ti H NETRUA thy NAY hat i ay 1 Ole a ANT TRA THE TECHNOLOGIST. A MONTHLY RECORD OF Stiente Applied to Art, Mannfacture, and Culture. EDITED BY. PETER LUND SIMMONDS, be Author of ‘“*The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom,” Dictionary of Trade Products,” ‘* The Curiosities of Food,” “* Waste Products, and Undeveloped Substances,” de. de. he. VotumeE IY, LONDON : KEN Die ©. OF eb AVE Bylo NOS iy Riis sh OOWEs MDCCCLXIY. AND DANES, OREAT + Joty 1, 1864.] THE TECHNOLOGIST. CONTENTS. PAGE NoTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF Woop. By Joseph Justen : : ‘ 1 Tae Paper Manuracture. By Benjamin Lambert . : c c 13 THE VERONICA See AS A REMEDY FOR SCROFULA. By Williams R. Prince 5 ‘4 ates Tea ea PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN: “By w. Eeeoten M. D., F. C, 5. 6 ° . 24 ON THE OWALA OR OPOCHALA OF WESTERN Arrica AND ITS SEEDS. By John R. Jackson . 6 Seon THe TaLLow TREE (STILLINGIA STD) AND, THE 5 Tene, or INSECT Wak or Cuina. By D. J. Macgowan, M.D. (With Illustrations.) . 388 ON THE TRADE IN CorK Bark. By the Editor . i . ‘ 6 . 42 Tue Harp Woops oF CommMEeRcE. By P. L. Simmonds . . Baie) THe APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO TO THE MANUFACTURE OF See, ’ By Jules Barse : 5 ak!) ON THE DIFFERENT Smee: OF Tie iene IN THE Paneer OF THE ‘ YERBA DE Marts,’ oR Paracuay TEA. By John Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. 3 9 . : 4 ° 3 Be kt) SUBSTITUTES FOR WAX. By Bartana S. Erector 6 s 5 : elsAP ALGERIAN Propucts. By Paul Madinier . 3 78 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE, By William Felkin 81 STAINED GLASS AND GLASS USED FOR DECORATION. By Apsley Pellatt . 90 EXPLOSIBILITY OF CoaL O1~s. By T. Allen c : 6 . b ve OF PuHospHATE NopDULES. By the Rey. George Henslow . c Leeman THE EDIBLE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. By David Humphreys Siar M.D. 116 GLASS FoR HovusEHoLD USE AND Fancy Purposes. By Apsley Pellatt . 120 On IMPROVEMENTS IN MACHINERY AND APPARATUS FOR CLEANSING AND PurRIFYING Casks. By Robert Davison, C.E. : 5 124 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES ON THE TynE. By Messrs. J. C. Stevens R. C. Clapham, and T. Richardson . : : pen Tey es THE Toot-PoIson oF NEw ZEALAND. By W. Tender Tne M.D. and F.R.S. Edin., F.L.8., &c. n : 2 - 136 A VISIT TO A BONE Borne FACTORY. By N. B. Beret c. E. : jo dist ON THE ENGINEERING MANUFACTURES OF THE TYNE AND NEIGHBOURING Districts. By Percy Westmacott, C.H., and J. F. Spencer : - 145 THE PRODUCTIVE REsouRCES oF Cyprus. By Mr. White, British Vice- Consul , Z 5 é 2 ; 5 ‘ 5 9 5 4 158 4 ae THE TECHNOLOGIST. [Ju iv CONTENTS. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINIUM. By Isaac Lowthian Bell THE TRADE OF MarsEILLEs. By Mr. Consul Mark ON THE DEFECTS AND WANT OF STRENGTH OF CERTAIN Monean Satare By Dr. Van den Corput : GOLD IN WESTERN AFRICA. By Canin F. patos ; CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. By Professor James C. Booth : : THE CHINA-STONE AND CHINA-CLAYS OF CORNWALL. By H. M. Stoker - ON THE UTILITY OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES. By W. S. W. Ruschen- berger, M.D. CHINESE HOROLOGY, WITH Sone’ ON THE ora OF Sian ADAPTED FOR THE CHINESE Market. By D. J. Macgowan, M.D. THE CULTIVATION OF THE OLIVE. By David Shepherd : : THE IcHTHyoLoGY oF Nova Scotia,—THE ComMoN HERRING. By J. Matthew Jones, F.L.S., and J. Bernard Gilpin, M.D. NOTES AND QUERIES ON AguaES Copats. By M. C. Cooke History OF THE SopA ManuFacTuRE. By William Gossage, F.C. . THE VEGETABLE IvoRY OF COMMERCE. By the Editor THE TANNING TRADE OF NEWCASTLE AND GATESHEAD. By T. c. en NOTES ON SOME OF THE EDIBLE FRUITS OF THE WeEsT INDIES. By J. R. Jackson 5 THE COLLECTION AND Meee eee OF RNG IN THE NaC eorE TERRITORY. By Ramasawmy Moodliar THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE ISEEEEES IN THE Goer Gente AND THE EASTERN Szas. By the Editor CuiIna GREEN. By Professor H. Dussauce . ON JAPANESE PAPER. By P. L. Simmonds : THE Economic PRODUCTS oF THE PALMYRA PALM. a William Fergason REVIEWS . THE TECHNOLOGY OF SOME OF THE Snape OF THE Discineanes OF Coat. By William Procter, M.D., F.C.S. Ors anD Fats. By Campbell Morfit . 5 : CrIncHONA CULTURE AND BOTANICAL Saseierone) IN Bric By Nathaniel Wilson, Island Botanist . INDUSTRIAL MUSEUMS IN THEIR RELATION TO Commitrorat ENTERPRISE, By the late Professor George Wilson - - : - . CULTURE AND TRADE IN SumMacH. By the Editor : : ; - : THE WILD RIcE OF NorTH AMERICA (ZIZANIA AQUATICA) THE TRADE IN Loawoop. By the Editor THH PAPER-TREE OF Siam (Ton-Kuat), Trophis Agee W. By Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c. SomE Economic Uses oF Nuts AND Sune By the Editor : : ASAFETIDA IN AFFGHANISTAN. A SUPPLEMENTARY NoTE. By M. C. Cooke 3 : : : : - , : : < 2 SERICULTURE IN Goo By Dr. E. Bonavia, Seg! of the ei cultural Society of Oudh On «a Means OF RENDERING OsTENSIBEE THE See eee OF Woops, &c. By Professor J. Arnaudon On MataparR CarRDAamMoms. By the Editor . THE GEMS OF AUSTRALIA. By Dr. Bleasdale On INDIAN FIBRES SUITED FOR THE PaPER-MakER, By ie Editor THE Beech MorRELs oF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. ( With Illustrations.) By M.C.Cooke . . PAGE 166 168 182 187 193 198 210 217 225 231 241 246 259 261 264 269 270 217 278 281 286 289 298 301 304 324 326 328 337 309 346 348 365 369 372 377 385 JuLy 1, 1864] THE TECHNOLOGIST. CONTENTS. Vv PAGE FRENCH COLONIAL PRODUCTS IN THE PALAIS DE a Paris. By Edmund Goeze A ks 7 yoo Tae TIMBER TREES OF Camen: By W. Terenas F. ibs 5. : - 403, 481 THe EXTENSION OF TEA PLANTATIONS IN INDIA g ‘ , 2 . Al4 THE MANUFACTURE OF VEGETABLE OILS . i i ? : , ADD WoOoDS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS . : ; 5 « 427 Laporatory Notes. Musrum or [Riso TET Danas : . 429, 591 ON GRANITE AND 171s Usxs. By the late Professor George Wilson . 433, 495 On THE STRAW PuaiT TRaDE. By A. J. Tansley : 2 . 448 A VISIT TO THE WORKS OF THE PATENT PLUMBAGO Croom COMPANY. By J.C. Brough . 3 : : : ; . 464 Nores oN SOME AFRICAN Tes BET Pron ueTs. By John R. Jackson . 471 INDUSTRIAL Museum, LEEDS . é ; : : eA HISTORY OF THE GOLD DISCOVERIES OF Naw Pinan 4 5 3 Bent) COMPRESSED ASPHALTE . s i 5 5 é : 5 5 . 524 _ PRopUCTS OF DISTILLATION OF oni i 3 4 : ; . 527 ScrentTIFIO NoTEs . A : $ 3 : 47, 331, 384, 432, 479 MANUFACTURE OF PAPER einwetines 5 : é 5 BPR) VEGETABLE MaTERI4A MEDICA SOLD IN THE Bane OF Pacman, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY Novus. By M. C. Cooke . : 5 : : G37 PEARL FISHERY OF CEYLON . : : : : i 3 : ; - DAG SILK TRADE OF BEYROUT . 5 : ; : ; 3 ‘ : . 548 TRADE OF CENTRAL ASIA. a z 5 : ; : 5 : a aD) JuLy 1, 1864.] THE TECHNOLOGIST. Abelmoschus moschatus . Abhul a Abrus precatorius seed Absinth . i : Acacia ebarnes Acacia leucophlea Acacia tomentosa . Acmena zeylanica Acacia catechu . ‘ Z - Acacia Lebbek. INDEX. » 410 Acacia pods, various, used for washing Achyranthes aspera seeds. Acrocomia sclerocarpa Actinodaphne speciosa Adansonia digitata fibre . Adansonia digatata . Adenanthera pavonina Adenanthera bicolor. Aetamba-gaha . Egle Marmelos Eta woeroela . Aitteriya . /Eschynomene aspera fischynomene Indica AKhoela Aitdemata Miegiciras majus_. African vegetable products African Teak, peer Ota Afsur. . Afyun . Ahoo-geha Ailanthus malabaricus Alfa for paper . Alkali, its uses Alkali manufactures on the Zyne . 344, 404 Adenanthera pavonina seeds PAGE Alkali or soda ash, made on the Tyne . omelol Aluminium, manufacture ‘of - 166 Aluminium; manufacture of . 166 Algerian products . c a) GS Alum made on the Tyne . . 176 Algeria, textile plants of , o 394 Alligator apple . C 5 - 264 Albizzia odoratissima 2 - 410 Albizzia procera ‘ 2 . 410 Alangi maram . 5 c - 413 Alintatas. é Alamgium Lamarkii,. 5 . 413 pias Lebbek . f - 410 Algerian products . : ot 7: Aloes 3 : p 6 Alubo gaha_ , é : - 412 Almonds. : 5 3 Boek! Aln Bukhara . : E - 538 Allaeanthus zeylanicus . - 490 Allan-dugas . - 490 Alsiodaphne semicarpifolii : Alstonia scholaris . a - 485 American marmalade . . 267 Amarana . 6 9 : - 410 Ammoniacum . : : - 546 Amygdalus communis . - 540 Amianthus for pottery . - 334 Anchovy pear . : : - 267 Andara wood . x r - 406 Ankenda. B ; - 408 Anacardium occidentale 3 - 409 Andara . . 3 5 = ZO) Ani-mulle 5 3 3 7) 410 Anseri luneti . : - 428 Animal charcoal making . - 140 Anisophyllea zeylanica . BP ey SIG) Anstrutheria zeylanica . Cea ks Anamon patula 2 - 492 Vili Antiaris innoxia Anthemis nobilis Anethum sowa Anise seed ; Apollonias zeylanica Aporosa Lindeana Arachides ~seeds, imported at Marseilles Arrowroot, wild of India . ‘Avaucaria imbricata seeds edible Araucaria Bidwilli cones . Aridde Aralu-gaha - Areca horrida . : Artocarpus Lakoocha Artocarpus nobilis Areca catechu . c Artocarpus integrifolia Artocarpus incisa Aralia papyrifera Asafoetida in Affghanistan Asphalte, compressed ‘ : Ash wood, weight of Asafvetida, mode of obtaining the gum resin Asiatic copals . : Astrocaryum vulgare Atalanka monophylla Asafoetida . : Ashbek.. é F A Asarabac . f Asarum Europceum . . Atu-kaetiya , Australiau gems. Avicennia officinalis. Avocada pear . Azaderachta indica . ; Ageram, a saponaceous plants of Algeria _. 493 Bauxite Bassia butyracea Bassia gabonensis Bastard cedar . Barringtonia speciosa fr uit Bamboo, uses of Badula Bauhinia tomentosa. Bak-mu-gaha . Batha-Domba . 5 Barringtonia acutangahu . Barricara seeds. Basil, sweet Badiyan rumi . Babunej . Bamboo . Bassia Parkii . : Bassia latifolia. : : Balanophora Indica . 2 Bassia longifolia. < : Baobab pulp . : : Betel nuts - Beech morels i P : Bell- “pata : : : Bertero’s beech more! ¢ Bead tree oil . ; ‘ i: Bermuda fibres Berrya Ammonilla Benzoin . Beli Beriya Bicarbonate of soda, made on the Tyner t Biscuit of soft china, composi- tion for : . J Biotechnies : ; : Bignonia salina : ¢ . Bladder nuts . Black and white shark fins for food « : Black Dammar : Black paper of Siam, how made Black wiellia ceylanica Black cumin seed Black pepper . Bleaching powder . Blood plum of Sierra Leone Bompland, on species of ilex Bone boiling ey pass of . : ~ Bourbon Gorepe ; 3 Boxwood, acco ot ; 3 Botany, utility of . - : Bombyx mylitta . Bombay duck, a dried fish Bonita fish Borassus flabellifor mis, products of. : : Bones, quantity imported. Bones, uses of . : 0 Bone black Bones, products and uses of Bondue nuts Boohoragas Bo-kaera-gas Bolongita wood : Borassus flabelliformis Bookaenda - Bombay lettuce-tree Boosini Boma nut Borassus Aibiopicum Boehmeria malabarica Boswellia thurifera . Bo-gaha . Brazil and Braziletto woods Brazilian rosewood . Brahmins’ beads. Brabejum stellatifolium Briedelia retusa : Brine, utilization of . Broussoneti kaminoki . | JULY 1, 1864.] Brown ware, composition of Bean bracelets. Brialiya . Buck shot Buchanania latifolia kernels Butea frondosa Burutu gas ¢ a Bulu-gaha : ; 6 Bunya Bunya . Burtak, salted spiced fish. Caryolobis Indica . C Calamus rotang . c Casuarina equisetifolia Caryota urens . Callicarpe tomentosa Carapa toloucana Calosanthes Indica . - Calamander wood Carthamus tinctorius : Capsicum frutescens : 0 Castor oil Carrot seed Camomile flowers Czlodine polycarpa . Calabashes : : : Caladium giganteum, silky fibre of : 2 : Calamander wood . Calamansay Calantas . Calastrus rhombifolius, used for turnery at the Cape Callistem on salignus . Callitris quadrivalvis 0 Calophyllum inophyllum . Calyophyllum tomentosum Calophyllum Burmanni Calumbit . Camaynam Camayon . : Campeachy wood Camphor . : Campnospermum zeylanicum c Canarium commune fruit. Canarium strictum . Canarium zeylanicum Canary wood . : : Canna Indica seed . : Canthium didymum Carallia integerrima . Carbolic acid Cardamoms of Malabar Cardamom seed Carica papaya . Carobs, or locust beans, export of from Cyprus Carraway seeds ; B Carrot seeds . é - Carya arborea . Cashmere silkworm . f 356, THE TECHNOLOGIST. Cassia fistula Cassia florida . Cassia timoriensis Castanospermum Australe Castanea Indica Cask-cleaning machinery . Casuarina equisetifolia bark Casuarina strata Casuarina suberosa . Catay boxwood of Paraguay Catophyllum Moonii Caustic soda, made on the Tyne Ceylon timber trees. 403, Cedrela odorato Cement manufacture onthe Tyne Cerbera Ahouai nuts Central Asia, trade of Celtis dysodoxylon . Celtis Wightii . Cerbera odolam Ceratonia siliqua seeds 6 Chemical manufactures on the iivinlem. 127, Chemical technology . China clays of Cornwall Chinese. horology China green. China, “hard 3 9 c Chinchona culture in Jamaica 4 Chinese dwarf bamboo Chilian pine seeds China silkworm China stone Chilian beech morel . Chick stone Cherry and other stones carved Chickrassia tabularis Chloroxylon swietenia Chrysalids of cocoons, eaten by the Hovas : : . Chionathus zeylanica Chaitocarpus castanocarpus Cinchona culture in Jamaica Cichorium intybus . Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Cichorium endivia . Cliff, a name for French lime- stone : Cleghorn on India tea planta- tions 5 : Cloves : Cleidion Javanicum . Coal-oils, on explosibility. of Cork bark, trade in . Copals, Asiatic ; Commercial products of Indian fisheries . Coprolites Corks, manufactured, numberof, imported yearly . “THE TECHNOLOGIST. x INDEX. Copper from roasted pyrites . 48 | Cyttarea Gunnii . : . 389 Coal products . - 5 ey// Cyttaria Berteroi . . - 3s Corypha umbraculifera. . 9849 | Cyttaria Hookerii . : . 3891 Cocus wood . ‘ . 54 | Cyttaria disciformis . x . 891 Coromande! wood . 54 Cynometra ramiflora 4 Wage? Hi, Commanderia, wine of some 161 | Cyminosma pedunculata . - 408 Coal naphtha . 290 : Coffee imported into Marseilles . 169 Dada-hirilla . i a . 491 Cocoa and palm oil imported at Dalbergia Mooniana : . 409 Marseilles . 170 | Dalbergia sissoo : 5 . 410 Cotton seed imported at Mar- Dammara orientalis ‘ . 245 seilles . 170 | Dammars of India . 5 . 242 r Cocoons, weight of, imported at Damson plum of Jamaica . - - 26E Marseilles . : . 171 | Daucus carota. ‘ F . 539 Copals of Asia . z : . 241 | Darwin’s Beech morel . . 3886 Coriaria ruscifolia . 3 . 1388 | Dasyaulus nerefolius : . 482 Coix lachryma . . 3841 | Date stones . , k . 842 Cocoa-nut shells, uses of . . 343 Dattock fruit . : 4 . 475 Conocarpus latifolia . q > Ay) Dawata-gaha . Z : Rewee Wise Cochlospermum planchoni . 473 | Dawanyia : é . 404 Coal analyses : : : - 429 | Dawu-gas : : : . 4b Combretium decandrum . . 411 | Dawul-kirsunda . . 489 Cocculus indicus . i a OD Desmanthus virgatus seeds . 3842 Colchicum . ‘ 2 . 545 | Detarium senegalense . - 475 Coriander seed . ‘ ‘ . 544 | Dialium ovoideum . ; . 410 Colocynth 3 : : . 541 | Dichrostachys cinerea . 406, 410 Coal analyses . ; . 429,521 | Didya-dange . . 486 Coal products . é , - 527 | Dignenes, an edible fungi sys) + Cocos nucifera. : : . 494 Dika bread, source of . pe l77/ Corypha umbraculifera . . 494 Dill seed 3 : 2 . 589 Codarium acutifoium . . 476 | Dillenia retusa 2 : - 403 Cordia myxa . ; . 486 | Dil-gaha. . ; ‘ . 490 Conium maculatum . ’ . 539 | Demosternon zeylanicus . . 492 Coal mines of Marseilles . - 173 | Diosphyros pilosanthera . . 428 Craetagus pyracanthus 3 . 3866 Diosphyros cordifolia 5 . 482 Crysophyllum cainito . 267 | Diosphyros ebenum . 2 . 483 Crystals of soda, made on the Diosphyros embryopteris . . 482 Tyne . : 131 | Diosphyros hirsuta . - 64, 482 Cream-colour ware, composition Diosphyros nigra. : . 428 of , - 204 | Diosphyros quesito . 5 . 482 Cryptocarya Wightiana . . 489 | Dipterocarpus hispidus . - 405 Crysophylium Roxburghii - 481 | Dipterocarpus glandulosus . 405 Cupressus sempervirens : . 394 | Dipterocarpus quiso : . 428 Cut-noses 340 | Dipterocarpus Medial . 405 Cuttle-fish, dried, eaten inJapan 274 | Diwul . R : . 406 Cummelmums . 273 | Diya-na-gaha . : : . 407 2 Custard apple seeds . ; . 3842 | Diya-Siembala : : . 409 Culture and trade in Sumach . 324 | Dolomite ; 2 » iG Cubebs . ; 3 £ eG) Dodonza Burmannia : oo AOe Cumin seed . - 3 ee a Domba-keen . : 4 sea Or Cucumber seed 4 5 . 539 | Dongon wood . - i . 428 Cucumis sativus : : - 539 | Doom palm-fruit . s . 349 Cullenia excelsa ; F . 404 | Doona congestiflora . 5 = eo Cyitaria Darwinii . 386 Doona codifolia A . 405 Cyprus, productive resources of 158 | Doona trapezifolia . : - 405 Cydonia vulgaris. ¢ . 539 | Doona zeylanica j s . 405 Cycas circizalis Z . - 476 | Doon-gas é : k . 405 Cycas revoluta , 5 - 3884 | Dorona-tel oil . z : AOS Cyathocalyx zeylanicus . - 403 | Dorana-gas_ . . 405 Cytisus spinosus, a dye-wood . 400 Drab ware, composition ne . 205 Cyprus cotton . A 5 een EG Dragon’s hlood idk . 540 _ Juny 1, 1864.) Drivi-kadura . Dried cuttle fish for food . Dried molluscs : : Duboisia myoporoides, s suited for wood carving : Dunstable plait Durability and preservation of wood ; work by Kotschy on . Dwarf trees, method of growing Earthenware, different kinds of Ebenacez Ebony—black, green, and red , moe products of the Pal- Editi fruits of the West Indies Kella c = Kels, American Eepetta . Ehretia levis . Elaeocarpus ganitrus Hlagokatu-gas . Ela-palol . Elayummarum : Elittani cardamomum Eli-midella Elm woods, weight of Eloeocarpus copaliferus Endive seed Engineering manufactures of the eRytie ne Entada gigalobium . Entada Pursetha : Kpaw wood . : é 4 Kperua falcata . : Ephedra fragilis, juice used to cleanse linen Epsom salts made on the Tyne Erythrina corallodendron seeds Erabadu-gaha . Ksparto for paper Enrya Japonica Erythrina Indica Eugenia Mooniana . Eugenia Willdenovii EKuphorbium Euphorbia Tirucalli . Evia amara Exceecaria Agallocha Explosibility of coal oils, on Fagus betuloines Fagus Cunninghamii Fagus antarctica Fagus obliqua . Fen tree of Ceylon . Fenugrec seed . 3 . Feronia elephantum Fibres of Bermuda . Fibres for paper 335, Filicium decipiens . : 334 377 407 THE TECHNOLOGIST. Fisheries of Indian ocean Fish sago Fish maws ¢ Fishes of North America . Fish-liver oil F Fleawort . Flounder, American Flower satinwood French colonial products . Fungi, esculent Furniture woods ‘ Fustic . , 5 ; é various species of Galiocerda tigrina . Gas-works, chemical products of Galam butter . : Gaskaela. Garcinia morilla Gas-pambuna . Garcinia echinocarpa Garcinia cambogia . Gal-mindora gaha Gal-syambala gas Gal-mora-gaha. Gardenia lucida, wood adapted for turning . : 5 Gardinia latifolia Gallis-gas Garlic Gamboge. Galls Galbanum Gaertin Keenigii Gaeta-nitul Gal-mora. Gems of Australia : Gems or precious stones, com- position of Geoffroya spinosa almonds Gentra 5 Gelonium lanceolatum Ginjo wood Gimbernalia calamansanay Gidi-kilala : Ginger Givotia rottleriformis Giro corn. - Glass for decoration . Glass for household use and fancy purposes Glycerine soap. : . Glycyrrhiza glabra . Gmelina Reehdii Gold discoveries of New Zea- land . Gold in Western Africa . Goraka-gaha . ° Gokatu Gomphia angustifolia Goda-itta ~ : . Xi Goda-maranda. Gooraenda Goda danga Gorma-gaha . Goda-kadura , Gora-kadura . : Goda-para Greenheart, weight of Green paper of Siam Granite and its uses. Green indigo of China Grewia Ne Grease ~. Green ebony Grias caulifiora. Grenadilla Gru-gru nuts . Greenheart seeds Graphite or black lead Grano marzolano Griffithia Gardneri . Guavas : Guapec . Guilandina bonducella nuts Guazuma tomentosa. Guayacahac Guaycancillo Gums Gunta baringa . Gerioeta . Gypsophila sath, used for scouring Gypsum “used to adulterate paper . F Gyrinops walla Gyrocarpus asiaticus Hardwoods of commerce . : Hard woods used by the turner Hopea micr a dammar of . Halmihila : Aal-gaha. Halamba _Hampalanda E Hats and bonnets, trade in Hemlock seed . : : Habzelia Hthiopica . Hematostaphis barteri Herring of Nova Scotia Henna plant Hematin. : Hembaraella-gaha Hellumi, a kind of cheese made in Cyprus : : Hedera exaltata : Hemicyclia sepiaria . ; : Herna-gaha: : F Hernandia sonora Hemidesmus Indicus Heen-kadol . Hides, trade of, in Marseilles . 433, INDEX. PAGE 412 | Hik-gas . : : 3 5 491 | Hik-karotura . 3 : 486 | Homaederya 5 : 483 Horse-eye beans. : 485 | Horse nicker seeds . 487 | Hopea discolor | Ingini-gaha = 184 | Todru mulli 488 | Tolu : 490 | Ipomea turpethum Iron wood, various woods 30 49 called , 50 | Irvingia Barteri 245 | Issue peas 404 | Isonanda grandis 406 | Isauris Roxburghiana 413 | Ixora parviflora 411 462 | Jambosa aquea 539 | Japanese paper 476 | Jacaranda Braziliana 475 | Jack wood for furniture 231 | Jaggery from the palmyra 395 | Japan paper, mode of making . 330 | Japoti negro 409 | Jalap : : ; : Jeeopatra nuts strung as H amulets ; 5 5 413 | Job’s tears 492 | Jonesia Asota 490 | Jujube 489 | Juniperus Phoenicia 538 481 | Kakala : 173 Kaolin of Cornwall _ ‘THE TECHNOLOGIST. [Juny 1, 1864, Kattamanati Kaolin used in paper for adul- teration Kattu bodde Katu-imbul gas Katu-kurundo Kayer stylosa Kaju-gas Kaekuna-gaha Kadukui-mauru Kalatiya-gaha Kahata-gaha Katu-keena gas Kadalipur Kahata gaha Kasni Kakira Kadumet Kannogn Karron-gas Kauchy Katu- -panburu Kaat kornul Kalu-maedinya Karan cuttay Kat-manichan Keat-milla Kelingoes Keena-gaha Keena Kharde King-wood Kilmoy Kiri-kong Kino : Kitul-gaha Kiriwalla Kilina-hal : Kirihaen biliya Kleinhovia hospita . Konjie-maram Kokatic Kookoona zeylanica Kong-gaha Kokum Koanay Kolong-gaha Kos-gaha Koomny-maum Kobo nut Kotuniya Kotala gas : Kurrimia Ceylanica Kumbuk Kurkum Kurtum Kyabooka wood Lawsonia, essential oil from a, . Lawalu : Lactuea sativa. INDEX. xij PAGE PAG E 404 | Landyi, a kind of Madaseeesy silk . 480 183 Lakada-tarana : ‘ . 414 404 Laniti . ; : . 428 403 Lawsonia alba. ‘ i . 413 403 | Lagerstroemiaregine . . 413 407 | Lates nobilis . : ; . 273 409 | Lawsoniainermis . . . 3895 409 Laban . : ‘ . 844 411 | Laboratory Notes . - 429, 591 . 410 | Lacin Nagpore : : . 269 .- 418 | Lamp Black. 3 . ce 6") 408 Letter wood . 55 413 Leaves of trophis aspera, used 412 for cleaning arms, &c., . 339 543 Leaves of Curatilla Americana 548 used to smooth wood . . 339 542 Lettuce seed . ; 5 . 5389 493 | Leghorn hats. ; 3 - 451 492 | Ligustum robustum 5 . 484 491 Linum usitatissimum ee) 488 | Liquorice root. : ; . 538 487 | Litscea zeylanica . ; . 489 483 Lime juice : : : pas 414 Linseed oil .. p ; . 640 406 Linseed . i A i . 539 487 Limonia missionis . : . 406 285 | Liang-gaha 409 407 | Linseed &c. , imported at Mar- 407 seilles . : ; 170 543 Liriodendron tulipifera ; 366 55 Locusts, a reward offered for 409 their eggs in Cyprus . . 165 408 | Logwood ; . 3866 543 | Lo-kao, gum of China. eh 498 Logwood, tradein . . 3828 485 Lophostyles angustifolia fibre . 477 485 | Lunn-midella . : . 407, 486 482 | Lunn-ankenda 4 : . 408 405 Lumnitzera racemosa - «csp lh Lump Fish .. : i peek 406 Lucuma mammosa . : . 267 407 407 Maccaroni 48 407 Machine and mill work made on 413 the Tyne . : F 3 44 410 Macharla-marum . 3 . 481 490 Macaranga tomentosa. - 492 487 Machilus macrantha i . 489 482 | Macrocladus sylvicola . . 494 543 | Madder roots of Cyprus : . 160 412 Madol-gas : : . 406 408 Madan e ; . 412 411 Madagascar silkworm : . 480 543 | Magnesia, carbonate of . a Palys 543 | Magnesia, sulphate of . ee 405 | Magul karandu : : . 409 Maha-kiri-wael. ; : - 413 79 Maha-ratambala : : . 414 481 Maha-lakkada . x ‘ . 481 539 Maha-timbiri . ; : . 482 xiv Maha-debara ; : Mahleb necklaces. x Malpighia saccharina ; Mal-kaera Mammea Americana Mammee sapota Mammee apple Ma-marum . Mangifera Indica Manganese Manila copal Manila mastic. Malabar cardamoms . Manchineel wood Manga-chapury Mango fish Manja-woenna . . 5 Maple sugar made in New Brunswick . Maple bowls : Mapuria guyanensis, a dye- wood Marme engines made on the Tyne . Marseilles, trade of . Mas-moru-gaha 5 é Mastic : Mazercups . Melia azedarach seeds Melia composita Meenteera lithratis . Melon seed Memecylon capitellatum . - Mendoza wood Mesua ferrea Mesua speciosa Mesua coromandelina 5 Metal trade of Marseilles . Michelia champaca . Michelia Nilayinca . Mieria-gas : Milila-gaha ee Millingtonia hortensis Mimusops elengi j : Mimusops Indica. male? ey & Miscal : - Mischodon zeylanicus Mobola Moesa Indica . Moeta-bembiya Mogalinga-marum Molucca beans. Molabaa . : Monodora grandiflora, &e. Monocera tuberculata nuts Moodilla . : : Moodu-kadura . Moona-mal Mook-kiluvy Mora-gaha : Mora wood, weight of Morels of Southern Hemisphere INDEX. PAGE PAGE 408 | Moreton Bay chestnut . . 845 343 Morinda bracteata seeds . 345, 413 476 Morinda umbellata . 2 413 408 Morinda exersta ; A me. adele 265 | Morocarpus longifolius . . 490 267 Motsakiri seeds : . 474 265 | Mugilcorsula-. . : 273 400 Murrayaexotica . : 52, 406 408 Muriatic acid waste converted 134 into bleaching powder . . 1385 246 Muruku . : . 409 246 Muru-tu-gaha . d ; pee 9183 369 Musk melon - 5 f . 546 397 Mustard . s . s peor. 438 Musk wood . A 2 iy tise) 273 Musk seed 3 : cA . 344 413 | Myallwood . 2 ; “2 a}fow Myrrh . : : : . 544 331 | Myrobalans . oo a eee 58 400 Natural sciences, aunty of 75 yano 149 | Naphthaline . 5 . 296 168 Narthex asafoetida . : . 346 410 | Nedum . : i : . 409 544 | Na-gaha . : d : - 407 58 | Nauclea cordunata . : ALS 340 Nauclea Cadamba . 2 Ree EUR} 407 | Naucleacordifolia . : ; PATS 404 Navel marum . i AU 539 Native Peach of Sierra Leone Reve 7/59 411 New Zealand Gold Discoveries. 510 406 | Naphelium longaum . . 407 407 Nicker Beans . ; A Ree y yl 407 | Niyadessa . ; : . 406 407 Nigella sativa . : : . 542 172 Norway haddock . 3 233 403 | Nuts and seeds, economic uses 403 of - } . 339 482 | Nutmeg wood . : : eG 487 Nutmeg. 5 : 3 - 542 486 Nux vomica . : Sees 481 | Nilgherry boxwood. : . 493 oe Nyctanthes arbor tristes . . 485 492 477 | Oak timber, weight of . 3 B) 481 | QOchtrosia borbonica. ; . 485 481 | Ochyes . . Peery = 485 | Ochna mooni . ; , . 408 341 Odina wodier . : : . 409 492 | QOdika bread . : : . 744 476 Oils and fats . F 298 339 | Oils, manufacture of vegetable . 425 412 | Oils and fats, composition of . 298 485 Oil cake sent from Marseilles . 171 481 | Oil seeds imported at Marseilles 170 409 | Olea longifolia . . 226 407 | Olealatifolia . : «eG 3 Olea divica - : - 484 385 | Olea capensis . - ae -71'/ Juuy 1, 1864] THE TECHNOLOGIST. INDEX. PAGE Olive wood . é . 366 Pearl hardener Olive oil imported into Mar- seilles . g A Olive, cultivation of : . 225 Olive seeds used as rosaries . 342 Olive tree in Algeria i 5 BRS Olives of Cyprus 5 : . 162 Olibanum "| 4 5 igh Olive oil . é Bee OL Oncoba spinosa seeds 5 . 344 Ooghri . : : a . 485 Ophelia cherayta . : . 542 Opoponax ; : } . 542 Opochala seeds of Western Africa . : 4 wn 325 476 Orange peas. : . 3842 Ormosia coccinea seeds. . 9841 Otaheite chestnut . F 5 Bb Othe marum . A : - 409 Otthe : . 492 Owala tree of Western Afri ica 32, 476 Paper manufacture . : 13 Paper, want of strength in modern : : : . 182 Paper-tree of Siam . : . 337 Paper of Japan : ns Palmyra palm, products of 5 Gill Paraguay tea . 70 Paper, adulteration of British. 15 Palisandre wood : Ainge eGo Partridge wood 3 Les Ra Neg Paint for preserving wood : 9 Paper consumption in different countries . é 0 Paraffine : ; é 5) PKS Paritium tiliaceum . : - 403 Palo-morada of Paraguay. . 9366 Papara pooley-maram : . 404 Passiflora quadrangularis . . 268 Papaw . . . 268 Painted earthenware, composi- tion of . 2 : - 204 Palm-oil making . : . 3897 Patti pariti . : z - 404 Pala c ; c : - 407 Pailac-marum . 5 : . 412 Pandy-kyan . : : . 412 Pame-kara c ~. 412 Paper-hangings, manufacture of 529 Palinga-gas_. : é - 493 Pawk-marum . 5 493 Palol : : : ; . 486 Palu gaha c ¢ : . 482 Pali-marum . ; : . 482 Paniche . f 3 F 408 Paritium tiliaceum . : . 477 Palm woods, uses of ‘ yh EE Peziza vesiculosa . : ay tee Palm of Chili . P : . 3884 Palm sago : : : . 889 Persia gratissima Peenary-maram Petan Pelengas . Pentaptera ¢ glabra Peppermint : : Peganum harmala . ° Penicillarii spicata . : Phosphates, first discoveries of . Phytelephas macrocarpa . Philippines, woods of Pines, weight of various, per cubic foot Pistacia terebinthus seeds Pine forests of Cyprus Pistachios false Pine seeds, edible Pinus gerardina Pinus cembra . Pinus pinea seeds. Pinus Lambertiana seeds . Pinus Llaveana seeds, edible Piney resin : . Piney varnish . Pihimbiya Pithecolobium bizeminum Pithecolobium dulce Picardy pots Pine baru. Pisonca oleracea ; Pentaclithra macrophylla. Pimpinella anisum . Pittosporums, species of, tried for wood engravings . Plumbago Crucible Works Plerospermum indicum Ploberas Gartnerii . Pleurostylia Wightii Pheenix spinosa. Plumbago crucibles . Podocarpus nerifolius, might do for engraving Port-wine false of Marseilles Poon spars Poovasarum Polynemus, species of Poonyet resin . Porcelain biscuit Ponga-marum . Pottery, definition of Pongamia glabra Poolia-marum . : Poonga . : : 2 Poo-maram Poruwa-mara . : Pomegranate-flowers. Poppies . . : : Portulacea oleracea . ° Preserving wood, processes for. Prussiate of potash . PAG: 410 408 346 242 410 410 468 538 403 408 464 403 272 245 202 202 409 543 538 8 175 XVi Prunus mahaleb, pera kinds of : Protium caudatum : Prosorus indicus Premna latifolia Premna tomentosa . Premna herbacea Pterospermum suberifolium Pterocarpus indicus. Pterocarpus marsupia Purple wood Purslane . Putrangiva Roxburghii nuts 339, Punatoo . ; : Pyrites for sulphur Pymi : c Pyam .. Pygeum zeylanicum . Pilla-murdat marum. Pyrolignite . Pyrulia Wallachiana Quiabrahacha Quibracho wood of Paraguay Quillia saponaria bark Quina seed : Raphia vinifera fruit Rata-dil . : Rata-sapia Rat-kahiri Rawak gaha Rawan iddala . Red sanders wood Resin size Reviews . Rhamuus catharticus Rhubarb . Rhus coriaria Rhus cotinus Rhus glabra. Rhus pentaphylla Rhus typhina . Rhynocobatus levis . Rhynocobatus pectinata . Rice, wild, of North America 326, 541 Ricinis communis Rosaries made of sceds Rose dammar . Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary oil Rottlera oppositifolia Ruay, a seed used as ajeweller’ 5 weight Ruck-athana Sabicu wood, eee of Safflower . Saffron Sagapenum : Salachus maximus . (25 peMinss tigi 7's fi gta is ts 4 ors a ey JuLy 1, 1864.] THE ° ECHNOLOGIST. . O71: . = . INDEX. PAGE Salvadore Malabarica 343 | Salt-lakes of Cyprus 409 Salt-works on the Tyne . 492 Salvadora Wightonian 487 | Samadera Indica 487 | Samut-dam 487 | Santalum album 404 | Sapindus emarginatus 409 | Sapindus esculentus 409 | Sapindus saponaria . 56 | Saponine, plants which contain 538 | Sapota elongoides : 493 | Sarcocephalus esculentus . 286 | Sarcococci pruviformis 129 | Sarsaparilla, Indian. 406 | Satin woods 408 | Saul Dammar . 411 | Scammony 411 | Scilla maritina 432 | Scleichera trijuga 488 | Scevola Plumieri Scottea latifolia, gum from 429 | Scrofula, proposed remedy for . 366 Scymnus borealis . 342 | Scyphostachys coffeoides . 539 | Sebastes Norvegicus Seeds of Persian lilac 344 | Seiambala 490 | Semmaworthy . 403 | Sepala 488 | Seggars . 493 | Sericulture in Oudh. 414 | Serissa Ceylanica 56 | Sesame oil : 179 | Sesasum seed imported at Mar- 286 seilles . 5 5 2 277 | Sethia Indica . 545 | Sharks’ fins . 3824 | Sharks’ teeth, fossil 324 | Shavandilly-maram . 324 | Shorea oblongifolia . 3824 | Shorea robusta 3864 | Shorea stipularis 271 | Shreetaly seeds 271 | Silk of Cyprus ; Silk imports at Marseilles 540 | Silk-worm disease, prize offered 340 for prevention . : - 245 | Silk trade of Beyrout 540 Singapore Dammar . 540 Siritikku 492 | Sitepsics, what Sleichera trijuga 340 Sole of New York 485 Sonneratia acida . Soap made on the Tyne 3 | Soap plant of California . 538 | Soap nuts : 549 | Soap shipped from Marseilles 545 | Soap wort : Soda ash . : : . THE TECHNOLOGIST. Soda ash, making : Soda, bicarbonate of Soda, caustic . Soda, crystals of Soda, hyposulphite of Soda manufacture Soowen-du Cuttay . Sorghum vulgare Sour and sweet saps Spathodea adenophylla Spathodea Rheedii . c Specific gravity of British Guiana woods . Specific weight of woods . Sponia orientalis. Spirit trade of Marseilles Stained glass . : Staphylea Eee fruit of Star anise Star apple Stationary steam- -engines “made on the Tyne . Steam tugs on the Tyne : Stercospermum chelonoides Stercospermum suavolens. Stercula ambiformis Sterculia foetida : Stillingia sepifera, wax- tree of China . : . Stone fruit kernels . Streblus asper . : 5 Straw-plait trade . Es Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnos potatorum Sturgeon fisheries of Russia . Sturgeon, high price of, in Rome . Sturgeon, America. Stylocoryne Webera Sudu kadumbria Sugar, analysis of refined Sugar machinery Sugar plum of Sierra Leone Sugar refined at Marseilles ‘Sun-fish oil : Sulphate of copper . Sulphate of iron Sulphur, sources of . Sumach, culture of . Sumach, trade in Sun-fish . : c Sunflower, cultivation of . Superphosphate of lime . Suriya-gas : Suriya-mara Surre-mara Suwanda-gas ; Swietenia febrifuga . Sweet flag its uses in sENDEE sharp - nosed, of INDEX. PAGS Swiss hats . 10 | Switch sorrel of Ceylon 131 | Sword bean 131 | Symplocos spicata 131 | Syzigium carophyllifolium 132 Syzigium mesiancum 246 Syzigium polyanthum 414 | Syzigium sylvestre . 477 264 | Tal-Domba-gaha 486 | Talkohombo 486 | Tabernac monta dichotoma Taddea maram 523 | Tala-gaha 865 | Tal-gaha. 491 | Talipot palm nuts 173 | Tallow tree of China 90 | Tamara . 340 | Tamerindas officinalis 538 | Tamarinds 6 267 | Tamarind seeds Tambilaya 147 | Tanikai . é 149 | Tanning in various barks, &e . 486 | Tanning materials used on the 486 Tyne . 428 Tonning trade of Newcastle 404 | Tarana Tasmanian beech morel 383 | Tea companies in India . 342 | Tea plantations in India . 490 | Teak, weight of 448 | Technology, chemical 485 | Tecoma leucoyxlon . 486 | Telambu . 117 | Tella-keniya ; 3 Telmu gaha . ; i 119 | Tericonamalay-maram Terminalia alata 5 118 | Terminalia belerica . 414 | Terminalia catappa . 482 | Terminaliachebula . 524 | Terminalia edulis : 386 | Terminalis parviflora : 5 476 | Terpnophyllum zey lanicum 169 | Tetrameles nudiflora & 272 | Tetran thera Roxburghii . 179 | Thalathu maram 178 | Thespesia popolnea . 129 | Thetto marum . 325 | Timber trade of Marseilles : 324 | Timber trees of Ceylon 403 117 | Timonius jambosella : 335 | Tinian pine 178 | Trimeya-gas . 403 | Tintale, a place where logwood 410 is cut . : < : - 410 | Tobacco-seed oil . 407 | 'Toddy from the palmyra . 407 | Tonka or Gayac bean . : 543 | Ton-khai, paper tree of Siam . [Juuy 1, 1864 THE TECHNOLOGIST. © XViii Toot poison Zealand Toombika . Totella _. Tragacanth Trichilia capitata Triculia seeds . Trincomalie wood Trophis aspera 6 5 Tug steamers on the Tyne : Tukahalu- “gas . : . Tulip tree of Ceylon Turbot of America . Turmeric 2 : , Turpentine Turtle oil Tuscany plait . Tuv japonica . Twadanum Ub-beriya Uguraesa Ukuru-gaha : Ulmus integrifolia . Uncaria Gambir Urene : Urostigma religiosum : Urticastimulans . “ . plant of New Vaccaria vulgaris Vaghay maram Vanga Vateria Indica . Vatica Tambugaia Veckalie . ; Vegetable ivory of commerce - Vegetable Materia Medica of Persia . . Vegetable oils, manufaeture of . Vegetable silks ; = : Velanga . - : Velva-maram . Venetian red Veppal-arise Vepu maram : Vernonia Javanica . Veronica umnauiielis, remedy for scrofula . Vela-padrie . Violets . 3 ‘ Vizne Catyang. 242, INDEX. PAGE Vidi-marum 136 | Vitex altissima 482 | Vuckuna-marum 486 | Vummary-maram 543 474 | Waagas - 5 : 476 | Wagapul 5 A : 404 | Walbelin-gas 337 | Wal-jambu 146 | Walla-gaha 405 | Walla keena 403 | Wal-sapu 116 | Walsura piscida 543 | Wannapotha 545 | Water oats of North “America - 272 | Water pressure iE 459 | Wat-kopie 5 413 Wax, substitutes for 407 | Wellipyana : Wendlandia Notoneana : 406 | Whale flesh eaten*in J apey 408 | Wheat straw plait . 492 | Wheat trade of Marseilles 169, 491 White dammar tree 413 | Wild lime of Ceylon : 491 | Wild rice of North ee 491 | Willi-kaha 490 | Willow squares Wine of Cyprus : : 342 | Wood engraving, experiments 410 on new woods suited for 486 | Woods of Philippines 406 | Wood, properties of . 243 Woods, specific weight of : 411 | Woods, weight of different, per 259 cubic foot . : Wool imports at Maiseilles 537 | Wrightia coccinea . 425 | Wrightia, species of, tested for 400 wood engraving : 404 | Wuragaha 406 179 | Xanthocymus ovalifolius 485 | Xanthyoxylon rhitsa 408 | Xanthyoxylon triphyllum. 481 Yerba de mate 21 Yettie-marum . 