iv*U

«

4.

Library
of the

University of Toronto

3

THE

TAXIDERMIST’S MANUAL.

THE

TAXIDERMIST’S MANUAL

OR THE

ART OF COLLECTING,

PREPARING AND PRESERVING OBJECTS

Natural Jfetstmg.

FOR THE USE Ol

TRAVELLERS, CONSERVATORS OF MUSEUMS,
AND PRIVATE COLLECTORS.

ILLUSTRATED BY SIX PLATES.

BY

CAPTAIN THOMAS BROWN, F.L.S.

PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

ETC. ETC. ETC.

GLASGOW:

ARCHIBALD FULLARTON & CO. ;

MACLACHLAN & STEWART, EDINBURGH; W. CURRY. JUN.
AND CO. DUBLIN ; AND W. S. ORR, LONDON.

MDCCCXXXIII.

GLASGOW;

FCLLARTON AND CO., PRINTERS, VILE A FIELD.

PREFACE.

There are few individuals who have not, in the course
of their lives, met with objects of Natural History,
which they considered worth preserving, but, from the
want of knowledge how to proceed, have been unable
to do so. Indeed many fine specimens have been lost
from this cause alone. To remedy this, in some der-
gree, is the intention of the following little book, which
will be found to contain almost all that is already
known on the methods of Collecting and Preserving
Objects of Natural History, including several things
which are not generally known.

In the year 1819, the Senatus Academicus of the
Edinburgh University, did me the honour to request
me to proceed to France, to inspect the splendid
Museum of Mons. Dufresne, chief of the preserving
department, at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, which
was then for sale ; and,, if I approved of it, to purchase
the collection for the College. I found the collection
to consist of many rare and valuable specimens, and,
as a whole, in a high state of preservation, as might be
expected, from the ability of its distinguished possessor ;
and that it was worth more, in my estimation, than the
sum asked : I accordingly made the purchase.

VI

PREFACE.

The intimacy that I then formed with M. Dufresne,
one of the best naturalists in Europe, and, situated as
he was at the head of the laboratory of preservation,
afforded me ample opportunity of inspecting and be-
coming acquainted with all the different processes
employed in the preservation of animals. This I was
the more anxious to acquire, that I might be of use to
our own Museum, which had, by this magnificent
purchase, been increased by an addition of sixteen
hundred Birds , twelve thousand Insects , two thousand
six hundred species of Shells , amounting to upwards
of five thousand individuals. There were besides up-
wards of two thousand Fossils, and a beautiful collec-
tion of upwards of eight hundred eggs, accurately
named, with numerous other things, such as Quadru-
peds, Corals, Echini, &c.

I was, however, prevented from being of that service
to my country which I could have wished, owing to
some unaccountable jealousy of the Professor of Na-
tural History ; although I was offered by the Senatus
Academicus the situation of Keeper of the Museum.

In the following treatise, it has been my object to
attend more to rendering the meaning clear, than to
elegance of language ; and, besides, to get the work
up in a style at once creditable and moderate in price,
so that it might be generally useful. At the same time,
I have preferred avowing myself the author, to
publishing the work anonymously, being firmly of
opinion, that no man should publish on a subject
which he is ashamed to acknowledge.

Naturalists and travellers are frequently greatly at
a loss, on going abroad, to know what instruments are
necessary to be carried along with them, so that they

PREFACE.

vii

may be effectually prepared for every kind of research ;
and, as they are also at a loss to know who are the
best makers of these, I have pointed out Mr Alexander
Adie of Edinburgh, a gentleman long distinguished
for the excellence of his instruments, and whose
inventive genius has led to many improvements on
them. I need only remark, that he has made nearly
the whole instruments which were used by our late
highly distinguished Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Sir John Leslie, as also those used by Sir David
Brewster, in his experiments on Natural Philosophy,
and more particularly such as were connected with his
admirable discoveries concerning the polarization of
light.

When Travellers and Naturalists go into foreign
lands, or even traverse the more remote districts of
Britain, or the continent of Europe, they should not
confine their researches to the collecting of natural
objects alone ; their attention should be extended to
geographical and meteorological observations, the alti-
tude of mountains, lakes, and sources of rivers, above
the level of the sea ; the moisture and particular state
of the atmosphere in those situations ; the temperature
of hot springs ; their relation to volcanic causes : for
all which purposes instruments are made, by which
these things can be easily determined.

On these interesting points, much yet remains to be
done even in Great Britain.

CONTENTS.

Page

Introduction, 1

Chap. I. — Of skinning, preparing, and mounting the

Mammalia or Quadrupeds, ... 6

Of skinning-, 6

Of stuffing Quadrupeds, &c. ..... 8

Order I. — JBimana, 14

Order II. — Quadrumana, 15

Apes and Monkeys, 15

Order III. — Cheiroptera, 15

The flying Lemur, 15

Bats, 16

Order IV. — Fera3, 16

Hedgehogs, 16

Bears, 16

Order V. — Marsupialia, . . . . . 18

Order VI. — Glires, 18

The Porcupine, 19

Hares, 19

Order VII. — Edentata, 19

The Sloths, 19

Armadillos, 19

Ant-Eaters, 20

The Duck-Billed Platypus, .... 20

Order VIII. — Pachydermata, .... 20

The Elephant, 20

Order IX. — Ruminantia, 22

Deer, Antelopes, and Goats, &c. ... 23

The Elk, 23

The Urus, Bison, Buffalo, 23

X

CONTENTS.

Order X. — Cetacea,

The Dolphin, Porpoise, &c. ....

Chap. II. — Of skinning, preserving, and mounting Birds,

Skinning,

Manner of skinning Birds, as practised at the Jardin

des Plantes, Paris,

On stuffing Birds,

M. Becoeur’s method of stuffing Birds,

M. Mauge’s method of stuffing Birds,

Mr Waterton’s method of stuffing Birds,

Method of mounting dried skins.

Of mounting Birds feather by feather.

Order I. — Rapaces, or Birds of prey.

Vultures,

Owls,

Order II. — Omnivorous Birds,

Order III. — Insectivorous Birds,

Order IV. — Granivorous Birds,

Order V. — Zygodactylous, or yoke-footed Birds.
Order VI. — Anisodactyli, ....

Order VII. — Alcyones,

Order VIII. — Chelidones,

Order IX. — Columbae,

Order X. — Gallinae, ....

Order XI. — Alectorides,

Order XII — Cursores,

Order XIII. — Grallatores,

The Flamingo, ....

Order XI V. — Pinnatipedes,

Order XV. — Palmipedes, .

Order XVI. — Inertes, ....

Of the nests and eggs of Birds, .

Chap. Ill — On skinning, preserving, and setting up Rep-
tiles, Fishes, and Molluscous Animals, &c.

Class III. — Reptiles,

Tortoises and Turtles, ....
Crocodiles and Lizards in general, .

Serpents in general,

Page

24

24

25
25

28

32

36

37

38

39

44

45
48
48
50

50

51
51

51

52

53
53
53

53

54
54
56

56

57

57

58
58

60

60

60

61

Cl

CONTENTS.

xi

Page

Fro os and Toads, 62

Class IV. — Fishes, 63

Lampreys, Eels, and other Fisli of similar form, 63
Of skinning Fish in general, .... 63

Stuffing Fish, 65

Division II. — Invertebrate Animals, . . .67

Mollusca, 67

Of polishing Shells, 69

Class VI. — Crustacea, 70

Chap. IV. — Of preserving Spiders, Gally-Worms, and

Insects, 72

Class VII. — Arachnides, 72

Class VIII — Myriapoda, 74

Class IX. — Insects, 74

Setting and preserving Insects, ... 79

Method of relaxing dried Insects, . . 83

The eggs of Insects, . . . . • 86

The Larvae, or Caterpillar, ... 86

The Pupa, 87

Method of breeding Insects, ... 87

Class X. — Echinodermata, 90

Asterias — Star Fish, 90

Echini and Spatangus — Sea Urchins, . . 91

Class XI. — Entozoa; and Class XII.— Acalepha, 92
Class XII.— Polypi, ... . 92

Class XIII. — Infusoria, 93

Chap. V. — Of preparing Skeletons, ... 91

Cleaning and preparing bones in general, . ., 91

Of natural Skeletons, 95

Of artificial Skeletons,

Chap. VI.— Of the chase, and manner of collecting

Animals, ......

Shells, 101

Of the Gangui, 106

Of the Hake, 106

Of the Dredge, 107

Molluscous Animals, 110

Insects, Ill

British Insects, . . . . • . .112

xii

CONTENTS.

Chap. VII. — Receipts for various articles used in the
preservation and setting up of Animals,
Solution of Corrosive Sublimate,

Arsenical Soap,

Arsenical composition,

Solution of Pearl Ashes, .....

Annealed Iron Wire,

Gum Paste, .......

Flour Paste, .... . .

Solution of Gum Arabic,

Paper Paste gummed,

Pollen Powder,

Red Varnish,

Luting for rendering bottles air tight, .

Tow and flax Slivers,

Method of making Enamel Eyes for Animals,
Second method of making Eyes,

Third method of making Eyes, ....
Articles required for skinning and mounting Quad-
rupeds, Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles,

Chap. VIII. — Instructions to Travellers,

The Animal Kingdom,

Of the Vegetable Kingdom, ....
General remarks on Botany, ....
Geology and Mineralogy, . . , .

Explanation of the Plates, ....

Appendix,

List of Books for attitudes of Quadrupeds and Birds,

Meteorology,

List of Geographical and Meteorological Instru-
ments, &c., with their prices.

Index,

Pngre

115

115

116

117

117

117

118

118

118

118

119

119

120

120

120

122

122

124.

125

125

130

133

135

137

142

143

143

144

147

JtSvptt,

PublisliecLliy ^cTifT-ulartoU &. C° Glasgow

M

Ill .life dAy Jh-c^MIartaa &.C? Glasgow.

IV

JLScott,

Thiblisliediy Arch^FTOlaxton Glasgow.

YL

INTRODUCTION.

The advantages to be derived from a collection of objects of
Natural History, are too apparent to require any illustration ;
and their beauty and variety of their forms have, in a preserved
state, ever attracted the admiration of mankind, as being
next in point of interest to the living animals. Although
good drawings and engravings will give us a perfect know-
ledge of the general appearance of animals, still they are de-
ficient in many particulars ; for by them we cannot be made
acquainted with the texture of the skin, nor the structure of
the hair or feathers.

The naturalist, on all occasions, prefers a reference to the
stuffed animal to that of a pictorial representation, as by this
means he is enabled to trace, compare, and decide, on the
creature in its several characters and relations.

In museums and cabinets are brought together natural ob-
jects of all kinds, from the most extreme points of the globe ;
and presented in a form that enables us, as it were, to look
upon the mighty field of nature at one view ; with the addi-
tional advantage of having the various Classes and Genera
placed in systematic order, to investigate which, in their na-
tive wilds, would be the business of several lifetimes. Be-
sides, we can here contemplate, without dread, the most de-
structive and furious quadrupeds, and the most noxious reptiles.
Here we can muse upon and study the animals which have
created in us the highest of sentiments while reading the tale
of the traveller, or the singularity of organization, pointed out
by the naturalist.

A

2

INTRODUCTION.

He who has attended to any branch of Natural History,
will best know how difficult it is to collect even the animals,
plants, or minerals of Britain; because some of the indivi-
duals are extremely local in their habitats.

To instruct in the manner of Collecting, Cleaning, Pre-
paring, and Preserving these, is the object of the following
Treatise. This art has been practised in a certain degree from
very early times, but it was not till after the middle of the last
century, that Taxidermy, or the art of preserving objects of
Natural History, had reached any degree of perfection, and it
is still susceptible of much improvement.

We have seen that attempts at the preservation of animal
substances were practised by the Egyptians in the instance of
Mummies and the Ibis, which they always preserved along
with their chiefs. But these were prepared in such a manner
as to produce no pleasurable sensations in examining them ;
being remarkable only for their great antiquity.

It is to be lamented, that even to the present day chemists
have not discovered means of effectually resisting the universal
law of decay, which, by certain fixed operations, reduces every
kind of organised matter to its original elements. Methods have
been devised of arresting for a time the progress of decay, but
these seem gradually to lose their effect, and ultimately be-
come mutilated and decomposed. Animal substances are sub-
ject to the ravages of thousands of minute animals. This is
probably brought about by the varied changes and penetrating
powers of the atmosphere, caused by its gases, heat and mois-
ture. We do not mean by this that the atmosphere creates
minute beings, only its influence is favourable and indispen-
sable to their reproduction. On unorganised substances, these
are found to be ever acting and destructive agents.

To devise the means of preventing these effects is the busi-
ness of the Taxidermist, and upon his success the excellence
of his art will depend. It will, therefore, easily be imagined
how important and indeed indispensable to his art is a thorough
knowledge of chemical science, for by experimenting on pre-
servatives on established chemical principles, he may discover
the best method of averting the progress of Time’s destroying
hand.

Although considerable advances have been made of late

INTRODUCTION.

3

years in the art of Taxidermy, it is still far from perfection.
This is to be attributed, in a great measure, to the education
of the persons who practise this art ; for among all I have met
with employed in the preservation of animals, none have had
the advantage of anatomical study, which is quite indispen-
sable to the perfection of stuffing. One or two individuals, it
is true, have attended to the structure of the skeleton of Man,
and a few of the more common animals, but this is far from
the information which they ought to possess ; for nothing short
of a general and extensive knowledge of comparative anatomy
can qualify them sufficiently for an art which is so comprehen-
sive and varied in its application.

These observations are particularly applicable to Quadru-
peds and Reptiles, for what are even the best stuffed specimens
of the first museums in the world compared to the living sub-
ject? Nothing better than deformed and glaringly artificial
productions, devoid of all the grace and beautifully turned
points of living nature. A knowledge of drawing and
modelling are also indispensable qualifications, to enable
the stuffer to place his subject in a position both natural and
striking. It is the too frequent practice for the stuffer to set
about preserving the animal without having determined in
what attitude he is to place it, so that it will appear to most
advantage, and be in character with the ordinary habits of the
creature. This' he leaves to the last efforts of finishing his
work, and, consequently, its proportions and character are
likely to be devoid of all appearance of animation.

The first thing, therefore, to be attended to in all great na-
tional natural history establishments, is to choose young persons
who are yet in their boyhood, to be instructed in this art, most
important to science. Their studies should be commenced by
deep attention to drawing, modelling, anatomy, and chemistry,
while they, at the same time, proceed with the practical part
of their art. Every opportunity of examining the habits and
actions of the living subject should be embraced, and its atti-
tudes and general aspect carefully noted. Without strict at-
tention to these points, so manifestly obvious, the art of pre-
serving animals never will attain that degree of perfection
which its importance demands. On the other hand, if this art
is pursued in the manner here recommended, artists may be
A 2

4

INTRODUCTION.

produced who will fulfil the objects of their profession with
honour to themselves and advantage to their country. Would
any person expect to arrive at eminence as a sculptor if he
were unacquainted with the established preliminaries of his
art, namely, drawing and anatomy ? The thing is so self-evi-
dent, that I am only surprised it has not long ago been acted
upon. Upwards of twelve years have elapsed since I pointed
out these facts to the Professor of Natural History in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, but things continue as they were before
that time.

Although these observations apply with their full force
to the preservation of the Mammalia, or Quadrupeds,
they are equally applicable to Birds and Fishes. It is quite
true, that defects in ill-stuffed birds are not so obvious as in
quadrupeds, because the feathers assist in a great measure to
conceal such deformities ; and in fishes, imperfections are also
less observable, owing to the smooth and unmarked appearance
of their external surface, from the circumstance of their bones
being principally small towards their outside, and the larger
bones being deeply concealed under the muscles.

I am happy to find that the ingenious Mr Waterton agrees
with me on this important subject. “ Were you,” says he, “ to
pay as much attention to birds as the sculptor does to the hu-
man frame, you would immediately see, on entering a museum,
that the specimens are not well done.

“ This remark will not be thought severe, when you reflect,
that that which was once alive, has probably been stretched,
stuffed, stiffened, and wired, by the hand of a common clown.
Consider, likewise, how the plumage must have been disordered
by too much stretching or drying, and, perhaps, sullied, or at
least deranged, by the pressure of a coarse and heavy hand, —
plumage which, ere life had fled within it, was accustomed to
by touched by nothing rougher than the dew of heaven, and
the pure and gentle breath of air.

“ In dissecting, three things are necessary to insure success,
viz., a penknife, a hand not coarse or clumsy, and practice.
The first will furnish you with the means, and the second will
enable you to dissect, and the third will cause you to dissect
well. These may be called the mere mechanical requisites.

“ In stuffing you require cotton, a needle and thread, a little

INTRODUCTION.

5

stick the size of a common knitting-needle, glass-eyes, a solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate, and any kind of a common tem-
porary box to hold the specimen. These also may go under
the denomination of the former. But if you wish to excel in
the art, if you wish to be in Ornithology, what Angelo was in
sculpture, you must apply to profound study and your own
genius to assist you. And these may be called the scientific
requisites.

“ You must have a complete knowledge of Ornithological an-
atomy. You must pay close attention to the form and attitude
of the bird, and know exactly the proportion each curve or
extension, or contraction, or expansion of any particular part
bears to the rest of the body. In a word, you must possess
Promethean boldness, and bring down fire and animation as it
were, into your preserved specimen.

“ Repair to the haunts of birds on plains and mountains, for-
ests, swamps, and lakes, and give up your time to examine
the economy of the different orders of birds.

“ Then you will place your Eagle, in attitude commanding,
the same as Nelson stood in, in the day of battle, on the Vic-
tory’s quarter deck. Your Pie will seem crafty, and just ready
to take flight, as though fearful of being surprised in some
mischievous plunder. Your Sparrow will retain its wonted
pertness, by means of placing his tail a little elevated, and
giving a moderate arch to the neck. Your Vulture will show
his sluggish habits by having his body nearly parallel to the
earth ; his wings somewhat drooping, and their extremities
under the tail instead of above it, — expressive of ignoble in-
dolence.

“ Your Dove will be in airless, fearless innocence, looking
mildly at you, with its neck not too much stretched, as if un-
easy in its situation, or drawn too close into the shoulders, like
one wishing to avoid discovery ; but in moderate, perpendicu-
lar lengths, supporting the head horizontally, which will set
off the breast to the best advantage. ” *

To the traveller who wanders in search of knowledge, but

* Wanderings in South America, &c. by Charles Waterton, Esq., a work
that cannot be too highly commended, from the many remarkable inci-
dents contained in it, and the highly pqetic and zealous warmth of its dic-
tion.

A 3

OF SKINNING QUADRUPEDS.

without the means of conveying skins of quadrupeds or birds,
we would say a word or two. When he has killed and examined
an animal or bird, which appears new to him, after having
noted down all its characters, he ought to attempt a draw-
ing of the object, as the next best substitute for the skin.

The indefatigable Wilson, whose unbounded zeal led him
to explore the mighty wilds of America, in search of informa-
tion regarding the feathered tribes, but who, without either
money or patronage, could not transport their skins across
these nearly boundless wildernesses, was compelled to adopt
these, the only means he had, and to delineate their forms and
features, in their native colours, as faithfully as he could, as
records at least of their existence.

Audubon adopted this method. He pinned the bird to a
tree in some natural position, held out by wires, &c., then
made a drawing while the animal was yet warm. By this
means he could imitate those beautiful tints which are alone to
be found in living nature ; and the forms being still those of
the real subject, were likely to surpass those of stuffed speci -
mens.

CHAP. I.

OF SKINNING, PREPARING, AND MOUNTING THE
MAMMALIA, OR QUADRUPEDS.

OF SKINNING.

When a quadruped is killed, and its skin intended for stuffing,
the preparatory steps are to lay the animal on its back, and
plug up its nostrils, mouth, and any wounds it may have re-
ceived, with cotton or tow, to prevent the blood from disfig-
uring the skin. A longitudinal incision is then made in the
lower part of the belly, in front of the pubis, and extended
from thence to the stomach, or higher if necessary, keeping in
as straight a line as possible, and taking care not to penetrate
so deep as to cut into the abdominal muscles. In some in-

OF SKINNING QUADRUPEDS.

7

stances, the incision is made as high as the collar bone. In
this operation the hairs must be carefully separated to the right
and left, and none of them cut, if possible. The skin is also
turned back to the right and left, putting pads of cotton or
tow between it and the muscles, as the skinning is proceeded
with. If any fatty or oily substance should be noticed, it
must be carefully wiped away. The skin being removed as
far in every direction as the extent of the incision will admit
of, each of the thighs must be separated at its junction with
the pelvis, that is, by the head or ball of the Os femoris* or
thigh bone. The intestinal canal is then cut across, a little
way above the anus, and then the tail is separated, as close to
the animal as possible. After this the pelvis is pulled out of
the skin, and the skin separated from the back by inserting
the handle of the scalpel cutting-knife between it and the car-
case. It is pulled gradually upwards until the operator reaches
the shoulders. The whole hinder parts and trunk of the body
being thus out of the skin, the next operation is to remove the
fore-legs, by separating them from the body at the shoulder-
joint, or the base of the Os humeri. When the joint of one
shoulder has been separated from the body, the leg is again
put into the skin, and the animal then turned in order to repeat
the same with the other side, the limb of which is also re-
turned. The skin is then removed from the neck. The next
thing is to separate the skin from the head by the assistance
of the scalpel. It is taken off as far as the point of the nose ;
while great care must be taken not to injure the eyelids, and
to cut the ears as close to the skull as possible •, and also to
avoid cutting the lips too close.

All this having been performed, the head and trunk of the
animal are completely separated from the skin. The next
operation is to remove the head of the animal from the trunk,
at the upper bone of the vertebrae. The external muscles of
the head and face are then carefully cut off with a scalpel, and
the bones left as free from flesh as possible. The occipital
bones are next enlarged by means of a strong knife, or other
instrument ; and the brain all carefully removed. The fore legs

* Those who are unacquainted with the names of the different bones of
the skeleton, will find a full detail of those of both Quadrupeds and Birds,
in our description of Plate I.

8

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS, &C.

are now pulled out of the skin, by drawing the legs one way,
and the skin another, as far as the claws of the foot. All the
muscles are then cut off the bones, while care is taken not to
injure the ligaments and tendons. They should be left adher-
ing to the knee. They are then returned into the skin again.
The hind legs are treated in the same manner. The tail is
the last part which is skinned, and this is a more difficult task
than the other parts of the body. Two or three of the first
joints or vertebrae are first laid bare by pulling the skin back ;
they are then tied firmly with a strong cord, which must be
attached to a strong nail or hook on the wall. A cleft stick
is introduced between the vertebrae and the skin, the stick
is then forced to the extremity, and the tail-bones come out of
their enveloping skin or sheath.

The skeleton head, having been divested of all its fleshy
matter, tongue, palate, external muscle, and brain, is now re-
turned to its place in the skin, which is in a condition for
commencing the operation of stuffing.

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS, &c.

Let us suppose the animal which we intend to stuff to be a
Cat. Wire of such a thickness is chosen as will support ihe
animal by being introduced under the soles of the feet, and
running it through each of the four legs. A piece of smaller
dimensions is then taken, measuring about two feet, for the
purpose of forming, what is termed by stuffers, a tail-bearer.
This piece of wire is bent at nearly a third of its length, into
an oval of about six inches in length ; the two ends are twist-
ed together, so as to leave one of them somewhat longer than
the other ; the tail is then correctly measured, and the wire is
cut to the length of it, besides the oval. The wire is then
wrapped round with flax in a spiral form, which must be in-
creased in thickness as it approaches the oval, so as to be
nearly equal to the dimensions of the largest vertebrae, or root
of the tail. The thickness can be very nearly imitated from
measuring the bones of the tail which have just been removed,
and for this purpose a pair of callipers should be used. When
finished it should be rubbed thinly over with flour-paste, to

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS.

9

preserve its smooth form, which must be allowed to dry
thoroughly, and then the surface should receive a coating of
the preservative. The sheath of the tail must now be rubbed
inside with the preservative. This is applied with a small
quantity of lint, attached to the end of a wire, long enough
to reach the point of the tail-sheath. The tail-bearer is then
inserted into the sheath, and the oval part of the wire placed
within the skin of the belly, and attached to the longitudinal
wire, which is substituted for the vertebrae or back bone.

Four pieces of wire, about the thickness of a crow-quill, are
then taken, which must be the length of the legs, and another
piece a foot or fifteen inches longer than the body. One end of
each of these is sharpened with a file in a triangular shape,
so that it may the more easily penetrate the parts. At the
blunt end of the longest piece a ring is formed, large enough
to admit of the point of a finger entering it ; this is done by
bending the wire back on itself a turn and a half, by the as-
sistance of the round pincers. On the same wire another ring
is formed in a similar manner, consisting of one entire turn,
and so situated as to reach just between the animal’s shoulders.
The measurement should be carefully made from the animal
itself. The remaining part of this wire should be perfectly
straight, and triangularly pointed at the extremity.

Another method of forming the supporting wires, as prac-
tised by M. Nicolas, is to take a central wire, which must be
the length of the head, neck, body, and tail of the Cat, as in
plate II., that is, from a to b, but the tail at b is shortened
owing to want of room in the plate ; two other pieces are then
taken and twisted round the centre piece, in the manner repre-
sented in plate II. c, d, e, f; these extremities being left for
the leg wires. After the wires are thus twisted together, the
central one is pulled out ; and the feet wires of one side are
pushed through the legs of one side from the inside of the
skin, and, the other two leg pieces are bent and also forced
through the legs, and afterwards made straight by a pair of
pincers : the centre piece, having been previously sharpened at
one end with a file, is now forced through the forehead and
down the neck, till it enter the centre of the twisted leg wires
which it formerly occupied, and pushed forward to the ex-
tremity of the tail, leaving a small piece projecting out of the

10

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS.

forehead, as represented in the Cat, plate II. fig. 2. After
which, the completion of the stuffing is proceeded with.

We think this mode unnecessary for the smaller animals,
and that it should only be adopted for quadrupeds the size of
Deer,&c. These wires are besides much more difficult to insert
by this than by the other method.

All the wires being adjusted, the operation of stuffing is
next proceeded with. The skin of the Cat is now extended on
a table ; and the end of the nose seized with the left hand,
and pushed again into the skin, till it reaches the neck, when
we receive the bones of the head into the right hand. The
skull is now well rubbed over with the arsenical soap, and all
the cavities which the muscles before occupied are filled with
chopped tow, flax, or cotton, well mixed with preserving
powder. The long piece of wire is now passed into the middle
of the skull, and after it is well rubbed over with the preserv-
ative, it is returned into the skin. The inner surface of the
neck-skin is now anointed, and stuffed with chopped flax,
taking care not to distend it too much. Nothing like pressure
should be applied, as the fresh skin is susceptible of much ex-
pansion.

Observe that it is always the inner surface which is anointed
with the arsenical soap.

Take care that the first ring of the wire, which passes into
the head, is in the direction of the shoulders, and the second
corresponding with the pelvis, or somewhat towards the
posterior part. One of the fore-leg wires is then inserted
along the back of the bone ; and the point passed out under the
highest ball of the paw. When this is accomplished, the
bones of the leg are drawn up within the skin of the body,
and the wire fastened to the bones of the arm and fore-arm
with strong thread or small twine. Brass wire, used for
piano-forte strings, makes it more secure, and is not liable
to rot. These are well anointed, and flax or tow slivers
wrapped round them, so as to supply the place of the muscles
which have been removed. The common stuffing employed
by the French taxidermists, at the Jardin des Plantes, is
chopped flax ; but it must be quite evident that for such parts
as the legs of animals or birds, that flax or tow slivers are far
preferable ; and can be wound on with more nicety. Whereas,

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS.

11

chopped flax or tow is apt to make inequalities. To give the
natural rise to the larger muscles, a piece of sliver should be
cut of the length of the protuberance required, and placed in
the part, and the sliver wrapped over it. This gives it a very
natural appearance.

The mode of fixing the legs, is by passing one of their
pieces of wire into the small ring of the horizontal or middle
supporting wire. Pursue the same plan with the other leg,
and then twist the two ends firmly together, by the aid of a
pair of flat pincers. For an animal of the size of a Cat, the
pieces left for twisting must be from five to six inches in length.
After being twisted, they are bound on the under side of the
body wire, with strong thread : the two legs are then replaced,
and put in the form in which we intend to fix them. The skin
of the belly and top of the shoulders is then anointed ; and a
thick layer of flax placed under the middle wire. The shape
is now given to the scapulae on both sides, and all the muscles
of the shoulders imitated. These will be elevated or de-
pressed, according to the action intended to be expressed. The
anterior part of the opening is now sewed up, to retain the
stuffing, and to enable us to complete the formation of the
shoulders and junction of the neck. This part of the animal
is of great importance, as regards the perfection of its form :
and much of its beauty will depend upon this being well
executed.

If the animal has been recently skinned, the best plan pos-
sible is to imitate, as nearly as possible, the muscles of the
carcase; by which many parts will be noticed which might
otherwise have been neglected. Even to the comparative
anatomist, I address this recommendation : Copy Nature

WHENEVER YOU HAVE IT IN YOUR POWER.

It must be observed as a general rule, that the wires for the
hind legs of quadrupeds should always be longer than those of
the fore legs.

The next thing is to form the hind legs and thighs, which
must be done, as above described for the fore legs ; but with
this difference, that they must be wound round with thread,
drawn through the stuffing at intervals, to prevent it slipping
up when returned into the skin of the leg. They are then
fixed, by passing the leg wires into the second ring of the centre

12

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS.

body wire, which is situated at, or near the pelvis ; the two
ends are then bent, twisting them to the right and left around
the ring- : and to make them still more secure, they should be
wound round with small brass wire or packthread: the tail
bearer is then attached in the maimer formerly described.

Having completed this part of the iron work, the skin of
the thighs is coated inside with the preservative, and the
stuffing completed with chopped flax or tow. The whole
inner parts of the skin which can be reached are again
anointed, and the body stuffing completed with chopped flax.
Care must be also paid not to stuff' the belly too much, as the
skin very easily dilates. The incision in the belly is now
closed by bringing the skin together, and then sewed within
and without ; while attention is paid to divide the hairs, and
not to take any of them in along with the thread ; but should
any of them be inadvertently fixed, they can be picked out
easily with the point. (Plate VI. fig. 10.) When this is
completed, the hair will resume its natural order, and com-
pletely conceal the seam.

The seam should now be well primed, on both sides, with
the solution of corrosive sublimate, to prevent the entrance of
moths.

The articulations of the legs are then bent, and the animal
placed on its feet ; and pressure used at the natural flat places,
so as to make the other parts rise where the muscles are
visible.

I cannot take leave of this part, without mentioning a plan
which I invented, for giving full effect to the muscles of the
shoulders. Having skinned a Dog, immediately on removing
the carcase, I took a plaster of Paris cast off, from each of the
shoulders ; and from these moulds I cast a pair of shoulders.
After having completed the internal stuffing, I applied these
casts on the top of the tow, and on the skin being brought
over them, they had the best effect imaginable ; and gave the
complete appearance of the shoulder in the living animal.
This method may be extended to the other visible muscles of
the body with great effect ; and it is very easily and speedily
accomplished. In short, every legitimate means of this kind
should be thought of and adopted, at whatever expense and
trouble it may be, to obtain the end in view ; namely, as close

OF STUFFING QUADRUPEDS.

J3

an imitation of the living subject as possible ; for one well
mounted specimen is worth fifty indifferently executed.

A board is now prepared, on which to place the Cat. But
before fixing it permanently, the animal should be set in the
attitude in which it is intended to be preserved, and the
operator having satisfied himself, then pierces four holes for
the admission of the feet wires, which must be drawn through
with a pair of pincers till the paws rest firmly on the board.
Small grooves are then made for the reception of the pieces of
wires which have been drawn through, so that they may be
folded back and pressed down in them, and not be beyond the
level of the back of the board ; wire nails are now driven
half in, and their heads bent down on the wires to prevent
them from getting loose, or becoming moveable.

The stuffer next directs his attention to the position and
final stuffing of the head and neck. The muscles of the face
must be imitated as correctly as possible, by stuffing in cotton at
the opening of the eyes, as also at the mouth, ears, and
nostrils. To aid in this also, the inner materials may be
drawn forward by the assistance of instruments, such as are
represented at plate IV. figs. 12 and 13, and also small pieces
of wood formed like small knitting meshes.

Our next care is the insertion of the eyes, which must be
done while the eyelids are yet fresh. Some dexterity and skill
are required in this operation ; and on it will depend most of
the beauty and character of the head. The seats of the
eyes are supplied with a little cement, the eyes put in their
place, and the eyelids properly drawn over the eyeballs ; but
if rage or fear are to be expressed, a considerable portion of
the eyeballs must be exposed. The lips are afterwards disposed
in their natural state, and fastened with pins. If the mouth is
intended to be open, it will be necessary to support the lips
with cotton, which can be removed when they are dry. Two
small balls of cotton, firmly pressed together, and well tinctured
with the arsenical soap, must be thrust into the nostrils, so as
to completely plug them up, to prevent the air from penetrating,
as also the intrusion of moths ; and besides it has the effect of
preserving the natural shape of the nose after it has dried.
The same precaution should be adopted with the ears, which,
in the Cat, require but little attention in setting.

E

11

HIM AN A.

We must again recommend the stuffer to see that he has
sufficiently applied the preservative soap ; and the nose, lips,
ears, and paws, being very liable to decay, must be well imbued
with spirits of turpentine. This is applied with a brush, and
must be repeated six or eight times, at intervals of some days,
until we are certain of the parts being well primed with it ;
and, after all, it will be adviseable to give it a single coating
of the solution of corrosive sublimate.

The methods of stuffing, which we have pointed out in the
preceding pages, are applicable to all animals, from a Lion down
to the smallest Mouse. Animals of a large description, require
a frame-work suited to their dimensions ; these we will point
out in their systematic order. They are also some animals,
whose peculiarity of structure requires treatment differing a
a little from the ordinary course.

