat¬ thews, 1 978). The temperature of the nearby well was only 1 3.5°C. The spring water, which is 'crystal clear', does not have a particularly high conductivity, that is, it is not over-rich in dissolved salts. It is dominated by calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions, and has a relatively high pH. The 'cold well', only 30m to the south-east of the spring, is even more dilute and contains a more typical sodium chloride water, reflecting the preponderance of these elements in Tasmanian rainfall. The Mersey River sample, more dilute again, showed considerable enrichment by calcium and bicarbonate, as there are considerable limestone outcrops in the Mersey catchment (see Buckney and Tyler, 1973). Three measurements of dissolved oxygen were made on site, by the (chemical) Winkler method. A value of 4.8mg/l was found in the spring water at its point of entry to the pool, 9.4mg/l at the side of the pool, and 11.6mg/l in the stream just before it left the reserve. The results indicate that the spring water is around 60 per cent saturated with oxygen as it enters the pool, and subsequently becomes 110-140 per cent saturated before leaving the Reserve. Biologically, the most visual aspect of the spring is that the bottom of the pool, and of the effluent creek, is covered by a more or less continuous mat of the filamentous alga Spirogyra (Blanketweed). Its green colouration is striking, giving the whole spring a verdant character. Identification to species level was not possible, as no reproductive material was found. High concentrations of unidentified small bacteria were present amongst the Spirogyra. The turnover time of the water in the spring pool is sufficiently rapid (around one hour?) to preclude the development of a true plankton. Never¬ theless, a plankton tow was made and several organisms identified, presumably having been disturbed from the sediments or other substrates (rocks, filamentous algae, macrophytes etc.). The organisms included several diatoms ( Cymbella sp., Pinnularia sp., cf. Synedra sp.), a blue green algal filament ( Oscillatoria sp.), green algae ( Closterium sp. and a small green flagellate), a yellow-green algal filament (Tribonema sp.), and a filamentous sulphur bacterium ( Beggiatoa sp.). None of these is particularly outstanding, but the finding of Beggiatoa is of some interest. The organism is non-photosynthetic and utilises dissolved sulphide in its metabolism: the filament seen had numerous sulphur granules within its cells. However, no trace of dissolved sulphide was detected in the spring water by nose, which is an extremely sensitive analytical 'instrument' for this element. Four small fish were observed swimming together in the spring pool. Around 80mm long, they had the general appearance of native galaxids, but could not be caught for better identification. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1988 The major aquatic macrophytes growing around the pool and along the stream were collected. The dominant macrophyte was the Bulrush Typha angustifolia L. : it was present in several stands along the creek and had obviously been recently cleared from other areas. Also found were the Com¬ mon Reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel, the Buttercup Ranun¬ culus repens L., the Sedge Carex fascicularis Boott, the Cress Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek, the Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L., and the Duckweed Spirodela sp?, a member of the Lemn’aceae. The Floating Pond- weed Potamogeton tricarinatus F. Muell. & A. Benn. was common in a pool fed by the stream, just outside the Reserve. Most notable of these findings is the plant tentatively identified as Spirodela which, to the best of the knowledge of those working at the Tasmanian Herbarium, occurs nowhere else in Australia south of Sydney (Morris, pers. comm.) presumably because of its need for warmer temperatures during winter. Specimens of Spirodela sp. (and of Carex fascicularis) have been placed in the collection of the Tasmanian Herbarium. Discussion The aim of the visit was to make a limnological assessment of the Reserve and its waters, and they proved to be interesting in several ways: 1. The spring offers for study a water of relatively constant chemical com¬ position and temperature all year round. The latter character would allow, for instance, a study of seasonal effects (e.g. those associated with light) to be made in the knowledge that the main seasonal character, temperature, remained constant. 2. The temperature of the water appears to be around 24°C all year round, providing an unusual aquatic habitat for Tasmania. Some naturally oc¬ curring 'exotics' may be expected because of this. One, Spirodela sp.(?), has already been observed in the stream leaving the spring. It has the same general appearance as Lemna minor and has probably been con¬ fused with this in the past. It has not been discovered elsewhere in Australia as yet south of Sydney, and presumably survives in the reserve due to the high water temperatures during winter. 3. The gaseous composition of the spring water is interesting. Matthews (1978) found that the gas bubbling up from the base of the spring was up to 6 per cent C0 2 , and the spring water at point of origin was found here to be already 60 per cent saturated with oxygen. Moreover, super¬ saturation with oxygen occurred quickly within the pool. The gaseous characteristics of the system would reward further study. 4. Little plankton was present (due to low retention times) and that found, which included the colourless sulphur bacterium Beggiatoa, had pro¬ bably been disturbed from settlement or attachment sites. However, the green filamentous alga Spirogyra clothed the bottom of the pool and outflowing stream. While it is not a particularly unusual organism, its presence in such large quantities is visually striking and biologically unusual, particularly given its constant 24°C habitat. January 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 Conclusions , , Taken overall, the limnological character of the site is unusual and worthy of further study. It is a physically interesting environment, it is chemically unusual, and has several biological aspects of scientific and general interest. Acknowledgements Thanks to the staff and associates of the Tasmanian Herbarium for iden¬ tification of plant species, Dr P. Tyler of the Botany Department, University of Tasmania, for assistance with algal identifications, and staff and students of the Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, for their assistance during sampling. References Buckney, R.T. and Tyler, P.A. 1973. Chemistry of Tasmanian inland waters. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 58: 61-78. Matthews, W.L. 1978. Thermal Spring at Kimberley. Tasmanian Department of Mines. Unpublished report 1978/12. COLLECTION OF WHITE, SUPERB FAIRY-WREN MALURUS CYANEUS , AT LIFFEY VALLEY, TASMANIA Chris P. Spencer C/- Liffey Fernery, R.S.D. 354, Liffey, Tasmania, 7302 The specimen of a Superb Fairy-wren was taken from a domestic cat at the residence of N.W. and C.E. Fearn, of Liffey on 1 April, 1 987 and donated to the Queen Victoria Museum (Registration No. 1987/2/60). Description Apart from some light brown on the outer ends of the primaries, the specimen was snowy white. Unfortunately, only 2 tail feathers remained in¬ tact. Legs and feet were grey-brown, and the irides were blue-grey. Due to age, the specimen's sex was undeterminable. Bill, eyering and gape were all red-brown, the latter having numerous whiskers of red-brown and white. The specimen was of normal size, and the colouration of bill, eyering and gape were all consistent with a typical female of the species; however, the iris colour and the white whiskers were abnormal. Acknowledgement I thank Bob Green for assistance in sexing the specimen. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1988 NOTES ON AN UNUSUALLY LARGE COLONY OF THE PASSALID PHAROCHILUS POLITUS (SCARABAEOIDEA, PASSALIDAE) IN TASMANIA 5. Fearn R.S.D. 354, Liffey Valley, Tasmania Introduction Pharochilus politus Burm. is the only passalid recorded from Tasmania and is common and widespread over much of the state. It is a large, shiny black, somewhat flattened beetle some 30 to 40mm long and often flies to outside lights on warm summer evenings. Rotting stumps are the favoured food source for adults and their larval broods, and so, extensive logging operations in Tasmania are increasing their numbers and extending their range. The Colony On the twelth of August, 1 984, a large colony of P. politus consisting of 21 adults and 67 larvae was discovered in a large chamber they had ex¬ cavated, some 48cm by 46cm, between a large eucalypt stump and the sur¬ rounding soil. The area in which the stump (some 75cm in diameter) was situated is in the Musk Valley at the foot of the Western Tiers approximately 60km from Launceston. The area had been logged twenty four months previously leaving many large stumps. Earth had been piled up along one side of the stump by passing earth moving machinery; it was on that side of the stump that the colony was situated. The soil was removed with a spade to reveal the large cavity. The stump had been eaten into a depth of approximately 3cm. Large amounts of frass had built up in the lower portion of the cavity. All larvae were approximately 30mm long. Most colonies of P. politus in Tasmania consist of 2 to 5 adults and 10 or so larvae. References Britton, E.B. 1970. Coleoptera. Chapter 30. In: The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, pp. 495-621. January 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 FLY PARASITES ON NESTLING BIRDS R.H. Green Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston Flies of the family Muscidae are well known as scavengers and parasites, the many species having evolved to live and feed in a wide range of specialised niches. One such fly, Passeromyialongicornis (Macquart), a lit¬ tle known and apparently rather rare endemic Tasmanian species, was recently reared at the Queen Victoria Museum from larvae living on nestlings of the New Holland Honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollandiae. On 23 December 1986 Mr Brian Lamer reported finding, at Beauty Point, West Tamar, a honeyeater's nest containing two partly fledged nestl¬ ings beneath the skin of which was a number of maggots. At my request he brought the nest to me, complete with young, one of which was then dead and the other almost so. The nest and contents were placed in a glass con¬ tainer, covered with fine gauze and left in the hope that the larvae would mature to adults. The second nestling died soon after receipt and next day all the larvae had apparently left the hosts to pupate in the body of the nest (Registration No. 1987/2/68). The first adult flies emerged on 7 January 1987 and the last, of 35, emerged on 20 January. All were pinned and dried and 21 were subsequent¬ ly lodged in the Australian National Insect Collection, Division of En¬ tomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra. The remaining 13 are in the collections of the Queen Victoria Museum. I am grateful to Dr Don Colless of the above Division for identifying the fly and for providing the following information. It was previously known only from '"the ancient holotype, another old specimen collected by White and a series reared by you in 1959 from Passer domesticus! ANIC has only 4 specimens (from the latter series)". This information stirred my memory and I recall, at Antill Ponds in the late 1 940s, also finding nestlings of Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis similarly infested with fly larvae, probably also of this species. Such infestations were found only in late season nests, about December, and never in springtime, at the peak of breeding. Little appears to be known of this specialised Tasmanian species, its blood-sucking larva or its host preference. Examination of nestlings found in December and January might reveal further information. The larvae are usually easy to see, even without touching the nestlings, as they embed themselves just beneath the surface of the skin on the head, wings, etc. It is suggested that if some are found, the nest be left undisturbed for about 10 days after which time the nestlings would have either survived and flown or more likely, have died in the nest. In either instance the nest could then be removed and placed in a large plastic bag or clear container in the hope of rearing further specimens. Museums or other such research institutions would always be pleased to receive the material and associated data. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1988 FLY ATTACKS LEECH R.H. Green Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston On 31 March 1987, Mr Craig Reid of Associated Pulp and Paper Mills brought to me a large leech which appeared to have been parasitised by a fly larva. Craig found the leech at Liffey the previous week, with the larva at¬ tached. He collected it in a plastic bag and noted that the larva then became detached and the leech was bleeding freely. Some time later, when preserv¬ ing the specimens in alcohol, he found the larva had reattached. I sent the specimens to Dr Don Colless, Division of Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, for lodgement there and sought his comments. In response I received the following information: "It is a tabanid, probably genus Scaptia. Tabanid larvae are reputed to prey on other invertebrates and annelids, according to my Canadian colleagues; but I must say that I would not have expected one to tackle a creature as large as that leech. They are not really ectoparasites — ruthless predators is more like it! The little known of them suggests that the larva slices a hole in its prey, using its sabre-like mandibles, then buries its head in the tissues and sucks up the fluids. No doubt that is what your specimen was doing when first noticed; the leech was so large and strong that the wounds were not immediately in¬ capacitating. In this case at least, the larva was also getting a second-hand blood meal". In my many years of working in leech infested habitats I have never en- counted such an occurrence, nor have others of whom I enquired. It appears to be a rather rare observation and is worthy of investigation should anyone have the opportunity to collect further material. If such is found, both leech and larva should be collected in a plastic bag or roomy container together with some moist vegetation, such as moss, and kept in a cool or cold environment in an attempt to rear the larva to an adult fly, thus facilitating specific determination. Tabanids somewhat resemble colourful blowflies and the family in¬ cludes the marchflies. I would always be pleased to receive such material for further study. A DIFFERENT HOLIDAY THIS SUMMER? The Australian National University will be conducting a 1988 Summer School on the Environment. All courses are residential. The dates and localities are: 24-28 January. Kosciusko in Summer, in Kosciusko National Park. 3-6 February. Rainforests of Southern New South Wales, at Kioloa, South Coast of NSW. 8-1 2 February. Native Plant Identification, at Jervis Bay, South Coast of NSW. 12-14 February. Nature and Landscape Photography, in Kosciusko National Park. For further information, telephone (062) 49 301 6, 49 4754. Centre for Continuing Education, Australian National University, GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601. fS3x> S ( ^ADVAHetPuBuerry^ ) 7 / 9 No. 93 APRIL,1988 ISSN 0819-6826 Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.G. Hird Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. SUBALPINE HUON PINE NEAR FRENCHMANS CAP J. E. Hickey and K. C. Felton Forestry Commission, Tasmania Introduction Huon pine (Lagarostrobos franklinii (Hook.f.) Quinn) is perhaps Tasmania’s most famous tree species yet until recently its distribution was poorly known and much is yet to be learned about its ecology. Gibson (1986) has recently provid¬ ed good distributional data and estimated the area of Huon pine habitat at about 2400 ha. His survey, together with those of earlier workers (Pedley etal., 1980, Davies, 1983), showed that Huon pine is, for the most part, a riparian species which occurs at low elevations. However, in a few localities Huon pine can ex¬ tend up slopes and well away from rivers. The highest elevation stands surveyed (Davies, 1983, Gibson, 1986), were at 680m and within the catchment surroun¬ ding Lake Vera. There is paleobotanical evidence that Huon pine may previously have occurred in high elevation areas with cold temperatures (Macphail and Col- houn, 1985). Fossilized pollen of Huon pine was found at Ooze Lake, situated at 880m in the South Coast Range. The pollen was dated ca 17,000 years BP, which was during the last glaciation. This article lists four additional extant Huon pine stands which occur in the vicinity of Frenchmans Cap. One of the stands is particularly noteworthy as it is quite extensive and its upper margin is over 900m in altitude. It contains several subalpine species not previously reported growing in association with Huon pine (Davies, 1983, Jarman etal., 1984, Gibson, 1986). 2 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1988 The Stands The four stands were observed from well known bush walking destinations, identification of the Huon pines being considerably assisted by binoculars, and by comparison with distant views of known trees of the species around Lake Vera. The trees were most apparent when viewed at low sun angles. The locations of the four stands are shown on Map 1 and they are listed in Table 1 along with relevant data. They are difficult of access but part of the first listed was visited to confirm the presence of Huon pine which can be confused with large specimens of Diselma archeri when viewed from a distance. The Lake Gertrude stand is by far the largest and is mainly situated on a steep south-east facing hillside. The southern portion of the stand occurs on flat areas around the shorts of Lakes Gertrude and Cecily. The stand may have a larger extent along the northern shore of Lake Cecily than shown on the map, as the northern shore cannot be seen from Barron Pass. The density of Huon pine trees was low for most of the area—probably less than 10 trees per hectare. The northern end of the stand was visited (grid reference 048 193) and a species list made. Huon pine voucher specimens were taken for lodgement in the Tasmanian Herbarium. The plant community at the site is best described as implicate rainforest (species and community nomenclature follows Jarman et a!., 1984). The domi¬ nant trees are Lagarostrobos franklinii and Athrotaxis selaginoides up to 10m tall and 60cm diameter (although larger trees occur further into the stand). Other canopy species are Eucryphia lucida, Nothofagus cunninghamii and Phyllocladus aspleniifolius although many individuals are shrubs rather than trees. The shrub layer is dense with tangled individuals of Archeria serpyllifolia, Nothofagus gunnn, Trochocarpa cunninghamii and Trochocarpa gunnii. Other common shrubs are Coprosma nitida, Diselma archeri, Lomatia polymorpha, Orites diversifolia, Podocarpus lawrencii, Richea pandanifolia, Richea scop aria, Tasmanma lanceolata and Teiopea truncata. Surprisingly, there was an absence of ferns although mosses and lichens were abundant. These formed a ground cover in¬ terspersed with clumps of Astelia alpina. The community is remarkable as It contains species such as Nothofagus gun¬ nii, Diselma archeri and Podocarpus lawrencii which have not been reported in Huon pine communities (Gibson, 1986; Jarman et aL, 1984, s, 1983). The occurrence of Athrotaxis selaginoides is unusual but it ,s known to occur with Huon pine at several localities such as Travellers Creek, Newall Creek, near Teepookana, and the King Billy Range. Two Athrotaxis cupressoides were growing near the recorded community although they did not form part of it. This means that six of the eleven Tasmanian coniferous species were growing in an area with an approximate radius of 100m. April 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist TABLE 1 Stand Name Grid Reference for Centre of Stand (Franklin, 1:100,000) Approximate Area (ha) Highest Elevation (m) Vantage Point Used to Map 1. Lake Gertrude 2. Pine Knob 048 186 40 920 Barron Pass 060 205 2 600 Daverns Cavern 3. Lake Marilyn 073 175 2 720 Philps Peak 4. Lake Magdalen 035 175 2 840 Clytemnestra Discussion The occurrence of additional Huon pine stands in the Franklin River catch- ment is not surprising. What is unusual is the high elevation of some of these stands and their occurrence with subalpine species not normally associated with Huon pine. Huon pine has generally been considered a lowland species and it has been assumed that it has a low frost tolerance. The occurrence of higher elevation stands suggests that its frost tolerance may be higher than previously thought. However, much of the Lake Gertrude stand lies in a steep-sided valley with good cold air drainage and would be reasonably sheltered from severe frosts and icy winds. Huon pine can survive at high elevations and the species has a broad altitudinal range, from sea level to 900m. The realization that altitudinal outliers can exist for this species is important when interpreting paleogeographical data and when attempting to draw conclusions about past climatic conditions. Acknowledgement Dr M. Brown and Mr N. Gibson provided useful comments on the draft. References Davies, J. (1983) Huon pine survey 1983. Wildlife Division Technical Report 83/2 N.P.W.S., Tasmania. Gibson, N. (1986). Huon pine conservation and management. Wildlife Division Technical Report 86/3 N.P.W.S., Tasmania. Jarman, S.J., Brown, M.J., and Kantvilas, G. (1984) Rainforest in Tasmania. N.P.W.S., Tasmania. Macphail, M.K. and Colhoun, E.A. (1985) Late Last Glacial Vegetation, Climates and Fire Activity in Southwest Tasmania. Search Vol. 16 No. 1-2. Pedley, J., Brown, M.J., Jarman, S.J. (1980) A survey of Huon pine in the Pieman River State Reserve and environs. Wildlife Division Technical Report 80/2. N.P.W.S., Tasmania. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1988 MAP 1 —Location of Huon Pine stands near Frenchmans Cap (Note—Stands near Lake Vera have been previously reported) BOOK REVIEW The Cambridge Illustrated Dictionary of Natural History By R.J. Lincoln and G.A. Boxhall. Published by Cambridge University Press, Melbourne. R.R.P. $49.50 (hardcover only) Reviewed by L.E. Wall This is a very extensive dictionary containing more than 10,000 entries deal¬ ing concisely with plants, animals and micro-organisms, their habits, lifestyles, associations, feeding, reproductive strategies, behaviour and physiology, as well as the taxonomic names of all groups of living organisms based on a modern system of classification. Definitions give brief details of structure, biology, distribution, diversity, and are cross-indexed with the most widely used common names. The most flowering plants, vertebrate animals and some insects the classification is taken down to the family level. Fossil groups are also covered, but more selectively, with an emphasis on well-known names. The text is com¬ plemented by a good selection of illustrations of typical or familiar forms that are representative of the groups. Whilst this book is very comprehensive in its cover of living and fossil forms its cost is likely to limit its market to dedicated students and teachers of natural history subjects. April 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 FOOD AND FEEDING OF THE LAUGHING KOOKABURRA AND TAWNY FROGMOUTH IN TASMANIA R.H. Green*, T.J. Scarborough*, & P.B. McQuillanf •Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston ^Department of Agriculture, Hobart The Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae was introduced to Tasmania early this century (Green, 1977) and is now common and widely distributed. Be¬ ing an introduced species, it is not protected here. It is diurnally active and is often persecuted because of its reputation for eating small birds and reptiles. The Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides is an indigenous, protected species, nocturnally active and of approximately the same size and colour as the Kookaburra. Both species are predatory feeders but are active in distinctively separate time zones. In recent years, numbers of each species have been salvaged and process¬ ed into the collections of the Queen Victoria Museum. From these, the gut con¬ tents were preserved and stored for later study. This material, together with some data on old skins from which the gut contents were not retained, has now been sorted and is tabulated in Tables 1 and 2. Data are presented in seasonal order, disregarding the year, so to better compare seasonal occurrence of food items. These data indicate that both species are opportunistic predators with in- sects, both adult and larvae, forming the bulk of their diets. In the 15 Kookaburras examined by us, no bird remains were found. The two small mammals (Table 1), though generally considered to be nocturnal, are occa¬ sionally active in day-time. The three species of lizards (Table 1), together with the kookaburra's well known habit of eating snakes, demonstrate that this bird is not selective in its predation upon reptiles, size being the main limiting factor. Most of the invertebrates in Tables 1 and 2 are medium to large size, as Detits the size of their predators. Both crepuscular and diurnally active insects are represented in the samples of kookaburras. .. Th ° s ® f ^ om frogmouths are mostly crepuscular, giving the impression that hese birds feed mainly at dusk and dawn. Most are ground dwelling although a ew are associated with tree foliage (long-horned grasshoppers and cicadas) or tree trunks (longicorn beetle and huntsman spiders). The greater proportion of some specific items in samples (longicorn beetles, burying beetles and loopers) is probably a reflection of opportunism rather than favouritism. The division of prey species between the two predators, is, in all probability, a reflection of the degree of exposure during the time zones in which the predators hunt, rather tnan selective feeding. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1988 Table 2 includes only one frog from the 15 frogmouth samples. However, one of us (R.H.G.) recalls examining the gut contents of a road killed frogmouth! picked up on a wet night from a busy highway in 1960, which had engorged itself on Brown Tree-frogs Litoria ewingii. At the time these frogs were active in large numbers and moving across the highway, providing an apparently irresistible but eventually fatal attractive to the frogmouth. It is interesting to reflect upon the similarities of the Tawny Frogmouth and Laughing Kookaburra. Both are about the same length, 400-460mm and body weight, 300-420gm; both are of a generally dull greyish plumage, both hunt by perching, watching and alighting upon their prey; both have relatively short legs and week feet which are not used to seize prey and, in both, the beak is their tool of offence and defence. The beak of the frogmouth, in many respects, resembles that of the kookaburra except that it is considerably shorter and broader, thus providing a much wider gape, an obvious advantage to a nocturnal predator in its attempts to secure prey at night. It is also interesting to consider a report received by one of us (R.H.G.) in November 1986, of a kookaburra feeding a brooding frogmouth in the Cliff Grounds near Launceston. Upon investigation the nest was found to be in a eucalypt fork about 6 metres above ground and occupied by a half grown nestl¬ ing being partly sheltered by an adult A family of kookaburras was living in the im¬ mediate vicinity. Feeding was not observed on this visit of 90 minutes but an assurance was given by the chair-lift attendants that he had witnesed, on several occasions, a kookabura fly to the nest with a small lizard which was happily ac¬ cepted by the adult frogmouth. Though both species are recorded elsewhere as taking food items additional to those listed here, it is apparent that there is a similarity in their food and feeding methods, one utilising a diurnal niche and the other the nocturnal equivalent. There is little evidence to support the commonly held assumption that the in¬ troduction and subsequent establishment and spread of the Laughing Kookburra in Tasmania has resulted in the decline of some small bird populations. Certainly its predation upon vertebrate fauna is quite insignificant in comparison with that of the indigenous raptors which regularly take a wide variety of mammals and birds (Green et al., 1985, Czechura et al., 1987). Many hundreds, possibly thousands of kookaburras have been killed in Tasmania, and continue to be killed by would-be do-gooders in the blind belief that, in so doing, they are assisting in the conservation of indigenous fauna. Almost all of this material and the evidence it contained has been destroyed and the data lost. Had it been kept and properly processed we would today have a far better knowledge of the niche the kookaburra now occupies in Tasmania. Such material should never be wasted, and if this handsome kingfisher is being con¬ tinually killed, for whatever reason, then the carcasses should be salvaged and presented to a suitably qualified person or research institution for further study. Tasmanian Naturalist 7 April 1988 Czechura, G.V., Debus, J.S.D. and Mooney, N.J., 1987. The Collared Sparrowhawk Accipiter cirrocephalus : A review and Compari¬ son with the Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus. The Aust . Bird Observer. Green, R.H., 1977. Birds of Tasmania, Launceston. The Author. Green! R.H., Rainbird, J.L. and McQuillan, P.B., 1985. Food of the Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae. Tas. Nat. No. 86, 5-7. DATE / CONTENTS LOCALITY Jan. 1986 Swift Moth (larvae) Oxycanus sp. Evandale, N. Tas. Jan. 1986 Christmas Beetle Lamprima aurata Evandale. Mealworm Beetle TENEBRIONIDAE indet. N. Tas. 7.iv.86 Field Cricket Teleogryllus commodus Waverley. Launceston 10.viii.86 Cockchafer Beetle Adoryphorus couloni N. Tas. 10.viii.86 Cockchafer Beetle Adoryphorus couloni N. Tas. 10.viii.86 Small amount of grass N. Tas. 23.viii.85 Stag Beetle Lissotes rudis Trevallyn. Leaf-eating Beetle Paropsis sp. Launceston. Weevil Leptopius sp. (Regurgitation Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. pellet) Dung Beetle Onthophagus australis 9.ix.85 Corbie Grub Oncopera sp. Scottsdale (larvae) N.E. Tas. Sept. 1985 Cockchafer Beetle Scitala sericans Bridport (larva) N.E. Tas. Army Caterpillar (larvae) Persectania ewingii 3.xii.86 Mealworm Beetle TENEBRIONIDAE indet. Underwood N. Tas. 3.xii.86 Locust ACRIDIDAE indet. Underwood N. Tas. x3.xii.86 Little Pygmy Possum Cercartetus lepidus Underwood Mountain Dragon Amphibolurus diemensis N. Tas. Evandale Christmas Beetle Lamprima aurata N. Tas 30.x.65 Beetles and larvae COLEOPTERA indet. Greens Beach Southern Blue Tiliqua nigrolutea N. Tas. Tongue (15cm long) 28.vi.69 Metallic Skink Leiolopisma metallica E. Devonport (14cm long) Tas. House Mouse Mus musculus APPROX. NUMBER 2 2 1 20 6 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 Table 1 . Food items represented in the gut contents of Laughing Kookaburras. 8 Tasmanian Naturalist April 1988 DATE I CONTENTS LOCALITY APPROX. NUMBER Jan. 1983 Cave Cricket Apotrechus sp. Poatina Ground Beetle Promecoderus sp. N. Tas. Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. Cockroach Polyzosteria sp. Cockroach BLATTODEA indet. Army Caterpillar (larvae) Persectania ewingii Caterpillar Epicoma sp. Spider ARANEAE indet. 7.i.85 Earwig Labidura riparia Bridport Cockchafer Beetle Heteronyx sp. N.E. Tas. Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. Looper Moth (larvae) Ciampa arietaria 24.1.82 Scarab Beetle Pimelopus noth us Coles Bay Scarab Beetle Cryptodus tasmannianus E. Tas. Cicada Cicadetta sp. 20.ii.69 Blackwall N. Tas. Beetles indet. 14.iii.86 Railton N. Tas. Beetles Indet. 20.iii.84 Longicorn Beetle Phoracantha sp. Mt. Arthur Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. N. Tas. Spider ARANEAE indet. Scorpion Cercophonius squameus Frog Amphibia indet. 20.iii.84 Burying Beetle Ptomaphila lachrymosa Mt. Arthur Rove Beetle Creophilus sp. N. Tas. Scorpion Cercophonius squameus 20.iii.85 Cave Cricket Apotrechus sp. Underwood Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. N. Tas. Weevil AMYCTERINAE sp. Leaf-eating Beetle Paropsis sp. Millipede DIPLOPODA indet. 15.iv.86 Long-horned Grasshopper Caedicia simplex N. Tas. Weevil CURCULIONIDAE indet. Huntsman spider Delena canderides 22.iv.85 Long-horneo Grasshopper Zaprochilus australis Bakers Beach Field Cricket Teleogryllus commodus turnoff Swift Moth (larvae) Oxycanus sp. 13.V.61 Cave Cricket Apotrechus sp. Storeys Creek Weevil Gum Moth (larvae) CURCULIONIDAE indet. LASIOCAMPIDAE indet Spider ARANEAE indet. 26.viii.76 Looper Moth (larvae) Ciampa arietaria Epping Forest N. Tas. Oct. 1984 Corbie Grub (larvae) Oncopera sp. Hadspen N. Tas. 11 ix.67 Grubs indet Exeter Spiders W. Tas. Crabs 1 985 Weevil Leptopius sp. 1 Z/ sJ N. Tas. Mealworm Beetle TENEBRIONIDAE indet. Click Beetle ELATERIDAE indet Army Caterpillar Persectania ewingii TABLE 2. Food items represented in the gut contents of Tawny Frogmouths 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 10 3 1 2 1 20 3 2 T 1 1 2 8 3 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 10 2 2 3 1 3 T t No. 94 JULY,1988 ISSN 0819—6826 The ■■■ - „ Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.G. Hird Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. A KEY TO GENERA OF TASMANIAN FRESHWATER CRAYFISH P. Horwitz Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, GPO Box 252C, Hobart, 7001 Recent work on freshwater crayfish in Tasmania has revealed the presence of a diverse fauna, with perhaps more than twenty species in four genera, form¬ ing a significant component of the benthic and fossorial fauna in Tasmania. A review of the current state of knowledge on freshwater crayfish in Tasmania is given by Horwitz (1987), including the general ecology and distributions of each genus, their aquaculture potential, and their pests and diseases. However, the work has highlighted the need for a key so that field naturalists, biology students and survey workers can, with some degree of assurity, assign generic names to freshwater crayfish. This simplified key will enable users to identify most freshwater crayfish in Tasmania (although very small, juvenile crayfish may be more difficult to identify using this key). All key characters are shown in Figure 1. some of the characters used here are from a key to most of the genera of Australian freshwater crayfishes, given in Riek (1969). 2 Tasmanian Naturalist -- July 1988 1 a Crayfish with spines on sides of abdomen segments, and with very larae spine on the carpus of the claw . Astacopsis Crayfish without spines on sides of abdomen segments, and without very large spine on the carpus of the claw . 2 2a Small, mostly burrowing crayfish with claws operating in a vertical plane' mid-dorsal groove on carapace shallow and V-shaped. Engaeus 2b Claws not operating in a vertical plane (either oblique or horizontal); mid¬ dorsal groove on carapace U-shaped. 3 3a Claws (on larger animals) with a marked curve in the cutting edge of the finger; dorso-lateral grooves on carapace separated, not fused together; never with terminal spines on tail fans; only in north-western Tasmania . Geocharax 3b Claws not as above; some species with terminal spines on tail fans; dorso¬ lateral grooves on carapace close, becoming fused together; found throughout western Tasmania. Parastacoides References Horwitz, P. (1987) The freshwater crayfishes of Tasmania. Inland Fisheries Commission Newsletter (Tasmania). 16(3). Riek, E.F. (1969). The Australian freshwater crayfish (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae), with descriptions of new species. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:855-918. Figure 1: Key characters used to distinguish the four genera of freshwater crayfish in Tasmania. A—The right claw of crayfish from each genus, seen from above, showing the vertical orientation of claws of Engaeus (1) when compared to the mainly horizontal claws of each of the other genera (eg 2), the very large spine on the carpus of the claw of Astacopsis (A), but not on the claws of other genera (5), and the curve in the finger of the claw of Geocharax (3). July 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 B—The abdomen and tail fan of Astacopsis and Parastacoides, showing the presence (1) or absence (2) of spines on the sides of the abdominal segments, and the terminal spines on elements of the tail fan in Parastacoides, where the outer ramus (4) may or may not exhibit a terminal spine, and the inner ramus with one or more spines, or none at all (5). The tail fan of Astacopsis never has terminal spines (3) . C—The carapace of three genera of crayfish, showing the deep U-shaped dorsal grooves of Parastacoides and Geocharax (1) and the shallow V-shaped grooves of Engaeus (2). Laterally the grooves may be fused or almost fused (4) or widely separate (3). PREDATION ON INTRODUCED ANIMALS BY THE TASMANIAN TIGER SNAKE Simon Fearn R.S.D. 354, Liffey Valley, Tasmanian 7302 At 11.30 am on the 10th of March, 1987 a large female Tiger Snake, Notechis ater humphreysi, 129cm long with a girth of 13cm was hand caught while basking outside its homesite under a wooden shed on the property of Dr Bob Brown in the Liffey Valley. The shed is situated in an old paddock that has become partially overgrown with bracken ferns, blackberries and saplings of various trees and shrubs. This area borders forest at the foot of Dry's Bluff. When captured a very large bulge was noticed in the posterior third of the snake. When placed in a freezer the snake regurgitated a rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1988 I T ^ e he ?u °u the rabbit had been com P'etely digested and the front leas almost so. The headless remains were whole and showed no external damage Faeces in the lower alimentary canal contained hair and five rabbits teeth. A small portion of jaw bone with two teeth still in place was also present. Length of rabbit remams from neck to base of tail was 16cm, girth 13cm. With the head present this rabbit would have been at least 19cm long. The snake was in excellent con¬ dition internally and weighed (stomach empty) 850 grams. Rabbits are extremely common in the valley and may be a regular part of the diet of large specimens of N.a. humphreysl. At 2.00 pm on the 3rd of December, 1985 an adult N.a. humphreysi, 107cm long, was observed feeding on two fledgling sparrow chicks, Passer domesticus. The snake was living in the sandstone ruins of a house in a paddock on the ‘Mountainvale’ property approximately 4.5 km from the Liffey Valley in northern Tasmania. The sparrows nest was situated in a cavity in a weathered section of wall 150cm from the ground. The snake was discovered foraging around the ruins and soon after it began to climb the wall by first utilising blackberries growing against the wall to a height of 60cm, and scaled the remaining 90cm by winding up depressions in the weathered and uneven surface of the wall. The entrance hole leading to the nest was some 6cm across and the snake crawled in to a depth of approximately 18cm. As the snake entered the hole distressed chirping could be heard from within. After several minutes the snake retreated with a large sparrow chick, half swallowed head first. The snake then allowed itself to drop to the ground where it finished swallowing the chick. The snake then returned to the hole in the same manner and entered again. The snake remained with its head in the hole for five minutes. It then withdrew performing the post meal gaping of the mouth characteristic of this species after it feeds. A large bulge was travelling down the snake’s body, indicating a second chick had been eaten. The sparrow chicks were well grown, with well developed feathers, and were nearly ready to leave the nest. The snake then returned to the ground and basked in a loose coil. Many thanks to Dr Bob Brown for bringing the snake on his property to my at¬ tention. FUNNELWEBB’S FATAL FINAL FLING Elizabeth Turner Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, GPO Box 1164M, Flobart, 7001 On the 3rd November, 1983, Mrs Richardson of Collinsvale donated a female Funnelweb spider (Hadronyche venenata) to the Tasmanian Museum. The spider was placed in a glass box with soil about 8 cm deep covering the bottom. She quickly made a burrow and, except for rare glimpses of her at the en¬ trance, I barely knew she was there for the next 3 years. Flies put into the case during the day were gone the next morning, and draglines of web around the case also showed that she was active at night. The entrance to the web was un- July 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 sophisticated with just a few triplines extending from the burrow’s entrance. The next six months passed without my seeking her at all and eventually even flies were left untouched. Convinced that she had died I decided to exhume the body. Cautious digging revealed the silken nest about 1 cm from the floor of the case. No movement. Still careful, but gaining confidence, I prised open the end of the nest with long forceps. Out rushed a very healthy, large funnelweb ready to do instant battle! I land¬ ed six feet away. As rather a mess had been made of her nest I caught and removed the spider and rearranged the soil in the case. The nest proved to have a cast skin inside. As mature female funnelwebs are thought to moult annually it was interesting to note only the one cast. When the spider was placed back in the case she soon made another bur¬ row. This time, however, her behaviour was different. For the next year she could always be seen just inside the entrance, either facing out or with abdomen out. Flies were eaten overnight but mealworms were always rejected. (Most fun¬ nelwebs will not eat mealworms, which are readily accepted by most other spiders). By 1988 I had had her for over four years and had grown, if not fond of her, at least attached (not literally) to her. Female funnelwebs are estimated to live up to seven years or more. Males die soon after reaching sexual maturity. During April, 1988, her behaviour changed again. While people were fearful¬ ly bringing male funnelwebs to the museum, as happens every autumn, my room¬ mate was ‘feathering her own nest’. Up until this time she had never made a fuss over the burrow. Now she built extensive and impressive sheets of web, with a classic funnel from the entrance of the burrow, fanning out to a radius of 10cm. By May she was sitting outside on the web most of the time and looking rather out-of-condition. All her gloss had gone and she looked dull and dusty. On Thursday 12th May, at 3.15 pm, I noticed that she was starting to moult. As funnelwebs, like most spiders, moult in the safety of the retreat or nest because they are very vulnerable at this time, I was surprised to see her moulting out of the burrow in broad daylight. By 4.00 pm she had removed the 3rd and 4th pairs of legs from the old skin and half of the abdomen skin and peeled off. However, even though funnelwebs usually take several hours to moult, by 5.00 pm it appeared that all was not well. She was very weak and there seemed to be some damage to the new carapace (upperside of the head section). When I arrived at work next morning I quite expected to see her dead. She was still alive, but barely. One of the 2nd pair of legs was out and part of the 1 st. However, the new carapace was split open and on Friday 13th, after 4Vi years, my room-mate died. 6 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1988 BEETLES IN BAT DUNG R.H. Green Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Launceston 7250 Beetles of the genus Ptinus (PTINIDAE) are well known as pests in food stores, feeding on dry materials of animal and vegetable origin. They range in length from 2-5mm and may occur in considerable numbers. One species, Ptinus tectus Boieldieu, is about 2mm long and was originally described from Tasmanian specimens. It is believed to be more or less cosmopolitan, feeding on store products and the dung of non-ungulates (pers.comm. John F. Lawrence). It was recently found infesting a dung deposit beneath the roost of a colony of the Little Forest Eptescius (Bat) Eptesicus vulturnus. The presence of bats in the wall cavity of an old wooden house at Under¬ wood, Northern Tasmania, was discovered when the owner was carrying out renovations. Twenty-one bats were collected from the site on 6 May, 1987 and were - book I Ferns and Allied Plants of Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia By Betty Duncan and Golda Isaac Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1986 258pp. Retail price approx $26.00 Reviewed by David Ratkowsky This 18cm x 25cm hardback book is the definitive work for anyone in¬ terested in ferns and fern allies (forkferns, clubmosses, quillworts and selaginellas) of Tasmania (and Victoria and South Australia). This wonderful book contains a wealth of information on all the species that are known in those three states and a multitude of beautiful photographs by Bruce Fuhrer, Australia's leading “academic" plant photographer. In addition, there are numerous draw¬ ings and diagrams indicating the salient features that help distinguish a species from its close relatives. The first chapter gives a useful introduction to “What is a fern?” and to the life cycle of these vascular plants. Chapter 2 is an illustrated key to the genera of ferns and fern allies, which make it possible to find the right genus for any specimen. Chapters 3-21 are the heart of the book and deal with all the species, based on the families to which the species belong. The final chapter on propaga¬ tion and cultivation by C.J. Goudey and R.L. Hill provides any persons interested in growing ferns with the appropriate information on how to collect spores, prepare the growth medium, get the spores to germinate, and how to transplant the developed fronds and their attached prothalli. July 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist found to include two post-lactating females, 12 subadult females and seven subadult males, suggesting that the site had, in the previous few months, been occupied by a greater number of bats comprising a maternal colony. On a ledge beneath the clustered bats dung had accumulated to a depth of about 15cm, certainly the result of some years occupancy. Much o it had been reduced to a fine powder, only the surface layer containing whole pellets A casual search failed to reveal the presence of insects, so about one litre of this material was collected for further study. , x ^ Upon closer examination small, white, hairy grubs, about 2mm long were found, some of which were forming frail cocoons and commencing to pupate. The first adult beetle was found on 14 July. A simple trap was set up to catch and remove the adults as they emerged. Their numbers gradually increased, reaching a peak between mid September and mid October. The appearance of newly emerging adults then sharply declined and had ceased by the end of October. A series has been lodged in the collections of the Queen Victoria Museum. As these insects are known to feed on stored food products, the presence of a bat colony in the vicinity of such material, not suitably protected, may lead to its infestation. (EVIEWS ---- For each species, detailed distribution maps are given for Victoria only, although the known occurrences in other Australian states and outside Australia are reported. Rainfall is the key factor in determining whether ferns will occur in a given area. Queensland is by far Australia’s leader in terms of number of species of ferns and allied plants, with a hefty 350 in contrast to only 50 from South Australia. Tasmania, with 94, and Victoria, with 118, have modest numbers. The authors consider the 700mm isohyet to be the dividing line between the wet and dry parts of Victoria. This means that, except for a few isolated pockets, most of Victoria west and north of Melbourne have few fern species, whereas most of the state east of Melbourne abounds with them. In Tasmania, virtually only the dry Midlands would have a scant fern flora, using that criterion. The tabular key to the genera, between pp.14-15, focussing on the characteristics of the spore-bearing structure, the sorus, and its covering, the in- dusium, is clearly intended for the professional, indicating that this book serves both amateur and professional botanist alike. It succeeds well at both levels. At a retail price of about $26, it is a good buy and an indispensable addition to the library of any naturalist with a general interest in plants of all kinds. The numerous illustrations make it pleasurable to read through the book from cover to cover, even if one is not trying to identify any particular species. No academic affiliation is given for the authors Betty Duncan and Golda Isaac of this scholarly work, other than the information that they are Associates of the Department of Botany at Monash University. Although it is obvious from their Acknowledgements section that they went about the project in a very profes¬ sional way, one presumes that they are gifted amateurs who are being recognis¬ ed by Monash University for their contribution to botany. How well they deserve that recognition, if one judges by this magnificent book alone! 