486 545 | Zizania aquatica 477 | Zizyphus jujuba 408, 326 541 THE TECHNOLOGIST. NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. BY JOSEPH JUSTEN, TREES cut in summer give lighter wood than when felled during win- ter time. The cause for this may probably be ascribed to the fact that in winter a large amount of nourishment is stored in the trunk, which during the spring and summer is spent for the formation of bloom and leaves. We call hardness in wood the resistance which it opposes when another body enters it. If wood were an equal body like minerals, we should be able to determine its resisting power or hardness ; but it being differently built, and, whilst trying its hardness, other properties inter- fering, we cannot arrive at a decisive result. Sometimes a wood has very hard fibres but very little body ; that is, it is lighter built than another wood with soft fibres and a full body ; it is therefore unadvisable to judge the hardness of a wood according to its fibres. Experiments to ascertain its hardness should be made across the stem and not upon a longitudinal section; and although there is no instrument which leads us at once to a definite result, we can generally arrive with a saw at a fair conclusion. Many persons constantly em- ployed on wood are of the opinion that it becomes harder if it is worked ‘or barked whilst green. Wood, as a porous body, contains in its natural state—whether dead or alive—a certain amount of moisture ; by the loss of that moisture or increase of the same, the bulk of the wood either contracts or expands. If we have a piece of wood where this action takes place only upon one side, it is obvious that the piece will alter its form or shape. The consequence of the loss of moisture is also the warping and splitting of the wood. The inner structure of a stem is irregular; for instance, we find the inner moisture of a yearly ring to be more than on its VOL, IV. B 2 NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. outer side; this causes the splits on the exterior, after the wood is dry, and it also accounts for the impossibility of forming out of green wood a re- gular body which shall not lose its weight or shape. The time during which the evaporation of the moisture takes place depends upon the state of the atmosphere. Several authors are of opmion that the con- traction is regulated by the specific weight. This, as a rule, cannot be adopted ; for instance, lilac and oak, being both heavy and hard, con- tract quickly, whilst the double American maple, which is equally hard, contracts slowly. It is evident, however, that the fuller of sap a tree is, the greater will be the contraction. This will account for the fact, that we find on cut timber the cracks extend from the exterior towards the centre, because the sap-wood will contract more than the heart-wood. Planks turn with their sides upwards ; that is, the edges rise from the level of the centre line. This explains why we turn the inside of a plank towards the joists whilst we lay a floor, which prevents the twist- ing. The contraction and action of the wood cannot be checked altogether. Among the means to prevent it stands foremost the one of putting the tree into water ; but when taken out it must not be stored in a place where it dries too soon, as it would burst if done ; nor must it be left too long in the water, as this will injure the quality of the wood. All the wood which is used is never quite dry; besides this, it works a little in itself under the changes of the atmosphere ; and there- fore attention must be paid to the selection of timber for the same purpose, for the heart-wood is less subject to such action than sap or splint-wood. This is an important point with the furniture makers. The expansion or contraction is less apparent in the length of the fibre than in the cross section of the wood. The elasticity of the wood is called its property of return to its original form and shape after these have been altered by another cause. With this quality is connected the valuable fitness of some woods to transmit sounds, for which reason they are much used ,by musical in- strument makers. The elasticity has its limit ; and the more a piece of wood can be bent without breaking, the greater its elasticity. The resistance of wood depends upon the three following conditions ; —Ilst. Two pieces of equal length and height offer different resistance with reference to their breadth. 2nd. Two pieces of equal length and breadth offer different resistance with regard to their height. 3rd. Two#¢ pieces of wood of equal height and breadth offer different resistance with regard to their length. Again, experience has proved that a piece of wood resting freely with its two ends will carry from one-third to one-half less weight than if the ends are fixed or built in a wall. Old wood has less elasticity than young, and heart-wood is less elastic than sap-wood. The same differ- ence is found with wood from the lower stem compared with that from the upper crown. The elasticity diminishes with the progress of the NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 3 specific dry weight. Square-cut timbers laid horizontally with their yearly rings have not by far such bearing power as when laid perpen- dicularly. Green wood has considerable elasticity. Young stems, although they suffer sometimes by the wind, will regain their original position in a short time. Here it is necessary to mention that where young stems or branches have been bent through snow for a longer period, they will not return to their former form. I submit the following as the result of some experiments rela- tive to the bearing capacity of various woods. The pieces were all 3 feet long, and 2 inches by 1 inch, and air-dry. The constants arrived at were the following :— Weight, Constant. Wet. per ©. Ft. Yellow Pine . 3585 : i 3 i 25°687 lb. Baltic Pine . 444 ; ; 6 : 29-062 ,, Red Pine . a COR? ; : : ‘ 33437 ,, NSH dine Abe 75 53-875 41-812 ,, English Elm . 59525 .. . : 3 37312 ,, Pitch Pine . 629: - eget CAN re hie a TAB OME American Elm. 631°5 : ‘ : : 45°312 ,, American Oak 653°5 ; A : j 44-875 ,, African Teak . 673°5 3 ; , : 60°562 ,, Mora : 5 Gil? ‘ : : : 71:250 ,, Sabicu . - 85425 . : 5 4 59°687 ,, African Oak . 869°5 Greenheart SOMOS : : : s 69°750 ,, English Oak. — ‘ é : ; BID) Indian Teak . — Bre ee ; é 38125), Tronwood ; — .. é ; : 73500 ,, English Larch — : : : ; 32562 ,, Formula to find the breaking-weight of a piece of timber :—e constant, 6 breadth in inches, d depth in inches, J length in feet, w break- ing-weight in pounds. Charon as The adaptability of greenheart for hydraulic construction, dock- gates, &c., cannot be over-estimated. I may refer to an instance wherea clough was taken out of a sewer after sixteen years: it had been made half of oak and the other half of green-heart ; the oak was completely worm-eaten, whilst the green-heart was in its original condition. This certainly contrasts with the fact mentioned by Mr. Burnell in his paper, that he has a piece of green-heart riddled by the teredo ; and it would be interesting to ascertain under what circumstances the teredo will attack or not attack this kind of wood. My experience proves that 4 NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. green-heart is exempt from the erosion by the teredo; but there is a mollusc in this timber which we find alive in it when it arrives here from the West Indies. The worm is found in sizes from the lymexylon to the teredo ; but is of a different species, and seems not to live in this wood when used in such constructions as dock-gates, &c., in this country. Green sap-wood will not retain its form and bend if it is suspended horizontally by its two ends. The same will occur in timber constructions where green wood has been used. I may mention that the artificial process of drying wood should not be extended beyond 10 per cent., because it will cause it to become brittle and totally useless. A close examination of a beam sup- ported by its two ends will tell that the upper half of the fibres are stowing while the lower fibres are extending. The centre of gravity lies in the middle of the cross section. All woods do not offer the same re- sistance, and we can increase it by strengthening the centre of gravity. M. Duhamel describes in his work, ‘ De la Force des Bois,” the follow- ing experiment in elucidation of this fact: he took twenty-four sticks cut from young willows of equal strength ; each stick was 3 feet (Paris) long, and 13 inch square. Six of these broke in the centre, with an average weight of 256-909 kilogrammes (1 kilogramme equals 2°205 Ib. English.) In two other pieces he made a cut across, 4 inch deep in the centre, and filled it up with a piece of oak ; they broke with an average weight of 269°718 kilogrammes. Two more were cut 4 inch deep, and otherwise treated in the same manner; they broke with 259-312 kilo- grammes. Five were cut # inch, and broke with 265°764 kilo- grammes. From this it results that the smaller piece of harder wood fixed across the centre, considerably increased the strength of the stems when put in half and even three-quarters of the thickness. It is also the reason why a beam composed of several’smaller pieces will bear as much as if of one entire piece. And again, as the bearing power of the timber varies, some advantageous results may be obtained by putting stronger and weaker wood together in a construction. A round or square piece of a stem will offer about the same resist- ance from each side ; but if we compare a timber cut with the yearly rings vertically, with another having the rings horizontally, we find that the former will bear more than the latter. The sap which protects the wood does not prevent its decay. Tur- pentine, which is often in the sap, prolongs the preservation of the fibre. According to Baron Liebig, the decay of wood takes place in the three following modes: first, oxygen in the atmosphere combines with the hydrogen of the fibre, and the oxygen unites with the portion of carbon of the fibre, and evaporates as carbonic acid. This process is called decomposition. Secondly, we have to notice the actual decay of wood which takes place when it is broughtinto contact with rotting substances ; and the third process is called putrefaction. This is stated by Liebig to arise from the inner decomposition of the wood itself; it loses its NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 5 carbon, forms carbonic acid gas, and the fibre, under the influence of the latter, is changed into white dust. As an example of this, I may instance the wooden ceilings of houses which after some time go into that state. The chief cause is, that the free access of the air to the wood is prevented, and the little dampness occasioned by washing is sufficient to promote the dry rot. The sap of wood contains some saccharine matter, which will naturally decompose in itself, and this is noticed in timber stores from the sour taste and smell of such woods. ; The actual time which wood, lasts depends in a great measure on the time when it was felled, and in how far the soil in which it grew was suitable for its development. As a rule, wood cut in summer is less durable than that felled during the winter months. It will also be the case with trees which remain a longer period before their removal in the forest after being cut; however, a great difference does not exist between ripe woods, whether they are felled in the summer or winter time, because the formation of the leaves and the blossoms affects only the sap-wood and the bark of the tree ; therefore, if the sap-wood is cut off, and the heart-wood is properly treated and seasoned, the quality of the summer wood would be equal to that cut in winter time. In support of this, I may mention that most of the trees in Southern Italy are felled in July and August. The pines in the German forests are cut down mostly in summer, and their wood is generally very sound. The opinion that this causes dry-rot is, I think, unfounded, for I believe whenever this takes place, it is in consequence of unseasoned timber being used. Con- sidering the large quantity of timber imported into this country, I must mention that my experience tends to show that the North American woods, with the exception of red pine, are less durable than those from the north of Europe. The latter are stronger, superior, and not so much subject to dry-rot as the former. In the earlier portion of this paper, I had occasion to mention some enemies of the wood which attack it while growing; it is lucky that they are neutralized and destroyed to a great extent by other animals in the forest ; and among those doing great service in this respect let us remember the woodpeckers, finches, swine, hedgehogs, badgers, frogs, and many others. Dry or dead wood has also some terrible foes, which at times cause alarming ravages; and unfortunatelv no effectual means have as yet been found to check them: the most dangerous of these are the Termites, the Lymexylon, the Sirex gigas, the Teredo, and the Lymnoria terebrans. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish good from bad timber, and I would therefore draw notice to some illustrations from a work published by the French Government,—“ Instructions sur le Bois de Marine,” with special reference to the oaks, and to which the following explanation may serve. 6 NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. Plate 43, figure 1, represents English oak, of the best quality. To this kind of oak belongs the Quercus pedunculata, and the Quercus sessiliflora. The fresh cut of such is a yellow straw colour, sometimes of a rose colour. The annual rings show a fine glossy grain which allows it to take a fine polish. The horny layer of three to five millimetres is quite distinct from the cellular portion, and the pores are very little to be seen. - This kind of oak is very sensible to the influence of the atmosphere. In damp weather it swells, and in dry weather it contracts considerably. This makes it lable to split ; but notwithstanding this it is excellent wood, and the best suited for the ribs in a ship. The fibres hold together with a great longitudinal and even transversal tenacity which gives it a great resisting power. Plate 43, figure 3, shows the cross section of an inferior quality. It is spongy ; has large pores of a pale colour, sometimes brown or reddish; its deficiency has been caused by too wet a soil, by want of nourishment, or of fresh air, or of some other condition requisite for its full develop- ment. If such wood be ruptured it will break clean off, and a fibre may be rubbed into dust between two fingers. A valuable property of this kind of oak is, that it alters very little by the changes in the atmos- phere, and it is therefore much in use for floors, furniture, and car- pentry. Between these two qualities of oak, range a great number of others, differing in their condition. When trees are found to be decayed at the trunk, it must be attri- buted to an interruption of thefunctions of the root. It will occur that one or several of the roots die, by which putrefaction is imparted to the lower part of the stem, if this rot be white or black it is not very dangerous ; it does not generally reach more than one foot above the roots ; but when the rot is of a red colour, the wood should not be used in construction or it will soon lead to decay. Trees arrive at an age when their wood becomes ripe, and then is the proper time to fell them. This may be seen when the top of the tree brings forth no leaves in spring. Such trees are superannuated ; that is to say they grow no longer ; and then they become subject to a serious evil called the dial. This i is explained by the following process :—We know that witha vigorous tree in full growth the heart-wood contains the smallest portion of water, and that its density decreases from the centre towards the circumference ; when it is felled and dried, it will split from the outer side towards the centre. This is not the case with a super- annuated tree, in which the oldest wood begins to perish first ; and con- sequently the greatest density lies between the heart-wood and the bark. Now, insuch a tree the central wood contracts while drying, which causes the splits. Sometimes splits are found in trees which bear a glossy blackish aspect, and they must be distinguished from those just men- tioned. They extend from the circumference towards the heart, and NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 1 were created whilst the tree was growing. It is asserted that they are effected by frost. They look at first straight or capillary and enlarge with each heavy cold. They show themselves mostly lcngitudinally, on a swell- ing of the stem, and make the tree useless. The splits in the heart of a tree must not be confounded with holes caused in felling. There is no danger with the latter beyond that they diminish the length of the timber. Often in the trunk of a stem a particular irregularity is found in the non-juxtaposition of two successive annual rings. This fault is caused by the strong winds, which affect it in the point where the flexion of the stem has its maximum. It will also arise when the tree has not sufficient nourishment, by which two layers are prevented from growing well together. It showsitself in incomplete dark rings. If these.are only in the sap-wood, they may be looked upon as unimportant ; but when they are, on the contrary, in the heart-wood, and accompanied with the dial, they betray a serious defect in the tree. In some cross sections of an oak we often notice circular bands of a different colour from the remainder of the section, sometimes white, yellow, red, or brown. The texture of these bands appears loose, even spongy, and betrays signs of decomposition. It is found in the best qualities of wood, and it cannot be cured. The reason for this decay is not definitely known. Some persons suppose it to arise when the sap wood is prevented by severe cold from developing itself into good wood. When this evil is in the heart, it looks like a whitish circle, and is called the moon. Wood from such trees ought not to be used, because it will soon decay. When the faulty bands are straight, and the shades of colour are less observed, the vice is not so dangerous. A Druxy knots are caused by woodpeckers, by lopping, and by dead and broken branches, which make holes in the tree: into these the water runs, decomposes, and directs the evil towards the inner stem. If we find on a tree a swelling or depression, we may conclude that the con- dition of the tree is bad. Such trees are often found with the sap running out of their armpits. Amongthe various rots engendered by the knots, we have the following :— Wet rot is composed of porous fibre running from the knot into the trunk of a tree. This rot is of brown colour and has an offensive smell. This evil is often found with white spots, the latter of watery subs- tance. When it has yellow flames it is very dangerous. Black coloured knots are easily cured, and unimportant. We find wounds on trees which have been effected by the fall of a neighbouring tree ; from the friction of a cartwheel by which the bark was torn. If this wound does not reach beyond the bark, it has no bad effect upon the wood ; but should it have damaged the ligneous portion of the stem, the wood soon assumes a green-like colour, and begins to decompose. 8 NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. It occurs that a new bark grows over such wound, and in such instances the evil is not detected until the stem is cut into timber. Similar defects are also caused by lightning. As a very elaborate work upon the various kinds of oak, I may mention Kotschy’s Eichen Europa’s, “ Durability and Preservation of Wood.” Well seasoned timber will last for an indefinite period if kept in dry air or under water ; but when alternately exposed to atmosphere, water, and light, it begins to decompose. The ordinary causes by which this is effected are chiefly the fermentation of the azotic substances contained in the cellular tissue. This is developed under the influence of the oxygen in the atmosphere, and by the moisture contained in the wood. We have therefore the problem to find means to prevent this fermentation, either by obviating all such circumstances as air and water, or to extract from the wood its vegeto-albumen, or to act upon the latter in a manner that it will resist fermentation, and the attacks of insects. No process has yet been invented which answers all these conditions, and with all its trials we must have the assistance of chemistry and entomology. I refer to our museums as the place where, among other rude-made articles, will be found here and there a remnant of wood which bears the age of decenniums, and other specimens of petrified wood which must have been in existence in its natural state centuries ago. That wood in sandy soil will last for centuries may be seen in the specimens which were dug up whilst making the new docks at Birken- head, from depths varying from 8 to 32 feet below the surface, and they are reckoned to have been there for centuries. Among the many inventions to preserve wood, those of England have proved the most successful. Already in 1737 a patent was granted to Mr. Emerson, for preparing timber with hot oil, and soon after the method of Oxford and Kyan came into use. In 1837 a patent was taken out by Margary, to impregnate wood with sulphate of copper; and since 1838, Sir William Burnett’s process, chloride of zinc, has been in use. Mr, Payne obtained a patent in 1841 for preparing wood with two solutions, such as carbonate of soda and sulphate of iron. Some very good results are obtained with this system, but it must be done with the greatest care. Still better is the invention patented by Mr. J. Bethell, which con- sists in the injection of oil of tar after the air has been extracted. This process is effective to a great extent, and for a full description I refer to Mr. Burnell’s paper, read before the Society of Arts in London, 1860. (See Vol. 8 or “ Transactions,” p. 554.) ~The disadvantage of the creosoting system is the offensive smell and the increased danger by fire ; but it is recommendable for railways and hydraulic works. In France, the price of creosote is too high to admit its general use ; NOTES ON THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 9 and solutions of metallic salts are employed instead. Among these M. Boucherie’s method has obtained the best results. He acts with a pressure of 5 or 7 feet of water upon wood not later than two or three months after it is felled, and injects a solution of sulphate of copper by a trans- versal section, while the sap runs out in the opposite direction. Railway sleepers prepared in this manner were laid down in 1846; and in 1853 they were found in so good a condition that ever since, M. Boucherie’s system has been much employed in France. Another economical process of Mr. Fontenay is worth mentioning. He acts upon wood with what he calls metallic soap, which he obtains from the residue in the greasing- boxes of carriages; also from the acid remains of. oil, suet, iron and brass dust, which are all melted together. A piece of wood was put in such a hot fluid for forty eight hours after the water had previously been partly extracted under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. When taken out, the metallic solution which it had taken up stood at 3 per cent. to its first weight. This piece of wood was used as a railway sleeper on the Orleans Railroad, and after eight months it was in perfect condition, whilst other wood not treated in a similar manner was in a state of decomposition. Another process is recommended by Mr. Dondeine, and much applied in France and Germany. It isa paint consisting of the fol- lowing :-— Linseed oil . : : . 15 kilogrammes. Rosin . : : : edt 6 Mant a : 6 : no h Zinc or white lead : 5 i Vermillion, red or yellow . 10 BF Colour (clay colours must be avoided as they thicken too much) 4 i Cement ‘ : . 6 on Oxide of iron si z a8 o Gutta percha, glue, or gum. 2 on Hydrate of chalk 1 & 9 Lard . é ; F a JN PA Litharge : : 2 . C ” (One kilogramme = 2,205lb. English.) All these are well mixed, and reduced by boiling to one-tenth. When applied warm, it can be applied with a brush ; but not too hot. It may also be used cold ; in which case the paste must be mixed with a little varnish or turpentine oil. The results obtained with this process are reported as yet very satisfactory. It prevents decay, and admits no humidity. Mr. Dondeine further reports that it prevents oxydation of iron; and wherever walls have had a coat of this mixture it has kept away all wet, VOL. IV. c 10 3 SODA ASH. and unpleasant insects, ants, bugs, &e. Roofs of pasteboard or of wood which have been painted with the mixture keep dry, and withstand the effects of rain and snow. Wood impregnated with sulphate of copper will not last longer in sea-water than other wood. It is quite as much attacked by the sea worm as when in its natural state. On the other hand it has been proved that wood impregnated with sulphate of copper will have longer durability in the soil than when either tarred or charred. The following statement of M. Brouzet to the French Academy may also be of interest. He has a seat in the Cavennes Mountain, where he cultivates silk-worms. The shelves upon which they breed are of pine. During the period from 1853 to 1858 all his crops perished through illness. In 1860 he was induced to make new shelves of pine impreg- nated with sulphate of copper, and ever since the silk-worms have been in the finest and healthiest condition.* At Saint Sebastian, in Spain, the piles of a wooden bridge standing - in the sea have been guarded against the attacks of sea-worms in the following manner. Each pile is surrounded by a wooden box, and the space between filled up with cement. After six years it was proved that the piles were in perfect condition, whilst the outer boxes were com- pletely riddled by the worms. SODA ASH.+ BY MURRAY THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S.E. Soda Ash, or, as it is sometimes called in commerce, “ Alkali,” is a preparation of soda largely used by the paper maker, and his use of it has greatly increased since the scarcity of rags has compelled the intro- duction of new sources of fibre. The process by which an almost un- limited supply of soda ash can be produced we owe to the ingenuity of a Frenchman, M. Leblanc, who published his process about the end of last century. It was first practically applied at St. Denis in 1804. It was proved then to be an eminently successful process, and though it early commanded the esteem of our English manufacturers, yet it was not till the repeal of the salt duty that it was adopted in this country, and one of the first manufacturers to employ it was Muspratt of Liverpool. Previous to the introduction of Leblanc’s process, our only source of alkali was from the ash of seaweed, known under the name of Barilla, when it came from Spain, and Kelp, when it was made in the * See ‘Comptes Rendus de Academie Francaise,’ vol. 54. + From ‘The Paper Trade Review.’ SODA ASH. 1k western islands of Scotland and in Ireland. Barilla or kelp, was at the best but a limited source, and Leblanc’s process was, therefore, a great improvement, when it enabled us to obtain soda from such a plentiful substance as common orsea salt. We deem it sufficient to indicate in outline only the different stages of Leblane’s process, asa full description of them would hardly prove interesting to our readers. The first stage consists in converting the chloride of sodium, or com- mon salt, into sulphate of soda, by heating it ina reverberating furnace along with oil of vitrol. Hydrochloric acid is given off during the process. This gas is not allowed to escape into the atmosphere as it once was, but is condensed in an arrangement known as the Coke Tower. The sulphate of soda, which is left in the furnace, is called salt cake. The second stage consists in roasting the salt cake of the last operation along with a mixture of chalk and ground coal ina reverberating furnace until it is completely fused. Carbonic oxide gas is given off abun- dantly during the process. The fused mass on being withdrawn from the furnace, is now called ball soda or black ash. The third stage consists in dissolving out of this black ash the valu- able soda salts. This is done by a most ingenious application of tepid water, by means of which a large amount of black ash is thoroughly exhausted of its soda salt by a comparatively small amount of water. What the water does not dissolve is known as soda waste. It consists mainly of oxysulphide of calcium. The soda liquor or lye, which is thus obtained, is then evaporated to dryness, and once more calcined along with some sawdust or coal dust, the effect of which is to decompose any sulphide of sodium, and convert it into carbonate of soda. It undergoes another purification by being once more dissolve, evaporated, and calcined. The product of this last operation, on being ground under mill-stones, constitutes the soda ash of commerce. It may be regarded as a mixture composed in chief part of carbonate of soda, and in smaller quantity of caustic soda ; but, besides these, it may contain such impurities as sulphide of sodium, hyposul- phite, and sulphate of soda, particles of sawdust, &c. If the relative quantities of carbonate of soda and caustic soda re- mained always the same, in every sample of soda ash, there would be no use for processes for valuing the article ; but, as these frequently vary, there has long been in use a method of estimating the exact value of any sample of soda ash. These methods are applicable to pearl ash as well, and are known under the general name of alkalimetry. An alkalimetrical method is based on the well established fact, that a certain known quantity of an acid, such as sulphuric acid, will always neutralise or combine with a fixed definite quantity ot alkali, such as soda or potass ; and it is easy to tell, by the use of a little colouring matter, such as litmus, when this neutralising has been effected. The C2 1 SODA ASH. following details of the most approved method of ascertaining the amount of available alkali in any sample of sodaash, will best illustrate the subject of alkalimetry. Some ordinary commercial oil of vitriol, which has usually tie specific gravity of 1845, water being 1000, is diluted with eight times its bulk of distilled water—if distilled water be difficult to procure, clean rain water will answer. This diluted acid is now tested as to its strength, in the following way. A _ graduated glass measure, is filled to a point between the division 23 and 24. It is understood of course, that these numbers count from the zero or 0°. the measure is now filled to zero with pure water, covered with the hand, and inverted several times, so as to cause thorough mixture. The diluted acid in every division of the measure ought to neutralise or saturate one grain of pure or uncombined soda. To determine if this is really the case, 100 grains of carbonate of soda, is obtained by heating red hot for some time the common bicarbonate of soda, the heating con- verts it into carbonate of soda, and 100 grains of this is now dissolved in 3 or 4 fiuid ounces of water in a Florence flask, and when the solution has been effected it is filteredif- necessary. The filtered solution is now coloured with some infusion of litmus and heated to near boiling. The acid contents of the measure are now added little by little, each addition is followed by brisk effervescence and a partial. reddening of the litmus colour, but on again applying heat, so as te boil the solution, this redden- ing is changed back again to blue, and so with each addition of the acid, until 58°5 measures have been added, when a reddening is produced which boiling fails to restore to blve. This indicates that the soda of the 100 grains of heated bicarbonate is neutralised or saturated. If the 58°5 measures of acid has exactly neutralised the 100 grains of pure carbonate of soda, then the remainder of the diluted oil of vitriol may be put in a stoppered bottle, and kept as a store of standard acid, to be used for testing in the above way any sample of soda ash. If, however, the diluted acid should be so strong that 50 measures of it effected satu- ration of the above amountof carbonate of soda, then it is clear that these 50 measures should have occupied the bulk of 585. A change in accordance with that can easily be effected by adding to every 50 measures of the acid in the measure, 8°5 of pure water, or to every 100 of the acid 17 measures of water. If, on the other hand, more than 58°5 measures of diluted acid be required, this indicates that the standard acid is too weak to bring up its strength, there is no more convenient method than to add of vitriol drop by drop, to the quantity of acid first diluted, and subsequently trying it with fresh carbonate of soda. With ordinary discrimination, one or two such trials is usually suffi- cient to restore the acid to its proper strength. When this has been done, the whole of the diluted acid should now be put aside as before, with a label attached, to the effect that the alkalimeter, or graduated measure, when filled to 23°5 with this acid, and then to 0° with water, ON THE PAPER MANUIFACTURH. 13 every division of the alkalimeter is equal to one grain of caustic or pure soda. Enough of this standard acid should now be made to serve for a great number of valuations. The actual process of valuing any sample of soda ash is now pro- ceeded with in the same way as the 100 grains of carbonate of soda was treated in the foregoing description. The only difference being, that the inference to be drawn in this case isnot the strength of the acid from the saturation of the pure carbonate of soda, but the converse ; the strength of the sample of soda ash, or real amount of soda it contains, is to be inferred from the amount of acid used to neutralise it, each measure being equal to one grain of pure soda. ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. BY BENJAMIN LAMBERT. IU Among the almost infinite variety of objects which arrest the atten- tion of the diligent Technologist, paper must always hold a foremost place, not only as being a beautiful product of practical science, with uses se various as almost to defy enumeration, but mainly on account of the numerous members of the vegetable kingdom, which are fitted to enter into its constituent parts. The paper manufacture of this country, both by the amount of its invested capital and relative producing power, is entitled to rank as a national industry ; and although its proportions may be dwarfed when brought into comparison with the gigantic wealth- producing interests, cotton and coal, must still claim a conspicuous place in the long list of British manufactures. Such being the case, its welfare becomes matter of public concern, and its scientific necessities the subject of careful and special consideration. The welfare of the great bulk of the paper manufacture is based on a plentiful supply of cotton and linen rags, and the complaint of the trade is that the available supply is not equal to the demand. It is stated with truth that the production of rags cannot be increased by any effort of private enterprise, but the further allegation that rags are essential to the production of the finer sorts of paper, must be taken cum grano salis by all parties who have seriously investigated the question. For centuries rags have been considered a waste product, destitute of value, other than for the manufacture of paper. We have always bought largely in the different continental markets; whilst our own has been subject to periodical visitation from our cousins in the United States of America. Under the old fiscal regulations, the established system of trade worked smoothly enough, and paper-makers in this country did not care to look seriously beyond existing circum- stances for any prospective disturbing cause. Rags were abundant, the paper-maker could literally revel in the variety of material which 14 ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. his capital could at any time command. Foreign competition in the markets of the world, in finished paper, was a state of things to which they were well accustomed, and knew how to be victorious when they chose ; but foreign competition at home, within the very shadows of our British mills, was a possibility never seriously contemplated. So, when the inevitable abolition of all fiscal imports on paper came, and with it, an army of Teutons, invading the counting-houses of their customers, offering good-looking papers, in startling quantities, at prices fabulously low, and on terms temptingly inviting, our makers incontinently lose heart of grace, instead of girding their loins for the coming struggle, with a stern determination to vindicate our manufacturing supremacy. How far the present state of things is exceptional and temporary, rather than consequent and fixed, is worthy of calm consideration. Our paper-makers state that while the price of rags has advanced, the value of finished paper has rapidly declined, and that whilst the rise in rags and decline in paper must be treated in the relation of cause and effect, the former is simply the effect of increased consumption in countries which either entirely prohibit, or place a high duty on the export of the raw material, the increased consumption again being the effect of the foreign makers being admitted to free competition with the English makers in their own market. This mode of stating the case may seem rather in- volved, but the inquiry is surrounded with peculiarities—for example, it would be fair to expect that the prices of our home collection of rags would have closely assimilated to the enhanced price of rags abroad. Yet London “ fines” and “seconds” are very much the same in price as they have been for many years past. Again, it is well known that immedi- ately on the repeal of the duty on paper, several makers increased their prices for fine sorts, and not the least puzzling circumstance is, that mills which, prior to the abolition of the excise on paper, had been shut up for years, were started again, quite twelve months after the duty had ceased, and that by one of the largest makers of printings in the trade, an anomaly for which we have never been able satisfactorily to account. For all the purposes of argument it may be stated, that in the matter of quality, no foreign paper has yet been brought into the English market which our own makers are not prepared to equal, at prices which shall properly remunerate the foreign makers, be they made from rags, or the veriest rubbish that ever defiled an engine, did the question of character not intervene. Almost every mill in this country has a repu- tation, laboriously acquired, for excellence in the make of some descrip- tion of paper, and consequently to lower their standard of quality is a question of very serious import. A buyer of English paper almost in- variably looks for the mill number on the wrapper, confident in his knowledge of the quality of paper made at that particular mill, but this is not true of the continental mills, either in sense or extent. The word foreign covers a multitude of sins, and the consequence is that our market has been flooded with large quantities of stuff in the sem- blance of paper, which for a time has successfully ministered to the ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. 