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THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH TO
MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE.

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH TO
MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE

WITH OTHER ESSAYS ON THE DOCTRINE
OF EVOLUTION

BY

F. H. BALKWILL, V.P.O.S., L.D.S., &c.

LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Ltd.

PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD
1893

PREFACE.

Some apology may be due to the public by the
author for presenting them with what may seem an
inconsequential series of essays. He hopes, how-
ever, that he may have some readers to whom they
will not appear so disjointed as their titles suggest.

Being much interested in Natural History, Meta-
physics, and Theology, he has from time to time
worked up questions which presented themselves,
and delivered most of these essays as lectures or
papers at the Plymouth Literary and Scientific
Institution, or the Odontological Society of Great
Britain, by whose kind permission they are now
reprinted. Some have appeared in the Zoologist
and other periodicals. The first chapter, the ninth,
the eleventh, and the twelfth, have never been
previously published, and all the chapters have been
rewritten and corrected up to date.

The essays themselves are of very various pre-
tensions. Some only aim at suggesting thoughts
as an amateur, which may find sympathy

VI PREFACE.

in the minds of those who have arrived at the same
standpoint. Chapters IV., V., VI., VIII., IX., and
X. are, however, the author beHeves, technically
reliable.

In connection with the Darwinian controversy
he directed his attention to human teeth, of which
he had professionally plenty of cases for com-
parison. It might have happened that he had found
the Darwinian hypothesis quite erroneous in this
respect. There might have been no more likeness
between the teeth of a man and a monkey than
between a man and a cat or dog ; but this was not
so. The variations noticed in human teeth might
have proved infinitesimal, or only connected with
disease, and having no relation to the supposed
derivation ; but this was not so. On the contrary,
every point on the evolutionary hypothesis "was
verified completely.

The difficulty of making the evolutionary hypo-
thesis harmonize with the Bible has been strongly
felt by the author. On further consideration
of the subject, however, it appeared to him that
the controversy arose from their being so very
much alike in their statements ; that taking
into consideration the exceedingly different con-
ditions under which they were written, they may be
said rather to support each other than the reverse.
No doubt the evolutionary theory may make
homiletics a little more difficult, but I do not see

PREFACE. vii

in it any tendency to alter our spiritual or moral
standards.

I am indebted to Mr. R. N. Worth, our Plymouth
historian, for the illustration of the Batten skull,
and to my publishers for the loan of the illustrations
of human and gorilla skeletons. The rest of the
illustrations were all drawn under my own super-
vision.

F. H. Balkwill.
Plymouth.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

ON PERCEPTION.

Slight summary of theories of perception — Plato, Aristotle,
Descartes, Locke, Hume, Malebranche, Kant, Berkely,
Reid, Browne, Gall, Spurzheim, Combe — Definition
of Perception, Classification of states of conscious-
ness, Hobbes — Definitions of will, anxiety, effort,
difficulty, fatigue, success, failure, conception, sensa-
tion, time, space, motion, substance, perception,
evidence, attention, words, purpose, truth — The
external world — The perceptions through the senses
and combination of muscular actions — Possibility of
error

CHAPTER II.

HUMAN AND BRUTE INTELLIGENCE.

Reasons why writers on " Instinct and Reason " generally
contrast, instead of compare, human and brute intelli-
gence— Development of intelligence following lines
of inheritance — Increment in man following the use
of implements, articulate language and reflection —
Physiological laws more nearly allied to habits of
action than Chemistry or Physics — Co-ordination of
perceptive and active organs — Sympathy of associa-
tion— Variation of business in man parallel to varia-
tion of species in brutes

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

COMPARISON OF METAPHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
METHODS OF EXAMINING THE MIND.

PAGE

Phrenology based on observation — Sir W. Hamilton ex-
poses error in Phrenology — Metaphysics hopeless in
physiology or pathology — Confucius on knowledge
and heartsease — Knowledge of connection between
Nervous System and intelligence only commencing —
Law of reflex action — Nervous centre of speech in
brain proved by diseased cases — Socrates, Shake-
speare— Physiological Mental Science Materialistic —
Sir W. Hamilton on absolute knowledge— Illustration
from sound — Defence of spirituality placed upon
procession of life from ovum 41

CHAPTER IV.

ON SOME OF THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TEETH
AND OTHER ORGANS IN MAMMALS.