ORDER I.— BIMANA.

The only species of this order is Man, who justly ranks at
the head of the animal kingdom. Numerous have been the
attempts of mankind to preserve the skin of their fellow-crea-
ture. The very best of these have been most disgusting-
deformities, and so totally unlike the “ human form divine,”
that none of them have found a place in collections, with the
exception of some parts of man, which form part of the Euro-
pean anatomical collections. In the museum of the Jardin du
Roi, at Paris, there is one of the best things of this kind which
we have seen — a human head injected, and preserved in spirits
of turpentine. This curious preparation was the production of
Ruitch, a Dutch physician, highly celebrated for his patho-
logical skill. The precise manner this interesting preparation
was originally preserved is not known. However, it retains to
the present day, all the original and natural colours. In
winter, the cold affects the spirit so much, in which it is pre-
served, that the head cannot be distinguished, until the return
of warm weather, which dispels its cloudy appearance.

The new Zealanders have a method of drying and preserving
the heads of their chiefs, with the flesh entire. Many of these

QUADRUMANA.

15

are to be found in museums ; but they are of little use, and
by no means calculated to produce pleasurable sensations.

We may safely predict, that no method will ever be dis-
covered, by which Man can be preserved, so as to be fit for
placing in a Museum.

ORDER II— QUADRUMANA.

The animals which approach nearest to Man, are the nu-
merous tribes of Apes and Monkeys, and their congeners.

APES AND MONKEYS.

One of the chief difficulties to contend with, in setting up
Monkeys and Apes, is the preservation of their hands, and
hind hands, or what are commonly called their feet ; because
we must not attempt to deprive these limbs of their flesh, as
we never could again supply its place, any thing like what it
is in nature. The hand must therefore be dried, and then well
imbued with turpentine, and the solution of corrosive sublimate,
repeated eight or ten times at least, at intervals of four or five
days. The other parts of the stuffing should be exactly similar
to that recommended for quadrupeds generally. The paws of
several will require to be coloured with the different varnishes,
and, when dry, slightly polished with fine sand paper, to
remove the gloss. The callosities, on the hinder parts of many
of them, will also require to be coloured, and treated in the
same way as the face. We may instance the Mandrill ( Cyn-
ocephalus MarmonJ, the Atys Monkey ( Cercopithecus AtysJ,
the Fair Monkey ( Jacchus Argentatus ), and others.

ORDER III— CHEIROPTERA.

the flying lemur ( Galeopithecus Volans ),

Has a large flexible membrane, which envelopes the feet and
extremities, and even the fingers and tail. This membrane
should be laid open from within, and the preservative plenti-
b 2

16

FERiE.

fully supplied to it, and then dried. Wires are afterwards
introduced, to keep the different parts distended ; but we have
found that, by introducing buckram or stiff parchment, they
are much more natural and pliable. They are to be stuffed
and mounted as other quadrupeds.

BATS.

The wing-membranes of this varied and numerous tribe do
not require either wire or parchment to set them. They are
very easily dried by distention. They are laid on a board of
soft wood, the wings extended, and pinned equally at the
articulations ; and when dry they are removed from the board.

ORDER IV. — FERiE.

HEDGEHOGS.

When it is wished to preserve Hedgehogs, rolled into a ball,
which is a very common position with them in a state of nature,
there should be much less stuffing put into them than is usual
with quadrupeds, so that they may the more easily bend. No
wires are required in this case. The head and feet are drawn
close together under the belly then place the animal on its
back, in the middle of a large cloth, and tie the four ends
firmly together ; suspend it in the air till thoroughly dry, which
finishes the operation.

If Hedgehogs are wished, with the head and limbs exposed,
the usual method of mounting is adopted. The skins of Shrew
Mice, Moles, &c., having a very offensive smell, it will be
necessary to add a considerable portion of the tincture of musk
to the solution of the corrosive sublimate, with which the skins
are imbued. The same applies to Badgers, Wolverenes, Pole-
cats, and Skunks, all of which are strong smelling animals.

BEARS.

The structure of the wires requires to be different in these
larger animals, from any we have before described.

BEARS.

17

Procure a bar, one inch thick, two inches broad, and as long
as to reach horizontally from the shoulders to the connexion
of the thighs, or os pubis. A hole is bored, four inches distant
from one of its ends, from which a connecting groove must be
formed, extending on both sides to the end of the plank next
the hole ; this groove must be cut out with a hollow chissel,
deep enough to receive the wire. The wire is then passed
through it, one end of which is just left long enough to be
twisted with the other, at the end of the plank. The wire on
both sides is now pressed down into the grooves, and twisted
firmly together, by the aid of a pair of strong pincers. Pierce
some holes obliquely into the groove, and insert some wire
nails into them, which must be firmly driven home, and then
bent over the wires to keep them firm. The longest end of
the wire should be at least eighteen inches beyond the bar,
so as to pass through the skull of the animal.

The use of this bar, it will be observed, is as a substitute for
the central or supporting wires of the body. Two other holes
are now bored into it, the one two, and the other three, inches
from the end which we first pierced ; these are for the recep-
tion of the wires of the fore-legs : and two similar holes must
be made at the other extremity of the bar, for receiving the
wires of the hind-legs.

Bears always support themselves on the full expansion of
their dilated paws, so that it is necessary to bring the leg-wires
out at the claws. The leg-wires are bent at right angles, for
a length of five inches from the upper end. These are put
through the holes in the bar, and when they have passed
through they are curved again. Two small gimlet-holes are then
made for the reception of smaller wire, by which the leg-wires
must be bound together close to the bar. The fore-leg wires
are fixed in the same manner, which completes the frame-
work.

This seems to be the most simple manner which could be
devised, for obtaining the end in view, and is that practised at
the Laboratory of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. No other
means are used for middle-sized animals, such as the Lion,
Tiger, Leopard, &c. The stuffing is completed as in other
quadrupeds.

As the Dog, Wolf, Hyaena, Fox, &c. belong to this order,
b 3

18

GL1RES.

we beg again to refer to what we have already said on the
subject at page 9.

The Walrus, Seals, and other amphibious animals of this
order, are treated in the manner of quadrupeds generally,
only that leg-wires are unnecessary, except in the fore-feet ;
the tail, which represents the hind feet, has merely to be dried
and kept properly stretched during this process, which precau-
tion also applies to the fore-feet. They are the easiest stuffed
of all animals, only the skins are very oily, they should be
well rubbed with the arsenical soap, and also with the preserv-
ing powder.

The stuffing of the Walrus (Trichecus rosmarusj, the Sea
Elephant ( Phoca proboscidea ), and other large animals of this
family, should consist of well dried hay for the interior parts,
and tow for the surface next the skin.

ORDER V. — MARSUPIAL! A.

Considerable nicety is required in the preparation of ani-
mals of this order. The females of several of them, such as
the Kangaroo, Opossum, &c., have abdominal pouches in
which they carry their young, and others have membranes
which project from their sides. In drying the pouches, they
require to be well primed with the preservative, and atten-
tion must be paid to show them properly in the stuffed animal.
The membranes should be kept out by buckram, or strong
parchment, as before recommended in the Flying Lemur,
page 16.

ORDER VI.— GLIRES.

This Order contains the Beaver, Musk Rat, Common Rat,
and other animals whose skins have a strong smell. These
require to be plentifully supplied with the preservative. The
tail of the Beaver should be cut underneath, and all the flesh
removed, then stuffed with tow or chopped flax, and after-
wards thoroughly dried and well primed with the arsenical
soap to prevent putrefaction, to which it is very liable. It

ARMADILLOS.

19

should also have repeated washings with oil of turpentine.
The back should be round and short.

THE PORCUPINE.

In stuffing this animal considerable and varied expression
may be given, both from the attitude and disposition of the
quills. Great attention is therefore required in giving these a
proper set during the process of drying. They will require to
be looked at several times during the first and second day after
they have been stuffed, and any of them that may have fallen
out of the position required, to be adjusted.

HARES.

A very pretty attitude for the Hare is to have it seated in
its form in an upright position, as if alarmed at the noise of
dogs, &c. An oval is formed of wire and attached to the in-
terior frame work, after having passed one end of it through
the anus, which must be passed through a hole in the board
on which the animal is to be fixed. The wires of the hind
legs must be forced through the posterior part of them, and
also fixed into holes formed for their reception in the board.

ORDER VII— EDENTATA.

THE SLOTHS

Must be mounted in an upright posture, as they are seldom
or never to be seen walking horizontally, except in finding
their way from one tree to another. The great length of their
fur makes it a comparatively easy task to mount them.

ARMADILLOS

Are also easily set up, owing to the bands preserving the or-
dinary shape of the animal. The French Taxidermists do
not use any of the preservative for the skin, but merely dry it.
We are, however, of opinion, that they are wrong, as all sorts

20

PACHYDERMATA.

of hides are liable to the attacks of insects, unless preserved
in some way. We would, therefore, recommend the use of
the arsenical soap as in other skins.

ANT-EATERS.

The great Ant-Eater ( Myrmecophega jubataj, has a long
prehensile tail, with long flowing hairs. The tail must be
supported by a much longer tail-bearer than that of other quad-
rupeds generally. The tongue is very long and protractile, and
ought to be drawn out of the mouth as if in the act of
catching Ants.

the duck-billed platypus (Ornithorinchus mrfus.)

In stuffing this animal, attention must be paid to showing
as much as possible its cheek pouches, a characteristic of the
genus.

ORDER VIII.— PACHYDERMATA.

The animals of this Order are mostly of gigantic size, and
have very thick skins. At the head of this Order is

the elephant.

Various methods have been devised for the mounting and
stuffing of Elephants. The best plan is that which was adopt-
ed, with the elegant specimen now in the Jardin du Roi
at Paris.

The dead Elephant being extended on the ground, the di-
mensions were all taken, and correctly noted at the time. M.
Lassaigne, cabinet-maker to the establishment, invented a
large rule for that purpose, which was somewhat like a shoe-
maker’s size-stick. The different curves of the back, belly,
neck, &c., were taken by bars of lead of three quarters of an
inch in thickness. This metal is much better adapted than
any other for that and similar purposes, as it has no elasticity,
it retains any shape into which it is put.

M. Demoulins made a drawing of the animal from these

THE ELEPHANT. 21

measurements, on the wall of the workshop where the model
was constructed of its natural size.

The Elephant was placed upon its back by means of
four-corded pulleys fastened to the platform. An incision,
the form of a double cross, was then made in the lower side,
the central line reaching from the mouth to the anus; the two
other cuts were made from the left leg on both sides to the
opposite right legs. The trunk was longitudinally opened in
its under side ; the soles of the feet were now taken out to
within an inch of their edge, and the nails allowed to remain
attached to the skin — this was effected by the aid of a chisel
and mallet, and was one of the most difficult operations of the
whole.

Several persons wrought at a time at the operation of skin-
ning, and four days were necessary to effect it. When re-
moved from the carcase, the skin was weighed, and found
to be Jive hundred and seventy-six pounds.

It was extended on the ground, so that the cutaneous
muscles of the head and other parts might be cut away from
its interior. The skin was then put into a tub, and covered
six inches deep with water which had been saturated with
alum.

The model which was to fill the skin was made as perfect
as possible in its shape. To insure this, models were made of
half the head in plaster, as also a fore and hind leg. This
structure was made of linden-wood, and so ingeniously con-
structed by M. Lassaigne, that almost the whole parts could
be separated. He opened a pannel on one side of the body,
whereby he introduced himself into its interior, so that he
might make its parts more perfect within. Even the head and
proboscis were hollow, which rendered this stupendous model
so light that it could be moved from one part to another with
comparative ease.

The model being completed, the alum water in which the skin
had been all the time immersed, was now taken out and made
boiling hot, and in that state poured on the skin, which was
then allowed to soak in the warm liquor for an hour and a half,
when it was taken out still warm and placed upon the model,
which they accomplished with some difficulty. But judge of
their mortification when it was found that the model was rather

22

RUMINANTIA.

too large. To diminish the wood- work they foresaw would run
the risk of putting its parts out of proportion. It then occurred to
them, that the best thing to be done under these awkward
circumstances, was to take off the skin again and reduce its
thickness with knives ; they removed all the internal thick-
nings which came in their way. In this operation five men
were occupied for four days, during which time they cut out
one hundred and ninety-four pounds weight off the internal
surface. During this process the skin had dried, and required
again to be immersed in cold soft water ; after allowing it to
remain twenty-four hours to soak, it was then put on the mo-
del and found now to cover it completely ; the edges were
brought together, and secured with wire nails deeply driven
home, and large brads. Except at the edges, the nails and
brads were only driven in half-way to keep the skin down to
the different sinuosities and hollows until dry, when they were
again all pulled out.

The alum with which the water was saturated gave the skin
an ugly gray appearance, in consequence of its becoming crys-
tallized. But this was soon remedied, by first rubbing the skin
with spirit of turpentine, and afterwards with olive oil.

By the admirable and well executed contrivance here adopt-
ed, a specimen has been mounted with all the appearance of
life, which, with a little attention, may resist for ages the
influence of Time’s destroying hand. It is the only specimen of
an Elephant in Europe worth looking at, all others being great
misshapen masses, completely devoid of all appearance of na-
ture.

The Rhinoceros, Tapir, Horse, and its congeners, should all
be mounted in the same manner. At the Jardin du Roi, a
fine specimen of the Quagga has been mounted in this way.

ORDER IX RUMINANTIA=

The same plan should be adopted with all the larger ani-
mals of this order, as with the Elephant described in Order
VIII. At the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, the Giraffe is
mounted in the same way as the Elephant : as are also some
of the larger Antelopes.

THE URUS, BISON, BUFFALO.

23

DEER, ANTELOPES, AND GOATS, &C.

These animals should be mounted on the same principles as
recommended for the Bears, in Order IV. A different mode
must, however, be adopted in skinning the animals, which the
horns render necessary. It is performed in the ordinary man-
ner lmtil the operator reaches the neck. After cutting as near
the head as possible, another incision must be made, com-
mencing under the chin, which is continued to the bottom of
the neck, or from eight to ten inches in length. By this open-
ing, the remainder of the neck is separated from the head ;
the tongue is cut out, and the occipital orifice enlarged, and
the brain extracted thereby. The lips are now cut as near as
possible to the jaw-bones, and the operator must continue pro-
gressively ascending towards the forehead, and in this manner
all the skin will be separated from the head, except at the nose,
or point of the muzzle. All the muscles are next removed by
the scalpel, and the skull well anointed with arsenical soap.
The muscles which have been cut out are then imitated with
chopped flax or cotton, which may be attached to the bones
with cement. When this is done, the head must be replaced
within the skin. The orifice under the neck must now be
sewed up with fine stitches, so that the hair may spread over
them to conceal the seam. The whole other parts of the
mounting is completed as directed for the Bear.

tBe elk

Being an animal of stupendous size, should be mounted on
a model the same as the Elephant.

Some of the smaller species of Antelopes may be put up in
the same manner as the Cat, but using stronger wires.

THE URUS, BISON, BUFFALO

And other large animals, to be mounted in the same manner
as the Elephant. But their skins should be deeply imbued
with turpentine.

24

CETACEA.

ORDER X.— CETACEA.

THE DOLPHIN, PORPOISE, &C.

The structure of these animals, as well as of the other spe-
cies of the first family of this order, differs but little in gen-
eral structure.

In skinning these, an incision is made under the chin, and
continued to the extremity of the tail ; the skin is then de-
tached right and left with the scalpel, or a sharp knife. When
the skin has been cut back as far as possible, disengage the
vertebrae at the tail, and this will enable the operator to de-
tach the skin from the back ; the vertebrae are now cut close to
the head, and the whole carcase removed.

All this tribe have a thick layer of fat under their skin. In
the operation of skinning it requires considerable dexterity to
leave this fat, or blubber, adhering to the carcase. Practice
alone will obviate this. When this has not been properly
managed in the skinning, the only thing to be done after-
wards is to scrape it thoroughly with a knife. The oil which
flows from it, during this operation, must be soaked up with
bran, or plaster of Paris.

There being no muscular projections in the skin of the Por-
poise, there is no use for wires in mounting it. A narrow
piece of wood the length of the body is quite sufficient to keep
the skin stretched, and stuffed either with tow or hay. Some
months are necessary to render it perfectly dry and stiff, from
its greasy nature. The grease almost always leaves some dis-
agreeable looking spots on the skin. To remove these, and
prevent a recurrence of them, powdered pumice-stone steeped
in olive oil, is rubbed thickly on the skin with a hand-brush.
It is then gone over a second time with emery and oil. It is
rubbed in this way till the skin has a glossy appearance, when
it may be rubbed dry with a woollen cloth ; and to complete
the polish, a clean woollen cloth may be applied with some
force to complete the gloss, which is natural to the skin in
a living state.

Where a very glossy appearance is wished, varnishes be-
come necessary, but some difficulty has been experienced in

SKINNING.

25

getting these to remain attached to the skin in all weathers,
because the humidity of rainy seasons melts gum Arabic when
it is used as a varnish, and when white varnish is applied, both
it and the gum Arabic fall off in pieces. To prevent the gum
from falling off in this way, by its contracting, the solution
should have about an eighth part of ox-gall mixed with it, and
the surface of any body to be varnished should be washed with
ox-gall and water before the varnish is applied, which will, al-
most to a certainty, prevent it from cracking and falling off.
It must, however, be thoroughly dried before the varnish is
applied.

We may here state, that an animal the size of a Fox or a
Cat, may be skinned, prepared, and finally set up, in the space
of four or five hours, by a person who has had a little practice
in the art of Taxidermy, and that from ten to fifteen minutes
are all that will be required to skin an animal of the size just
mentioned.

CHAP. II.

OF SKINNING, PRESERVING, AND MOUNTING BIRDS.

SKINNING.

Immediately after a Bird is killed, the throat and nostrils
should be stuffed with tow, cotton, or fine rags, and a small
quantity wound round the bill, to prevent the blood from staining
the plumage ; but should any get on the feathers, notwith-
standing this precaution, the sooner it is removed the better,
which should be effected by a sponge which has been merely
moistened in water. Too much dispatch cannot be used in
removing the skin, if the bird is shot in a warm climate ; but,
in temperate regions, the bird may be allowed to cool.

In proceeding to skin the Bird, it should be laid on its back,
and the feathers of the breast separated to the right and left,
when a broad interval will be discovered, reaching from the
top to the bottom of the breast-bone. (See plate III. fig. 1.,
c

2G

SKINNING.

for the manner of separating- the feathers, and using the
scalpel.) A sharp pen- knife, or scalpel (see plate IV. fig. 1
and 2), must be inserted at the point of the bone, and cut the
outer skin from thence to the vent, taking care not to penetrate
so deep as the flesh, or upon the inner skin which covers the
intestines. The skin will then easily be separated from the
flesh ; in larger specimens, by the fingers, or, in smaller ones,
by passing a small blunt instrument betwixt the skin and body,
such as the end of the scalpel handle : with this you may reach
the back. The thighs should now be pressed inwards, as in
the common method of skinning a rabbit, and the skin turned
back, so far as to enable you to separate the legs from the
body, at the knee-joint. The skin is then pulled downwards,
as low as the rump, which is cut close by the insertion of the
tail, as shown at plate III. fig. 2, a ; but in such a manner as
not to injure its feathers. The skin is now drawn upwards the
length of the wings, the bones of which must also be cut at the
shoulder-joints (see plate I. fig. 1, a.) ; it is then pulled up,
till all the back part of the skull is laid bare, when the ver-
tebrae of the neck are separated from the head, from b. in plate
I. fig. 1. ; and the whole body is now separated from the skin.
You next proceed to remove the brain, through the opening of
the skull, for which purpose it may be enlarged by a hollow
chissel, or other iron instrument. The eyes must then be taken
out, by breaking the slender bones, which separate the orbits
from the top of the mouth, in which you may be assisted by
pressing the eyes gently inwards, so as not to break them. In
skinning the neck, great care must be taken not to enlarge
the opening of the ears, and not to injure the eyelids. The
whole of the flesh is next to be removed from the under man-
dible.

Several species will not admit of the skin being thus pulled
over their heads, from the smallness of their necks; some
Woodpeckers, Ducks, Coots, &c., fall under this description;
in which case a longitudinal incision is made under the throat,
so as to admit of the head being turned out, which must
be neatly sewed up before stuffing. The flesh from the head,
wings, legs, and rump, must then be carefully removed witli
a knife or scalpel, and the cavities of the skull filled with
cotton or tow. The whole inside of the skin, head, &c., must

SKINNING.

27

be well rubbed with arsenical soap, or preserving powder, or
spirit of turpentine, or the solution of corrosive sublimate.
When it is wished to stuff the bird, it may now be immediately
done, as it will easily dry, if in a warm climate ; but in low
damp countries, it will require artificial heat to do it effectually.

When the skins are merely wished preserved, the bones of
the legs and wings should be wrapped round with cotton or
tow, so as to supply the place of the flesh ; the skin is then
inverted and hung up to dry, after using the arsenical soap, as
above directed ; before doing which, in larger birds, a thread
or small string may be drawn through the rump, and passed up
the inside of the neck, and drawn through the bill, to prevent
the head from stretching too much by its own weight. In
larger specimens, where cotton or tow is not easily to be met
with, well-dried hay may be used.

The incision for removing the skin is frequently made under
the wings. This may be done with marine birds to advantage.
The Penguins and Divers may be skinned, by making the in-
cision in the back.

The tongue should either be kept in the mouth, or sent
home separately with the birds.

The greatest care must be taken to prevent the fat and
oily matter, so common to sea-birds, from getting on the
feathers : pounded chalk will be found an excellent absorbent,
for applying to these birds.

In sending home specimens of birds, they should be each
wrapped in paper, and closely packed in a box ; and camphor,
preserving powder, and strong aromatics, strewed amongst
them, to prevent them from being attacked by insects; and
they ought to be kept in a very dry part of the vessel.

It is of the utmost consequence to know' the colour of the
eyes and legs of birds, and these things should be carefully
noted the moment they are killed ; and it should also be men-
tioned whether they are male or female : such a memorandum
ought to be attached to the birds by a ticket. The season
of the year, in which the bird is killed, must also be men-
tioned. It is also of much consequence to have good skele-
tons, and, for this purpose, the carcases may be sent home
in a barrel, either in spirits or a strong solution of salt and
water.

c 2

28

SKINNING.

MANNER OF SKINNING BIRDS, AS PRACTISED AT
THE JARDIN DES PLANTES, PARIS.

First, a needle, full of thread, is passed across the nostrils,
and tied under the lower mandible. A little cotton is intro-
duced into the mouth, and every care taken, that neither
blood nor oily matter is allowed to soil the feathers of the
head, as it is no easy matter to remove it from that part.

The bird is laid on a table, on its back, and the feet from
you, with the head placed towards your left hand. The feathers
of the breast and belly are then divided right and left with
a pair of forceps, and the down which covers the belly is pulled
off. An incision is then made in the skin with the scalpel,
from the upper edge of the sternum, or breast-bone (see plate
I. fig. 1. c.), until you reach the middle of the belly (see plate I.
fig. 1. d.) The skin of one side is then lifted with the forceps,
and separated from the muscles of the breast, by the point
and end of the scalpel, used alternately, until you reach as
near as possible the wings. Having accomplished this, a small
quantity of cotton, dusted over with flour, or powdered whiten-
ing, is placed on the flesh, to prevent the skin from adhering
to it. The thighs are then forced forward, and cut through
between the femur and tibia (plate I. fig. 1. e. and f.) ; the
femur is then returned into its place, in the skin. You then
separate the skin from the rump, by the use of the scalpel and
the fingers: this part being left to support the feathers of
the tail. The part of the carcase which is now denuded of its
skin, is taken into the left hand, and the skin separated from
the sides; in which operation, small scissors are used for
cutting any of the tendons which may be met with. The wings
are now separated from the trunk, by the end of the os humeri
(plate I. fig. 1. g.), and again pushed back into their place.
The neck and head are skinned, as we have described at page
26, and the same method formerly pointed out, is employed in
removing the brain; while cotton and flax are applied, and
any moisture absorbed by means of plaster of Paris or dry
earths, which prevent the feathers from adhering.

The wings are now removed, properly cleaned of their flesh,
and restored to their place, after being rubbed with the arsenical

SKINNING.

29

soap, and dusted with the preserving powder. The flesh is
removed from the thighs, the bones being carefully preserved,
and restored to their proper places, after being treated in the
same manner as the thighs.

In the larger species of birds, all the muscles and fatty
matter, which adhere to the skin, are carefully cut off. Any
gun-shot holes in the skin are next sewed up from within ; a
piece of thread is then attached to the first joint of both wings,
and they are by means of it drawn together, to such a distance
as they may be supposed to have been apart, when the muscles
were on the body. This gives the wings a set, so that when
the bird is stuffed, they naturally fall into their proper place
and position, if the bird is in a quiescent posture.

When birds are of a large size, take a piece of cord about a
yard long, one end of which should be made fast to a large
hook or nail in the wall, from which the bird should be sus-
pended ; then, with a running noose fastened round one of the
thighs, as represented in plate III. fig. 2., the bird is sus-
pended in such a manner as enables it to be turned in any
direction without injury. The resistance afforded assists greatly
in the operation of skinning.

The insides of the wings should have an incision made in
them, and as much flesh taken away as possible, and some pre-
serving powder introduced ; a little tow or oakum should be
put slightly in to fill the skin, but not to extend it. If the bird
is large, hay may be substituted for the above. The feathers
must now be placed smooth, the wings laid in their natural
position, closed, and the subject put in a clean dry place, and
exposed to the air for a few days, till all moisture has evapo-
rated from it ; after which the stuffing may be withdrawn, and
many skins may be packed flat on each other.

If the feet are large and fleshy, as in some of the Gulls,
Geese, Eagles, &c. an incision should be made along the sole
of each foot, so as to expose the muscles to the action of the
air, and also a quantity of preserving powder applied to it,
otherwise they run every risk of becoming putrid and rotten.
This latter precaution is not required in small birds, in which
the small quantity of cotton, that is put into them while drying,
may be retained, unless the traveller is restricted for want of
room, in which case they may be packed quite flat.

c 3

30

SKINNING.

Mr Salt, while in Abyssinia, packed his bird-skins between
sheets of paper, in the same manner as a hortus siccus, or herb-
arium, and they reached this country in perfect safety, and
made excellent specimens when set up. In warm climates,
the boxes should be well closed, and the seams filled with
warm pitch, on the outside, to prevent the intrusion of insects ;
and the inside should be supplied with camphor, musk, or
tobacco-dust, which will prevent the attacks of the smaller
insects.

Till practice has given facility to the operator, it will assist
in keeping the feathers clean, if, as he opens the skin of the
breast, he pins pieces of paper or linen cloth on the outside ;
but, after a few trials, this will be unnecessary.

Some of the marine fowls are so fat, that there is much
trouble in separating it from the skin, and, in warm weather,
great attention will be required to prevent it from running on
the feathers. As much as possible should be scraped off, in
the first place, with a blunt table-knife or palate-knife, and a
quantity of powdered chalk applied, to absorb what remains,
which, when saturated with the oily matter, should be scraped
off, and a fresh supply used ; after which, a much larger pro-
portion of the preserving powder should be applied, than in
other birds which are not fat.

When shooting on the seacoast, if the Ornithologist is not
provided with these requisites for absorbing the oil, which
flows quickly from any wounds of the skin, he will find dry
sand a tolerable substitute.

If, however, after every precaution, the oily matter should
get on the feathers, the sooner it is removed the better, as, in
birds where the plumage is white, if it is allowed to become
hardened, it will produce a very disagreeable appearance;
and, besides, render that part particularly liable to the attack of
insects. There are several effectual methods of removing
the greasy stains ; the first, safest, and best, is, by taking a
quantity of diluted ox-gall — or where it cannot be commanded,
sheep’s-gall, or that of any other animal — mix it with about
double the quantity of water, and apply it with a sponge
to the place which the fatty matter has touched, when it
will immediately remove it. The next is by using a solution
of salt of tartar, or potash, or soda. This must be made

SKINNING.

3L

very weak, not exceeding half a tea-spoonful to a cup of
water ; which will have the same effect as the gall. Which-
ever of these are used, the place must be immediately after-
wards washed with pure water, so as to leave none of the gall
or alkaline substance remaining. The gall has a gummy
tendency, and will glue together the fibres of the feathers ;
and, besides, it has a great attraction for moisture, and, in
humid weather, will become damp, and therefore produce
mould ; the other alkaline substances must also be used with
much caution and quickness, because they have the power of
changing the colours of the plumage, so that they are most
useful in white plumage, and therefore should only be used
on coloured feathers, where gall cannot be procured.

One general observation applies to the preservation of all
animal skins, which is, they must be made perfectly dry, so
that the sooner they are exposed to a free current of air the
better ; and unless they are speedily and thoroughly dried, the
skin will become putrid and rotten, and the hair or feathers
will consequently fall off. If a skin is properly dried, soon after
it is killed, it will keep a considerable time without any pre-
servative whatever, only it will be the more liable to be attacked
by insects afterwards.

The following excellent general directions for skinning, are
given by Mr Waterton : — “ While dissecting, it will be of use
to keep in mind, that in taking off the skin from the body, by
means of your fingers and little knife, you must try to shove it,
in lieu of pulling it, lest you stretch it.

“ That you must press as lightly as possible on the bird, and
every now and then take a view of it, to see that the feathers,
&c., are all right.

“ That when you come to the head, you must take care that
the body of the skin rest on your knee ; for if you allow it to
dangle from your hand, its own weight will stretch it too much.

“ That, throughout the whole operation, as fast as you detach
the skin from the body, you must put cotton immediately betwixt
the body and it, and this will effectually prevent any fat, blood,
or moisture, from coming in contact with the plumage.

“ As you can seldom get a bird without shooting it, a line or
two on this head will be necessary. If the bird be still alive,
press it hard, with your finger and thumb, just behind the

32

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

wings, and it will soon expire. Carry it by the legs, and then
the body being reversed, the blood cannot escape down the
plumage and through the shot-holes. As blood will have often
issued out, before you have laid hold of the bird, find out the
shot-holes, by dividing the feathers with your fingers, and
blowing on them ; and then, with your pen-knife, or the leaf
of a tree, carefully remove the clotted blood, and put a little
cotton on the hole. If, after all, the plumage has not escaped
the marks of blood, or if it has imbibed slime from the ground,
wash the part in water, without soap, and keep gently agitating
the feathers with your fingers, till they are quite dry. Were
you to wash them, and leave them to dry by themselves, they
would have a very mean and shrivelled appearance.

“ In the act of skinning a bird, you must either have it upon
a table, or upon your knee, probably you will prefer your knee,
because, when you cross one knee over the other, and have the
bird upon the uppermost, you can raise it to your eye, or lower
it, at pleasure, by means of the foot on the ground ; and then
your knee will always move in unison with your body, by which
much stooping will be avoided, and lassitude prevented.”

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

The first thing to be done in stuffing is to replace the skull,
after it has been well anointed with the arsenical soap, and
washed with the solution of corrosive sublimate inside. The
thread, with which the beak is tied, is taken hold of by the
left hand, and the head is repassed into the neck with the
forefinger of the right hand, while the thread is pulled on the
opposite side ; and we are careful that the feathers, at the
margin of the opening, do not enter with the edges of the
skin. The bird is now laid on the table, with the head turned
towards the left hand ; and the legs and wings adjusted to their
proper situation. A flat piece of lead, about a pound in weight,
is laid on the tail, while the feathers of the margins of the
opening are raised by the forefinger and thumb of the left
hand, to prevent their being soiled. The inside of the neck is
now coated with the arsenical soap; flax is stuffed into it,
but not too tightly. The back and rump are anointed, and
the body should then be stuffed with tow, to about a third

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

33

of the thickness required, so that the wire may have a sort of
cushion to rest on.

Four pieces of wire are then prepared, of a thickness propor-
tionate to the size of the bird to be stuffed. The centre-piece
should be somewhat longer than the body of the bird. At
about a fourth of its length a small ring is formed, by the as-
sistance of the round pincers, or plyers (plate VI. fig. 4), and
the other end is pointed with a file. This wire is oiled, and
introduced across the skull, and passed into the neck, through
the centre of the flax or tow with which it is stuffed ; the ring
being situated towards the anterior part of the skull, for the
purpose of receiving the points of each of the wires that are
passed through the feet and thighs.

The following is the mode in which this perforation is ef-
fected. A hole is bored with a brass awl (see plate VJ. fig. 8),
the calibre of the wire which it is intended to use. The wire,
which is to continue in the leg, is passed across the knee, and
brought out interiorly, and, placing it into the ring above men-
tioned, the same operation is performed on the other side. The
extremities of the wires of the legs, and the end of the central
wire beyond the- ring, are all twisted together with flat pincers,
and then bent towards the tail. The tail-bearer is next formed,
which consists of the fourth piece of wire, with which an oval
is formed, by twisting the two ends two or three turns, so that
they may form a kind of fork, with the oval nearly the length
of the body of the bird ; the two points of the fork must be
sharpened with a file, and near enough to enable them to enter
the rump, through which they must pass, and their points will
be concealed by the rectrices, or large straight tail-feathers,
while the oval is within the body of the bird. If the bird is
large, the tail-bearer must be firmly attached to the interior
wires, by twisting a small wire several times round both. But
unless the birds be large, it may remain quite free. The several
wires are figured on plate V., of which see a description at the
references to the plates, at the end of the work.

All the parts of the skin at which we can come must be
thoroughly rubbed with the preserving soap, the rump in par-
ticular, which should besides be soaked with the solution of
corrosive sublimate. The stuffing is now proceeded with, by
inserting chopped flax or tow, till it has attained its proper

34

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

dimensions. The skin is brought together, and sewed up,
while we take the greatest care to separate the feathers at
every stitch.