15 necessities of the low-priced newspapers, but possessing neither the sub- stance, finish, or durability of a really good article. Belgium and Prussia are the two countries from which the bulk of recent imports have come, and the sorts have been mainly low printings, and worse than low browns and other wrapping descriptions. Of the latter we have seen such samples as were simply a disgrace to any maker, utterly unfit for use in any trade with which we are acquainted. What, either in the heavens above or the earth beneath could have pro- duced such stuff, with the exception of the chopped straw with which the surface was plentifully plastered, passes ourcomprehension. As regards the printing sorts, they, of course, look very much better and handle surprisingly well when the very low prices at which they are offered - are considered. Yet they do not suit our market ; they neither wet well nor work free, and the chronic tendency which makers of “printing sorts’ on the Continent have to load their paper heavily with various mineral substances, seriously detracts from the permanent value of the manufactured article. All things considered, we incline to the opinion that the Continental makers cannot manufacture a sound paper such as would command the approval of British consumers, and put it into damaging competion with our own makers, at a price which shall be properly remunerative to the producer. Already the Customs’ Returns exhibit a marked diminution in the weight of paper imported from abroad ; so marked indeed as to bring the figures representing the im+ ports for the five months ot the present year below those for the corresponding period in 1862, and this is rendered more significant when coupled with the fact that the German paper-makers are com- bining for the purpose of rescuing the trade from imminent peril, brought on by the unremunerative prices at which sales have been forced for some time back, an immediate advance of 10 per cent. was resolved upon at a meeting of the trade held at Carlesruhe in April last, and the Belgian makers will, in all probability, find it necessary to follow the example. When speaking of the adulteration of paper by the admixture of mineral ingredients it has been very much the habit to attribute it almost entirely to foreign makers. And the practice has been most heartily denounced by both printers and publishers,—the former very naturally at finding his forms filled up with fluffy clay, and the latter in the want of firmness in the printed quire ; to pay 6d. per pound for paper in which there was 30 per cent. of China clay, was considered very much too bad even for this advanced period of the century. Some of our own makers, however, as would appear from a letter published in the ‘ Paper Trade Review’ for the month of June, have become no mean adepts in the science of adulteration. Mr. James Eckworth, of New- castle, states that he has just finished the examination of “ eleven samples of first-class papers,” all British made, “and of the eleven only two were free from adulteration ;” and he goes on to say : “ It may appear almost incredible, but Lean vouch for its being correct, thet some of these papers were so heavily charged with mineral ingredicuts, that the propor- 16 ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. tion reached the astounding rate of 50 per cent. The lowest propor- tion of adulteration was 20 per cent., and the ingredients employed were various, and included gypsum, China clay, silica and starch.” Mr. Eck- worth may well remark that such a state of things may appear almostin- credible. Had he found low-class papers very largely adulterated it would not have excited surprise, but that from 20 to 50 per cent. of mineral ingredients should have been found in first-class British-made papers, is a circumstance demanding critical attention. In the matter of low printings the paper manufacture seems to be gradually drifting into a dilemma difficult of explication. The shout “Cotton is King” went forth from the Confederate States of America as the key-note of a national programme. Whether the assertion properly belongs to the region of fact or to that of fiction remains to be proved. From the reading masses in this empire there has also gone forth a shout “ Penny is King,” and as with Cotton, it remains to be proved whether the prophecy shall be recorded among the things that were, or be graven in the annals of our periodical literature as indisputabie truth. Of course the great Penny feature of the day is the cheap daily newspaper ; and the problem is not yet by any means satisfactorily solved whether a newspaper with any just pretension to literary excellence, can give asheet of decent paper measuring 464 X 353, and weighing say 60 Ibs. to the ream for one penny. The quantity of ‘paper consumed weekly by the cheap newspaper press is something enormous, and the quality of the paper ranges from execrable to very common, with a fluctuating medium which may be described as bad. Of straw paper, ordinarily so-called, thereis no lack, and of low rag paper with a mixture of raw fibre there is an abund- ance ; but there is at the same time an enormous quantity of nonde- script stuff which it would puzzle any paper-maker in the three kingdoms to describe. The raw material, whatever its kind, may be tolerably decent, but the make is usually of the most discreditable character, and the finish destitute of the mark which experience never fails to leave even on the lowest manufactured product. We are not without know- ledge that within the last few years, and especially since the repeal of the duty, the number of paper-makers in this country has slightly increased, it would be illiberal to deny that in some instances the trade if it has not and gained, has, at all events, suffered no loss of reputation from the accession; but we cannot close our eyes to the fact that there are others, and the number is not a few, who have signally nistaken their calling, and who have been furnishing the markets, as the fruits of their incompetence, with much of the paper which we feel called upon so unhesitatingly to condemn. An amateur paper-maker is, generally speaking, a dangerous specimen of the genus homo, and it cannot be sufficiently impressed upon such that, although the science of paper- making may be rapidly mastered by those whose natural taste and ancillary knowledge qualifies them for the pursuit, there are others, the standard of whose ultimate excellence must be mediocrity, resulting, in many cases, in disappointment and disaster. ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE, jag The principal materials employ 2d in the manufacture of paper in this country are rags, cotton waste, and bagging of various descriptions, but rags are the staple article, ever since the establishment of the manufac- ture paper-makers have regarded rags as the only material from which a respectable quality of paper could be produced. And it is therefore to be expected that when, from any cause whatever, a rise occurs in their market value, the trade becomes uneasy and alarmed. At the Inter- national Exhibition of 1862, the British makers were very inadequately represented. Scarcely 11 per cent. of the total number of exhibitors hailing from Great Britain and Ireland, but although the exhibitors were few, it is fair to assume that all those makers who were possessed of any speciality in raw material, exhibited their produce; and the following tabulated statement printed in the Jurors’ Report is in- teresting as showing the materials from which the various samples of paper exhibited were manufactured :— 1862.—CLASSIFICATION OF PAPER FROM THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 3 | a Of paper 5/3 2a Ba | ie from a® |'a > |8604 | Description of 23's !22 SB |ragsalone | 38/52) 4-8 | raw materials CounTRIEs. SRB Sc if Bi 3s — ice: Bs/s 5 8 | employed, other Se ee bere a 2 | First) All =n aes 6s | than rags or In sy Sg S Bs ae class aes a2 Qs ois > ropes. Ee EE ERA OE SS as I SS Aer 2 of straw. aes al TDG 2a Qe Os ae 4 1 of esparto. : | 1 of hop-bine New Brunswick 72) 1) ==") 7 1);—} — indiabersigie <2 Be icia isi | decal le Is Na. lia cg ie Mla | Belgium Ope a Bs aL 1 Unknown. Denmark 1)/—]} 1j)—j,1),— Wess fe ee France . ss 17 | 10 Bh a TI Sal] AE Nees hy ees AURA 5, hele) nS 4 3 1]; — gh A ie — Maize. Baden Wy 1};/—;—!1 i — Hanover eee 1|— 1);—}|— i 1; — —_ Gd. Duchy of Hesse 7A Nal db |fceer ean} eal 1 | — 1 Straw. JMESE 5) Bb aos 20 : 10 5 2 | 12 By) | aly 3 Straw. Saxony and Reuss AA Wp ey Ee ee Wiirtemburg . A Fh oe ey ah 1 | — 1 Wood. ialygeeernn 10. Be Gea Gol Bo @ | ee 1 Straw. Netherlands 3 1}—|— 1 2 3 | — — Norway . 1};—}]—/;) 1);—};—}] —|]—] — Portugal . 4)};— | 2;—;—] 4]; 4;—j — Japan Saas os. 1 at |) Se) 1 Th es — Bark. China and Formosa 2);—/—|]—|— 2 2;—|] — Russia 3 | — 3} — 3] — 38 | — — Spam. 27. 8)/—] 4) —] — 8 8};—|] — Sweden. . 3)/—] 3] — 3 | — 3/—]— Wood. Motalen ere nee 35 | 41 6 | 47 | 88 | 85 4 11 Nore.—The column ‘‘ first-class paper from rags alone” is intended to include such papers as are manufactured of the best materials, and at great expense for sizing and finishing, such as high-class writing, and plate, and drawing papers. Among the thirty-eight ‘‘other sorts,” there are many papers which have been made of very superior materials, but they are for the greater part for printing pur- poses, and in the case of Spain they consist almost wholly of paper for cigarettes. 18 ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. From the foregoing it will be seen that out of 100 sorts of paper shown by the same number of exhibitors, 85 per cent. was made from rags, 7 per cent. from straw, and only 4 per cent from raw fibres ; such a statement as this is conclusive evidence as to the almost universal use of rags all the world over. The paper manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland requires of raw material about 150,000 tons every year ; and of this large quantity, the greater proportion is rags ; about 8 per cent. of the gross weight having to be imported, we stand in the peculiar position of requiring a larger supply of paper than we can furnish raw material for. The continent of Europe has at present a surplus of this raw material, whilst America is very much in the same position as ourselves. The following extracted statement, although we do not vouch for its accuracy in detail, will give a sufficiently fair view of the relation existing between rags and paper both in this country and on the Continent: “ The Continent consumes only 4 lbs. of-paper per head of its population, requiring 6 lbs. of paper material for its production; England consumes 8 lbs. of paper per head, requiring 12 lbs. of paper material ; and America consumes 10 Ibs. of paper per head, requiring 15 Ibs. of paper material for its production : these simple figures 4, 8, and 10, represent with suflicient accuracy the relative position of England both towards the Continent and towards America as regards paper production and rag supply. It requires 15 lbs. of paper material, to make 1 Ib. of paper. The paper material therefore, consumed on the Continent is 6 lbs. per head of ats population. In England it is 12 lbs. per head, and in America it is 15 lbs. per head ; now the Continent, using 6 lbs. per head, does not consume all the paper material it produces, it has a surplus for export. England, consuming 12 lbs. per head, consumes a great deal more than it produces. The average, therefore, of paper material (or rags) that is made per head of these populations is somewhere between 6 lbs. and 12 lbs. It would be a long affair to show how the figures are reckoned out, and it is rather an uncertain calculation, with all the care that canbe taken, but it is not far from true to compute that the Continent makes 8 Ibs. per head of raw material (or rags,) and England 10 lbs. This would show that the former, requiring for its own use but 6 lbs., has 2 Ibs. per head to spare for export ; and that England, requiring for its use 12 Ibs., needs 2 lbs. per head to be imported to keep its mills going. The Continent, would therefore (from the population of 80,000,000) have about 36,000 tons of rags to spare for the wants of England and America, the only two countries that have to import rags because their home supply is deficient, and England would require in ordinary years about 13,000 or 14,000 tons to make up her quantity. In 1862, owing to the dearth of cotton waste, she imported more than this quantity by 6,000 or 7,000 tons. The account corrected by deducting the English export of rags gives between 19,000 and 20,000 tons as the actual foreign supply of rags for that year.” The importance of a good supply of rags.to the paper-making interest ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. 19 is from the foregoing perfectly obvious, but no notice whatever seems to have been taken by the writer of the large quantities procurable from Egypt, India, and Japan ; paper-makers almost without exception say that Eastern rags are worthless on account of their softness, and the excess of wear which the woven fabric receives before it is condemned ; -there is much more force in the first objection than there is in the latter. In order to convert a good strong rag into paper, there is not so much skill and care required at the hands of the experienced manufac- turer, as is necessary in the working of a comparatively soft material ; as a rule, the lowness of the rag must be in an inverse ratio to the state of the machinery ; with strong stuff after being couched, the paper-maker may let his dry felts waddle on the stretching rolls, if precision be not with him a cardinal virtue, and generally to allow the paper to run as slack as it may until it either falls on the cutting board or is wound on the reel, but it is otherwise with a low material, which requires mak- ing in the strictest sense of the term ; then precision is absolutely indis- pensable, and the machinery from the engine roll downwards, must be in the most perfect order. Many inexperienced paper-makers imagine that anything will do for a common material, the contrary being the case as we have already stated. The principal difficulty with which the paper-maker has to contend in working soft rags, is their inability to carry engine size, rendering machine sizing necessary ; and as very few machines in this country are adapted for sizing, it follows that stuff needing this particular treatment is necessarily condemned. Nearly all modern machines are made with a double set of drying cylinders go as to admit the use of animal size, but the great bulk of the machines in use have been running for a great number of years, are small in size, and not worth the additions which it would be necessary to make in order to fit them for sizing purposes. The paper-makers of this country must set about the substitution of modern for comparatively ancient machinery, before long, if they would keep their proper place in the van of the manufacture. Cotton spinners, so long as they could obtain a plentiful supply of long staple cotton from the Gulf of Florida, classed every other sort coming from the East under the name of Surats, and condemned their use, but now that the supply of Sea Island and other favourite marks is cut off, they are gladly putting their machinery in order for the working of the shorter stapled, but still valuable, Surats, we do not say that to such a pass the paper-makers of this country must come, but the lesson may have its uses. From Japan alone a large and increasing exportation of rags is. going on; Sir Rutherford Alcock states the cost of collection, freight, and incidental expenses to be about 142, per ton laid down in this country, and the wisdom of allowing a mass of such material to lie neglected in our warehouses, and finally to be re- shipped to another market, is, to say the very least, exceedingly ques- tionable. The mode in which rags are collected for the use of the paper 20 ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE. maker is one of the most roundabout conceivable, generally speaking they are considered as most decidedly contraband by thrifty housewives, _ who declare that dirt is inseparable from their stowage—first come the itinerant vendors of hearth stones, glass ornaments, crockery et hoc genus omnes, who in exchange for their wares are anxious to receive rags and bones, soleless boots, and crownless hats, the value of which no one but a Bohemian could satisfactorily appraise ; they in turn convey their purchased stock to the rag shop, which is the market for their miscellaneous gleanings. There, from a mass of indiscriminate rubbish perfect order is evoked. Rags are sorted into cottons and linens, new and old, white and coloured, the latter being again subdivided into blooms and other varieties. Here also rags are first accumulated, as the rag-man does not, as a rule, sell his stock, until a parcel of respectable size has been obtained, when they are all cleared out and sold to the merchant, by whom they are suppliel to the paper maker—and so exclusive is the trade that a stranger would have the greatest possible difficulty in purchasing a small parcel of rags from a merchant unless he were well introduced, the owner of a rag shop usually refusing to sell to any but the merchant with whom he is accustomed to deal. The collection of rags is, as we have endeavoured to show, indirect in its character, and the conclusion is inevitable that a large per-centage is annually withdrawn from the market, by burning and other means of destruction. A quasi charitable movement has been recently set on foot in London, for the direct collection of rags, under the name of the Rag Brigade, and we understand that it has so far been a financial suc- cess, but ifthe quantity of rags collected for paper-making purposes is to be materially increased, some more extensive organisation must be estab- lished. In the Jurors’ Report on Class 28, Section A, in the International Exhibition of 1862, already referred to, the following curious calculation is given of the approximate quantity of rags made, collected, and wasted in this country. In the year 1860 the quantity of linen and cotton fabrics retained for home consumption, (which is found by deducting the quantity exported from what was imported) amounted to 210,000 tons, thus :— Tons. Imported of Linen, Flax, &c. . . : 145,000 Cotton all kinds . : : 170,000 315,000 Deduct exported . : : 105,000 210,000 And the report goes on to state that “by taking the returns from the Excise Books for a similar period, it appears that in the year 1860 there were charged with duty 99,840 tons of paper of all sorts, being the largest aggregate ever reached, indicating that there ought to be of ON THE PAPER MANUFACTURE, 21 rags, making a large allowance for waste, not less than 50,000 tons of raw material produced by the wear and tear of our habiliments, which do not as yet find their way to the paper mill.” The calculation is ingenious, but it would be much nearer the truth to estimate the quan- tity of rags uncollected at 100,000 instead of 50,000 tons, on the basis of 210,000 tons of material being available. Hitherto it has been assumed by the paper makers that they are as certain of a monopoly of the rag collection in the future as they have been in the past, an assump- tion which we are inclined seriously to doubt. It was stated recently in the public prints that a French engineer had invented a machine by which cotton and linen rags could be made available for re-spinning, and it was stated at the time that it would be impossible to estimate the extent to which such an invention might revolutionise particular staple industries. Such an announcement in the ordinary course of things might fairly be considered a remote contingency, were it not for the startling fact that the process which has been in embryo in this country for the last two or three years is now being developed so steadily as to leave no doubt of the position it is destined to assume, as an important branch of the cotton manufacture. So far the demand for rags has been scarcely felt by the paper makers, because manufacturers have not yet had sufficient time to get a large plant in order, but that done, every thousand spindles will tell upon the supply of rags with unmistakeable distinctness; against such an industry as this the paper maker will be powerless, as the prices the spinner could afford to offer would be such as to make rags unattainable for the purposes of the paper manufacturer. To meet such a contingency as this we do not believe the paper makers of this country are prepared. Its realisation even in a partial sense will herald the downfall of many. The hard cotton waste, which in the days of plenty the spinner cast to the paper maker, as a waste product, is now found, in the days of scarcity, to possess a high textile value, and that is consequently going slowly but surely from his grasp. It cannot reasonably be expected that a waste product, such as rags, which has been proved to possess a length of staple when broken up, sufficient for the spinning of low numbers, will be much longer permitted to find its way exclusively to the paper mill, and the paper makers of this country as prudent men of business, ought at once to bestir themselves in anticipation of the event. How far they are in a position to avail themselves of raw material other than rags, from whence it must come, and the multifarious and momentous considerations which such a change would entail, may possibly be noticed by us at another time, 22 ON THE VERONICA QUINQUEIFOLIA AS A REMEDY FOR SCROFULA. BY WILLIAM R. PRINCE. IT am not aware whether diseases derived from parentage can be eradicated ; but I am fully satisfied that there is no impurity of the blood, derived from whatever source, that is within the limit of possible cure by remedials ever yet applied, that will not be eradicated by the proper use of the root of the species of plant which I now shall proceed to name. In regard to the plant remedial for small-pox I speak with less force, because the discovery of its efficiency is more recent, but I find the fact attested by great numbers, and no denials of its potent relief. Until my recent tour through Mexico, I had no realising conception of the extent, and of the apparent abiding existence of scrofula, among whole tribes of the inhabitants of earth. It has been with me an enigma difficult to solve in connection with Divine power, wisdom, and love, that children are afflicted through the errors of preceding genera- tions. I find its solution alone in the mighty truth, that all moral and physical influences and results are based on the all-pervading principle of an eternal retributive justice. Ina large district of Mexico bordering on the Pacific and extending 150 miles inland, the entire population consists of the Pinta or painted race, their faces and their skin on every part presenting the appearance of various coloured calico. The cause of this peculiar characteristic is declared to have resulted from the perpetuity of scrofula by a lack of adequate cures, and the intermarriage of such persons throughout that region of country. I was told that the men possess less strength than other tribes. The only hope for the repurification of this unfortunate race, and for others who have inherited similar maladies, consists in the constant exercise by nature of all her recuperative energies toward the resumption of her primitive prerogative of health and purity, and in effecting this she will avail herself of every means which may influence such a result. I have made these initiatory remarks, which some may deem superfluous, by way of explaining why my mind, which has always been devoted to the culture of trees and plants, has been attracted to a consideration of the maladies-which so sorely afflict humanity. There are 150 species of the Veronica described in hotaazeal works, of which 22 species are natives of the United States, and it is matter of surprise that Eaton, in his general “Manual of Botany for North America,” fails to include and describe all of our native species. Our botanical umpires, Torrey and Gray, we trust, will, in the conclud- ing part of their great work, amply fulfil the task which they have so nobly begun. The present species has heen found in several localities ON THE VERONICA QUINQUEFOLIA AS A REMEDY FOR SCROFULA, 23 in greater or less quantities, and with flowers of different shades, varying from white to purple. The plant possesses such inestimable properties as a remedial for all diseases arising from impurity of the blood, that I deem it a duty to give to the world a cursory history of it, the earliest details being copied from the Memoirs of William Prince, my father, who was born in 1766, and died in 1843, and who took extreme pains in the distribution of this plant, gratuitiously, among his invalid friends and to different hospitals, the great desire being that they all should fully test its applicability to various diseases ; his whole life seeming to overflow with purposes of benevolence. At the beginning of the eighteenth century there still existed a rem- nant of the Indian race in the vicinity of this town, and they were noted for their success in curing various diseases, and the town was visited by very many persons for the purpose of obtaining what was then termed the “Indian Physic.” The knowledge of the cures then effected by the root of this plant furnished by the Indians became so wide spread, that William Prince, my grandfather, who had established his nurseries here, received applications for it from all parts of the Union, and having, after a long period of Indian secrecy, obtained some fresh root, he by immediately planting it, succeeded in ascertaining its name. He forthwith inserted it in his Catalogue asa specific for leprosy, &c., and the consequent demand became so great that every locality where it had grown spontaneously was nearly exhausted, and latterly as high as 12 dols. has been paid for ten ounces of the fresh root, this being the quantity prescribed fora patient labouring under any scrofu- lous disease. Dr. Ogden, a very eminent physician, who resided and died here, has stated in his Memoirs ‘ that twelve ounces of the root of this plant, taken in moderate doses, will restore the blood of an adult to the purity of that of an infant.’ Dr. W. Beach has recorded in his medical works a very remarkable cnre of a poor man, named Noah Coombes, who was a leper, covered with this disease over his entire body down to his toes, and was deemed in a dying condition, to whom on hearing of his direful case, my father sent this root, and who about ten weeks after came fifteen miles to thank him, he driving his own waggon, aud being perfectly cured. This root has cured the severest cases of mercurialised human systems that have ever been witnessed. Even dropsy, as well as erysipelas, and all other scrofulous diseases, have been eradicated by it. In fact it may he justly deemed the most potent of allremedials for the whole chain of maladies arising from impurity of the blood. I have recommended it wherever such diseases have been spoken of, and have never endeavoured to make it a source of pecuniary benefit, deeming always that what nature bestows on us spontaneously, man should impart freely to his brother man, and that our only just claim to compensation is for our actual toil. This plant, which was formerly quite plentiful in the marshy portions of our island, became nearly eradicated about twenty years since, and this is probably the 24 ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. cause why its great merits have been in a measure lost sight of. I have recently ascertained some new localities where it is attainable, and I have urged one of my sons to undertake its culture. I have some plants growing in my garden borders, where any one can have the privilege of examining them. In regard to the Red-flowered Sarracenia, a reme- dial which arrests the small-pox in twelve hours, it is also a native of our island, and is found in moist localities, on the borders of ponds, and in white cedar swamps. It is now becoming very generally applied, and, I understand, always with successful results. Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., May, 1868. ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. BY W. PROCTER, M.D., F.C.S. The discovery, in 1825, by Dr. Faraday, of benzole in the products of the distillation of oil, and the numerous applications which were made of it, may be said to be the origin of those investigations into the substances produced by the distillation of coal which have led to results of the utmost importance, viewed either in a scientific, economic, or commercial aspect. The two most valuable are the discovery of aniline with its wonderful dyes, and the coal and other illuminating and lubri- cating oils. It is to the latter of these two subjects that the present paper is devoted.. The ancient inhabitants of different parts of the world, both civilised and barbarian, were acquainted with natural oils which flow from the earth, such as mineral oil, or petroleum, naphtha, bitumen, &c., and used them for illuminating and other purposes. In Egypt, a substance derived from petroleum was employed for embalming bodies, and in some neighbouring countries asphalt is used to cover the roofs of houses and coat boats. Mixed with grease, the Trinidad asphalt is applied to the sides of vessels to prevent the borings of the teredo, and with lime is used asa disinfectant. The Persians, Burmese, and other nations, still continue to employ these substances, in their crude state, to give light, and for medicinal purposes. In addition to these natural sources, similar compounds have long been obtained by the distillation of coal and other allied minerals. As early as 1694, Erle, Hancock, and Portlock “made pitch, oyl, and tar out of a kind of stone, and obtained patents, therefore.” In a work in 1791, by Lewis, on Materia Medica, it is stated that oils were distilled frem black bituminous shale. The early papers, also, of the Royal Society, give accounts of the distillation of oils from coals and other bituminous substances. In 1781, Lord Dundonald obtained a patent for Or ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN, 2 “a method of extracting or making tar, pitch, and other substances from pit-coal,” and in this manner is said to have turned the mines of coal on his own and other estates, to considerable profit. Later, the attention of some French chemists, especially M. Selliguier, was turned to the purification of these products, and their exertions were attended with some success, and the purified oils acquired an extensive sale in Europe for illumination and lubrication. But the first real practical success was made in this country by Mr. Young. Previous to his in- vestigations, the thickness, coarseness, and unpleasant odour of the oils then manufactured, were such that they had fallen into disuse in Europe, when the attention of Mr. Young, a manufacturing chemist of Glasgow, was called to some petroleum which had been obtained from Riddings, in Derbyshire. The spring was an old coal-mine, from the sandstone roof of which a dirty rock-oil exuded. This source soon became ex- hausted, and Mr. Young then investigated the somewhat similar oils which Reichenbach and Selliguier had previously shown might be ob- tained by the distillation of coal, lignite, peat, &c. Since that period, enormous impulse has been given to the manufacture, especially by the recent discoveries in America. We now, without any lengthened or scientific details, proceed to consider generally the substances capable of affording oils by distillation. The materials which are employed at the present time are coals, bitu- minous shales, asphalt, bitumen, bituminous sands and clays, petroleum, lignite, and peat. I. Coau.—When coal, as in the ordinary process of gas manufacture, is submitted to distillation in closed iron retorts, three substances may be said to be the result of that process. 1. Illuminating gas of complex composition, consisting chiefly of gaseous vapour of hydro-carbons. 2. Tar. 3. Coke which is leftin the retorts. The quantity and composition of these several products are dependent on several causes, but principally on temperature and the nature of the coal. These circumstances will guide the manufacturer in the selection of the conditions under which he distils the coal, according to the products which he wishes to obtain. The higher the temperature employed, the greater is the quantity of volatile matter or gas which is produced. Therefore, in gas-works, when it is the object to procure as much volatile matter as possible, the coals are distilled at a high temperature, sufficient to decompose the oils. These the manufacturer of photogen desires to preserve, and accordingly distils his materials at a heat which does not destroy the liquid hydro- carbons. The following is a general outline of the process usually adopted for the preparation of illuminating oils and other substances of economic value from coal :— The coal is distilled at a temperature of 700°, and the tar collected. The latter substance is put into a large iron retort (which is of different fashion in several manufactories), connected with a coil of iron pipes surrounded with cold water, called the condenscr. The retort is heated, | and a light oil or naphtha (sp. gr. 0.830) comes over, and is succeeded_by VOL. IV. D 26 ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. a series of heavier oils, which constitute the lamp-oil. Steam is now forced into the retort, and a heavy, lubricating oil passes over, and, as a residue, there is left a black, tarry matter used to grease heavy machinery, and a black coke employed as fuel. When the oils first come over, they are in a very impure condition ; the amount of foreign matter which they contain renders their purification a matter of difficulty, as well as of expense, and although much has been effected in this direction, much remains to be done before they are rendered free from all offensive odour, and free from colour. The process of purification consists in the treat- ment with concentrated oil of vitriol to remove the coloured and odorous constituents of the crude distillate, and washing with an alkali to remove carbolic acid and its congeners, as well as that portion of sul- phuriec acid which remains suspended in the naphtha, and the sulphurous acid produced by the decomposition of a portion of the sulphuric acid by the carbon of some of the organic compounds. The alkalies also serve to remove some sulphuretted hydrogen and other fetid sulphur eompounds and their resulting products. By a careful purification, coal- oil is now obtained perfectly free from colour. It often exhibits the phenomena of dichroism. This is diminished by perfect purification with acids and the removal of the less volatile portion of the distillate. But few common bituminous coals can be successfully employed for the production of oils, their distillates abounding in creosote, carbolic acid, &c., and their purification is both troublesome and expensive. Few coals produce over 100 gallons per ton ; some cannels will not yield over 50, others 30 gallons per ton. The quality of the crude oils also differ ; some afford a large quantity of paraffin, or heavy oil, and but a small percentage of light oil, and others yield the opposite. The lighter qualities yield the largest proportion of burning oil. II. BoguraD Coat occurs at Torbane hill, in the county of Linlith- gow, in the carboniferous limestone of the Frith of Forth. It is used largely by Mr. Young for obtaining his paraffin and paraffin oil, his manufactory being situated in the immediate vicinity of the mimes. At one time this mineral was largely exported to America, and in 1859 the Kerosene Light Company imported upwards of 20,000 tons at 18 dollars per ton ; but the discovery of strata of cannel coal, and of petroleum, has done away with the necessity of that importation. The nature of Boghead coal is at the present time an undecided question, even after an action at law. At that trial a great array of scientific witnesses were examined on this matter; they consisted of chemists, geologists, botanists, mineralogists, microscopists, as well as practical coal engineers and owners. The evidence was conflicting, one party maintaining that it was coal, whilst the other declared it to be an undescribed mineral or bituminous schist. But the evidence is in favour of its right to be ranked as a true coal ; it rests on a bed of fireclay full of Stigmaria, and is surmounted by shale and ironstone, with plants and shells (Anthracosia). It has the microscopical structure of coal, burns with a flame, and yields 70 per cent. of volatile matter. ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. 27 Whatever may be the precise nature of the Boghead coal, it is a most valuable producer of oils. One ton yields 120 gallons of crude oil, of which 65 gallons are lamp-oil, 7 paraffin oil, and 12 lbs. of pure paraffin can be extracted. Ill, Birumens.—Deposits of this substance exist in various parts of the world, and have been lately employed largely in that branch of manufacture which we are now considering. The largest deposit known is the celebrated Pitch-lake of Trinidad, three miles in circumference. The bitumen is solid, and cold near the shores, but gradually increases in temperature and softness towards the centre, where it is boiling. The solidified bitumen appears as if it had cooled in large bubbles as the surface boiled. The ascent to the lake from the sea, a distance of three- quarters of a mile, is covered with hardened pitch, on which trees and vegetables flourish, and contains small pools of water, clear and trans- parent. The lake is underlaid by a bed of coal. Mr. 8S. P. Wall shows that the asphalt of Trinidad and Venezuela belongs to strata of tertiary formation (the upper miocene or lower pliocene age), which consists of limestones, sandstones, and shales, associated with beds of lignite. The bitumen is found not only in the pitch-lake, but in situ, where it is confined to particular strata, which were originally shales containing vegetable remains. These have, he says, undergone “a special mine- ralisation, producing a bituminous matter instead of coal or lignite. This operation is not attributable to heat, nor of the nature of a dis- tillation, but is due to chemical reactions at the ordinary temperature and under the normal conditions of climate.”—(Proc. Geol. Soz, of London, May, 1860.) One ton of the Trinidad bitumen yields 42 gallons of oil fit for lamps, and 11 for the purpose of lubrication. The bitumen contains sulphur. Sulphuretted hydrogen issues from the pit where the mineral is discharged from the earth. The first distillate is full of impurity, such as pyroxylic spirit and other products of the distillation of wood, which give evidence of the vegetable origin of this pitch; it is also accompanied by a peculiar volatile oil, which imparts to it a most un- pleasant odour and renders it difficult to purify. From time immemorial the burning and naphtha springs of Persia and other parts of the East have been known. But these substances were not utilised in England, until an agent of Price’s Candle Company, in his search after new sources of palm oil, discovered a material fitted for his purpose in the so-called mineral tar of Rangoon, in the Birman Empire. Iron tanks were constructed, and were filled with the crude tar at the wells. This, when refined at the Sherwood works, yielded solid paraffin, heavy lubricating oil, Belmontine oil, &c. The tar is ob- tained by sinking wells in the soil of blue clay, about 60 feet deep; the fluid oozes in from the soil, and is removed ; it is of the consistence of goose-grease, of a green-hrown colour, and of a peculiar bat not dis- agreeable odour, and contains only 4 per cent. of solid matter. It is said that there are now 520 wells, which yield 400,000 hogsheads D2 28 ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. annually. The tar affords about 70 per cent. of oil and 11 of paraffin. None of the cannel or bituminous coals or shales, or other substances used for yielding burning fluid by distillation, give distillates of such purity and freedom from odour as Rangoon tar. The more volatile portion of the latter is known as Sherwoodole, and is used instead of benzole for the removal of grease, &c. The paraffin obtained from Ran- goon tar has a greater value for commercial purposes than that from Boghead coal, inasmuch as it has a higher melting-point which renders it better adapted for the manufacture of candles. There are several mines of bitumen in the Island of Cuba which yield from 100 to 140 gallons of crude oil per ton. This, when purified, is well adapted tor lamps; but the objectionable odour is an obstacle to its use. Large deposits also exist in Central and South America, and on the shores of the Dead Sea. In the vicinity of the Caspian Sea there are springs yielding large quantities of naphtha, which is used throughout the region for lamps. In Europe there are a few similar deposits. On one of the Ionian Isles an oil formation exists, and the oracular fires of ancient Greece have been attributed to similar sources. Oil-springs also occur in Bavaria and in the Grand Duchy of Modena, in France, and one near Amiano, in Italy, which was formerly used for lighting the city of Genoa. IV. Peat has been employed for the manufacture of oils, but up to the present time with no marked success. An able and elaborate paper on this subject by Dr. Paul, will be found in the sixth volume of the ‘Chemical News. Peat, on distillation yields all the products which are obtained from coal, but the main question is whether the operations can be carried on, to be remunerative. VY. AMERICAN PreTRoLEUM has led to a wonderful trade in that country ; in 1862 there was exported, 10,625,568 gallons. The existence of Petroleum in America has long been known, having been collected by the Seneca Indians, and used by them chiefly for medicinal purposes. The first discovery of a large supply was in 1859, when a vein was opened whilst boring in search of a salt spring. One well alone is stated to have yielded 7,000 gallons per day and another 100 gallons per minute. Large quantities ran to waste from the difficulty of getting vessels to receive it, so that eventually the whole district became odorous from oil and the very ground sticky with it. The petroleum region embraces a vast extent of the Continent. It is known to extend from the Southern extremity of the Ohio Valley North to Georgian Bay, and from the Alleghanies East, in Pennsyl- vania, to the Western limits of the bituminous coal-fields. It has been found in Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, Tennessee, Kansas, Illinois, Texas, and California. The petroleum is obtained by boring holes in the rock three or four inches in diameter. When the oil is struck it flows for some time froin the pressure below, without the aid of a pump. An iron pipe is then inserted, and to the top of this a pump is attached and worked by hand ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN, 29 or steam power. The average depth at which oil is procured, does not far exceed 250 feet, the strata penetrated being chiefly limestone, sandstone, and shale. Some wells yield 200 barrels per day, one in Pennsylvania at the depth of 170 feet yields 300 barrels per day. At the present time upwards of 550 wells are in operation yielding about 30,000 gallons of crude oil daily. There are two sources in the West for petroleum springs 1. The oil regions of Pennsylvania and N. E. Ohio, which are on the bituminous coal measures and sandstones of the Portage and Chemung groups. 2. The oil regions of W. Virginia and S. Ohio, including a portion of W. Pennsylvania which are on the coal _ measures. The source and formation of Ruck oil is difficult of explanation and has given rise to different and various opinions. One hypothesis is that petroleum has its origin In coal beds, that a low heat in the coal seams drives off hydro-carbon vapour, which is condensed in the pores of the rocks and the soil, and is washed by rains into subterrancous recesses situated at various depths in the rocky strata; an evident objection to this explanation is that the coal of the district possesses the natural quantity of hydro-carbon and bitumen. Another theory is, that the oil was produced at the time of original bituminisation of the vegetable or animal matter. If this was so, wherever there is bituminous coal, we should expect to find correspond- ing quantities of oil. This is not so, there is no oil except in fissures in the rocks overlying the bituminous strata, and these fissures can be shown to have been made since the coal strata became bitumenised. Petroleum occurs in rocks of all ages from the lower Silurian to the tertiary ; it is, doubtless, of organic origin, and is generally found impregnating limestone, more rarely, sandstones and shales. The presence of it in the lower paloeozoic rocks which contains no traces of land plants is a sufficient proof that petroleum has not in every case been derived from terrestrial vegetation, but may have been formed from marine plants or animals, or both; of the latter, the Poole and shale which contains abundant remains of fishes and crustacea, and affords in distillation a large quantity of illuminating oil is an example. This is not surprising when it is recollected that considerable portions of the tissue of the lower animals is destitute of nitrogen and similar in composition to the woody fibre of plants. Sir W. E. Logan describes the Canadian oil as being yielded by a limestone formed chiefly of fossil corals in the pores of which the oil is stored, so that the oil may be the result of the decomposition of the soft jellylike animalcules, in the same manner as the decay of plants has in later times given rise to bituminous coal. However this may be, the production of petroleum there is every reason to believe is due to the decomposition of organic matter, but the exact conditions under which it is capable of being produced are unknown, or wherefore it should from decomposition rather assume the form of this substance than that of lignite or coal. But in the fermentation of sugar (to which we may compare the trans- 30 ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. formation of woody fibre) according to the circumstances under which it occurs various products result, under certain conditions it yields carbonic acid and alcohol, under others butyric and carbonic acids, and in certain modified fermentations the acetic, lactic and propionic acids. The oils of Canada although long known to have existence in that country, did not attract the attention of adventurers until 1853, and were not until 1857 turned to profitable account. 'The very successful introduction of the new coal oils for lubricating and illuminating purposes by Mr. Young, led to the formation of a company which secured the lands of Enniskillen, in which the superficial deposits of asphalt occur, for the purpose of using it as a substitute for coals in the manufacture of such oils. But on penetrating below the asphalt large quantities of the materials were found in a fluid state, and there- fore much nearer the conditions required for the manufacture. There are now about nine wells (trom 100 to 230 feet deep) in operation, yielding three to four hundred barrels per day. The soil penetrated isa stiff clay, arising from the decomposition of the underlying rocks which have the characters and contain the fossils peculiar to the Hamilton group of the Devonian system. No rock of a bituminous nature seems yet to have been struck, although detached masses of bituminous shale are met with. The oil is diffused through the clay, penetrating numerous cracks or fissures, and rises up in such quantities that the wells have the appearance of boiling cauldrons of pitch. Although the oil-bearing rocks are nearer the surface in Canada than in the United States, the oil of the latter loses less per cent. by purification, and has a less unpleasant odour, the thick tarry consistence of the Canadian causes difficulty in its rectification on account of the frothing. The American rock-oil is composed of a series of hydro-carbons, with different degrees of inflammability, and different boiling-points. Its specific gravity is from 0°830 to 0890. MM. Pelaire and Cahours have separated from it twelve hydro-carbons of the marsh gas series. They could discover in it no benzine, nor any of its homologues, which they consider seems to indicate that the petroleum could not have been derived from coal, unless it had undergone a decomposition different to that of ordinary distillation. The products more nearly resemble those which are formed when various fatty acids, their corresponding alcohols, and a great number of organic bodies containing carbon and hydrogen in the proportion of equivalent to equivalent, are submitted to high temperatures. ‘These oils are, as is well known at the present time extensively used for the production of artificial light. The term petroleum or rock oil being properly applied to those which are produced naturally, whilst the product of the distillation of coal, shales, &c., are called Photogen, Paraffin, or Coal Oil ; many manufacturers have given to their products peculiar and unmeaning names, such as Caselline, Belmontine, &c. They are burnt in properly constructed lamps, with flat or round wicks, in the former case the greatest amount of light is procured by cutting the wick flat, so that the top is made as even as possible. These hydro-carbon oils are the best means of light for domestic purposes, inasmuch as they give the largest amount of light with the ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. 3l least development of heat. The following tables are by Dr. Frank- land; the first gives the illuminating equivalents of various materials, showing the quantity of other substances which would be required to give the same amount of light as would be obtained from one gallon of Young’s Paraffin oil. Young’s Paraffin oil : : : . 100 gallons,, American Rock oil : i ‘ se AAI Gitke ais Paraflin candles : ‘ : j . 18-6 pounds Sperm bs : : : ‘ 6) PAD oop Wax ie Piet eiaatae ae TENTH pie tem Stearine ,, ; ; : : Bp OA Omn Composite ,, 5 : : y Be ee ORO eers Tallow: 4, 3 i : ; Teo Ocnamaee The following table shows the comparative cost of the light of 20 sperm candles, each burning 10 hours at the rate of 120 grains per hour, and of the heat evolved per hour :— s. d. Unit of heat. Tallow 3 100 Wax ; Wee. Sperm : E 6 e G2 Paraffin candles 3 10 66 Rock oil q log Paraffin oil 6 § Coal gas 4} 47 Cannel gas 3 32 The objections which have operated chiefly against these oils as agents for the production of artificial light have arisen from the fear of explosion, and the unpleasant odour produced during their com- bustion. It is unquestionable that accidents have occasionally arisen from explosion of the oil in Jamps by the ignition of the explosive mixture which their vapours form with air. When the accident occurs it arises from imperfect purification of the liquid, by the impertect removal of the benzine or more volatile constituents, so that the safety of a given sample depends upon the temperature at which vapour is given off. The purification is now more efficiently performed than when the materials were first manufactured, and as the cisternof a lamp, especially if made of glass or other nonconducting substance, is never likely to rise higher in temperature than 100 deg., all oils which do not give off vapour atthat heat may be considered safe. A simpletest is the application of a light to a small quantity, if it takes fire, and burns like alcohol it is unsafe. The other objection is, the odour which they produce during combustion, various oils differ in this respect, which in some measure depends upon their constitution and their purity ; but it may be greatly lessened or entirely overcome by attention to certain precautions. The chief causes are imperfect combustion with conse- quent production of offensive empyreumatic substances, and the volatili- sation of a portion of the fluid unconsumed. The lamp should therefore be burnt with a good flame, and the wick well turned up, the cistern of the lamp not filled too full, and all the metal of the burning parts kept scrupulously clean. The length of this notice of petroleum precludes the consideration of the uses of a large number of other substances whichare obtained with * the oil by the distillation of coal, and which admit of most valuable and extensive employment such as Benzole, Paraffin, &c., as well as the application of Rock oil to the manufacture of illuminating gas which has been carried out successfully in New York. ° 32 ON THE OWALA OR OPOCHALA. BY JOHN R. JACKSON. : In the 3rd volume of the TecHNotLogist, at p. 155, is an account of the “ Owala,” or “ Opochala” of Western Africa, and of the oil which is yielded by its seeds. At the time that article was written, little was known of the habits of the plant, and consequently the native name was all the clue that could be had, with the exception that from the form of the pods, seeds, &c., it was clearly seen to belong to the Leguminous order. Since then, however, Mr. Gustave Mann, the zealous botanical collector to the Royal Gardens, Kew, who has spent three years in West Tropical Africa, has identified it with the Pentaclethra macrophylla, Benth, belonging to Leguminosze, sub order Mimosez. It is a large and handsome forest tree, with bipinnate leaves 2-3 feet in length, made up of many trapezi- form leaflets, each about an inch long, and the small flowers arranged in a spicate manner on the branches of a terminal panicle. The pods in the Museum of the Royal Gardens, Kew, which are those sent home by the late Mr, Barter, are not only, as stated in the paper before alluded to, 1 foot long, but quite 2 feet, and this, I understand, is about the ordinary length, the widest part three inches, and the thickness of the entire pod about 1 inch. The seeds lie in an oblique direction. One of the most peculiar things connected with the pod is the extraordinary strength of the fibrous tissue of which it is composed. The valves are each a quarter of an inch thick, made up entirely of this strong fibrous sub- stance, the fibres running longitudinally. When ripe, the two valves burst open with a loud report, scattering the seeds, and, at the same time, each valve contracting and curling round in opposite directions. So great is this power of contraction, that if the pods be bound round with strong wire at the distance even of two or three inches apart, it frequently bursts between its bands as if overloaded inside, but in all eases the membranous lining of the pod always remains uninjured. This peculiar habit of contraction was first brought to my notice as the pods were lying amongst other specimens of fruits, seeds, &c., which had been recently brought from a cold room into a warm one, by a motion at intervals amongst the whole collection. Upon examination, I found that the apparent vitality was in the pods of the Pentaclethra, the valves of which were gradually rolling themselves into a much smaller compass, of course upsetting the other things by their move- ments. The seeds, besides yielding the oil alluded to, are collected at the seasons of their falling, and eaten as food by the natives of Fernando Po. Kew, July 11, 1863. i 33 ON THE TALLOW TREE (STILLINGIA SEBIFERA) AND THE PELA, OR INSECT WAX OF CHINA, BY D. J. MACGOWAN, M.D. The botanical characters of this member of the Euphorbiaceze are too well known to require description, but hitherto no accurate account has been published of its various uses; and although it has become a common tree in some parts of India and America, its value is appreciated only in China, where alone its products are properly elaborated. In the ‘ American Encyclopeedia,’ it is stated that this tree is almost naturalised in the maritime parts of South America, and that its cap- sules and seeds are crushed together and boiled, the fatty matter being skimmed as it rises, hardening when cool. Dr. Roxburgh in his excellent ‘ Flora Indica, says :—“ It is now very common about Calcutta, where in the course of a few years it has be- come one of the most comnion trees. It is in flower and fruit most part of the year. In Bengal it is only considered an ornamental tree. The sebaceous produce of its seeds is not in sufficient quantity, nor its quality so valuable as to render it an object worthy of cultivation. It is only in very cold weather that this substance becomes firm ; at all other times it is in a thick, brownish fluid state, and soon becomes rancid, Such is my opinion of the famous vegetable tallow of China.” Dr. Roxburgh was evidently misled in his experiments by pursuing a course similar to that which is described in the ‘ Encyclopedia Ameri- cana,’ and in many other works, or he would have formed a very different opinion of this curious material. Analytical chemistry shows animal tallow to consist of two proximate principles—stearine and claine. Now what renders the fruit of this tree peculiarly interesting, is the fact that both these principles exist in it separately in nearly a pure state. By the above-named process, stearine and claine are obtained in a mixed state, and consequently present the appearance described by Roxburgh. Nor is the tree prized merely for the stearine and claine it yields, though these products constitute its chief value ; its leaves are employed as a black dye; its wood, being hard and durable, may be easily used for printing blocks, and various other articles, and finally, the refuse of the nut is employed as fuel and manure. The Stillingia sebifera is chiefly cultivated in the provinces of Kiangsi, Kongnain, and Chihkiang. In some districts near Hangchan, the inhabitants defray all their taxes with its produce. It grows alike on low alluvial plains and on granite hills, on the rich mould at the margins of lakes, and on the sandy sea-beach ; the sandy estuary of Hangchan, yields little else. Some of the trees at this place are known to be several hundred years old, and though prostrated, still send forth 34 ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. branches and bear fruit. Some are made to fall over rivalets, forming convenient bridges. They are seldom planted where anything else can be conveniently cultivated—in detached places, in corners about houses, roads, canals, and fields. Grafting is performed at the close of March, or-early in April, when the trees are about three inches in diameter, and also when they attain their growth. WAX-TREE AND INSECT. Fac-simile of a drawing made from the Pun-tsaou-kang-muh. The upper characters on the left are Chung-ld (insect-wax) ; beneath them, Ld-chung (wax- seed ; in the right-hand corner at bottom Tung-tsing-shoo (winter-green-tree). The ‘ Fragrant Herbal * recommends for trial the practice of an old gardener, who, instead of grafting, preferred breaking the small branches and twigs, taking care not to tear or wound the bark. In mid-winter, when the nuts are ripe, they are cut off with their twigs by a sharp cres- centic knife, attached to the extremity of a long pole, which is held in the hand and pushed upwards against the twigs, moving at the same time such as are fruitless. The capsules are gently pounded in a mortar to loosen the seeds from their shells, from which they are separated by sifting. To facilitate the separation of the white sebaceous matter en- ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. 35 veloping the seeds, they are strained in tubs, having convex open wicker bottoms, placed over cauldrons of boiling water. When thoroughly heated, they are reduced to a mash in the mortar, and thence transferred to bamboo sieves, kept at a uniform temperature over hot ashes, A single operation does not suffice to deprive them of their tallow ; the steaming and sifting are, therefore repeated. The article thus procured becomes a solid mass on falling through the sieve; and to purify it, it is melted and formed into cakes for the press. These receive their form in bamboo hoops, a foot in diameter, and three inches deep, which are laid on the ground over a little straw. On being filled with the hot liquid, the ends of the straw beneath are drawn up and spread over the top, and when of a sufficient con- sistence, are placed with their rings in the press. This apparatus, which is of the rudest description, is constructed of two large beams placed horizontally so as to form a trough capable of containing about fifty of the rings with their sebaceous cakes ; at one end it is closed, and at the other it is adapted for receiving wedges, which are successively driven into it by ponderous sledge hammers wielded by athletic men. The tallow oozes in a melted state into a receptacle below, where it cools. It is again melted and poured into tubs smeared with mud to prevent its adhering. It is now marketable, in masses of about 80 lbs, each, hard, brittle, white, opaque, tasteless, and without the odour of animal tallow. Under high pressure it scarcely stains bibulous paper; melts at 104 deg. Fahr. It may be regarded as almost pure stearine ; the slight difference is doubtless owing to the admixture of oil expressed from the seed in the process just described. The seeds yield about 8 per cent. of tallow, which sells at 24d. per pound. The process for pressing the oil which is carried on at the same time remains to be noticed; it is contained in the kernel of the nut, the sebaceous matter, which lies between the shell and the husk, having been removed in the manner described. The kernel and the husk cover- ing it is ground between two stones, which are heated, to prevent clogging from the sebaceous matter still adhering. The mass is then placed in a winnowing machine, precisely like those in use in western countries. The chaff being separated, exposes the white oleaginous kernels, which after being steamed are placed in a mill to be washed. This machine is formed of a circular stone groove, twelve feet in diameter, three inches deep, and about as many wide, into which a thick solid stone, . 8 feet in diameter, tapering at the edge, is made to revolve perpen- dicularly by an ox harnessed to the outer end of its axle, the inner turning on a pivot in the centre of the machine. Under this ponderous weight the seeds are reduced to a mealy state, steamed in the tubs, formed into cakes, and pressed by wedges in the manner above de- scribed ; the process of washing, steaming, and pressing, being repeated with the kernels likewise. 36 : ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. The kernels yield above 30 per cent. of oil, It is called ising-yu, sells for about 3 cents. (1$d.) per lb., answers well for lamps, though in- ferior for this purpose to some other vegetable oils in use. It is also employed for various purposes in the arts, and has a place in the Chinese ‘ Pharmacopeia,’ because of its quality of changing grey hair black, and other imaginary virtues. The husk which envelopes the kernel, and the shell which encloses them and their sebaceous covering are used to feed the furnaces, scarcely any other part being needed for this purpose. The residuary tallow cakes are also employed for fuel, as a small quantity of it re- mains ignited a whole day. It is in great demand for chafing dishes during the cold season, and finally, the cakes which remain after the oil has been pressed out, are much valued as a manure, particularly for tobacco fields, the soil of which is rapidly impoverished by the Virginie weed. Artificial illumination in China is generally procured by vegetable vils, but candles are also employed by those who can afford them, and for lanterns. In religious ceremonies no other material is used. As no one ventures out after dark without a lantern, and as the gods cannot be acceptably worshipped without candles, the quantity con- sumed is very great. With an unimportant exception the candles are always made of what I beg to designate as vegetable stearine. When the candles, which are made by dipping, are of the required diameter, they receive a final dip into a mixture of the same material and insect-wax, by which their consistency is preserved in the hottest weather. They are generally coloured red, which is done by throwing a minute quantity of alkanet root (Anchusa tinctoria,) brought from Shantung, into the mixture. Verdigris is sometimes employed to dye them green. The wicks are made of rush, coiled round a stem of coarse grass, the lower part of which is slit to receive the pin of the candle- stick, which is more economical than if put into a socket. Tested in the mode recommended by Count Rumford, these candles compare favourably with those made from spermaceti, but not when the clumsy wick of the Chinese is employed. Stearine candles cost about 8 cents, (4d.) the pound. Prior to the thirteenth century bees-wax was employed as a coating for candles ; but about that period the white-wax insect was discovered, since which bees wax has been wholly superseded by the more costly but incomparably superior product of this insect. It has been described by Abbé Grosier, Sir Geoige Staunton, and others, but those accounts differ so widely among themselves, as well as from that given by native authors, as to render further inquiry desirable. From the description given by Grosier, entomologists have supposed the insect which yields the pe-la, or white wax, to bea species of Coccus. Staunton, on the contrary, describes it as a species of Cicada (Flata limbata.) As described by Chinese writers, however, it is evidently an apterous * ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. 37 insect ; hence the inference, either that there are two distinct species which produce white wax, or that the insect Staunton saw was falsely represented as the elaborator of this beautiful material. A few particulars regarding the Himalaya wax insect (Flata limbata,) by Captain Hutton, are published in the ‘ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. xii. p.898. After alluding to Sir George Staunton’s and the Abbé Grosier’s account of the wax-yielding insect of China and to various authorities, Captain Hutton observes: ‘ From all these state- ments, therefore, we arrive at the positive conclusion, that as this deposit, (that of #. limbata,) will neither melt on the fire, per se, nor combine with oil, it cannot be the substance from which the famous white wax in China is found ; and we are led to perceive from the dif- ference in the habits of the larva of Flata limbata, and that ot the insect mentioned by the Abbé Grosier, that the wax is rather the produce of a species of Coccus than of the larva of F. limbata, or even of the allied F. nigricornis.” COCCUS SINENSIS, WESTWOOD. _ABC. Mature female insects adhering to pieces of stick partially encrusted with the wax (natural size). iD Vertical section of a piece of the crude wax, showing the position of the young insects (magnified). The subjoined account has been principally derived from the Puntsau and the Kiangfangpu, two native herbals of high authority. The insect feeds on an evergreen shrub or tree, (Liyustrum lucidum*) which is found throughout Central China from the Pacific to Thibet, but the insect chiefly abounds in the province of Szetchuen. It is met with also in Yunan, Hunan, and Hupeh. A small quantity is produced in Kiuhwa, Chekiang province, of a superior description. Much attention is paid to the cultivation of this tree ; extensive districts of country are covered with it: and it forms an important branch of agricultural industry. In planting they are arranged with the mulberry, in rows about 12 feet apart ; both seeds and cuttings are employed. If the * The Himalaya insect is not confined to a Ligustrum. * 38 ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. former they are soaked in water in which unhusked rice has been washed and tbeir shells pounded off. When propagated by cuttings, branches an inch in diameter are recommended as the most suitable size. The ground is ploughed semi-annually, and kept perfectly free from weeds. In the third or fourth year they are stocked with the insects. After the wax, or insect, has been gathered from the young trees, they are cut down just below the lower branches, about four feet from the ground, and well manured. The branches which sprout the follewing season are thinned, and made to grow in nearly a perpendicular direc- tion. The process of cutting the trunk within a short distance of the ground is repeated every four or five years, and, as a general rule, they are not stocked until the second year after this operation. Sometimes the husbandman finds a tree which the insects them- selves have attained ; but the usual practice is to stock them, which is effected in spring, with the nests of the insect. These are about the size of a “fowl’s head ?” and are removed by cutting off a portion of the branch to which they are attached, leaving an inch each side of the nest. The sticks, with the adhering nests, are soaked in unhusked rice-water for a quarter of an hour, when they may be separated. When the weather is damp or cool they may be preserved in jars for a week; but if warm, they are to be tied to the branches of the trees to be stocked, without delay, being first folded between leaves. By some the nests are probed out of their seat in the bark of the tree, without removing the branches. At this period they are particularly exposed to the attacks of birds, and require watching. In a few days after being tied to the tree, the nests swell, and innumerable white insects, the size of “ nits,’ emerge, and spread them- selves on the branches of the tree ; but soon, with one accord, descend towards the ground, when, if they find any grass, they take up their quarters. To prevent this, the ground is kept quite bare ; care being taken also that their implacable enemies, the ants, have no access to the tree. Finding no congenial resting-place below, they re-ascend, and fix themselves to the lower surface of the leaves, where they remain several days, when they repair to the branches, perforating the bark to feed on the fluid within. From “nits” they attain the size of “ Pediculus homi.” Having compared them to this, the most familiar to them of all insects, our author deems further description superfluous. Early in June the insects give to the trees the appearance of being covered with hoar-frost, being “ changed into wax;” soon after this they are scraped off, being pre- viously sprinkled with water. If gathering be deferred till August, they adhere too firmly to be easily removed. Those which are suffered to remain to stock trees the ensuing season, secrete a purplish envelope about the end of August, which at first is no larger than a grain of rice ; but as incubation proceeds, it expands and becomes as large as a fowl’s ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. 39 head, which is in spring, when the nests are transferred to other trees, one or more to each, according to their size and vigor, in the manner already described. On being scraped from the trees, the crude material is freed from its impurities, probably the skeleton of the insect by spreading it on a strainer, covering a cylindrical vessel, which is placed in a caldron of boiling water. The wax is received into the former vessel, and on con- gealing is ready for market. The pe-la or white wax, in its chemical properties is analogous to purified beeswax, and also spermaceti, but differing from both ; being, in my opinion, an article perfectly sui generis. It is perfectly white, translucent, shining, not unctuous to the touch, inodorous, insipid, crumbles into a dry inadhesive powder between the teeth, with a fibrous texture resembling fibrous feldspar ; insoluble in water ; dissolves in essential oil ; and is scarcely affected by boiling alcohol, the acids, or alkalies. The aid of analytical chemistry is needed for the proper elucidation of this most beautiful material. There can be no doubt that it would prove altogether superior in the arts to purified beeswax. On extraor- dinary occasions, the Chinese employ it for caudles and tapers. It has been supposed to be identical with the white wax of Madras; but as the Indian article has been found useless in the manufacture of candles (Dr. Pearson, Philosophical Transactions, vol 21), it cannot be the same. It far excels also the vegetable wax of the United States, (Myrica cerifera.) Some interesting particulars on this subject are contained in a memoirin the Philosophical Transactions for 1848, by Mr. B. C. Brodie, entitled “On the Chemical Nature of a wax for China’’ Mr. Brodie states that although in appearance the substance resembles stearine or spermaceti more than beeswax, it comes nearest to purified cerin. The Comptes Rendu for 1840, tome x. p. 618, contains a communication by M. Stanislas Julien on the China wax, and the insect which yields it. The wax insects are there stated to be raised upon four species of plants, these are Niu-tching (Rhus suecedanea) Tung-tsing (Ligustrum glabrum and lucidum) Chouikin, supposed to be Hibiscus syriacus, and Tcha-la (botanical name unknown). Rhus succedanea, or a nearly allied species occurs in the Himalayahs. Is this substance a secretion ? There are Chinese who regard it as such; some representing it to be the saliva, and others the excrement of the insect. European writers take nearly the same view; but the best authorities expressly say that this opinion is incorrect, and that the animal is changed into wax. Iam inclined to believe the insect under- goes what may be styled a ceraceous degeneration ; its whole body being permeated by the peculiar product in the same manner as the Coceus cacti is by carmine. 