Adaptation of teeth to requirements of animal — Indication
that this points to use of flint implements, as reducing
size of human canines — Cuvier, Owen — Echidna,
ornithorynchus, Sloths, Armadillos, anteaters, no
front teeth, huge claws — Kangaroos' teeth, action of
— Guinea-pigs' teeth, action of — Hedgehogs' teeth,
action of — Narwhals' tusk, development of rhinoceros,
no teeth as weapons, horn instead — Hippopotamus'
teeth as weapons, no horn — 'Ruminants rarely canines,
horns instead — Teeth of ruminants, action of hogs
with teeth for weapons, no horns — In most mammals
lower canines close in front of upper . . . .55

CHAPTER V.

A DIFFICULTY FOR DARWINISTS.

Mivart's statement of difficulty — Convenient definition of
word " species" — Isolation of marsupials — Different
theories of classification, best represented as genea-
logical tree — Comparison between marsupial thylacine
and dog — Huxley's view of probable derivation of
dog from thylacine — Teeth of wrasse, parrot fish and

CONTENTS. XI

PAGE

rodents — Comparison of growth of bone to clusters of
foraminiferae — Question of difficulty of physiological
construction and maintenance of teeth in living body. 84

CHAPTER VI.

AN UNNAMED FACTOR IN ORGANIC CONSTRUCTION.

Objection to evolution as inimical to morality must be
invalid if theory is true — Cumulative evidence — Ex-
clusion of question of origin of life — Habitation —
Convergent lines of development — Internal factor
recognizes improvement in organ and reproduces it
teleologically — Evolution of canine tooth, or ruminant
grinders — Growth of tissues an instinct — Goethe —
Socrates — Herbert Spencer 102

CHAPTER VII.

HABITATION OR ENVIRONMENT.

The word environment not satisfactory — Habitation more
ancient, scientific and vital — Decline of teleology —
Herbert Spencer on environment — Interdependencies
— Salmon probably evolved from trout — Relation
between grizzly bear and bison — Camels and llamas
and ramless regions — Similar forms of whales and
fishes — Wide face of Asiatic man and orang-outang —
Projecting face of negro and African apes — Reflection
of habitation on inner life of animal — Reasons for
supposing consciousness at organ end of nerve instead
of in brain — Ferrier — Reflex of habitation in nervous
centres produces acting conceptions, or building in-
stincts— Query : Are the pyramids an instance of
recognition of this — Position of dignified equivocation
— Lauder Lindsay — Man differentiated from other
animals, probably by words or weapons — The
calendar's story . . . . . . . .123

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE EVOLUTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

OF SEALS.

Sir J. W. Dawson's opinion not accepted — No close
affinities with manatees or whales — Three main

Xll CONTENTS.

PAGE

divisions : — otaries, walruses, and earless seals — Dis-
tribution, habits, and commercial pursuit — Seals
found in Caspian and Lake Baikal — Behring Straits
centre of distribution — Other probable derivation . 1 50

CHAPTER IX.

THE POSITIVE EVIDENCE OF THE TEETH ON MAN'S
LINE OF DESCENT,

Weight of evidence— Modern variation from normal
human dentition — Typical formula of dentition —
Cases of reversion — Probable progression — Opinion
of Cope — Approximal derivation from ancestors of
chimpanzee — Seven cervical vertebra — Case of solidi-
fication in Rissos grampus — Weapon the human
factor? — Upright gait — Absence of close hairy fur
Clothes— Fire— Rob Roy— Batten skull . . .168

CHAPTER X.
Appendix to Chapter IX.

ON BI-LATERAL SYMMETRY IN IRREGULARITIES OF DE-
VELOPMENT-IN human TEETH 1 84

APPENDIX II,

NOTES ON SOME MORPHOLOGICAL DENTAL IRREGU-
LARITIES IN SOME OF THE SKULLS IN THE MUSEUM
OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENG-
LAND 191

CHAPTER XI.

FLIGHT OF BIRDS,

Preliminary remarks — Flight in insects but not in spiders
— In fishes — Reptiles — Mammals — Birds probably
an off-shoot from reptiles — Pterodactyls— Archeoptery
— Anatomical affinities between reptiles and birds —
Toothed birds— Plumage of birds — Mechanism of
feather— Flight by rowing — Flight by sailing— By
buzzing — By skating— A cone of air compressed by
downward stroke — M, Marey's work — Swoop of birds

CONTENTS. XIU

PAGE

of prey — Captain Hutton — Power of visual picture —
Problem of soaring — Will man ever fly ? . . .198

CHAPTER XII.

THE BIBLE AND EVOLUTION.