The orbits of the eyes are next finished, by inserting, with
small forceps (plate VI. fig. 7.) and a short stuffing stick, a
small quantity of chopped cotton, while attention is paid to
round the eyelids properly. The glass eyes are now inserted,
taking care to place them properly under the eyelids. But,
before fixing the eye, a little calcareous cement must be used,
to prevent them from coming out. If any part of the nictitating
membrane is visible below, it must be pushed up with the steel
point. (See plate VI. fig. 9. and 10.)

The stuffing of the bird being now completed, the next thing
is to place it either on a branch, or if a bird which does not
sit on trees, on a piece of plank ; whichever of these it is,
two holes are bored for the reception of the wires, which have
been allowed to protrude from the soles of the feet, for fixing
the bird. (See plate III., fig. 3.) These, of course, are
pierced in such situations as are necessary for the attitude or
position of the legs. The wires are put through these holes,
and twisted so as to secure the bird in its position. The atti-
tude of the bird will, of course, depend upon the fancy and
taste of the operator, and ought to be in conformity with the
manners of the bird in a living state.

A general notion will be gathered of the position of birds’
legs, by studying the skeleton which we have represented in
plate I., fig. 1. It will be noticed that the three bones, which
compose the legs, are articulated somewhat in the form of the
letter Z, varying, of course, in the inclination of the various
bones, according to the species of bird. A fault in most stuf-
fed birds is the great and unnatural length of leg seen under
the feathers, from the circumstance, that the bones are too
straight. Even in the division of birds called Waders, such as
Cranes, Storks, Herons, &c., where the legs are straighter
than in most other orders, the upper joint of the thigh is sub-
ject to a considerable inclination. This natural position of the
bones of the legs must never be lost sight of in setting up birds
after stuffing.

The bird being now placed on its support, and the legs
ready to receive their final position, the first thing to be done

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

35

is to press the two thumbs on the lower limbs or tarsi, (plate I.,
fig-. 1, e,) to give them a backward inclination from twenty to
sixty degrees, according to the manner of sitting, natural to
the bird. The tibia, or second bone, (plate I., fig. 1,/,) is next
bent forward, by which these bones will now have a position
similar to those of plate I., fig. 1. The head, neck, and wings,
are then bent, and fixed according to the expression intended
to be given to the bird. On the disposition of these, much of
the beauty and character depend. The habits of the bird re-
quire to be well known, to enable the operator to perform this
important part with life and spirit. If the living habits of the
bird are without the reach of his study, he should devote him-
self to the accounts given of it by naturalists, and also exam-
ine the best plates in which the species is represented.

Having fixed on the attitude, it now only remains to put the
feathers into their natural order as smoothly and regularly as
possible, and to keep them in this state, they should be bound
round with small fillets of muslin fastened with pins, in the
manner represented in plate III., fig. 4. The bird should
then be thoroughly dried, which must be done by placing it
in some airy situation, if in summer ; or if in winter, near the
fire, but not so close as to affect the natural oil contained in
the feathers. The want of proper attention in drying is the
ruin of many a fine specimen ; because, if they are long kept
damp, putridity will ensue in spite of all the preservatives ;
when the skin will become rotten, and the feathers will soon
fall off ; besides, the mould and damp long continued change
the chemical properties of the ingredients used as preserva-
tives.

After the bird has been thoroughly dried, the fillets are re-
moved ; the wire which protruded from the head is cut off as
close to the skull as possible with the wire-cutting-pincers
figured in plate VI., fig. 5. It must then be attached to a cir-
cular, or other shaped piece of wood, with the generic and spe-
cific name and sex, as well as its country and locality attached
to it, on a small ticket, when it may be placed in a museum.

The wire frame-work, above described, is the most simple
of any in its construction, and is better adapted for small
than large birds. Indeed, it will hardly suit those of the
larger species. The following is another method of construct-

36

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

ing the frame-work, which may be used either in large or small
birds : —

Like the former it is constructed of four pieces of wire. The
centre piece should be double the length of the bird ; it is bent
at a third of its length of an oval form, and twisted two turns,
the shortest end being passed into the oval, and then raised
against the longer end, so as to produce a ring at the end, out-
side of the oval, large enough to admit the two wires which
pass from the feet to the inside of the bird. It is now twisted
a second time, and firmly united to the longer end, which
ought to be straight, with a sharp point, effected by means of
a file. As before directed, it is rubbed with oil, and forced
through the stuffing of the neck. It ought to be so construct-
ed by measurement, that the oval part of the wire shall be in
the centre of the body inside. The wires of the feet and legs,
as before directed, ought to be straight and pointed, and passed
through the soles of the feet as before. When the point has
penetrated, the other end of the wire may be bent, so that by
means of it we may be able to assist in forcing up the remain-
der of the wire. The two internal ends of the foot-wires are
twisted together, and curved within, so as to pass through
the small circle, or ring of the middle branch above the oval,
to each side of which they are now attached with a piece of
small string.

The tail-bearer is constructed on the same principles, and
attached in the same manner as before described, and the lat-
ter apparatus is introduced after the neck and back are fin-
ished in the stuffing.

This practice of introducing the neck-wire, after the neck
is stuffed, was first adopted at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris,
and is now invariably adopted in that establishment in prefer-
ence to introducing it before the neck is stuffed. The neck
of a swan or other long-necked and large birds, are even done
so. It is unquestionably the best plan which has hitherto been
discovered, as it preserves the cylindrical shape of the neck.

MR bullock’s METHOD OF STUFFING BIRDS.

Mr Bullock of the Loudon Museum, Egyptian Hall, had
another method of arranging the wires, which, after what wc

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

37

have already said, will be easily comprehended by a reference
to plate III., fig. 3, where we have given a figure of his mode.
After the skin is taken off and prepared, different sized, nealed,
iron-wires are procured according to the size of the bird they are
to support. The skin is laid on its back without stretching it ;
cut two pieces of wire, the one rather longer than the bird, and
the other shorter, so as not to reach to the head of the bird ;
twist them together, sharpen the ends of the longer by means
of a file, and pass one end through the rump, and the other
through the crown of the head, near the base of the bill.
Care must be taken not to extend the neck beyond its ordinary
length, — a very common fault in most preservers. Lay a little
tow along the back of the skin for the wire to rest on, then
take two other pieces of strong wire and file them to a point
at one end ; these are passed through the soles of the feet and
up the centre of the leg-bone, or tarsus. When within the
body, they are to be fastened to the first wires by twisting
them together, which, when accomplished, may be supposed
to represent the back bone. The wire should be left two or
three inches out of the soles of the feet, to fasten them in a
standing position, as before directed. Two smaller wires are
then passed through the wings, as in the legs, and afterwards
fastened to the back-wires a little higher up than the leg-
wires, taking care that no part of the skin is extended beyond
its natural position.

MR BECCEUR’s METHOD OF STUFFING BIRDS.

Becoeur, the best apothecary in Metz of his day, the in-
ventor of that truly useful preservative the Arsenical soap, had
a method of mounting birds peculiar to himself, which he
successfully practised. He stuffed recent specimens in very
high perfection. And in support of the fact that they were
well preserved, many specimens preserved by his own hand,
still enrich the cabinets of France, and these were set up
sixty-five years ago.

A little attention and practice will enable any one to follow
his method. He skinned his bird in the ordinary manner. He
extracted the body by this opening, without cutting any of the
extremities. The muscular parts were then extracted by a scal-

D

38

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

pel, while every endeavour was made to preserve all the liga •
ments. He then anointed the skin with the arsenical soap,
and also the skeleton, and then returned it to its place within
the skin, and carefully disposed of the feathers on either side.
Pie formed a ring- on a piece of iron-wire at nearly a third of
the length of the wire, and passed this wire through the head ;
the smallest side passed into the rump in such a manner, that
the iron-ring came under the sternum ; a leg-wire was then
passed through each leg, so that the ends of them united to
pass into the little ring in the middle of the back bone, where
they were secured with a string. The flesh of the muscles was
replaced by flax, or chopped cotton ; and when he had satis-
fied himself with the form, it was then sewed up, placed on a
foot-board, or support of wood, where he gave it the attitude
intended, of which he was always certain, for a bird mounted
in this manner can only be placed in a natural attitude.

Becceur mounted quadrupeds in the same manner, and with
equal success.

m. mauge’s method of stuffing birds.

This naturalist had a method of preparation and stuffing, o'
which he was the inventor, and which he practised with con-
siderable success. It was as follows : — (The bird is supposed
to be a small one.)

He took two pieces of wire, in length and thickness required
for the bird he was about to stuff. One of these was some-
what longer than the other. The longer piece he pointed at
both ends with a file, and the shortest piece at one end only.
One end of each wire was held under the fore finger and thumb
of the left hand ; he then twisted the other parts five or six
times round, about three quarters of an inch from the point of
the other wire with the finger and thumb of the right hand,
leaving an untwisted space large enough for a finger to pass
chrough ; he now twisted it four or five times more, leaving a
second space untwisted for the purpose of passing the feet- wire
through, and also of producing a triangular form with the first
interval he had left untwisted, the smaller opening, being one
turn above the triangle.

The wires for the feet were straight, and pointed at one end

ON STUFFING BIKDS.

39

in the ordinary form. When the head and neck were stuffed,
he introduced the long end of the centre wire through the
neck and skull, and the other extremity which was forked,
and passed it across the rump to support the tail feathers. He
then forced up one of the leg-wires, and brought the end of
it through the small hole which was situated above the triangle,
and then gave it an inclination towards the opposite parts, and
united the two with threads ; the same method was then adopt-
ed with the other leg.

For larger birds, M. Mauge substituted the oval for the
triangle.

We shall now describe the new method invented by the in-
genious Mr Waterton.

MR WATERTON’s METHOD OF STUFFING BIRDS.

“ You will observe,” says Mr Waterton, “ how beautifully
the feathers of a bird are arranged, one falling over the other
in the nicest order ; and that, where this charming harmony is
interrupted, the defect, though not noticed by an ordinary
spectator, will appear immediately to the eye of a naturalist.
Thus, a bird not wounded, and in perfect feather, must be pro-
cured if possible, for the loss of the feathers can seldom be
made good ; and where the deficiency is great, all the skill of
the artist will avail him little in his attempt to conceal the de-
fect, because, in order to hide it, lie must contract the skin,
bring down the upper feathers and shove in the lower ones,
which would throw all the surrounding parts into contortion.

“ You will observe, that the whole skin does not produce
feathers, and that it is very tender where the feathers do not
grow. The bare parts are admirably formed for expansion
about the throat and stomach, and they fit into the different
cavities of the body at the wings, shoulders, rump, and thighs,
with wonderful exactness ; so that in stuffing the bird, if you
make an even rotund surface of the skin where these cavities
existed, in lieu of re-forming them, all symmetry, order, and
proportion, are lost for ever.

“ You must lay it down as an absolute rule, that the bird is
to be entirely skinned, otherwise you can never succeed in
forming a true and pleasing specimen.

d 2

40

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

“ You will allow this to be just, after reflecting a moment
on the nature of the fleshy parts and tendons, which are often
left in : 1st, They require to be well seasoned with aromatic
spices ; 2dly, They must be put into the oven to dry ; 3dly,
The heat of the fire and the natural tendency all cured flesh
has to shrink and become hard, render the flesh withered,
distorted, and too small ; 4thly, The inside then becomes like
a ham, or any other dried meat ; ere long the insects claim it
as their own, the feathers begin to drop off, and you have the
hideous spectacle of death in ragged plumage.

“ Wire is of no manner of use, but, on the contrary, a great
nuisance, for where it is introduced a disagreeable stiflhess and
derangement of symmetry follow.

“ The head and neck can be placed in any attitude, the
body supported, the wings closed, extended, or elevated, the
tail depressed, raised, or expanded, the thighs set horizontal or
oblique, without any aid from wire. Cotton will effect all
this.

“ A very small proportion of the skull bone, say, from the
forepart of the eyes to the bill, is to be left in, though even
this is not absolutely necessary. Part of the wing-bones, the
jaw-bones, and half of the thigh-bones remain ; every thing
else, flesh, fat, eyes, bones, brains, and tendons, are all to be
taken away.

“ Introduce the cotton for an artificial body by means of a
little stick like a knitting needle, and without any other aid or
substance than that of this little stick and cotton, your own
genius must produce those swellings and cavities, that just
proportion, that elegance and harmony of the whole so much
admired in animated nature, so little attended to in preserved
specimens. After you have introduced the cotton, sew up the
orifice you originally made in the belly, beginning at the vent.
And from time to time, till you arrive at the last stitch, keep
adding a little cotton, in order that there may be no deficiency
there. Lastly, Dip your stick into the solution, and put it
down the throat three or four times, in order that every part
may receive it.

“ When the head and neck are filled with cotton quite to
your liking, close the bill as in nature. A little bit of bees
wax at the point of it will keep the mandibles in their proper

ON STUFFING BTRDS.

41

place. A needle must be stuck into the lower mandible per-
pendicularly, you will shortly see the use of it. Bring also
’the feet together by a pin, and then run a thread through the
knees, by which you may draw them to each other as near as
you judge proper. Nothing now remains but to add the eyes,
with your little stick make a hollow in the cotton within the
orbit and introduce the glass eyes into it. Adjust the orbit to
them as in nature, and that requires no other fastner.”

Great attention must be paid to the size of the orbit, which
will receive within it an object much larger than the eye, so
that it must be drawn together with a very small delicate
needle and thread, at the part farthest from the beak.

A small quantity of the solution is now applied to the bill,
orbits, and feet.

Take any ordinary box large enough for holding the bird,
and fill three-fourths of it from the top at one end, and the
other end forming an inclined plane ; make a hollow in it
sufficient for the reception of the bird, place it in the box with
its legs in a sitting posture ; take a piece of cork into which
three pins have been stuck for legs, like a three-footed stool ;
place it under the bill of the bird, and the needle which was
formerly run through the bill is stuck into the cork, which
will act as a support to the bird’s head. If the neck is wished
to be lengthened, put more cotton under the cork, or vice ver-
sa; and if the head is wished to be projecting forward, it has
only to be brought nearer the front of the box, humouring the
cork, so as to place it in tlje position you require.

As the back part of the neck shrinks more in drying than
the fore part, a thread must be tyed to the end of the box, and
fastened to the beak, to prevent the face from looking too
much upwards. If the wings are wished elevated, support
them with cotton ; and if to be very high, place a piece of
stick under them.

Should you desire to expand the wings, the order of the
feathers must be reversed, commencing with the two middle
ones. When perfectly dry, place them in the natural order,
and they will ever afterwards continue as you wish them. If
the crest is wished to be erect, the feathers must be moved in
a contrary direction for a day or two, when they will soon take
the position wished for,

d 3

42

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

The box must now be placed out of the reach of the sun,
air, or fire, so that the skin may dry slowly. The corrosive
sublimate is of much service in this respect, for it renders the
skin moist and flexible for many days. The bird should be
lifted every day, so that any faults may be corrected which
take place while drying1.

The small wing--coverts are apt to rise, owing to the skin
coming in contact with the wing-bones. The part which rises
should be gently pulled with the finger and thumb for a day
or two, and the feathers pressed down.

The feathers should be frequently adjusted so as to ren-
der them distinct and visible.

The legs begin to stiffen in three or four days, when it
will be time to place them in the desired position ; and the
toes either arranged, or curved, so as to hold a branch, in which
two spikes must be placed for the reception of the feet, whereon
they are to be stuck, and can afterwards be removed at plea-
sure. All the threads which kept the different parts in their
laces may now be removed.

Mr Waterton touches the whole feathers with the solution of
corrosive sublimate, so as to preserve them from the attack of
moths. He says, “ The surest way of proceeding is to im-
merse the bird in the solution of corrosive sublimate, and then
dry it before you begin to dissect it.”

We must now describe the mode of setting up a bird with
extended wings. After having proceeded with the stuffing as
formerly directed, and the central supporting wires have been
put in their places, pointed wires are to be thrust from the inside
through the wings, reaching as far as the metacarpus and the
carpus, (see plate I., fig. h & s),that is, to the arms and fore arms ;
the ends which remain in the body are formed into ovals, of the
same size as those of the central wires, and firmly attached to
them either with threads, or small wires. The wings may
now be raised to any height wished, and disposed agreeably to
the taste of the operator ; and should he feel a difficulty in
pleasing himself, a good engraving may be copied.

If it is intended to represent the bird flying, its wings are
extended to their utmost stretch, the tail placed horizontally,
and expanded, the neck forced forward, the legs and feet
drawn up close to the breast, with the toes closed. It may then

ON STUFFING BIRDS.

43

be suspended from the ceiling1, by a piece of very fine brass
wire, such as is used for piano-forte strings. This may either
be attached to a hook in the back, placed betwixt the wings,
or drawn through the body with a very long slender needle.
The best plan, if you have determined on the flying position,
previous to stuffing, is to fix this small wire to a transverse piece
of strong wire, attached to the oval inside, which should be
placed pretty far forward, so as to balance the bird.

A very spirited and striking position is, when the bird is
about to take flight. In this attitude, it is placed with the body
reclining forward, and the wings slightly raised, which can be
managed without the assistance of external wires, by merely
placing a little cotton or tow under the wings, while the skin is
yet wet.

The moment of alarm is also an interesting attitude. To
express this, the one foot must be placed stretched forward,
and the other drawn near the body, and considerably bent.
The body must be thrown to one side, with the wing on
that side much elevated and spread out, while the other is
placed lower and less diffuse ; the tail must be expanded,
thrown down at the point, and arched ; the neck should be ele-
vated, and inclined to the side next the foot which is drawn
up ; the head turned to one side, and the eyes rivetted on the
object of its terror ; the bill must also be open.

In Eagles, Vultures, and other birds of prey, a favourite
attitude is the position of seizing their prey. This varies
according to the species. The Golden Eagle, when he
has seized his quarry, expands his wings and tail, like a
curtain around the bird, gazes upwards, and throws his head
backwards, in an attitude of triumph and defence ,• the feathers
of his crest and neck stand nearly erect, and he gazes around
in every direction, to observe if he is safe from the intrusion of
an enemy before he devours his victim.

Descriptions of this kind are endless ; let those who intend
stuffing birds study nature in its various details, and, where this
cannot be come at, good books and prints will be found an ex-
cellent substitute. These we shall point out in their proper
place.

OF MOUNTING DRIED SKINS.

44-

method OF MOUNTING DRIED SKINS.

Having treated of all the different modes, which we know
can be successfully practised, in stuffing recent specimens, we
must now say something respecting the setting up of skins
which have been preserved by travellers, and sent home from
distant parts.

The general method is exactly the same as in stuffing recent
specimens. There are, however, some preliminary steps, which
it is necessary to know.

If the specimen sent home has been partially stuffed, our
first business is to undo the stitches, if it has been sewed —
which was an unnecessary process. We then remove the whole
cotton or tow from the inside, by the assistance of forceps, and
from the neck with a small piece of wire, twisted or hooked at
the end. Having finished this, small balls of wet cotton are
placed in the orbits of the eyes, and the legs and feet are
wrapped round with wet cotton or linen rags. A damp cloth is
then thrown over the bird, and it is allowed to remain in this
state till next day. The neck and body are then filled with
wet linen or cotton, and it will be ready for commencing setting
up in four or five hours.

The eyes are now put in, as directed in the recent subjects,
and then stuffed in exactly the same manner. Some difficulty
will, however be experienced with respect to the leg-wires, and
it will require more time and care, from the dryness of the legs,
to get the wire to penetrate. Having proceeded so far as to
get the bird generally formed, the wings are next adjusted :
this also is frequently difficult, owing to the stiffness of the
tendons, and want of proper attention in skinning and drying
them at first. Indeed with some of the South American birds,
a proper adjustment of the wings is found impracticable, owing
to the attempts of the native Indians of Guyana, who seldom
dispose them properly. There is something extremely curious
in the efforts of man in a savage state. Whether this arises
from want of observation, or a vitiated taste, it is difficult to
say but it is a notorious fact, that any attempt at art, by an
uncivilized people, is generally widely different from what the
object is in nature : and yet the opportunities of these people

OF MOUNTING BIRDS, FEATHER BY FEATHER. 45

are much greater, in studying or even observing natural objects,
than that which is enjoyed by man in a civilized state.

We have seen a bird entirely mounted by the Indians of
Guyana, which was placed in an attitude so fantastic, and so
out of all possibility of the bird’s assuming in a natural condi-
tion, that we could only suppose it to be the harlequin of birds.

When these skins— frequently exceedingly valuable from
their rarity — are undone, to be remounted, it is oftentimes found
utterly impossible to get the wings to take a natural set ; in
which case, there is no other remedy but cutting them off close
to the body, and fixing them anew. The scapulars are separated,
they are softened with damp cloths, and then wrapped up with
bands of sheet lead, to give them a proper set. When we have
got them in their natural shape, they must be fixed to the sides
by cement and cotton, and a long pin through each, with the
head concealed amongst the feathers. The scapulars, which
we have cut off, must then be cemented on, and they will
effectually cover the joining of the wings. The bird being now
arranged, and all the feathers adjusted, it is wrapped round
with small bands of fine linen or muslin, and set aside till
thoroughly dry.

Should any feathers be disengaged, during the mounting,
they must be kept, and, when the bird is dry, we can replace
them in their proper situations with a pair of forceps, after they
have been touched on their shafts with the cement; the feathers
around the place in which we intend to insert them, must be
held up with the probing-needle (plate VI. fig. 10).

If any of the feathers are deranged in mounting, and have
got a wrong set, the only way to remedy the defect is to pull
them out with forceps, and re-insert them with cement.

OF MOUNTING BIRDS, FEATHER BY FEATHER.

Rare birds are frequently received from foreign countries,
the skins of which are in such a state of decay, that it is im-
possible to mount them by the ordinary processes above de-
scribed. The only way in which they can be preserved, is to
mount them feather by feather, which however is a very tedious
method. It is as follows.

Procure a piece of soft pliable wire, such as is used by bell-

46 OF MOUNTING BIRDS, FEATHER BY FEATHER.

hangers ; or take some of the ordinary wire used, and make it
red-hot in the fire, and allow it to cool gradually, when it will
become quite pliable. Take five pieces of this, of different
lengths, and form them into the skeleton of a body ; namely,
two for the back, one on each side, and one to represent the
breast-bone. Imitate the shape of the bird’s body, as nearly as
possible. The wires must be roughened with a file, at the place
where all the wires meet, at the neck and rump ; and first wrap
the place next the neck round with strong thread or fine brass
wire. The two pieces intended for the back must bend gently
downwards, and be gradually separated from each other to-
wards the centre, and brought together again at the place in-
tended for the rump, whither they must intersect each other,
and be twisted two or three times, to keep them in their place ;
they are then spread out as supports for the tail; the side
pieces are next formed, so as to represent the natural bulge of
a bird’s body, and attached to the rump ; the piece representing
the breast is then formed, joined at the rump, and afterwards
continued as long as the other tail-pieces, to support the centre
of the tail ; while at the front extremity a piece is left, for the
purpose of forming a neck to which to attach the head. Two
leg-wires are attached to the side-wires, by being rolled
round them for several turns. These will be better understood
from the following figures. No. 1 . is a profile of the skeleton
wire body, and No. 2. a section of it viewed from above.

After this body has been properly formed, it must be wrapped
round with tow-sliver (see Articles used in Stuffing), and the
neck thickened to its required dimensions. When this is ac-
complished, the head, legs, wings, and tail are softened in the
usual manner ; the eyes are then fixed in with some cotton
introduced into the orbits, with a little of the cement. The wings
and tail are now placed on a table, witli a fiat leaden weignt

OF MOUNTING BIRDS, FEATHER BY FEATHER.

47

above each, to restore them to their natural shape. The leg-
wires are then passed through the legs, commencing at the
top, and bringing them out at the soles of the feet, and left with
a piece extending beyond the claws.

The tail is now fixed on, by first attaching to it a quantity of
cotton with the cement, and, when dry, it is fixed to the part
intended as the rump.

The feet of the bird must be fixed into a piece of wood, as a
perch, the ends of which must be left some inches beyond the
body. The end next the tail is fixed into a table-vice, with the
belly upwards, and the head pointing towards the operator.
The feathers are now put on, commencing, under the tail, or
crissum, with what are termed the under-tail coverts : a coating
of cement must be previously laid on, to attach the feathers
with. It is proceeded with upwards to the breast, and finally
the length of the neck, taking care to put the proper feathers
on their respective sides, as the side-feathers have all an in-
clination to one side. The bird is now turned with the back
up, still keeping the head towards the stuffer ; and the wings
are fixed on with cement, and pins forced through the beards
of the feathers to conceal the heads. When this is done, put
on the feathers of the rump, and proceed upwards, as has been
done with the belly. After reaching the top of the neck, the
head is then fixed on with some cotton immersed in the cement,
and allowed to dry before attempting to put on the feathers.

Jn this mode of mounting a bird there are several things
which must be attentively adhered to ; these are — first, not to
put the feathers too thick, for there is a danger of running
short ; secondly, all the shafts of the feathers must have a small
bit cut off the tip, so as to admit the cement and to give them a
firmer hold ; and thirdly, that the feathers should all occupy
their respective parts and fourthly, that they should be ar-
ranged as they are in nature on these parts, as the disposition of
every part of the body is peculiar to itself.

At first, this mode of setting up birds will be found a difficult
task, but, by a little practice and experience, it will become
familiar and comparatively easy, although it will always be
found a tedious process. We have seen some specimens set up
in this way, which we could hardly detect from those mounted
in the ordinary manner.

48

BIRDS OF PREY.

Besides, what we have already said concerning' the stuffing
and preparing* of birds, there are many details connected with
particular species which demand our attention, and which can
only be described as regarding that species. It will, however,
be impossible for us to enter into all these minutely, but only
give a few examples as general guides. We shall take these
in systematic succession.

ORDER I— RAPACES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.

In the preservation of the feathers of Birds, little else is
required to prevent the dissipation of their colours than to keep
them as much as possible from air and light. These two agents,
which were indispensable to their beauty and perfection in a
living state, now exercise their influence as destroyers, and that
influence will sooner or later work its ends according to the
quality, texture, or colour of the object with which it is con-
tending. The feathers are now deprived of two agents, which
in a living state contributed to their vigour and their beauty,
namely, the internal circulating juices which they received
from the body of the animal, and the external application of
oil by the bill of the bird, supplied from a gland which is
placed over the rump of all birds.

The colours of the rapacious tribes are not so evanescent as
those of many others, as they, for the most part, are composed
of intense browns and blacks, which are not so easily absorbed
by light or air, so that they continue for a very long period
without any sensible difference. There are, however, certain
other parts which are liable to almost immediate change of co-
lour after the death of the animals, and these are the cere and
skin of the legs and feet, and the naked skin on the heads
and necks of Vultures and their congeners. We shall treat
of these individually.

OF VULTURES.

The birds of the genera Vultur and Catiiartes of
Temminck’s arrangement, are distinguished from their heads
and generally the upper parts of their necks and a spot

VULTURES.

on the breast being naked. Now, this naked skin usually
loses colour and becomes of a dirty brown or yellow. It is
evident, therefore, that if we wish to give these parts in our
stuffed specimen the appearance they exhibited while alive,
artificial means must be employed ; and this can only be
done by the application of paints or coloured varnishes. It is
well known, that during life these naked skins on the head
and neck, were liable to change of colour from the influence
of the passions of the bird, as either excited by love, fear, or
rage; all of which must be considered in preserving. For
example, the skin of the ash-coloured Vulture (Vultur cine-
reus), is of a livid blue colour when the bird is in a
quiescent state, but under the influence of love or rage,
becomes of a bright reddish hue ; so that either of these must
be adopted in our preserving, according to the character we
intend giving.

The King of the Vultures ( Cathartes Papa), has a fleshy
cere of a bright orange colour, or rather inclining to vermilion,
which is prolonged above and between the nostrils to an ele-
vated comb, a scarlet circle surrounds the eye, the remainder
of the head is purplish black. The back of the head is cover-
ed by a patch of short blackish down, and behind the eye
on either side are several broad and deep wrinkles of skin,
giving origin to a thick and prominent fold, which extends ob-
liquely downwards along the whole of the neck. This fold,
when the bird is in an unexcited state, is of a reddish-brown,
mingled with blue, and is traversed by numerous lines of mi-
nute black hairs. From the upper part of the neck, which is
of a bright red, the colour gradually becomes less intense, and
fades into orange and yellow as it descends towards the lower
part. The legs and claws are of a dusky black, but sometimes
the former are reddish, and at other times of a dirty white.
This depends on the age of the bird.

Now, as all these colours, which we have described, are lia
ble to change, immediately after death, it is evident that con-
siderable nicety will be required to give the preserved speci-
men the appearance of nature. These must, therefore, be
supplied artificially with the varnish colours, which we have
particularly described in their proper place ; as also the com-
binations for the formation of compound colours. The reddish-
E '

50

OWI.S.

brown colour mentioned, of which the fold is composed, must
be touched by a mixture of the scarlet varnish, with a little
powdered burnt-umber, and the blue streaks with which it is
traversed, coloured above with cobalt blue. All the varnish
colours have a tendency to shine, which, it will be evident, is
not the character of any part of the skin, or caruncle of the
bird described. As soon, therefore, as it is thoroughly dry,
which will be in about an hour, the whole surface must be
gently rubbed with very fine sand paper, which will completely
remove the gloss, and give the appearance of nature.

Some nicety will be required in painting betwixt the hairs,
but it can be easily managed with a little caution. Sometimes
these hairs are liable to become brown, in which case they
can be touched with the black varnish.

As these birds are inhabitants of warm climates, some care
is requisite, after killing them, to prevent decay ; the tendons
of the legs should be extracted to prevent their being attack-
ed by moths, and their place supplied by some cotton and pre-
servatives. The tendons are extracted by means of a longitu-
dinal incision made behind the tarsus. The edges of this in-
cision can easily be brought together when the bird is under
the process of preparation.

OWLS.

In skinning the different species of the Owl genus, much
care is to be exercised in drawing the skin of the neck over
the head, as it is generally so very large in proportion to the
thickness of the neck, that it is no easy task to get it to pass
over without either tearing or stretching the skin ; this must
be assisted by the use of the nails of the thumb, and easing it
all round with the end of the scalpel handle.

The attitudes of these birds are always very simple. They
are generally sitting in an upright posture, or devouring
their prey, in which little energy is expressed.

ORDER II.— OMNIVOROUS BIRDS.

Birds of this Order will admit of much more variety of
attitude in the stuffing than those of the former. For the

YOKE-FOOTED BIRDS.

51

most part they are gregarious, and many of them preda-
tory, and generally cunning and intelligent. To give them
attitude and expression corresponding with their habits, is the
business of the stuffier. The Paradisea, or birds of Paradise,
are of this Order, for the manner of mounting which, we refer
to the plan of setting up birds feather by feather.

ORDER III.— INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS.

A rich field for the display of taste is to be found in setting
up the Insectivorous birds. Here we have every variety of
action, the species for the most part being lively and active in
their habits, contention in seizing their prey, hopping from
twig to twig, watching the movements of insects, and suspend-
ed from the points of the most slender twigs in the act of
seizing them. Many of these are also songsters of the grove,
who delight us with melody, so that putting them in the act of
singing has always a pleasing effect.

ORDER IV GRANIVOROUS BIRDS.

The same variety will be found in this as in the above Order.
Many of them have, however, peculiar interest from the sin-
gular construction of their nests ; and if stuffed in connection
with these they have always an excellent effect.

ORDER V.— ZYGODACTYLOUS OR YOKE-
FOOTED BIRDS.

Here again the prevailing dispositions and habits of the
birds are widely different from any of the former Orders. They
have two toes before and two behind, but the exterior hind toe
is sometimes reversible ; that is, it can be turned considerably
to the front, or be spread horizontally along a branch.

Their food consists chiefly of caterpillars, worms, and insects,
but some species live on soft fruits. The construction of their
toes gives them considerable powers in assuming attitudes on
E 2

52

ANISODACTYLI.

branches ; but they are devoid of all the playful agility of the
Insectivorous and Granivorous birds. In this genus are the
Parrots and their congeners, remarkable for their powers in
climbing branches, and in suspending themselves in various
positions by the limbs. Great latitude may be used with the
setting up of this tribe — their colours are for the most part
very brilliant, but they should not be too much exposed to the
light. Those having purple, orange, or liliac tints, are par-
ticularly liable to change.

The legs, cere, and naked parts of the face of Parrots, and
their congeners, will require, for the most part, to be refreshed
with the coloured varnishes. Their limbs and bills have fre-
quently the appearance of being powdered. In these species,
this appearance is to be given by washing the bill, &c. with mas-
tic varnish and dusting the Pollen powder through a pepper-
box over them. This powder is described in the Chapter of
Receipts.

In this Order are also the Woodpeckers ( Picus ), which are
true climbing birds, and should be attached to the trunks or
branches of trees, — they seldom expand their wings, — they are
assisted in climbing by their tail, consequently, it almost always
forms an inclined plane to the back of the bird.

ORDER VI.— ANISODACTYLI.

The habits of this Order are much like the former, all of
them being climbers and insectivorous. Their tongues are more
or less extensible, — they have three toes before and one be-
hind, always of unequal length, hence the name of the
order.

Many of the species possess the most splendid and gor-
geous plumage ; for example, the Creepers ( Certhia ), and the
Humming-birds ( Trochilus ), the beauty of whose plumage, in
general, baffles all description. Those having the purple or
orange in their feathers, should be specially protected from air
and light, as these colours are exceedingly evanescent.

GALLING.

53

ORDER VII— ALCYONES.

This Order is also remarkable for the beauty of the colours
of its species, which admit of considerable extent of attitude.
They, however, neither walk nor climb ; they take insects
while on the wing, and frequently on the surface of the water.
It contains the Bee-Eaters ( Merops ), and the Kingfishers
( Alcedo ), &c.

ORDER VIII— CHELIDONES.

These birds are entirely insectivorous, and take their food
always on the wing. They sometimes perch on trees, but ad-
mit of little variety in point of attitude, and are not remark-
able for the beauty of their colours. The Swallow (Hirundo),
Swift ( Cypselus ), and Goatsucker ( Caprimulyus ), are of this
order.