40 ON THE TALLOW TREE, ETC. The wax costs at Ningpo from 22 to 35 cents. (1s. to Is. 6d.) per pound. The aunual product of this humble creature in China cannot be far from 400,000 pounds, worth more than 100,000 Spanish dollars. Mr. Daniel Hanbury, with that exhaustive research and thorough investigation which he bestows on all commercial subjects he ex- amines and treats of, has furnished one of the most complete accounts of the insect white wax of China in a paper in the xii. vol. of the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ and to the Council of that Society we are indebted for the use of the wood-cuts which illustrate this article. Mr. Hanbury states the only considerable importat ions of Chinese wax into England were in 1846 and 1847, when nearly three tons were imported into London. Some of this wax sold in April 1847 fetched 1s. 3d. per pound, a price too low to be remunerative, and no further importation we believe has taken place. The insect wax occurs in commerce in circular cakes of various dimensions ; some of those imported into London had a diameter of about 13 inches, a thickness of 34 inches, and were perforated near the centre with a hole five-eighths of an inch across. The broken surface generally exhibits the wax as a beautifully sparkling, highly crystalline substance somewhat resembling spermaceti, but much harder ; some cakes are internally much less crystalline and sparkling than others. The wax is colourless and inodorous, or nearly so, tasteless, brittle, and readily pulverizable at the temperature of 60 Fahr. The melting point of the commercial wax is 181.4, that of the perfectly pure wax, 179.6. ‘ The mean of Mr. Brodie’s analyses of the purified wax gave its com- position thus :— Carbon. : : - 82.235 Hydrogen : : . 13.575 Oxygen . p . 4190 100.000 In the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society,’ vol. v., p. 24, will be found an interesting paper by Mr. A. S. Maskelyne, “on the Oxidation of Chinese Wax.” The late Professor Quekett states :-— When a small portion of the wax is examined under the microscope, it is found to consist of a series of short filaments or cylinders, some of which are straight, but others more or less curved ; within each cylinder is a tubular cavity extending throughout its whole length. In fig. lisa representation of the cylinders as seen under a power of 500 diameters. If the wax be heated on glass, it readily melts when the temperature rises to 184 Fahr., and if examined in this state, the fluid mass is per- fectly transparent and structureless. On cooling, however, it crystallises precisely like spermaceti, as shown in fig. 2. One of the most perfect ON PETROLEUM AND PHOTOGEN. 41 insects taken out of the wax is represented in fig. 4. This is its dorsal surface. Fig. 5 is a representation of the abdominal surface of the same insect. Fic. 2. Fic. 3. SWFA J in N | | hag - LSS SG LS LL SS It will be seen that it has six legs, and the body is full of wax. The white filaments and minute oval bodies with which the cochineal insect is surrounded present nearly the same structure as the insect wax. They are represented in fig. 3. Fic. 4. Fria. 5. Dr. Martius, commenting on the same subject, says—In Mr. Hanbury’s paper it is mentioned that Fata limbata has been assumed to be the insect producing pe-la ; but, according to Burmeiston (‘ Handbuch der Entomologie,’ IL., p. 466), this insect only inhabits Western Africa. Besides Cicada limbata, Donovan (lata nigricornis, Fabr.) is a native of China, and its caterpillar is stated to live on Stillingia sebifera, to be entirely covered with a white down, which remains on the leaves, and which, when melted, forms the pe-la. In the late edition of Pereira’s VOL. Iv. E 42 ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. ‘Materia Medica’ (Vol. I1., p. 2220), there is a wood engraving giving a good idea of this insect. The statements of Westwood and Quekett, however (‘ Pharmaceutical. Journal,’ Vol. XII, p. 482), that Coccus sinensis produces pe-la, render the above assertions very doubtful. Besides, it is stated that the white substance above referred to is washed away by the dew and rain, whereas pe-la is well known to be insoluble in water. I suspect that Flata limbata exudes a sugary substance—a kind of manna. Helbig (‘ Miscel- laneorum Ephemerides, 1693, p. 459, No. 18) mentioned, a kind of Ceylon manna which, perhaps, owes its origin to this insect. At any rate, it would be highly interesting if those who can give information upon this subject would do so. a ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. BY THE EDITOR. The trade in the bark of the Quercus Suber is one respecting which there is not much recent detail accessible, and yet it is an important article of commerce, our imports reaching in value nearly a quarter of a million sterling. The demand for and consumption of cork in England has increased, since the year 1848, three hundred per cent., and is still far beyond the actual means of supply. The average imports of cork- bark are about 5,000 tons annually, nearly all of which is used here. Its price varies, according to quality, from 32/. to 35/. per ton, the Spanish cork fetching the highest price. Of ready-made corks the imports have been steadily on the increase, and two-thirds of those imported are used here, the remainder being re-exported. The average price is a little over ls. of foreign per Ib. Uses.—Cork is light and porous, readily compressible, and wonderfully elastic. These qualities make it superior to all other substances for stoppers for bottles, in the manufacture of which it is principally made use of. It is also employed as buoys to float nets, the construction of life-boats, cork jackets, cork belts, and other life-preservers, cork mat- trasses, the making of waterproof shoes, the lining of hats, models, false limbs, and for various other purposes. When burned, it forms a light- black substance known as Spanish black. The cork mattrasses, although intended originally for the army and navy, are valuable, especially for emigrants, and in other ways. The mattrass consists exclusively of minute “clippings” of cork—a material utterly useless for any other purpose, and, until so applied, regarded as worse than “ waste ;’ for when accumulated, it became absolutely ne- ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. 43 cessary to destroy it. The inventor of this admirable adjunct to health and comfort has, therefore, turned to valuable and profitable account that which was heretofore a nuisance in the cork factory. These minute bits of cork are placed between two layers of oiled linen, or caoutchouc cloth, thus preserving the sleeper entirely from all hazard of damp, the nature of cork being to resist it. On sea-board, besides excluding all the “‘disagreeables” that generally haunt a vessel during a long voyage, it serves as a life-buoy in case of shipwreck—either to the individual or to the boat; its value, therefore, to the emigrant is incalculable. Cork should be chosen in fine layers or boards, not broken nor knotty, smooth when cut, and of moderate thickness. The cork-oak is abundant in Portugal, Spain, especially Catalonia and Valencia, Italy, the South of France, and parts of Northern Africa. In France it is found in great abundance in Languedoc, Provence, the environs of Bordeaux, and the department of Var. M. Casimir De Candolle has recently published a dissertation upon the manner in which cork is formed in the cork-tree. The bark of all trees consists of a parenchymatous or soft cellular tissue, and of a harder ligneous tubular tissue. In most cases the latter is most abundant ; in the cork the former constitutes the mass of the bark, and hence its elasticity and the facility with which it is cut im all directions. When, however, it is first generated, the bark of the cork- tree is fur less elastic than it becomes subsequently, which is owing to its consisting, in the first instance, of a large proportion of woody matter. When the latter is once formed, which takes place in the first year of its growth, it never increases, however long the bark may remain in a living state ; but the parenchymatous substance will go on growing as long as the bark is alive, a provision of nature connected with the annual increase in diameter of wood, and the necessity of the bark giving way to the pressure from within. If the growth of the parenchyma is prolonged and rapid, a corky substance is the necessary consequence, as in certain kinds of elms, the common oak itself, and many other trees ; but it does not occur in any European tree in such excess as in the cork. As soon as the bark dies, it of course ceases to grow, and then, not distending as it is pressed upon from within, it falls off in flakes which correspond to the layers that are formed annually. The careful removal of this outer or dead bark from the cork-tree does not in any way injure it ; on the contrary, it is stated that the tree grows more vigorously and lives longer in consequence of being thus stripped. After a tree has attained to the age of 26 to 30 years, it may be barked, and the operation can be subsequently repeated every eight or ten years, the quality of the cork improving with the increasing age of the tree. The bark is taken off in July and August, and trees that are regularly stripped are said to live for 150 years or more. The bark 44 ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. is stripped from the tree in pieces two inches in thickness, of considerable length. The bark-peeler or cutter makes a slit in the bark with a knife, per- pendicularly from the top of the trunk to the bottom ; he makes another incision parallel to it and at some distance from the former, and two shorter horizontal cuts at the top and bottom. For stripping off the piece thus isolated, he uses a kind of knife with two handles and a curved blade. Sometimes, after the cuts have been made, he leaves the tree to throw off the bark by the spontaneous action of the vegetation within the trunk. The detached pieces are soaked in water, and are placed over a fire when nearly dry ; they are, in fact, scorched a little on both sides, and acquire a somewhat more compact texture by this scorching. In order to get rid of the curvature, and bring them flat, they are pressed down with weights while yet hot. The charring occasions that peculiar and disagreeable empyreumatic flavour which is so frequently imparted to liquors which have been stopped by cork thus treated. Some years ago an attempt was made to avoid this evil ,by using younger cork-bark, the texture of which is not so closeas to need the aid of’fire; but this bark is too thin for ordinary purposes, and could only be used by cementing two or more layers of it together. The risk of bad flavour was by this means alto- gether avoided, but for some reason or other the plan was not perse- vered in. Although the outer bark may be removed without any injury to the tree, the inner bark, which is employed in tanning, cannot be removed without producing the death of the tree. It is not commonly separated for commercial purposes except in Corsica, Spain, and a few other countries, where the tree is indigenous and very abundant. It contains about twice as much tannin as oak bark of average quality. The tannin of cork tree bark appears to bear more resemblance in its properties to that of catechu than to the tannin of most other vegetable maiters. Like catechu, cork tree bark scarcely affords any of the light fawn- coloured deposit called bloom, and it is doubtful whether this variety of tannin is susceptible of conversion into gallic acid. The dark _ colour which cork tree bark always communicates to leather, produced by its means, is the greatest objection to the use of this material. This bark was extensively used for tanning in Ireland some years ago, as much as 8,000 or 10,000 tons having been imported annually for this purpose, cargoes are occasionally received from Rabat and Laroche, ports of Fez, in Barbary, and from Sardinia. That from Leghorn is not considered so good, being less astringent than oak bark. It has long been used by the tanners of Marseilles, being imported from Corsica and other parts of the Mediterranean. In Italy, it is almost exclusively used in tanning sole leather. In the forests belonging to the state lands of Tuscany, nearly 1,000 tons are annually collected. ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. AS The landowners in Tuscany, neglecting to bark their trees every six or eight years and carry it away, it becomes too large and mouldy from remaining so long. If due care were taken in this respect, the cultiva- tion of the tree would be improved, and Italy might be able to send corks to France and other countries, instead of being under the necessity of importing them. The American Government a few years ago imported a large quantity _of acorns of the cork oak from the south of Europe, and distributed them over the middle and southern States for experiment, to test the adaptaticn of the tree to the climate. The Government was desirous of being independent of importation by naturalising the tree. The cork trade in Portugal is reported to be on the increase. The annual exportation now amounts in value to upwards of 10,000,000 francs. It takes place principally trom Sines, the only port of the province of Alentejo where the largest quantity of cork trees grow. The greatest amount is sent to London, where, on the average, the consumption amounts to 10,0001b. per day of Portuguese corks. A considerable quantity is also sent to France, America, and the Baltic. The Portuguese cork is inferior to the French, but superior to that of Italy. The trade now is chiefly carried on locally through the instrumen- tality of the Algarveros: persons who, travelling from forest to forest, purchase on the ground parcels of cork, which, at great labour and ex- pense, they carry to Lisbon and other places, where it is prepared for export. The money for these purchases is usually borrowed by them at high rates of interest, frequently at 20 to 30 per cent., thereby increas- ing the cost of the cork by this item of expense. The waste attending the preparation of the cork for the market is about one-half. A company was lately formed in London with a capital of 100,COO/. to carry on the cork trade on alarge seale. In their prospectus it is stated that the cork trade in this country has been for years confined to a few firms, who have had the power, by this union of capital, to regu- late the prives of all cork imported, as also the prices at which the cork is sold to the cork-cutters, thereby preventing the cork grower from receiving the full value of his cork, as compared with the prices at which it is sold to the trade. The directors have secured a large monopoly in supply for terms of years, on leases extending over the largest and most renowned cork -pro- ducing districts. These leases grant the sole right to take cork in 142 forests, some containing as many as 15,000 to 30,000 cork trees, in the districts of Montemor, Evora, Arraiollos, Estremoz, Portel, Vianna, and Fronteira, in the Province of Alentejo. Statistics—Between 1815 and 1823, the quantity of cork barkimported annually ranged from 25,000 to 60,000 ewts., the duty being 8s. 9d. per ewt. In the succeeding ten years, the range was from 32,000 to 55,000 ewt., the duty being still 8s. per cwt. From 1846 to 1853, the average import was 3,000 to 4,000 tons per annum. 46 ON THE TRADE IN CORK BARK. On the 19th March, 1845, the duty on manufactured corks was abolished. The imports and value for a series of years have been as follows :— Tons. Value. 25, Hedge he PSO gee te aero Ty 194716 \ 1s ss 2806 “Wee eetGaS LS48isrentse.s MO OQIAa ss fete 50,310 Se neg CMa ey ONAN alas BOM GU! AGES “ foot ee oT Ig5Qeera 2 wt g.4B3 WHS 460 4h ea 4A hee fee S54, ong. &, 4 35849)0 cobee e.gBlUlee5 08 IS =a So ee Es og SIZ 720 156 ee as ee TOSS 1857 1%, et SegrpgOr eh Tso 14a 1858) sors OS S79 Se ewIDIeED TSE een mee alan ey er he TR TS 1360 ooo nA SBOE eee lls enon (sole 2. Ook Tee en OGs In the ten years ending with 1840, the largest annual import of cork from Spain, was 5,730 cwts.; but on the average of years there have been only a few hundred tons received from thence. In 1861, our imports were drawn as follows: from Portugal, 4,634 tons ; from Spain, 577 tons; and from other countries, 140 tons. The duty on ready-made corks was formerly 8}d. per Ib. On the 4th June, 1853, it was reduced to 6d. per lb., and on squared corks for rounding, 16s. per ewt. On the 6th March, 1860, the duty on manu- factured corks was further lowered to 3d. per lb. at which it still stands. Corks are cut with the pores laterally ; bungs have them down- wards ; hence, they do not keep in the liquid as well. There has been a large and steady increase in the import of foreign made corks, and a corresponding reduction in the price, as the following official figures will show :— ImPoRTS OF MANUFACTURED Corks, Weight. Value. lbs. £. 1848.) =.) duce pis ISSA & Ge ied OF8SM TOA Oy te) LAD SiO ean on Sh 1850 iso 577 tase COL ee Cs SUS ap = tO US ROSS utas.ohe MTB ES 1854 x .o08 g0 ,479,939—.4 zpos f 47,994 1850-6 ws BAT GBB te wie OAS 1856 4. 300Io | tae cay ale alee Ue Sy ny plement Ls) 1858%. 2 2 452,365 2+ 2°02 38,935 1859 . . . 537,682 . . . 33,605 15600 et + pp (02.602). 5. 7. oes OU, HS61 .. SoOLse4: Ais wating 47 Srivutific Motes. Disease IN SinK Worms.—A premium of 40,000 francs (1,600/.) is offered by the Department of lIsere, France, for an efficacious remedy against the silk worm disease. To entitle a competitor to the prize, he must prove that by a consecutive experience of three years he has dis- covered an efficacious means of curing or preventing the ‘‘ gatine” and * pebrine ” maladies by which the silk worm is attacked. These experi- ments must have been conducted in Grenoble or within a radius of 8 kilometres or more of that town. It must be the result of the educa- tion of 25 or 30 grammes of eggs per month. All who desire to com- pete are to notify to the administration the locality where their experi- ments have been carried on. Topacco-SreD O1n.—Mr. Tredinnick stated a few years ago that he had found the seed of the tobacco plant to contain about 15 per cent. of oil possessing peculiar drying properties, calculated to render it a superior medium, especially for paints and varnishes. The process employed for extracting the oil was to reducethe seed to powder, knead it into a stiff paste with hot water, and then submit it to the action of a strong press. The oil thus obtained was submitted to a moderate heat, which by coagulating the vegetable albumen of the seed, caused all impurities contained in the oil to form a cake at the bottom of the vessel employed, leaving the oil perfectly limpid and clear. It possesses the drying quality to a much higher degree than any other oil, a circumstance which would render it of great value to painters and varnish makers, if it could be obtained in quantity. A New Usz or Giycrrine.—lIt is not many years ago that glycerine was a waste product, which the manufacturer of oils and fats was glad to get rid of in any way. Nowit has attained a high commercial value, and every day new and enlarged economic uses are found for it. From its emollient and beneficial action on the skin, it is an excellent com- ponent for toilet soaps, but it has hitherto been generally excluded from soap in saponification, and can only be introduced mechanically. The difficulty has hitherto been to incorporate more than ten per cent. of glycerine, as it was found to make the soap too soft. Mr. EK. Rimmel has, however, discovered and patented a method of combining glycerine with soap by fusion, so as to introduce 30 per cent. into the mass, while the soap is perfectly hard. Persons whose skin suffers from the use of ordinary soaps, may now employ this pellucid glycerine soap with confidence, as it does not irritate, but rather corrects acridity and softens the skin, an evident advantage for ladies and children. The transparent aspect conveyed by the glycerine contained in it, and the delicious 48. SCIENTIFIC NOTES. aroma produced by the perfume of flowers which enter into its compo- sition, are calculated to render this soup as agreeable as it is useful. Maccaroni.—The best maccaroni is made between Naples and Salerno, and is known there by the name of “ Maccaroni della Spiagga.” It is made from wheat of the finest quality, and the grain, after being thrashed out (generally in the fields), is carefully spread out upon the flat roofs of houses during the hot weather, and then left exposed to the sun during the day, and to the dews of the evening and early morning, for a fortnight or three weeks, until by these means it has become quite hard and dry. It is also known by the name of “ Maccaroni della Zitta.” EXTRACTION OF CoPpPER FROM RoAsTED PyritEs.—In the year 1850 Mr. Gossage showed that the copper amounting to about one per cent. in Irish pyrites, could be extracted, and this is still more practicable in the case of Spanish Pyrites, which contain about 3 per cent., and, alter roasting, from 5 to 6 per cent. The extraction of copper is, how- ever, rarely carried out by the sulphuric acid manufacturer. In England the copper is obtained in the dry way by successive meltings. In France the roasted mineral is exposed to the action of the air, the copper sulphate thus produced is extracted by water, and the metal precipitated by iron. More recently the copper has been extracted as chloride, by melting the roasted mineral with sodium chloride. The method patented by Mr. Henderson, is worked at Mostyn with the pyrites residues from Messrs. Muspratt’s works, and works are being erected near Glasgow for treating the residues from Messrs, Tennant’s works. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. A Treatise on Colouring Matters Derived from Coal-Tar, &. By Professor Dussauce. (Trubner & Co.)—Holmes’s Magnetie-Electric Light, as Applicable to Lighthouses. Hi TiC NOLO. Ta. THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE* BY P. L. SIMMONDS. Few but those who have looked into the subject would suppose that foreign woods were imported to the value of nearly twelve millions sterling annually, besides our own supplies of British oak and home- grown woods, which are utilized for various purposes. Notwithstand- ing the extensive adoption of iron for constructive purposes in ships and buildings, there has been no diminution in our consumption of foreign building woods. Indeed, the imports in the past two years show an increased value of one million and a quarter over the imports of six or seven years ago. The second great class of woods—dye woods—has remained somewhat stationary, and this may arise from the extensive use of mineral dyes within the last few years. The class of foreign hard woods and furniture woods has, however, increased considerably in con- sumption within the past ten years, an indication of the greater demand for the purposes of Art and luxury, and possibly from the stimulus given by Exhibitions, since that of 1851, for these have served to bring into many new and beautiful woods previously unknown or disregarded. Since 1856 the value of the hard woods and ornamental woods imported into this country has doubled. It would be impossible in the compass of a brief article to pass under notice all the principal furniture woods used by the cabinet inaker, and we shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a glance at the hard woods used by the turner and engraver. Several of these woods are also employed for other purposes, but we shall speak chiefly of their application in turnery. The principal woods used by the turner are—African Black-wood, * From the ‘ Art Journal,’ VOL. Iv. F 50 ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. Angica, Barwood or Camwood, Bully tree, Botany Bay oak, Box- wood, Brazil-wood, Braziletto, Canary-wood, Cocus-wood, Coromandel, Ebony, Fustic, Iron - wood, Jack - wood, King - wood, Letter - wood, Lignum vite, Madagascar Red-wood, Nutmeg-wood, various Palms, Partridge, Prince’s and Purple woods, Queen-wood, red Sanders, Rose- wood, Satin, Tulip, Yew, and Zebra-wood. Of these we shall now pro- ceed to speak seriatim. Of the sources of the African black-wood nothing certain is known. - It is referred by some to the Cocobolo prieto, from Madagascar and Eastern Africa, a tree which we cannot trace. Possibly it may be from Afzelia Africanus, but more probably it is the black iron wood, or South African ebony, Olina carnifolis, a most valuable hard-wood, brownish, close, and heavy ; excellent for turning and carving, and much used in the Cape colony by cabinet-makers. Angica is a Brazilian wood, which is used also by cabinet-makers. The tree producing it has not been correctly determined, but it is believed to be a species of Azlanthus. The barwood and camwood of commerce, although imported under distinct names and from different parts of Western Africa, are the pro- duct of the same tree, Baphia nitida. The wood yields a brilliant red colour, which is used for giving the red hue to English bandanna hand- kerchiefs. It is not a permanent colour, however, and is rendered deeper by sulphate of iron. We imported in 1861, 1,154 tons of camwood, valued at 20,4577, and 2,075 tons of barwood, valued at 6,171. These woods may be distinguished by their rich purplish tinge. The bully tree or beef-wood is said to be a South American wood, obtained from British Guiana, and has been referred, but erroneously, to Robinia panacoco. The wood passing under the name of “ panacoco” is Ormosia coccinea. Botany bay oak, sometimes called beefwood, is the trade name for the wood of Casuarina stricta and other species of Casuarina, of New South Wales. Among those which were sent to the recent Exhi- bition by the colony, were the forest or shingle oak, or beefwood (C. suberosa), a wood of great beauty, but only fit for veneers; the spreading oak, swamp oak, and white oak, all woods of little value in an ornamental point of view. Some ofthe wood imported under the name of Botany Bay oak is well adapted for inlaying and marquetry. It is of a light yellowish brown colour, often marked with short red veins. One variety is extremely beautiful, and nearly as hard as tulip- wood. It is finely dappled with rich intwining streaks, on a high flesh- coloured ground. Boxwood is one of the most important hard woods which we receive for the special uses to which it is applied. The medieval collections testify to the exquisite skill of some of the old wood carvers on this material. Boxwood is also of great use to the turner, the mathematical and musical instrument makers, and the wood engraver. The largely extended use of woodcuts for the illustrated literature of the day has led to an universally increased demand for this, the best ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. 51 material known for the purpose. Whether all the boxwood imported is furnished by Buxus sempervirens, is not known, It is, however, not improbable that B. balearica, 1 larger species, may furnish some of that which comes from the Mediterranean. The wood of this species is coarse, and of a brighter yellow than the common species.. Rondelet, in a table of the mean heights of trees, gives that of the trunk of the box at 16 feet, and the mean diameter at 10} inches. In 1820 the imports of foreign boxwood were 3638 tons, the duty being as high as 7/. 18s. 6d. per ton, and on that from British possessions 1/. 13s. 4d. In 183] the imports had risen to 484 tons, the duty having been reduced in 1826 to 5/. on foreign grown, and 1/. on British grown. ,The duty is now only ls. per ton levied for statistical purposes. The average imports of the last three years have been about 3,500 tons, showing the great increase of the trade in this important wood. The value in 1860 was about 111. per ton, and in 1861, 107. From the Russian port of Soukoum Kali, in the Black Sea, 1,450 tons of boxwood, valued at 10,384/. were shipped in 1861 to Constantinople ; the greater part of this was sent on to Eng- land. The market price of the wood at Soukoum Kali was 4s. 2d. the pood of 36lbs. But little boxwood of any size is to be obtained now in the United Kingdom, and we draw our chief supplies from Turkey; while France depends a good deal on Spain. The importance of finding some wood calculated to come into the aid of boxwood, the most generally useful of all the European hard woods, has long been felt. Attention was drawn to the subject at the Madras local exhibitions a few years ago, and it has occupied attention in several of our colonies. Among the large and varied collections of woods from different countries, shown at the recent Exhibition, we did not notice any which, upon trial, appeared adapted for the purpose. We may, however, incidentally mention those which have been pointed out as suited for wood engraving. The essential properties requisite for this purpose are uniformity of structure, and considerable toughness, hardness, and retention of any sharp angles to which it may be cut, whether on the end or on the side—colour, except for certain purposes, is of little consequence. Dr. Hunter, of Madras, has furnished the fol- lowing results of experiments on woods for engraving, made under his superintendence at the School of Arts, Madras :—The guava-wood (Psidium pyriferum), though close grained and moderately hard, with a pretty uniform texture, was found to be too soft for fine engraving, and did not stand the pressure of printing. It answered well for bold en- graving and blocks for large letters, and for this purpose has been used for several years. The small wood from hilly districts was found to be harder and finer in the grain than that from large trees, Satin-wood _proved to be hard, but uneven in the grain, coarse in the pores, and, like many other large woods, harder and denser in the centre than near the bark. As it was found to splinter under the graver it was con- demned. The small dark coloured kinds of sandal wood of 5 inches in F2 52 ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. diameter, grown on a rocky soil, proved to be the nearest approach to boxwood in working quality, hardness, and durability under pressure. It cuts smoothly, the chips curl well under the graver, and the oily nature of the wood seems to preserve it from splitting whencut. Many hundred engravings have been executed upon this wood, and some blocks have yielded upwards of 20,000 impressions without being worn out. The question of price has, however, to be taken into consideration in order to see if it can compete with boxwood in England. Two species of Wrightia were experimentalised on without success. The palay (Wrightia tinctoria) has a pale, nearly white wood, close and uniform in the grain, but too soft to stand printing. It cuts smoothly, but does not bear delicate cross-hatching. Although unfit for wood-engraving, it is well suited for turnery, carving, and inlaying with darker woods. Veppalay-wood (W. antidysenterica), on inspection under the micros- cope, appeared to be suitable for the purpose, from the closeness of tex- ture and the polish left by the chisel in cutting it across the grain ; but the uneven quality and the softness of the outer parts showed that it was not fit for engraving. The wood of the wild crange bears a strong resemblance in appearance to box in working qualities, and is often as hard. The wood of the wild Ber tree (Zizyphus jujuba), common almost everywhere in India, gave good promise under the microscope, but preved to be a soft, spongy, light wood, that did not stand cross-hatching or pressure. A small garden tree, the China box (Murraya exotica), proved on trial to be like the wood of many of the orange family—hard and close in the grain near the centre, but softer near the bark. The cross section was, however, very irregular. The wood of the coffee tree was found to be soft, uneven in the grain, and not fit for engraving, - though well adapted for ornamental carving or inlaying. This wood works beautifully in the turner’s lathe, and cuts very sharply under the chisel, gouge, or graver; it is deserving of more atten- tion for ornamental carving and inlaying. It harmonises well in colour with the wood of orange and that of the Manila tamarind (Inga dulcis). There are a few other woods which may be incidentally noticed. The white beech (Fagus sylvestris) is much used for carved mouldings, for picture frames, and large wood letters for printing. It is easily worked and may be brought to a very smooth surface. The extremely hard wood of the white thorn (Crategus punctata) is used by wood engravers, and for mallets, &. The dogwood (Cornus florida) is well adapted for the same purposes as boxwood. It is so remarkably free from silex, that splinters of the wood are used by watchmakers for cleaning the pivot holes of watches, and by the optician for removing the dust from small lenses. The wood of the olive has occasionally been used for engraving on. A very compact, fine and uniform wood (Dodonea viscosa) sent from the Neilgherries, under the name of iron wood, used for turnery and making walking-sticks, worked well under the ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. Bey graver and on the turning lathe ; but the piece sent was too small to print from. The close-grained wood of Podocarpus neriifolius a Bur- mese tree, has been suggested as a substitute for boxwood, but I have not heard that it has been tried. Another close-grained but undefined wood, locally called Baman, much used by the Karens for bows, has been also pointed out as probably adapted to take the place of box. The white close-grained wood of Gardenia lucida is apparently well adapted for turning. This wood like that of several other species of Gardenia and Randia, is used by the Burmese for making conibs. A kind of plum wood, rather coarse in the grain, is used in China for cutting blocks for books. As a good deal of wood-block printing is carried on in Japan, it would be interesting to ascertain what wood is used by this intelligent and ingenious people for the purpose. Both the stone-wood (Callistemon salignus), a remarkable hard wood found sparingly distri- buted in Gipps Land, and the Pittosporum bicolor, have been used in Victoria for wood engraving. The wood of Pittisporum undulatum, from New South Wales, was brought forward here by the commissioners of that colony last year as calculated to be serviceable for wood engraving. Although favourably reported upon by the late Mr. P. Delamotte, it is not likely to be of much use to the wood engraver here. Mr. Delamotte stated that although the samples of wood he received were probably in- ferior ones, having been felled at the wrong season of the year, yet it was well adapted for certain kinds of wood engraving, being superior to the pear and other woods, generally used for posters. It is the produce of a small tree, with very close-grained, hard, white wood. When seasoned carefully, it would be well suited for turning. Sound trans- verse sections of more than 10 to 16 inches are, however, rare. Another of the Pittosporums, the boxwood of Tasmania (Bursaria spinosa), which is very close and even-grained, of a yellowish colour, unmarked, has the appearance of being well adapted for wood engraving. The Celastrus rhombifolius, a dense, hard, and heavy yellow box-like wood of the Cape colony, where it is called Pendoom, might be useful to turners and musical instrument makers, especially for flutes, clarionets, &c. It is much used in turnery, but does not grow to any size, never exceeding 4 to 5 inches in diameter. The lightwood of New South Wales (Duboisia myoporoides) is aimost as light as the wood of the lime, very close-grained and firm; but easily cut, and hence espe- cially adapted for wood carving. Leaving the engraving woods, we now pass on tothe commercial woods of the turner. Brazil-wood and Braziletto are the produce of legumi- nous trees, at one time much in demand as dye-woods. The former is the produce of Cesalpinia echinata, and grows abundantly in South America, being imported chiefly from Pernambuco and Cesta Rica ; hence it is sometimes called Pernambuco wood. When first cut it is of a light colour, but becomes a dark red on exposure to the air. The peach-wood, Nicaragua-wood, and Lima-wood of comnierce, are supposed 54 ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE, to be produced by the same tree. The imports of Brazil-wood in 1861 were 5,101 tons, valued at 102,2627. Braziletto wood is furnished by C. Brasiliensis, which grows in Jamaica and other parts of the West Indies to the height of about 20 feet. This wood is much used for ornamental cabinet work, and both kinds are employed in turnery and for making violin bows. Canary-wood is obtained from the Laurus indica and L. canariensis, trees natives of Madeira and the Canaries. Cocus-wood or Kokra is obtained from Cuba and other West Indian islands, but has been referred by some to Lepidostachys Roxburghit of Eastern India. Cocus is much used in turnery, and for mak- - ing flutes and other musical instruments. It is a wood of small size, being usually imported in logs of about 6 or 8 inches diameter, The alburnum is of alight colour, while the heart-wood is of arich deep brown, and extremely hard. Calamander, or Coromandel wood, is obtained in Ceylon, from Divspyros hirsuta. It is a scarce and beautiful wood, exceedingly hard, fine, closed-grained and heavy. It consists of pale reddish-brown fibres, crossed by large medullary plates, or isolated elongated patches of a deep rich brown colour, passing into black. These latter are chiefly conspicuous in well-defined veins and broad spots, admirably contrasting with the lighter parts. The lustre is silky where the medullary plates are small, but higher and more varying where the platesare largerand the grain coarser. Calamander-woodis con- sidered by many persons the handsomest of all the brown woods : the root has the more beautiful appearance. This wood is now getting scarce. Another species (D. Ebenaster) furnishes in Ceylon a very fine wood, bearing a close resemblance to Calamander. The planks of Calamander shown at Paris in 1855 and at London last year were magnificent. Belonging to the same genus as the Calamander isthe Ebony of com- merce, which, from its colour and denseness is so much used by turners, and for inlaying work by cabinet makers. Of 1,500 tons, valued at about 15,0007, imported in 1861, the bulk came from India and Africa, and a small quantity, 260 tons, of inferior, worth only about 51, a ton (instead of 117. 