8 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1988 Your Garden Birds By Ellen McCulloch, Hyland House Publishing, RRP $ 19.95 Reviewed by D.G. Hird For the urbanised majority of Australians, gardens provide the most frequent contact with birdlife. For the most casual observer, larger and more brightly col¬ oured birds will often attract initial attention and the latter are especially well il¬ lustrated in this book and often in unapologetically artificial settings. With an anecdotal rather than systematic approach, this book is aimed towards children and the less serious birdwatcher. The author’s wealth of ex¬ perience shows through, though, in the interesting comments. For example, the migratory feats of some common, tiny garden busybodies such as silvereyes and spotted pardalotes are mentioned, adding to the more general information on providing garden habitats and on the birds to expect in them. A possible omission is a featured Tasmanian Endemic! This book is nonetheless recommended as a well produced attractive book, ideal as a child or new birdwatcher’s present. Where to Find Birds in Australia By John Bransbury. Published by Century Hutchinson Aust. Pty. Ltd RRP $35.00 Reviewed by L.E. Wall This is a substantial book of over 500 pages, divided into the various States and Territories, each of which is further divided into well known and recognised districts where birds are of special significance. All good birding districts are illustrated by detailed maps, and there are a number of coloured photographs of typical bird habitats, with a few birds also il¬ lustrated. Reference is also made to means of access to each area and facilities, including accommodation, which are available. Tasmanian notes are divided into six areas and each of these further subdivided to give greater detail of interesting bird spots. In the description of each location there is also included a list of birds most likely to be seen; whilst these bird lists of Tasmanian localities are generally a fair indication of what can be found there are a few doubtful inclusions. For instance, I have no record of ever having seen an Australian Shelduck in the Bridgewater area but it has been quoted as being one of the most common waterfowl there. This book is highly recommended as a useful guide to all birdwatchers, whether they be residents or visitors. Its format is excellent and the writing style very easy. Tasmanian Naturalist 9 July 1988 SHELL MEASUREMENTS OF Caryodes dufresnii (LEACH) (MOLLUSCA:PULMONATA) FROM NORTH EASTERN TASMANIA R. Bashford Forestry Commission, Tasmania Introduction Tasmania’s largest land mollusc, the endemic snail Caryodes dufresnii, oc¬ cupies a wide range of habitats throughout Tasmania. Shell variation is con¬ siderable, both in size and colouration. It has been suggested that several distinct morphs occupy the major ecological sites of dry sclerophyll forest and wet sclerophyll rainforest. In general, mature shells from high rainfall sites tend to be darker and larger, with a maximum height of 50mm, compared with those from drier sites where shells attain 35mm in height (Kershaw and Dartnall, 1972). This note reports the find and measurement of numerous shells at Big Boggy Creek, 15km SW of Ansons Bay in north eastern Tasmania. Comparison is made with a small number of specimens from a dry forest site at Saddleback, 5km SW of Mathinna. Caryodes is particularly active during wet weather so the number of days in which rain falls may be used as a site indicator combined with a suitable ground cover of leaf litter, bark ribbons and logs. Study Sites The collection site at Big Boggy Creek has been cleared for eucalypt planta¬ tion establishment and windrows formed before burning. The surrounding native forest carries an overstorey of mature Eucalyptus obliqua and E. globulus, an understorey of Olearia argophyla (musk), Pomaderris apetala (dogwood) and Acacia verticillata (prickly moses). The ground cover is patchy, mainly ferns (Blechnum sp.) over a litter layer several centimetres thick and topped with bark ribbons. Saddleback has a dense overstorey of 19 year old E.sieberi/E.obliqua/E.amygdalina regrowth and gaps containing Acacia melanox - ylon (blackwood) and Acacia dealbata (silver wattle). Dense Pteridium esculen- tum (austral bracken) occurs over very rocky ground with a shallow litter layer and many old eucalypt logs. Site Altitude Mean Annual Rainfall Rain Days (metres) (mm) (annual) Big Boggy Creek 120 977 145 Saddleback 620 858 122 10 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1988 Results During plantation establishment at Big Boggy Creek live snails migrated into the windrows prior to burning. Surveys of these windrows enabled a total of 164 Caryodes shells to be found of which 79 were undamaged. Other snails found at this site during the survey were Victaphanta lampra, Thryasona sp.?diemenensi, and Pedicamista coesa. The following table lists the measurement means (±sd) grouped into each whorl class. All measurements were made using vernier callipers fitted to a Wild binocular microscope. The method of measurement follows that given by Smith and Kershaw (1981). Site Number of Number of Height Width Aperture lent whorls Specimens (mm) (mm) (mm) Big Boggy 3.0—3.4 1 1.94 1.54 1.23 Creek 3.5—3.9 6 2.13 ± 0.08 1.64 ± 0.25 1.26 ± 0.08 4.0—4.4 27 2.83 ± 0.05 1.83 ± 0.01 1.45 ± 0.02 4.5—4.9 37 3.28 ± 0.04 1.92 ± 0.02 1.56 ± 0.01 5.0—5.5 8 3.53 ± 0.08 1.96 ± 0.04 1.64 ± 0.07 Saddleback 3.7 1 1.36 1.17 0.74 5.0 1 1.88 1.27 0.83 5.6 1 2.16 1.33 1.12 The ratio of width: aperture length of Big Boggy Creek specimens is consis¬ tent for each whorl class at 1.25:1 ± 0.05. The Saddleback morph, with only three specimens measure, has a ratio of 1.43:1. A large group of dry forest morph types need to be measured to make a statistical comparison. It is hoped that these data will help establish or confirm a distinct morph type to be compared with groups of specimens from other localities. Acknowledgement My thanks to Mr Ron Kershaw (Queen Victoria Museum) for identification of snail specimens. References Kershaw, R.C. and Dartnall, A.J. (1972) The Mollusc Caryodes dufresnii \n Tasmania. Viet. Nat. 89:111 -118. Smith, B.J. and Kershaw, R.C. (1981) In Tasmanian Land and Freshwater Molluscs’. Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 5, pp. 23-25. July 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 11 TASMANIAN HAIRSTREAK BUTTERFLY IN WESTERN TASMANIA Peter Brown Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife, 134 Macquarie St, Hobart, 7001 Observation On Monday the 1st December 1986, whilst crossing through a heavily wooded creekline, a northern tributary of the Pocacker River at Birchs Inlet at the very southern end of the Macquarie Harbour, I located at least 2 specimens of the adult stage of the Hairstreak Butterfly Pseudalmenus chlorinda. The butterflies were flying around a group of 2 or 3 blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) trees in a fairly open section of the woodland where the blackwoods, some 8-1 Om tall, were growing in a pyramid shape with foliage almost down to ground level. The day was extremely hot and there was little or no wind. The butterflies were very active, spending long periods of several minutes flying around and up and down all sections of the trees. Two were flying together at one stage and then a (?third) single butterfly flew around on its own a little later. At first I was at a loss to be able to identify them for the very last thing I was thinking of was the Hairstreak on the west coast. Whilst in flight the only colours which could readily be seen was the gray of the hind wing with flashes of red from the lower forewing. It was only when one of the butterflies settled on a leaf with wings open that I realised that they were in fact Hairstreaks. The one which settled was a female and displayed the strong orange bars of the inner upperwing and a strong red bar around the inner margin of the lower wing. I was unable to take any specimens as I was not carrying a butterfly net at the time, however I was able to examine the butterflies over a period of approximate¬ ly 15-20 minutes through 7x42 binoculars and, as I am particularly familiar with this species, identification is beyond doubt. Background Having examined specimens from most parts of its known range in Tasmania where there are 4 described races I would conclude that this butterfly is fairly close to the nominate race P.c. chlorinda, although fairly bright, and perhaps most closely resembles specimens I have taken from the Buckland area. Although the larval foodplant at most known colonies is silver wattle (Acacia dealbata), occasionally blackwood and other wattles are used. One notable such colony is at Port Sorell on the north coast, so the use of blackwood by the colony is by no means unique. It also uses blackwood extensively on the Australian mainland (L. Couchman pers. comm.). The life cycle of the butterfly has been described in Couchman and Couchman (1977). In most colonies the species is associated with the ant Iridomyrmex foetans and larvae pupate under the bark of Eucalyptus viminalis . This eucalypt does not occur on the west coast other than in the far north-west. Where the butterfly was located the only eucalypts present were E. nitida and E. ovata. No effort was made to look for ants at this site, but, ‘stink ants’ are common in woodland in the south-west. 12 Tasmanian Naturalist July 1988 10mm 3 hoirsfreok butterfly Significance It had hitherto been thought that P. chlorinda was a species whose range was confined to dry sclerophyll woodland in the east of the State, widely distributed but in a restricted number of localised colonies east of a line from Port Sorell south to Ouse and through to Kingston, principally within the geographical range of E. viminalis. This find opens up the possibility that the species is in fact found throughout the State and future researchers should examine areas beyond E. viminalis/A. dealbata woodland and particularly examine shrubby and regrowth blackwood in November and December for flying insects. The butterfly which was examined whilst at rest was in fact in fairly good condition. There were slight signs of wear on the upper wing margins but my estimate would be that the but¬ terfly was certainly less than one week old. I would guess the butterfly is on the wing between early November and mid December in the west of the State. Reference Couchman, L.E. and Couchman, R. (1977). Tasmanian Year Book, 11.66-96. The Butterflies of Tasmania. No. 95 OCTOBER 1988 ISSN 0819—6826 The Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.G. Hird Annual Subscription: $8.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. NOTES ON TASMANIAN RAINFOREST LICHENS Gintaras Kantvilas Department of Botany, University of Tasmania, Box 252C, G.P.O., Hobart, 7001. Introduction Cool temperate rainforest in Tasmania is composed of forest vegetation dominated by species of Nothofagus, Eucryphia, Atherosperma, Athrotaxis, Lagarostrobos, Phyllocladus or Diselma (Jarman & Brown 1983). It is found primarily in the wetter western half of the island, with outlying patches occurring in eastern Tasmania and in the north-eastern highlands. The vegetation is thought to be ancient, resembling parts of an early flora which occurred on the supercon¬ tinent of Gondwanaland prior to its breakup (Barlow 1981). Today, related forests occur in south-eastern Australia, New Zealand and southern South America. Rainforests in Tasmania contain a diverse, predominantly epiphytic lichen flora which has been the subject of recent investigations (Kantvilas et at. 1985; Kantvilas 1985; Kantvilas & James 1987). The present paper sum¬ marises the results from some of that work. Floristics At the present time 208 lichen species have been recorded from Tasmanian rainforest. Of these, 128 are macrolichens, including 35 fruticose, 76 foliose, 12 squamulose and 5 filamentous species. The remaining 80 species are mainly crustose lichens, but this group is still very poorly known throughout the whole Southern Hemisphere. Thus with further collection and study their number can be expected to more than double in Tasmanian rainforest. 2 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1988 Forty genera of macrolichens are represented, the most common of which are listed in Table 1. The largest of these are Menegazzia (14 species), Pseudocyphellaria (14), Psoroma (12), Parmelia s. lat. (11), Sphaerophorus (9) and Collema (6). Genera which are a major component of the Tasmanian lichen flora as a whole, but which are absent or only poorly developed in rainforest in¬ clude Xanthoparmelia, Cladonia and Cladia. Approximately 27% of the macrolichens have a blue-green algal component whilst a further 21%, including the dominant genera, Pseudocyphellaria and Psoroma, possess cephalodia (discrete "packages" of blue-green algae). Thus nearly one half of the rainforest macrolichens are capable of nitrogen fixation and may well contribute significantly to the nitrogen budget of the rainforest ecosystem. Studies in other forests of the world, notably in New Zealand and North America (e.g. Green et al. 1980), indicate that forest lichens can fix up to 10 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year. Phytogeography Approximately 60% of the Tasmanian rainforest lichens consist of species or genera confined to or centred in the southern cool temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere, i.e. in Tasmania, New Zealand and southern South America. These include the dominant and most diverse genera, Sphaerophorus, Pseudocyphellaria, Psoroma and Menegazzia, and such smaller genera as Leioderma, Degelia, Sagenidium, Psoromidium, Roccellinastrum, Siphula and Conotremopsis. These genera tend to have few or no representatives in the Nor¬ thern Hemisphere. Some wide-ranging genera have distinctly "southern" species, e.g. Hypogymnia lugubris and Nephroma cellulosum. In general, the Tasmanian rainforest lichen flora displays closest affinities to that found in analogous forests in New Zealand and approximately 76% of the Tasmanian species are common to both regions. 56% of the lichens are shared with the Australian mainland (mainly Victoria) and c. 20% with South America. Only about 5% of the flora is endemic. However, these estimates are likely to change as ad¬ ditional data, particularly from forests outside Tasmania, become available. The overall similarity between the lichen floras of these regions has been explained by their earlier conjunction with Antarctica in the supercontinent of Gond- wanaland 80 million years ago. Fossil evidence indicates that Nothofagus was once widespread across Australasia, Antarctica and South America, providing evidence for the notion that at least this part of Gondwanaland possessed forests akin to the cool temperate rainforests of today (Barlow 1981). These forests also presumably possessed a lichen flora related to that occurring in such forests now. Tasmanian rainforest also contains lichens which have "warm temperate" or "Australian” world distributions, e.g. Cladia spp., Gymnoderma melacarpum and Baeomyces spp. In Tasmania, these lichens are best developed in the drier, eucalypt-dominated eastern areas which in the past have seen frequent land con¬ nections with mainland Australia. The genera and species of this group tend to be centred in Australia and show some similarities to the floras of South Africa and October 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 India. Tasmania is comparatively impoverished with respect to warm temperate lichens and possesses the more wide-ranging species. In rainforest, many “Australian" lichens are associated with disturbance. For example, Gymnoderma melacarpum and Cladia schizopora are virtually obligate epiphytes of Eucalyptus, a transient component of rainforest, whilst species of Baeomyces occur mostly on disturbed earth. Most species tend to be poorly developed in comparison with their lush development in eucalypt forest. A third group of lichens occurring in Tasmanian rainforest includes cosmopolitan species which occur in most well-wooded, oceanic regions of the world. Examples include Pseudocyphellaria crocata, Cladonia chlorophaea, C. ochrochlora, C. scabriuscula, Parmelia sinuosa, P. perlata, Lecanora atra, Usnea rubicunda, Thelotrema lepadinum and Lepraria incana. Some of these are ubi¬ quitous, wide-ranging species in Tasmania which only become common in rain¬ forest in disturbed habitats. For example, where rainforest has been cleared for agriculture, isolated remaining trees often lose their typically "Southern Hemisphere” lichens in favour of cosmopolitan "weedy" species. Distribution and Ecology Few lichens recorded from rainforest in Tasmania are restricted to this vegetation. The chief factor controlling their distribution in Tasmania appears to be rainfall, and the majority of the species are found in a range of vegetation types occurring roughly within the 1600 mm/year isohyet. However, despite the widespread nature of so many of its constituent species, the rainforest flora is very distinctive, particularly in the presence of certain characteristic lichen com¬ munities. Moreover, many widespread species clearly attain their maximum development within rainforest. Within the forest, the major factors influencing the distribution of lichens ap¬ pear to be the availability of light, light-related factors such as temperature and exposure to desiccation, moisture availability and the physical properties of the substrate. The vascular plants present and the age of the forest are also impor¬ tant, but their effects can mostly be interpreted in terms of light and substrate characters. In general, lichens are light-loving plants and consequently the interior of many rainforest communities is too shaded to support well-developed lichen communities. The impression of lushness in the epiphytic flora in most rainforest interiors is largely conveyed by mosses and liverworts, and where lichens are very conspicuous, this is usually because of the proliferation of only a few species, particularly Pseudocyphellaria subvariabills. Thus lichens mostly attain their peak of diversity and luxuriance in more open situations. Similarly lichens tend to be poorly developed in excessively wet micro-habitats but are successful in sites which may dry out temporarily (such as tree canopies) or even in those which remain permanently dry. For example, a very marked wet/dry zonation develops on some old leaning trees and, in these cases, the dry undersides fre¬ quently support some of the most diverse, epiphytic communities dominated by the woolly filamentous lichen, Sagenidium molle, and several small, crustose species. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1988 The texture, stability and moisture-holding capability of the substrate are responsible for many lichen distribution patterns. Foliose lichens predominate on smooth bark whereas bryophytes and fruticose lichens occur mostly on rough bark. The age of the bark is also important, particularly on those trees which have smooth bark when young but rough bark when old. This change is often associated with shedding of the bark which means that epiphytes in some habitats must be continually replaced. The effect occurs on Nothofagus cunn- inghamii, the tree which supports the most diverse epiphytic lichen flora of all the Tasmanian rainforest trees. Several lichens show distinct host-preferences but in most cases, this is in¬ terpretable in terms of a preference for a particular feature of the bark rather than for the host itself. For example, species of Sphaerophorus are best-developed on rough bark, typically on Nothofagus or Phyllocladus, whilst Cladonia is most common on thick, spongy bark such as that of Eucalyptus or Athrotaxis. However, few lichens are absolutely restricted to a particular host and, when viewed across their entire range, the differences in lichens between different tree species tend to take the form of variations in amounts of a lichen rather than absolute presence or absence. The vascular plants in the forest determine which microhabitats will be pre¬ sent but, due to poor host-specificity among the lichens, the presence of a par¬ ticular tree or shrub is often less critical than the presence of certain physical characteristics. For example, differences in the canopy in the general propor¬ tions of small leaves such as those of Nothofagus, to the relatively larger foliage of Atherosperma, Phyllocladus or Eucryphia can be related to differences in the lichen flora. The presence or absence of an understorey and the nature of its foliage is also important. Tree ferns and large-leaved shrubs like Anodopetalum or Anopterus produce a much shadier, low level layer in the forest than do finer- leaved shrubs such as Archeria or Trochocarpa. Also important is the fact that nearly all Tasmanian rainforests consist entirely of evergreen species which con¬ vey a more or less constant density to each layer in the forest throughout the year. The cover and diversity of lichens increases markedly from the forest floor up to the canopy. In most rainforests, the ground is too shaded to support well- developed lichen communities although the large, foliose, blue-grey species, Peltigera dolichorhiza and Pseudocyphellaria dissimills, may be locally common on tree buttresses and logs. The lower parts of young, smooth tree trunks are usually colonised by green foliose species, in particular Psoroma microphyllizans, Pseudocyphellaria subvariabilis and P. delisea, and by the grey crustose lichen Thelotrema lepadinum. The dominant lichens on the low parts of moist rough-barked trunks are usually species of Sphaerophorus, e.g. S. insignis and S. melanocarpus and Cladia aggregata. These lichens are fruticose and their shrubby growth form enables them to form tufts which project through the dense mats of mosses and liverworts. The dry, seemingly bare sides of old trees are often inhabited by inconspicuous crustose lichens. Above this basal zone lies a middle to upper trunk zone. Here the trunks are October 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 much younger and project above the lowest and shadiest layers of foliage, but are nevertheless still shaded by the canopy above. This region is one of poten¬ tially high diversity because it features an intermingling of two disjunct floras, that of the base and that of the forest canopy. As well there are several lichens more or less confined to this region. The most conspicuous lichens are species of Psoroma and large floppy species of Pseudocyphellaria. There may also be an abundance of crustose lichens, particularly on smooth bark. The uppermost zone of the forest is the canopy. Large, floppy, easily dislodged species of Pseudocyphellaria are virtually absent, most lichens are tightly appressed, and crustose lichens are common. Cover and diversity of bryophytes is also markedly reduced. The majority of species, including the dominant canopy genera Menegazzla, Usnea arid Parmelia, are bright grey or pale coloured, presumably as an adaptation to reflecting high light intensities. This contrasts with the lower regions of the forest where most species are green or dark coloured. The zones described here are broadly overlapping and differ from each other mostly in the relative amounts of species present, rather than in the absolute presence or absence of species. Thus they are not marked by sharp delimita¬ tions, but merely as a gradual blending of one type of flora into the next. Further¬ more, the zones are not static but vary from tree to tree and place to place, depending on the characteristics of the host and the forest. For example, in very shaded forests, the ground flora may extend upwards onto the lower parts of trees. Conversely, in more open forests such as those which occur at high altitudes, the zones may be displaced downwards so that basal trunk species are either absent or confined to the ground whilst the majority of the lower trunk is occupied by middle zone lichens. Lichens are very finely-tuned to their environ¬ ment, and it is likely that with a better understanding of their habitat ecology, they could be used to monitor and evaluate the micro-climate of the rainforest interior. Conservation Studies in England and western Europe have shown that fragmenting forests into small, isolated stands has a very deleterious effect on their epiphyte floras. It produces a general drying out of the site because of its smaller size, and in¬ creases the incidence of "weedy" non-forest species from outside. Indications are that many forest epiphytes lose their reproductive ability and the end result is that the forest flora is literally swamped by opportunistic species from the hinterland. Furthermore, once lost, the chances of a forest epiphyte re-invading the site at a later date is markedly reduced by the increased distance from other forests which may serve as sources of spores. Whether this fate awaits Tasmania's forests due to man's influence remains to be seen. However, at this moment, there are many natural relict stands of rain¬ forest in the state, such as on Tasman Peninsula, the Wellington Range and the East Coast. These are isolated in a "sea” of eucalypt forest and agricultural land, and are effectively in a similar position to their counterpart relicts in Europe. Their lichen flora already lacks many of the typical rainforest species, e.g. Sphaerophorus spp. and Sagenidium molle, and several others are often poorly 6 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1988 developed and infertile. Instead, lichens from surrounding vegetation are increas¬ ingly abundant. Many of these rainforest relicts are easily accessible and often constitute the local fern gully and picnic spot. The tenuous foothold which some lichens are struggling to maintain at these sites must be appreciated, for an idle moment of collecting could eradicate a species from that area forever. It is well worth remembering that it is better to be remembered as a great conserver than as a great collector. Acknowledgement The receipt of a National Research Fellowship is gratefully acknowleged. References Barlow, B.A. (1981) The Australian Flora: its origin and evolution. In Flora of Australia Vol. 1 (A.S. George, ed.): 25-75. Canberra: Aust. Govt. Pub. Service. Green, T.G.A., Horstman, J., Bonnet, H.. Wilkins, A. & Silvester, W.B. (1980) Nitrogen fixation by members of the Stictacaea in New Zealand. New Phytol 84: 339-348. Jarman, S.J. & Brown, M.J. (1983) A definition of cool temperate rainforest in Tasmania. Search 14:81-87. Kantvilas, G. (1985) Studies on Tasmanian rainforest lichens. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Tas. Kantvilas, G., James, P.W. & Jarman, S.J. (1985) Macrolichens in Tasmanian rainforests, Lichenologist 17: 67-83. Kantvilas, G. & James, P.W. (1987) The macrolichens of Tasmanian rainforest: key and notes. Lichenologist 19: 1 -28. Table 1. Some more common macrolichen genera in Tasmanian rainforest. (A full key to all species is available in Kantvilas & James 1987). Genus No. of species in rainforest Habitat Distinguishing features Baeomyces 2 soil at forest margins thallus crustose, green or grey, with stalked pink or brownish apothecia (fruiting bodies) Cladia 2 wood, bark or soil fruticose; thallus hollow, with numerous holes Cladonia c.7 bark or soil, mostly at forest edge fruticose; branches pointed or cup¬ shaped, occasionally with red fruiting bodies; arising from a squamulose (scaly) basal thallus Coenogoniurr i 1 smooth bark in shade filamentous, forming a yellow-green woolly mat with bright orange apothecia October 1988 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 Collema 6 bark foliose; dull olive green, very thin, gelatinous when wet Gymnoderma 1 eucalypt buttresses and logs fruticose; crowded, tiny, olive-brown branches with black, spherical apothecia Hypogymnia 4 forest canopy foliose with elongated lobes, bright grey above, shiny black below Menegazzia 14 canopy and upper trunk and branches foliose; upper surface mostly grey with distinct holes Nephroma 2 trunks and branches, often in semi-shade foliose; recognised by flat apothecia on the undersides of elongated lobes Pannoparmelia 1 canopy foliose; upper surface yellow, lower surface with black, cushion-like tufts of fungal filaments Parmelia s. lat. 11 canopy and upper trunk and branches foliose; mostly grey species attached by black “rootlike” structures (rhizines) on lower surface Parmeliella 1 smooth bark in the understorey squamulose (composed of leaf-like scales); dull blue-grey Peltigera 1 forest floor on soil, logs and buttresses foliose, large blue-grey species with flat apothecia on erect finger-like lobes Philophorus 1 shaded, mossy trunks fruticose; brown apothecia borne on bright green stalks, arising from a green crust Pseudocyphellaria 14 throughout the forest, except in the canopy foliose, usually very large; under¬ surface with small white or yellow spots Psoroma 12 mostly on smooth bark in basal or middle trunk habitats small foliose or squamulose, very tightly adnate Sagenidium 1 old fissured dry trunks filamentous, forming conspicuous woolly white patches Sphaerophorus 9 mostly near the bases of trunks on rough bark amongst bryophytes fruticose; branches mostly flattened (except in S. tener) with black powdery apothecia (mazaedia) at the underside of the tips Sticta 4 usually shaded habitats on trunks foliose; with conspicious white "craters" or holes in the under¬ surface. * Usnea 5 canopy fruticose; "old man’s beard"; yellowish or grey, pendulous, highly branched thallus 8 Tasmanian Naturalist October 1988 Glossary apothecium crustose epiphytic filamentous foliose fruticose squamulose substrate thallus - the fruiting body of a lichen - having an adpressed crust-like thallus - growing on another plant - composed of fine, hair like threads - flat and leaf-like - an erect or pendulous, shrubby growth-form - composed of small, leaf-like scales - the surface on which a lichen grows - the body of a lichen SUPERB FRUIT-DOVE IN TASMANIA R.H. Green Queen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery, P.O. Box 396, Launceston, 7250 The Super Fruit-dove Ptilinopus superbus is considered to be an accidental visitor to Tasmania. Green (1977, p.33) & Sharland (1981, p.92) include it as a Tasmanian species upon the basis of two records; Quamby, September 1872 and Eddystone Point, April 1970. The Queen Victoria Museum has since receiv¬ ed two specimens which have been accessed into the research collection as study skins and a short skeleton. Register number 1981/2/58 was found dead at Emita, Flinders Island by Peter and Jan Allen on 21 May 1981, apparently having killed itself when it flew into a window. It was a sub-adult male weighing 10Ogm with partially moulted body plumage. Register number 1988/2/66 was found dead beneath Lambertiania pine trees at “Homewood”, Parkham, near Elizabeth Town by Narinda Scott on 12 June 1988. The cause of death was not discernable though it probably died of malnutrition as its stomach was empty and it weighed only 85gm. It was a male with fully ossified skull and, like the previous specimen, body moult was incomplete. References Green, R.H. 1977. Birds of Tasmania. Launceston. The Author. Sharland, Michael 1981. A Guide to the Birds of Tasmania. Hobart. Drinkwater Publishing. T \CfQ No. 96 JANUARY 1989 2 MAR 1989 ISSN 0819-6826 w '* The Tasmanian Naturalist Registered by Australia Post — Publication No. TBH0495 Postal Address: G.P.O. Box 68A, Hobart, 7001 Editor: D.G. Hird Annual Subscription:$10.00 Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article. Editor. CONSERVATION OF PENCIL PINE COMMUNITIES ON THE CENTRAL PLATEAU Phil Cullen Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania. Most visitors to the lake country of Tasmania’s Central Plateau region would agree that the area attains much of its charm from the thousands of lakes and tarns which are often surrounded by small stands and occasionally forests of native Pencil Pines. In fact, it is these features which make this region unique in Australia, the Southern Hemisphere, and arguably the world. This article draws attention to the degraded state of Pencil Pine (Athrotaxis cupressoides) forests on the Central Plateau. Their degradation has been brought about by two factors, both of which can be attributed to the activities of European settlers; fire and overgrazing. Large areas of A. cupressoides have been destroyed by fire {Jackson 1973) and there appears to be little or no regeneration on these sites. Increases in forestry operations, hydro-electricity development, and the reading activities associated with these works have increased the chances of many remaining stands being burnt. Also, the general upsurge in wilderness recreation and trout fishing has increased the potential threat from fire. Consequentlv there is con¬ cern for the conservation of the species. V 2 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1989 Pencil Pines have a widespread but discontinuous distribution in central, western, and southern Tasmania, at altitudes between 630 and 1320m a.s.l. (Fig 1). They are most common on the Central Plateau and in the Central Highlands and at Mt Field but, there are also populations in the West Coast Range, the King Williams, Frenchman’s Cap, Mt Anne, Lake Skinner in the Snowy Range, Pinders Peak, and Precipitous Bluff. Pencil Pines usually grow to be upright trees between 6 and 20m in height, sometimes taller, with larger in¬ dividuals having a butt diameter well in excess of 1 m. At high altitudes and in the more southerly extent of their range, Pencil Pines occur as stunted trees or in a prostrate form. A few extensive forests and many scattered stands of Pencil Pines occur on parts of the Central Plateau, in the Central Highlands and at Mt Field at around 1000m a.s.l. Elsewhere they tend to be restricted to small stands around tarns and bog margins, along streams, and on dolerite block streams. These stands usually comprise areas of less than 1 ha. At their lowest densities, Pencil Pines are found beside streams which have transported seed from higher altitude populations. Pencil Pines are extremely slow growing tres. It takes, on average, 55 years for a seedling to reach 1 m tall (Ogden 1978). However, they are capable of living for a very long time and trees in excess of 1000 years old are common. There is considerable variation in the structure and floristic composition of forests dominated by Pencil Pines throughout Tasmania. Pencil Pines are often found as the sole dominant in open montane rainforests on the Central Plateau (see Jarman et. al, 1984 for definitions of Tasmanian rainforest types) or it may be found with Snow Gum (Eucalyptus coccifera), Yellow Gum (E. subcrenulata), Deciduous Beech (Nothofagus gunnii), Myrtle (N. cunninghamii), Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum), Celery Top Pine (Phyllocladus aspleniifolius), Milligan's Leatherwood (Eucryphia milliganii), and King Billy Pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) in a variety of open montane, implicate and thamnic rainforest types. Communities dominated by Pencil Pines are described in Jarman et al. (1984), Cullen (1987), Jackson (1973), and Kirkpatrick (1977, 1984a and 1984b). The distribution pattern of Pencil Pine is explained by the ability of the species to tolerate extremely low temperatures (by Tasmanian standards) (Cullen and Kirkpatrick, 1988a; Sakai et.al. 1981). The Central Plateau and the Central Highlands are the only large areas in Tasmania which are capable of supporting extensive natural populations of Pencil Pine, under present climatic conditions. However, their present distribution and fossil evidence suggests that Pencil Pine forests were probably widespread at lower altitudes in southern and western Tasmania during the colder climates of the last glacial and preceeding interstadial (Cullen, 1987). Cullen (1987) identified 6 forest types dominated by Pencil Pine, of which 3 have only been recorded in the Central Plateau Protected area or the Walls of Jerusalem National Park. These 3 types, namely open montane rainforest with Pencil Pine over grassy understories (eg Dixon’s Kingdom stands), open mon¬ tane rainforest with Pencil Pine over bog understories, and open montane rain- January 1989 Tasmanian Naturalist 3 Figure 1. The distribution of A. cupressoides and temperature efficiency: A. cuppressoides distribution taken from Brown et al. (1983) and updated. Temperature efficiency provinces after Gen* tilli (1972). Circles indicate areas where the species is known to occur. forest with Pencil Pine over scrub and heath (eg the roadside stand at Pine Lake), occur in the most easterly portion of the species’ range. They owe their structure and floristic composition to the lower precipitation and colder temperatures ex¬ perienced in this region. Higher precipitation, different topography, and less frost combine to create an environment which promotes very different Pencil Pine forests, usually characterized by Deciduous Beech (Nothofagus gunnii). A survey of the distribution of Pencil Pine throughout Tasmania reveals that 33% of the area supporting Pencil Pines on the Central Plateau has been burnt in the 1960/61 and subsequent fires. There have been many older fires which have also burnt areas of Pencil Pines but is difficult to trace the boundaries of these. In fact it is very hard to find a stand anywhere on the Central Plateau which does not contain at least some fire-killed trees. 4 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1989 More alarmingly, the Central plateau stands generally show a lack of regeneration which extends back for at least 100 years. Detailed information concerning size and age of individuals in Pencil Pine populations was collected at 40 sites throughout Tasmania. Many of the stands sampled on the Central Plateau have either a complete lack, or only very low numbers, of seedlings and saplings up to 2m high. This situation is most pronounced in stands with grassy understories. The time taken to attain this height would well exceed 50 years, as seedlings are, on average, less than 1 m high at this age. It appears that conditions suitable for the germination of Pencil Pine seedl¬ ings are abundant in the region (Cullen and Kirkpatrick, 1988b) as densitites of between 50 and 100 per square metre were recorded at many sites following the seed year of 1982/83. Pencil Pines only produce seed once every 5-6 years when there is a mass flowering of all trees. Therefore, it is likely that either climatic conditions are not suitable for the establishment of these seedlings or they are being destroyed by grazing by introduced and/or native mammals. Sheep and cattle were introduced to the Central Plateau region by 1830 and rab¬ bits were introduced around 1910 (Shepherd, 1974). The stands with grassy understoreys would be most attractive to grazing animals and this would explain the total absence of seedling in these stands. By contrast, the stands with heath and scrub understoreys on dolerite block fields have a lower abundance of grass and herbs and are probably less attractive to grazing animals, this would explain the low levels of regeneration present in them. A series of six 1 m x 1 m enclosures were established at Mickeys Creek and Pine Lake to test if the removal of grazing pressure would enhance seedling sur¬ vival. At the onset of the trial, the number of seedlings present in each enclosure and on an adjacent, similar unenclosed imxlm plot were counted. Seedling numbers were monitored every 3 to 6 months for approximately 3% years. The protective effect of the enclosures is demonstrated in Table 1. In all cases the numbers of unprotected seedlings decreased by greater amounts than the number of seedlings inside the enclosures. The results are statistically significant (see Cullen and Kirkpatrick 1988a) and indicate that grazing pressure has been Table 1. The effect of grazing over a 3% year period on Pencil Pine seedlings on the Central Plateau. Location Mickeys Creek Pine Lake Plot no 1 2 3 4 1 2 Enclosed seedlings No. seedlings at start 80 50 270 11 36 37 No. seedlings after 3!4 years 68 49 69 239 48 37 % change -15 -2 -74 +110 +33 0 Unenclosed seedlings No. seedlings at start 59 92 241 132 44 44 No. seedlings after 3!4 years 4 51 47 82 14 13 % change -93 -45 -81 -38 -68 -70 January 1989 Tasmanian Naturalist 5 responsible for loss of seedlings at the 2 sites investigated. It appears that the Pencil Pine seedlings were consumed at random along with the other vegetation, rather than preferentially, as many seedlings remain on the unprotected plots. Rabbit and wallaby dropings were collected on all the unprotected plots. Records indicate that the drought season on 1987/88 was particularly severe in the area where these trials were carried out. The seedlings survived this drought with little or no losses and seedlings were recorded at a wide variety of sites in the area. It is therefore unlikely that drought has resulted in lowering of regeneration. A survey of over 20 stands in the region revealed that there has been limited survival of Pencil Pine seedlings in most situations. Dung from sheep, rabbits, and wallabies was found in areas supporting Pencil Pine seedlings. The numbers of droppings can be confidently used as a measure of the number of animals us¬ ing the area (Johnson and Jarman, 1987; Bakker et.al., 1983). The high numbers of droppings counted at some sites are comparable to counts from other areas on the Central Plateau which experience high grazing pressure (N. Gibson pers. commun.). In the past the numbers of sheep and cattle grazing on the Central Plateau were much higher. Shepherd (1974) estimated that each year approximately 350,000 head of sheep and 6,000 head of cattle were sent to the region in the late 1800’s and some of the flocks remained over winter, even on the highest areas. He reports—‘‘the numbers were kept high in order to produce ‘hunger- fine’ wool”. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that grazing pressure during this period was very intense. Rabbits arrived on the Central Plateau around 1910 (Shepherd, 1974) and their rapid rise to plague proportions would have maintain¬ ed and possibly increased the grazing pressure. They are still thought to be responsible for considerable damage to the vegetation of the region (Jackson, 1973). As noted previously, the onset of the regeneration failure of Pencil Pine broadly coincides with the introduction of sheep and cattle to the region. This event also coincides with the destruction of the Tasmanian hunting and gathering culture. Archeological evidence (Kiernan et a!., 1983) and historical accounts (Cosgrove, 1984) indicate that wallabies formed an important proportion of the diet to the Tasmanian Aborigines. Aborigines frequented the Central Plateau on a regular basis, probably for about the last 10,000 years (Cosgrove, 1984; Thomas, 1984). Their activities, and those of the now extinct Thylacine, may have kept a check on wallaby numbers in the region. In the absence of further evidence, the loss of Pencil Pine regeneration through grazing must be attributed to the combined effects of sheep, cattle, rab¬ bit, and wallaby populations rather than to any one species. The role played by these species has most certainly varied through time. Sheep and cattle numbers have declined whereas the numbers of rabbits and most probably wallabies have risen during this century. Consequently, the pressure on populations of Pencil Pine seedlings has probably been maintained over a long period. Intense sheep grazing of the Central Plateau has now ceased, but flocks of 6 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1989 sheep are still grazed in the area during the summer. This reduction in grazing pressure may be responsible for the low numbers of seedlings surviving at the stands investigated. The effect of grazing on the regeneration of Pencil Pine is undoubtedly inten¬ sified by the intermittent seed production and extremely slow growth rates of the species. These factors, combined with the increase in wildfires since the arrival of Europeans and the dramatic upturn in the use of the Central Plateau for recrea¬ tional purposes, are likely to place Pencil Pine populations in this area in long term danger of mass depletion. Should this happen the area will undoubtedly loose much of its natural charm. It is therefore paramount that sheep or cattle grazing should not be allowed to continue in areas supporting Pencil Pine popula¬ tions. Despite knowledge of this situation and considerable evidence to prove that grazing in the high country is both environmentaly unsound an uneconomic, the recent State Government Select Committee into land-use on the Central Plateau has recommended that the grazing leases be renewed on the Central Plateau on areas above 1000m including regions where Pencil Pines are found. Further loss of Pencil Pine populations through burning must also be avoid¬ ed. The probability of wildfires on the Central Plateau must therefore be kept to an absolute minimum, and all available means must be used to suppress those which start. To this end it may be necessary to restrict vehicles access in some areas and to encourage walkers and fishermen to use fuel stoves. It may also be desirable to ban the use of campfires during high fire danger periods. REFERENCES Bakker, J.P., de Bie, S., Dallinga, J.H., Tjaden, P. & de Vries, Y. 1983 Sheep grazing as a management tool for heathland conservation and regeneration in the Netherlands. J. Appl. Ecol. 20, 541-560. Cosgrove, R. 1984 Aboriginal economy and settlement in the Tasmanian Central Highlands., National Parks and Wildlife Service Occasional Paper No. 8. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hobart. Tasmania. Cullen, P.J. 1987 The ecology and biogeography of Athrotaxis D. Don. unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Tasmania. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a Studies of the ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae) 1. Regeneration patterns in populations of A. cupressoides. Aust. J. Bot. in press. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988 Studies of the ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don ( Taxodiaceae ) 2. The distributions and ecological differentiation of A. cupressoides and A. selaginoides. Aust J. Bot. in press. Gentilli, H. 1972 Australian Climate Patterns Nelson, Melbourne. Jackson, W.D. 1973 Vegetation. In Banks, M.R. (Ed.): The Lake country of Tasmania. Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. Jarman, S.J., Brown, M.J. & Kantvilas, G. 1984 Rainforest in Tasmania. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. Johnson. C.N. & Jarman, P.J. 1987 Macropod studies at Wallaby Creek VI. A validation of the use of dung-pellet counts for measuring absolute densities January 1989 Tasmanian Naturalist 7 of populations of macropods. Aust. Wildlife. Res 14,139-45. Kiernan, K., Jones, R. & Ranson, D. 1983 New evidence from Fraser Cave for glacial age man in south-west Tasmania. Nature. 301,28-32. KirpatricK J.B. 1977 Native vegetation of the West Coast region of Tasmania. In Banks. M.R. and Kirkpatrick. J.B. (Eds): Landscape and Man. Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. 55-80. Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1984a Altitudinal and successional variation in the vegetation of the northern part of the West Coast Range, Tasmania. Aust. J. Ecol. 9 81-91. Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1984b Tasmanian high mountain vegetation 2 — Rocky Hill and Pyramid Mountain. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. 118, 5-20. Ogden, H. 1978 Investigations of the dendrochronology of the genus Athrotaxis D. Don. (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania. Tree-Ring Bulletin. 38, 1-13. Sakai, A., Paton, D.M. & Wardle, P. 1981 Freezing resistance of trees of the southern temperate zone: especially species of Australiasia. Ecology. 62 563-570. Shepherd, R.R. 1974 The Central Plateau of Tasmania: A resource survey and management plan. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Tasmania. Thomas, I. 1984 Liawenee Moor: The post-glacial history of a Tasmanian alpine grassland. Unpublished Honours thesis, Australian National University. TRAPPED SWALLOW LEADS TO GRISLY DISCOVERY C.P. Spencer R.S.D. 354, Liffey, Tasmania. On 1/10/88, I was alerted to the sounds of a trapped bird, scratching and fluttering in its attempts to escape from inside a wall cavity. Access had been gained via an opening at the top of the wall, measuring 200 x 400mm and at 2300mm above ground level. The wall cavity measured 80mm in width, 740mm in length and 600mm from the opening to the bottom of the cavity. It was obviously too narrow to allow for flight, and the vertical surfaces too smooth to climb. On removing the outer clad¬ ding of the wall, the trapped swallow, Hirundo neoxena flew away, leaving its freshly dead companion to add to the carpet of mummified corpses within. The total count of dead birds was 23, and included 17 Dusky Robins (Melanodryas vittata) 5 Welcome Swallows (Hirundo neoxena) and a single lame Robin (Petroica phoenicea). The specimens were all adult and had presumably accumulated over 14 years of the buildings existence, possibly becoming trapped whilst searching for nesting or roosting sites. Specimens were lodged with the Queen Victoria Museum,Launceston Reg. No. 1988/2/83. Thanks to Dr R H. Green for assistance in ascertaining the age of the 8 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1989 FOOD OF THE GREY-BREASTED SILVEREYE by R. H. Green f, T. J. Scarboroughf and P. B. McQuillan $ tQueen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery, Launceston, 7250 t Tasmanian Dept, of Agriculture, Hobart, 7000 The Tasmanian race of the Grey-breasted Silvereye Zosterops lateralis lateralis (Latham, 1801) occurs commonly throughout Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands, living in a range of habitat types from the coast to the upper limits of highland forests and in city and suburban gardens. Studies by Lane (1972) and Mees (1974) have shown that Tasmanian silvereyes migrate across Bass Strait, as far as New South Wales, for the colder months although part of the population over-winters in Tasmania. The silvereye is one of Tasmania's most numerous native birds, but little is known of its dietary requirments and its ecological role, beyond casual observa¬ tion and a few published notes. Littler (1910, p. 53) states it is a pest to small fruit growers when it eats fruit in season but adds that "it more than pays for the fruit taken by the quantity of blight (=aphids) destroyed during the autumn and winter months". Sharland (1981, p.141) records it as “gathering insects from rose bushes, shrubs and garden trees generally" and“also picks at over-ripe fruit”. One of us (R.H.G.) has observed a flock of about 50 apparently feeding on aphids in a crop of field tunrips under heavy frost at Antill Ponds in July 1957. Green (1966) found moth larvae (Fam. Geometridae) in the gut of one collected at Antill Ponds in August, 1959 and seeds of Rhagodia baccata (a coastal saltbush) and Solanum sp (nightshade family) from the gut of another collected on King Island in February 1968. The recent establishment of vineyards in Northern Tasmania is now attracting flocks of silvereyes to feed on ripe grapes. In so doing they damage the fruit and can significantly reduce yields and financial returns. As part of a long term fauna study by one of us in the central northern highlands (Green 1977, 1982) a series of silvereyes was taken between 1976 and 1986, in the vicinity of the QVM's Maggs Mountain Field Station (41 0 41' S, 146° 12' E.; Alt. 850m), and the gut contents extracted and preserved in 70% alcohol. Silvereyes are abundant on Maggs Mountain in the eight month period from September to April, moving through the sclerophyll forest in loose parties, glean¬ ing invertebrates and fruits from amongst the foliage. They desert the area with the onset of the winter cold and are absent for the four months from May to August (Green, 1977). From the above series, one hundred and sixty two gut samples of silvereyes have been sorted by one of us (T.J.S.) and representatives of insects determin¬ ed, by another (P.B.M. Table 1). In some samples, insect remains were so finely comminuted as to be impossible to identify and generally it was possible to iden¬ tify material only to family level. Whole seeds found in the gut were similarly sorted and representatives have been examined by Dr Robin Barker, Division of Wildlife and Rangelands Research, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra and Mr Dennis Morris, January 1989 Tasmanian Naturalist 9 Tasmanian Herbarium. These examinations and determinations have revealed that silvereyes from Maggs Mountain had been feeding primarily on insect larvae from the time of their return to the area in September until about the end of January, after which and until their departure in April they fed almost exclusively on small fruits or seeds. The insect larvae most commonly eaten were of leaf beetles (Fam. Chrysomelidae: Paropsinae). These appeared in almost every sample collected in September, October and November, with up to 50 larval skins present in some samples, but were absent in samples collected in later months. Only one sample (25 November 1978) contained adults. Larvae of chyrsomelids live commonly on eucalpyts and can seriously defoliate young trees. Paropsine larvae are generally regarded as being distasteful and/or poisonous to birds and were a suprising inclusion in the samples. Larvae of Lepidoptera (Geometridae, Gelechioidea, Pyralidae and Lasiocam- pidae) occurred commonly in samples taken in October, November and December. These groups occur commonly on exposed surfaces of eucalypt foliage but gelechioid larvae live inside silken retreats and would have had to have been ex¬ tracted by the silvereyes. About ten species of seeds were found in the samples but only one (undeter¬ mined) was present in significant numbers. It was present in samples taken in Spring and Autumn particularly in February and March when some carried fragments of fruit flesh. Seven samples (9 February 1982), contained seeds of Acacia sp, suggesting that odd mature seeds are ocassionally taken in addition to ripe fruits on which the flesh is the probable attraction. One sample, (18 March 1976), contained blackberry (Rubus sp.) seeds. From these data the silvereye may appear to be a non-selective or oppor¬ tunistic feeder, taking mostly larvae when these are abundant in Spring and early Summer and turning to fruits as these ripen in Summer and Autumn. Alternatively it may be that a high protein (insect) diet is essential to stimulate breeding and later for the feeding and rearing of nestlings and juveniles during Spring and early Summer. The Summer and Autumn intake of ripe fruit with its sugar content would contribute to an accumulation of body fat reserves against the onset of cold winter weather and for the extra energy required for migration. Mees (1974), when discussing possible reasons for the Tasmanian silvereye being a partial migrant, (part only of the population leaves Tasmania each autumn), suggests that a combination of several factors may be necessary for migration to proceed, one of which is that the birds must be in the right physiological condition. An accumulation of fat (fuel for the journey) is part of this conditioning and only those individuals which attain suitable condition and receive the necessary stimuli are prompted to migrate. Although the composition of the silvereyes’ food intake may be influenced by the availability of various items, it may be that the seasonal change from an insectivorous to frugivorous diet is an essential process in the birds’ physical preparation for migration, those in¬ dividuals not attaining a satisfactory level then not attempting to migrate. ■0 Tasmanian Naturalist Table 1 Insects from Zosterops lateralis gut samples. January 1989 Lepidoptera — Geometridae — Ennominae larva Oct-Feb few Gelechioidea larva Dec few Pyralidae larva Oct-Dec common Lasiocampidae larva Oct-Nov rare Undet. Fam. larva Oct-Nov few Coleoptera — Chrysomelidae — Paropsinae larva Sept-Nov abundant Chrysomelidae — Paropsinae adult 25 Nov rare Chrysomelidae adult Jan-Feb few Nitidulidae adult 19 Oct 1 only Carabidae larva 16 Dec few Neuroptera — Chrysopidae larva 16 Feb 1 only Plecoptera? — References Undet. Fam. adult 16 Dec 1 only Green R. H. 1966 Gut Contents of some Tasmanian Birds. The Emu 66 (2), 105-10. Green, R. H. f 1971 Birds of King Island. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. No. 40. Green, R. H. f 1977 The Vertebrate Fauna of Maggs Mountain, Tasmania. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. No. 58. Green R. H., 1982 The activity and movement of fauna in compartment 2, Maggs Mountain, Tasmania, in the fist five years of forest regeneration. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. No. 75, 1-31. Lane, S. G., 1972 Tasmanian Type Silvereyes in New South Wales. Aust Bird Bander 10:33-34. Littler, 1910 Handbook of the Birds of Tasmania and its dependencies. Launceston. The Author. Mees, G. F., 1974 The Migration of the Tasmanian Race of the Silvereye. Aust Bird Bander 12:51-54. Sharland, M.R.S., 1981 A Guide to the Birds of Tasmania. Hobart. Drinkwater Publishing. January 1989 Tasmanian Naturalist 11 ALBINO GREY CURRAWONG Leonard Wall 63 Elphinstone Rd., Mt. Stuart, 7000 On October 1988 I was included in a walking party from Stormlea to Cape Raoul on Tasman Peninsula. Just after setting out from the end of the road a large white bird was seen alighting in a eucalypt tree on the edge of a paddock about 300 metres ahead of us. My first thought was of a Sulphur-crested Cockatoo but I realised that its tail was too short for that bird and my mind then turned to a White Goshawk. That was ruled out also because the bill was straight, long and pale yellow. Before we had been able to approach much further the bird flew off into the forest accompanied by a small party of Grey Currawongs and I was satisfied then that it was an albino of that species. On our return about five hours later the lone white bird was seen in the same vicinity but this time it was foraging on the ground. By using available cover we were able to approach more closely and obtain a good view of it, but the bird was very shy and soon took flight joining the others of the Grey Currawong party and retiring to the forest. We did not pursue them further as we had no doubt about its identity. This was the only party of these birds seen that day, although we did see and hear a few Black Currawongs about three kms nearer to Cape Raoul. The promi¬ nent white patches in the wings of the Grey Currawongs left us in no doubt as to their identity. However, we didn’t get near enough to the white bird to see the colour of its eyes so that some doubt may be expressed as to whether it was a true albino, but the pale yellow of its bill, which normally would be black rein¬ forces my belief that it was an albino. An interesting comment subsequently came from a local resident who, a week after my sighting, independently described this bird and exactly where it could be found to a member of the Bird Observers’ Association of Tasmania. 12 Tasmanian Naturalist January 1989 BOOK REVIEW The Lyrebird — a Natural History By Pauline Reilly. Published by NSW University Press, Sydney. RRP $14.95 Reviewed by L. E. Wall This book is the latest in the Australian Natural History Series. It contains a good selection of photographs in black-and-white and in colour together with a number of diagrams and sketches of feathers and claws, a list of references from the literature, and an index, totalling 92 pages. The series is intended for students and biologists at both secondary and ter¬ tiary levels as well as for readers with a serious interest in animals and the en¬ vironment. The author was closely involved for several years with the Sherbrooke Survey Group of the Bird Observers Club making a detailed study of the lyrebird and its habits just to the east of Melbourne, and has also taken note of other areas within its range. The text is carefully divided into eleven chapters, each dealing with a specific aspect of the life history, and in general terms it would be difficult to fault the contents of their presentation, but there are a couple of minor points which are worthy of comment. On page 5, the late Tom Tregallas has been credited with the first direct broad¬ cast of lyrebird song on radio, which indicates a broadcast from natural surroun¬ dings. There is a story behind this. It took place on 5 July 1931 from Sherbrooke Forest and was transmitted by A.B.C. stations 3 LO and 3 AR, but R. Littlejohns, another avid photographer and recorder, heard of this plan beforehand and ar¬ ranged a broadcast by a commercial radio station a week earlier, using a sound film track. On page 13 Pauline Reilly mentions that in 1987 she made a cursory examina¬ tion of the soil and leaf litter in the areas where lyrebirds had been released in Tasmania years ago but could not find any prey species which would be available to the birds. She made no comment to me at the time, and I could have told her that years previously another visitor to Mt. Field National Park had pointed out to me amphipods which are one of the main food items of these birds, and they were quite common in the leaf litter under better seasonal conditions which ap¬ plied then. On page 84 the Eastern Quoll is given the local name of Tiger Cat although its common name in Tasmania is Native Cat. On page 61 the Spotted-tailed Quoll is correctly given the common name Tiger Cat. For anyone interest in a close study of these intriguing birds this book is to be recommended. C? S' REGISTERED BY AUSTRALIA POST PUBLICATION No TBH0495 ISSN 0819—6826 POSTAL ADDRESS: G P 0. BOX 68A. HOBART 7001 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION: $10.00 EDITOR D.G. HIRD BITING MIDGES, CULICOIDES SPP (DIPTERA:CERATOPOGONIDAE) OF TASMANIA M. D. Murray 17 Ashmore Avenue. Pymble, New South Wales 2073 Introduction Collections of Culicoides spp were made in Tasmania in the summers of 1964, 1971 and 1972 to determine which of the species known to bite livestock were present. The standard techniques of light traps, vehicle-mounted traps, and sear¬ ching for breeding places were used. In 1972 light traps were sited close to livestock. All collections were stored in 70% alcohol and selected specimens were mounted in Canada Balsam on glass slides for identification. Full details of the fin¬ dings will be reported elsewhere. Results A preliminary listing of the species found and the localities where they were found is given below. Falmouth Falmouth. Sheffield, Scamander Falmouth Falmouth Montagu C. angularis C. bundyensis C. dycei C. fulbrighti C. marmoratus C. multimaculatus Falmouth, Scamander, Tomahawk River near to entrance, "Emita” on Flinders Island 7 C. sigmoides 8. C. victoriae 9 C. waringi Falmouth Port Davey, Strahan, 6km west of Maydena, Bridgewater. Duck River 36km south of Smithton. Montagu River 1km from sea, Alberton, Bridport, Falmouth. Green's Beach, Preolenna, Railton, Scamander, Tomahawk River, Flinders Island — 11 km south of Whitemark, "Emita". Tomahawk River near to entrance, Flinders Island — 22km east and 11 km south of Whitemark and “Emita". Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article— EDITOR. 2 TheTasmanian Naturalist april 1989 Discussion The species found were typical of a southern fauna. C. victoriae which feeds on mammals, including man, was widespread. C. bundyensis which feeds on cat¬ tle, horses and marsupials (Muller and Murray 1977) was common in the north¬ east. C. angularis, C. fulbrighti and C. sigmoides were captured in the forested slopes near Falmouth, and C. marmoratus, C. multimaculatus and C. waringi near to the coast. The fauna of north-east Tasmania was similar to that of south-eastern Victoria. C. dycei, a mammal feeder with a wide distribution on the mainland of Australia, was found once but C. austropalpalis, a wide spread bird-feeding species, was noticeably absent. Species of importance in the transmission of arboviruses that cause diseases of livestock were absent, as would be expected as they are all more “tropical" in¬ sects. C. brevitarsis, which is distributed the most extensively, has a classical megathermic distribution and extends farthest south along the eastern coastal plains but only as far as the south coast of New South Wales (Murray and Nix 1988). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Officers of the Tasmanian Department of Agriculture gave much assistance in these surveys, which were part of an Australian wide survey being undertaken by the CSIRO. In particular I wish to thank P.G. Campbell, G. Carr, G. Hill, C. Moore, T.C. Wardlaw and H. Willis, and in particular Dr T.J. McManus, who set traps exten¬ sively around Falmouth. My colleague A.L. Dyce confirmed the identifications. REFERENCES Muller, M.J. and Murray, M.D. (1977) Blood-sucking flies feeding on sheep in eastern Australia. Aust. J. Zool., 25, 75-78. Murray, M.D. and Nix, H. (1988) The southern limits of the distribution and abundance of the biting midge Culicoides brevitarsis Kieffer (Diptera:Ceratopogonidae): an application of the GROWEST model. Aust. J. Zool., 35, 575-585. SWAMP ANTECHINUS — EXTENSION TO RECORDED DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT PREFERENCE AND BODY SIZE T.J. Scarborough and R.H. Green Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston Green (1972, 1973) gave the Tasmanian distribution of the Swamp Antechinus Antechinus minimus as being confined to the western half of the state and also on Maatsuyker Island, Flinders Island and King Island. He gave its prefer¬ red habitat as wet sedgeland and swampy drainage areas, ranging from sub-alpine TheTasmanian Naturalist april 1989 3 to coastal. The maximum weight was given as 57 grams and the greatest length, including tail, as 20 centimetres. Over the last ten years surveys and acquisitions have added much more data and additional specimens to the research collections of the Queen Victoria Museum, extending our knowledge of distribution, habitat preference and max¬ imum body size of the Swamp Antechinus. Following a ten day field survey and collecting trip to the Sumac Forest, south of the Arthur River, north-west Tasmania, in March 1978 Green (1979) extended the previously recorded habitat of the Swamp Antechinus to include rainforest, fin¬ ding it there to the exclusion of its near relative, the Dusky Antechinus A. swain- sonii. Table 1 gives accession data for twelve recently accessed specimens, all males, and illustrates a wider distribution, more diverse habitat and greater body size than has previously been published, and that males attain a much greater size than females. The largest female we have recorded weighed 62 grams and had a total length of 203 millimetres. Table 1 Reg. No. Locality Date Weight (gm) Total Length (mm) 1979/1/32 Bridport, NE Tasmania 2/7/79 100 257 1987/1/29 Bridport, NE Tasmania 19/3/87 70 225 1987/1/81 Bridport, NE Tasmania 24/3/87 73 225 1987/1/82 Bridport, NE Tasmania 24/3/87 73 210 1987/1/72 Swan Bay. East Tamar 5/8/87 117 248 1988/1/28 Dilston 17/3/88 45 176 1988/1/45 Mt. Direction 23/6/88 118 240 1979/1/69 Lunawanna. Bruny Island 16/7/79 124 247 1979/1/70 Lunawanna, Bruny Island 17/79 111 235 1986/1/52 King Island 10/10/86 103 222 1978/1/340 Mt. Maggs 6/9/78 89 240 1979/1/80 Lighthouse, Bruny Island 17179 85 214 1987/1/80 Elizabeth Town 27/7/79 80 230 1984/1/100 Mt. Arthur, Northern Tasmania 23/3/84 83 223 The material cited in Table 1 now further extends our knowledge of the distribution of and the habitats in which the Swamp Antechinus lives. Some of the localities cited in Table 1 encompass areas of rainforest or wet sedgeland, but others such as Bridport, Swan Bay, Dilston, Lunawanna, King Island, Bruny Island and Elizabeth Town are dry, mixed forest or scrub and atypical of the habitat to which the Swamp Antechinus was previously believed to be restricted. 4 The T asm ani an N aturalist april i 989 It is interesting to note that there is a marked bias towards large individuals oc- curing in the drier habitats and that earlier collecting in wet habitats (Green, 1972, 1973) had failed to produce any of a weight greater than 59 grams. GREEN, R.H. (1972) The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. No. 46. GREEN R.H. (1973) The Mammals of Tasmania, The Author, Launceston. GREEN, R.H. (1979) A survey of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Sumac Forest of the Dempster Plains, North-west Tasmania. Rec. Queen Viet. Mus. No. 65. NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS PAUCIFLORA IN TASMANIA Jann E. Williams Ecosystem Dynamics, Research School of Biological Sciences The Australian National University. Box 475, G.P.O. Canberra A.C.T. 2601. Australia INTRODUCTION The biogeography and population ecology of Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng., or Snow Gum (for those of us on mainland Australia) or CabbageA/Veeping Gum (in Tasmania), is interesting and instructive. Its geographic distribution exhibits the broadest altitudinal range, and one of the largest latitudinal ranges, of any of the 600 odd extant species of eucalypt. Thus the species spans a multitude of environmental gradients. On continental, south-east Australia E. pauciflora is found throughout the moun¬ tains and sub-alpine regions of eastern Victoria, New South Wales and the most southerly part of Queensland. It is the dominant tree at high altitudes and, as pure stands, forms the tree-line. At the same time, populations occur down to close to sea level. In southern Victoria and south-east South Australia, for example, many disjunct populations occur below about 700 metres in elevation (Williams & Ladiges, 1985). In Tasmania E. pauciflora is displaced from its typical position as ‘Snow Gum’ by endemic Eucalyptus coccifera Hook f.. Here E. coccifera is typically the tree-line species and E. pauciflora is restricted in distribution to the eastern and central regions of the State within the altitudinal range of about 0-730 metres although some exten¬ sion occurs up to about 1,275 metres (Hall, Johnston & Chippendale 1970). On a relatively coarse spatial scale, E. pauciflora in Tasmania is typically found on more fertile soils as a component of grassy woodland or forest (Kirkpatrick & Backhouse,undated). However in the north-east, for example around Ringarooma Bay, it does occur on sand in situations apparently comparable to those occupied by low¬ land populations at Wilsons Promontory and Powlett River in coastal, southern Victoria. More widely in mainland Australia E. pauciflora is commonly found on shallow rocky soils and well-drained alluvia of relatively moderate quality (Boland et a!., 1984). TheTasmanian Naturalist april 1989 5 RESEARCH ON MAINLAND POPULATIONS Most of the earlier work E. pauciflora has concerned those populations on mainland Australia, particularly in relation to their distribution, morphological variation with altitude (Pryor,1957) and their ecophysiology (as eg.,Slatyer, 1978, Slatyer and Ferrar, 1977, and Slatyer and Morrow, 1977). More recently, the patterns of mor¬ phological variation in isolated lowland populations were investigated by Williams and Ladiges (1985). They sampled 20 populations of E. pauciflora ranging from that in Caroline State Forest in South Australia, the most westerly occurrence, to those at Wilsons Promontory and Eildon in Victoria. Highland populations (e.g. Mt Cole & Mt Buffalo, Victoria) were also examined to provide a basis for comparison. Williams and Ladiges (1985) found that the morphology of adults varied relatively little between lowland populations and suggested that this may be due to the general uniformity of the habitat these populations occupied. In other words, these populations were pro¬ bably less subject to intense selection pressures compared to the highland popula¬ tions. Of interest, also, was the fact that seedlings showed two distinct morphological forms, a 'lowland' and 'highland' (samples from 1000m or above) form, within the range of E. pauciflora sampled. The seed sample from Tasmania, although from a forest site of only 470 metres in elevation, produced seedlings which were classified as highland. Presumably this result was related to climatic differences arising from the much more southerly location of this site. In conjunction with cladistical data derived from a separate study, Williams and Ladiges (1985) proposed that the lowland form of the seedlings perhaps represents the ancestral condition. Their conclusion added a new dimension to the earlier suggestion of Slatyer and Morrow (1977) of a single gene pool for E. pauciflora and the contention of Dodson (1975) and, more recently, Hope and Kirkpatrick (in press) that this species had a widespread lowland population during the most recent glaciation. In summarising, Williams and Ladiges (1985) speculated that during the relatively warmer climatic conditions of the Holocene, several of the lowland populations of E. pauciflora extended their geographic range upslope. In turn it was suggested that the extant, lowland population-isolates of £ pauciflora may repre¬ sent the remainder of a more widespread distribution which has been significantly reduced by competitively-superior species of eucalypts adapted to the current, warmer interglacial phase. Recent experiments conducted as part of a doctoral study have, albeit somewhat indirectly, shed more light on some of the areas discussed above. This work has concentrated on identifying the ecological factors effecting the lower distributional boundary of the higher altitude populations of E. pauciflora. For ex¬ ample, at study sites in the sub-alpine forests of the Brindabella Range in the Australian Capital Territory, E. pauciflora is typically replaced downslope, at around 1240m above sea level, by the Broad-leaved Peppermint, E. dives Schau. Further, the transition zone or ecotone between these forests is relatively narrow, commonly less than about 30 metres in elevation. Using seedling 6 The Tasmanian Naturalist april 1989 transplants, I have shown that E. pauciflora can grow successfully below its cur¬ rent limit given that it has the opportunity to become established. Several addi¬ tional experiments have indicated some of the major interactions operating within the ecotone. Put simply, it appears that the peppermint cannot extend its range further upslope to any significant degree because it is intolerant of a variety of en¬ vironmental extremes, but probably in particular climatic extremes, it would then encounter. Individuals in the ecotone appear less healthy and more susceptible to disease. In contrast, E. pauciflora is unable to extend its range downslope because, inter alia, its intrinsic rate-of-growth is somewhat less than that of the peppermint. In other words, E. pauciflora is excluded from growing in areas downslope, where the peppermint can grow. Eucalyptus pauciflora IN TASMANIA In a general sense it seems that the highland populations of E. pauciflora on continental Australia, at least, have ‘traded-off the ability to cope with en¬ vironmental extremes and shorter periods of summer growth often experienced at higher altitudes with, again generally, a relatively high intrinsic rate-of-growth. For example, proportionally much more carbon may be allocated to protecting tissues from damage from extremes than to height increment per se. In this sense, E. pauciflora is a highly specialised species being able to occupy a high altitude ‘niche’ (outside of Tasmania) in the absence of all other eucalypts. At the same time it probably has the ability to occupy a far greater range of habitats than it does currently in the absence of faster-growing eucalypts. Hence the in¬ teresting question then becomes ‘why is the pattern of distribution of E. pauciflora in Tasmania different from that observed on continental Australia?’ It is clear that without further work any explanation to the above question is speculative. However, several testable hypotheses could be formulated which might increase our understanding not only of this phenomenon but also of some of the processes influencing the biogeography of associated taxa in southern Australia during the early Holocene. One idea is that the high altitude ‘niche’ in Tasmania may have already been occupied before E. paucliflora was able to ex¬ ploit it. Alternatively, the niche that E. pauciflora occupies in Tasmania may be comparable to that in highland areas elsewhere, the apparent anomaly in its observed distribution being related simply to a different spatial arrangements of, say, certain climatic and/or edaphic factors. Moreover, matters are undoubtedly complicated by the genetic architecture of the species, particularly the degree of genetic variation between major highland, population isolates. These areas are (or are proposed to be) currently being investigated. The T asm ani an N aturalist april i 989 7 REFERENCES Boland, D.J., Brooker, Chippendale, G.M., Hall, N., Hyland, Johnston, R.D., Kleinig, D A. & Turner, J.D. (1984). Forest Trees of Australia. Thomas Nelson & CSIRO Dodson, J.R. (1975). Vegetation history and water fluctations at Lake Leake. II. 50.000BP. to 10,000 BP. Aust. J. Bot. 23: 815-831. Hall, N., Johnston, R.D., & Chippendale, G.M. (1970). Forest Trees of Australia. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra Hope, G. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. (in press). Ecological history of Australian forests. In. K. Frawley (ed.) Proceedings of the 1st National Conference on Australia’s Forest History: Australia’s Ever Changing Forests. ADFA U.N.S.W. Canberra Kirkpatrick, J.B. & Backhouse, S. (undated). Illustrated Guide to Tasmanian Native Trees. Mercury-Walch, Moonah, Hobart Pryor, L.D. (1957). Variation in Snow Gum Eculyptus pauciflora Sieb. with altitude. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 81: 299-305. Slayter, R.O. (1978). Altitudinal variation in the photosynthetic characteristics of Snow Gum, Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng. 7. Relationships bet¬ ween gradients of field temperature and photosynthetic temperature optima in the Snowy Mountains area Aust. J. Bot. 26: 111-121. Slayter, R.O. & Ferrar, R.J. (1977). Altitudinal variation in the photosynthetic characteristics of Snow Gum, Eucalyptus paucliflora Sieb. ex Spring. 2. Ef¬ fects of growth temperature under controlled conditions. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 4: 289-299. Slayter, R.O. & Morrow, P.A. (1977). Altitudinal variation in the photosynthetic characteristics of Snow Gum, Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng. 1. Seasonal changes under field conditions in the Snowy Mountains area of south-eastern Australia. Aust. J. Bot. 25: 1-20. Williams, J. & Ladiges, P.Y. (1985). Morphological variation in Victorian, lowland populations of Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex. Spreng. Proc. R. Soc. Viet. 97: 31-48. BOOK REVIEW The Wombat: Common Wombats in Australia By Barbara Triggs, illustrated by Ross Goldingay. Published by NSW University Press R.R.P. $14.95 paperback only Reviewed by D.G. Hird In south-eastern Australia wombats are well known to many people who regularly traverse bushland areas. Unfortunately this may often be due to road casualties, although fleeting glimpses at night or around campsites are also not 8 The T asm anian N aturalist april i 989 uncommon. To the initiated their prominently placed cuboid scats are tell-tale calling cards. In Tasmania most broad habitat types from coastal scrub and woodland through lowland forests of most types to button grass plains and highland areas all provide habitat for this adaptable marsupial, the largest extant burrowing mammal. The life of the wombat has nonetheless remained somewhat cryptic to naturalists and scientists alike, as evidenced by this book being the first to be dedicated to its topic. The Platypus and The Koala, previous volumes on mammals in this NSW University Press Australian Natural History series, could, given their high almost glamorous profiles, be regarded as hard acts to follow, but the clear layout and attractive illustrations make an initial impression of quality of design and production. Topics from phylogeny and relationships of modern wombats through general biology including behaviour are covered in a clear narrative style, with a reference list to each. A useful supplement provides clear advice on the hand¬ rearing of orphan wombats. Much of the original information included derives from the author’s patient and sustained field observation of a free-living population of wombats in eastern Victoria, Wombats are notoriously difficult to study and, although somewhat anecdotal, fascinating insights into, for example, some behavioural patterns such as sleeping and feeding are provided. An example of the latter is the characteristic way in which wombats feed on their delicacy’ of leaf bases of cutting-grass (Gahnia spp). Unfortunately this volume is not without production errors. On page one the extinct Marsupial Lion genus Thylacoleo is misspelt. Plates are unnumbered and some indexed references are misplaced. On page 127 the citation of some references are confused. These detract in a minor way from a generally attractive book. For anyone who has harboured curiosity about wombats, this volume will answer some questions while probably raising many more. Local issues would include which elements of button-grass communities do wombats use, and, given that these frequently occur on water-logged soils, is proximity to suitable burrow sites at least sometimes a limiting factor in this situation? While it is no fault of the author that many questions about wombats remain unanswered, some of the elements of basic wombat biology could have been further elaborated, even if as challenges to be answered. One example would be on population dynamics it would be of considerable interest to determine age-specific mortality patterns, perhaps some of Tasmania’s ’diurnal’ wombat populations (as at Asbestos Range National Park) could help resolve this issue. Many passages in The Wombat bear testimony to the author s dedication and stamina in her study. These deserve wide appreciation; this book is thoroughly recommended. t mn No. 98 JULY 1989 REGISTERED BY AUSTRALIA POST PUBLICATION No. TBH0495 ISSN 0819-6826 POSTAL ADDRESS: G.P.O. BOX 68A, HOBART 7001 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION: $10.00 EDITOR: D.G. HIRD WAVERLEY PARK NATURE RESERVE: A GRASSY GEM ON HOBART’S EASTERN SHORE Rod Fensham and Louise Gilfedder Department of Geography and Environmental Studies University of Tasmania, Box 252c Hobart 7000. Introduction Economics aside, there are at least three good reasons why Tasmania’s grassy bush is exceptionally important. The first reason is that these vegetation types are beautiful. The early settlers who were fortunate enough to see their expanse liken¬ ed their beauty to an English park and indeed they would have been a colourful park, as during the flowering season from September to May the grassland wildflowers provide a blaze of colour and a variety of form. The second reasons is because there is so little of these environments left and if something is not done soon to preserve them future generations will have no idea of how these parts of Tasmania once looked. Hobart residents get a distorted im¬ pression of the nationwide tenure of these ecosystems because this city is built on and surrounded by grassy hills, and a healthy network of city parks has preserved some of their former range. Elsewhere in the state most grassy vegetation has been converted to improved pasture. Those residents that enjoy walking in these grassy bushlands are familiar with the characteristic red heads of kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra), that dominates most of these areas. Few people would ap¬ preciate the significance of these.landscapes nor realise that these grassy remnants provide a haven for some of Tasmania’s rarest plant species. A recently published book; Kirkpatrick et al. (1988), Cemeteries and City Parks: a guide to Tasmanian grassy ecosystems , provides details of the dramatic decline of this vegetation type since the arrival of Europeans. Finally, they are important because the ecological processes that intertwine the species, environment and conditions to which they are subjected are of excep- Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article— FD/TOP 2 TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 tional interest. Research reported in Cemeteries and City Parks has provided a rudimentary knowledge of these processes, but the more we discover, the more the dynamism and sensitivity of these communities become apparent. Species that are not evident one year profuse the next, and fire and or grazing seem to be an urgent requirement for many species. Some rare species are only known where very specific small scale disturbance, such as a cloven hoof print, has provided the necessary niche. However it is the sensitivity of the grassland species that has contributed to their perilous standing and much of the mechanical disturbance imposed by Europeans has been a death knell for our native grasslands. Introduc¬ ed species have had a 10,000 year headstart in evolving mechanisms to exploit the disturbances of sedentary people, and given the chance are very successful at replacing native plants. Further understanding of this finely tuned ecology and especially the specific requirements of the rare plant species is critical for the preservation of grassy environments. The conservation of these environments also depends on the preparedness of governing agencies to retain areas to be managed as nature reserves. The Clarence City Council has made an admirable decision to do this with Mornington Hill. This hill, known as Waverley Park, provides a backdrop to the eastern shore suburbs of Bellerive and Mornington and is a superb example of our grassy heritage. This paper seeks to describe the botany of the park, discuss its conservation significance in the context of the rest of the state, and provide some management recommendations in the light of what was previously known about native plant species requirements and the voraciousness of the exotic species present. It also seeks to provide a guide to some aspects of the ecology of our grassy ecosystems that could be used in conjunction with a watchful eye and an exceedingly pleasant Sunday afternoon stroll in Waverley Park Nature Reserve. THE VEGETATION As a means of searching for species and in order to understand the vegetation patterns we spaced 47, 10 x 1 m quadrats around the park. For each of these we noted their position, slope, aspect and geology and made lists ot all vascular plant species occurring in quadrats. The site lists, excluding exotic species were then classified by a computer program, TWINSPAN, which orders the lists using an index of similarity, so that the lists at either ends of this ordering are most dissimilar. It then splits this ordered sequence of sites, and then reorders and resplits the halves. It continues this process until hierarchy of site groups is form¬ ed. While vegetation usually varies continuously, the classification does produce groupings of plant species that are common associates. We begin to understand why these associations occur when we realise that they segregate into distinct en¬ vironments. The Tasmanian Naturalist July 1989 3 Figure 1. The TWINSPAN classification and description of communities. Community no. 1 2 3 4 5 No. of quadrats 2 10 16 16 3 Mean species richness (10m' 1 2 3 4 5 ) 16.5 19.6 20.7 19.6 11.7 1. This is an open community dominated by scattered black gums (Eucalyptus ovata). Many grasses share dominance in the ground layer, including Poa hookeri, P. labillardieri, Themeda triandra , Danthonia laevis and D. semian- nularis. 2. She-oaks (Allocasuarina verticillata) and white gums (E. viminalis) comprise the overstorey of this community and the understorey is always dominated by a healthy sward of kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra). 3. This community is mostly dominated by black peppermint (E. amygdalina) with white gum (E. viminalis) as a sub-dominant. Bulloak (Allocasuarina lit - toralis) and silver and black wattles (Acacia dealbata and A. mearnsii) are the main mid-storey trees. All of these trees can dominate in patches. Themeda trian¬ dra, Poa rodwayi and P. sieberiana cover most of the ground layer but a host of other grass species are obvious. 4. The overstorey of this group is the same as community 3, but the most com¬ mon dominants of the ground layer are Poa sieberiana, Stipa mollis and Ehrharta disticophylla. 5. This community has black peppermint as the dominant over a heathy understorey. The most obvious shrubs are the common heath (Epacris impressa) and the peas, Aotus ericoides and Bossiaea cinerea. 4 TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 The park encompasses the 3 common geological types of the region and ac¬ commodates 172 native vascular plant species. The soils these rock types form and the influence of aspect and topographic position result in a complex of vegetation types and a rich native flora. Fig. 1 presents the classification and pro¬ vides a description of these communities, Appendix 1 shows the community associations of the native plant species and Fig. 2 is a map of the communities. A discussion of the classification reveals some of the underlying environmental in¬ fluences. Group 1 forms one extreme of the scaling and can be identified by the presence of the herbaceous species Haloragis heterophylla, Asperula conferta , and buzzy bur (Acaena novae-zelandiae) that is a weed in certain situations but naturally oc¬ curs in poorly drained lowland grassland and in the park on the heavy mudstone soils of a gully flat. Group 2 can be identified by the presence of the native bindweed (Convolvulus erubescens) and the absence of two grasses Poa sieberana and Stipa mollis and occurs on the relatively rich doleritic substrates. Group 3 and 4 comprise a large block of continuously varying quadrats that oc¬ cur on the sandstone. Species defining the former group are the grasses Themeda triandra , Poa rodway i, Agrostis aemula and Dichelachne rara and the sedge Schoenus apogon. These are all species that most commonly occur on more fertile substrates. However, this region is one of the driest in the state and is significant¬ ly drier than the western shore of the Derwent. The fact that sandy soils support oligophobic (intolerant of infertility) grassy vegetation suggests an interplay bet¬ ween rainfall and leaching of nutrients which is affecting the nature of the vegeta¬ tion on the siliceous substrates. As rainfall increases, soils are less fertile through leaching and heathy species prevail over those more commonly found in grassland. Fire and aspect also interplay and can tip the balance between grassy and heathy understories. Examination of a recent fire boundary (Fig. 2) reveals that the conversion from heathy to grassy vegetation can be precipitated by fire. The grassy side of the boundary presently supports most of the heath species as well as a host of grassy species. However, with continued burning the shift to a grassy understorey could be made more permanent and those heath species neither able to regenerate from lignotuber nor rapidly set seed may be eliminated. Thus the mapping units on the sandstone are impermanent though the probability of shifting the understorey dominance from shrub to grass varies with the sites moisture status. The driest sandy sites such as those at the top of the hill on the northerly aspects would require a long and improbable fire free period in order to lose their grassiness, while some of the wetter positions would need to be sub¬ jected to extremely persistent firing in order to lose their heathy character. Group 5, which forms the other extreme of the axis ot variation, arc those heathy com¬ munities that are more likely to resist conversion to grassiness and have few or no TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 5 Twinspan Community Code Evp Evd Ead Eva Eoh Evpv Table 1 Community Description Eucalyptus viminalis — Poa sieberana grassy woodland E. viminalis/E. amygdalina — Dianella revoluta grassy woodland E. amygdalina/E. viminalis/ Acacia dealbata — Dichopogon strictus grassy woodland E. viminalis — Acaena ovina grassy woodland E. ovata — Hypoxis hygrometrica grassy woodland E. viminalis — Plantago varia grassy woodland grasses in them. Important indicator species for this group are the bush pea Aotus ericoides, the rice flower Pimelea linifolia and the broom spurge Amperea xiphoclada. These heathy communities are more common on the southern aspects of the hill. In these situations radiation is less, consequently soils are moister and the probability of fires is less, and it may be that some grassland species such as kangaroo grass cannot survive on sites without adequate summer warmth. CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE Waverley Park includes six (Evp, Evd, Ead, Eva, Eoh, Evpv: see Table 1) of the 31 Tasmanian grassy communities (derived using TWINSPAN) defined in City Parks and Cemeteries. Of these only Evp occurs in the state reserve network in the East Risdon Nature Reserve. Evd, Eva and Evpv are represented in other City Parks around Hobart, Ead and Eoh occur mostly on private land and Waverley Park provides an excellent opportunity for their security. The latter of these communities is represented in the park by community 1 and is particularly endangered in the state because it occupies the deep soiled flats that on private land have long since been ploughed. There are ten plant species in the park that are unreserved in Tasmania. Most are uncommon in the state and the following is a brief discussion of their status in the park. Haloragis heterophylla is frequent in community 1 which also houses small populations of the grass Amphibromus archeri and the rush Juncus amabilis. The grasses Danthonia procera and Poa hookeri are more widespread and can be found scattered throughout the sandstone country. The chocolate lily (Dichopogon strictus) has its stronghold on the mudstone while the daisy Vit- tadinia cuneata and pussy-tails (Pti/otus spathulatus) are confined to the dolerite where their populations are precarious. As will be discussed below they, like many other grassland species, only survive in open spaces between tussocks. These spaces have not been open in the recent past and most of the individuals of these species can only be found on the edges of a track. The beautiful herb Velleia paradoxa is endangered in Tasmania and the populations in the park represent 6 The Tasmanian Naturalist july 1989 more than twice the number of individuals of this species known from the rest of the state. The populations straddle both the sandstone and dolerite though most of the plants on the latter substrate are about to be subsumed by new houses and backyards. The peppercress Lepidium pseudotasmanicurn only occurs where competition from other plants is negligible. Consequently it has a recently assum¬ ed habitat under the canopies of planted conifers. It grows under some old Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) trees in the park but also on the shallow soils above the old quarry, to which its annual habit is well suited. MANAGEMENT The tenure of public parks is suitable, though not ideal, for the conservation of natural areas. However, this is only so if land managers within the governing in¬ stitutions understand and take their role as custodians of a precious natural heritage seriously. Fig. 3 shows the attrition of the natural landscape around Bellerive in the few decades from 1946-89. There are four separate developments currently eroding bush on the parks edge. Further attrition by one or two future generations and this place will join most other naturally grassy environments as a part of history. Thus, if grassy areas are to be preserved, there can be no com¬ promise with development. The Domain’s jogging track and the Bellerive housing estate are recent examples of overzealous “development” that contribute to the demise of an imperilled ecosystem. Native vegetation The natural health (as measured by the native species richness) of the grassy vegetation on doleritic substrates requires the regular depletion of the grass sward. Otherwise the multitude of species that occupy the inter-tussock spaces disappear. This is never more evident than in Waverley Park where a small track provides a fire break (Fig. 3). On one side the grass hasn’t been burnt for more than five years and is choked by mats of kangaroo grass with few other species, and contrasts with the other side of the track which was burnt in 1987 and has a rich complement of community 3 native species. Regular firing at 1-3 yearly inter¬ vals is required in this community. Alternatively, and probably ideally, a com¬ bination of light to moderate grazing and regular firing would most successfully mimic the pre-European conditions of this landscape. The feasibility of rein¬ troducing native herbivores could be examined for the park. The past Fire regimes on the non-dolerite areas seem to have resulted in a healthy mosaic of vegetation types by providing a niche tor a range ot species. It seems this has been provided for by the ad hoc activities ot local children and other arsonists. Under this regime some areas are regularly burnt for a succession of years while others may escape burning for ten or more years. This desired af¬ fect could be achieved in the future with a c'est la vie policy or the patchy mosaic could be maintained by almost randomised burning of the blocks created by the track mosaic. TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 7 Exotic species The Clarence City Council is extremely fortunate in that their decision to manage Waverley Park as a nature reserve presents relatively few management problems. However some specific initiatives are required if the long viability and integrity of the park is to be maintained. The park has a particularly healthy complement of exotic species many of which have never been recorded as naturalised in the state. Banana passionfruit climbs over a wattle tree and jasmine turned up in one of our quadrats. However, most of the 94 exotic species recorded in the park (Appendix 1) are only very local garden escapes and probably pose no real threat as displacers of native vegetation. However all exotic species do particularly well from mechanical disturbance. This is evident wherever such disturbance has oc¬ curred. The quarries, the areas abutting backyards, the edges of the many tracks and the places where people have claimed soil all immediately become dominated by exotic species and once these plants have a hold the native species are per¬ manently prevented from reestablishing. There is a suite of particularly voracious disturbance invaders, whose success seems to be rather habitat specific (Fensham and Kirkpatrick 1989). The quaking grass (Briza maxima) has a propensity in this state to succeed on sandy substrates and has overtaken the disturbed areas on this substrate in the park. The shivery grass Briza minor and rat’s tail fescue Vulpia bromoides similarly succeed on disturbed areas on richer substrates. Other species such as hair grass Air a caryophyllaea and flat weed Hypochaeris radicata are more ubiquitous in their taste of disturbed ground. In poorly drained situa¬ tions on heavy soils, such as those occupied by community 2, the disturbance in¬ vader is browntop (Agrostis stolonifera) while on the disturbed semi-aquatic facies of this environment the rush Juncus articulatus dominates. Needless to say, all mechanical disturbance should be avoided. The developers currently construc¬ ting housing estate in the peripheries of the park should be discouraged from driving machinery in the park, and the existing track network should be ra¬ tionalised and most tracks closed. All public vehicle access to the park should be prohibited. All of the disturbance colonizers mentioned above co-exist with native species in most undisturbed lowland native grassland throughout the state, although some areas of this park are exceptional for their complete absence of exotic species. In undisturbed situations these species do not seem to become dominant, nor replace native species, which is fortunate, as it is difficult to imagine a management procedure that could possibly limit their existence. Many of the Hobart City Council’s parks are particularly badly infested by gorse (Ulex europaeus). This species is particularly vigorous on sandstone, and its stranglehold in the Knocklofty Reserve makes its eradication impossible without the expenditure of vast sums of money and energy. Given that its spread can oc¬ cur with fire as the only expedite it is surprising that gorse is not more prolific. It 8 The Tasmanian Naturalist july 1989 is presently in profusion in a limited area around the old quarry but the plant should be regarded as an extremely noxious weed and removed from the park. This action would be a wise use of the old adage ‘a stitch in time saves nine’. The other woody species that can proliferate without much encouragement is boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monolifera). Like gorse, its profusion in some Hobart parks poses a severe management problem. Its numbers in Waverley Park are significantly less than on The Domain where its potential to spread has been documented (Paterson and Volframs 1976). Its control by the manual pulling of plants could be achieved with considerably less effort than has been expended on The Domain. The species can also be checked by regular burning as fire kills the plant and cohorts of seedlings can be killed by a suceeding fire. CONCLUSION Waverley Park Nature Reserve is indeed a grassy gem and the Clarence City Figure 2. Vegetation map, Waverley Park Nature Reserve. 