ORDER IX. — COLUMBiE.

This Order contains but one genus, namely. Pigeons (Co-
lumbce). The members of this genus are proverbial for the
general elegance of their form, the variety and beauty of their
plumage, and gentleness of their manners ; they, however,
admit of but little variety in point of attitude, the principal
thing to be attended to is the plumpness and general beauti-
fully rounded contour of the body, more especially the breast.

ORDER X. — GALLIN7E

In this varied genus there is much to exercise the skill of the
Taxidermist. It comprehends the various Peacocks ( Pavo ),
the domestic poultry ( Gallus ), the Pheasant ( Phasianus ), the
Turkey ( Meleagris ), the Grouse {Teirao), Partridge ( Perdix ),
and other genera.

The comb of the Cock and its wattles will require to be
e3

54

CURSORES.

coloured with the red varnish, to which must be added a little
lake ; as also the comb of the Guinea fowl ( Numida ). The
particular passion of the animal at the time must also have to be
studied, and the colour of his head and throat, which is liable to
great change under different impulses. The male pinnated
Grouse has a large, skinny membrane on each side of its neck,
which it inflates during the season of love, and which is in size
and colour similar to a ripe orange. This must be coloured with
the red varnish, mixed with either gamboge, or chrome-yellow.

The general habits of these birds are familiar to most people.

ORDER XI. — ALECTORIDES.

The birds of this order frequent, some of them, open coun-
tries, while others inhabit the banks of streams. The former are
continually in search of serpents and lizards ; in which pursuit
they may be very appropriately preserved. Those of the latter
kind live principally on insects and worms. Little can be
said as to their attitudes : these must be left to the taste of the
operator.

ORDER XII.— CURSORES.

The birds of this order live mostly in the fields, in desert
places remote from woods ; feeding on herbs and seeds. They
seldom fly, trusting to their speed of foot for safety. At the
head of it stands the Ostrich ( Struthio Camelus ). This
stupendous bird, the largest of the feathered kind, reaches
from eight to ten feet in height. It falls to the lot of few to
preserve this bird ; but as the frame-work for it must ne-
cessarily be commensurate with its size, the manner of con-
structing it we shall describe : —

A piece of wood eighteen inches long, and four inches in
circumference, is first taken, and a hole bored eight inches
from one of its ends, from which form a groove, to the shortest
end, both above and below ; four inches from the other ex-
tremity two holes are pierced, at four and six inches from the
end. The wire which is to support the head of the Ostrich is

CURSORES.

55

passed through the perforation, which is eight inches from the
end ; it must extend eight inches out of the hole ; the two ends
of the wire are now pressed flat down into the furrows, which
have been formed for their reception. Strong wire nails are
put in obliquely to keep the wires in their places ; the heads
of the nails crossing above the wires ; and by the addition of
strong iron wire they can be still more firmly bound down. The
long end of the wire, which has been left uncut, must now be cut
off, corresponding to the length of the neck, head, and bill, of
the Ostrich, which must be accurately measured. The wire
must be at least a quarter of an inch in diameter. It must be
inserted into the neck previous to putting in the stuffing. The
head and neck are now filled with chopped tow, and when
properly stuffed, as well as part of the back, the wood must be
placed in the middle of the body to supply the place of the
oval in smaller birds. The leg- wires must be at least three-
eighths of an inch in diameter. When the first one has been
forced up, it must now be extended to the hole, which was six
inches from the end, passed through it for the length of six or
eight inches ; curve it back to the end, and fix it down with
two nails. The same is done with the wire of the other leg,
which must be passed through the other hole. The whole
are now firmly wrapped round with cord. The other parts
of the stuffing are done as directed for smaller birds.

Besides a strong application of arsenical soap, we would
recommend Mr Waterton’s plan of touching all the feathers
with the solution of corrosive sublimate, and the roots of the
feathers should be well soaked with turpentine, which ought
to be repeated at intervals of some months.

The same method of stuffing is adopted with the Emu {Dro-
miceus Nova Hollandia ), the Galeated Cassowary ( Cassuari -
us Galeatus ), and other large birds. The head of the latter
bird is of a fine vermilion behind, and also the wattle on the
throat, with its appendages ; these must be coloured with the
red varnish ; the sides of the face and throat are of a beautiful
violet tinge, which is composed of lake and Antwerp blue, in
combination with the white varnish. When dry, these must be
dimmed with sand paper, as formerly directed ; the legs must
get a coating of the same colour, with the addition of some
white-lead to render it paler.

56

FLAMINGO.

ORDER XIII— GRALLATORES.

This order consists of birds which frequent the sea-shore,
margins of lakes and rivers, feeding on fish, worms, &c. In
stuffing, they must necessarily always be placed in standing or
walking postures. They walk with a slow and measured step.
Many of them enter the water without swimming, and hence
their designation, Waders. As we recommended in the Vulture
tribe, the tarsi must be opened, and the tendons taken away
to prevent putridity, to which they are very liable.

Birds of this order must be placed on flat boards, or circles
of wood turned for the purpose. Their skins are of a very
greasy nature, and require to be particularly well primed with
the arsenical soap, and after they have absorbed this, with the
solution of corrosive sublimate. We must particularly notice

the flamingo. — Phcenicopterus ruber.

This bird is one of those, whose head cannot be passed with-
in the skin of the neck during the operation of skinning, so
that a different mode of treatment becomes necessary. When
obstacles of this nature come in our way, we must, in the first
place, bare the neck as high as possible, by introducing the
scalpel-handle betwixt the skull and the skin. The neck is
then cut off1 as high as we can reach, and the skin pulled
straight while it is yet soft. It now becomes necessary to make
an incision behind the head, by which to remove the remaining
vertebrae and the brain of the bird ; the skin must be laid back
to the right and left, and cut as low as the first vertebrae. The
occipital hole is then enlarged, that we may more easily extract
the brain ; and the eyes are taken out by the same opening.
The orifice is then sewed up with very fine stitches, taking
care to separate the feathers at every stitch.

The wire of the neck must be placed before the stuffing is
commenced. The other parts are stuffed in the ordinary way.
The leg-wires are next put in. The bone of the tarsus is
pierced near the heels with a triangular bodkin (plate VJ.,fig.
8). The point of the leg- wire is now introduced into the per-
foration. When the point has reached the knee-joint, we must

palmipedes.

57

press pretty hard while we turn it round and round, till it
penetrates the apophysis of the tarsus, after which, it will
easily be forced to the top of the thigh. The feet being pal-
mated, must be spread, so that the membrane which connects
the toes may be distinctly seen, and the webs put down with
small pins.

The same mode of treatment is pursued with the Jabiru’s
(Mycteria, Australasia, and Americana).

ORDER XIV— PINNATIPEDES.

The birds of this order are all swimmers ; they are covered
with a very thick, glossy, and close plumage ; their legs are
placed far behind. They are but ill adapted for any variety
of form in stuffing. The Grebes ( Podicepes ), when out of the
water, can hardly walk, and sit quite erect with the point of
their toes merely seen beyond their feathers. An error very
common in stuffing this bird, is exposing the tarsus too much,
which, in a living state, is hardly ever visible while sitting.
They are very easily prepared, as the thickness of the feather-
ing conceals most defects.

ORDER XV.— PALMIPEDES.

Almost the whole of this numerous order are sea-birds.
Their plumage is very thick, and, consequently, they are easily
stuffed, but susceptible of little variety of attitude. The chief
thing to be attended to is the placing of the legs. They are,
for the most part, set far back. Some of the bodies are erect
when sitting, with the legs almost entirely concealed, and
others, such as the swan, goose, &c., have their bodies placed
horizontally. The thigh-bone (plate I., fig./.), should be for-
ced close to the breast in front, with an angle of forty-five de-
grees below. The body should be nearly horizontal, and the
neck in the form of an S.

The Duck tribe have, in general, large heads, and, like
the Flamingo, cannot be passed through the neck, so that it

58

INEKTES.

frequently becomes necessary to make an incision at the nape
for extracting the brain and eyes.

Others of this order have very fat skins inside, so that great
caution is necessary to prevent it from soiling the plumage
while taking off the skin. A very large proportion of cotton
and tow, therefore, becomes necessary.

ORDER XVI.— INERTES.

Little can be said respecting this order ; but what we have
just remarked concerning the former order, will apply also to
this.

OF THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BIRDS.

Few objects of Natural History are more interesting than
the nests of birds. To the reflecting naturalist, they open up
a wide field for inquiry. Speaking of the examination of
birds, in the exercise of their mechanical arts of constructing
nests, professor Rennie says, “ This work is the business of
their lives — the duty which calls forth that wonderful ingenu-
ity, which no experience can teach, and which no human skill
can rival. The infinite variety of modes in which the nests of
birds are constructed, and the exquisite adaptation of the nest
to the peculiar habits of the individual, offer a subject of al-
most exhaustless interest. ” The number and variety of the
eggs of birds are curious subjects of contemplation, and should
be carefully noted whenever opportunity offers. They are as
essential to the personal history of the species, as any other
part of our inquiries.

Professor Rennie’s interesting work on the architecture of
birds needs only to be read, to excite in those, who are unac-
quainted with the subject, sufficient interest to induce an at-
tentive notice of them. He has arranged them in systematic
order, according to the construction of these nests, under
the following heads; namely: — Mining birds. Ground-build-
ers, Mason birds. Carpenter birds, Platform-builders, Bas-
ket-making birds. Weaver birds. Tailor birds. Felt-making
birds. Cementers, Dome-builders, and Parasite birds. It

OF THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BIRDS.

59

only requires an examination of the nests themselves, which
he has thus arranged, to convince us how appropriate the terms
are, which he has applied to their several structures.

The eggs are emptied of their contents by making a very
small hole at each end with the triangular borer (plate VI.,
fig. 8), or with the point (fig. 9, or 10). By blowing at one of
the ends, the contents will escape by the other, unless the
young has been already formed ; in which case a larger hole
must be made in the side of the egg, and the contents removed
with a small hook. The hole should then be stopped up by
pasting a little gold-beater’s leaf over it. At the Jardin des
Plantes, Paris, glove-leather, or linen, are used for this pur-
pose. The eggs are then either returned to their nest, in
which they ought to be cemented, or should be fixed down by
one side to cards, with the name and locality attached.

The best' manner of conveying loose eggs to a distance, is
to put some cotton at the bottom of the nest, and then another
layer above them. The nests should all be put in separate
boxes if possible, and so packed that the pressure of the lid
may not injure the eggs, or a box with several compartments
should be used, taking care that each is carefully marked. It
would also be of consequence to have the nests attached to
the branches, with those species which build on trees, which
will enable us to trace the ingenious means employed by those
little animals in constructing their habitations. In sending-
home specimens from a foreign country, the seams of the box
should be covered by pitched cloth to protect them from the
influence of moisture. •

In foreign countries, strict attention should be paid to the
different localities in which the various species construct their
nests, and the trees, or plants, or kinds of soil, carefully no-
ted ; and also, whether the same species invariably fix upon
the same trees and soils for building, or what are the kinds of
trees or soil which they choose ; besides, whether the same
materials are invariably used. All these will throw light upon
some curious deductions that may be drawn from a contempla-
tion of this part of their economy.

60

TORTOISES AND TURTLES.

CHAP. III.

ON SKINNING, PRESERVING, AND SETTING UP REP-
TILES, FISHES, AND MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS, &C.

CLASS III— REPTILES.

TORTOISES AND TURTLES.

The bodies of this tribe are enveloped in two plates, or shields,
the upper one is formed of the ribs, and the under one of the
sternum, or breast-bone.

Skinning. — The first operation is to separate the back and
breast shells with a strong short knife, or chisel. If the force
of the hand is inadequate, a mallet may be used, taking care
not to strike so hard as to crack the shell.

These two bony plates being covered by the skin, or by
scales, the scapula, and all the muscles of the arm and neck, in
place of being attached to the ribs and spine, are placed below,
from which cause the tortoise has been termed a retroverted
animal. The vertebral extremity of the scapula is articulated
with the shield, and the opposite extremity of the clavicle with
the breast-plate in such a manner, that the shoulders form a
ring for the passage of the trachea and oesophagus.

After the Turtle is opened, all the flesh which adheres to
the breast-plate, and also to the upper shell, is removed,
while attention is paid to the parts as above described. The
head, fore-feet, and tail are skinned as in quadrupeds ; but
none of these must be removed from the upper shell, but left
attached..

All the fleshy parts being removed, the shells are washed
out with a sponge, and carefully dried. They are then slightly
rubbed with the arsenical soap.

Stuffing. — Wires are now passed through the middle of
the legs, after the skin has been rubbed with the preservative.

SERPENTS IN GENERAL.

61

The skull is returned to its place, and the whole of the head,
neck, and legs stuffed with chopped flax or tow. The parts
of the skin, which have been cut, are then sewed together.
The back and breast plates are then united by four small holes,
being bored at their edges, and united by strings or small
wires. The junction of the bones may then be attached with
the cement, coloured so as to correspond with the shell.

If the calipash is dirty, it may be cleaned with a slight
solution of nitric-acid and water; afterwards clean washed,
oiled, and then rubbed hard with a woollen rag, to give it a
polish.

CROCODILES AND LIZARDS IN GENERAL.

Skinning. — All this tribe are skinned in the same manner as
quadrupeds. Care is, however, required in skinning the tails
of the smaller species, as they are very liable to break. The
skins being of a dry nature require but little of the pre-
servative. After they are thoroughly dried they will keep a
very long time without decay.

Stuffing. — Stuff them as directed for quadrupeds. They
admit of but little variety of attitude. The small species are
exceedingly apt to change colour in drying ; which must be
imitated with the coloured varnishes, and afterwards dimmed
with sand paper. To keep them in their natural colours, they
should be preserved in spirits.

The skins of such as are glossy should be varnished after
they are perfectly dry.

SERPENTS IN GENERAL.

Skinning. — In skinning serpents there is some nicety re-
quired, to cut them so as not to disfigure the scales; the
opening should be made in the side, commencing at the ter-
mination of the scales; and they should on no account be
divided, as upon their number the species is mostly determined.

It is a very frequent practice to send home serpents without
the head, which renders them quite unfit for any scientific
purpose. This proceeds from the fear of receiving poison
from the fangs. But there is not the slightest danger of being

F

FROGS AND TOADS.

62

affected, as these can easily be cut out by means of pincers.
Tiie head should be cleaned and the brain removed, in the
same manner as recommended for birds and quadrupeds, the
skull anointed and then returned into the skin.

When the skin is removed, it may be rolled up and packed
in small space. The simplest way to preserve small species is
to put them in spirits, which must not be too strong, as it will
destroy the colours. See Receipts.

Mr Burchell, in his four years’ journey through Africa, glued
the skins of the smaller serpents perfectly flat on paper, which
preserved the size of the animal, and the skin retained all the
beauty of life.

Stuffing. — The skin, if not recent, must be first softened
in the manner recommended for birds, page 44. A piece of
wire is taken the length of the animal, which must be wrapped
round with tow till it is of a proper thickness, and above the
whole, a spiral band of sliver should be carefully wrapped. It
is then placed inside of the skin, and sewed up. The eyes are
placed in, as directed for quadrupeds and birds. When dry,
give the serpent a coat of varnish, and then twist it into any
attitude wished. A favourite and striking one is to have it
wound round some animal, and in the act of killing it.

FROGS AND TOADS.

Skinning. — The mouth is opened, and the first vertebra of
the neck is cut. The whole inside of the mouth is cut out
with scissors. The two jaws are next raised up, and the skin
is pushed back with the fingers of the right hand ; while the
body is drawn back in a contrary direction with the other hand,
and the whole body is then drawn out at the mouth. The legs
are then returned to their proper placfe.

Stuffing. — The simplest method of stuffing these animals,
is with sand. A small funnel is placed into the mouth, and
pour in well dried sand. When full, a small piece of cotton
is pushed into the throat, with some of the cement, to keep
the sand from escaping on moving the animal.

The Frog is then placed on a board, and in an attitude.
When quite dry, give it a coat of varnish. When this has per-
fectly dried, very small perforations are made under the belly

or SKINNING FISH IN GENERAL.

63

with the point of a needle, and the sand allowed to escape,
leaving- the body of its natural form.

These animals are liable to change of colour from drying,
and should, therefore, be painted with the varnish to their
natural hues. There is less difficulty \%th Toads in this re-
spect, as they are usually of a brown colour, and not liable to
much change.

They may be perfectly preserved in spirits.

CLASS IV.— FISHES.

This class of animals, in their native element, have many
attractions : some for the singularity of their forms, and others
for the resplendent and beautifully contrasted arrangement of
their colours ; while many exhibit iridescent tints which vie
with the splendour of the Peacock, or Humming-bird, reflect-
ing vivid, golden, metallic hues of all shades. But these are
too evanescent for the powers of the Taxidermist; for no
sooner are they removed from the water, than their transient
and fading beauty vanishes for ever.

The best method of securing the scales and colours of Fish,
is, as soon as they are caught, to apply cambric or tissue pa-
per to them, which will soon dry and adhere firmly ; the body
may be then taken out and the skin dried. When the skin is
to be stuffed, roll it in a moist cloth, which will not only ren-
der it pliable, but also soften the tissue paper, so as it can be
removed, when the colours will be found to be much brighter
than by any other method with which we are yet acquainted.

LAMPREYS, EELS, AND OTHER FISH OF SIMILAR FORM.

These species may be skinned in the same manner as Frogs
and Toads, by drawing the body through the mouth.

OF SKINNING FISH IN GENERAL.

The fish should be procured as fresh as possible, more par-
ticularly if it is one of those on which the scales are loosely at-
tached. Lay it on one side and cut out the gills with a pair
f 2

61 ON SKINNING FISH IN GENERAL.

of scissors, then introduce a little tow or a piece of sponge
into the place to prevent the blood from flowing during the
process of skinning ; carefully wipe the sides of the fish with
a damp sponge ; let the fins be raised and gently extended,
and two pieces of paper, something the shape of each, be
placed under them, only extending a little beyond them. See
plate II. fig. 1. Coat the paper with a weak solution of Gum
Arabic, and put a piece of similar size on the top of the fin,
by pressing these gently they will adhere and dry in a few mi-
nutes ; these will keep the fins extended, and preserve them
during the operation of stuffing. When these are dry, take a
piece of tissue paper or thin silk, and press it gently on one
side of the fish. The natural glutinous matter which cov-
ers the scales will be sufficient to make it adhere firmly, it
will soon dry and form a strong protection to the scales du-
ring the skinning; without this precaution the skin could not
be removed from Mullet, Sea Beaver, &c., without the scales
being much disfigured, and losing many of them. Indeed, in
such fishes, it is not amiss to put on an additional coating of
paper with gum-water. This will not only secure the scales,
but will also assist in keeping the proper form of the fish, by
preventing distention.

When these papers are thoroughly dry, turn the fish on a
soft cloth, with the uncovered side upwards, and open it with
sharp scissors from the bottom of the tail- fin to nearly the point
of the snout, keeping as correctly on the lateral line as possi-
ble, which can be seen in most fishes. The cheek should be
afterwards cut open, so that the flesh may be removed from it,
cut also the flesh from the opposite cheek, and supply its place
by cotton. The skin must now be detached from the flesh,
which will require some care at first. It must be commenced
at the head, and separating it downwards with the assistance
of a knife, and the fin-bones must be cut through with scis-
sors. The spine must now be cut through close to the head,
and also at the tail, and the body removed.

All the animal matter having been completely removed from
the skin, the inside must be wiped dry, and the preservative
applied in the same manner as directed for birds and quad-
rupeds. Great care is necessary to prevent it from being too
much distended.

STUFFING.

65

In Sharks and large Fishes, an incision is made below
the head, and extended to the fin of the tail ; the skin is then
separated on each side with a scalpel, cutting' back as far as
possible, so that the vertebra may be cut close to the head.
The tail is then skinned. The head is pushed inwards, and
the skin passed over it above, and all the cartilage cut carefully
away. Care must be taken not to enlarge the branchial
openings too much, which would render it necessary to sew
them up again, and it is not easy to hide a seam in a fish’s skin.

Diadon, Tetradon, and Balistes, and their congeners,
are opened by the belly. The ostracion is enveloped in a
skin, which consists of a single piece, the tail of which only is
free and flexible. The opening in the belly must not be large ;
the tail must be opened, the flesh cut away, and stuffed with
cotton.

STUFFING.

The skins being properly anointed, are filled with tow or
cotton. This must be so managed that there will be no pro-
minences on the outside of the skin, which, in fishes, is smooth
and even for the most part. When properly filled, they must
be sewed up, and set aside to dry in the air, but not exposed to
the rays of the sun. In a few days, the papers with which the
fins were extended are taken off, by damping them with a
sponge. The glass eyes are now introduced, after filling the
orbits with cotton and a little cement to secure them in their
places. The skins may then be varnished, and laid aside to
dry. Mr Bullock, of the London Museum, acquired consider-
able skill in setting up fish. He always used turpentine varnish.
Some good specimens of his mounting are to be seen in the
Edinburgh College Museum, They are highly creditable
productions, and have as much the appearance of the living
subjects as any we have seen.

Sharks. — In stuffing these large fishes, it is necessary to use
a stick for a centre support. This must also enter the head,
through the opening of the throat. If it is intended that the
specimen shall be suspended from the ceiling, wire-hooks must
be fastened into the wood. From these must be placed upright
wires, so that they penetrate the skin, and pass through the

66

STUFFING.

back. Let the whole internal surface of the skin be well
rubbed with the preservative. The body is then stuffed to its
full size, and afterwards sewed up. The stuffing of the head
must be completed through the orbits of the eyes, and also by
the mouth. This finished, the glass eyes are inserted, as in
other animals, and fixed by means of cement.

Many species of fish have semi-transparent cartilages con-
nected with the eyes. These must be imitated with gum-
arabic and powdered starch, as well as the cornea of the eyes.

The skins of all fish, which are similar to that of Sharks,
must be well supplied with spirits of turpentine, after they are
mounted, more particularly the head and fins ; but as they are
not glossy, they do not require to be varnished.

When the fins are strong, it is necessary to keep them ex-
tended by means of a wire introduced through them.

In the Diadons, the chief thing to be attended to, beyond
what we have above stated, is, to take care that the spines,
with which their skins are beset, are not broken or depressed in
any way.

The Fishing Frog, ( Lophius Piscatorius J, is very easily pre-
served, as the colours are not so liable to change as in many other
species.

Salmon, Trout, Tench, Carp, Pike, &c. are very easily pre-
served, as the scales are firmly attached to the skin ; and
although they become somewhat dim from drying, their colours
and brilliancy are considerably restored by means of varnish,
if applied before they are thoroughly dried.

After a lapse of time, the varnish will rise into little scales ;
to remove these, nitric acid, diluted in water, must be applied to
the whole external surface, which has the effect of completely
taking off the varnish, or at least of raising it from the skin,
which, when allowed to dry, can be wholly removed by rubbing
it with a small brush. It may then be varnished again : when
dry, it will ever afterwards continue quite solid.

The late Mr Stuckbury had a method of preparing the fresli
water fishes of Britain, which was much admired at the time.
He skinned them under water, by which means he retained
the scales in great perfection. But this method is too trouble-
some to be generally adopted.

What is above recommended will apply to almost all fishes;

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

67

but where there is any difficulty, it must be left to the ingenuity
of the operator.

Those travellers who do not wish to take the trouble of
skinning fishes themselves, should preserve them in barrels of
spirits. Each should be wrapped up in a separate piece of
cloth, to prevent their scales being rubbed off by friction.

When travellers intend to preserve fish in spirits, they ought
to provide themselves with casks of from four to ten gallons,
well bound with iron hoops. An opening is cut near the bung-
hole, of the dimensions of six inches by four, of this shape u-
The piece of wood cut out must be so bevelled, outwardly, tha t it
cannot fall into the cask, and must be used as a stopper, when
the barrel has been filled with specimens. The fish put in
should each be numbered with a small leaden ticket, or piece
of wood, with the number turned or cut out, and corresponding
notes taken of its locality, whether male or female, and of its
name, if known, or the provincial name of the country, with any
other circumstance connected with its history which can be
procured. When the barrel is filled, the stopper must be put
in, and hermetically sealed, to prevent the evaporation of the
liquor.

If a female is procured, much swollen with spawn, an opening
must be made at the anus, and the spawn extracted by it.
The liquor must not be too strong, otherwise it will injure the
colours of the fish. See the strength mentioned in the receipts.

DIVISION II— INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

CLASS I. MOLLUSCA.

This class contains all the animals which are soft, and des-
titute of a spine ; namely. Cuttle Fish, Univalve and Bivalve
Shells, Turbinated Animals, and the Cirrhipeda.

Cuttle Fish, and all other Mullascous animals, can only
be preserved in spirits. The same observation applies to the
animals which inhabit that numerous tribe called Testaceous
Shells. They must be detached from the shells, and put into
spirits, while the shells themselves must be preserved, inde-
pendent of the animal.

68

MOLLUSC A.

Shells naturally arrange themselves under three distinct
heads ; Marine, Land, and Fluviatile, or Fresh Water.

Marine Shells are only to be expected perfect, when pro-
cured in a living state. The way to extract the animal, is to
pour some warm water on it ; but, if made too hot, it is liable
to crack the shells. When the animals are dead, they can
easily be pulled out with any hooked instrument, or fork, or, if
the animal is small, by a common pin. This applies to all
Marine Shells, whether Univalve, Bivalve, or Tubular. It is
of great consequence to preserve the ligament of Bivalve
Shells entire, so that the valves may not be separated. The
animals of Land and Fresh Water Shells are killed by the
same means, only that the water requires to be veiy hot.

Unless the shells are covered with any extraneous matter, it
is not necessary to clean them. Marine Shells are, however,
very liable to be incrusted with other marine bodies, particularly
with Serpula and Balani, &c. These must be started off by means
of a sharp instrument : an engraving tool is well adapted for this
purpose. This must be done with great caution, in species
which have spines and other excrescences, as they are very
liable to be broken. Should any of the calcareous matter still
adhere, this must be removed, by applying to it a very weak
mixture of muriatic acid and water, applied with the point of a
quill, and then plunged into water, and allowed to remain till
the acid is quite extracted. But on no account whatever, at-
tempt to eradicate these parasitic bodies by means of acid, or
acid and water alone, as the chances are that the shell will be
completely destroyed by their application. We have seen
many fine and valuable shells destroyed by an injudicious
application of acids — they should never be used when it can
possibly be avoided. We have, on the other hand, seen shells
which were so completely enveloped in calcareous crust, that it
was impossible to trace their external surface, most thoroughly
cleared of all this, without being touched at all by acids, the
whole being removed by a small knife or other sharp instru-
ment ; and these, in many cases, having long and tender spines
externally.

Nothing can be more monstrous than the application of
pumice-stone, which some recommend, for polishing shells ; as
is also the use of tripoli, rotten-stone, and imry. Neither do we

OF POLISHING SHELLS.

69

approve the application of varnishes, as such shells never
have their natural lustre.

If a shell has been found dead upon the beach, it is probable
that it will have Undergone a certain degree of decomposition,
that is, it will have parted with part of its animal matter, and
consequently the colours will have faded, and the surface pre-
sent a chalky appearance. To remove this, take a small
proportion of Florence oil, and apply it to the surface, when
the colours which were invisible will appear. When com-
pletely saturated with oil, let the shell be rubbed dry, and
placed in a cabinet; Oil may also be applied, after acid has
been used ; and it will be found extremely useful, when applied
to dry the epidermis, which it will prevent from cracking,
or quitting the shell entirely, which it frequently does.

Whether Marine Shells are procured in a living or dead
state, a very necessary precaution is to immerse them in pure
tepid water, after the animal has been extracted, and allow
them to continue in it for an horn’ or two, so as completely to
extract any salt or acid which may be in them.

Fresh-water Shells are liable to a calcareous or earthy in-
crustation, which must be removed by immersing them in warm
water, and afterwards scraping and brushing them with a nail
or tooth-brush. Much nicety is necessary in cleaning these,
as their great thinness renders them in general liable to be
broken. A little Florence oil will improve the appearance of
the epidermis, and render it less liable to crack.

Land Shells seldom require any cleaning, except washing
in water, as they are not liable to incrustations of any kind.

When shells are perforated by marine animals, or otherwise
broken; if the specimen is rare, it is desirable to remedy these
defects, as far as possible. They may be therefore filled up,
or pieces added to them with the cement, which may be coloured,
when dry, to imitate its original state.

OF POLISHING SHELLS.

Many species of Marine and Fresh- wafer Shells are com-
posed of mother-of-pearl, generally covered with a strong
epidermis. When it is wished to exhibit the external structure
of the shells, the epidermis is removed, and the outer testaceous

70

CRUSTACEA.

coatings polished down/ till the pearlaceous structure becomes
visible. It has been a common practice to remove the strong
epidermis of shells by means of strong acids, but this is a
hazardous and tedious mode of operating. The best method is
to put the shells into a pan of cold water, with a quantity of
quicklime, and boil it from two to four hours, according to the
thickness of the epidermis. The shells afterwards must be
gradually cooled, and some strong acid applied to the epider-
mis, when it will easily peel off. Two hours are sufficient for
the common muscle being boiled. The shells are afterwards
polished with rotten-stone and oil, put on a piece of chamois
leather.

The epidermis of the Unio Margaritifera is so thick, that
it requires from four to five hours boiling. After the epidermis
has been removed, there is beneath it a thick layer of dull
calcareous matter, which must be started off witli a knife or
other sharp instrument ; this requires great labour, but when
accomplished a fine mother-of-pearl is exhibited, which adds
an agreeable variety as a specimen.

Various Turbos and Trochus’s are also deprived of their
epidermis, and polished with files, sand-paper, pumice-stone,
&c., till the pearly appearance is obtained ; but all these modes
are invented for disfiguring rather than improving the shells
in the eye of the naturalist, and should never be resorted to
except where the species is very common, in which case it is
well enough to do so with one or two specimens to show the
structure of the shells.

After the operation of polishing and washing with acids, a
little Florence oil should be rubbed over to bring out the co-
lours and destroy the influence of the acid.

CLASS VI.— CRUSTACEA.

In this Class are included Crabs, Lobsters, and their con-
geners. These animals are all protected by a coriaceous co-
vering or shell, which is easily preserved, although there is
considerable difficulty in preserving the colours of some spe-
cies.

The flesh must be extracted from the large claws of Lob-

CRUSTACEA.

71

sters and Crabs by breaking- the smallest possible piece from
their points and introducing a small crooked wire ; in the
smaller claws the flesh must be allowed to dry, and to fa-
cilitate this, extremely small perforations should be made in
opposite sides of the shell by means of a sharp triangular awl,
so as to allow the air to pass through it.

In Lobsters the branchiae and all the intestines must be
cut away, the latter is effected by separating the body from
the lower parts, and then extracting the internal parts with
any sharp instrument ; it should then be dried and cemented
together, after being well anointed with the preservative. In
Crabs, the body, with all the limbs attached, is pulled sepa-
rate from the back shell, and the whole fleshy matter carefully
picked out, and preserving powder and the solution of corro-
sive sublimate applied to the different internal parts. In dry-
ing Lobsters, Crabs, &c., they should be exposed to a free
current of air, .but not to the sun’s rays, as it reddens the
shells of crustaceous animals.

It need hardly be mentioned, that before applying the pre-
servatives, the shells should be well washed with cold water.

The Hermit-Crab ( Pagurus Bernhardus ), always takes pos-
session of the shell of some turbinated Univalve as its domicile.
These are easily preserved by pulling out the animal after it is
dead. An incision is made in the soft tail of the animal, and
the contents allowed to run off ; it is then filled with cotton
and imbued with the preservative, some cement is then put on
the tail, and the animal returned to its shell ; which complete
the operation of preserving.

In sending home crustaceous animals, the larger specie
should be emptied of their fleshy matter, which, however, is
not necessary with the smaller species ; they should be packed,
in middling sized cases, and each wrapped in separate papers,
with a thick bed of cotton or flax between each. In Lob-
sters, and the species which are allied to them, great care
must be exercised in preserving the tentacula or feelers which
emanate from their heads, as these become very brittle after
they are dried. In proceeding to set up specimens which haye
been sent home, they should be immersed in cold water for
some time to give pliability to the tentacula and other parts.

72

ARACHNIDES.

without which it will be impossible to set them up in any way
without their breaking-.

Mr Bullock recommended, that Crabs and all other Crus-
taceous animals, should be immersed in corrosive sublimate
and water for an hour previous to their being put into atti-
tudes.

When the joints become loose they are in general attached
by glue, but the cement is much better.

N.B. — On no account whatever use warm water in cleaning
Crustaceous animals as it is certain to change their colours.

CHAP. IV.

OF PRESERVING SPIDERS, GALLY-WORMS, AND INSECTS,

CLASS VII. — ARACHNIDES.

This Class includes all animals of the Spider kind. These
were formerly arranged amongst insects, but they have been
formed into a separate class by Lamarck.

The general directions which we shall give respecting
insects, hold good as to Spiders, only we must mention
there is considerable difficulty in preserving the bodies of
Spiders, which generally, in a very short time, shrink into a
shapeless mass. To prevent this, the body should be pricked
with the triangular awl, plate VI. fig. 8, and the contents
pressed out; it should then be stuffed with very fine carded
cotton or down, which can be pushed in by a heckle tooth, or
one of the prickers. Nos. 9. and 10. of plate VI, blunted a
little at the point. When properly distended, the small aper-
ture should be filled up with a little cement, or a solution of
gum-arabic. The legs of the larger species, such as the
Bird-catching Mygale ( Mygale avicularia) , and the Scorpions,
are also liable to shrink, and should be stuffed in the same
manner as that of the body.

In those species of Spiders which we have thus prepared.

A R ACHNLDF.S.