10s.), from Cuba. The carved ebony furniture from Ceylon was much admired. There are several woods which pass under the general name of ebony. The green ebony, obtained from Jamaica and other parts of the West Indies, is supposed to be furnished by Brya Ebenus, a small tree. The duramen of the wood isadark green, the alburnum, or outer wood, of a light yellow. The wood is hard and susceptible of a very high polish. It is much used for rulers and other small work, also in marquetry. Another green ebony is said to be obtained from Jaca- randa mimosifolia, in Brazil. The name green ebony is also applied to the wood of Excecaria glandulosa, of Jamaica. Red ebony is an unde- fined wood of Natal. Several species of Diospyros are known to yield in great abundance the black ebony of commerce. Those of the Hast Indies are D. Ebenus, cordifolia, Ebenaster, Mabola, melanuxylon, Roylet, and tomentosa. The ebony from the west coast of Africa is usually the ON THH HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE, 55 most perfect black, that from the Mauritius and Ceylon being variegated more or lesss with cream brown. D. cordifolia is a dark brown and difficult to work. Ebony is much affected by the weather, and, to prevent splitting it should be covered. Ebony of very superior quality is procurable in the western districts of the Madras presidency, as well as the Northern Circars. We have seen sixteen-inch planks of a fine uniform black, chiefly obtained from Coorg and Canara. Smaller pieces are procured from Cuddapa, Salem, Nugegur, &c.,; but there is no steady demand, though it is a peculiarly fine timber for cabinet work, and some of it is well veined for ornament. Ebony may be obtained in Siam, but the quality is not very good; a little is exported thence every year to China by the junks. The species of Diospyros have this peculiarity, that the black heart-wood is surrounded by white sap-wood. The task of determining the species which yield the best wood, and verifying the specific names, is important, and merits careful elucida- tion. Fustic is a hard, strong, yellow wood, obtained from Maclura tinc- toria, a West Indian tree. It used to be employed in cabinet work, but was found to darken and change colour on exposure to the air and heat. It is chiefly used now as a dye-wood. The imports in 1861 were 8,458 tons, valued at 50,444/. The principal imports come from Venezuela, the West Indies, Mexico, and New Granada, and through the northern Atlantic ports. Iron-wood is a common name for many trees producing bard, ponderous, close-grained woods. In America it is applied to the Ostrya virginiaca, a tree which only grows to a small size ; but the white wood is compact, finely grained, and heavy. There is an iron-wood in Brazil, but the tree yielding it is not defined. One of the iron-woods entering into commerce is the Metrosideros verus, an Kast Indian tree, whilst some species of Stderoxylon furnish other iron woods. The iron- wood of Norfolk Island is the Olea apetala. Another close, hardwood, which sinks in water, is the Argania sideroxylon of Morocco. Jack-wood, or Cos, as itis locally called in Ceylon, is an excellent furniture and fancy wood, obtained from the Artocarpus integrifolia, a tree allied to the bread-fruit. It is a coarse and open-grained, though heavy wood, of a beautiful saffron colour, and emits a peculiar, but by no means un- pleasant, odour. King-wood, one of the most beautiful of the hard woods imported, reaches us from Brazil, in trimmed billets, from 2 to 7 inches diameter. It is probably from Spartium arbor, or some undefined species of Triptolomea. It is also called violet-wood, being streaked in violet tints of different intensities, is finer in the grain than rosewood. The smaller pieces are frequently striped, and occur some- times full of elongated zone eyes. Letter-wood, or snake-wood, isa scarce and costly wood of British Guiana, obtained from Piratinera guianensis. It is very hard, of a beautiful brown colour, with black spots, which have been compared to hieroglyphics. The spotted part is only the heart-wood, which is seldom more than 12 or 15 inches in circumference. Its application to cabinet-work and to small turnery 56 ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. articles was shown in the British Guiana collection. Lignum vite is a common, well-known, hard, ponderous wood, the produce of two species of Guaiacum obtained in the West Indies, which is used for a great variety of purposes requiring hardness and strength. The Madagascar red wood is as yet undescribed. Nutmeg-wood is another name for the wood of the Palmyra palm (Borassus jflabelliformis), which is used in turnery, for cabinet-work, and, from its mottled character, for umbrella and parasol handles, walking canes, rulers, fancy boxes, &c. The stems or trunks of several palms obtained in the East and West Indies are imported, to a small extent, for fancyuse. They furnisha great variety of mottled, ornamental wood, black, red brown, and speckled, and are used for cabinet and marquetry work, and for billiard cues. Amongst those so used are the cocoa-nut, the betel-nut, Palmyra, &e. The nuts of two South American palms, the vegetable ivory nut (Phytelephas macrocarpa), andthe dark coquilla nuts from Aitalea funifera, are largely used by turners for small fancy articles. Partridge-wood isa name for the wood of several trees coming from South America, which has usually, but erroneously, been ascribed to Heisteria coccinea, but is more likely to be from Axdira inermis. It is used for walking-sticks umbrella and parasol handles, and in cabinet work and turnery. The colours are variously mingled, and most frequently disposed in fine hair streaks of two or three shades, which in some of the curly specimens resemble the feathers of the bird. Another variety is called pheasant- wood, Prince’s wood isa light-veined brown wood, the produce of Cordia Gerascanthus, obtained in Jamaica, almost exclusively used for turning. Purple-wood is the produce of Copaifera pubifloraand bracteata, trees of British Guiana, which furnish trunks of great size, strength, durability, and elasticity. The colour varies muchin different specimens, some being of a deep red brown, but the most beautiful is of a clear reddish purple, exceedingly handsome when polished. It is used for buhl work, marquetry, and in turning. Varieties of King-wood are sometimes called purple and violet woods, but they are variegated, while the true purple-wood is plain. Queen-wood is a name applied occasionally to woods of the Cocus and Greenheart character, imported from the Brazils. The wood of Laurus chloroxylon, of the West Indies, furnishes some. Red Sanders woodisa hard heavy, East Indian wood, obtained from the Pterocarpus santalinus, imported from Madras and Calcutta, chiefly as a dye-wood. It takes a beautiful polish, and some- what resembles Brazil-wood. Rosewood isa term asgenerally applied as iron-wood, and to as great a variety of trees, in different countries ; some- times from the colour, and sometimesfrom the smell of the wood. The rosewood imported in such large quantities from Brazil is obtained from the Jacaranda Brasiliana, and some other species. The Physocalymnna floribunda of Goyaz, in Brazil, is said to furnish one of the rosewoods of commerce. It isthe “ Paodorosa” of the Portuguese. The fragrant rosewood, or “ Bois de Palisandre,” of the French cabinet-makers, has ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE, 57 been ascertained to belong to two or three species of Brazilian Trip- tolomeas. The imports of rosewood in 1861 were 2,441 tons, of the computed value of 46,8841. In 1820, when the duty was as high as 20/.the ton, the imports of rosewood were only 271 tons. In 1826 the duty was reduced by one half, and in 1830 the imports had risen to 1,515 tons. The shipments of Brazilian rosewood are chiefly made from Bahia. In 1857, 16,870 logs were sent from there, and in 1858, 17,834 logs, of a total value of about 28,000 The great bulk of the shipments go to France and Germany. A rosewood is obtained in Central America and Honduras, from a species of Amyris. Hast Indian rosewood, a valuable mottled black timber, is obtained from Dalbergia latifolia and sissoides ; these furnish the well-known Malabar black-wood which is heavy and close-grained, admitting of a fine polish. The prin- cipal articles of carved furniture in the East Indian collection were made from this wood. A similar kind of rosewood is obtained on the west coast of the Gulf of Siam, but the grain is not so close as the South American wood. A large quantity is exported yearly from Bangkok to Shanghai, and other Chinese ports, The East Indian Satin wood is the produce of Chloroxylon Swictenia. It is close-grained, hard, and durable in its character, of a light orange colour, and when polished, has a beautiful satiny appearance ; unless pro- tected by a coat of fine varnish, it loses its beauty by age. This tree oc- curs abundantly in the northern parts of Ceylon. That variety called, on account of the pattern, “ flowered satin,” is scarce. The tree also grows in the mountainous districts of the Madras presidency. The West Indian satin-wood is obtained from Maba guineensis, in the Bahamas, and from an unnamed tree in Dominica. The wood of the European Yew (Taxus baccata), being hard, compact, and of a very fine, close grain, is occasionally used for fine cabinet work, or inlaying, and by turners for making snuff-boxes, musical instruments, &c.; parts near the root are often extremely beautiful. For the combination of colour with figure, it ranks at the head of the eyed or spotted woods. Brazil furnishes tulip-wood, and zebra-wood ; the latter, which is scarce, is from the Omphalobium Lamberti, a large tree of Demerara. It resembles king- wood, except the colours, which are generally dispersed in irregular but angular veins and stripes. Zebra-wood is a beautiful wood for cross banding. Some very good specimens of Colonial turning in goblets and ornaments, from the native ash, red gum, cherry tree, and black-wood of South Australia, were shown at the International Exhibition of 1862. One or two new woods have recently been introduced, but not to any large extent ; of these we may mention the following Australian woods, The scented Myall (Acacia homolophylla) is a very hard and heavy wood, of an agreeable odour, resembling that of violets. It is especially adapted, from its pleasant odour, for glove and trinket boxes, and any interior applications where not being varnished, it would retain its pleasant scent. Myall hasa dark and beautiful duramen, which makes it 58 ON THE HARD WOODS OF COMMERCE. applicable to numerous purposes of the cabinet-maker and the wood - turner. It rarely exceeds a foot in diameter, but has been used for veneers. Musk-wood (Eurybia argophylla) is a timber of a pleasant fragrance, and a beautiful colour, well adapted for turning and cabinet work. The Pomaderris apetala furnishes us with a soft useful wood of a pale colour, well adapted for carver’s and turner’s work. One of the most conrplete, extensive, and tastefully designed applica- tions of the hard or fancy woods of commerce was the model of the Royal Exchange, shown at the International Exhibition by Messrs. Robert Fauntleroy and & Co., in which there were specimens of more than five hundred ornamental woods from different parts of the world. We may close with a word or two on a few other woods occasionally used. The mountain ash (Pyrus aucuparia), the “rowen tree” of Sccttish song, yields a beautiful light wood, quite equal to satin-wood in appearance, and, like holly, box, horse chestnut, and apple, very serviceable in inlaying. The root and burr of Quercus pedunculata, and Q. sessiliflora, also rival many foreign woods. ‘The close texture of the maple-wood, with the beauty of its grain and its susceptibility of a high polish, doubtless contributed to its continued use for the manufacture of the pledge cup and wassail bowl. Hence its Scandinavian name of mazer came to be applied to the cup made from the wood of the tree ; and when, at a later period, other woods and even the costliest metals, were substituted, the old designation of the mazer cup was still retained. The late Mr. T. H. Turner, in a series of papers in the Archeological Journal, on “The Usages of Domestic Life in the Middle Ages,” remarks :—“ Our ancestors seem to have been greatly attached to their mazers, and to have incurred much cost in enriching them. Quaint legends in English or Latin, monitory of peace and good fellow- ship, were often embossed on their metal rim and on the cover ; or the popular but mystic Saint Christophus, engraved on the bottom of the interior, rose in all his giant proportions before the eyes of the wassailers, giving comfortable assurance that on that festive day, at least, no mortal harm could befall them.” Most of our earlier poets Ulustrate the familiar use of the maple bowl in ancient times ; it figures at the latest in Scott’s “‘ Lord of the Isles.” Spenser furnishes a beauti- ful description of a highly wrought emblematical mazer cup, in his Shepherd’s Calendar,” evidently suggested by the bowl for which the shepherds contend in Virgil’s Third Pastoral :— *< Lo Perigot, the pledge which I plight, A mazer ywrought of the maple ware, Whereon is enchased many a fayre sight, Of bears and tigers that make fiers war ; And over them spread a goodly wild vine, Entrailed with a wonton ivy twine. ‘¢ Thereby is a lamb in the wolf's jaws ; But see how fast runneth the shepherd swain To save the innocent from the beaste’s paws, And here with his sheep hook hath him slain. Tell me such a cup hast thou ever seen ? Well might it hecome any harvest Queen.” 59 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. BY JULES BARSE. Under the name of alfa in Northern Africa, and esparto in Spain and other parts of Europe, we meet very commonly with a coarse strong grass growing in tufts, resembling in the cylindrical form of the stalk, 1ushes. It is known under the several scientific names of Macro- chloa tenacissima, Lygeum spartum, and Stipa tenacissima. Alfa grows without culture, in great abundance, on soils the least fitted for any agricultural operations, over a large extent of country in Algeria. By systematic gathering, the quality and the quantity of the leaves are improved ; left to itself, the plant does not die being perennial, The stem on which there are matured leaves, will no less produce fresh leaves ; and it isnot unusual to find on the same stem, the shoots of three suc- cessive years. Cultivated or wild, this plant, from its hardy constitution, ought to be classed in the first rank of the vegetable products, from which industry demands a regular supply of useful raw material. Industry and science had long foreseen the future that awaited alfa, whenever it should become possible to extract economically the special fibre which it contains. In spite of the efforts of a great number of laborious, instructed, and persevering men, alfa is not yet a commer- cial commodity, in the large sense, regularly enquired for and accepted in any industry except that of ‘sparterie’ or cordage. Yet the paper- trade is eagerly seeking after everything that can secure it against the scarcity or enhancement in price of the raw material. Why is not alfa more used in the mills? Because inventors and manufacturers have often thought that they were able to use alfa before the question of practical processes was matured ; many hopes have been dispelled by the cost of the manufacture, according to systems, not one of which, taken separately, I dare affirm, was sufficiently perfect to realize a success. But if, without pretending to create a monopoly, pre- vious labours are examined, with sufficient discrimination to retain what is good and to reject what is bad ; if, to the sum of these collected ele- ments, the results of recent experiments are added ; if above all, the powerful patronage of the local administration lends its aid, an appeal may be made to the judgment so often previously awarded, and bring back conviction to the minds of men, who know that industry progresses continuously. Such has been the object, on which I have concentrated all my efforts, and towards which I now contribute the appended information, GATHERING, MANAGEMENT, TRANSPORT, &C., OF THE FIBRE—In Algiers, and particularly in the province of Oran, alfa alternates with 60 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO the dwarf-palm, lentisk, asphodel, and squill, on all untilled land. On soils, of which the basis is chalk, the dwarf-palm and asphodel pre- dominate ; on stony soils, in which silica and iron replace alumina and - lime, alfa, in close tufts, grows abundant in the plains up to the mountain ridges, excluding, however, the culminating heights of mountain chains. The districts of Mers-el-Kébir, Ain-el-Turk, Bouzefer, to the west of Oran ; of Saint Cloud, Fleurus, Kristel (mountain of the lions), Saint Louis, Arzew, to the East ; the forest of Muley-Ismael, the Macta, in the direction of Mostaganem ; the slopes north of the mountains which border on the south the plains of the Zig and of the Hobra, are localities exceedingly favourable to the industry, and amply supplied to meet the wants of the French trade. By concentrating the means and capital on the littoral of this province, they are placed in the neighbourhood of existing roads, and of those which will shortly be opened. The ports of Arzew, Oran, Mers-el-Kébir ; the places of embarkation for feluccas, of Ain-el-Turk, Bouzefer, the mouth of the Macta, are so many places where depots for the collected alfa can be established ; each of these localities corresponds to a centre of population, farm, village, or town, under the regular and efficacious protection of civil and military ad- ministrations. The Arab tribes are in daily communication with the French : this element, together with the Spaniards, Moors, and others, who make up, more or less, the floating population of the country, will supply labourers for the gathering of alfa, as soon as a respectable estab- lishment, worthy of confidence, shall have been at work for more than a year. At what time of the year and under what conditions of maturity ought the gathering to take place? In its wild state, a tuft of alfa con- sists of withered leaves, leaves that have attained maturity and are still full of sap, and lastly, of young tender shoots not yet expanded. Taking the plant in this view, it might be said that the gathering can be done at any time, provided that at any period of the year, the tuft yields fibrous matter suitable for making paper. — But if alfa is subjected to a systematic and regular process, all is changed : if care is taker, as in Spain, to pluck off all the dry dead shoots from the stem; if all the shoots that come to maturity are gathered, if the young shoots only are left, then the plant is in complete cultivation and the gathering becomes annual; it should be done at a fixed time. Is it necessary, as in Spain, where alfa is used for making rope, cord, carpets, to wait until the seed is quite ripe and the leaves begin to fade. Ought, on the contrary, the moment to be seized when the leaves, wholly curled up, do not, re-open under the alternate influence of light and moisture, without taking account of the state of the seed, ripe or not ? As regards paper-making, the chemical analysis of the plant settles the question : the matured leaf has in its constituent elements, silica and iron, upon which chemical agents act with difficulty : the boiling, TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 61 the bleaching, the conversion into fibre can only be obtained to the detriment of the quantity and quality of the pulp. The leaf, still green, although its full growth is attained, is easier to boil, its fibres separate under the influence of less energetic agents ; silica and iron, which hold the yellow and red colouring matters in the fibre, are eliminated, so to speak, at the same time asthe gum-resin which binds the fibres ; the knots, analogous to those of straw, are still sufficiently tender so as not to require that the boiling, to be effective in reducing them, shall have been too prolonged and compromising in regard to the leaves. It may hence be concluded that the leaf ought to be gathered when green, but also as near maturity as possible. I say as near maturity as possible, because a leaf too green gives translucid fibres, and consequently a paper analogous to vegetable paper; on the other hand, the waste is so much the greater as the leaf is less matured. There is also, in respect to alfa, the same proceeding to be followed, as with hemp and flax which are gathered with reference to the fibre, leaving out of account the seed. Flax and hemp, cultivated for seed, will have lost their properties for yielding fibre precisely because they have attained complete maturity. The gathering of alfa should he done by hand: cutting ought to be strictly forbidden, as it obstructs the reproduction of the plant. ‘The labourer holds in his left hand a stick 2 or 3 centimetres thick and about 40 centimetres long; he seizes a bunch of alfa leaves with the right hand and twists it round the stick ; at the same moment he pulls at the stick with the left hand and at the bunch of leaves which the right hand still grasps ; the whole of the leaves separate from the stem at the articulation. The right hand places the bunch under the left arm; the hands remain free; the labourer gathers three or four bunches, according to his capability, and these, collected under the arm, make a manada, which is then tied together by the labourer or by children engaged for that purpose. The bundles are ranged on the spot to dry, which is effected in a week. It is said an expert labourer can gather 200 kilogrammes of green alfa in a day. I have never met with such. ‘The operations which, conjointly with M. Cruzel, we carried out in Algeria, were undertaken with full authority over our labourers, and with full compensation for their work ; on the one hand, we have had Spaniards and Moors, who are considered the most expert at this busi- ness ; on the other, the General commanding the province had granted us thirty Zouaves, under the control of sub-officers, with orders to make an official return of how much each man, determined to exert himself, could gather, both on first coming to the work and in the following weeks. We had, therefore, good will, emulation, and inspection with us; the daily gathering of green alfa per man was, in summer, an average of 100 kilog. In drying alfa loses 40 per cent. The labour of a man is consequently equal to 60 kilog. of dry alfa per day. Such is the basis upon which commercial estimates must be founded. 62 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO The bundles dried in the fields are collected in bales and brought to the port of embarcation. The alfa, in its natural state, is bulky and forms an unwieldy pack- age for ships, although its real density is great, for a kilog. of alfa im- mersed in water, displaces 1165 grammes of liquid only, which gives 0.858 for the alfa ; the water being 1000. But, in ordinary bundles, a cubic metre contains only 212 kilog. of alfa, and the maritime ton of Im. 44 cube contains 305 kilog.; in this state it therefore requires three maritime tons of space for 1000 kilog. In Algeria we obtained permission to pack the alfa with Poncets’s presses, which are used by the military administration. The press-cases measuring 1m. 40 cubic, were uniformly filled with 297 to 300 kilog. of alfa packed with care ; the press turned out a bale of 870 to 880 cubic decimetres. In this state, a ship would receive scarcely 500 kilog. of alfa per ton of space. Before my departure for Algeria, M. Cruzel, who was to take part in my proceedings, had made at Paris, and placed at my disposal, an hydraulic press of great power, and arranged in a special manner, for the compression and binding of the alfa. This press could not be forwarded to me in time at Oran, but at Paris it served to make some very precise and practical experiments. The bales turned out by this machine are of a cylindrical form, having a diameter of 60 centimetres, and a length of 85 ; they measure 320 cubic decimetres, and weigh 180 kilog. Consequently, 800 kilog. of alfa go to the maritime ton. Each press of this kind will turn out two compressed bales per hour. Reduced to this volume, alfa is no longer an unwieldy package; it can be stowed easily, and preserves the normal centre of gravity to the ship without increasing the ballast. The cylindrical form of the bales facili- tates the transfer they undergo on the route. Until now alfa, considered as cumbrous waste in bundles, has been charged at a high rate of carriage by the railways, and commerce would not resort to this mode of transport, which cost eight centimes per kilo- metre ; and per ton, even when baled, this price is only reduced to six cen- times. But this rate will not be enforced for bales compressed on the sys- tem adopted by M. Cruzel, and myself. These bales are hooped with iron, are not exposed to any damage, do not in any extraordinary manner affect the responsibility of railway companies ; and their stowage, cubical weight, and form, make them similar to goods in bulk, and most con- venient for transport. 1 may now give a summary of expenses arising from the various manipulations of alfa, from its. first collection or separation from the parent stem to its arrival in France, within reach of the mills: 1. Gathering in April, May, and June, at the rate fr. ct. of 60 kilog. of dry alfa, per day and per labourer, at 2 francs, for 100 kilog. {| igo TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 63 2. Drying on the field, and carriage from the field fr. ct. to the road : : ; ; eas Vabaidita) . Carriage from the road to the aan : : Fe lui 4, Compression and packing in hooped bales, at 4,000 kilog. per day and per press, ete it) ing four men and two boys ; 5 0 50 5. Hoops ok sheet iron, 3 kilog., and rivets. Simin b antetss 6. Carriage of the bales to the ship . : 0 35 7. Wages, rent, maintenance of material, fire insurance . 3 A ani : : . 0 50 8. Freight to Havre. ; : s 6 . 4 50 9. Marine insurance. 0 30 10. Merchant’s profit and crenect on ncaa os 10 per cent on the above sums : 5 sdk a) —_———. Cost of 100 kilog. of alfa, delivered at Havre - 14 38 TECHNICAL OPERATIONS ; CONVERSION OF ALFA INTO PAPER.— Chemically examined for paper making purposes, alfa consists of cellu- lose, mixed with gum, resinous matter, silica, lime, and iron. The incrustated materials are intercombined in such a manner that there is no hope of isolating the textile fibres by prolonged ebullition in mere water. The silicates and the resin which form the epidermis of the leaves, even resist the dissolving action of alcohol and ether. Recourse must be had to caustic agents—lime, soda, potash, ammonia—combined with boiling water, or the pressure of steam, to disintegrate the plant. The internode which binds the leaf to the stem, similar to the joints of straw, resists much longer than the stalk the action of boiling and the ley. Hence the necessity of dividing the plant into one portion contain- ing the knots or joints, which will undergo a special boiling, and another portion containing the stalks, which will require less boiling. Operating on these divided portions saves time, and gives, moreover, weight to the paper. Those who have operated on the entire plant have reduced a large quantity of tender fibres into useless particles by the action of the ley, in their endeavour to expose the tough fibres to a prolonged boiling. The alfa, suitably boiled and lixiviated, preserves sufficient tenacity to be drawn off into long fibres, supple and easy to disintegrate. By washing, it yields a yellow colouring matter, soluble in alkaline agents. This yellow matter is not that which offers the chief obstacle to the bleaching. There remains in the fibre another colouring matter, which, under the combined action of chlorine and caustic ley, will also become soluble, and be eliminated by washing in water, which assumes the colour of blood. Every attention must be given to the indications of this interesting reaction, for so long as the alfa has not given off this red tinge, it will not + a 64 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO bleach. Chlorides cause it to take the colour of walnut wood, and acid baths, after the chlorides, leave the fibre in the form of greenish grey matter, only fit for the manufacture of papier bfille. I do not speak of processes which will produce white pulp at great cost, by means of reagents and time ; they are, or at least have been, commercially impracticable. Those who have not commenced by the elimination of the yellow and red dyes, have treated alfa with corrosive leys or chlorides equally destructive ; they have been able to get white pulp, but the waste or the cost has been represented by startling figures ; it is quite otherwise, in following the rational method of bleaching, by the successive elimination of the two colouring matters. According to my experiments, the normal waste is made up as fol- lows :— Yellow colouring matter . . . .. 12 Redicolouring matter... « .. ., 6 26°5 Guna MeSINS, ee oh cease ase oie 7 Salts constituting the ashes of alfa 15 : Ripre suitable forspaper. .. 20s, 6 sc fay ee 735 ——— 100 The theoretic loss of 26°5, it is true, can only be estimated, according to the care and discernment exercised in the use of the chemical agents and in the washing manipulations. It is as well, however, to know the exact limit to which perfection may attain. The analysis of the ashes determines the quantities of the caustic agents necessary for the washing of the plant. I obtained from 100 kilog. of alfa an ash weighing 1°41. From this ash I extracted :— Sulphuric acid . . 0-090 Hydrochloric acid . 0.030 2. By washing in aqua sve ee 2)» 01208 Sadar sts 2%. 3) ee CAeLO 1. By boiling in water regia the residue left Sulphuric acid . . 0.285 by the water. Oxide of iron Fe#0% 0-045 3. By treating with : if : soda the residue left oat ofiron . oeaa by the aqua regia. pie Oe 1410 There are also in 100 kilog. of alfa 1°510 of incorporated silicious and ferruginous salts, plus 7 kilog. of gum; in all 8°510 of matter to be got rid of, in order to free the fibre. Admitting that the silicates require a quantity of alkali, thrice their weight, to make them soluble; that the resin, io become soap, requires weight for weight of caustic soda, 100 kilog, of the plant must, in theory, be treated with 2°250 of alkali, and 7 kilog. of caustic earth. In practice, the degree of temperature, and of pressure at which the boilings are made, must be considered, in order to increase or TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 65 diminish the theoretical proportions. Thus, at the mills of Gueures and of Valernier, in operating in open boilers, at a temperature of 100 deg., a ley of double the theoretic quantity left the plant badly dis- integrated, after twenty-four hours boiling. At Mont Saint Guibert, where rotary boilers are used, at a temperature of 140 and under a hand- pressure of four atmospheres, the plant was burnt and all its cohesion destroyed, in leys containing merely the theoretic quantity and even less, and after twenty, twelve, six hours of boiling. It therefore requires a very careful study, according to the apparatus, to retain in the alfa all its value as regards condition and solidity. Is the plant more or less green? Is the pressure more or less high? Here are two considera- tions which will necessarily vary the quantity of caustic and the time of boiling. Again, are the operations carried on without pres- sure in coppers where the ley is unagitated? Or are they car- ried on with apparatus where the ley alternately rises and falls through the mass? Further, there are modifications in the quantities of chemi- cals to be used which practice alone can teach, but which are essential to be known. ; We have hitherto supposed that the alfa simply cut into four or five parts is operated upon : this gives a good result ; but I ought to mention avery ingenious machine, which its inventor, M. Edmund Bertin, set at work for our experiments. In M. Bertin’s machine, the alfa is placed lengthwise under a roller, which in rotating, draws it systematically between cylinders, where the stalk is crushed, firstly from end to end, without being torn. From these cylinders, the alfa passes between hinged tables, in which are combined two movements—the first movement causes the plant to advance lengthwise under the cylinders; the second movement, perpendicular to the other, twists the alfa leaf as it advances, and de- posits it in grooved receptacles, still without tearing it. The alfa thus bruised lengthwise and crosswise, is a mass of loose filament, admirably prepared for boiling and washing, without requiring pressure and large quantities of caustic agents. I believe that M. Bertin’s machine will be generally used in esta- blishments for the preparation of textile plants. It economises the cost of re-agents, the time of boiling, and dispenses with the washing cylin- ders for crushing. For the manufactvre of unbleached papers the method of crushing by vertical mill-stones, organised at Valvernier, gives results which no other perhaps, can attain; dispatch, homogeneity of pulp, simplicity of vperation and of working, no waste; such are the advantages of this method. For white pulp, the question varies ; the mill at Valvernier does not produce fibre, it produces pulp which is taken direct to be finished, and which cannot be treated with steain or chlorine gas, for this will only pass through spongy and easily permeable masses. Without this condition, it either does not operate, or but partially. Con- sequently, for white pulp, recourse must be had to sharp-tackle in the rag VOL, Iv. G 66 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO engine to laminate the alfa rather than to bruise it: well-formed fibre, a good reaction with chlorine gas, a perfect elimination of the red colour- ing matter, then a final chlorided and acidulated washing ; such are the practical means for the transformation of new fibrous plants into paper, pulp. Are these means sufficiently economical, so that paper, similar in quality, may not cost more, when made from alfa than from rags, taken at the average prices for the last five years? Before giving in figures a reply on this point, I must be allowed to record my opinion on certain ideas that prevail with regard to textile plants. It is said, that alfa, diss, &c., instead of being sent to the manufacturer in the raw state, should be dealt with where collected, and made into pulp or half-stuff. The waste it is asserted, is thus got rid of, and the useful material alone forwarded, therefore we should turn our attention to the organisation of such works. Certain individuals, even hope to be able to reduce the price of paper, by making pulp in France from plants brought from Algeria or Spain, and supplying the paper-makers with this pulp. My experiments have convinced me that alfa is more bulky in pulp than in the fibrous state. We can compress, as is done by M. Cruzel, 800 kilog. of the alfa plant into a cubic spare of 1m. 44, the maritime ton. We can compress 500 to 600 kilog. of pulp into the same volume, when in a humid state, until the mass is like a sheet of cardboard. But, if the pulp is humid, the water which it retains, will augment its weight at least in equal quantity, perhaps more, to the loss that the raw plant gives ; if the pulp is dry, it is unacceptable tothe paper-maker, because it cannot be reconverted from the condition of cardboard to that of pulp, without special machinery and expensive manipulation. Allow this first objection to be ill founded, although it is ‘seriously felt by certain eminent paper-makers, who have been willing to use pulp, prepared elsewhere than in their mills ; I may yet dare to affirm, and herein in perfect accord with many master manufacturers, that if on the one hand white pulp is used, such as is got from the washing engine, and allowed to flow direct into the beating engine, then into the vats, then on to the machine, and lastly in the state of dry paper; the operation will be better and more economical than if, on the other hand, this same pulp as it comes from the washing engine, is allowed to flow into draining pans, then dried, either by pressure or otherwise, then suitably packed to protect it from damage, and lastly remade at anew mill. In the first case, the paper is finished, it is delivered into the warehouse ; in the second case, the pulp has got to the rag-store, nothing more. It must again be torn to pieces, and washed and, perhaps one-third or a quarter bleached, before it can be given over to the beaters. I therefore consider it a faulty proceeding, in principle, to separate a paper mill intwo; the general expenses and packing charges, interest on capital, transport and cartage cost are doubled, and we merely offer to the manufacturer an article that may possibly TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 67 be good, but which the paper-maker did not see prepared; which he cannot conscientiously warrant, and which, costing more than the raw material, does not economise machinery or labour. Alfa is too high in price, at present, to allow of superfluous or faulty methods in its use. But if the idea of pulp mills is impracticable, it is not so as regards an establishment for cleansing the alfa, before compressing it. The alfa when yet green would by fermentation, yield its resin and a great part of its colouring matters. Its fibres softened, then dried, could be com- pressed with more ease, and the paper maker would find it more econo- mical to substitute cleansed alfa for the raw plant. But, in practice, in Algeria as in Spain, the scarcity of water in the vicinity of the alfa regions makes this a difficult proceeding. I will now examine, comparatively, the prices of alfa-paper, and of rag- paper ; in the first part of this essay, the plant delivered at the port of Havre, is shown to cost 14.38 frs. per 100 kilog. In another paragraph, the estimated loss, theoretically, from the raw plant to paper is 26.5 per cent. ; according to this calculation, 100 kilog. of alfa would yield 73% of paper, and 136 kilog. of the plant 100 kilog. of paper. 