1. Eucalyptus oval a grassy woodland. 2. Allocasuarina verticil lata grassy woodland. 3/4. E. amvgdalina grassy open forest. 5. E. amygdalina healhy open forest. Exotic species and disturbed ground. Fire boundaries c. 1989 The Tasmanian Naturalist July 1989 9 c. 1946 Figure 3. The decline of native vegetation around Bellerive, 1946-89. 10 TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 Council should be congratulated for their commitment to maintaining this area for future generations. It is a gem, not only because of its spectacular natural at¬ tributes, but also because with judicious management its long term viability can be maintained. Naturalists and other people who value the bush should use and enjoy it, and perhaps spare a thought for the preciousness of our grassy heritage. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Jamie Kirkpatrick who provided the impetus and infrastructure for the recent discoveries of grassy Tasmania. Jerry de Gryse organised the contract under which this work was carried out. Jennie Whinam did the data entry and all of these people and Neil Gibson commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript. FURTHER READING Fensham, R.J. and Kirkpatrick, J.B. (1989) The conservation of original vegeta¬ tion remnants in the Midlands, Tasmania. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. (in press). Kirkpatrick, J.B., Gilfedder, L. and Fensham, R.J. (1988) City parks and cemeteries: Tasmania's remnant grasslands and grassy woodlands. Tasma¬ nian Conservation Trust. Paterson, I.G. and Volfram, A. (1976) Boneseed: a threat to native plant com¬ munities — a study on The Queen's Domain , Hobart. University of Tasmania. Environmental Studies Occasional Paper, No. 3. 22pp. BOOK REVIEW Wildflowers of Mt Wellington By Phil Collier Published by the Society of Growing Australian Plants, Tasmanian Region, Hobart. RRP $4.00 Reviewed by Marjorie Walt This pocket sized booklet in the Plant Identikit series, produced by members of the Tasmanian Region of the Society for Growing Australian Plants (SGAP), is an ideal aid for getting to know the common plants of Mt Wellington—and indeed many highland, dolerite-soil areas in Tasmania. The introduction to plant communities of Mt Wellington and directions for using the identikit are well thought out and non-technical. For each of the fifty- four plants in the booklet, species and common names, distinguishing features, description, flowering period, distribution, cultivation notes and related species are given, as well as a clear illustration in colour. Plants are ordered according to flower colour and the illustrations are the primary method of identification of any plant in flower. 1 recommend this booklet to all who love ‘The Mountain’ and congratulate all SGAP members who worked to produce this introduction to further study of our native nlants.^ The Tasmanian Naturalist july 1989 11 APPENDIX 1. Species List Waverley Park Nature Reserve Species nomenclature follows Buchanan, A.M., McGeary-Brown, A. and Orchard, A.E. (1989) A Census of the Vascular Plants of Tasmania. Tasmanian Herbarium Occasional Publication No. 2. e = endemic species r = rare species i = introduced species u = unreserved species K community common name number PTERIDOPHYTA Dennstaedtiacea Pteridium esculenturn Sinopteridaceae Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia MONOCOTYLEDONEAE Cyperaceae Carex breviculmis Gahnia radula Isolepis nodosus I. platycarpa Lepidosperma concavum L. laterale L. Tinea re Schoenus apogon Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis hygrometrica Juncaceae u Juncus amabilis i J. articulatus J. bufonius i J. effusus J. holoschoenus J. pallidus Luzula densiflora L. meridionalis Liliaceae A rthropodium milleflorum Bulbine glauca Chaemescilla corymbosa Dianella revoluta var. revoluta D. revoluta var. breviculmis D. tasmanica u Dichopogon strictus Diplarrhena morea Laxmannia orientale Thysanotus patersonii Orchidaceae Caladenia dilatata C. pattersonii Corybas sp. Diuris sulphurea Microtis unifolia Thelymitra pauciflora Thelymitra sp. bracken thatch saw-sedge knobby club-rush common bog-rush rush rush rush rush rush rush woodrush woodrush vanilla lily bulbine lily blue sky lily fax lily flas lily flax lily chocolate lily flag iris twining fringe lily spider orchid spider orchid helmet orchid tiger orchid onion orchid sun orchid sun orchid 4,5 1 1.3 1 . 2 . 3 . 4.5 3 1 2.5 3.4 2 1 . 2 . 3.4 1 1 1 1 1 3.4 3.4 2.3.4 3.4 3 2 . 3 . 4.5 2 4 2.3 3 4 3.4 3 3 3 3.4 2.3.4 2,3,4 2 12 TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 Poaceae Agrostis aemula blown grass 2,3 A. tenuis browntop A. stolonifera browntop Aira caryophyllea silvery hair grass u Amphibromus archeri swamp wallaby grass Arrhenatherum elatius oatgrass A vena fatua wild oai Briza maxima quaking grass B. minor shivery grass Bromus hordeaceus soft brome B. catharticus brome B. sterilis sterile brome Cortaderia sellanoa pampas grass Cynosurus echinatus dog’s tail Dactylis glomerata cocksfoot Danthonia caespitosa ringed wallaby grass 2,3,4 D. geniculata wallaby grass 3 D. laevis wallaby grass 1,2,3,4 D. pilosa wallaby grass 2,3,4 u D. procera tall wallaby grass 3 D. racemosa wallaby grass 2 D. semianularris wallaby grass 1 D. setacea wallaby grass 4 Deyeuxia quadriseta bent grass 1,2,3,4,5 Dichelachne crinita longhair plume grass 2,3,4 D. rara shorthair plume grass 2,3,4 Ehrharta distichophylla hairy ricegrass 3,4,5 E. stipoides weeping grass 1,2,3,4 Elymus scabrus common wheatgrass 2,3,4 i Festuca arundinacea tall fescue F. plebeia graceful fescue 3 i Gastridium ventricosum nit grass i Hordeum murinum barley grass i Lolium perenne perennial ryegrass Pentapogon quadrifidus five-awn spear grass 2,3,4 Poa hookeri tussock grass 1,4 P. labillardieri tussock grass 1 P. rodwayi tussock grass 2,3,4 P. sieberiana tussock grass 1,3,4,5 Paspalum dilatatum caterpillar grass Phalaris sp. canary grass Piptatherum miliaeeum rice millet Stipa flavescens speargrass 1,2,3,4 S. mollis speargrass 3,4,5 S. rudis ssp. australis speargrass 3,4 S. semibarbata speargrass 2,3,4 S. stuposa speargrass 2,3 S. variabilis speargrass 2 Themed a triandra kangaroo grass 1,2,3,4 i Vulpia bromoides rat’s tail fescue Typhaceae Typha sp. bullrush aquatic Xanthorrhoeaceae Lomandra longi/o/ia sagg 2,3,4,5 The Tasmanian Naturalist july 1989 13 DICOTYLEDONEAE Aizoaceae Carpobrotus rossii native pigface 3 Amaranthaceae u Ptilotus spathulatus pussytails 2 Apiaceae i Foeniculum vulgare fennel Asteraceae i A retotheca calendula capeweed i Beilis perennis English daisy Brachycome aculeata daisy 4 B. spathulata ssp. glabra daisy 3,4 i Carduus tenuiflorus winged slender thistle i Calendula officinalis marigold Cassinia aculeata dolly bush 4 i Cirsium vulgare spear thistle i Conyza floribunda fleabane Craspedia glauca billy buttons 4 i Chrysanthemoides monilifera boneseed i Gazania sp. gazania G. collinum cudweed 2,3 Helichrysum apiculatum common everlasting 2,3,4 H. obcordatum 3 e H. purpurascens 4 H. scorpioides 4 H. semipapposum clustered everlasting 2 i Hypochaeris glabra smooth cat’s ear i H. radicata flatwced, cat’s ear r Lagenifera huegelii 2 L. stipitata 3 i Leontodon taraxocoides hawkbit Leptorhynchos lineare buttons 2 L. squamatus scaly buttons 3,4 i Leucanthemum vulgare ox-eye daisy Microseris scapigera native dandelion 3 Olearia myrsinoides 4 O. ramulosa twiggy daisy-bush 2 i Pier is echioides bristly ox-tongue Podolepis jaceoides showy podolepis 4 So/enogyne gunnii 2 Senecio glomeratus 1,2,3,4 S. hispidulus 1,4 S. linearifolius S. quadridentatus 2,3 i Sonchus asper prickly sow-thistle i S. oleraceus sow-thistle i Taraxacum officinale common dandelion i Tragopogon porrifolius salsify i Urospermum dalechampii i Vellereophyton dealbatum u Vittadinia cuneata New Holland daisy 2 Boraginaceae Cynoglossum suaveolens sweet hound’s tongue 2,3 i Echium vulgare viper’s bugloss 14 The Tasmanian Naturalist july 1989 Brassicaceae i Brassica rapa turnip i Cardaria draba white weed i Coronopus didymus lesser swine-cress Lepidium pseudotasmanicum peppercress 3 i Lobular iu maritima sweet alyssum i Rapist rum regulosum turnip weed Campanulaceae Wahlenbergia consimilis bluebell 2,3,4 W. gymnodada bluebell 3 W. quadrifida bluebell 3 W. tadgellii bluebell 3.4 Caryophyllaceae i Arenaria serpyllifolia thyme-leaf sandwort i Cerastium glomeratum sticky mouse-ear chickweed i Petrorhagia proli/erum childing pink Scleranthus biflorus knawel 3,4 i Silene gallica French catchfly i S. gallica var. quenquevulnera French catchfly i Spergularia rubra sand spurrey Casuarinaceae Alloasurina littoralis bulloak 3,4,5 A. verticillata she-oak 2,3 Chenopodiaceae Einadia nutans climbing saltbush 3 Rhagodia candollena coastal saltbush 3 Clusiaceae Hypericum gramineum small St. John’s wort 3,4 Convolvulaceae i Calysiegia silvatica great bindweed Convolvulus erubeseems native bindweed 2 Dichondra repens kidney weed 1,2,3,4 Crassulaceae Crassula sieberana 3 i Echeveria sp. i Sedum sp. stonecrop Dilleniaceac e Hibbertia hirsuta guinea flower 3,4 H. riparia guinea flower 3,4 Droseraceae Drosera pel tat a ssp. auriculata sundew 3,4 Epacridaccae Acrotriche serrulata ant s delight 3,4 Astroloma humifusum native cranberry 3,4 Brachylorna caliatum 4,5 Epacris impressa common heath 5 Leucopogon collinus beard heath 5 L. ericoides beard heath 5 L. virgatus beard heath 3,4 Lissanthe strigosa peach berry 3 Ericaceae i Erica lusitanica Portuguese heath Euphorbiaceae A mperea xiphoclada j Poranthera microphylla 3,4 Fabaceae Acacia deal bat a silver wattle 3,4,5 A. genistifolia 3 i A. longifolia sallow wattle 2,4 A mearnsii black wattle A stricta 3 TheTasmanian Naturalist july 1989 15 A. verticillata prickly moses 1 Aotus ericoides 5 Bossiaea prostrata 1,2,3,4 B. cinerea 4,5 Cytisus prolifer tree lucerne Daviesia latifolia 4 Dillwynia cinerascens grey parrot pea 3,4 D. sericea parrot pea 4 i Dolichos lignosus Australian pea i Genista monspessulana canary island broom Hovea linearis common hovea 4 Kennedia prostrata running postman 2,4 i Lupinus ar bo reus tree lupin i Sarothamnus seoparius broom i Trifolium dubium yellow suckling cover i T. glome rat us i T. repens gorse i Ulex europaeus gorse i Vieia angustifolia narrow-leaf vetch i V. saliva common vetch Fumariaceae i Fumaria sp. fumitory Gentiaraceae i Centauriumerythraea centauria Gcraniaccae Geranium solanderi native geranium 2,3,4 Pelargonium australe austral stork’s bill 2,3 Goodeniaceae Goodenia lanata 2,4 r G. e/ongata 1 G. ovata parrot food 4 ru Velleia paradoxa spur velleia 2,3 Haloragaceae Go nocar pus tetragynus raspwort 2,3,4,5 Haloragis heterophylla 1 Lauraccae Cassytha pubescens dodder laurel 5 Linaccac Linum marginale native flax 2,3 i L. trigynum French flax Myrtaceae Eucalyptus amygdalina black peppermint 3,4,5 E. globulus blue gum 4 E. ovata swamp gum, black gum 1 E. pulchella white peppermint 3 E. tenuiramis silver peppermint 3 E. viminalis white gum 2,3,4 Leplospermum scoparium 5 Oleaccae i Jasminum sp. jasmine Oxalidaceac Oxalis corniculata yellow wood sorrel 1,2,3,4 i O. articulata Papaveraccae i Papaver rhoeus field poppy Passifloraccac i Passiflora mollissima banana passion fruit Pinaceae i Pinus radiata Monterey pine Piltosporaceae Bursaria spinosa prickly box 2,3,4 16 TheTasmanian Naturalist july Plantaginaceae i Plantago coronopus plantain i P. lanceolata plantain i P. major plantain P. varia native plantain 2,3.4 Polygalaceae Comesperma volubile love creeper 4 Polygonaccae i Rumex acetosel/a sheep’s sorrel i R. crispus curled dock Primulaceae i A nagallis arvensis scarlet pimpernel i A. arvensis ssp. arvensis scarlet pimpernel Proteaceae Banksia marginal a silver banksia 3,4 Ranunculaceae e Clematis gentianoides 2 Ranunculus lappaceus common buttercup 1,3,4 Rosaceae Acaena echinata 2,3,4 A. novae-zelandiae buzzy 1 i Coioneaster glaucophyllus i Prunus sp. plum i Rosa rubiginosa sweet briar rose i Rubus frulicosus blackberry Rubiaceae Asperu/a conferta woodruff 1 i Galium aparine goosegrass Galium gaudicaudii 4 Opercu/aria varia 2,3 Rutaccae Eriostemon verrucosus wax flower 4 Santalaceae Exocarpos cupressiformis native cherry 3,4 E. strictus dwarf cherry 5 Saliceaceae i Sal lx babylonicu willow Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa native hop 2,3,4 Scrophulariaceae i Parentucellia viscosa Veronica gracilis splender speedwell 3 Solanaceae i Lycium ferocissimum African box-thorn Solanum laciniatum kangaroo apple 4 i S. tuberosum potato Stackhousiaceae Stack housia monogyna creamy stackhousia 2 Stylidiaceae SivUdium graminifo/ium grass trigger plant 3,4,5 Thymelaceae Pimelea hum it is rice flower 2.3,4 P. linifolia rice flower 5 Tremandraceae Tetralhcca glandu/osa pinke bells 4,5 Tropaeloaceae i Tropaeolum majus nasturtium Valerianaceae i Centranthus ruber kiss-me-quick Violaceae Viola hederaceu ivy-leaf violet 3,4 -\ i S-ofc.5 d No. 99 OCTOBER 1989 O' ✓ i THE r-B-'i i nc k j Iasmanian Naturalist REGISTERED BY AUSTRALIA POST PUBLICATION No. TBH0495 ISSN 0819—6826 POSTAL ADDRESS: G.P.O. BOX 68A. HOBART 7001 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION: $10.00 EDITOR: D.G. HIRD GIANT FIRE SALPS, PYROSOMA SPINOSUM, IN TASMANIAN WATERS (TUNICATA : PYROSOMIDA) by Elizabeth Turner and Alison Green Tasmanian Museum, Hobart On the 10th April 1989, Mr Shane Wisby was pulling craypots into his fishing boat off the Blowhole, near Eaglehawk Neck, south-eastern Tasmania. One of his pots was unusually heavy and, on looking down, he saw a huge object en¬ tangled with the rope. He estimated it to be about 25 feet long (7.6 metres), with the diameter of about 0,6 metres and with a “tail” (nearly two metres long) at one end. When it was brought to the surface the object broke into pieces but Mr Wisby salvaged a portion half a metre in length which he stored in his home refrigerator. Mr Wisby contacted Mr Alex Schaap, of the Department of Sea Fisheries, who relayed the story to Elizabeth Turner. Next day Elizabeth and Ms Kathryn David¬ son travelled to Eaglehawk Neck to investigate the find. Earlier guesses at a giant squid or a very large jellyfish were set aside when the specimen was recognised as a relative of salps. Mr Wisby donated his catch to the Tasmanian Museum. (Registration no. D2049). Back at the museum, Alison Green identified the specimen as part of a colony of Pyrosoma spinosum Herdman, 1888, following a c omparison with an account of this species by Baker (1971). pyrosoma, salps and sea-squirts are related animals which used to be included in Phylum Chordata, together with the vertebrates. They do not have backbones bu t they share some vertebrate characters, such as gill slits. Now Pyrosoma and lts relatives are in a separate phylum, Tunicata. Typical salps are single animals, semi-transparent and barrel-shaped, although Se veral salps may be linked to form a chain. In Pyrosoma many animals, called z ooids, live together in a colony. Each zooid is like a small salp. The zooids lie s ide-by-side, embedded in a gelatinous wall with their mouths opening on the out- Each author is responsible for the opinions and facts expressed in his or her article— EDITOR. 2 The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 side of the wall. The colony forms a hollow cylinder with one end open and the other end closed. The zooids suck in sea water, filter out the plankton on which they feed, and discharge the water into the hollow centre of the cylinder. The cur¬ rent then flows from the open end to propel the colony through the sea. Pyrosoma zooids have luminous organs which glow in the dark so the common name, fire salp, is appropriate. New Zealand divers call large Pyrosoma colonies “sea socks”. Thompson (1948, p.85) placed all of the Pyrosoma specimens found in Australian waters in one species, P.atlanticum Peron, 1804. Pale pink colonies of P.atlanticum sometimes wash ashore on Tasmanian beaches. Most examples of this species are not longer than 12 centimetres, although larger colonies do occur. Mr Wisby’s Pyrosoma from Eaglehawk Neck was enormous in comparison. Thompson (1948, p.83) listed the distribution of P.spinosum as the Indian, Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. This giant species was recorded from the South Pacific after examples were found off the coasts of New South Wales, in 1967 and 1969, and New Zealand, in 1969 (Griffin, Yaldwyn and Baker 1970). However, P.spinosum was not identified from Tasmanian waters until Mr Wisby’s specimen was examined in 1989. Apart from size, P.spinosum and P.atlanticum differ in some anatomical characters, e.g., in P.spinosum the gill slits are set obliquely instead of at right angles to the long axis of the zooid. Also the tail-like process, observed by Mr Wisby, is a feature of P.spinosum. The Eaglehawk Neck specimen, when fresh, was orange-pink in colour with dark red spots formed by some organs in the zooids. According to Baker (1971, p.109) most Australasian examples of P.spinosum range between four and 12 metres in length. However, each zooid is not more than two centimetres long. Colonies drift in calm water, down to depths of 40 metres. They break up if they are jolted by waves or removed from the support of water. In April, Elizabeth Turner contacted Dr George Cresswell, of C.S.I.R.O., to ask about oceanic conditions at the time. He advised that the sea off eastern Tasmania was then 1-2 °C warmer than usual due to a warm current flowing down the east coast of Australia. The situation was similar in the late 1960’s when P.spinosum was discovered off New South Wales and New Zealand. After publicity about Mr Wisby’s discovery in The Mercury , (15th April, 1989), reports were received of three earlier Tasmanian sightings of objects which, very probably, were colonies of P.spinosum. These were near the Hippolyte Rocks (off Tasman Peninsula), at Barnes Bay, Bruny Island (in 1988) and at the mouth of the Huon River, (all during autumn). Now that the identity of the fire salp colony from Eaglehawk Neck has been determined, perhaps there will be more Tasmanian findings of P.spinosum. The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Mr Shane Wisby, Eaglehawk Neck, for his specimen of P.spinosum, Dr George Cresswell, C.S.I.R.O., Hobart, for his information on sea conditions, Mr N.G. Bates, Barnes Bay, and Mr M.W. Wells, Bonnet Hill, for their reports of likely sightings of P.spinosum. REFERENCES Baker, A.N. (1971). Pyrosoma spinosum Herdman, a giant pelagic tunicate new to New Zealand waters. Rec.Dominion Mus., Wellington 7:107-117. Griffin, D.J.G., Yaldwyn, J.C. & Baker, A.N. (1970). Giant colonies of pelagic tunicates (Pyrosoma spinsosum) from SE Australia and New Zealand. Nature , London 226: 464-465. Thompson, H. (1948). Pelagic tunicates of Australia. 196 pp., 75 pis. Com¬ monwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne. HYPOLEPIS DISTANS — A NEW SPECIES RECORD FOR MAINLAND TASMANIA by Mark Neyland Department Lands, Parks and Wildlife G.P.O. Box 44A Hobart, 7001 Until 1973 the ground fern Hypolepis distans was believed to be a New Zealand endemic. In 1973, Mr P.F. Barnett collected some specimens from King Island which were later identified by R.J. Chinnock as Hypolepis distans, (see Chinnock 1976) thus extending the known distribution of the species. During the course of a survey of non-allocated Crown land around Smithton (Neyland 1988), I collected some material which was forwarded to R.J. Chinnock via the Hobart herbarium and which has been recently confirmed also as Hypolepis distans , extending the known distribution of the species to mainland Tasmania. The sample was collected from the eastern edge of the Fourteen Mile Plain, just off Barcoo Road, about 20km southwest of Smithton. (Hunter 1:100,000 Land Tenure Sheet, Grid Ref: 247705). The Smithton sample was found on the base of a windthrown Eucalyptus brookerana, in an area of swamp forest comprising E.brookerana over a mixed understorey of blackwood, tea tree (Leptospermum scoparium) and scattered myrtle and sassafras. The ground layer was dominated by cutting grass and saggs (Lepidosperma elatius) and at a later visit in winter the area was partly flooded to a depth of 10cm. The area is therefore similar to that described for the King Island location Melaleuca squarrosa - Leptospermum scoparium Swamp, Chin¬ nock 1976) and both records accord well with the New Zealand ecology of the species, where it is found in “swampy areas, on peat, in soils with a deep humus 4 The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 layer, or on decomposing logs” (Brownsey and Chinnock 1984). The other Tasmanian species of Hypolepis; H. rugosula, H. muelleri and H. arnaurorhachis are difficult to separate with confidence, however, H. distans is quite distinct. The thin (0.7-lmm diameter) stipe which is red-brown in colour (characters from Brownsey and Chinnock 1987) is the most distinguishing feature, as the other three species have thicker (l-5mm diameter) stipes which range from yellow-brown to green at the apices, though they grade to red-brown at their base. Other notable features include the pendulous arrangement of the frond (as the stipe is too thin to support its own weight), the narrowness of the frond, and the veins ending in indentations instead of points. Whilst swamp forests are not the most attractive places to spend a Sunday afternoon, if you do happen to be wandering around in one keep your eyes open for this rare and distinctive species. The Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife and the Forestry Commission are currently jointly compiling an atlas of the ferns of Tasmania, and field naturalists throughout the State are invited to contribute. Records are collected using the 10k grid on the Tasmap 1:100,000 (or 1:25,000) sheets. For example, the Hobart G.P.O. is in grid square 52/25 (easting then northing). If in any doubt about an identification, please forward a piece of pressed and dried fertile material with your records for checking. Please forward any records to the author, care of Lands, Parks and Wildlife, G.P.O. Box 44A, Hobart. REFERENCES Brownsey, P.J. and Chinnock, R.J. (1984). A taxonomic revision of the New Zealand species of Hypolepis , N.Z.J. Bot. 22, 43-80. Brownsey, P.J. and Chinnock, R.J. (1987). A taxonomic revision of the Australian species of Hypolepis , J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 10, 1-30. Chinnock, R.J. (1976). Notes on Hypolepis distans Work and Doodia aspera R. Br., N.Z.J. Bot. 14, 113. Neyland, M.G. (1986). Conservation and management of tree ferns in Tasmania. Wild!. Div. Tech. Rep. 86/1, N.P.W.S., Hobart. Neyland, M.G. (1988). Vegetation Survey of Non-allocated Crown Land in Tasmania. Kept. No. 2: Wildlife Section Internal Report 88/2 (far northwest) Tas. Dept. Lands , Parks and Wildlife. The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 5 BOOK REVIEWS A Census of the Vascular Plants of Tasmania by A.M. Buchanan A. McGeary-Brown & A.E. Orchard Reviewed by P.A. Collier This publication is the second Tasmanian Herbarium Occasional Publication. The text is in two major sections: a seventy-four-page list of the names of the