73

and whose colours are rich and likely to be affected by the
action of the atmosphere, we must endeavour to arrest its pro-
gress by immediately imbuing the animal after it is set up with
the solution of corrosive sublimate, and in an hour after with a
thin coating of a very weak white-spirit varnish ; for this pur-
pose, take a tea-spoonful of the ordinary white-spirit or elastic
varnish, and add to it two tea-spoonfuls of spirit of wine, ap-
ply this with a fine camel hair brush, which will quickly dry,
and have a strong tendency to preserve the colour. The var-
nish being thus reduced in strength, will not leave any gloss
on the insect, nor will it be at all perceptible.

Mr Samouelle, author of “ The Entomologist’s Useful Com-
pendium,” in speaking of preserving Spiders, says, “ The best
preserved specimens that I have seen are those where the con-
tents of the abdomen have been taken out and filled with fine
sand. I have preserved several in this way, and find it an-
swer the purpose.”

Mr Donovan, author of “ The History of British Insects,”
and many other splendid and useful books on insects and na-
tural history, makes the following observations on the preser-
vation of Spiders : —

“ To determine whether some species of Spiders could be
preserved with their natural colours, I put several into spirits
of wine ; those with gibbous bodies soon after discharged a
very considerable quantity of viscid matter, and therewith all
their beautiful colours ; the smallest retained their form, and
only appeared rather paler in the other colours than when
they were living.

“ During the course of last Summer, among other Spiders
I met with a rare species, it was of a bright yellow colour, ele-
gantly marked with black, red, green, and purple ; by some
accident it was unfortunately crushed to pieces in the chip-box
wherein it was confined, and was therefore thrown aside as
useless ; a month or more after that time I observed that such
parts of the skin as had dried against the inside of the box,
retained the original brightness of colour in a considerable de-
gree. To further the experiment, I made a similar attempt,
with some caution, on the body of another Spider ( Aranea
Diadema), and though the colours were not perfectly preserv-
ed, they appeared distinct.

G

74

INSECTS.

’* From other observations, I find, that if you kill the Spider
and immediately after extract the entrails, then inflate them by
means of a blow-pipe, you may preserve them tolerably well :
you must cleanse them on the inside no more than is sufficient
to prevent mouldiness, lest you injure the colours, which cer-
tainly in many kinds depend on substance that lies beneath
the skin.”

Scorpions, and all the Spider tribe, may be sent home in
spirits, which will preserve them perfectly, and when taken
out and dried, they will be found to have suffered nothing
from their immersion. We have seen some specimens set up
after being sent home in spirits, which rivalled any which have
been preserved in a recent state. The animals of this class
are particularly liable to the attacks of insects, particularly in
warm countries, on which account, the mode of transporting
and keeping them in spirits, is, perhaps, superior to all others.
If, however, they are set up in a warm climate, they should
be well soaked with the solution of corrosive sublimate, made
according to the recipe of Mr Waterton’s. See chapter on
Receipts.

For the setting up of this class, see the directions for pre-
serving insects.

CLASS VIII.— MYRIAPODA.

This class contains the Julus, or Gaily worms, the Scolo-
pendra, and others, which were formerly ranked as insects.
The mode, pointed out for the preceding class, and for
insects, also applies to this class. They may also be sent
home in the same way, or they may be set up as directed for
insects.

CLASS IX.— INSECTS.

Every country of the world is replete with this extensive
and interesting class of beings, whose forms are infinitely di-
versified, and whose species are the most numerous of any class
in the animal kingdom.

INSECTS.

75

Before any attempt is made to collect insects, certain appa-
ratus must be provided, not only to enable us to secure them,
but also to preserve them after they are caught.

First, then, we must be provided with a quantity of wooden
boxes, from 18 to 20 inches long, 15 to 17 inches wide, and two
inches deep. These should have well-fitted lids, with hinges,
and fastened by a wire catch, or small bolt. The bottom
should have a layer of cork, about the sixth of an inch in
thickness, which should be fixed down with very strong paste,
made according to our recipe ; and also some wire nails, to
prevent it from springing. Over the cork should be pasted
white paper. The box should be anointed inside with oil of
petroleum. If that cannot be procured, make an infusion of
strong aromatic plants, such as cinnamon, aloes, thyme, laurel,
sage, rosemary, or cloves, and wash the inside with it. A small
packet of camphor should be wrapped in a piece of rag, and
deposited in a' comer of the box.

We must also be provided with a quantity of Insect pins, of
different sizes, corresponding with the size of the insect. The
pins used for setting should be longer than those which are
taken to the field.

Bottles, with mouths from an inch and a quarter to two
inches in diameter, must also be procured, and these must be
three-fourths full of spirits, such as weak brandy, rum, gin, or
whisky.

Hunting-Box. —We must besides have what is termed a
hunting-box, for carrying in our pocket, when seeking after
insects. This should be made of strong pasteboard, or chip, for
lightness, or, if this is no consideration, of tin. It must be of
an oblong-oval shape, rounded at the ends, for the convenience
of the pocket. It should be from eight to ten inches long,
four to five inches wide, and two-and-a-half to three inches
deep. It must have a layer of cork both in the bottom and
top of the lid, inside, for attaching insects to, when caught
during the day. The larger insects are placed at the bottom,
and the smaller ones on the lid.

The Entomological Net. — We next procure a net, as
figured at plate IV. fig. 7., constructed similar to a bat-fowling
net. This is either made of fine gauze or coarse muslin ; it
may either be green or white — the latter is the best for observ-
g 2

76

INSECTS.

mg small insects which may be caught ; the green, however,
is better adapted for catching Moths. The net-rods should be
made of hickory, beech, hazel, or holly ; they ought to be five
feet in length, quite round, smooth, and tapering to an obtuse
point, as at fig. 8. plate I V. ; the oblique cross-piece at the
point, fig. a., should be of cane, and fitted into the angular
ferrule ; the rod, marked &., must be divided into three or four
pieces, so that it may be taken asunder and carried in the
pocket ; the upper part of each joint must have a ferrule
affixed to it, for the purpose of articulating the other pieces, d.
Each joint should have a notch or check, as marked at c., to
prevent the rod from twisting.

The net itself, fig. 7., must have a welting all round it,
doubled so as to form a groove for the reception of the rods.
In the centre of the upper part or point, at /., it must have a
small piece of chamois leather, so as to form a kind of hinge ;
this must be bound round the welting, and divided in the
middle, so as to prevent the cross pieces from slipping over
each other ; g. shows about four inches of the gauze turned up,
so as to form a bag ; h. h. are strings for the purpose of passing-
through the staple e., to which the net is firmly drawn on each
side. When the net is used, a handle is to be held in each
hand.

If it is intended to take insects on the wing, by means of this
net, for which it is admirably adapted, it may be folded to-
gether in an instant. If the gauze is fine enough, and pre-
served whole, even the smallest insect cannot escape. It may
be also applied in catching Coleopterous Insects, which are
never on the wing, as well as Caterpillars. When used for
this purpose, the Entomologist must hold it expanded under
trees, while another must beat the branches with a stick.
Great numbers of both insects and larva will fall in the gauze,
and by this means many hundreds may be captured in a day.

Another method is to spread a large table-cloth under trees
and bushes, and then beat them with a stick. An umbrella
reversed has frequently been used for the same purpose. Bose,
the celebrated naturalist, used this last method, — he held the
umbrella in the left hand, while he beat the bushes with the
other.

The Hoop or Aquatic Net, plate IV. fig. 9. This net is

INSECTS*

77

used for capturing Aquatic Insects, which are either lurking
at the bottom, swimming through the liquid element, or ad-
hering to plants. It may also be successfully used in sweeping
amongst grass and low herbage, for Coleopterous Insects, and
others which are generally to be found in such situations. The
socket, for the handle, may be made of such dimensions, as
will answer the second joint of the Entomological net-rod,
which will save carrying another handle ; or a walking-stick
may be made to fit it.

A Phial, plate IV. fig. 11. This may either be made of
tin or crystal, and used for collecting Coleopterous and other
Creeping Insects. The mouth should be nearly an inch wide,
and a cork exactly fitted to it, in the centre of which must be
inserted a small quill, to afford air, and inserted about an inch
beyond the cork, to prevent the insects from escaping. If the
bottle is made of tin, and of a larger size, a tin tube must be
introduced into its side, and terminating externally at the
surface.

A Digger, plate IV. fig. 13. This instrument is either made
of iron or steel, and is about six or seven inches in length, fixed
into a turned wooden handle. It is used for collecting the
pupae of Lepidopterous Insects, at the roots and in the clefts
of the bark of trees ; and also for pulling off the bark, particu-
larly from decayed trees, under which many curious and rare
insects are frequently found. It is most useful with an arrow-
headed point.

Setting Needles, plate IV. fig. 12. Fitted into a small
wooden handle, the needle itself should be about three inches
long, and about the thickness of a small darning-needle,
slightly bent from about the middle. Fig. 16. is a straight
needle, which is used for extending the parts of insects ; at
one end of the handle is the needle, and at the other a camel-
hair pencil, which is used for removing any dirt or dust which
may be on the insects. The pencil may be occasionally drawn
through the lips, brought to a fine point, and used for disposing
the antennae and palpi of insects of the minute kinds.

Brass Pliers, plate IV. fig- 14. These are used for
picking up small insects from the roots of grass, &c. They
may also be used for laying hold of small insects, while they
are yet free and not set up.

g 3

78

INSECTS.

Fan Forceps, plate V. fig. 12. and 13. This very useful
instrument to the Entomologist, must be made of steel or iron,
and about eight or ten inches in length ; its general construction
is like that of a pair of scissors, and it is held and used in the
same manner. Towards the points are formed a pair of fans,
which may either be square, oval, hexagonal, or octagonal in
the edges, and the centres covered with fine gauze. The
general size of the fans is from four to six inches. These
are used for capturing Bees, Wasps, and Muscae. They are
also used for catching Butterflies, Moths, and Sphinges. If
an insect is on a leaf, both leaf and insect may be inclosed
within the fans ; or if they are on a wall or the trunk of a tree,
they may be very easily secured by them.

If a Butterfly, Sphinx, or Moth, are captured by the forceps,
while yet between the fans, they should be pressed pretty
smoothly, with the thumb-nail, on the thorax or body, taking
care, however, not to crush it. It may then be taken into the
hand, and a pin passed through the thorax, and then stuck into
the bottom of your hunting-box.

Quills. — These are of great use in carrying minute insects.
They should be neatly stopped with cork and cement, at one
end ; the other end should be provided with a small moveable
cork, for a stopper. Each end should be wrapped carefully
round with a silk thread waxed, to prevent them from splitting.

Pocket Larv^e-Box.— For collecting Caterpillars, this box
is very essential : it consists merely of a chip-box, with a hole
pierced in the centre of the top and bottom, and covered with
gauze, for the admission of air. It will be necessary to put
into the box some of the leaves on which the larvae feed, as
they are very voracious, and cannot long exist without food.

Pill- Boxes. — No Entomologist should be without five or
six dozen of these useful articles. They are of great value, in
collecting the smaller species of Lepidopterous Insects, such as
the Tinea, &c., and only one specimen should be put in each
box, as, if more than one, they are apt to injure each other’s
wings, by beating against each other.

Setting-Boards. — These must be made of deal board, from
a foot to fifteen inches long, and eight or ten inches broad, witli
a piece of wood run across the ends, to prevent them from
warping. They are covered with cork, which must be perfectly

INSECTS.

79

smooth on the surface, with white paper pasted over it.
Several boards will be required, by persons who are making
collections, as some of the insects take a considerable time to
dry, so that they may be fit for introducing into a cabinet.

The boards should be kept in a frame made for the purpose.
It should Consist of a top, bottom, and two sides *, the back and
front should have the frames of doors, attached by small hinges,
and their centres covered with fine gauze, for the free passage
of air ; the sides should have small pieces of wood projecting
from them, for the boards to rest on ; which should be at such
a distance from each other, that the pins may not be displaced,
in pushing the boards in, or drawing them out. The frame
should be placed in a dry airy situation.

Braces. — These are merely small pieces of card, cut in the
form exhibited on plate IV., attached to the Butterfly, and
other insects-; and also at No. 17. They are pinned down on
the insects, to keep their wings, &c., in a proper state, till they
acquire a set.

SETTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

Of the Orders Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera.
These are very easily preserved.

They are killed by immersing in scalding water, and then
laid upon blossom or blotting paper, for the purpose of absorb-
ing as much of the moisture as possible ; or they may be placed
in a tin box, with a little camphor in it, near the fire, which
soon kills them. This is besides of considerable effect in their
preservation.

Insects of the genera Gryllus (Cricket), Locusta (Locusts),
&c., have tender bodies, and are sure to shrivel in drying.
The intestines should therefore be extracted, while they are
yet moist, and the skin filled with cotton, as directed with some
of the spiders, at page 72.

When Coleopterous insects are set with the wings displayed,
the elytra should be separated, and the pin passed through
their body, near the middle of the thorax, as in plate IV., fig.
3, a. The wings are exhibited as in the act of flying, and
are retained in this situation until they are quite dry, by the
cord-braces, b and c. The insects of this order should always

80

INSECTS.

have the pin passed through the right elytra, on the right
side, as shown at plate IV., fig. 4, a: that is, it should pass
underneath, between the first pair of feet and the interme-
diate ones.

The legs, palpi, and antennae, should be displayed in a nat-
ural order on the setting-board, and retained in the position
by means of pins and braces, as shown in plate IV., figs. 3 and
4. These must be kept in that state, either longer or shorter,
according to the insect and state of the weather, as if placed
in a cabinet before they are quite dry, they are sure to get
mouldy, and will ultimately rot.

Minute insects should be attached to cards with gum, as
shown, plate IV., figs. 5 and 6, with the legs and other or-
gans displayed. Entomologists generally adopt triangular
cords, as at fig. 5, as less liable to hide the parts of the in-
sects.

Order Lepidoptera.. — Mr Haworth, in his “ Lepidoptera
Britannica ,” in mentioning the tenacity of life in the Botnbyx
Cossus , or Goat Moth, states, that “ the usual way of compress-
ing the thorax is not sufficient to kill this insect. They will
live several days after the most severe pressure has been given
there, to the great uneasiness of any humane Entomologist.
The methods of suffocation by tobacco or sulphur, are equally
inefficacious, unless continued for a greater number of hours
than is proper for the preservation of the specimens. Another
method now in practice is better, and however fraught with
cruelty it may appear to the inexperienced collector, is the
greatest piece of comparative mercy that can, in this case, be
administered. When the larger Moths must be killed, destroy
them at once by the insertion of a strong, red-hot needle into
their thickest parts, beginning at the front of the thorax. If
this be properly done , instead of lingering through several days,
they are dead in a moment. It appears to me, however, that in-
sects being animals of cold and sluggish juices, are not so sus-
ceptible of the sensations we call pain, as those which enjoy a
warmer temperature of body, and a swifter circulation of the
fluids. To the philosophic mind, it is self-evident that they have
not such acute organs of feeling pain, as other animals of a
similar size, whose juices are endowed with a quicker motion,
and possess a constant, regular, and genial warmth, such as

INSECTS.

81

young mice, or the naked young of birds. If any of these
have the misfortune to lose their heads or limbs from force,
speedy death is the certain consequence ; but insects, under
similar circumstances, it is well known, are capable of surviv-
ing* a considerable time.”

Butterflies are soon killed by passing a pin through the tho-
rax ; but probably the safest way is to adopt Mr Haworth’s
plan, of making their instant death certain. The pin passed
through the thorax of small Moths, generally proves almost
instantly fatal to them.

The best manner of preserving the minute species of Moths,
is by pill-boxes, as above stated, each moth being kept in a sep-
arate box. We have found the following the best mode of
destroying them : —

A piece of flat hard-wood is taken, and a circular groove
cut in it, sufficiently deep to admit the mouth of a tumbler
being placed within it. In the centre of the wood, pierce a
hole about a third of an inch in diameter in its centre : place
the pill box under this tumbler, with the lid off, and the insect
will soon creep out: but whether it does so or not, a match
well primed with sulphur is lighted and placed into the hole
under the centre of the tumbler, which will suffocate the
insect in a few seconds. I have also found this an effec-
tual method of killing the larger species of Butterflies, and
Moths. In piercing them, the pin should be quite perpendi-
cular, that no part of their minute frame should be hidden by
its oblique position.

The larger insects of this order are set by braces chiefly.
A single one should in the first place be introduced under the
wing, near the thorax, as shown in plate IV. fig. 1, a a, and a
longer brace extending over the wings, as at b b. These
should not bear upon the wings, but be ready to rest gently
on them, when required. The wings are now elevated to
their proper position by the setting needle c, and other braces
are used as necessity dictates, in the manner represented at
d, e,f, g, and h. The feet and antennae are extended and kept
in their places by means of pins; in which operation small
braces are also occasionally used.

The French Entomologists set Butterflies, Moths, and
Sphinges, on a piece of soft-wood, in which they have excavated

82

INSECTS.

a groove for the reception of the body, as deep as the insertion
of the wings. They are otherwise preserved as above directed.

In the larger Butterflies, Moths, and Sphinges, the abdo-
men should be perforated, its contents extracted, and then
stuffed with fine cotton, after having been washed internally
with the solution of corrosive sublimate. Indeed, the cotton
should also be rubbed with the arsenical soap before being
introduced, as these insects are particularly liable to the attack
of smaller insects, such as the Mite.

Several of the Moth tribe are extremely liable to change
their colour some time after they have been placed in a
cabinet. This change is frequently occasioned by an oily
matter which is common to many of them. This first makes
its appearance in small spots on the body, but soon spreads
itself over the abdomen, thorax, and wings ; and ends in a
total obliteration of all the beautiful markings. A method
which has been sometimes successfully adopted is to sprinkle
all the wings with powdered chalk, and holding a heated iron
over it ; the chalk absorbs the grease, and may then be blown
off by means of a pair of small bellows. Another way of
applying the chalk, and perhaps the better of the two, is to
throw some powdered chalk on the face of a heated iron, and
then put it into a piece of linen cloth, and apply it to the body
of the insect ; the heat of the iron will soften the grease, and
the chalk will absorb it.

Another method is to hold a heated iron over the insects for
a few minutes, and then to wash the spotted or greasy
places with ox gall and water, applied with a camel-hair pen-
cil, and afterwards wash it with pure water, and dry it by an
application of bloating paper, and when perfectly dry imbue
it with the solution of corrosive sublimate. But grease seldom
appears where the contents of the abdomen have been re-
moved.

Orders Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. — The
Dragon-Flies ( Libellula ) are frequently very difficult to kill,
being powerful and nervous animals. When caught they
should be transfixed through the sides, and it sometimes be-
comes necessary to put braces on their wings to prevent them
from fluttering while in the hunting box. The only certain
method of killing them speedily is by the method recommend-

METHOD OF RELAXING DRIED INSECTS.

83

ed by Mr Haworth for the larger moths at p. 80. They may
also be killed sometimes by placing them under a tumbler and
suffocating them, as recommended at p. 80. Some Entomo-
logists put them in scalding water for an instant.

The contents of the abdomen should always be removed
from Dragon Flies, otherwise it will become black and shining
through the skin, and destroy the beautiful bands with which
they are ornamented. They can be stuffed with cotton on a
small roll of paper introduced. If these precautions are at-
tended to, the insect will preserve the perfect beauty of its
living state.

The other species of these Orders soon die after being trans-
fixed. They may be set by braces and pins, as represented in
figures 3. and 4. of plate IV.

Some of the Dipterous insects are very perishable in point
of colour after death, particularly in the abdomen, the skin of
which is very thin. The only way of remedying this is to
pierce the abdomen, and after taking out the contents the ca-
vity should be filled with a powdered paint the same colour as
the living subjects, which will shine through and give it all the
appearance of nature.

METHOD OF RELAXING DRIED INSECTS.

Insects frequently get stiffened before the Entomologist has
leisure to get them set ; and it usually happens that those sent
home from foreign countries have been ill set, and require to be
placed in more appropriate attitudes after they have fallen into
the hands of the scientific collector. They may be relaxed
and made as flexible as recently killed specimens by the fol-
lowing simple process, from which they can receive no injury :
pin them on a piece of cork and place the cork in a large basin
or pan of tepid water, and cover the top tight with a damp
cloth, taking care that it. is sufficiently high not to injure the
insects. In most cases a few hours is sufficient to restore them
to their original flexibility, so that they may be easily put in
their proper positions. In some instances, three or four days
are necessary to relax them thoroughly, so as to set the wings
without the risk of breaking them ; no force whatever must
be used with any of the members. When set up after being

84

METHOD OF RELAXING DRIED INSECTS.

relaxed, they must be treated in exactly the same manner as
recent specimens.

We must again caution the Entomologist to be careful that
he applies the solution of corrosive sublimate to all his species,
otherwise there is little chance of their continuing long with-
out being attacked by the Mite ; they ought to be frequently
imbued.

Mr Waterton, who has studied deeply the subject of preserv-
ing animal substances, and applied them not only in our own
country, but also under the influence of a tropical climate,
makes the following observations on the preservation of Insects :
— “ I only know of two methods,” says he, “ to guard preserved
insects from the depredations of living ones. The first is, by
poisoning the atmosphere — the second is, by poisoning the
prepared specimens themselves, so effectually, that they are
no longer food for the depredators. But there are some ob-
jections to both these modes ; a poisoned atmosphere will eva-
porate in time if not attended to, or if neglected to be re-
newed ; and there is great difficulty in poisoning some speci-
mens on account of their delicacy and minuteness. If you keep
spirits of turpentine in the boxes which contain your preserved
specimens, I am of opinion that those specimens will be safe as
long as the odour of the turpentine remains in the box, for it
is said to be the most pernicious of all scents to insects. But
it requires attention to keep up an atmosphere of spirit of tur-
pentine ; if it be allowed to evaporate entirely, then there is a
clear and undisputed path open to the inroads of the enemy ;
he will take advantage of your absence or neglect, and when
you return to view your treasure you will find it in ruins.
Spirits of turpentine poured into a common glass inkstand, in
which there is a piece of sponge, and placed in a comer of
your box, will create a poisoned atmosphere and kill every in-
sect there. The poisoning of your specimens by means of cor-
rosive sublimate in alcohol, is a most effectual method. As
soon as the operation is properly performed, the depredating
insect perceives that the prepared specimen is no longer food
for it, and will for ever cease to attack it ; but then every part
must have received the poison, otherwise those parts where the
poison has not reached will still be exposed to the enemy, and
he will pass unhurt over the poisoned parts till he arrives at

METHOD OF RELAXING DRIED INSECTS.

85

that part of your specimen which is still wholesome food for
him. Now, the difficulty lies in applying- the solution to very
minute specimens without injuring their appearance; and ail
that can be said is, to recommend unwearied exertion, which
is sure to be attended with great skill, and great skill will
insure surprising success. I myself have attended to the pre-
servation of insects with the assiduity which Horace recom-
mends to poets : — “ Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.”
The result has been astonishing success, and a perfect convic-
tion that there is no absolute and lasting safety for prepared
specimens in Zoology from the depredations of insects, except
by poisoning every part of them with a solution of corrosive
sublimate in alcohol.

Mr Waterton is of opinion, that tight boxes, with aromatic
atmospheres, are not to be depended upon, in the preservation
of insects. He says : “ The tight boxes, and aromatic atmo-
spheres, will certainly do a great deal, but they are liable to
fail, for this obvious reason, viz. that they do not render for
ever absolutely baneful and abhorrent to the depredator, that
which in itself is nutritious and grateful to him. In an evil
hour, through neglect in keeping up a poisoned atmosphere,
the specimens collected by industry, and prepared by art, and
which ought to live, as it were, for the admiration of future
ages, may fall a prey to an' intruding and almost invisible
enemy; so that unless the solution of corrosive sublimate in
alcohol is applied, you are never perfectly safe from surprise.
I have tried a decoction of aloes, wormwood, and walnut leaves,
thinking they would be of service, on account of their bitter-
ness : the trial completely failed. Wherefore I venture to re-
commend not to put much trust in simples.

“ Contra vim mortis, non est medicamen in hortis.”

“ Against the deadly moth, can I,

From herbs, no remedy supply.”

Many Entomologists are satisfied with possessing the insect
in its perfect, or imago condition. But it is exceedingly
interesting to be able to trace these through their different
states of existence, from the egg to the perfect insect. Besides,
we are certain to produce the insects in the highest state of

H

86

THE LARV.-K, OR CATERPILLARS.

preservation, when we breed them ourselves ; and it is besides
very interesting to have the eggs of the different species, as
well as the caterpillar and pupa.

THE EGGS OF INSECTS.

The eggs of insects preserve their form and colour, in a
cabinet, in general without much trouble. Swammerdam had
a method of preserving them, when they appeared to be giving
way. He made a perforation within them, with a fine needle,
pressed out their contents, afterwards inflated them with a glass
blow-pipe, and filled them with a mixture of resin and oil
of spike.

THE LARVjE, OR CATERPILLARS.

The easiest way of destroying the Caterpillar is by immer-
sion in spirits of wine. They may be retained for a long time
in this spirit, without destroying their colour.

Mr William Weatherhead had an ingenious mode of pre-
serving Larvae. He killed the Caterpillar, as above directed,
and having made a small puncture in the tail, gently pressed
out the contents of the abdomen, and then filled the skin with
fine dry sand, and brought the animal to its natural circum-
ference. It is then exposed to the air to dry, and it will have
become quite hard in the course of a few hours, after which
the sand may be shaken out at the small aperture, and the
caterpillar then gummed to a piece of card.

Another method is, after the entrails are squeezed out, to
insert into the aperture a glass tube, which has been drawn to
a very fine point. The operator must blow through this pipe,
while he keeps turning the skin slowly round, over a charcoal
fire ; the skin soon becomes hardened, and, after being anointed
with oil of spike and resin, it may be placed in a cabinet, when
dry. A small straw, or pipe of grass, may be substituted for
the glass-pipe.

Some persons inject them with coloured wax, after they are
dried.

METHOD OF BREEDING INSECTS.

87

THE PUPA.

When the insects have escaped from their Pupa skin, the
skin usually retains the shape and general appearance it did
while it contained the insect. It is therefore ready for a
cabinet, without any preparation whatever. But if the animal
has not quitted its envelope, it will be necessary, either to drop
the Pupa into warm water, or to heat it in a tin case before
the fire ; the former mode however is the best, and least liable
to change the colours of the Pupa.

METHOD OF BREEDING INSECTS.

Breeding Cages. — These must be made of wainscot, or
other hard wood, as deal is apt to kill the caterpillars, from its
strong smell of turpentine. The best form for these, is repre-
sented plate I V. fig. 10. The sides and front are covered with
gauze ; a. is a small square box, for the reception of a phial of
water, for placing the stalks of plants in, on which it is in-
tended the caterpillars are- to feed. The most convenient size
for a breeding cage is, eight inches in breadth, four deep, and
one foot in height. It is not proper to place within a cage
more than one species of caterpillar, as many of them prey
upon each other. Indeed animals of the same species will
devour each other, if left without food. The Caterpillars of
insects, for the most part, will only eat one particular kind of
food, so that it is better to have no more than one sort in a
cage.

There must be at the bottom of the cage earth to the depth
of two inches : this should be mixed with some fine sand and
vegetable earth, if possible, to prevent it from drying. The
cages should be kept in a cool cellar or damp place, because
many insects change into the Pupa condition under the earth ;
so that it would require to be somewhat moist, to prevent the
destruction of the animal. The shell or case of the Pupa also
becomes hard, if the earth is not kept moist ; and, in that
event, the animal will not have sufficient strength to break its
case, at the time it ought to emerge from its confinement and
h 2

£8

METHOD OF BREEDING INSECTS.

must consequently die, which but too frequently happens from
mismanagement.

Some seasons are more favourable than others for the pro-
duction of Caterpillars, and to keep each kind by themselves
would require an immense number of cages, as well as occupy
much time in changing the food, and paying due attention to
them. To obviate this, some persons have large breeding ca-
ges, with a variety of food in them, which must be cleaned
out every two days, and fresh leaves given to the caterpillars ;
as, on due attention to feeding, the beauty and vigour of the
coming insects will much depend.

The Larvae of insects, which feed beneath the surface of
the earth, may be bred in the following 'manner : Let any box,
that is about three or four feet square, and two or three feet
deep, be lined internally with tin, and a number of very
minute holes be bored through the sides and bottom. Put
into this box a quantity of earth, replete with such vegetables
as the Caterpillars subsist on, and sink it into a bed of earth,
so that the surface may be exposed to the different changes of
the weather. The lid should be covered with brass or iron
net-work, to prevent their escape, and for the free admission
of air.

Cabinet. — Such is the advanced state of Entomological
science, that a collection of British Insects requires a cabinet
of from 50 to 100 drawers, which are generally about fourteen
or fifteen inches in length, and eighteen in breadth, and about
two inches deep. The bottoms should be lined with cork, of
about the sixth of an inch in thickness. It must be chosen as
free from cracks and knots as possible. Each drawer must
have a lid of glass, with an edge of wood very nicely fitted, so
as to prevent, as much as possible, the admission of air or dust.
This lid must rest on a rabbit.

The young Entomologist should obtain a cabinet of about
thirty drawers, arranged in two tiers, and covered in with
folding doors. There is a great convenience in this size, as the
cabinet is rendered more portable, and at the same time ad-
mits of having another of the same size, being placed above the
top of it, as the collection increases, without injuring the uni-
formity, and thus the drawers may be augmented to any
extent. It is immaterial whether the cabinet is made of ma-

METHOD OF BREEDING INSECTS.

m

hogany or wainscot ; sometimes they are constructed of cedar-
wood, but seldom of deal, or any other soft wood. Small cells
must be made in the inside of the fronts, for camphor.

Corking of Drawers. The simplest way to get the cork is
to purchase it of a cork-cutter, ready prepared, but it will be
much cheaper for the Entomologist to prepare it himself. In
this case, it should be cut into stripes, of about three inches
wide, with a cork-cutter’s knife, to smooth the surface and to
divide it. The stripes should be fixed in a vice, and cut to the
thickness required with a fine saw; but grease must not be
used in the operation, as it will not only prevent the cork from
adhering to the bottom of the drawer, but will also grease the
paper which should be pasted on its surface. The black surface
of the cork should be rasped down to a smooth surface. After
having reduced the slips to about three quarters of an inch in
thickness, the darkest, or worst, side of each slip should be
glued down to a sheet of brown, or cartridge, paper ; this
should be laid on a deal board, about three feet in length, and
the width required for a drawer or box ; a few fine nails, or
brads, must be driven through each piece of cork, to keep it
firm and in its place, until the glue be dried : by this means,
sheets of cork may be formed the size of the drawer. All
the irregularities are filed or rasped down quite to a level
surface, and then polished smooth with pumice-stone. The
sheet, thus formed and finished, is glued into the drawers.
To prevent its warping, some weights must be equally distri-
buted over the cork, that it may adhere firmly to the bottom
of the drawer. When quite dry, the weights are removed,
and the cork covered with fine white paper, but not very thick.
The paper is allowed to be quite damp with the paste be-
fore it is placed on the cork, and, when dry, it will become
perfectly tight.

Insect cabinets should be kept in a very dry situation, other-
wise the antennae, legs, &c., will become quite mouldy. The
same evil will ensue if the insect is not perfectly dry, before it
is placed in the cabinet. Should an insect be covered with
mould, it can be washed off with a camel’s hair pencil, dipped
in camphorated spirits of wine ; in which case, the insect
must be dried in a warm or airy situation, before being placed
in the cabinet.

h 3

90

STAR FISH.

There should always be plenty of camphor kept in the
drawers, otherwise there is great danger to be apprehended
from mites : where these exist, they are easily discovered by
the dust which is under the insects by which they are infested.
In which case, they must be immediately taken out, and
rubbed clean with a fine camel’s hair pencil, and well imbued
with the solution of corrosive sublimate, and then placed near
a fire, taking care, however, that too great a heat is not
applied, as it will utterly destroy the specimen. The Butterfly,
Sphinx, and Moth tribes are extremely liable to the attack of
mites, and should therefore be frequently examined.

Store Boxes. — The neatest manner of constructing these,
is to have them about a foot square, the top and bottom about
two inches deep, on the same principle as backgammon boards,
the inside being lined with cork.

CLASS X ECHINODERMATA.

All the soft animals of this class ought to be preserved in
bottles of spirits. Those with a coriaceous or crustaceous
covering may be dried.

Asterias. — star-fish.

Those Star-fish, which have fragile crustaceous tentacula,
are difficult to preserve. They must first be immersed in fresh
water for four or five hours, and then extended on a plank of
soft wood ; the rays must be properly arranged, and pins used
to keep them so, till they are quite dry. These are stuck into
the plank, alongside the rays, and not into the rays them-
selves. They must not, however, be placed near a fire, or in
the rays of the sun, as, in either case, they will have a tendency
to change their colours. It is almost invariably found, that all
colours in the crustaceous coverings of animals become reddish
by exposure to the heat of the sun or of a fire.

The larger kinds should have the flesh cut out of the inside
of the rays, and a little of the dry preservative applied to
them. The species called Medusa’s Heads undergo the

SEA-URCHINS.

91

same preparation as other Star-fish, only that much caution is
required.

When these are packed, they will require great attention.
The larger kinds should be wrapped in fine and soft paper,
and the smaller ones packed between layers of cotton.

Echini and Spatangus , — sea-urchins.

There is a great difficulty in preserving these animals, in
consequence of the spines with which they are invested, prin-
cipally from the care required in retaining the natural positions,
the spines of which are, in many species, pointed in all di-
rections. This is particularly the case with those of the
genus Cidarites. These animals inhabit the Mediterranean
and Indian seas, and are distinguished by the shells having
large tubercles, pierced with holes, for a muscular cord which
moves the spines. These spines are extremely large, solid,
and heavy, and are very liable to fall off, even from their own
weight while drying.

The anal opening should be a little enlarged, a small spatula
introduced, and the whole intestines removed ; it should then
be immersed in fresh water for a quarter of an hour, taking
care to preserve the spines. When taken out, fill the shell
with cotton ; the shell should then be placed on a plank to dry,
and between each spine a pad of cotton, to prevent the weight
of the shell resting on the spines, and also to keep those on
the upper surface in their proper place, and so that they may
all radiate from the body of the shell.