136 kilog. of alfa at 14.38 frs. gives 19.55 frs. as the cost of the raw material at Havre. Now, rags at the price of 19.55 frs. are not of a superior quality ; old cordage, more or less tarred, is worth 24 to 28 frs. (at present 34 to 35 francs). Rags at 19 frs., linen, wool, cotton of all colours, and mixed (whereas the waste on alfa has been considered in our calculation and does not exist) give a loss of 30 to 45 per cent., according to the degree of whiteness desired ; being on the average 37 per cent. Consequently 100 kilog. of rag-paper will cost, in respect to raw material (136 kilog. at 19.55 frs.), the sum of 26.78 frs. If we consider the actual conditions of manufacture for certain papers, we shall find that for news-paper the raw material is represente] by the sum of 32 frs. as the minimum, up to 54 frs. for certain sorts. Proceeding from theory to practice, and without being indiscreet as to the working of the mills where I have made im- portant experiments jointly with a skilful maker, we have seen that alfa, from the first, without modification of machinery, of re-agents, and of labour, advantageously contends with the raw materials habitually em- ployed in these mills, and even with straw for common wrapping-papers. But, in the cost of manufacture, alfa was taken in its raw state, waste not included, at the price of 14 frs. the 100 kilog. Consequently, practice has verified two things: the practical waste corresponds exactly with the theoretic waste, and the various manipulations of the alfa are not more costly than those of its rivals. In conclusion, the results have been in favour of alfa as regards the entire manufacture, and have led to a demand for extensive supplies. Tn the establishment of the price of 140 frs. per 1000 kilog. of alfa, delivered at the port of Havre, I have endeavoured to eliminate all erroneous expenses arising at the outset of a commercial operation. ntil now, in fact, the cost of 14 frs. has not been positively realized by G2 68 ON THE APPLICATION OF ALFA OR ESPARTO a merchant, although he made the undertaking with his own money, and managed all himself. M. Cruzel, who remained in Algiers after the completion of my re- searches, in which he participated, supported and assisted with the greatest activity by the civil and military administrations, for furthering our common work, has made and continues to make under his own inspec- tion, and without intermediate agents, the first shipments intended to encourage the French paper-makers to adopt the use of alfa. The various estimates of management have been verified by each department. ‘And not to tempt the trade with the show of illusory profits, the price of 140 frs. must be taken as the extreme limit in a regular and economical undertaking: moreover the freight of 45 frs. per 1000 kilog. must be retained. In conclusion, it is established that Algeria can supply to the French paper-trade a raw material which the inter- national customs modifications, necessitated by progress, has made necessary. It is a fact that the use of alfa enables the paper-trade to keep pace with the progressive decline in the price of any object of urgent necessity, without compromising the economy of its constitution. Moreover the organised collection of alfa in Algeria offers employ- ment to a large number of natives. The alfa-trade can, on the one hand, be made such that the welfare of the districts and of the inhabitants of the alfa provinces can be pro- moted, and on the other hand, the wants of a trade which fears for its supplies met, while lastly, commercial operations in the Algerian ports, will ere long be largly benefitted. [We append to the foregoing article some extracts from a paper on “ Hsparto Grass,’ which we contributed to the “ Paper Trade Review,” for July, which furnish some additional practical information. EpDITor. Mr. T. Routledge has been manufacturing paper from esparto exclu- sively, at his mills near Oxford, for upwards of five years. On the 28th November, 1856, a number of the weekly Journal of the “Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce” of London, which contained a lec- ture by Dr. Forbes Royle “on Indian Fibres fit for Paper-making, &c.” was printed on esparto paper made by Mr. Routledge at Eynsham, That gentleman has now other mills at Ford, near Sunderland, where he is making newspapers and also half stuff, both from esparto, for sale to the trade. In the Jury Report on Paper, &c., shown at the last Exhibition, we find the following remarks on espaito paper :— “Mr. Routledge represents that the cost of production, either in the condition of half stuff or paper, is below that of rags to produce a simi- lar quality of paper, and the power required for reduction much less. Judging from the specimens of paper exhibited by Mr. Routledge, manu- factured by him at his mills at Eynsham in Oxford, exclusively from esparto as well as from the other specimens of paper manufactured at various other mills employing his process, in which esparto is used as a TO THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 69 blend with the ordinary rag material, the results are very satisfactory, demonstrating that a new material has at length been brought into use, meeting this long-desired requirement both as regards quality and economy. “One satisfactory feature in Mr. Routledge’s process is the fact that no material alterations in existing machinery or appliances are required ; no higher pressure boiling in expensive vessels is necessitated ; the silica, always more or less combined witha coating of raw fibres, is got rid of and the gummo-resinous matter neutralised, permitting the fibres to be eliminated and drawn out by the ordinary pulping engine as now prac- tised with rags. The assurance of a successful result appears to be de- pendent onthe proper adjustments of the proportions of the chemicals employed ; this secured, and the process is extremely simple; the issue appears to be reliable, and, what is of no little importance, invariable and constant. The fibres produced from esparto are specifically lighter than those from any other paper-making material in use ; their mechani- cal structure, moreover, admits of minute sub-division without destroy- ing the feathery or mossy arrangement which facilitates the intimate feeding or blending of the ultimate fibres on the endless wire of the Fourdrinier machine; then esparto paper, in consequence of this pecu- liarity, feels thicker in the hand, and takes a finer surface than that made from cotton rags, and in proportion to the blend or admixture with other rag or paper-making material, imparts these advantageous charac- teristics. It is to be remarked, however, that its introduction generally into the trade, being only, comparatively speaking, of recent date, it has not yet arrived at full development, its employment being hitherto limited to common and ordinary printing papers and cartridges, and in the unbleached state, to brown and cap papers.” Looking at the scarcity of paper-making material from the cessation of cotton imports, itis fortunate esparto came to the assistance of the trade, in which it has now taken a permanent position, although, like all innovations, both it and the introducer were much sneered at, at the outset. Itmay safely be said that the most of the common printing and newspapers in this country, not excepting the ‘Times,’ have a blend of esparto introduced into their manufacture. At the commencement of last year esparto fibre was selling at 5/. the ton, but the price fell, owing to the reduction in the price of rags, and to the general staynation of trade caused by the American war. Re- cently, however, a fresh impetus has been given to the market, and it is now selling at Newcastle-on-Tyne at 6/. the ton, and the imports last year were about 18,000 tons. This importation is equal to the manu- facture of about 9,000 tons of printing or white papers, but as much esparto is used for brown and other unbleached papers, where the loss in the chemical treatment is not so great, 11 ,000 tons will be nearer the mark. 70 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX EMPLOYED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE ‘YERBA DE MATE, OR PARAGUAY THA.* BY JOHN MIERS, F.RS., F.LS, &c. Notwithstanding the seemingly authoritative evidence we have on record concerning it, I have entertained a doubt for many years past in regard to the plant which produces the celebrated Paraguay Tea, the favourite beverage of the Spanish South Americans, I will here detail the results of my investigations into this subject, and will preface the inquiry by a short history of the events which had great influence on the production and trade of this article of commerce ; these events are the more interesting as they are in some degree connected with the bio- graphy of the celebrated botanist Bonpland, to whom I am indebted for the knowledge of the true plants which produce the Yerba. Tn the settlements of the Indians in Paraguay and along the borders of the River Paran4, under the dominion of the Spanish government, administered as they were at that period by the Jesuits, the preparation of the Yerba constituted the principal branch of industry of the coun- try. The plant from which the Maté is prepared was first mentioned by Azara, as growing wild in many parts of Paraguay. It is found in great abundance in all the moist valleys of the ramifications that branch from the main chain of mountains called Maracaj, which, rising in that part of Paraguay bordering upon Matto Grosso, in lat. 19° S., and tending 8. E., divides the northern half of the country into two distinct watersheds—the rivers flowing westward running into the river Para- guay, and those eastward into the Parané. This chain, after a length of 150 miles, suddenly takes a more easterly course, and is soon cut through by the latter river at a place called Sete Quedas, (seven cataracts or large rapids,) in lat. 24° S. ; it then crosses into the Brazilian province of San Pdolo, through which it runs nearly due east for 300 miles, as far as Curitiba, where it becomes blended with the main chain of the Serra do Mar, that skirts the coasts of the southern provinces of Brazil. The Yerba-tree is found more or less abundantly in all the valleys that branch out of this extensive range of mountains, but principally, as before men- tioned, in the northern portion of Paraguay. Wilcocke, in his ‘ History of Buenos Ayres,’ mentions three kinds of Yerba known in commerce— “the Cadcuy, Cadmini, and Cadquazt :” the first is there said to be pre- pared from the young leaves recently expanded from the buds ; the second is from the full-grown leaves, carefully picked and separated from the twigs; and the third from the older leaves, carelessly broken up with the young branchlets: all being half-roasted by a crude process. But I have always been of opinion that these several qualities were pre- * From the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX, ETC. 71 pared from different species of Zier. The Guarani general term, Cad, signifies a leaf or branch ; and in the Missions, the names of Cad-rirt and Cad-éna or Caténa are given to the different kinds of Ilex. The prepared leaves have always borne the name of Yerba among the Spaniards, its infusion being made in a peculiar kind of cup called a Maté. In the Portugese Missions the Yerba is called Caéma, and in most of the iSieetTfin provinces it is known by the name OE Congonha, pronounced Congonia. Under the Spanish government, the principal harvests of Yerba were made in the valleys bordering upon the river Ypané, a tributary of the Rio Paraguay,—the produce there collected being conveyed to the town of Villareal, at its mouth, in lat. 23° 30/ S., and thence trans- ported down the River Paraguay, in large pontoons, to the metropolitan town Assuncion. Although the largest harvests were obtained in Para- guay, considerable quantities in addition were raised in the various set- tlements of Indians founded by the Jesuits beyond its limits. These were called Missions, and were thirty in number, twenty-three being situated between the rivers Parand and Uruguay, and seven on the left bank of the latter river, in the province of Entrerios. These, as well as all the extensive settlements in Paraguay proper, were at their greatest prosperity at the period of the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768 ; but, owing to the defective management of the Indians under the subsequent rule of the Spanish authorities. the commerce in Yerba languished considerably. In 1810 the quantity raised was supposed to amount to five millions of pounds ; but Mr. Robertson states that in 1812 (two years after Paraguay became independent) the exports of Yerba still amounted to eight millions of pounds, or 3,750 tons, from the port of Assuncion alone, at which period, too, its cultivation in the Missions had become almost annihilated. In all these Missions, during the devastat- ing wars then raging throughout the Argentine provinces, the Indian settlers were robbed of all their cattle and horses, their farms were destroyed, the men forced to become soldiers, and otherwise were so op- pressed, that the greater number sought a refuge in Paraguay. it ® * of At this period, Paraguay was governed by the renowned Dictator, Doctor Francia. Under the Spanish rule, the Paraguayans had cultivated besides the Yerba, little beyond a fine kind of tobacco (considered equal to that of Havana, and much appreciated in Chile and Peru), and also some sugar and yucca (yams). They were soon induced by Francia to extend their agricultural pursuits, to cultivate rice, maize, and other vegetables, on a large scale, and to raise a sufficient quantity of yucca to satisfy the general consumption. Other vegetable products, hitherto scarcely known in the country, soon covered the plains: cotton, formerly pro- cured from Corrientes, was now cultivated to some extent ; more atten- tion was paid to the rearing of cattle and horses, instead of importing them from Entrerios, so that in a few years they were able to export a 72 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX, ETC. considerable surplus above their own requirements ; and they now made cotton cloths for their garments, in lieu of the woollon ponchos obtained from Cordova. The Dictator for many years was assiduous in his en- deavours to establish permanently this system of industry, which neces- sarily supplanted in great measure the trade in Yerba; he even em- _ ployed coercive measures in order to carry it into effect; and in 1829 he decreed that the possessor of every house or farm should sow a certain quantity of maize, upon the product of which every one was bound to contribute 4 per cent. to the state, no excuse being allowed ; and those ‘who sought to evade this obligation became subject to heavy penalties. To a policy of restraint, which in a more advanced state of society would not have been tolerated, it was certainly one well calculated, in the actual state of Paraguay, to attain the objects he had so much at heart, and in which he gradually succeeded. The good results of these wise measures are well attested by the prosperous advancement of the country up to the present time. His success naturally raised up against him a host of irreconcileable enemies in all the Argentine Provinces, who strove to blacken his character and vilify his conduct. All these Provinces, suffering under the extinction of the trade im Yerba, were leagued against the policy of Francia; but their attention beimg too much occupied in their constant internecine wars, they had little time or force to spare in the attempt to revolutionize Paraguay. At length, however, the Governor-in-chief of Entrerios, having made peace with the other provinces, turned his attention to that object, and endeavoured at the same time to establish settlements at the former Jesuit Missions (then almost depopulated), with the view of cultivating the trade in Yerba. And we now come to a knowledge of the state of affairs that existed when the celebrated Bonpland visited the River Plate, and how the subsequent phases of his life became connected with the history of the trade in Yerba. The fall of the Emperor Napoleon and the re-establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in France were events most galling to Bonpland, and he resolved to seek an abode in one of the republican States of South America. Accordingly he reached Buenos Ayres in 1817, with anominal appointment of Professor of Natural History in that capital. In 1819, Bonpland established himself near Candelaria, one of the old Jesuit Missions on the left bank of the Parana, contiguous to Paraguay, where he formed a considerable establishment, chiefly, as I understood, with a view to the production of and trade in Yerba, under the special auspices and protection of the Governor-General Artigas, who, as I have before mentioned, intended ultimately to carry out his designs against Para- guay. * * * * From his long residence in the country, and his great experience in all that relates to the preparation of Yerba, no one had better oppor- tunities than Bonpland to identify the real species from which that arti- cle of consumption is manufactured. The system of the merchants in their agreement with the ‘ habilita- ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX, ETC. 73 dores’ who undertake the quest of Yerba in the distant forests of Para- guay, the manner of hiring the Indian labourers for this work, the preparations for feeding them during their long bivouac, the mode of collecting and drying the branches, roasting and separating the leaves, pounding them, and packing the Yerba, thus prepared, in hide bags, are well described in Mr. Lambert’s memoir on the Ilex Paraguayensis, and in Mr. Robertson’s ‘ Letters from Paraguay,’ and Francia’s‘ Reign of Ter- ror.’ The same rude methods were employed in all the Spanish Mis- sions, and also in the Brazilian settlements, up to a very recent period ; but of late years more improved processes, upon a much larger scale, have been brought into use about Curitiba; but in the province of Rio Grande the old system is still continued. At Curitiba, I am told, the leaves are now roasted more equally, incast-iron pans set in brickwork, much after the manner in which tea is prepared in China, except that the pans are much larger. When the leaves are sufficiently dried, they are pounded in stamping-mills worked by water-power or steam-engines, and packed in bags by means of presses. The quality of the Yerba has thus been much improved. We owe to St.-Hilaire the first outline of the botanical features of the tree, growing about Curitiba, that yields the Yerba; it was only a short diagnosis, published in 1822, when he ascertained it to be a species of lex, which he considered identical with the Paraguay plant, and which was named inaccurately, through a typographical error, /lex Paraguariensis, a name he afterwards abandoned in 1824 for that of Ilex Mate, he, however, resumed the former name in 1833. In the meanwhile, Mr. Lambert, in 1824, gave a much fuller description of the plant, accompanied by a good drawing made from specimens sent from Buenos Ayres, and probably obtained from one of the Spanish Missions : he called it [lex Paraguensis. - Thad always been impressed with the conviction that the different qualities of Yerba brought to market were prepared from different species of Jlex; and hence the doubt occurred to me whether the plant described by St. Hilaire from Curitiba be really identical with the true Paraguayan type. The grounds for this surmise were founded upon the dissimilar colour of the two Yerbas, the difference in their flavour, and the higher price always obtained for the Yerba de Paraguay compared with the Yerba de Paranagué. The short diagnosis of St.-Hilaire an- swered equally to several species that I had seen. Sir William Hooker, in 1842 (Lond. Journ. Bot. i. 30), gave a very interesting account of the Yerba, describing also the mate or cup, formed out of a small calabash (cuy), in which the infusion is prepared, and out of which it is drawn into the mouth through a bombilla; he added the characters of the dif- ferent varieties, which he considered identical with the Ilex Para- guayensis, and of these he gave two excellent figures with analyses. This memoir, instead ef solving my doubts, only rendered the question still more enigmatical ; for in it is classed, as a mere variety, a plant which 74 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX, ETC. I brought from Rio de Janeiro, which I found growing in the Botanic Gardens there, and which I was assured by the Rev. Frey Leandro, at that time- Director of those Gardens, was the “ Arbol do Maté,” ““ Paraguay Tea-tree.” This plant, which is well figured in Sir William Hooker's memoir appeared to me quite a distinct species, marked by very peculiar characters. - Anxious to remove this doubt, I applied to my friend Senr. Consel- heiro Candido Baptista d’Oliveira, soon after I learned of his appoint- ment as Director of the Botanic Garden, and begged of him to ascertain whether that plant was really identical with the tree which yields the true Yerba de Paraguay, as I had been assured twenty years before, or a different species, and to send me, if possible, authentic specimens of both. He most obligingly forwarded me a fresh specimen of the tree still grow- ing in Rio de Janeiro, and at the same time transmitted my application to M. Bonpland, as the most competent authority on the subject, who, however, did not quite comprehend the object of my inquiry. This renowned botanist most kindly responded, and sent six different species with their varieties, all collected in the Missions, and all alike used in the preparation of Yerba. This at once confirmed my suspicion that more than one species of J/ez is employed for that purpose ; and as this fact is of some importance in the history of the subject, I will copy here verbatim the note of M. Bonpland which accompanied his specimens. “No. 596. Herbe du Paraguay—Maté—Ilex theezans, Bonpland— Ilex Paraguayensis, St.-Hilaire. Se trouve dans le Para- guay, le Brésil, et Entre Rios. “ No. 2425, Caiina des Brésiliens—Ilex ovalifolia, Bonpl., nouv. espéce. Se trouve dans le Faxinal, au sortir de la Picada de S@ Cruz, a 4 lieues du Rio Pardo. “No. 2333. Cauna des Brésiliens—Caachiriri ou Caachiri des Guaranis—Ilex amara, Bonpl., n. esp. Se trouve dans les montagnes de S? Cruz et dans les foréts du Parana. “ No. 2332. Cauna des Brésiliens—Caachiriri des Guaranis—Ilez crepitans, Bonpl., n. esp. Se trouve dans les bois de Guayaraga dans le coeur de S2 Cruz et sur les bords du Parana. “No, 2330. Cauna de folha larga des Brésiliens. “ No. 2374. Cauna amarga des Brésiliens. “ No. 2479. Cauna des Guaranis—Ilex gigantea, Bonpl., n. esp. Se e trouve dans les bois de Sa Cruz et sur les bords du Paranda. “No. 2471. Caunina des Brésiliens—I/ex Humboldtiana, Bonpl., n. esp. Se trouve dans le Picada de S# Cruz qui conduit 4 Rio Pardo, Prov. Rio Grande, Brésil. “ Toutes ces espéces d’ Ilex sont employées a faire Vherbe Maté. Les nos. dordre correspondent 4 mon jourpal botanique. “Corrientes, 17 Juin, 1857.” “« ATtME BONPLAND.” ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ILEX, ETC, 75 When in Paris a few years ago, I endeavoured to ascertain whether any of these specimens agreed with St.-Hilaire’s typical plant ; but the latter, unfortunately, had been mislaid or lost in the removal of the col- lections exhibited in the great “ Exposition” of 1855. St.-Hilaire states that he had compared his plant from Curitiba with specimens from Paraguay, and found them specifically identical ; this conclusion does not correspond with the specimens before me. I have since obtained from Curitiba a specimen of the plant there used in the preparation of the Hervade Parangudé. On comparing it with the true Ilex Paraguayensis sent by Bonpland, I find the two sufficiently distinct : this fact is of interest, as it accounts at once for the difference in the quality of the tea respectively prepared from these two plants. Hitherto, I have spoken only of the Yerba produced from these two species. Bonpland, however, states positively that the other species, of which he sent specimens, are also employed in the preparation of the Yerba of commerce. This fact has lately been confirmed by the assur- ance I have received froma Brazilian gentleman from Porto Alegre, who trades extensively in this commodity : his information is very in- teresting, both as regards the difference in the quality of these products, and the districts in which the trees are found; and from his knowledge of this matter and his long experience, his account may be fully de- pended on, The other species grow principally in the districts that stretch far to the eastward and southward of the long mountain range which extends from the “ Serra Géral” of Curitiba, in lat. 26° S., to lat. 32° §., where it is shown in the mapsas the “ Serra do Herval,” so called from the abundance of its Maté trees. The summits of this wide-spread mountain range are very broad, forming numerous table-lands which afford excellent pasturage for cattle. The Maté trees are never found on these table-lands, norin the broad plains that skirt the river beds ; they grow invariably on the inclined hill-sides in the numerous gorges inter- secting the country, which in most cases are densely wooded ; and it is in these woods that the different species of Ilex abound. In some places the Maté trees attain a considerable size, often exceeding 100 feet in height. These larger trees grow especially on the declivities of the western side of the same mountain-range, where all the streams flow into the river Uruguay. The Yerba here produced is of an excellent quality, that called by the Brazilians “ Herva de Palmeira” is renowned as being equal to the best Paraguay tea. It is in this region that seven of the far-famed Missions established by the Jesuits are situated, where the Maté is extensively collected. Upon the eastern declivities, along the tributaries of the rivers Pardo and Jacuhy, are the ‘ Hervales’ of Faxinal, Santa Cruz, and Guayaraga, to which Bonpland’s specimens refer. Here also is that of Butacarahy, equally renowned, where the Ilex gigantea of Bonpland abounds, and where it attains a height of 70 feet: the other four kinds, with smaller and more lanceolate, punctate leaves, rarely here exceed the height of 76 SUBSTITUTES FOR WAX. 30 or 40 feet. The latter are more irregularly branched, with a more straggling growth, and they produce the sort called by the Brazilians -Herva brava (wild Maté), while the larger-leaved species, such as the Ilex gigantea, yield a kind of tea called Herva mansa (mild Maté) ; such trees have straighter trunks, with more regular and rounded heads. The former sorts have a more bitter and stronger flavour, and want the peculiar and more agreeable aroma of the Paraguay type. When, how- ever, the Herva brava is mixed with the Herva mansa in the proportion of 1 in 3 or 1 in 4, it produces a kind of Maté which is hardly dis- tinguishable from the genuine Paraguay Yerba; and it thus forms a considerable object of commerce. Still further to the southward of the Serra do Herval, in the moun- tain districts of the Taypes or Canguassfi, some species of Zlex abound which are said to produce a tea as valuable as the best sorts of Herva de Palmeira, or even vying with the Paraguay tea, being equal to them in fragrance, flavour, and strength. This fact is worthy of notice when we take into consideration the great difference in the latitude of these districts. The quality of the tea of all these various kinds depends greatly on the time of year in which the leaves are gathered, the best season for the harvest being well known to the natives. Dr. Reisseck has lately published, in Martius’s ‘ Flora Brasiliensis,’ a Monograph of the Brazilian species of Jlex. He evidently had not seen any specimen of the true Jlex Paraguayensis ; for his diagnosis under that name refers to some of the smaller, more lanceolate, and punctate-leaved species of the genus, and certainly not to the celebrated true Paraguayan plant. SUBSTITUTES FOR WAX. * BY BARNARD S. PROCTOR. Some months ago, I published a short article drawing attention to the adulteration of white wax: + the present paper follows as a natural sequel to the former, and is designed to indicate the relative merits of various substances which may be considered suitable for replacing wax in one or other of its uses. With regard to the fitness or otherwise of any of these substitutes to take the place of wax for medicinal purposes, I shall say nothing, such a substitution being both unnecessary and illegitimate. It is also unnecessary to say anything with regard to their fitness for making candles, &c., that being unimportant to the chemist * From the ‘Chemist and Druggist.’ + See TECHNOLOGIST, vol. ili. p. 332. SUBSTITUTES FOR WAX. 77 and druggist. But for perfumery purposes, for the polishing of furni- ture, and the “ waxing ” of thread, substitutes may with advantage be looked for ; and the fitness for any of these purposes will indicate pretty well the fitness of the material in hand for other special purposes, which it would add too much to the length of the present paper to notice in full. I have aiso indicated the prices (quoted a few months ago, and, of course, subject to variation), and the melting point. Spermaceti is too well known to call for any remark: stearine and paraffin greatly resemble it when pure, but the former is subject to a greasy, rancid odour, and the latter to the odour of coal tar; they are both more crumbly than spermaceti, the paraffin especially, being readily rubbed to powder, and both are purely white. China and Japan wax greatly resemble good block white wax in their general appearance, but are liable to become coated with a fine white efflorescence resembling the bloom upon many kinds of fruit ; they have a toughness somewhat inferior to wax, and when a knife is forced into them, they break with a crackling sound ; they are both almost destitute of odour, and what they have is not objectionable: of the two, the Chinese wax most nearly resembles the product of the bee. Carnauba wax, on the other hand, differs greatly from all the others. It is hard, brittle, and darker coloured than the others; in physical properties it seems to hold a position between white wax and sulphur ; it takes a fine polish when rubbed with any soft material; and it is so hard as not to take finger-marks with the heat of the hand: it is suitable for furniture polishes, either alone or mixed with Japan wax or beeswax. TABLE OF WAX SUBSTITUTES, SHOWING THEIR COMPARATIVE MERITS AND PRICES. Bot a = an For thread. | Furniture. 5 Price. = 3 Ay =) deg. js. d. Genuine Block White Wax Good Good Good | 145 | 2 10 White Cake Wax (adult.)| Medium Medium {| Good wz [24 Jamaica Yellow Wax .. Good Good Good 110 English ditto. ......, Good Good Good Soop ele Spermacetite sania ciel Bad Bad Good} 112]}1 5 Sfearime yey ise csceietns webs Bad Bad Good] 144]1 4 Tree Wax, Japan ... .| Med. Good Medium | Good! 115 | 0 10 Insect Wax, China. . . .| Med. Good Medium Good} 118} 2 8 Carnauba Wax... . Bad Good Bad 192 | 0 10 Parvati nyse) oie cant le Med. Bad Bad Bad SWE a aes The quality of some of these materials is subject to considerable variation: thus, paraffin may be obtained quite free from odour; and if sv, might possibly be used without disadvantage in the preparation of 78 ON ALGERIAN PRODUCTS. cold cream or pomades. It is probable that there are other variations. besides odour and colour, judging from the melting points. Miller quotes the melting point of paraffin at 110 deg.: I found it melt at 133 deg., and congeal at 103 deg., China wax he states to melt at 182 deg. : I found it melt at 133 deg., and congeal at 103 deg. Japan wax I found melt at 128 deg., and congeal at 102deg.; the melting point quoted in the table being the mean of the two observations. The melting point of stearine is liable to vary from very slight causes (see Miller’s Chemistry) ; but so great a discrepancy as indicated above for China wax must surely be the result of a difference in the nature of the sample. The price quoted for Japan wax seems much below what its good properties would seem to justify. The qualities would probably become more uniform, and the prices would find a more reasonable level, if more extensive trial were made of these materials for the various purposes for which wax is at present used.’ 11, Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. ALGERIAN PRODUCTS. BY PAUL MADINIER. (Late Editor of the ‘Annales d’Agriculture des Colonies.’) In commencing this communication, I have to thank you for the translation of my article on the Plantain, which you published in the TECHNOLOGIST for October last (vol. iii. p. 112). Since my arrival in Algeria, 1 have pursued my researches on that plant with the view of making a monograph of it ; but the more I look into the matter, the more difficulties I find. The description of the species of Musa by botanical authors is very fallacious—what is defined as a species is often but a variety. Indeed, the whole subject is what we call in French “1a bouteille 4 V'encre,” so difficult is it to throw light on it. It is the’same, however, with several other cultivated plants of tropical countries, such as the sugar-cane, cotton, rice, sorgho, &c. With regard to the plantain, I must admit from my own experience that the great number of varieties, and the absence of well-defined characters among them, makes their proper classification a most trouble- some labour, to which it would be necessary to devote several years in visits to the different regions of their growth. I append hereto some remarks on a South African tree, from which I have obtained a colouring gum, and of this I send you a small sample. While I remain in Algeria I am at your service, should you wish for ON ALGERIAN PRODUCTS. 