higher plants which are native or naturalised in Tasmania and an eight-page index to the genera in Tasmania. Such lists form a valuable reference for those concern¬ ed with the scientific naming of Tasmania’s plants. The last time that a complete treatment of the Tasmanian flora appeared was in 1903, eighty-six years ago. This was The Tasmanian Flora by Leonard Rodway. Being a flora, it includes a full description of the Tasmanian species as well as keys to help with identification. A census includes just the names with no other description and is not useful for identification of plants. One role of a herbarium is to keep up to date with the current names for local plants. The Tasmanian Herbarium is no exception, and they have kept a list of current names for their own use for many years. The advent of computers in the Herbarium has allowed this list to be published. A computer allows a publication to be set-up ready for printing at a relatively small cost. Additionally the list may be kept up to date very easily and we can expect a revised version to appear before this list is eighty-six years out of date! For readers familiar with the Tasmanian flora this census may prove both in¬ teresting and frustrating. There are a great many names included which do not appear in the incomplete Tasmanian floras published in the last twenty-six years. Without a major literature search, or a patient friend in the Herbarium, it would be difficult to find further details about all of these names. Perhaps the Her¬ barium can be persuaded to computerise the Tasmanian Flora , so that regular revisions can be produced of this valuable reference work as well. The Platypus: a Unique Mammal by Tom Grant , illustrated by Dominic Fanning NSW University Press: Australian Natural History Series, rrp $14.95 Reviewed by D.G. Hird Since its discovery by Europeans, the Platypus has intrigued casual observers and scientists alike. This provocation of our curiosity has continued through the first proof of oviparity (egg laying) amongst mammals in this species through to a recent discovery of a specialised food electro-location faculty not previously known in any higher vertebrate. As with several predecessors in its series, this volume is primarily based on an intensive long-term study of its subject by its obviously dedicated author. As such 6 The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 it contains a wealth of up to date information on life history aspects of the platypus as well as deary elucidated features of physiology and anatomy. Natural history elements are cleverly presented in a season by season sequence, for exam¬ ple reproductive and feeding behaviours exhibit significant seasonal activity. In¬ terwoven with this are coherent and concise segments on relevant topics such as the unique (with the echidnas) reproductive system and the marked seasonal ac¬ tivity of the male platypus’ poison gland. Tasmania abounds with prime platypus habitat. This has been recognised by naturalists, cinematographers (eg. the Nature of Australia platypus sequence) and also some accommodation hosts whose reputation as “platypus guides” has justifiably enhanced their business. Further local interest should follow, it would be interesting to have more details of the known playtpus usage of Tasmania’s thousands of highland lakes, for example. As was reported in previous reviews of volumes in this series, production errors are again apparent. The preface includes an unfinished sentence and mono tremes (sic) appears as two words on page 7. The bibliographical page doesn’t clearly in¬ dicate that this is in fact the second, revised edition of the 1984 hardcover edition. A diversity of readers should nonetheless find this book to be both entertaining and highly educational. SHELL COLLECTING — FROM CAVEMEN TO KINGS by Elizabeth Turner Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery The history of shell collecting goes back to prehistoric times and started with the need for implements to cut and carry objects. It was also the beginning of shell ornamentation which continues today. The first artistic shell representations known are from the Minoan civilization in Crete. Artistotle is thought to be the first person to seriously document descrip¬ tions of shells and the habits of the animal inside, while it has been suggested that shells found during the excavations of Pompeii may have been from a natural history collection. Two Roman consuls 100 years B.C. collected shells and the in¬ famous Caligula, while pretending to invade Britain, ordered his men to collect shells after he had marched them battle-style to the shore. During the Middle Ages early 13th century Dominican monks wrote books on shells and also used them to illustrate the borders of manuscripts. The 15th and 16th centuries saw a time of great world exploration and soon shells were being brought back as curios from the East and West Indies, the American continent, India and by church missionaries. Much of the shell trade centred in Amsterdam and Antwerp as ships unloaded exotic cargos from all over the world. Two notable shell collectors in Holland were the scholar Desiderius Erasmus and the engraver Albrecht Durer. The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 7 In the early 17th century Antwerp had become the haven for painters of still- lives and portraits. It was fashionable to have your collection of curios and memorabilia recorded for posterity. Even Rembrandt painted a cone shell, but the engravers reproduced the cone mirror-images, with the opening around the wrong way. This also happened in many of the engraved plates in books depicting shells in the 16th and 17th centuries. (Australia Post did the same with the Textile Cone in their recent marine stamp series). The first museum with many natural objects was reputed to have been formed by a Swiss naturalist, Conrad Gesner, in the 16th century. Over the following 100 years, large shell collections were made by enthusiasts in Germany, Italy, Den¬ mark and Britain. Although shells were mainly collected to please the eye, by the end of the 17th century scientific interest had begun to emerge. Books were produced to illustrate shells, but also the first introductions to the science of conchology were written. Martin Lister, a physician to Queen Anne of England, wrote extensively and produced the “Historia Conchyliorum”, which comprised nearly 1000 plates and was the first attempt to arrange shells in some sort of order. A Dutch contemporary, Georg Rumphius, lived for a long time on the island of Amboina in the East Indies. He was the first genuine field collector and observer, and he recorded excellent descriptions of shells and the animals’ habitats. By the late 17th and 18th centuries, every house of worth in Europe boasted many cabinets of marine life. Some collectors had a real interest in natural history, but for most it was a sign of wealth and intellectual and social status. Nowhere did this fad take off more than in court society, and collections were often displayed in an extreme manner with opulent surroundings. King Louis XIII had the largest royal shell collection of the 18th century. The French court became so obsessed with the craze that anyone who was anyone outdid the others. Consequently shells exchanged hands for large sums of money. In the mid 18th century, however, conchology was at the crossroads of decorative curiosity and of science. Although Michel Adanson of France propos¬ ed the first classification of shells, it was the Swedish genius Carl Linnaeus who revolutionised natural history. He provided the first and still used system of zoological nomenclature, known as the binomial system, whereby each animal or plant is given two scientific names, which represent a genus and a species. Lin¬ naeus also had a large shell collection of his own and many of these specimens were used by him when describing new species. His collection is now in the Natural History Museum of Geneva. Linnaeus inspired numerous naturalists during the 18th century and a copious number of books were produced, ail adding to the documentation of shells. However, many collectors of the “cabinet” society would not accept the new scientific names. Linnaeus had often unabashedly described new species in anatomical terms. Certain parts of the body were not mentioned in those days, 8 The Tasmanian Naturalist October 1989 and considerable embarrassment resulted when collectors had to translate the Latin scientific names into common names for display purposes. By the mid 18th century so many shells were being brought into Holland by traders that shell cleaning became a recognized trade, employing many people. Filing broken shells and painting their surfaces often caused confusion and brought protests from bonefide naturalists. The next phase began with the three expeditions by Captain James Cook from 1768-79. The naturalists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander collected zoological and botanical specimens from all over the Pacific and turned the ships into floating museums. Many new species of molluscs were found and there was a ready market for the shells in Europe. The French expeditions in the 19th century also provided more new species and information. The next milestone was the work of the Frenchman Lamarck, who introduced a different scheme of genera, antagonizing the Linnaean purists who though the latter’s system was perfect. At the same time books were published on cleaning shells and the latest equip¬ ment. Preservatives improved, replacing the earlier recommended rum and bran¬ dy. Collecting became for the sake of science and less for artistic purposes. Also the importance of rare and natural shells was recognized. The 19th century was the “golden era” for shell collecting and classification. It was considered “gentile” for women to collect and draw specimens. Traders, dealers and collectors were willing to co-operate with naturalists and shell auc¬ tions created avid interest. The greatest private collections were formed during this time. The First World War was to change all this. Very few people had the opportuni¬ ty, time or money for shells both during the war and for many years afterwards. The shell auctions had almost disappeared by the 1930’s, though some collectors and dealers did survive the lean times. A curious twist in the Second World War came from servicemen stationed on Pacific islands. Many collections were made during this time and some continued into civilian life. Gradually, as the world settled down, shell collecting became popular again. Cars enabled beaches to be visited and improved postal services provided shell dealers with quick trades. Collections are smaller now, but with better material, and wealth and position are no longer necessary. Unfortunately the current craze for shell jewellery has depleted large areas of seashores, particularly in the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean. Many regions are now restricted to collectors or totally protected. If the current demand continues, however, some species will not survive and dealers may find their incomes less lucrative. An abridged version of this article appeared in The Mercury on 20th December, 1988. SUPPLEMENT TU THE TASMANIAN NATURALIST - - NO. fJ3H 0495. CATALOGUE OF ARTICLES APPEARING IN " I ML TASMANIAN NATURAL 1ST 11 FEBRUARY 1976 - UCTUBLH 1905 TITLE AMPHIBIANS Tas. Frogs and Hoy to Identify Them MiilHURlS) A.M.L). Heuer YtAR,iMU . ,PAdE(S ) •8U, 63, 1-3 AHCHAEULUUY Archaelogical Investigation in the Deruent River Estuary, h.E. Tas. - Alum Cliffs Test Excavation Interim Report. The Shag Bay Ruckshelter, las. Underyater Archaeology Aboriginal Uses of Shells in Prehistoric Times. Who Built the Stone Wall Fish Traps? BIRDS Avian Fauna of the Crotty Area Birds of Northern South-West Tasmania Birds of the Far West Coast of Tasmania Birds of Frenchman's Cap National Park Birds in Pine Plantations in Tasmania Another Royal Penguin in Australia Nesting of Blackbird Biros of tne Granville Harbour District Puffimsi.uttonl on Tasmania's East Coast Changes in the Avifauna of Hobart Spoonbills in Tasmania The Third Sight Record of the Black-Tailed Goduit in Tasmania. A Checklist of the Birds of Mt. Field National Park. The Tasmanian Mutton Bird The Effect of a Spring Fire on tfie Number uf Bird Species. Bonnet Hill Area Land Birds at Sea The Plants and Birds of the Mt. Nelson- Bonnet Hill Area. Intermediate Egrets in Tasmania I he Effect of Time of Day on Bird Activity . Australasian Grebe ( fachybup tua uvae - hollandiae )in Tasmania. Avifauna of Tas. Urchafds Part 1. " •• •• •• Part 2. The Bird species uf Mt. Nelson in Relation to Microhabitat and Recent Bushfires. Breeding Behaviour of the Little Grebe, ( Tacybaptua novaehollandiae ) Jim Stockton 'VB, 53, B-10 J. Stockton '7B, 55, 1 J. Stockton •79, 56, 3-6 J. Stockton •83, 73, 3-4 J. Stockton •84, 77, 1-3 P.Fielding, U.M.G.Neuman,R.W.Rose. •7b, 44, 1-9 David Ziegeler '7b, 44, 9-11. Peter Fielding •76, 44,12-16 D. Pinner •76, 44, 16 p. Fielding •76, 45, 5-8 R.M. Tyson •7b, 45, 8 li. j. Dodson •VS, 4a, 7 p. Fielding ( ‘76, 46, 7-8, ( '76, 47, 4-7. R.M.Tyson Outcropping on Mt. Wellington. Morphology of the Royal Penguin Eric Woehler •84, 79, 2-4 Eudyptes schleqeli at Macquarie Island. King Penguins D.E.Rounsevell '84, 79, 4 ( i Some Motes on the Foods of the Dominican W. Merilees '84, 79, 5-6 Gull at Macquarie Island. The Breeding Biology of the Light- K.R. Kerry and '84, 79,21-23 Mantled Sooty Albatross,Phoebetria B.R. Garland r. palpebrata on Macquarie Island. It's Great to be Alive,especially on R.J. Tomkins '84, 79, 24-32 Macquarie Island. The Effect of a Severe Fire on the Mumber Ann V. Ratkowsky '85, 80, 6-9 t of Bird Species in a Wet Sclerophyll Environment. A Clutch of Hybrid Parrots in the Wild L.E. Wall '85, 80, 10 i Postcript to the Macquarie Island Issues R.J. Tomkins '85, 80, 11-12 The August Seabird Wreck R.H. Green and '85, 81, 1-2 More on the Wandering Albatross T. Scarborough R.J. Tomkins '85, 81, 8 Food of the Masked Owl Tyto novae- R.H. Green and '85, 82, 5-7 t hollandiae. White-fronted Tern Eggs from Bass Strait J.L. Rainbird R.H. Green '85, 83, 8 in 1924. BOOK REVIEWS "The Encyclopaedia of Shells",by Peter Dance. Elizabeth Turner '78, 54, 12 *.» "Seashells of the World", by Uert Lindner. Elizabeth Turner '78, 54, 12 "Encounters with Nature" by L. Brown. Michael Sharland '00, 60, ii "Kosciusko Alpine Flora" by A.B.Costin, Kelsey Aves '80, 60, 12 < M. Gray,C.J.Totterdell,U.J.Wimbush. "Islands of South-West Tas. by Gary White. M.S.R.Sharland '80, 63, Q "A Field Guide to theBirds of Australia" L.E. Wall '81, 65, 2-4 by Graham Pizzey. "Australian Mammals - a Field Guide for G.M. Coulson 'Bl, 66. 5-6 t. M.S.W., Vic., S.A. and Tasmania" by Jack Hyett. "Seashore Searching" by Margaret Richmond. R.C. Kershaw *81, 86, 7 1 "A Guide to the Birds of Tasmania" David Rounsevell '82. 69. 3-4 by Michael Sharland. "Tasmanian Bird Report Mo.11 by B.Q.A.T. "An Occasional Stint,Bulletin Mo.1"- published byTaa. Shorebird Study Group. '83, 72, 3 '83, 72, 4 V /4. 4. TITLE AUTHOR(S) YEAR, NO,,PAGE(S) BOOK REVIEWS (contd.) "Mammal Tracks and Signs - A Field- guide for South-eastern Australia" by Barbara Triggs. "Thylacine: The Tragedy of the Tasmanian Tiger" by Eric Guiler. CONSERVATION, GENERAL & MISCELLANEOUS Bonnet Hill Area The Bushfire Problem Another Hobby for a Field Naturalist Granite Quarry, Coles Bay "Peregrine’s" Diamond Jubilee The Future of National Parks and Wildlife Service. Marine Reserves in Tasmania Ronald Campbell Gunn Mining in Southwest Tasmania Club Excursion - Conlngham 6/2/82 National Conservation Strategy Tasmanian Wilderness Society Activities Club Excursions - Mt.Field Nat. Park, 6-7/3/82,Woodbridge Marine Study Centre, 1/4/82, Pauleena 3/7/82. Wood-Waste Power Plan South-West Tasmania Conservation Area National Conservation Strategy - The Beginning of a New Consciousness. Limnological Studies on Macquarie l3l a nd ECOLOGY The Discovery of Tas. and Man's Effect on the Environment. Marine Reserves in Tasmania Aboriginal Influences on Vegetation in the Northeast Highlands. The Shore Ecology of Macquarie Island FISH AND CRUSTACEANS Whitebait First Records of the One Spot Puller * ( Chrumis hypsilepls ) an the Spotted Stingaree ( Urolophus qiqas ) from Tas. Waters with an Annotated List of Fishes Recorded from Kent Islands,Bass Strait. R.W.G. White •85, 81, 7-8 A.V. & D.A.Ratkousky '85, 82, 7-8 G. Van Munster •78, 54, 1-7 Editorial Comment •81, 64, 1 M.L. Westbtook •81, 64, 3-4 Editorial Comment •81, 65, 1 ii M •81, 65, 7 ii II •81, •66, 1 ii 11 '81, 67, 1 Ron C. Kershaw •81, 67, 15 Editorial Comment •82, 69, 1 P. McQuillan •82, 69, 8 Editorial Comment •82, 70, 1 ii ii •82, 71, 1 •82, 71, 6 •82, 71, 7 •82, 71, 7 Editorial Comment •83, 72, 1 ii ii •83, 73, 1 ii ii •83, 75, 1 R. Croome •84, 78, 26-27 Scott Cane and •77, 51, 1-8 Jim Stockton. 67, Editorial Comment •ai, 1 R.C. Ellis •84, 76, 7-8 Rodney D. Simpson •84, 78, 28-30 P. Andrews •76, 47, 7-8 P.R. Last •79, 59, 5-12 The Tas. Mudfish on Flinders Island Inshore ishes of Macquarie Island On a Mass Mortality of Lantern Fish at Macquarie Island. Aspects of the Lifu History of the Burrowing Freshwater Crayfish Enqaeus A leptorhyncus at Rattrays Marsh, N.E.Tas. R.H. Green R. Williams W. Merilees H.H. J.llorwi t z, .M.M.Richardson P.M.Cramp. £ 84, 77, 7 84, 78, 30-31 84, 78, 32 85, 82, 1-5 > t HISTORY The Discovery of Tas. & Man's Effect on the Environment. History in a Tasmanian Chiton Bonnet Hill Area 20,000 Years Around Carlton Bluff Scott Cane and Jim Stockton M.K. Macphail and W. Zeidler G.Von Munster Kelsey Aves •77, 51, 1-8 •78, 53, 1-7 •78, 54, 1-7 •81, 64, 4-6 5 . » / TI TLE AUTHQR(S) V£AR.NO..PAGE(S) HISTORY (contd.) A History of Macquarie Island Biological Research up to 1971- Summary of Biological Research on Macquarie Island, 1972-1982. S.E. Ingham D.E. Rounsevell •84, 78, 3-5 > •84, 78, 6-7 INSECTS, SPIDERS. AND OTHER INVERTEBRATES Insect Predation in the Brushtail Possum A King Cricket in Tasmania Tragedy in a Coffee-Jarl Club Excursion - Hunting Ground 4/4/81 (Aquatic Life Sighted in the Jordan River Area) Golden Orb-Ueaver Spiders (Neghila sp.) in Tasmania. Club Excursion - Mount Field Nat. Park - 7/11/81. A Spider Incident 2jme Huntsman Spiders are Dangerous Club Excursion - Ida Bay-Hastings, 6-7/11/62. A Huntsman Spider Feeding A Far-Flying Christmas Beetle; The First Record from Tasmania of Anoplognathus Peter Murray Alison Green Elizabeth Turner P. Allbrook Alison Green P. McQuillan A.M. Tagg R.H. Green P.B. McQuillan A.M. Tagg Alison Green velutinus Insect Parasitic Nematodes in Tasmanian Soils Daruin and the Tasmanian Dung Beetles The Kelpflies of Macquarie Island An Elephant Beetle in Tasmania - Xylotrupes qideon . A Record from Tasmania of a Mainland Aust. Funnelueb Spider, Atrax formidabi1is . Robin Bedding G.F. Uornemissza P.B. McQuillan and P. Marker Alison Green Alison Green & Elizabeth Turner •77, *9, 5-6 •77, *•9, 7 •77, 51, 18-19 •81, 66, 8 •81, 67, 12-13 •82, 69. 7-8 •82, 69, 8 •82, 70, 6 •83, 72, 5-6 •83, 73, 2 •83, 74, 2 •83, 74, 6-8 '03, 75, 2-4 • 64, 79, 17-20 •85, 81, 5-6 CD Ui 83, 6-8 MAMMALS The Prey of a Native Cat in S.U. Tasmania Insect Predation in the Brushtail Possum Has the Echidna a Good Sense of Smell? Road Killed Platypus The First Record of the Bat Epteal c u s agittula in Tasmania. Strange Bat Deaths at St. Leonards, Northern Tasmania. The Uest Coast Monster, 1962 The Bereavement of a Bandicoot The Death of a Pademelon The Bat Genus Eptealcus Gray in Tasmania Biology of the House Mouse (Mus musculus ) on Macquarie Island. The Current 5tatus of Seal Populations on Macquarie Island. Leopard Seals The Rabbit on Macquarie Island The Feral Cat on Macquarie Island A Common Dolphin at Launceston . Little Pigmy Possum Cercartetus lepldus R.L.Uallis,R.N.Dreu, G.F.Duke & S.J.Forbes Peter Murray L.E. Uall R.M. Tyson D.E. Rounsevell •77, 48, 4 •77, 49, 5-6 •79, 58, 12 •80, 60, 8 '80, 62,15-16 R.M.Tyson •81, 66, 2-3 2-6 L.E.UJall •81, 68, Georgina Davis •82, 71, 8 H.D. Barker •83, 72, 6 R.H. Green & J.L.Rainbird •84, 76, 1-5 v T.Pye '84, 79, 6-10 Lloyd Fletcher & •04, 79, 10-13 Peter Shaughnessy. D.E. Rounsevell •84, 79, 13-14 ‘ Irynej Skira •84, 79, 14-15 Evan Jones •84, 79, 16-17 R.H. Green & E.O.G.Scott •85, 80, 1-3 L.E. Uall •85, 80, 10-11 v / 6 . J - 6 TITLE AUTHOR(S) YEAR, NQ.,PAGE(S) 1 MOLLUSCS (AND SHELLS) Tasmanian Aquatic Non-Marine Mollusca Part II - Lymnaea . Type Shells from the May Collection in the S.A. MuBeum. Additional Type Shells from Tasmania in the S.A. Museum. History in a Tasmanian Chiton Sea Hare A Brooding Chiton in New South Wales Molluscs of Calvert's Lagoon, South Arm Molluscan Studies in Tasmania The Distribution of Bothrlembryon tasmanlcua. R.C.Kershau •76, 46, 4-6 M.K. Macphail •77, 50, 1-0 & (J. Zeidler M.K. Macphail •70, 52, 2 - 6 8 U. Zeidler. M.K. Macphail •70, 53, 1 - 1 & U. Zeidler. John 8 Maria Grist •01, 65, 0 Elizabeth Turner •01, 67, 14 John 8 Maria Grist •01, 67, 14- 15 Ron C.Kershaig •04, 77, 3-6 Ron C. Kershau • 05, 00 , 3-7 3 LANTS MUN-VASCULAR Lichens of South West Tas. Part I - Lichens of the Button Grass Areas. Part II - Mountain Peaks & Plateaux Part III - Forests Touards a Flora of Maatsuyker Island, Part II - Ferns,Clubmosses & Lichens. A Neu Moss Record for Tasmania Ischyrodon lepturus (Tayl.) Schelpe. Some Neu Additions to the Bryoflora of Tasmania. Bryoflora of Macquarie Island Lichens of Macquarie Island The Fungal Flora of Macquarie Island Holocene Vegetation History of Macquarie Island. Fellfield on Macquarie Island VASCULAR Notes on the Distribution of Endemic Plants. Some Plant Records for the Cape Barren Island Wilderness Area. Corrigendum to above article by J.b.Whin Touards a Flora of Maatsuyker Is. Part I. - Intro, and Vascular Plants. - Part II - Ferns, Clubmosses & Lichens. Measurements od Trees and Shrubs in Western Tasmania. Bonnet Hill Area The Plants and Birds of the Mt. Nelson- Bonnet Hill Area. The Plant Communities of the East Risdon Nature Reserve. Easter Camp 1975 - Joddarnanu contd. (Plants recorded at Uashan Uridge 29/3/75 A Landing on the Meustone From Butler's Gorge to Gordon Dam at the Knob. G.C. Bratt •76, 45, 1-4 G.C. Bratt G.C. Bratt A.M. Moscal 8 G.C.Bratt •76, 46, 1-4 •76,.47, 1-4 •70, 54, 0-10 f 5. Harris & D.A. Ratkousky •02, 71, 7 D.A. Ratkousky 8 •03, 73, 5-6 A.V. Ratkousky K.D. 5eppelt R.D. Seppelt Elizabeth Kerry P.M. Selkirk, D.R. Selkirk 8 •64, 70, 13-14 •04, 70, 15-16 •64, 76, 16-21 •64, 70, 21-23 S. D.M. Uergstroin. P.M. Selkirk 8 R.D.Seppelt •04, 70, 24-26 A. Moscal (•77, 48, 0 (•77, 49, 1-5 J.j. Whinray •77, 51, 9-13 1 , jy '00, 62, 14 A.M. lioscal 8 G.C.Bratt •77, 51, 14-10 •70, 54, 8 i, S.J. Uerrigan •78, 52, 6-0 li. Van Munster •78, 54, 1-7 Ann V. Ratkousky •70, 55, 2-10 M.J.Broun & '79, 56, 1-11 ii.J. iliyiy-.iturk •79, 50, 12 ) N.P.Urothers,D.E.Rounsevell •79, 59, 1-2 8 M.J.Broun. A.M. Moscal •00, 61, 1-8 ) /7. . TITLE AUTHDR(S) YEAR, NQ.,PAGE(S) PLANTS (contd.) VASCULAR The Vegetation of Hellfire Bluff - Cape Bernier, Tasmania, Rice Grass - Sporting onglica - Estuaries Under Threat. New Way to Control Boneseed Ruddy Greenhood (Pterostylis rufa, aub,-pp. rufa) Club Excursion - Partridge Is. 15/3/B1 (List of Botany & Birds sighted) S.Harris & M.J.Brown J.Bayly-Stark Vic.Dept, of Crown Lands & Survey. M. Wall M.Allan & M. Wall » •BO, 62, 1-14 •til, 64, 2-3 •til, 65, 5 •01, 65, a •Ql, 67, 2-3 A Descriptive Account of the Forests near Rocka Rivulet, Eastern Tiers. F. Duncan, S. Harris & M.J. Brown. 'SI, 67, 4-11 Ruddy Greenhood (Pterostylis rufa rufa) Some Notes on Regrowth of Vegetation Following a Wildfire in Freycinet National Park. M. Wall R.G. Tyson '81, 67, 13 •til, 67, 16 Forestry Operations Editorial Comment •Ql, 68, 1 Some Noticeable Changes in the Vegetation of Mt. Wellington since the 1967 Bushfire. Ann Ratkowsky and David Ratkowsky. '82j 70, 2-5 Vascular Plants of the Denison Range and Vale of Rasselas. M.J.Brown, F. Duncan, W.D. Jackson, S.J.Jarman, J.B.Kirkpatrick and R.G. Tyson. •82, 71, 2-6 Club Excursion - Nieka to St.Crispins Well, 7/B/B2. M. Mollison •83, 72, 4-5 Prasophyllum firthii - Second Locality for a Tasmanian Endemic Orchid. A Botanical Survey in the Colonels Hills, an Area of Sclerophyll Bushland neqr Tooms Lake. Mary P. Cameron F. Duncan & S.Harris '83, 74, 2-3 '83, 75, 5-16 Aboriginal Influences on Vegetation in the Northeast Highlands. Vascular Flora and Vegetation of Macquarie Island. • R.C. Ellis R.D. Seppelt, G.R.Copson and M.J.Brown. •84, 76, 7-8 '84, 78, 7-12 Holocene Vegetation History of Macquarie Island. Fellfield on Macquarie Island Ferns of the Douglas River P.M.Selkirk,D.R.Selkirk and D.M.Bergstrom. P.M.Selkirk & R.D.Seppelt D. Ziegeler 1 84, 78, 21-23 '84, 78, 24-26 •85, 81, 2-5 Lomatia tasmanica - A Rare Endemic Plant from Tasmania's South-West. M.J.Brown & A.M. Gray •85, 83, 1-5 REPTILES Communal Egg-Laying in the Three-Lined Skink Leilopisma trilineata U.E. Rounsevell '78, 52, 1-2 Distribution of the Delicate Skink H.H. Green '81, 68, 8. * *