In sending them home, each should be separately packed,
retaining the cotton between the spines, placing them in a
box, so that they cannot rub against each other, and with a
thick padding of cotton between each. Small species should
be placed in little boxes, and packed as above directed.

Nothing is more difficult than to preserve entire the spines
of these large shells, and it is seldom that the larger species
can be kept complete. But these can be again fixed, if they
have fallen off. The whole spines of the Echini and Spatangi
are seated on small tubercles. A little hole must be drilled
in the end of each spine, at its base, with a triangular awl, or
a saddler’s awl, to the depth of about a quarter of an inch :

POLYPI.

92

a needle, or very fine wire is introduced into the perforation,
after it has been filled with cement. The shell of the Echinus
must now be filled with melted bees’-wax : care is taken to stop
up all the openings, while in the act of pouring in the melted
wax. When the wax has cooled, a hole is bored in each tu-
bercle, for the reception of the needle, which must first be
warmed at a lighted candle, and, the wax cooling, holds the
needle firmly in its place.

A better plan, however, than the above is, to use very fine
wire, which ought to be bent as nearly at right angles as pos-
sible, before being introduced ; and, having filled up all the
vacancies of one side in this way (always leaving as much out-
side as will fit into the perforation made in the base of the
spine) ; pour in some cement, made as thin as it will flow
easily, and then set it aside to dry. Repeat the same operation
with the other side ; and, when dry, the spines may be placed
on the projecting wires with cement, as above directed. The
wire which is left outside should be roughened with a file here
and there, previous to its being inserted, so that it may the
better retain its hold in the cement.

CLASS XI— ENTOZOA ; and CLASS XII—
ACALEPHA.

The animals of these classes are best preserved in spirits,
and indeed there is no other manner of setting them up. We
have made attempts to preserve worms, by removing the in-
testinal canal and oviducts, and injecting the skin with wax,
but we never succeeded in rendering them natural in point of
shape. We have also tried the same method with different
species of Actinea, or Sea Suckers, but the same unsuccessful
results have attended them.

CLASS XIII— POLYPI.

Zoophites, or Corals, generally live in families or congre-
gated masses. Their axis is of a horny consistence, generally
hard, and disposed in layers; their surface is usually fur-

INFUSORIA.

93

nished with small spines covered by a gelatinous substance.
The axis of the Gorgonia is also of a horny consistence,
and the fleshy matter by which it is covered contains de-
tached particles, that are very friable in nearly the whole
species. These are first placed, for an hour or two, in fresh
water, and then dried, while the branches are held open.
The same method is adopted with the Pennatulae, or Sea
Pens.

There is no difficulty in preserving the calcareous covering
of the various Madrepores, &c. ; all that is necessary is to
immerse them in fresh water for some hours, so as to extract
the salt, and then dry them thoroughly.

In packing the small kinds, they may simply be placed in
cotton ; but the ponderous and heavy ones should be fixed to
the bottom of the case which is to contain them. This is done
by passing cords between the branches at the base, and bringing
these through holes bored in the bottom of the box, and fixed
outside with nails. The feet of the Madrepores have some-
times large openings, in which case, advantage is taken of
them, to introduce pieces of wood into these natural aper-
tures, and then nailing them to the bottom of the case.

We have known many fine specimens of all kinds brought
home, by gluing them to the sides and bottoms of packing-
boxes ; and, when removed, the packing-box is taken to
pieces, and floated in water to moisten the glue, and the speci-
mens can easily be taken off.

Sponges require merely to be soaked in fresh water, and
dried. No care is necessary in packing them.

CLASS XI Y— INFUSORIA.

The animals of this Class are only found in infusions, or in
water, and are so minute, that they are of no use in a pre-
served state.

94

OF PREPARING SKELETONS.

CHAP. V.

OF PREPARING SKELETONS.

CLEANING AND PREPARING BONES IN GENERAL.

As much of the fleshy parts should be removed from bones
intended for preparation as possible with the scalpel, but it is
not required that they should be separated from each other,
more than is necessary for placing- them in a vessel for the
purpose of maceration. The bones are to be entirely covered
with water, which should be changed every day for about a
week, or as long as it becomes discoloured with blood ; after
which, allow them to remain in water without changing till
putrefaction has thoroughly destroyed all the remaining flesh :
this will require from three to six months, according to the
season of the year or temperature of the atmosphere. We
here speak of great Britain, but in warmer climates, putrefac-
tion will take place more rapidly. In tropical climates, four-
• teen days will be sufficient to disengage the flesh completely
irom the bones.

The large cylindrical bones of the thighs and arms should
have holes bored in their extremities of the size of a goose
quill, to give the water access to their cavities, and a free
exit to the medullary substance.

As the water will gradually diminish in quantity from evapora-
tion, more should be added from time to time, so that none of
the bones, or any part of them, may remain uncovered, as by ex-
posure to the atmosphere they would become of a dirty colour,
and have a disagreeable appearance. To be free from such
stains, is considered a great beauty in skeletons.

In towns, the macerating vessels should always be closely
covered, as from neglecting this, the water is apt to get mixed
with particles of soot, and other impurities, which have a strong
tendency to blacken the bones. When the putrefaction has
destroyed the ligaments, the bones are then fit for cleaning,

OF NATURAL SKELETONS.

95

which is done by scraping off the flesh, ligaments, and perios-
teum. When this is effected, the bones should be again laid
in clean water for a few days and well washed ; they ought
then to be placed in lime water, or a solution of pearl ash,*
for a week, when they may be taken out to dry, after having
soaked them five or six hours in pure water, to remove the so-
lution of pearl-ash, which would act upon their surface when
exposed to the atmosphere.

In drying bones they should not be exposed to the rays of
the sun, or to a fire, as too great a degree of heat brings the
remaining medullary oil into the compact substance of the
bones, and gives them a disagreeable oily transparency. This
is the great objection to the process of boiling bones, for the
purpose of making skeletons, as the heat applied in that way
has the same effect, unless they are boiled in a solution of
pearl-ash, which some are of opinion is one of the most effec-
tual methods of whitening them by its effectually destroying
the oil. But there can be but little doubt that bleaching is, of
all methods, the most effectual where it can be done to its
greatest advantage, namely, in a pure air, and more especially
on a sea shore.

It is much more difficult to clean the bones of animals that
have died in good condition than those that are lean and re-
duced by disease.

OF NATURAL SKELETONS.

Natural skeletons are made without separating the bones
from each other, in which case all the animal ligaments
are allowed to remain entire. This plan is generally adopted,
with young and small animals, because the ligaments when
dry, being divested of their natural flexibility, occasion an in-
convenience, as the different extents and varieties of motion
cannot be shown in the different articulations.

In making these, we are first to remove from the bones the
skin, muscles, tendons, and viscera, and, in short, every thing
except the connecting ligaments and cartilages, which ought to
be carefully preserved. This is done without any regular or-

*See Receipts.

SG

OP NATURAL SKELETONS.

der of dissection ; neither in this part of the process need any
attention be paid to making the bones clean. The brain may
be removed through an opening hi the large fontanel, if the
subject is very young, if not, a perforation may be made with the
trephine for that purpose. Some separate the head from the
spine, so that the brain may be the more easily removed by the
occipital hole. The skeleton is put in water and allowed to re-
main for several days, it is then taken out and more thoroughly
cleaned by a knife, forceps, and scissors, and replaced in fresh
water. This is repeated from day to day, constantly changing
the water, the object being to preserve the ligaments fresh and
transparent. It is of great consequence to work hard by
daily scraping and scrubbing until the bones are deprived of
their blood and oleaginous matter and become white and clean,
then remove them into clean lime water, or solution of peari-ash,
for two or three days to take oil any greasiness, and give a
more beautiful white. When they have lain, long enough, wasli
them with clean water ; they are then placed in a position, by
the assistance of a frame or piece of wood and wire, exposing
them to a current of air. When perfectly diy, they may re-
ceive a coating of copal or mastic varnish.

It must be kept in view, that if the preparation is allowed
to remain too long in the state of maceration, the ligaments
themselves will be destroyed by putrefaction, and the intention
of procuring a natural skeleton defeated.

An excellent and simple way of procuring natural skeletons
of Mice, small birds, and fish, is to put them into a box of the
proper size, in which holes are bored on all sides, and then
buried in an Ant hill. The Ants will enter numerously at
these holes and eat away all the fleshy parts, leaving only
the bones and connecting ligaments ; they may be afterwards
macerated in clean water for a day or two to extract the bloody
colour, and to cleanse them from any dirt they may have ac-
quired, then whitened by lime and alum water, and dried in
frames or otherwise, as may be most convenient. In country
situations Wasps may be employed in this service ; these are
most voracious animals, and if a skeleton is placed near one
of their nests, or in an empty sugar cask, where they resort in
plenty, they will perform the dissection with much greater ex-
pedition, and equally well as the Ants. Wasps have been

OF ARTIFICIAL SKELETONS.

97

known to clean the skeleton of a mouse or small bird in three
or four hours, while Ants would require a week to effect it.

When the animal is of a large size, the ligaments are some-
times unable to sustain the weight of the bones, in which case,
an iron wire, of sufficient thickness, is passed through the cen-
tre of the back-bone, which must pass out anteriorly, so as to
fix the head to the cervical vertebrae. It is made in the form of
two forks, the one for the support of the anterior, and the other
for the exterior part ; for this purpose two pieces of iron-wire
are taken the length of the skeleton ; they are twisted together,
leaving a fork at each extremity, and are then both fixed to
the board on which the skeleton is to be placed. One of these
should enter the ribs and encompass the back bone, between
the scapular bones on each shoulder, the other two should pass
between the bones of the pelvis.

It not unusually happens that pieces of the skeleton detach
one from another, in which case, two hdes are bored in the
ends of the bones, which are separated, and are re-united by
means of small brass wires.

OF ARTIFICIAL SKELETONS.

Skeletons of man and animals of a middling and large size,
cannot be made in the manner described for natural skeletons.
In this case, the bones, covered by the flesh, are immersed in
water, and allowed to remain without changing it, until the
soft parts begin to get putrid, when the animal matter is easily
removed ; and by repeating the maceration two or three times,
it may all be completely abstracted. The duration necessary
for the first maceration will depend upon the state of the
atmosphere, being always much shorter in summer than in
winter.

After the fleshy matter has been completely freed from the
bones, they should be exposed on the roof of a house, or other
convenient situation, until they are rendered quite white, and
free from grease.

The fat in bones bears a close resemblance to the fixed oils.
In the bones of whales it exists fluid like oil. In the long
bones of oxen, horses, and other large quadrupeds, it is semi-
fluid, constituting the marrow. When, therefore, this is pre-

i

98

OF ARTIFICIAL SKELETONS.

sent in considerable quantity, the process may be much acce-
lerated by drilling holes with a gimlet or other instrument, in
the opposite ends of the bones, and injecting by means of a
syringe, a tepid solution of pearl-ash, the pot-ash combining
with the oleaginous matter, forming a kind of soap, which be-
ing soluble in water, is easily removed. Chloride of lime is
also employed for the same purpose.

The relative proportion of earthy and animal matter varies
according to the nature of the bone, and the purposes it is in-
tended to serve. The bones of quadrupeds and birds contain
a much greater proportion of earthy matter than those of rep-
tiles and fishes, and hence are more easily cleaned. Here it
may be remarked, that the colour of bones varies in different
animals. In some common fowl it approaches to a dark yel-
lowish brown. Food exercises considerable influence on the
colour, as is demonstrated in animals which feed on madder.

When the bones are perfect and dry, they are connected by
means of wire and screws, &c. This is the most difficult part
of the operation, as it requires considerable skill to reassemble
the bones, so that they may be placed in their natural order
and position. The operation is begun at one of the extremi-
ties, by making holes in the apophysis, or round ball of the
bone, plate I., fig. 1, a 8t i. This is effected by means of a
wimble or a lathe, or with a gimlet, although this instrument
has hardly sufficient power for perforating so hard a substance
as bone. The bones are then attached to each other in their
natural order, with nealed iron-wire,* or brass-wire, by means
of the perforations which have been made. The ends of the
wire should be twisted, and not too firmly, but sufficient to
allow a little play between the articulation ; this mode to be
pursued till the whole wires are put together. They are then
ready for placing on a board, and are kept erect by means
of one or two perpendicular bars of iron, commensurate to
the weight of the skeleton. In the larger species of birds,
one support is necessary ; it is passed through the breast-bone,
and attached under the spine, as represented in the skeleton
of the Goshawk (Falco palumbarius), plate I., fig. 1. The po-

* See Receipts.

OF ARTIFICIAL SKELETONS.

99

sition of this support must be varied according to the attitude
in which the skeleton is to be placed.

In skeletons of the Horse, the Ox, the Hippopotamus, the
Rhinoceros, the Camel, and the Elephant, the links of wire
which we have above described, are insufficient to unite their
bones ; for these, two iron pegs are used with a head at one
end, and a screw at the other. Each screw is provided with
a nut, and each pair of screws must have a narrow plate of
iron bored at each end to pass the screw through. Supposing
the bones of the leg and thigh, of a large quadruped, are to
be united, a hole is bored through the apophysis, about two
inches from the extremity, and the same having been done
with both leg and thigh-bones, they are brought together, and
one of the screws passed into one of the holes of the plates
which we have mentioned, and then through the perforations
in the bone, and lastly into the other plate ; they are tightened
together by means of the nut. The screws should be nearly
an inch longer-than the thickness of the bones. The two ends
of the bones are thus united and supported by the two plates
which are kept together by the screws. Provision must be
made for the play of the bones, by leaving a sufficient distance
in boring the holes, through which the pegs are passed. This
we have represented in plate II., fig. 3; a is the iron-plate, b
the nut, by which the screws of the iron-peg are tightened ;
c the head of the other iron-peg, the nut and screw of which
are placed on the opposite side.

The Horse and other large animals require a double bar to
support them, as represented in plate I., fig. 2, a, a. A bar
is also passed through the vertebrae of the neck, spine, and tail,
and the ribs are attached by means of wires, or flat pieces of
plate iron, as seen at b.

In these larger animals, the heads are for the most part
sawn through, for the purpose of studying the structure of the
internal cavity and partitions. These are kept together by
means of a hinge, so that they can be opened and shut at
pleasure.

ICO

MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

CHAP. VI.

OF THE CHASE, AND MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

Quadrupeds and Birds. — It is hardly necessary to recom-
mend a double-barrelled gun. One of the barrels should be
loaded with small shot, or dross of lead for small birds, and
the other with large shot. These should have much less pow-
der than an ordinary charge, so as not to tear and injure the
animals. Paper, cotton, or flax, and powdered dry earthen
ashes should form part of the naturalist’s stores.

When a bird is killed, a small quantity of dry dust is put on
the wound. For this purpose, the feathers must be raised
with a pin, or a gun-picker, close to the wound. The bill of
the bird should have a small quantity of cotton or flax intro-
duced into it to prevent the blood from flowing, and spoiling
the plumage. The feathers must be all adjusted, and the bird
then placed on the ground to allow the blood to coagulate.
Every specimen should be placed in a piece of paper of the
form of a hollow cone, like the thumb bags used by grocers.
The head should be introduced into this, the paper should
then be closed around the bird, and packed in a box filled with
moss, dried grass, or leaves.

Birds taken alive in nets and traps are to be preferred to
others for stuffing, and also those caught by birdlime, which
must be removed by spirits of wine.

Birds should always be skinned the same day they are killed,
or next day at farthest, particularly in summer, as there is a
danger of putrefaction ensuing, by which the feathers will fall
off. However, in winter there is no danger for some days ;
but in tropical climates they must be prepared soon after they
are killed. The same observations apply generally to quad-
rupeds.

Bats and Owls are caught during the day, in the hollows of
aged trees, in the crevices of walls, and ruins of buildings.

MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

101

These are animals which, it may be presumed, are still little
known in consequence of their nocturnal habits.

Those who prepare for the chase, with the intention of pre-
serving- animals, should take care to provide themselves with
implements necessary for fulfilling the objects advantageously.
The articles most needful are one or two pairs of large pin-
cers, scissors, forceps, scalpels, knives, needles, thread, and
a small hatchet, as well as one or more cannisters of preserv-
ing powder, some pots of arsenical soap, or arsenical composi-
tion, and some bottles of spirit of turpentine. If in America,
cotton may be employed in stuffing the skins, and therefore a
considerable quantity should always be taken along with the
naturalist. In parts of Asia and Africa where this cannot be
procured, tow must be employed, or old ropes teazed down ;
and where even these cannot be found, dried grass and moss
may be used. M. Le Vaillant used a species of dog-grass
while in Africa, which is very abundant in that country ; and
it answered the purpose remarkably well.

It being supposed that a traveller has an ample caravan,
provided with all the necessaries which we have pointed
out, and having killed a quadruped, he will skin it immedi-
ately, according to the method which we have pointed out at
page 6th. He will then sew up the skin after receiving a
partial stuffing, and having been anointed with the arsenical
soap, or composition. All the extremities must then be im-
bued with spirit of turpentine, and the skin should be placed
in some convenient place to dry, so that it may have the
advantage of complete exposure to the air. The turpentine
must be again applied at the end of three or four days, more
especially around the mouth of the quadruped.

It will be of the utmost advantage to remain a week or ten
days at one place ; by which means the naturalist will have
had time to render himself somewhat acquainted with the ani-
mals which localize in that neighbourhood. And as some
species frequently confine themselves to a very limited spot,
by leaving the place too hurriedly he is apt to overlook them.

After the traveller has determined on leaving his canton-
ment, he must see that all the objects he has collected are in
a condition to be removed. He must examine carefully each
specimen, and see that they have not been attacked by the
i 3

102

MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

destructive insects, so abundant in warm climates. Should
flies have deposited their eggs in the lips of the quadrupeds
or birds, these must be destroyed by spirit of turpentine. When
a set of animals or birds are thoroughly dry, they should be
packed in a box or case, which has been well joined.

A journal ought to be kept detailing all circumstances con-
nected with the animals, the places in which they were killed,
and the colour of their eyes, together with any information that
can be procured of their habits from the natives. People are
too apt to forget particulars when engaged in such varied pur-
suits, and the sooner they are committed to paper the better.

When the traveller arrives in Africa, he will meet with ani-
mals of the largest size ; such as the Elephant, Rhinoceros,
Hippopotamus, Giraffe, Quagga, Urus, Bubulus, Condoma, as
well as large Antelopes and Deer. He will unquestionably
find some difficulty in his endeavours to bring with him the
skins of these animals, as in that country it is even trouble-
some, in many cases to transport the necessaries of life. But
the ardour of the zealous naturalist will here be increased
by beholding such splendid specimens as he can never meet
with elsewhere. All his energies will be strengthened, and
every sacrifice made to enable him to transport the fruits of his
toils.

We need only to recur to the zeal manifested by Le Vaillant
in his travels, and the rapturous delight experienced by him,
when he first beheld, and killed the Giraffe. He brought this
large skin from Caffraria, where he killed the animal, a distance
of two hundred leagues from the Cape of Good Hope.

Should the traveller, accidentally, or in pursuit of natural
objects, find himself possessed of the carcase of one of these
large and fine animals, he would deeply regret not being-
able to fetch away the skin from want of a knowledge how
to separate it from the body. We shall, therefore, sup-
pose that he has killed an animal the size of a Bull. He
must first make an incision under the belly, in the form of a
double cross. The central line must reach from the chin to
the anus ; the two other transverse cuts must reach from one
foot to the other. These are always made inside, so that the
seams may be less conspicuous when the animal is mounted.
When the skin is stuffed, the hoofs are detached by laying

MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

103

them on a stone, and striking them with a hatchet or mallet.
The nails or hoofs must be left attached fo the skin. After
this, the skin is removed from the feet, legs, and thighs, and
treated in other respects as pointed out in skinning the Ele-
phant, at page 21. The bones of the head must be preserved
if possible, leaving it attached at the muzzle only. All the
muscles must be removed from the head, and the bones ren-
dered as clean as possible.

As it is probable that an animal of this magnitude has been
killed at a great distance from any habitation, there will not
be an opportunity of macerating the hide in alum and water,
as pointed out for the Elephant. The skin will also be too
thick for the arsenical soap to penetrate with effect. Under
these circumstances, the next best thing to preserve it, is to
take the ashes of a wood fire, and rub it well inside. The
skin should then be stretched along the boughs of a tree, and
allowed to dry. The skull, after it has also been dried, must
be returned into the skin, and the lips, ears, and feet, im-
bued plentifully with turpentine, which operation must be
several times repeated at intervals. Nothing is more effectual
in preventing the attacks of insects than this spirit, and no
larvae will exist in places which it has touched.

The skin will be sufficiently dried within two or three days,
so that the hair may be burned inwards. If some common
salt can be procured, a solution of it should be made, and the
hair rubbed with it. Both sides of the skin must be rubbed
with this two or three times, at intervals of a day.

When sufficiently dry, the skin may be rolled up and packed.
The hair ought to be inwards, with a layer of dried grass in-
tervening, to prevent friction during conveyance. The opera-
tion of rolling up the skin must be begun at the head.

If the journey is long, the skin should be unrolled, and
placed in the sun for a few hours, and the places liable to the
attack of moths should be again rubbed with turpentine.

When a skin thus prepared has reached the place where it
is to be put up, it must undergo a preparation previous to
its being mounted. In the first place, it must be extended
along the ground with the hair undermost, so that it may ac-
quire fresh pliability, and those parts which remain stiff must
be moistened with tepid water. The skin must then be placed

104

SHELLS.

in a large vessel of water saturated with alum, there to re-
main eight or ten days ; after which, it must be extended on
half rounded pieces of wood, and thinned with a sharp knife,
which is facilitated by the projections of the wood, enabling
the operator the more easily to cut it, while it is gradually
shifted, till the whole has been pretty equally thinned. When
this operation is completed, it is allowed to soak in water with
an equal quantity of that saturated with the alum. Twenty-
four hours will be sufficient. It must then be placed on the
artificial body, as directed for the Elephant, at page 21.

In hunting for snakes, great caution must be exercised, as it
is well known that the bite of some of these proves fatal
within a quarter of an hour, particularly that of the Rattle-
snake and some others. Indeed, it would be more prudent
to allow the natives to hunt for these poisonous reptiles, as
they are better acquainted with their haunts, and the means of
defence to be employed in this dangerous pursuit. They are
also better acquainted with those which are poisonous. We
may, however, remark, that the poisonous Snakes have, in gen-
eral, much larger heads than those which are harmless, and
their necks are also narrow.

SHELLS.

Shells, on account of the elegance and variety of their forms,
and beauty of their colours, are objects much sought after, not
only by naturalists, but also by most persons who are unac-
quainted with science. There is no species, particularly in
remote climes, which does not deserve to be brought home :
the things most common in those countries being frequently
the most rare in ours. Shells are found on every part of the
surface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land, while
others only frequent rivers, lakes, ponds, and ditches ; and
another and more numerous class live in the ocean. Land-
shells are spread over the whole surface of the earth, and al-
though more accessible, arc perhaps less known than those
which inhabit the * mighty deep.’

Land- Shells, for the most part, are to be found creeping
abroad, either in the evening, or after a gentle shower of rain.
During the heat of the day they retire to shaded x’etreats, un-

SHELLS.

105

der thick bushes, the crevices of rocks, the hollows of decayed
trees, or under their bark ; beneath stones, amongst moss, or
in holes in the ground. A little experience will teach the
naturalist readily to find their retreats.

Fresh Water Shells must be sought for, if in deep lakes,
with a dredge, or if in shallow places, with a tin spoon fixed
on the end of a stick. This is made of a circular piece of
tin four inches and a half in diameter, beat concave, and
then perforated with numerous small holes, not exceeding the
sixteenth part of an inch in diameter ; around this must be
soldered a perpendicular rim, three quarters of an inch broad,
and also perforated with holes. To this must be attached a
hollow tubular handle, three inches long, for the insertion of
a walking stick. It must have a few holes towards its outer
end for passing a string through, to tie it firmly, and prevent
it being lost. (See plate V., fig. 6.) With this spoon the col-
lector must rake along the mud at the bottom of ditches or
ponds, and after bringing a quantity to the surface, he must
wash the mud entirely away, by shaking the spoon on the top
of the water, and it will all pass through the holes and leave
the shells. The sharp edge of the spoon is also useful in de-
taching aquatic shells from the under surface of the leaves of
water-plants.

The large Swan- Muscle ( Anadonta Cygnea ), and other An-
adons, generally lie deep in the mud, so that they cannot be
procured by dredging. I found it necessary to invent a net to
fish for these. This consisted of an iron-triangle of twelve
inches, with a hollow handle fixed on its base, and in this is
inserted a pole of sufficient length to reach the bottom. It is
firmly screwed to the handle. A net is attached to the tri-
angle either of twine or hair-cloth. The point of the triangle
should be sharp, so that it may the more easily penetrate the
mud, and it is drawn through it in situations where shells are
supposed to exist. (See plate V., fig. 5.)

Marine Shells. — These are to be found in all seas ; some
of them inhabit rocks on the shore within high water mark :
others reside in deep water, and can only be taken by
dredging, or by the use of a kind of net called in France the
Gangui, and an instrument called the Rake has also been suc-
cessfully used.

106

OF THE RAKE.

OF THE GANGUI.

This is the most simple apparatus for fishing shells. It is a
large net in the shape of a bag. The mouth of this bag is
kept open while at the bottom of the sea, by means of a stick
placed transversely, keeping the margins apart from one side
to the other. This stick is equal to the diameter of the aper-
ture of the bag, and as it is placed horizontally, it divides that
aperture into two halves, the one inferior, and the other supe-
rior. The whole circumference of the lower part is furnished
with small pieces of lead, whose weight draws it down. The
circumference of the upper part is provided, on the contrary,
with small pieces of cork, which raise it up ; thus the bag re-
mains always open at the bottom of the sea. This bag is drag
ged by means of a rope, which attaches it to a boat, the mo-
tions of which it follows. The lead with which the lower part
of the aperture is loaded, causes it to drag strongly along the
bottom of the sea, the shells and marine plants of which are
pulled off, and enter the bag as it is moved forward.

OF THE RAKE.

In many cases, the gangui has not sufficient power to detach
those shells which adhere strongly to the rocks, at the bottom
of the ocean ; in which case, the rake will be found an efficient
instrument.

The rake is composed of a cross piece of iron, armed with
teeth, and attached to a long handle, of a similar form to the
rake used by gardeners, except that from the two extremities
of the cross iron proceed two iron branches, which are attached
to the handle, and which form, with the cross piece, a kind of
semicircle. This semicircle serves for attachment and aperture
to a net, in shape of a bag. This rake is fixed by the end of a
handle to a rope, by means of which, fishers, in a boat, draw it
in by the help of a capstan. The teeth of the rake drag along
the bottom of the sea, and detach the marine bodies which ad-
here to it ; these are received into the net, by means of which
they are brought up to the surface.

OF THE DREDGE.

107

OF THE DREDGE.

There is no instrument like the dredge, in point of general
utility. It is much used for fishing oysters. It acts upon the
bottom of the sea almost like the rake, which we have above
described : it is only a rake of a different form, better fitted for
attaining its end. No naturalist, who lives on the sea-coast,
should be without a dredge ; and to those travelling in foreign
countries, in search of natural objects, it will be found of the
utmost utility. The following is a representation of that in-
strument.

Fig. I. Fig. 2.

A A

To have a clear idea of the dredge, and the parts which
compose it, we must imagine a circular bar of iron, forged in
the shape of an almost equilateral triangle. A, B, C, of the
above figure, whose two extremities are joined at A. To form
the summit or point of the triangle, each of the sides should be
above five feet. The two branches, A B, and A C, are rounded
and bent, as they approach the base of the triangle. The base,
B C, is forged into a plate, six inches in breadth with a sharp

108

OF THE DREDGE.

cutting edge in front, turned upwards, at an angle of about
sixty degrees. The back, or that part opposed to the edge of
the plate, is an inch thick. By means of the curvature, b B,
c C, fig. 1. and 2., of the two lateral branches, A B and A C,
the edge of the plate, B C, is brought forward, and a little
turned to the side of the summit. A, as may be seen in the
profile of the dredge, fig. 2. A C. This edge makes, with the
plane of the triangle, contained between the straight parts of
the two descending branches, A B, AC, an angle of about
sixty degrees.

There is a large iron ring attached to the summit A ; when,
by means of a rope passed through this ring, the dredge is
dragged along the bottom of the sea, the edge, B C, which is
turned to the lower side, next the bottom, rakes it strongly,
and detaches from it all the bodies which adhere to it : but it
is not enough that these bodies should be detached from the
bottom of the ocean ; they must also be retained, and raised by
means of a net.

This net, attached to the dredge, and which follows it at the
bottom of the sea, in order that it may receive within it the
bodies that are detached, has the form of a bag. The lower
part of this bag, which is intended to drag along the bottom,
should be made of untanned hide, so as to resist the friction.
The side next the plate should consist of straps of leather,
crossing each other like a net ; which are attached to eight
holes in the back of the plate, B C, which may be seen in
fig. 1. This plate is pierced with eleven holes, but three of
them are intended for the reception of three bars, whose use
will afterwards be explained.

The upper part of the net is attached to a rod, b c, fig. 1. and
2., which crosses the triangle, ABC, parallel to the plate
B C, which is distant from that plate about two feet : this rod
is round, and nearly two inches in diameter ; the two extre-
mities terminate in a flattened end, perforated to receive the
two ascending branches, A B, AC.

The curvature of this rod removes it from the plane of the
triangle, b A c, in a way contrary to that in which the base of
the plate, B C, is removed from it, by means of the curvature
of the two ascending branches, A B, A C, at their inferior ex-
tremities ; and these removals in a contrary way, keep the bag

OF THE DREDGE.

109

always open, of which the edges have been attached, as we
have said, one end to the back plate, B C, and the other to the
transverse rod or bar, b c.

This rod must be firmly fixed in its place ; for this purpose,
it is a little flattened, and pierced in its middle, D, with a hole.
A bar, A D, figs. 1. and 2., which comes from the summit. A,
of the dredge, and which is also flattened and pierced with a
hole at its extremity, D, is joined, by means of that extremity,
to the middle of the rod, b c, on the concave side, so that the
two holes are adapted to each other. The extremity of a small
cross bar of iron, Df is made to pass these, which issues by
the other side of the rod, b c, and the bar, A D. The same
cross piece of iron, Df is attached, in a similar manner, by its
other extremity,^ which is made to pass, that it may be after-
wards bent, through one of the holes, with which the back of
the plate, B C, is pierced.

This plate, as we before mentioned, is pierced with eleven
holes, of which eight only are employed in giving passage to
the meshes of the net or bag. These holes are arranged two
and two together : an idea of their arrangement, and the use of
the three others, may be learnt by inspecting fig. 1. That in
the middle serves to attach the cross bar, D f The two others
serve to attach, in like manner, two similar cross bars, dd,dd,
fig. 1., which strengthen the whole machine, and of which the
other extremity is attached to the rod, b c, by a kind of hook,
which embraces that rod.

The bar, A D, and the cross bar, D f are inclined to one
another. By means of this inclination, the bar A D, through
which passes the cross bar D f, is strongly fixed to the rod
b c, from which it can be removed only by being elongated.
This bar, A D, is a little less thick than the two ascending
branches A B, A C ; they are, however, nearly two inches in
diameter. The three branches, A B, A C, A D, unite again
at the summit of the dredge, where they are welded together
so as to make only one, whose extremity is bent to embrace the
ring, as seen at A, figs. 1. and 2. The common oyster dredge
is smaller than that which we have described, and of a lighter
make.

We have still to describe the manner in which this instru
ment is used for the fishing of shells. A cord is passed through

110

MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.

the ring attached to the point of the dredge, another cord is
attached to the middle of the rod, be, by a knot which em-
braces the rod be, the perpendicular branch A D, and the
small cross-bar Df at the point where they unite. When the
boat has reached the place of fishing, the dredge is thrown
out at the stern in the same manner in which an anchor is
thrown out, the last named cord serves to keep the dredge in
its place, the plate being turned below till it arrive at the bot-
tom of the sea, and to prevent it from being overturned by the
way. When the dredge has reached the bottom, it is hauled
along by rowing and sailing. Should the dredge be stopped
by any rock or irregularity at the bottom, the rope attached to
the ring should be pulled. When the bag is supposed to be
full, the dredge is drawn on board by the capstan, and the
bag is emptied of its contents.

Different species of sea weed are frequently covered by mi-
nute shells, — weeds should always be carefully examined.
Many of the smaller and microscopic shells are found at high
water mark among the fine dross and drifted fragments of
shells ; this sand should be brought home and examined at
leisure. To facilitate the process, a small wire-cloth sieve
should be made, of about six or seven inches square, and all
the sand sifted through it, and the shells left. See plate V.,
fig. 7.

MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.

Many species of worms, and other soft invertebrate animals,
are to be caught also by the dredge. There is no way of pre-
serving these animals except by putting them in spirits. Ani-
mals of this kind are still very imperfectly known ; notwith-
standing the researches of Lamarck, Poli, and other celebrated
naturalists. Every opportunity should, therefore, be embraced
of bringing them home ; indeed, we are still little acquainted
with those which inhabit our own seas. Colonel Montagu and
Dr Grant have, however, thrown much light on this depart-
ment.

When animals of this kind are procured in foreign parts, a
careful noting of the latitude should be taken ; and it should
be stated, whether they live singly or are congregated, if they

INSECTS.

Ill

are phosphorescent, and if they were taken in deep water.
And as these animals are very liable to lose their colours by
being1 put in spirits, a careful noting of these should be taken
whenever they are caught, as the colours are very evanescent ;
or, what would be still better, a drawing of the animal should
be made.