79 any detailed information on its productions. You are probably aware that the tonnage duty on foreign ships in Algerian ports is now reduced, and is levied only on the number of tons loaded in the colony. This reform, I hope, will increase the commercial intercourse between Algeria and Great Britain. The latter needs principally raw materials, which are abundant products of Algeria. She can supply you with cereals, wheat, oils, fibres, mineral ores, &c., and will take in exchange cotton cloths, fuel, iron, materials for building, machinery, &c. The relations of the two countries are already advantageous. The English who come to make Algeria their winter quarters are each year more numerous, and it is said that in a short time the Peninsular and Oriental Company’s steamers will touch at Algiers. Looking at the profitable business connections which can be esta- blished, I think that it is the office of a journal like yours to acquaint the British trader with the raw materials of Algeria. If you will under- take that duty, I will esteem it a pleasure to furnish you with full par- ticulars, and all necessary documents and information. I think that some information on the Lawsonia inermis, of which the leaves, dried and bruised, constitute the cosmetic dye so universally used by the women from the East, would be acceptable to you. The henna is a very interesting product, which will be in great request when better known ; I will send you shortly a communication on this plant, its cul- tivation and uses. I have seen mentioned in the quarto Indian cata- logue for the London Exhibition of 1862, by Mr. Dowleans, p. 45, that an essential oil has been obtained from the petals of Lawsonia inermis. Now the flowers of this plant are without smell, and it appears to me that the essential “oil of Mehudee” is rather the produce of some other species, such as Lawsonia spinosa, L. alba, or others, &c. If you have any infor- mation on this point, I should be obliged if you would inform me of it. Gum from the Schottia latifolia, Jacqg.—I have had occasion to examine lately, in the Garden of Acclimatization of Algiers, a small tree from the Cape of Good Hope, the usefulness of which has not yet been pointed out, as far as I know, and to which I think it right to draw the attention of scientific men, who will be better able than I to decide what it may be applied to. I allude to the Schottia latifolia, Jacq., of the family of the Cisalpine. It is a tortuous tree, with thick branches, and the specimen of it in the Garden of Acclimatization of Hamma is nearly twelve feet high. The leaves are persistent, pennate, with four folioles, small, oval, rounded, terminating with a short point, of a pale green at the nervures, almost blueish in the young shoots, becoming dark green with age. The flowers, disposed in bunches, are of a pretty, ornamental aspect, and diffuse a fragrance of ‘vanilla, which attracts the visits of bees and other insects. They bear four sepales, green, convex, and un- equal, and four to five white petals, unguiculate. The stamens, as in all the plants of this group, are ten in number, three of which are larger than the others. Their filaments are only joined at the base, and in the 80 ON ALGERIAN PRODUCTS. part where they are free are of a bright scarlet colour. The style is fili- form, ascending, and terminated by a single stigma. The fruit is a pod, with wrinkled skin, three to four inches long, and one to one and a quarter in width, containing two or three albuminous seeds, as large as a harico bean, and of a light brown colour. These seeds possess a remarkable peculiarity. The funiculum which connects them with the pod, and through which passes the nutritive juices which serve to develop them, attains a considerable growth, and forms a prismatic arils with rounded angles, fixed by its point to the pod, and on the base of which is attached the seed, by means of the radicle. These funicular arils are of a light yellow colour, and of a pretty firm consistency, when the pod has just been plucked, and has not gone much beyond the point of maturity, but they soon become soft when placed in a heap. The largest do not weigh quite one gramme (6 to 9/10). Some time ago, Mr. Hardy, Director of the Garden of Acclimatiza- tion of Hamma, gave me, as a subject for study, a handful of those arils proceeding from the last pods gathered from the tree contained in the garden. I brought them home and placed them in a large glass, intending to examine them on the following day ; but the following day being a Sunday I for got my arils, and when on the Monday I went to examine them, the mass had begun to ferment, and gave a very acid reaction on test-paper ; the surface was completely covered with mildew, which I removed, and found at the bottom a liyuid portion, which I separated. This liquid, exposed to the sun, gave me a gummy substance, of a greenish yellow hue, which retained a soft consistency even after a long insulation, and which had the characteristics of similar bodies (gums and dextrines)—viz., soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol and ether, and precipitated by acetate of lead. Under the influence of alkalies, a solution of this substance acquires a fine yellow colour, which possesses all the brilliancy of gamboge ; acids discolour it completely. The quantity of gum at my disposal was too small to enable me to undertake more complete researches. I confined myself to this preli- minary examination, with the intention of continuing it when the tree in the Garden of Hamma shall yield a fresh crop of pods. The proportions of gummy matter contained in these arils must be very large, if I may judge by the quantity obtained from the few arils which had been given to me. Whether this substance can be utilized or not asa gum, orasa colouring substance, it appears at all events to me to constitute an interesting product. If 1 may judge by the abund- ance of flowers, one tree alone may supply a considerable quantity of gum, and it is so easily extracted that it could be obtained at a cheap rate. It would be sufficient to gather the pods, separate the arils, heap them together for a day or two, in order to soften them, and then to press them. The liquid thus obtained could be solidified by the action of the sun. The seeds could also be saved, for it is to be presumed some use could be found for them, if only, at first sight, to extract meal from RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. 81 them. I am not aware whether they possess any alimentary value, either for men or cattle, not having had a sufficient number to experi- mentalize upon. Lastly, if, according to the vulgar idea, all that smells strong is good in medicine, the odour, sui generis, of the Schottia latifolia gum might indicate some therapeutical properties. These are the points which I should like to see investigated by the scientitic men who reside in the Cape Colony. Ewe 11 Impasse Darfour, Alger. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. BY WILLIAM FELKIN. It is not possible to fix the epoch of the invention of the art of weaving, or of the first use of a weaving-loom. But there can be little doubt that in the ages immediately following the flood, the employment of rushes and twigs in weaving articles for domestic use, by plaiting or otherwise wattling them, and of twine or threads spun from hair, wool, fibres of trees, flax, cotton, silk, and other suitable materials, by netting or looping them, had become general. By these kinds of rudimentary weaving, fringes, fishing-nets, girdles, and other useful or ornamental articles, were obtained. The use of these materials by handicraft skill led, at a very early period, to the construction of a rude apparatus for weaving cloth, by extending threads longitudinally as warp, probably from one branch of a tree to a neighbouring one, and passing a woof thread across them, over one or more and under one or more of the adjoining threads, till all had been thus traversed; and then the warp threads, having been altered as to their position by raising some and lowering the others, the woof-thread was repassed through? them back again, and so on till the warp was entirely filled up. In Chinese and Indian annals, as also in the Bible, the loom, or one or more of its important parts, as the beam, the shuttle, &c., are mentioned ; and there is reason to believe that the Tabernacle veil of the Jews, the priests’ vestments, as also the mummy cerements of the Egyptians, were wrought in looms of a construction very similar to those now in use. Babylon and Damascus were seats of these manufactures of cloth ; the latter ccntinues so to this day. Some are, however, of opinion that a looped fabric was then known. In weaving, or rather knitting hosiery, by hooks or long skewers of wood or iron, it is supposed we have the ancient practice perpetuated whereby Joseph’s “coat of many colours,” and the “garment woven without seam,” taken from the person of Christ, were wrought. In this operation one continuous thread only is used, of which successive loops or stitches are formed, and the loops of VOL. IV, H 82 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. each round or row are drawn in turn through those of the preceding row. Though it has neither warp nor weft, and can scarcely be called cloth, except it be feited, yet this tissue is superior to any other for many pur- poses from its elasticity and closely fitting the boly in wear. The art of knitting hosiery continued to be practised by hand only, and mainly as a domestic employment, working up thread spun from the long wool of sheep or goats until the sixteenth century of the Christian era. Its highest attainment was to furnish, at high prices, a few silk- knitted hose for our Henry VIII. and his daughters Mary and Elizabeth. Before that time, if stockings were desired to be cool and elegant, they were ‘shaped out of linen or silk cloth by scissors, and then sewn up. About 1589, the Rev. William Lee, M.A., a clergyman then living at Woodborough, near Nottingham, finding a lady to whom he was attached always more attentive to her knitting than to his addresses, in grief and anger determined to supersede her employment by constructing a machine which should, by its power and speed render hand-knitting useless. He made the attempt, and met with difficulties so great in the complex minovements and nice adjustment of parts requisite in the machine to be made, and so unlike any then known or thought of in mechanical science, that he was long greatly baffled and almost in despair. With- out previous practical knowledge himself, he could not find the needful sill and experience in others. The knitting mesh or loop isso different from the simple crossing of the threads in common weaving, that to effect it mechanically was an operation which required original power of analysis and combination of an extraordinary kind. Instruments and forces must be applied in ways and for purposes which, for aught that appears, were before unattempted. At length he succeeded ; and the stocking frame still remains in attestation of the greatest triumph of mechanical genius then, or for many ages afterwards, known. A minute description of this machine would be out of place here: it will be suffi- cient to mention that Lee placed a series of hooks of peculiarly inge- nious form and adaptation side by side in a uniform line and firm posi- tion. He passed the weft thread, of which alone the fabrie was to con- sist, along these hooks (called also “ needles”), and by the use of a row of cleverly formed moveable instruments, called “jacks” and “ sinkers,” rows of loops were formed one after the other on the hooks, and others on them in succession. This was done with surprising rapidity com- pared with the usual hand process. By the use of the hand-knitting pins or skewers, 100 loops may be formed in a minute: on Lee’s first frame, using coarse materials, 500 loops, and in his second from 1,000 to 1,500 loops were made per minute; by the machine now worked by hand, even when the loops are of such fineness as can scarcely be dis- tinguished by the naked eye, 10,000 loops may be made per minnte ; but, by circular power, 60,000 in the same time. The first machine was soon taken by its inventor to London ; and having formed great expec- tations proportionate to the profound thought and skill he had shown in RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE, 83 its conception and completion, and his consciousness of the immense step he had made in administering to the comfort and advantage of his countrymen, he sought the approval and countenance of his sovereign. She visited him, attended by her kinsman Sir William Carey and Lord Hunsdon, and saw him work his machine at Bunhill Fields. The frame was a twelve-guage, and working upon coarse worsted yarn, altogether unfit for royal or fashionable use. Elizabeth was disappointed, because she hoped to have found silk hose making on it. Lee had desired a patent monopoly in acknowledgment of his so-far successful effort. The Queen is said to have thus written —“ My Lord, I have too much love for my poor people, who obtain their bread by the employment of knit- ting, to give my money to forward an invention which will tend to their ruin, and thus make them beggars. Had Mr. Lee made a machine that would have made silk stockings, I should, I think, have been somewhat justified in granting him a patent which would have affected only a small portion of my subjects; but to enjoy the exclusive privilege of making stockings for the whole of my subjects, is too important to grant to any individual.” Lee was stimulated to alter his frame in order to produce silk stockings. After throwing aside his wood jacks for iron ones, and increasing the fineness from six to twelve needles, and as many loops in an inch in width in each row, he, in 1597, produced silk hose: these the Queen accepted and wore, praising their agreeable elas- ticity and beauty of texture. Nevertheless she refused the entreaties of Lord Hunsdon, and granted neither money nor patents. Perhaps her Exchequer was poor, or she might dislike to seem careless of employ- ment for her subjects by creating further monopoly of labour. It is probable that afterwards a patent was issued of a limited character. Such large hopes of profit from this new invention were entertained, that Lord Hunsdon, a descendant of the Tudors, bound himself by deed to Lee, learnt the art of frame-work knitting, and became the first stocking-maker’s apprentice. There can be no doubt that this nobleman supplied the funds necessarily expended in the improve- ment of the first stocking-frame, and in the construction of several others. Lee had given himself wholly to them, neglecting clerical duties and all other means of existence. He was never seen at Court, and seldom anywhere else but in his workshop. His prospects of profit and success gradually faded away. He soon saw his great but politic and parsimonious patroness laid in her grave; and after wait- ing patiently for some years to ascertain whether her successor would encourage him to keep the Invention at home, also having lost his patron, Lord Hunsdon, the continued neglect of James I., and his refusal to grant patent or money, he decided to accept, though with much regret, the pressing offers of the illustrious Sully, and transfer it and himself to France. The manufacture was established at Rouen ; and Lee was introduced by the Duke de Rosny to Henry LV., who gave him a gracious recep- H 2 84 RiSH AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. tion. That great monarch was, unhappily, soon assassinated; his minister retired from public life, and all Lee’s bright hopes were at once destroyed. Again having been fiattered and disappointed, his fortitude forsook him and he fell into a deep melancholy. An alien, almost an outcast, he sickened, and sent for his brother James from Rouen ; but it was too late. After twenty-two years of deferred hope and severe effort, he died alone, of a broken heart, at Paris, in 1610. “ Many a heart has been broken upon the wheel whose revolutions have made the fortunes of thousands.” James Lee returned to England, leaving one frame at Rouen, and set up the others at Old Square, London, where they were soon sold to a merchant of Italian extraction, and the trade became established in that city. Mead, an apprentice of James Lee, was sent with a machine to Venice. For want of tools, needies, sinkers, and workmen, the manufacture failed there in 1620. Leaving London, James Lee settled in Nottinghamshire, and with the money he had re- ceived for the frames he had sold, and 500/. for cancelling Mead’s in- denture, he began to construct others, and so established the business of frame-work knitting in that county; from thence it spread over the counties of Leicester and Derby. Aston, a miller of Thornton, Notts, joined James Lee, and they added the “lead-sinkers, thumb-plate, and lockers” to the machine, which greatly simplified it, and have been in use ever since. In 1670, “trucks” were placed on the “solebar,” by Needham, a London workman. In 1711, the “ caster-back and hanging- bits” were added by Hardy, of London, and are still used. With these improvenients, the stocking-frame seemed to have reached an almost perfect state as to the quality and rapidity of construction. It was com- posed of 2,066 pieces, and required eleven movements to form one course of loops. No increased power or facility of operation was acquired by any subsequent contrivance until towards the middle of the present century. London continued for ages to be the centre of the hosiery manufacture. A Frame-work Knitters’ Company was established by royal charter, dated 19th August, in the fifteenth year of Charles II. This still survives, but is powerless for any useful trade purpose. Its arms are a stocking-loom, supported on the right hand by a clergyman, and on the left by a woman presenting a knitting-pin. The stocking-frame soon spread in great numbers all over France— there are now at Troyes 5,000 or 6,000—Spain, Austria, Saxony, in which latter kingdom there are at present upwards of 30,000 frames at work. These still continue to furnish employment to many industrious mecha- nics. In 16€9, there were 660 English frames, 400 of which were in London, and three-fifths of the whole wrought upon silk. 100 only of these frames were then in Notts. In 1695, there were 1,500 frames in London, of which 100 were destroyed on account of disputes about wages. These had increased in 1714 to 2,500 in London, 600 in Leicester, and 400 in Nottingham. Altogether there were about 8,600 in this country. The trade soon began to escape from the London Company’s RISS AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. 85 coercive protection, and rapidly increased in the midland counties. This portion of the history of stocking-weaving is curious and instructive. Its results were, that, by 1753, the frames in London had declined to 1,000, and increased in Nottingham to 1,500, in Leicester to 1,000; the total number having risen to 14,000. Meantime cotton hose, first woven in 1730, were getting into notice and demand. Specimens of stockings made at intervals during the years 1790 to 1850 from Arkwright’s yarn for the most part, of great excellence, and quaintly fashioned, are shown in the present Exhibition. They are the manufacture of the late John Allen, Esq., of Nottingham, and are well worth careful examination. Invention, having for its object to vary by the improvements of this frame, the kind and style of production, began about 1750, and has con» tinued ever since in vigorous operation, r8aching a very high point indeed. The midland counties have long been famous for mechanical skill and invention. The “tuck-presser,’ which was attempted in 1730, and applied in 1745, was followed by Jedediah Strutt’s Derby rib-patent in 1759. By this invention a variation of the uniform or plain-looped work of the stocking-frame was effected by machinery, which applied “ points” to such of the “hooks” or needles as held the loops it was desired to operate upon, and then removed these loops to the hooks to the right or left hand, which would cause an alteration in the face of the work, and if repeated, produce interstices. The principle to be carried out was simple, but required great skill in its application by Mr. Strutt. An addition was thereby to be made to the machine, breaking in upon its uniform action. It involved the entire control of any loop and conse- quently over each hook across its face. This principle lies at the bottom of Morris’s patents of 1763 and 1781, whereby “eyelet” (ceillet) hole- work was produced, as seen in the open work in the ankle and insteps of ladies’ hose. Under Crane’s patent, 1768, looped nets were made. Else, in 1770, made the “ pin” lace machine by further change in this machinery. This principle of control and selection, modified in its ap- plication, produced the “knotted,” by Horton, 1776; “ twilled,” “stump,” “mesh,” and “ point,’ machines, the latter by Lindley, in 1778. Indeed, although Lee’s machine was, considering his times and circumstances, an astonishing effort of genius, it was succeeded after the time of Strutt by very extraordinary variations and additions. By some of these, adaptations were made of the stocking-frame to the production of fancy hosiery ; by others to make imitations of pillow-lace. Thus in 1769 and 1777, Robert Frost patented machines, in one of which he introduced perforated hollow long sqnares of wooc, and in the other a long solid square of wood having knobs on the surface, workiag on the principle of a barrel organ upon the loops at pleasure. On this plan the first machine-wrought lace was made by him. Is it possible that Jacquard’s grand idea came from knowledge of this important inven-- tion? In 1782, the warp-machine was constructed by Tarratt, on the 86 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. plan of operating upon every thread of a warp, using these warp threads only and looping them one to another, instead of using only one con- tinusus weft thread looped upon itself and without warp threads at all. By the warp-machine either a solid tissue or lace meshes, or a combina- tion of both, may be obtained. It is a curious machine, and is now adapted to make an innumerable variety of articles. Dawson patented his improved warp-frame in 1791. These efforts to modify the machines were made for the most part by working men, with a view to obtain a perfect imitation of twisted pillow lace. They issued at length in the construction by John Heathcoat, in 1809, of the bobbin-net machine, which after many improvements, and the application of the Jacquard apparatus and steam power to both bobbin and warp-net machines, has given to Great Britain the present machine-wrought lace trade, in which a return has been made of nearly 5,000,0001. sterling per annum, and to France and Austria very important branches of their manufactures. But to return to the more direct history of the hosiery trade. It sustained many depressions. These led to “ under fashioning,” and so- called “ spurious’? work. About 1776, 300 frames were broken in or near Nottingham on this account. Out of 20,000 English frames in 1782, 17,350 were in the midland counties. Lowered wages caused increase of speed to be obtained ; and the machinery was so increased in numbers, that in 1812, Blackner enumerated 29,590 ; though in the deep distress of 1811 there had been 687 destroyed by Luddism. Wages continued to fall in the hosiery trade, and the value of machinery de- ereased to less than a third of the cost. About 1834 the pressure on Wages Was so great that the trades’ union, bound by a secret oath, de- cided on a general turn-out of the three counties. This would have thrown at least 50,000 people out of work. They, however, at the instance of the writer of this paper continued at work, and gave up the oath, which it is believed has never been re-imposed. In 1844, such was the depression and suffering of the people in this trade, that the writer was induced by sympathy with them to take an actual census of the machines in their gauges, widths, materials worked up, and actual wages received after charges for rent, standing, &., were deducted. 240 parishes were visited in the counties of Nottingham, Leicester, and Derby, and the frames enumerated. To these were added returns from other parts of the three kingdoms. This account has been reprinted in Muggeridge’s Reports as Commissioner to inquire into the condition of the hosiery trade, and has been accepted as the basis of later estimates of the trade. It will be used accordingly in the statisties which are given below. In 1844 there were in Leicestershire 6,933 frames using cotton materials ; 9,875 woollen; 1,582 mixed; 168 silk; and 2,303 not at work. Total, 20,861. In Derbyshire, 4,380 cotton ; 1,454 silk ; 171 mixed ; and 792 out of work. Total 6,797. In Not- tinghamshire, 12,440 cotton ; 2,094 silk ; 299 mixed ; 46 woollen; and 1,503 not at work. Total 16,383. In other parts of England, 1,572. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE, 87 Tn Scotland, 2,605. In Ireland, 265. Total stocking looms in the three kingdoms, 48,482. In all former estimates the number of frames not at work had not been taken into account. This will in some measure give the reason for the large apparent, though not real, increase under long-continued bad trade. The number of persons directly employed by these machines would be when fully at work, about 100,000, one at each, and another winding, seaming, &c., the rest taking work out and in, The wages did not average in 1844 quite 7s. a week for those at the machines throughout the trade, a lower sum than earned by any other staple trade. The hours of work were long, and the labour severe. The returns were’ calculated to be for silk hosiery, 333,763/.; cotton, 998,700/.; worsted and mixed, 1,223,750/. ; flax, 6,500/. Total, 2,562,7632. Composed of materials, 705,7801. ; wages, expenses, and profits, 1,856,983/. 150,000 Ibs. weight of silk; 6,000,000 lbs. of cotton ; and 8,000,000 Ibs. of worsted and mixed were consumed. Up to the date of that census these frames had been almost entirely worked in dwelling-houses, or collected in small shops only. Since.1844, the demand for hosiery has exceeded the supply ; and thus a gradual but most important improvement has taken place throughout the trade. But the vears 1861-2 have been exceptional, from the dearth of cotton wool; depriving us also of the United States market, where previously we had a most important outlet for our goods. The hours of labour have been lessened, and the rate of wages has risen from fifty to 100 per cent. since 1844, according to the classes of goods made. By an invention orignated by Mr. Brunel, but improved and made more useful since, a circular head, garnished with hooks at its circumference, is used to produce a looped sack—therefore without a seam. It works with almost incredible speed. One of these will turn off, using eight feeders to deliver the yarn, 350 rounds, or a yard in length, of medium quality per minute of a head twelve inches round ; or 150 dozens of women’s hose in a week. Several of these heads can be managed by one person. The quantity of yarn used and number of dozens produced are immense. The prices at which they are sold is according to weight, but very low indeed. They are cut into shape by scissors, and are sewn up by hand or by stitching machines. Instead of ruining the trade as was feared, they have proved to be pioneers of the use of stockings in lands where they were previously not known or not worn: and have helped to raise wages through the trade. Women overlooking these “roundabouts” earn 12s. to 20s. a week with ease. The men employed about them gain 20s. to 35s. weekly. There are 1,500 sets (each averaging ten to twelve heads) in the trade, making hose, shirts, drawers, &c. They are worked in factories, and by steam. That is the case also with the “rotaries,’ which are forty inches and upwards in width, making goods in astraight line from side to side, and producing four, six, or eight hose at once. Of these there are probably 1,500 at work, at which the men get 20s. to 30s. a week wages. Those 88 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. are making hose principally. The “circulars” and “ rotaries” are believed to have increased five per cent. per annum in number for some years. There are about 800 warp frames making pieces for gloves, &e. The wages are from 16s. to 35s. per week. The number of this class of machines thus employed is about as it was ten years ago. Many hands are employed in finishing hosiery goods; cutters, stitchers, menders, bleachers, pressers, folders, &c. Women earn in some of these opera- tions 16s., and men 25s. to 30s. weekly. In the whole English machine- wrought hosiery trade there are directly and indirectly employed in ordinary times, 120,000 hands. In 1850 there were 1,230 frame-smiths, 600 needle-makers, and 340 sinker-makers. The wide steam rotary machines are costly, and require highly-skilled hands te keep them in order. Yet it is thought not impossible, that gradually the greater part of the English hosiery frames may be brought into factories. Attempts to construct wide rotaries, so as to put in fashion—ze., to widen or narrow by the machine, and without stopping it for the removal of the loops, have been at length successful. One such machine, patented a few years since, has been improved upon by M. Tailbuis, of Paris, was at work in the International Exhibition of 1862. It is calculated to pro- duce very regular goods in fine qualities, if not driven at too great speed. Another improvement of the same patented machine had been made by Messrs. Hine, Mundella, and Co., of Noitingham. Their machine of 100 inches wide, worked by power, makes while narrowing thirty or forty courses of loops per minute, and when not narrowing, fifty to sixty courses. Fourteen dozen of medium size pantaloons, fashioned by narrowing, have been made upon it in a week. The effect of so large a measure of success may be to diminish the cost of many fashioned articles; and so, by enlarging demand for them, cause “rotaries ” capable of giving fashion perfectly, combined with regularity of loops and due elasticity, to be more and more sought after. It may be here stated, in dismissing the subject of inventions, that the justly celebrated mechanican, Mr. Josh. Whitworth, amidst his other inventions, constructed a very ingenious circular knitting machine. This is the only one put together on different principles to that of Lee. Though many years at work, it has not come into general use. Much of the cotton yarn used in making English hosiery, is supplied from Staleybridge, Ashton, and Bolton. The amount consumed is so large as to have contributed much to the business of that district. Any difficulty in obtaining a supply at reasonable prices, is of serious moment to the hosiery trade. The consumption of animal wool has also increased in this business. Silk has remained stationary for some time. Narrow- hand frames have not been fully employed oflate. Probably twenty-five per cent. have not been at work for some time. They are not generally rendered unavailable if required by the wants of the trade. The amount of the consumption of materials, and the returns RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE HOSINRY MANUFACTURE. 89 have been very largely increased by the greater number and speed of the power machinery employed. The entire returns of the trade of this country in hosiery, which in the reports of the Exhibition of 1851 were stated to be 3,600,000/., amounted in the last average year 1860 to 6,480,000/., consisting of materials, 2,630,0001, and wages, finishing expenses, and profits, 3,850,0002. This great increase has been in the lower and medium classes of goods. The trade in shirts and drawers has progressed with surprising rapidity. In many of these things the materials constitute from five-eighths to three-fourths of the entire cost. How much of this return is consumed at home, and what may have been our exports, it is hard to say. The Custom-house returns of exports, whether of hosiery or lace, are so much below the mark as to be useless. The export of hosiery from this country has certainly increased considerably to most parts of the world since 1851. The most steadily enlarging markets have been our colonies of India, Aus- tralia, Canada, and the Cape of Good Hope. The demand for our hosiery under the French treaty has fallen far short of general expecta- tion. The duties and expenses are too heavy to admit of competition in France, with French manufacturers. Were the whole of our actual production consumed at home, it would only be 4s. a year for each individual of the population. If cotton and animal wool be regularly obtained, in sufficient quantities and at moderate prices, this entire trade may double itself in the next ten years, as it has done in the last. It is gratifying to observe the advance made in the physical condi- tion of the work-people in this trade. The worn and anxious counte- nances by which these men were during the first half of this century easily distinguishable, are only seen among the relics of the past gene- ration of stocking-makers. They now know their rights ; but, contrary to the practice of former evil times, employ only peaceful means to obtain them. Of late, disputes have not often occurred, and have been in most cases settled by joint arbitration of the masters and the men. During the commercial crisis through which this business has been passing in the last year, (1862), tranquility and good feeling have pre- vailed, though the privations have in many cases been severe. These are hopeful signs of future profit and satisfaction both to employers and employed, as well as to the communities dependent on their opera- tions. With our brother manufacturers abroad we trust our rivalry will always be amicable, and even mutually advantageous, increasing the usefulness and excellence of the articles produced by each, and issuing in enlarged demand from us all for labour, and securing fair profits from its employment. Gloves.—The manufacture of gloves is principally carried on in the towns of Worcester, London, Yeovil, and Milborne Port. In Wood- stock and Witney the gloves made are what are known as beaver—viz., of buck and doe leather for military and hunting purposes, In Hexham 90 STAINED GLASS AND GLASS USED FGR DECORATION. and Nantwich a trade still lingers for tanned gloves, known by these’ names, and in Leicester and Nottingham for cotton and cashmere gloves. In the old gloving towns of Ludlow, Leominster, and Derby, the trade is quite extinct. The introduction of foreign kid gloves many years ago stimulated to improvement the principal manufacturers, who, by studying the proper fit and good wearing qualities of their gloves, have maintained their position in the face of competition ; but now that al]l gloves are admitted entirely free, many small makers have given up. The number of hands employed is very considerable, particularly of women in rural districts, occupied in the sewing, who have the great advantage of working at home; and in the intervals of domestic duties are enabled to earn four or five shillings per week, as an addition to the family income. In recent years a large and increasing trade has arisen in gloves cut from cloth of woollen thread or silk, made specially elastic for this pur- pose in the towns of Nottingham, Trowbridge, and Norwich. The manufacture of gloves not having extended to our Colonies, this article forms an item in our list of exports both to the Colonies and America. The export to France under the recent treaty has not had time for development, and is affected by the large quantities of kid gloves made there by many makers of excellence who compete very closely together. A demand is springing up for what are called “dogskin gloves,” an English speciality. Cotton-gloves, made in Saxony, being produced at very low prices, owing to the cheap supply of labour, are becoming a considerable item of import, affecting the trade in Leicester and Nottingham. Belgium has only been a producer of gloves within about twenty years, and was previously dependent on France for them. The manu- facture has been largely developed at Brussels, which ranks high for ex- portation. As the glovers also dress their leather, they are enabled to produce them cheaper in consequence.—Report of Jurors. STAINED GLASS AND GLASS USED FOR DECORATION. BY APSLEY PELLATT. The adoption of painted windows* was concurrent with the improve- *