Intestinal Worms. — Whenever we have killed either a
quadruped, bird, or fish, we should carefully examine the sto-
mach and intestinal canal of the animal, to see if there are
any worms ; indeed, there are few animals without them ; they
must also be preserved in spirits. Besides the stomach and
intestines, worms are also found in the livers and other parts
of the body ; also in the back of skate and various fishes.

INSECTS.

This class is subject to infinite variety, according to climate
and soil. The Entomologist, or the mere collector, must not
confine himself to those whose beauty of colouring ren-
ders them attractive, but collect all that come in the way.
Those species which have wings, and fly around plants, we
take by means of gauze nets, as also those which swim in the
water. For the construction of these different nets, see plate
IV. figs. 7. and 9. — See descriptions, p. 75, &c. Those which
live on putrid substances^ and such as are disagreeable to the
touch, are seized with pincers ; they are first put into cam-
phorated spirits to render them clean. Trees are the habita-
tions of innumerable insects, many of them skulk under the
old rotten bark, and others attach themselves to the foliage.
A cloth should be spread under the trees, or an umbrella, and
the brandies shaken with considerable force, when they will
fall down, and may then be caught.

Insects are killed by making a crow-quill into a long point,
and dipping it into prussic acid, an incision with it may be
made immediately below the head of the insect betwixt the
shoulders, which usually produces instant death. But this
acid must be used with much caution, because its effects are
almost as instantaneous and fatal in the human subject as in
the lower animals. When cork cannot be had for lining the bot-
toms of the boxes, a layer of bees wax may be used in its stead.
k 2

112

BRITISH INSECTS.

The pin should be deeply sunk in this substance, as it is more
liable to loosen than when in cork.

It is of much importance to procure the caterpillar as well
as the insect, and, in this case, some of the leaves on which it
feeds should be placed in a box beside it, so that it may reach
maturity. A small perforation should be made in the box for
the admission of air.

Every kind of insect, except Butterflies, Sphinges, and
Moths, may be preserved in bottles of spirits, which will not
injure them ; when they are taken out they are immediately
placed in the position in which it is wished to preserve them,
and they are then allowed to dry. Another mode of preserving
Coleopterous Insects, such as Beetles, &c., is to put them in
a dry box amongst fine sand. A row of insects is placed in a
layer of sand, and then a new layer of an inch in depth laid
on the top, and so on till the box is filled. This mode of pack-
ing will not, however, do with soft insects, and those having
fine wings.

It is extremely desirable that all the different kinds of Spiders
should be caught, particularly those said to be venomous;
also Termites, or White Ants, the different Scolopendra and
Gaily Worms, &c. The nests of Spiders and other insects
should also be sent home ; in short, every insect which is re-
markable, in any way,' either for its history or properties.

It is also of much importance to bring specimens of the
plants on which they feed ; these should be dried, and their
localities marked, the kind of soil on which they grow, and
the situations, whether moist or dry, should be noted.

BRITISH INSECTS.

Woods, Hedges, and Lanes. — By far the greatest portion
of insects are found in these situations. In woods, the Ento-
mologist must beat the branches of the trees into his folding
net, and must select for this purpose the open paths, skirts, &c.
The trunks of trees, gates, and timber which is cut down,
should be carefully examined, and a great many Lepidopterous
and Coleopterous insects are found in these situations, and in
no other. In hedges and lanes, many of the most valuable
and beautiful insects are found, as also in nettles and other

BRITISH INSECTS.

113

plants which grow under them ; these should be well beat,
but more especially when the white thorn blossoms in the
months of May and June. Hedges where the roads are dusty
are very seldom productive.

Heaths and Commons. — Many insects are peculiar to these
situations from the plants which grow on them, as well as from
the dung of cattle by which many of them are frequented, in
the latter of which, many thousands of insects may be found in
a single day, in the months of April and May. These are
principally of the Order Coleoptera.

• Sand Pits. — These are favourable for the propagation of
Capris lunarius, Notoxus monoceros, Lixus sulcirostris and
other rare insects. Minute species are found abundantly at
the roots of grass.

Meadows, Marshes, and Ponds. — In meadows, when the
Ranunculi, or butter-cups, are in blossom, many Muscce and
Dipterous insects generally abound. The flag-rushes are the
habitations of Cassida, Donacina , and others. Drills in marsh-
es should be examined, as many species of insects are found
on long grass. The larvae of various Lepidoptera, and Neurop-
tera are confined to these situations, more especially if hedges
and trees are near the spot. Ponds are rich in microscopic
insects. These are obtained by means of the landing net,
which, for this purpose, need not be so long as represented in
plate IV., fig. 9, and should be made of pretty thick cotton
cloth, but sufficiently thin to allow the water to escape. The
mud which is brought up from the bottom of ponds and ditch-
es should be examined, and what small insects are found may
be put in a small phial filled with water, which will not only
clean them, but keep them alive ; and in many instances the
naturalist will be surprised upon the examination of these, the
most wonderful productions of nature.

Moss, Decayed Trees, Roots of Grass, &c. — Many in-
sects will be found in moss and under it ; the roots and wood
of decayed trees afford nourishment and a habitation to a num-
ber of insects ; many of the larvae of Lepidoptera penetrate the
trunks of trees in all directions ; most of the Cerambyces feed
on wood, as well as some species of Carabidce, Elateridce, &c.
In seeking for these, it is necessary to use the digger, — see
k 3

114.

BRITISH INSECTS.

plate IV., fig. 13. It is sometimes requisite to dig six or seven
inches into the wood before they are found.

Banks of Ponds and Roots of Grass. — These are a never
failing source of collecting, which may be followed at all sea-
sons of the year, and in general with great success; those
banks are to be preferred which have the morning or noon-
day sun.

Banks of Rivers, Sandy Sea Shore, &c. — These situa-
tions afford a great variety of Coleoptera, Crustacea , &c. The
dead carcases of animals thrown on the shore should be
examined, as they are the receptacles and food of Silphiodce,
Staphilinidce, &c. May and June are the best seasons for col-
lecting these insects.

Dead Animals, and Dried Bones, should be constantly
examined, for these are the natural habitats of several insects.
It is not uncommon for country people to hang dead moles on
bushes ; under these the Entomologist should place his net,
and shake the boughs on which they are hung, as many of the
Coleoptera generally inhabit these.

Fungi and Flowers. — These are the constant abode of in-
sects, and many curious species will be found on them.

It is a mistaken idea that insects are only to be found in
summer, as they are to be met with, either in a living or pupa
state, at all seasons. Dried moss, beneath the bark of trees,
and under stones, are extremely likely places to find insects in
winter; and even then, the Entomologist is more likely to
procure some of the rare species, than in summer, as these
are ranging in search of food, and in situations hidden from
view.

At this season, if the weather is mild, the pupae of Lepidop-
tera will be found at the roots of trees, more especially those
of the elm, oak, lime, &c., or beneath the underwood, close to
the trees, and these frequently at the depth of some inches
under the ground.

In the months of June, July, and August, the woods are the
best places to search for insects. Most of the Butterflies are
taken in those months, flying about in the day-time only.
Moths are either found at break of day, or at twilight in the
evening. The following method of taking Moths is pointed

SOLUTION OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

115

out by Haworth, in speaking of the Oak Moth ( Bombyx Quer-
cus ). “ It is a frequent practice with the London Aurelians,”

says he, “ when they breed a female, of this and some other
day-flying species, to take her, whilst yet a virgin, into the
vicinity of woods, where, if the weather is favourable, she never
fails to attract a numerous train of males, whose only business
seems to be an incessant, rapid, and undulating flight, in search
of their unimpregnated females; one of which is no sooner
perceived, than they become so much enamoured of their fair
and chaste relation, as absolutely to lose all kind of fear for
their own personal safety, which, at other times, is effectually
secured by the reiterated evolutions of their strong and rapid
wings. So fearless, indeed, have I beheld them on these oc-
casions, as to climb up and down the sides of a cage which
contained the dear object of their eager pursuit, in exactly the
same hurrying manner as honey-bees, which have lost them-
selves, climb up and down the glasses of a window.”

CHAP. VII.

RECEIPTS

FOR VARIOUS ARTICLES USED IN THE PRESERVATION AND
SETTING UP OF ANIMALS.

SOLUTION OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

Mr Watertoris Method.

Put a good large tea-spoonful of well pounded corrosive
sublimate into a wine-bottle full of alcohol (spirits of wine).
Let it stand over night, and, the next morning, draw it oft' into
a clean bottle. When the solution is applied to black sub-
stances, and little white particles are perceived on them, it
will be necessary to make it weaker, by the addition of some
alcohol.

A black feather, dipped in the solution, and then dried, will

116

ARSENICAL SOAP.

be a very good test of the state of the solution : if it be too
strong, it will leave a whiteness upon the feather.

ARSENICAL SOAP.

Invented by Becceur , Apothecary , Metz.

Arsenic, in powder, - - -2 pounds.

Camphor, - - - - -5 ounces.

White Soap, - - - - - 2 pounds,

Salt of Tartar, - - - - 12 ounces.

Powdered Lime, - - - - 4 ounces.

The soap must be cut in small and very thin slices, put into a
crucible with a small quantity of water, and held over a gentle
fire, and frequently stirred with a wooden spatula, or a piece of
wood of any kind. When it is properly melted, the powdered
lime and salt of tartar must then be added, and thoroughly
mixed. It must now be taken off the fire, the arsenic added
gently, and stirred. The camphor must be reduced into a
powder, by beating it in a mortar, with the addition of a little
spirits of wine. The camphor must then be added, and the
composition well mixed with a spatula, while off the fire. It
may be again placed on the fire, to assist in making the ingre-
dients incorporate properly, but not much heated, as the cam-
phor will very rapidly escape. It may now be poured into
glazed earthen pots, and allowed to cool, after which a piece
of paper should be placed over the top, and afterwards some
sheep leather ; and then set aside for use. The composition is
about the thickness of ordinary flour paste.

When it is necessary to use the soap, put as much as will
answer the purpose into a preserve pot, and add to it about an
equal proportion of water. This is applied to the skin or
feathers with a bristle brush.

N. B. it should be kept as close as possible, and used with
caution, as it is a deadly poison.

The above is the recipe made use of at the Jardin des
Plantes, Paris.

CEMENT.

117

ARSENICAL COMPOSITION.

Mr Laurent's Receipt.

A distinguished French naturalist, Laurent, recommends
the following composition, after ten years’ experience, for pre-
serving the skins of stuffed animals. He observes, at the same
time, that it penetrates them with greater readiness, and pre-
serves them much better than any preparation which has
hitherto been in use.

Arseniate of Potash, - - -2 drachms.

Sulphate of Alumine, - - -2 do.

Powdered Camphor, - - - 2 do.

White Soap, powdered - - - \ oz.

Spirits of Wine, - - - - 6 oz.

Essence of Thyme, - - - 3 drops.

The arseniate of potash, sulphate of alumine, and soap, are
to be placed in a phial, with a large mouth, and the spirits of
wine to be poured on them, at a heat of twenty-jive degrees,
and they will be perfectly combined in twenty-four hours.
The essence of thyme is then added, when the phial must be
carefully corked. This composition is to be shaken together,
before it is made use of, and it must be spread over the skin of
the animal or bird with a brush.

SOLUTION OF PEARL ASHES.

Two ounces of pearl-ash to one gallon of water.

ANNEALED IRON WIRE.

Take common iron wire, make it red hot, and suffer it to
cool gradually ; this renders it soft and pliable, so that it may
be easily bent in any direction.

CEMENT.

Fine Whitening, -

- 2 oz.

Gum Arabic, -

- 2 oz.

Finest Flour, -

- i oz.

Ox- Gall, a tea-spoonful.

118 PAPER PASTE, GUMMED.

The whole to be dissolved, and mixed well with water into
a thick paste.

This is well adapted for attaching different objects, and espe-
cially for fixing shells to pasteboard, &c.

GUM PASTE.

White Sugar Candy, - - - - 2 oz.

Common Gum Arabic, - - - - 4 do.

Let these be melted in a pot of hot water, and then strained
through a linen or horse-hair sieve. When properly dissolved,
add to it two table-spoonfuls of starch, or hair-powder, and mix
the whole well together. This paste may be used for many
purposes, and it never spoils. It may be dried, and by pouring
a little warm water on it, it will soon be ready for use. If it is
wished to be all melted, and hurriedly, the pot containing it
should be placed in warm water, or sand.

FLOUR PASTE.

Make flour paste in the ordinary way, and add to it a small
portion of the solution of corrosive sublimate, or powdered
corrosive sublimate. This will prevent the attack of mites, to
which paste is very liable when dried. This paste may be dried
into a cake, and moistened when required.

SOLUTION" OF GUM ARABIC.

The solution of gum arabic is made by simply adding water
to it. When used as a varnish, or for attaching objects, it is
extremely apt to get too brittle, in very warm weather, and to
crack, or split off in scales ; to prevent this, a quarter of an
ounce of white or brown sugar candy must be added to two
ounces of gum arabic.

PAPER PASTE, GUMMED.

Take a coffee-pot, filled with water, and add to it a quantity
of paper, which has been slightly sized, like that used for
printing engravings. Let it boil for three hours, and, when

RED VARNISH.

119

the water has evaporated, boil it again for a similar length of
time. Take out the paper, and squeeze it well in a colander,
and then pound it in a mortar, until it is reduced to a very fine
paste. It must then be dried. When it is required for use,
add to it some of the solution of gum arabic ; and keep it in a
pot for use.

POLLEN POWDER,

The paper made as above directed, when well dried, is
pounded in a mortar till it becomes a very fine powder ; it is
then put into a tin pepper-box, and when any of the parts of
Parrots’ bills, &c. are wished to have this powdered appear-
ance, a little of the solution of gum arabic is washed over the
part with a camel’s hair pencil, and the powder dusted on it,
and allowed to dry.

RED VARNISH.

Take a stick of red sealing wax, beat it down with a hammer,
and then put it into a phial, with an ounce of strong spirit of
wine, which will dissolve it within four or five hours It may
be applied to any part with a camel-hair pencil, and it will dry
in less than five minutes .

Black, yellow, and green, or indeed any colour of varnish,
may be made from sealing-wax of these various colours.

To those unacquainted with the combination of colours, we
may mention, that a mixture of blue and yellow produces
green ; pink and blue makes purple ; red and yellow, orange ;
black, red, and yellow, brown ; black and blue, gray. These
may be varied, in an infinity of shades, by either colour predo-
minating, and by the addition of other colours.

Varnishes of gum-copal and gum-mastic, and white spirit .
varnish, are also used for different preparations, but as these
can be easily purchased at a cheap, or even a cheaper rate
than they can be made in small quantities, we think it unneces-
sary to give receipts for making them.

Wax of different colours for these varnishes, is prepared and
sold by Messrs George Waterston and Son, No. 14, South
Hanover Street, Edinburgh.

120

TOW AND FLAX SHVERS.

LUTING FOR RENDERING BOTTLES AIR-TIGHT.

Common Resin.

Red Ochre reduced into a fine powder.

Yellow Wax.

Oil of Turpentine.

These must be melted over a fire in the following manner ;
and the vessel in which it is made should be capable of hold-
ing three times the quantity required, to allow ample room for
boiling up. An earthenware pipkin with a handle is the best
thing for the purpose, and a lid must be made of tin to fit it.
The luting will be rendered more or less brittle, or elastic, as
the red ochre prevails : —

The wax is first melted, and then the resin ; the ochre is
then added in small quantities, and stirred quickly with a spa-
tula each time. When all the ochre has been added, it must
be allowed to boil six or eight minutes ; the turpentine is then
added, and briskly stirred with the spatula, and continue to
boil it. There is considerable risk of the mixture taking fire,
and should it do so, the lid must immediately be put on the
vessel to extinguish it.

To ascertain the consistence of the luting, a little must be,
from time to time, dropped on a cool plate, or flat piece of
iron. If it is too soft, more of the ochre must be added to it ;
and if too hard, additional wax and turpentine.

TOW AND FLAX SLIVERS.

These are fillets of prepared tow and flax, of from one to
three inches in breadth. They are extremely uniform in their
thickness, being made to weight, and can easily be procured
from any flax-spinning mill, at a moderate price per pound
weight.

METHOD OF MAKING ENAMEL-EYES FOR ANIMALS

Much of the character and expression of animals depends
upon their eyes : it will, therefore, be evident that great atten-
tion is necessary in the artificial imitation of these.

METHOD OF MAKING ENAMEL EYES FOR ANIMALS. 121

The instruments necessary for making these are an enamel -
ler’s table, bellows, lamp, round pincers about six inches in
length, which are closed by means of a ring, and with which
is held the iron-wire forming the support, and the base of these
eyes, which it is impossible to blow. Procure another flat pair
of pincers of the same length, which are used for handling
the enamel, as also for stirring up the lamp. These instru-
ments can be had ready made in every hardware shop.

The materials from which the eyes themselves are formed
is an assortment of cylinders of enamel of all colours, which
can be purchased; besides some fragments or clippings of
mirror-glass, which are melted in the lamp into a kind of cy-
linder like the enamel, so that they may be ready for use when
required. During the process of melting these pieces of glass,
considerable attention is necessary to free them from spots and
globules of air. These cylinders can be procured ready made
in the shops-; and at various glass-manufactories.

The table is placed in a situation where the light of day
cannot reach it, as the double light would distract the vision
during the operation.

After the lamp has been lighted, the pipe of the bellows is
directed towards the middle of the wick, which is slightly
scattered in that part so as to procure a clear light-bluisli flame,
which is necessary to secure success in the operation, because
if it is not clear, the colours of the enamel are liable to change
during the operation of making the eyes. The enamel which
we wish to melt should be applied to the extremity of the
jet of the flame, which it will not burn, and often melts more
easily than in the centre.

As small eyes are less difficult than large ones, it will be
advisable to commence with them until we shall have acquired
practice. For small eyes, a small iron-wire is used about an
inch and a half long, one end of which is held in the round
pincers, and the other is approached to the fire, to which is
exposed at the same time the enamel of the colour we wish
the eye, whilst the other is turned between the fingers until it
begins to melt. The quantity necessary for the size of the eye
is then fastened to the end of the iron-wire. This by being
turned in the flame forms a small globe, and when it is suffi-
ciently rounded, a little speck of black enamel is placed in the

L

122

SECOND METHOD OF MAKING EYES.

centre, for the purpose of imitating- the pupil. It is again ex-
posed to the flame that the pupil may be blended into the mass.
When it is properly incrusted, some glass is put upon it, which
should extend three quarters across the hemisphere of the eye.
This glass is intended to represent the vitreous humour of the
eye, and from which all its brilliancy proceeds. The eye is
still exposed to the flame until the glass has extended over
that part of the eye which is intended for the iris ; when we
effect this, it is allowed to cool slowly. This kind of eye is
made by joining several pieces of iron- wire together, which
renders it easier to make them all uniform in point of size,
because the first being close to our eyes guides us in the form-
ation of the others.

SECOND METHOD OF MAKING EYES.

.Another method of making eyes Is the following : — Some
pieces of iron-wire, from three to four inches long, are pre-
pared, which have been well burned. Their strength must be
proportioned to the size of the eye which is intended to be
made. These are curved in the middle over a tube of glass
enamel, or any other cylindrical and polished body : the ex-
tremities of each wire are united by twisting one over the
other, so that they perfectly fit the substance which they em-
brace. It is this circle formed by the wire which makes the
diameter of the eye, and the wire thus prepared is in the
form of a rocket. The handle of this rocket is fixed into the
round pincers, and the head of it curved by making it
parallel to that of the pincers. This circle is filled with com-
mon enamel, of the colour which we wish, extending it from
the circumference to the centre, and when it is nearly the thick-
ness of the wire, it is pressed while yet in a state of fusion with
the flat pincers, so that it may extend equally over the entire
circumference. It is then put into the fire to consolidate
it. This having been done, the iris is formed by a drop of
enamel of the proper colour. This is heated and pressed as
before with the flat pincers, and when it is incorporated with
the first enamel, the pupil is represented with a small speck of
black enamel, as before mentioned. When this is melted and
incrusted in the iris, both are covered with glass, and heated

THIRD METHOD OF MAKING EYES.

123

again until all the parts are smooth, and the glass has diffused
itself over the whole iris. The eye is now placed on some
warm cinders, and left to cool slowly, without which precau-
tion it is liable to break ; or it may be put into warm water,
and allowed to cool gradually. It is then removed from the
wire by loosening the latter. This method is only adapted for
eyes of a middling size.

THIRD METHOD OE MAKING EYES.

There is still another method of making eyes, which is per.
haps better than those we have already described ; and that is,
to blow them if we possibly can ; which, however, cannot be
done when they are small. In this operation, a pipe of baked
earth is used, or a tube of glass six or seven inches in length,
at the end of which a little white enamel is placed. This is
placed to the flame, so that it may be blown. This enamel
forms a globe, whose dimensions depend upon the quantity of
air introduced. When this globe is of the size wished, we
place in the middle, and perpendicularly to the point of the
pipe, the quantity of enamel necessary to form the enamel.
The second enamel is then incorporated with the first, by
presenting it to the flame, while attention is paid to turn the
pipe gradually round, so that the enamel may diffuse itself
equally, and the iris be exactly circular. If it is required that
this iris should be of various colours, like that of man for ex-
ample, small filaments of enamel are distributed in diverging
rays of the suitable colour ; the eye is then placed in the flame,
until these have incorporated with the iris, after which the pupil
is placed as before directed, and the glass applied as before
directed.

During this operation, the globe is almost certain of sink-
ing down, partly from the air escaping, partly from the heat,
and from the pressure which is used in applying the differ-
ent substances : air must again be supplied from time to time
to prevent it from losing its form. This becomes particularly
necessary when glass is applied, and when it is extended over
the whole surface of the iris.

The eye having got its form and size, the pipe is taken away.
To effect this, after the air has been introduced, the entrance
l 2

124 ARTICLES FOR SKINNING AND MOUNTING QUADRUPEDS., &C.

of the pipe is stopped with the finger, and the back part of the
eye exposed to the flame ; when the air contained in the globe,
and rarified by the pipe, comes through at the place where the
flame has most action. This opening is prolonged by turning
the point of the flat pincers, or an iron- wire, all round the
pipe ; one point only is left by which the eye remains fixed.
It is then warmed equally all over, after which it is exposed
to a gentle heat, and when it again cools, it is separated from
the pipe.

These eyes can also be purchased at different shops in Lon-
don and Paris, at from a penny a pair to twenty-five shillings,
according to size.

ARTICLES REQUIRED FOR SKINNING AND MOUNTING
QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, REPTILES, AND FISHES.

1. A box containing scalpels of different shapes (plate VI., fig.
1 & 2) ; a pair of scissors with pointed blades, fig. 3 ; and
two or three pointed forceps of different sizes, fig. 6 & 7 ;
the extremities of one of which ought to be indented.

2. Two flat pincers, or pliers, large and small.

3. A round pincer for turning wire, fig. 4.

4. A cutting pincer for wire, 5.

5. A hammer.

6. Two files.

7. A triangular.

8. Points for perforating holes, figs. 9 & 10.

9. A saddler’s awl for drilling holes, also various shoemakers’
awls, which will be found useful.

10. Brushes of different sizes for putting the preservative on
the animals’ and birds’ skins, and for smoothing and dust-
ing the feathers.

11. An assortment of iron- wire of all sizes.

12. Flax and tow, coarse cotton. When these cannot be had,
untwisted ropes or cords. A quantity of tow and flax sli-
vers for twisting round the leg- bones of small quadrupeds
and birds.

13. Some small hardwood meshes for assisting in stuffing.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

125

CHAP. VIII.

INSTRUCTIONS TO TRAVELLERS.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Since the establishment of the menageries of the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris, and the zoological gardens of London, n new
field of investigation has been thrown open to the scientific
naturalist. In these splendid establishments, the animals are,
for the most part, placed in situations somewhat congenial to
their nature, and in which their native energies may be partly
awakened.

Until the institution of these establishments, it was merely
the forms of the animals which could be studied, with a sim-
ple knowledge of their organs. But now we are enabled to
trace the developement pf their sagacity, and instinctive habits.
These we acquired, in former times, from the accounts of tra-
vellers, which, it is to be lamented, were frequently garnished
with imaginary wonders. By this means also we can com-
pare their manner of living, with their internal anatomy after
death ; and we acquire certain information on the important
modes of their copulation, gestation, and birth, and we are en-
abled to trace the variations which take place in their progress
from infancy to the mature state, and from that to old age,
and many other important points. >

Much useful information has been acquired since the institu-
tion of menageries. This, therefore, ought to be a strong ex-
citement for travellers to embrace every opportunity of send-
ing home living specimens of all animals not European. Very
little is yet known of the habits of animals which burrow in the
ground.

The best means of procuring living animals, is by applying
to the natives of the different countries, who are accustomed
to their habits, and the situation in which they are likely to be
l 3

126

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

found., and to take them in traps and snares. They are also
more likely to be able to find their retreats, so that they
may take these animals in a young state., and also birds in
their nests.

By thus securing animals while young, they are much more
likely to reach Europe in a living state. Every exertion
should be used to render them familiar, when, being ha-
bituated to the appearance of man, they will be more able to
resist the effects of a tedious sea voyage than those which
have been taken when wild, and are under a continued
degree of excitement. Every care should be taken to
soothe and caress them ; and there is no animal whose man-
ners cannot be softened by gentle treatment. During fine
weather, they should be allowed to take exercise on the deck,
as nothing is so injurious to their health and growth, as being
long pent up in a small cage. While thus confined, it will be
obvious that they require a much smaller portion of food than
when they can have sufficient room to exercise themselves.
Many of these animals are lost from over feeding. Their diet
should be given with great regularity, but always in such quan-
tity as they can easily digest.

Next to food, cleanliness is of the utmost importance, and
if this requires too much of the attention of those who are
bringing them home, it will be easy to procure the assistance
of some of the crew. And unless this is strictly attended to,
there is little chance of preserving their health.

When animals’ skins are imported, it is also necessary to
bring the head and feet. Those of the mammalia, which
can be put into a barrel or bottle, should be preserved en-
tire in spirits.

In the event of not being able to transport the carcase, the
next best thing is to bring the skeleton along with the skin.
It will not be necessary to mount these. All that is required
is to boil the bones, take off the flesh, and dry them. After-
wards, all the bones belonging to the same skeleton should be
put in a bag by themselves, taking care to fill up the bag with
dried moss, or any other substance which will prevent friction.
The more effectually to secure this, the small and tender
bones ought to be wrapped in paper. It is of the utmost
consequence that not a bone should be lost.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

127

In shooting birds, it is of much importance not to use the
shot too large ; indeed, it ought to be proportioned as nearly as
possible to the size of the bird to be shot at. When the bird
is killed, the blood must be carefully wiped away, and a little
cotton must be put into the bill to prevent the blood flowing
from it to injure the feathers. The wound should also be
stuffed with cotton.

Birds should be skinned as soon as possible, as the feathers
are apt to fall off if kept too long. Directions for skinning
will be found at page 25. The os coccygis must be kept at-
tached to the skin. (See plate I., fig. 1, myn.) If several
individuals of the same species be killed, one should, if possi-
ble, be preserved entire in spirits, with the whole muscles of
the body. If the bird has a fleshy crest, it ought to be preserv-
ed in spirits.

It is of the utmost consequence to procure the male, female,
and young, and these at different ages besides, as many species
are subject to great variety, in their progress from the young
to the adult state. This is more particularly the case with
Eagles and Hawks ; many of which have been described as
different species in their immature state. The eggs and nest
should also be procured. (See page 58.)

Reptiles. — The chief thing to be attended to in skinning
reptiles, is not to injure the scales ; and in the Lizard kind,
care must be taken not to break the tail. But for all the
smaller and middle sized species, the best mode is to preserve
them in spirits ; and of the larger kinds which are skinned, the
skeletons ought to be kept. The flesh should be taken away
with knives and scalpels as well as possible, and the bones
thoroughly dried, and packed in a box with cotton or grass, and
they can be articulated after they are brought home. When
the skeletons are too large, they may be separated into con-
venient parts for packing.

Fishes. — Many species are common to all seas, but there are
a vast number which are quite local. Unless, therefore, the tra-
veller is .certain of the frequency of those he meets with in
his own country, he ought to bring them home. River and fresh
water fishes generally are subject to great variety, every lake
and river having varieties peculiar to itself, which the experi-
enced fisher, or naturalist, can at once detect. It is, there-

128

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

fore, very interesting to be possessed of these varieties. When
the species are too large for preservation in spirits, they ought
to be skinned, taking care to preserve the head and fins entire.
The brain ought to be removed by the occipital hole.

For Insects, Shells, &c., see their respective chapters.

Every animal sent home should be accompanied by a note,
stating the country where it was found, — the particular situa-
tion where it localises, — its food, — the season it was taken, —
the peculiarity of its habits, — its native name, — whether its
flesh was used as food, — any popular or superstitious opin' -
regarding it amongst the natives. A number corresponding
to the note should be attached to the animal.

The most certain way to prevent these numbers from being
injured, is to have them either painted, or stamped upon wood
or metal, and attached with brass wires ; or these may be en-
graved on pewter plates.

In packing objects of natural history, attention is required
to see that they are well preserved from the attacks of insects ;
the skins must be well rubbed inside with the arsenical soap.
(See page 116.) Caution must, however, be exercised in the
use of it ; and in mounting the skins afterwards, it is necessary
to avoid touching them with the hands as much as possible, as
it often produces disagreeable effects. Those objects which
are prepared with the preservative should be marked, so that
the stuffer may avoid touching them too much. Or other
preservatives may be used, such as spirits of turpentine, oil of
petroleum, and camphor, which are sure to disperse insects if
on the skins, and will also prevent them from attacking them,
while transporting from one place to another.

Before skins of any kind are packed, they must be well
shaken, and then rubbed over inside with oil of petroleum, or
spirits of turpentine; these must be applied with a brush.
They are then slightly packed with cotton, but just sufficient
to prevent the inside of the skins from pressing on each other.
In case oil of petroleum, or turpentine, cannot be procured, a
decoction of bitter and aromatic herbs may be rubbed over the
inside of the skins, and the outsides should be dusted with
pounded tobacco, or pepper. The box in which they are pack-
ed must be pitched all over to prevent damp and air from reach-
ing the inside.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

129

For the preservation of animals in ardent spirits, glass-bot-
tles are by far the best, and those of a square shape are to be
preferred, on account of their packing better.

Considerable attention is required in placing the animals,
and also in regulating the proper strength of the spirits.

Rum, brandy, gin, arrack, or whisky, may be used, but the
less it is coloured so much the better, and the strength should
not exceed from 16 to 22 degrees of Baume, otherwise it will
destroy the colour of the animals. Any mucous or other sub-
stance should be carefully removed, and dirt taken away.
The animal should not reach the bottom of the bottle, as
it is liable to decay by touching the bottle. M. Peron directs
that the specimen should be attached to a flat piece of cork,
by which means it is held suspended in the spirits, and thus
several may be placed in the same vessel, without injuring
each other. But the most simple method is to put the speci-
men in a net, or linen bag ; and if these are attached to cork
they will remain suspended in the vessel. A slight incision
should be made in the abdomen, to allow the spirits to reach
the internal cavities, so that it may prevent decay. A day or
two after the animals are placed in the bottles, it will be ne-
cessary to fill them up again, as part of the liquor will have
been absorbed by the .specimen. The corks should then be
luted with the composition mentioned at page 120. Corks are
to be preferred to every thing else for stoppers. Before ap-
plying the luting, the cork must be perfectly dry, otherwise
it will not adhere. The luting is first heated to the boiling
point, and well stirred from the bottom, with a piece of rag
attached to a small stick, and the luting may be applied with
this all over the cork. A piece of strong linen is then tied
over the cork, and if the bottles are large, a piece of wire
should be crossed over them, and the whole must then be
coated over with pitch.

The traveller, or naturalist, will be best informed in regard
to the animals which are peculiar to the different quarters of
the globe, by consulting a natural history ; for example the
Regne Animal of Cuvier, or Goldsmith’s Animated Nature,
brought down to the present time. The latter, of course, will
be the best adapted to the purpose of the English reader.

130

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

The introduction of foreign plants and seeds into Europe
is of the utmost consequence, not only in a scientific point of
view, but because many of them prove of the utmost utility to
mankind. First then, the introduction of plants in a living
state is of much importance, and if it is inconvenient to trans-
port these, their seeds ought to be procured.

The strictest attention ought to be paid to the local situa-
tion in which the plants grow ; the particular quality of the
soil ; whether of a sandy or clayey, or calcareous or vegetable
mould ; whether in moist or dry situations ; its uses in the
country where it is found, whether as food or medicine j and
every thing else connected with its history.

The coffee trees were first introduced into the green houses
of the garden of plants, at Paris, and from thence transported
to the American Islands. And more recently, the bread-fruit
tree was sent from France to Cayenne, where it has thriven in
a remarkable manner, and proved a blessing to the inhabitants
of that country. In the like manner have many of the most
useful and ornamental woods of our forests and lawns been
introduced. The seeds of plants should be procured when
they are in a perfectly ripe state, to insure their propagation.
They should be put in separate papers ; that is, each species
by itself; with a memorandum stating whether it be a tree or
an herb — its native country — the nature of the soil — its eleva-
tion above the sea, and its native name.

When seeds are ripe, they are easily separated from the
plants ; but when it is found that they are not perfectly ripe,
and the traveller cannot remain in the neighbourhood till they
are so, a branch may be brought away with the seeds adher-
ing, which will assist in ripening them.

The bags containing seeds should be packed in cases covered
with pitch to prevent the entrance of damp, insects, or mice,
to destroy them. M. de Candolle packed the seeds which he
procured in moist countries in powdered charcoal, which effec-
tually prevented the effects of damp.

Seeds which are of an oily nature, are most liable to lose
their germinating faculty ; of this kind are those of coffee.

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

131

tea, and oaks : to prevent this, these seeds should be placed
in sandy earth, two inches of this earth should be laid on the
bottom, and the seeds put at a little distance from each other,
they are then covered with a layer of earth one inch in thickness,
and proceed in this manner till the box is filled within six or
eight inches of the top, and the remainder filled up with sand.
The box must not be too tightly covered, as it is of consequence
that the air should penetrate the earth. Indeed, there ought
to be an opening at the top, with a trellis cover of brass wire,
to prevent the intrusion of mice ; this was the manner in which
M. M. Michaux, senr. and junr. transported nearly the whole of
the North American oaks to France. During the passage the
seeds will germinate, and their embryos will be developed, and
all that is required is to place them in fresh soil congenial to
their habits. The same method must be adopted with stone
fruits, such ns walnuts, plumbs, and nectarines ; as also with
laurels and myrtles, and more particularly those species which
have to be transported across the equatorial seas.

For the preservation of the seeds of pulpy fruits, a different
mode must be pursued. These seeds are perfectly ripe when
the fruit indicates the first stages of putrefaction, the seeds
must then be removed, thoroughly dried, and placed in paper
bags for preservation.

Dried Plants. — These are collected for the formation of
herbariums, and are of much use in enabling the botanist to
describe and distinguish new species. By means of these
alone, the naturalist can determine all the characters of the
plants, and thus form a classification of the vegetable king-
dom. Besides the leaves and stem of the plant, its roots should
also be procured if possible.

Fruits in a ripe state preserved in spirits are extremely use-
ful for comparison with those which we raise in Europe.
Resins, gums, and all other substances which are likely to
prove useful in the arts or medicine, ought to be procured.

The plants intended for an herbarium, must be gathered both
in the flower and fruit ; they must be laid out in as natural a
manner as possible between leaves of paper, with a board
placed over them, and some stones or other weights for pres-
sure, to prevent the leaves from curling upon drying. This
pressure must be applied till they are perfectly dry, and they

132

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

should be examined every day or two, to see that they are
lying properly, and to prevent them from sticking to the paper.
In most climates, artificial heat becomes necessary to facilitate
their drying, so that mouldiness may not ensue. For this pur-
pose, each plant is placed between two or three sheets of paper,
and after placing several layers of these above each other,
they are put into an oven which is half cooled. There is no
danger of the colours giving way, as might be supposed, from
this rapid drying ; when this operation is completed the plants
are put in clean paper, each species being in a separate leaf.

Bulbous plants are very difficult to dry from the quantity of
moisture contained in them, and, indeed, often vegetate after
they are in an herbarium ; to prevent which, they ought to be
plunged in boiling water for about a minute, and then placed
between two leaves of brown paper, when they will dry rapidly,
as the boiling water will have destroyed the vegetative func-
tions. We must, however, avoid immersing the blossoms.
The same notes must be put with each plant, as recommended
at page 128 ; besides these, the height of the plant, the co-
lours of its flowers, and its odour, should be attended to.

When the herbal of a country is formed, it ought to be pack-
ed in a large box and a little cotton with oil of petroleum
placed beside it, or a little oil of turpentine ; the box should
be covered with pitch, as before directed.

The genus and species of many of the different kinds of
wood used in commerce, are still unknown to Botanists; it is
therefore desirable that specimens of these should be sent
home of ten inches or a foot long, and the whole breadth of
the tree if possible, as also transverse sections ; these ought to
be accompanied with a branch of the tree containing the
leaves, and of flowers and fruit besides.

It is not enough to bring home a single specimen of objects
of natural history, but as many as can conveniently be stowed
by the traveller ; these will be found very useful to other na-
turalists, and by exchanging them for other duplicates, will
add greatly to the value of a collection ; and, besides, our
specimens are liable to accidents and decay, so that, in many
points of view, duplicates will be found very useful.

REMARKS ON BOTANY.

133

GENERAL REMARKS ON BOTANY.

As we advance towards the equatorial regions, we find that
the plants exhibit larger features ; so that the paper which we
require for an herbarium must be from eighteen to twenty
inches long and twelve inches wide. Several planks ought
to be procured for pressing-boards ; these should be formed
of two thin ones glued together to prevent warping from
the damp of the plants in pressing. The thread of the
wood ought to run lengthwise in that which is placed next
the paper, and transverse on the outer side. A press
should be obtained for squeezing them, or weights and stones
may be used for that purpose ; others make use of a series
of leather straps with buckles. The Botanist should have
a book of blotting-paper in his botanical excursions for col-
lecting plants, as it is much better for absorbing the moisture
of the fresh plant ; besides this, a tin botanizing box of from
fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and from six to eight inches
in breadth : this box is about two inches to two and a half in
depth, and curved, that is, the lid is concave and the bottom
convex, to each end should be attached a strong wire for pass-
ing a strap through, so that it may be carried like a knap-
sack ; it ought to be japanned outside to prevent it from wast-
ing. A small box of the same shape for carrying in the pocket,
will also be found useful for small plants, this may be about
seven and a half inches long and five broad. A small trowel,
with the blade six inches long and two and a half broad, will
be found extremely useful for digging up the roots of plants ;
it should be oblong and acutely shaped, as in the following
figure : —

Another instrument for procuring the branches of trees, is
an indispensable appendage to the botanist. The upper edge
of which is sharpened for cutting branches of trees, or speci-
mens of the wood from the larger trunks of trees. The lower

134

REMARKS ON BOTANY.

edge on one side is sharp for cutting those branches which
are out of reach, and the other side is to serve as a hook for
pulling down branches, that specimens may be obtained of the
fruit, flowers, and leaves, of high trees. (See plate V., fig. 14.)

When the botanist has arrived at a place where he is to be
some time stationary, the plants collected are removed from
the boxes, and each placed between a separate piece of dry
blotting paper, and two or more sheets should intervene be-
twixt every plant. The whole should then be put between
the boards, and well strapped together, and placed in a dry
and warm situation. The paper ought to be changed every
day for some time, to prevent mouldiness from the damp.

Tender and marine plants should be placed in a plate of
pure water, and a piece of strong white paper introduced be-
neath them, and the plants can then be nicely arranged, and
then taken out to dry, which is done by raising them slowly in
an oblique direction, and when they are half dried they must
be placed between paper, and subjected to pressure. When
the plants are of a very tender nature, they should be placed
on talk, or glass.

Seeds which are produced in pods ought to be kept in these,
and to prevent them from opening, a thread must be tied round
them.

It is of great consequence to have specimens of the trunks
of trees with their bark entire. Stumps of a foot in length
are necessary to exhibit these properly ; that is, if they do
not exceed a foot in diameter. But if the trunk exceeds that
size, a branch of about that dimension must be chosen. But
if the branches differ from the trunk in external structure,
which they frequently do, the trunk itself must be chosen.
Let it be cut half or a quarter through, and make a longitu-
dinal section of that portion ; that is, it should be cut out of
the trunk; but in all cases extending from the pith to the
bark.

Fungi of a fleshy nature must be preserved in spirits, in the
same manner as fruits.

Cryptogamic botany which has, till late years, been much
neglected, is now exciting general interest. Many of these
plants are parasites, existing on living vegetables, and appear
like spots, or excrescences on leaves, stems &c. These should

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

135

be brought home adhering to their natural situations ; and un-
less the species of the tree on which they grow is known to
the traveller, a specimen branch should be imported at same
time.

It is of consequence also, to observe which way climbing and
parasitical plants bind round the stems to which they adhere,
that is, to ascertain whether they are dextral or sinistral plants.
The naturalist must suppose himself in the place of the stem,
placing himself with his face turned towards the south pole,
and then mark whether they ascend to the right or left. Those
whose head twists in the same direction which the sun appears
to move in, are dextral plants.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Every mineral from the most common clay or sand, to the
gem, ought to be collected.

Specimens of rocks, such as granite, porphyry, limestone,
slate, &c., should, if possible, be broken from fixed rocks,
and not from loose masses, which are generally decayed. In
selecting the specimens, one set ought to represent the differ-
ent varieties of appearance presented by the rock in the fresh
state ; another the rock in its different states of decomposition.
It is not sufficient for the geologist to content himself with
possessing a simple specimen of any mountain rock. For he
will find that they present considerable variety of structure in
different districts, and these are very interesting to be brought
together for comparison. By an accumulation of these, we
may be assisted in coming to certain conclusions concerning
their primary formation, and other geological facts.

When the specimens of simple minerals or rocks contain
crystals, they ought to be wrapped in fine paper, and then in
cotton, and afterwards in several folds of strong wrapping-
paper.

The specimens of rocks ought, if possible, never to be less
than four inches square, and one inch in thickness, and of a
square form. As soon as they have been prepared, they should
be labelled, and put in several folds of strong wrapping-paper
to prevent friction. When paper cannot be procured, moss, or
other soft vegetable substances, may be substituted for it.
m 2

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

]3G

The sands of the deserts, steppes, and rivers, ought to be
carefully collected. The sands of rivers often contain precious
stones and metals, and hence become interesting objects to the
naturalist. The sands of deserts and steppes throw much light
on the nature of the surrounding country, and are much prized
by the geologist.

Numerous mineralized, animal, and vegetable remains, oc-
cur imbedded in strata of different kinds. All these ought to
be very carefully collected and preserved. Abundance of
shells, in a fossil or petrified state, are found in limestone ; of
vegetables, in slate, clay, sand-stone, &c. ; and numerous bones,
and even whole skeletons of quadrupeds, birds, amphibious
animals, fishes, and also insects, occur in rocks of various de-
scriptions.

The mineralogist ought to provide himself with hammers of
various sizes. One for common use of two pounds weight ;
others, 'three, four, and six pounds weight. He ought to
have various chissels, differing in form and size. Likewise, a
set of small boring-irons. A mariner’s compass, small magni-
fying glass, goneometer, and blow-pipe, ought also to form
part of his equipment. That admirable instrument, the Sim-
piesometer, invented and sold by Mr Adie of Edinburgh, for
ascertaining the altitude of places, should also be possessed
by every traveller and naturalist ; as also the Thermometer,
the Hyrometer, or Dew Point instrument, the Photometer,
and the Kilinometer, all made by the same gentleman. Nor
should the mineralogist neglect to provide himself with a
strong bag, in the form of that used by sportsmen, which ought
to be lined with strong leather covered with wax-cloth, and
the outside 'of some durable cloth.

Besides these, there are many other instruments required
by naturalists, a complete set of which will be found in the
Appendix, with their prices ; and these are all made by Mr
Adie, optician and instrument maker to his Majesty, one of the
first in his line in this or any other country.

To illustrate the past and present condition of mankind, the
various articles of antiquity, dresses of different nations, im-
plements of agriculture, warlike instruments of nations and
tribes, ought also to be collected.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig. I. exhibits the skeleton of the Falco Palumbarius, or
Goshawk, and shows the manner in which it is supported
by a small iron rod ; and also the names of the bones.

a. — Ball of the Ulna.

b, b, b. — The vertebrae of the neck, or cervical vertebra.

j- The Sternum.

e, e. — The Tarsus.

f, f.— The Fibula.

g, — The Tibia.

h, h. — The metacarpal bones.

i, j. — The Ulna.

m. — The Pelvis.

n. — The Os Coccygis.
q. — The Clavicle.

s. — Vertebrae of the back.

t. — The Os Humeri.

Fig. 2. — Skeleton of a Horse, showing the manner in which it
is supported ; and also the names of the bones.

A. — The head.

a. — The posterior maxillary or jaw bone.

b. — The superior maxillary, or upper jaw.

c. — The orbit of the eye.

d. — The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.

e. — The suture, dividing the parietal bones below from the
occipital bones above.

f. — The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper in-
cisors, or cutting teeth.

m3

138

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

B. — The seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.

C. — The eighteen Dorsal Vertebrae, or bones of the back.

D. — The six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the loins.

E. — The five Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of the haunch.

F. — The Caudal Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, the usual
number being fifteen ; sometimes, however, they vary.

G. — The Scapula, or shoulder blade.

H. — The Sternum, fore part of the chest or breast-bone.

I — The Costae, or ribs, seven or eight of which articulating
with the Sternum, are called the true ribs, and the re-
maining ten, or eleven, which are united together by carti-
lage, are called the false ribs.

J, — The Humerus, or bone of the arm.

K, — The Radius, or bone of the fore arm.

L, — The Ulna, or elbow, with its process, the olecranon.

M, M. — The Carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones.

N, N. — The Metacarpal, or shank bones. The large Me-
tacarpal, or cannon, or shank in front ; and the smaller
Metacarpal, or splent bone behind.

g. — The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffra-
ginis, or the upper and longer pastern bone, with the se-
samoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and
greater pastern ; the Os Coronae, or lesser pastern ; the
Os Pedis, or coffin bone ; and the Os Naviculae, or navi-
cular shuttle bone, not seen, and articulating with the
smaller pastern and coffin bones.

h. — The corresponding bones of the hind fejet.

O, O. — The small metacarpal, or splent-bones.

P, — The pelvis, or haunch, consisting of three portions, —
the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis.

Q, — The femur, or thigh-bones.

R, R. — The patella placed on the stifle joint.

S, S. — The tibia and fibula ; the latter is a small bone be-
hind. These are also called the ham bones.

T, T. — The bones of the tarsus, or hock, six in number.

U, U. — The metatarsals of wthe hind leg, called shank, or
cannon bones.

W, W. — The os calcis, or point of the hock.

X, X, X, X.— The sesamoid, or fetlock bones.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

139

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. — The common Perch, showing the manner in which
the paper is attached for the purpose of extending the fins.

a, Pectoral fin.

b, Ventral fin.

c, Anal fin.

d, First dorsal fin.

e, Second dorsal fin.

Fig. 2 exhibits the manner of inserting the wires in mounting
a Cat.

Fig. 3. — The wires as they are put together before being placed
in the skin ; a, the tail wire ; b, c, head and neck wire ; d,
e, and f, leg wires.

Fig. 4. — Wire employed for forming a double cross in the
larger quadrupeds.

Fig. 3, exhibits the manner of articulating the joints of the
larger quadrupeds, in setting up skeletons, a , an iron
plate ; b is the nut which tightens the screw of the iron
peg •, c is the head of the second iron peg, the nut and
screw of which are the same as that shown in front, and
is placed behind.

PLATE III.

Fig. 1 shows the manner of holding the hands in the opera-
tion of skinning a bird.

Fig. 2 shows the manner of suspending a bird by one limb, for
the purpose of skinning. Described page 29.

Fig. 3 exhibits Mr Bullock’s method of inserting the wires
in setting up a bird. See page 36.

Fig. 4 shows the manner of pinning up a bird after it has been
mounted, to keep the feathers in their proper position till
they are fully dried. See page 35.

140

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1 shows the manner of setting Lepidopterous insects, as is
fully described page 81 ; a, a, a , b, b, e, f, g, and h, dif-
ferent braces made of card.

Fig. 2. — The setting needle.

Fig. 3. — This figure exhibits the method of setting the Ortkop-
tera, Dictyoptera, Hemiptera, and Omoptera, as described
at page 80, &c. 6, &c., are braces of card. In all speci-
mens set in this way, the pin must be passed through the
middle of the back, and near the thorax ; the wings are
kept extended by means of braces.

Fig. 4. — Method of setting Coleoptera, with the wings closed
and in a crawling position ; the legs are kept in the atti-
tude designed, by the aid of pins applied as necessity re-
quires. The tarsi are kept flat on the setting-board by
card-braces. The pin by which the animal is transfixed
is introduced through the right elytron. See page 81, &c.

Figs. 5 and 6. — These minute insects which are so small that
there is difficulty in piercing with a pin, are placed on a
small triangular piece of paper or card, as shown in these
figures.

Fig. 7. — An insect net complete. For its uses and descrip-
tion, see page 76.

Fig. 8. — A Net Rod. See description, page 76.

Fig. 9. — A Hoop-Net for aquatic insects. See description,
page 76.

Fig. 10. — Breeding Cage for insects. See description, page
87.

Fig. 11.— Phial for collecting insects. See page 77.

Fig. 12. — Setting-Needle. See page 77.

Fig. 13. — A Digger. See page 77.

Fig. 14. — A pair of small brass pliers.

Fig. 15. — A setting-needle, with a camel hair pencil placed at
one end.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

141

PLATE V.

Figs. 1 and 2.— A Geological Hammer, which should be
about two pounds weight, as described at page 136.

Fig. 3. — A Small Geological pocket Hammer, of about one
pound weight.

Fig. 4. — A large Hammer for rocks, of at least six pounds
weight.

Fig. 5. — Triangular Net for fishing large fresh water Shells,
which are sunk in mud. See description, page 1 05,

Fig. 6. — A Tin- Spoon for fishing fresh water Shells, described
at page 105.

Fig. 7. — A Small Sieve for microscopic marine Shells. De-
scribed at page 1 1 0.

Fig. 8. — The oval and head-wires of a Bird separated. See
page 35.

Fig. 9.— The tail-bearers separated. See page 35.

Fig. 10. — The body-wire, the head-wire, the tail-bearer, and
legs connected. See page 35.

Fig. 11. — A leg-wire separated. See page 35.

Fig. 12. — Forceps, or Flappers, for catching Butterflies, or
other insects, when seated upon leaves or flowers. This
exhibits a front view of the instrument. Described at
page 78.

Fig. 13. — Side view of Forceps.

Fig. 14. — An instrument for the use of travellers, for procur-
ing branches of trees, fruits, &c. Described at page 133.

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. — Blade of a Scalpel for separating the skin of Quad-
rupeds, Birds, &c.

Fig. 2. — Blade and handle of a differently shaped Scalpel.

Fig 3. — A pair of Scissors used in skinning, &c.

Fig. 4. — Round Pincers.

Fig. 5. — Cutting Pincers for wire.

Fig. 6. — Pair of large Forceps.

Fig. 7. — Pair of small Forceps.

Fig. 8. — A triangular Bodkin, or Awl.

Figs. 9 and 10.— Circular Bodkins.

APPENDIX.

I have already stated as my opinion, that no method will
ever be devised by which man can be preserved, so as to be
fit for placing- in a museum. I still adhere to that opinion, al-
though a highly important discovery has recently been made
by two celebrated chemists of Chaillot in France, the Monsrs.
Capron and Boniface, by which they can preserve the human
figure in a manner superior to any mode hitherto practised.

By a process which these chemists keep secret, and to which
they have given the name of “ Momification,” they have suc-
ceeded, after passing a number of years in experiments, in so
modifying and perfecting the known process of preserving bo-
dies, as to reduce them to mummies, leaving all the forms un-
altered. All the elements of disorganization which show
themselves in the human body so soon after death, are com-
pletely destroyed, and not only the external body, but all the
viscera, the lungs, the heart, the liver, and even the brain, are
perfectly preserved. The operation requires but a very few
days, after which the dead bodies may be preserved in a room
or a vault, or interred in the ordinary way, without being ac-
cessible to worms. They may also be exposed to all the vari-
ations of the air, either in a standing or sitting position, with-
out undergoing any alteration. The inventers do not intend
to make their process public, but it may be adopted even by
those who reside at a considerable distance from Paris, as a body
placed in a leaden coffin or bathing tub, and completely sur-
rounded by ice, may be kept uninjured for twenty days, and
the operation may still be performed. At a late meeting of
the Academie des Sciences, a human body and also two hearts
preserved in this manner, were exhibited, and the process ap-
peared perfect. The discoloured state of the skin, occasioned

APPENDIX.

143

by the scar of an old wound, was even fully perceptible ; and
although these preparations had been completed several weeks,
not the slightest approach to change of any kind was ob-
servable.

LIST OF BOOKS FOR ATTITUDES OF QUAD-
RUPEDS AND BIRDS.

The works in which Birds are represented in the most lively
and natural manner, are, —

1. Audubon’s Illustrations of American Ornithology. This
admirable, but expensive book, excels all others, for the
picturesque beauty, and natural character which that excel-
lent draughtsman and zealous naturalist has given to his
birds, — the result of long and patient study in the woods.
There the author became acquainted with the habits and
economy of the feathered tribes of that vast country, and
has portrayed them in all their variety of attitude.

2. The Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society, de-
lineated, 2 vols. Vol. 1st, Quadrupeds— vol. 2d, Birds.
These are executed in a masterly style from the drawing of
Harvey. The attitudes of both quadrupeds and birds are
skilfully managed.

3. Cuvier, F. and Geoffr'oy St Hilaire, Histoire Naturelle des
Mammiferes, folio. These beautiful plates are executed
from original drawings, made from the living subjects in the
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, by eminent artists, kept at the
establishment for the purpose of drawing these objects.

4. Wilson’s American Ornithology, the edition edited by Cap-
tain Brown, medium folio. In this edition, the attitudes of
the birds are considerably altered.

5. Bewick’s Quadrupeds, 1 vol. 8vo., and British Birds, 2 vols.
8vo. These are faithful representations of the originals, and
frequently possessing much spirit in the attitudes.

METEOROLOGY.

There are few objects of more importance to science than

144

APPENDIX.

Meteorological observations, made, in various countries, on the
earth’s surface. No opportunity ought therefore to be lost in
making these observations. The instruments required for
observing the Meteorological phenomena of any climate, are.
The Portable or Adie’s Patent Sympiesometer, the Thermo-
meter, Hygrometer, and Compass. The former instrument
is used to determine the pressure of the atmosphere, the
altitude of any situation above another, or above the level
of the sea. To obtain the altitudes from the Barometer, ob-
servation tables are required. The Sympiesometer gives the
altitudes, without the use of tables, and only requires a single
process of subtraction and multiplication.

Besides the common use of the Thermometer, namely to
ascertain the temperature of the air, it may be used for finding
the temperature of springs, &c., from which a knowledge of
the heights may be deduced.

The Reflecting Compass is a very useful instrument to tra-
vellers. With this instrument the variations of the magnetic
needle may be found, at any part of the globe, and the relative
position of objects determined.

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED BY NATURALISTS
AND TRAVELLERS.

Made and sold by Mr Alexander Adie, Optician and Ma-
thematical Instrument Maker to the King, No. 58, Princes’
Street, Edinburgh.

Adie’s Barometer or Sympiesometer, for measuring heights,
&c., from £3 3s. to ,£12 12s.

Thermometers, from 8s. to 18s.

Hygrometers, or Dew Point instrument, from £1 5s. to
£2 2s.

Klinometers, for finding the dip of stratified rocks, from
10s. 6d. to £3 3s.

Photometers, from £1 Is. to £2 2s.

The Compass Box, from 3s. 6d. to 10s.

The Reflecting Compass, from £2 2s. to £2 12s. 6cL

APPENDIX.

145

The Microscope. These may be had in the form of simple
lenses, from Is. 6d. to 7s. — Or mounted in brass as a com-
pound and single Microscope, from £i 16s. to £ 7 7s.

The Microscope is a very generally useful and interesting
instrument to the observers of nature, and particularly to the
Botanist, the Cristallographist, and Mineralogist.

Great improvements have been made of late years by the
use of garnet in forming lenses of very high powers. These
are now made so high as rgg of an inch focus.

The Spherical, or bird eye object glass, by Coddington,
forms a very fine compound or single Microscope, having a
large field, great distinctness, and very high power.

The Microscope doubled, prepared by the late Dr Wollas-
ton, forms also a very powerful instrument, with these lenses.
The minute lines on the scales of the wing of the White But-
terfly and Podura, distant from each other less than the so^oo
of an inch, are most distinctly seen.

All these forms of lenses are attached to the best Micro-
scopes ; also Micrometers divided upon glass to jow of an inch,
by which very small objects may be measured.

Balance, for ascertaining the specific gravity of minerals;

may be had good, of a small size, for £1 Is.

Blowpipes, for fusing minerals, from 2s. to 8s.

Mineralogical Hammers, of various sizes.

Forceps, Platinum Cups, Callipers, Parallel Rules, and
Proportional Compasses, &c. &c.

1

* —

INDEX.

THE CLASSES ARE PRINTED IN CAPITALS, AND THE ORDERS IN SMALL CAPITALS,

ACALEPHA,

Adie’s Instruments for Natural-
ists,

Alcyones, -
Alectorides,

Anisodactyli,

Annealed Iron, receipt for mak-
ing,

Ant Eaters,

Antelopes,

Apes, mode of preserving,
Arachnides,

Armadillos,

Arsenical composition,

soap,

Asterias,

Attitudes of Birds, remarks on,

Eagles and Vultures.
B

Balistes, 65

Bars, for supporting the larg-
er animals, Hippopotamus,

Horse, &c. 17, 99

Bats, of stuffing, 16

where found, 100

Bears, 16

Becceur’s method of stuffing Birds, 37
Bimana, 14

Bison, 23

Boards, for fixing Quadrupeds on, 13
Bones, how to prepare, 94

colour of, vary in some

animals, 98

mode of articulating, 98

Books of Plates for studying atti-
tudes, 143

Botany, general remarks on, 1 134
Braces for setting Insects, 79

Brain, method of removing, from
birds’ skulls, 26

Brass pliers, 77

Breeding of Insects, 87

■ cages for, Insects, 87

Buffalo, 23

Buloous roots, 133

Bullock’s method of stuffing birds, 36
Burchell’s mode of preserving
small serpents, 62

Butterflies and Moths, how to
kill, 80

how to set, 81

C

Casks for preserving fish, their
size, 67

Cassowary, manner of mounting, 55
Caterpillars, 86

Catliartes papa, 49

Caution as to not over stuffing
Quadrupeds, &c. 12

Centre wire of Birds, 36

Cement, receipt for, 117

Cetacea, ' 24

Chase, directions for, 100

precautions for preserving

animals in, 101

large animals, how to skin, 1 02

Cheiroptera, 15

Chopped cotton, its use, 23

Coots, how to remedy smallness
of neck of, in skinning, 26

Coleopterous Insects, 79

Colour, changibility in the skin of
certain birds’ heads accounted for, 49

148

INDEX.

Page

Columbus, 53

Corrosive sublimate, solution of, 115
Crocodiles, 61

Cry ptogamic botany, observa-
tions on, 135

CRUSTACEA, 70

Cursores. 54

Cuttle Fish, 67

D

Deer, 23

Diadon, 65

Digger for Insects, 77

Diptera, 82

Dolphin, 24

Drawers for Insects, how to cork, 89
Dredge, described, 107

how to fish with, 109

Dried Insects, how to relax, 83

Plants, remarks on, 132

■ Skins, mode of mounting, 44
Ducks, how to remedy smallness
of neck, in skinning, 26

E

Echini, 91

ECHINODERMATA, 90

Edentata, 19

Education of a Taxidermist,
what it ought to be, 3

Eels, 63

Eggs of Birds, manner of pre-
serving, 59

Insects, 86

Elephant, how mounted at the
Jardin des Plantes, 20

Elk, 23

Enamel eyes, first method of
making, 120

second mode, 122

third mode, 123

Entomological net, 75

ENTOZOA, 92

Epidermis of Shells, how re-
moved, 70

Extended wings, birds mounted
with, 42-

Eyes, Enamel, how to make,

120, 122, 123

of Birds, colour to be

noted, 27

of Quadrupeds, directions

for inserting, 13

F

Fan-forceps, 78

Fat, in Cetaceous animals, trou-
blesome in stuffing, 24

Feather by feather, how to
mount birds in that manner, 45
Ferje, 16

Fish, mode of skinning, 63

stuffing, 65'-

P»ge

Fishes, 63

Flamingo, 56

Flour paste, Receipt for, 1 18

Flying Lemur, 115

of Mounting Birds in the

attitude of, 42

Fresh water Shells, how to fish
for, 105

Frogs, 62

Fungi, fleshy, how to preserve, 135

G

Galeopithecus Volans, method of
stuffing, 15

Gallinje, 53

Gangui, an instrument for fishing
Shells, 106

Geology and Mineralogy, direc-
tions for collecting specimens
of, 136

Glires 18

Goats, 23

Grallatores, 56

Granivorous Bires, 51

Grease in Feathers, how to re-
move, 30

Greasy spots in Skins, how to re-
move, 24

Gryllus, 79

Gum paste, receipt for, 118

H

Hares, 19

Head and neck of Quadrupeds,
what required in Stuffing, 13

Heaths and common, what In-
sects frequent, 113

Hedgehogs, 16

Hermit Crab, 70

Hoop and Aquatic Net for In-
sects, 76

Human head, a fine preparation
of one, 14

Hunting-Box for Insects, 75

Hymenoptera, 82

I& J

Infusoria, 93

Inertes, 58

I SECTS, 74

Insects, British, where to collect, 112

Breeding of, 87

Cabinet, its dimensions, 88

Eggs, 86

- How to preserve when

sent home, 112

— Time of the year when

most plentiful, 114

Insectivorous Birds, 51

Instruments used in the Chase. 101

in mounting

Birds, 124

in Geology, 136

49

INDEX.

Page

Intestinal Worms, 111

Instructions to Travellers — Ani-
mal Kingdom, 125

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS, 67
Journal, how to be kept, 102

K

King of Vultures, 78

L

Labels, mode of attaching them
to Animals,

Lampreys,

Land Shells,

Larvae,

Legs of Quadrupeds, mode of
fixing,

Legs, attention required in the
position of those of Birds,

Leg- wires in Quadrupeds, their
length.

Lemur, flying,

Lepidoptera,

Lobsters,

Luting for rendering Bottles air-

128

63

104

80

11

34

11

15

80

71

120

Madrepores, 93

Marine Shells, 195

Marshes, what Insects frequent, 113
Marsupialia, ' 18

Mauge’s method of skinning
Birds, 38

Meadows, what Insects frequent, 113
Model made at Faris for mount-
ing an Elephant, 21

Model too large, and how it was
remedied, 22

Mollusc a, 67

Molluscous animals, how caught, 110
Monkeys, , 15

Moss, decayed trees, &c., what
Insects frequent them, 113

MYRIAPODA, 74

Oily matter in Butterflies, Moths,

&c., how to extract it, 82

Omnivorous Birds, 50

Ornithorynchos rufus, 20

Ostrich, 54

Owls, 50

where likely to be caught, 100
P

Pachydermata, 20

Packing of Birds, 27

objects of Natural His-
tory. 128

Paguras Bernhardus, 7 1

Palmipedes, 57

Paper paste, gummed, receipt
for, 118

Pearl ashes, receipt for solution
of, 117

Phial for insects, 77

Pill boxes, their use in collect-
ing insects, 78

PlNNATIPEDES, 57

Plaster of Paris casts, for form-
ing the shoulders of quadru-
peds, 12

Platypus, Duck-billed, 20

Pocket larvae box, 78

Pollen powder, 119

Polypi, 92

Ponds, what Insects frequent, 113
Porcupine, 19

Porpoise, 24

Precautions necessary in pack-
ing Birds, 27

in skinning Fish, 64

Prussic acid, to be used with
caution. 111

Pupa of Insects, 87

Quadrumana, 15

Quills, their use in collecting
Insects, 78

N

R

Natural Skeletons made by
Wasps, 96

Natural Skeletons made by
Ants, 96

Neck of Birds, to prevent too
much relaxation in, while dry-
ing, 27

Nests, on their preservation, 58

Neuroptera, 82

Nicolas’ method of inserting
wires in mounting Quadru-
peds, 9

Nose, Lips, and Paws, to be well
imbued with the preservative. 14

O

Cil, its use in cleaning Shells, 70

Rake, described,

Rapaces,

Red Varnish,

Relaxing dried Insects,
REPTILES,

Ruitch, Dr., his excellent pre-
paration of a human head,
Ruminantia,

S

Salt’s method of packing Birds’
skins,

Sand pits. Insects which fre-
quent them,

Scorpions,

Sea fowls, attention required in
skinning,

106

48

119

83

60

14

22

30

113

74

30

y

150

INDEX.

Sea Urchins,

Seeds, instructions regarding,
Serpents,

Setting boards for Insects,

and preserving Insects,

needles for Insects,

Sharks,

Shells, their value,

marine,

how to polish,

to clean,

Gangui used in fishing

them.

Simples, in preserving Insects,
not to be depended on.

Skeleton wires for Birds,
Skeletons, how to prepare,

— of Birds recommended

to be imported,

artificial,

natural,

made by Wasps,

Skin of Elephant, immense
weight of,

Skinning Birds,

at the Jardin des

Plantes,

Fish,

Quadrupeds,

large Birds,

Skins of large animals, how to
manage while travelling,
Slivers of flax and tow, their use.
Sloths,

Snakes, cautions regarding them.
Solution of Gum Arabic, receipt
for,

Spatangus,

how to pack,

Specimens of wood, directions
concerning,

Spiders, preservation of,

Spirits, the strength of, for pre-
serving Animals,

Star Fish,

Stuckbury’s method of preserv-
ing Fish,

Stuffing Birds,

Bullock’s method,

Becceur’s method.

90

131

61'

78

61

77

65

10-1

r.ft

68

106

85

46

94

27
97

95

96
96

21

25

28

65
6

29

103
10
19

104

108

91

91

132

72

130

90

66
32

36

37

Stuffing Birds, Mauge’s method,

Waterton’s method,

a Cat,

Fish,

Quadrupeds,

at the Jardin des Plantes,

Support of Birds, described,

T

Tail-bearer of Birds,

Tetraodon,

Toads,

Tortoises, how to skin,

— stuff.

Tow and flax slivers.

Travellers, instructions to,

U & V

Varnish, how to prevent it from
cracking and falling off.
Varnishes, different colours and
uses.

Vegetable kingdom,

Unio Margaritifera,

Urus,

Vultures,

W

Walrus,

Waterton’s general directions
for Birds,

method of skinning

Birds,

preserving

Insects,

opinion as to the

education of a Taxidermist,

Weatherhead’s mode of pre-
serving caterpillars,

Wires used in mounting Qua-
drupeds,

Wires used in stuffing Birds,

Woodpeckers, smallness of their
heads, how to remedy in skin-
ning,

Z

Zygodactylous Birds,

P.ga

38

39

10

65

8

10

34

33

65

62

60

60

120

125

25

50

131

70

23

48

18

31

49

84

4

33

26

51

THE END.

FUr.r.ARTON St CO. PK1NTKR3, V1I.LAFJF.M).

'

'

4 • - H .