The reconciliation between the Bible and evolution — A
question for theologians — Time of solution of difficulty
not yet come — Apology for making suggestions —
Ezekiel considered the term " Garden of Eden"
allegorical — The tree of life — The Eternal Father —
The Kingdom of Heaven — Moses' definition of
ruminants — Rod becoming a serpent — Gothic sacred
Ash — Ezekiel on evolution — How did the Son of Man
first come on the earth f — The science of geology, a
house builded upon the rock — Origin of language in
love of the Father — Abraham's substitution of animal
for human sacrifice — Exclusiveness of Jews in their
religion met by sacrifice of Christ .... 224

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Full Page Plates.

Dentition of

Kangaroo ^
HedgehogJ

. To face

PAGB

59

Guinea-pig] D,,,
Mole j^/^^^n. .

i»

67

i}

Sheep, P/ate III. .

„

79

Human Skeleton

»

178

Gorilla's

j> .....

)»

179

Skull, Mr. Worth's Batten . . .

•

180

Plumules of feathers of Pheasant

„ „ Swift

„ „ Buzzard

„ „ Pigeon

„ „ Snipe

„ „ Woodcock

„ „ Starling

Plafe IV.

204

Wood Cuts in Text.

Grey Seal

„ mouth of

Human Third Incisors, Milk Teeth .

„ „ Incisor, Permanent Teeth .

„ Molars, Extra Cusps on
„ Variations of, compared with Monkeys
Incisors, Dwindling

170
171
172

174, 186, 194
. . 187

150
166

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH TO
MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE

AND OTHER ESSA YS,

CHAPTER I.

ON PERCEPTION.

Slight summary of theories of perception— Plato, Aristotle,
Descartes, Locke, Hume, Malebranche, Kant, Berkely,
Reid, Browne, Gall, Spurzheim, Combe — Definition of Per-
ception, Classification of states of consciousness, Hobbes —
Definitions of will, anxiety, effort, difficulty, fatigue, success,
failure, conception, sensation, time, space, motion, substance,
perception, evidence, attention, words, purpose, truth — The
external world — The perceptions through the senses and
combmation of muscular actions — Possibility of error.

Various theories have from time to time been
started to account for our acquaintance with the
external world, of which the following are some of
the most notable opinions on the subject.

" Plato illustrates our manner of perceiving the
objects of sense in this manner : He supposes a dark
subterraneous cave in which men lie bound in such
a manner that they can direct their eyes only to one
part of the cave, on which shadows of external objects
are thrown as they pass between the light, let in at
the mouth of the cave, and the viewed wall." (Reid
on Perception, vol. i., p. 63.)

B

2 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Aristotle and the Peripatetics called the images
presented to our senses " sensible species " or
" forms," those presented to the memory or imagina-
tion were called '' phantasms," whilst those presented
to the intellect were called '' intelligible species."
Here we have a very good classification of what in
later times, especially since Descartes, were termed
'' ideas r

The theory which the ancients seem to have held
in connection with this system of species was, that
films or images of their different qualities were con-
tinually given off by external objects, which were re-
ceived by the senses and caused the species to arise
in us.

Descartes threw over the theory of films and
species, which seems to have degenerated into a very
mystical disjointed jargon ; and beginning with his
own existence as the first incontrovertible fact, pro-
posed, from his own thoughts, to infer an external
world, instead of taking the external world for granted
and then trying to account for his acquaintance with
it. His followers, like the Peripatetics, divided the
phenomena of perception into three heads ; only in-
stead of species they were called ideas, viz., those of
sensation, imagination, and pure intellection.

Descartes' views were eagerly adopted, and the
belief in innate ideas of God, right and wrong, cause
and effect, and other general ' ideas, assumed the
authority of scientific sanction.

Locke opposed the theory of innate moral or in-
tellectual ideas such as those previously mentioned ;
but though he pointed out what physical philosophy

TO man's place in nature. 3

has lately claimed to have discovered experimentally,
viz., that substance could only be evidenced to the
sense by different modes of motion or force, he still
seems to have admiitted that elementary sensation,
such as blueness, sweetness, warmth, etc., were
innate ideas suggested through the senses by the
various motions of light, heat, and friction.

Hume pointed out the law of association of ideas.
After any two ideas have been associated together,
either by time, locality, resemblance, contrast or any
other relation, the introduction of one subsequently
was likely to give rise to the other also. This law of
the association of ideas, as we shall see when dis-
cussing the theory of evolution, will probably prove
to be of solid scientific value.

Father Malebranche supposed that there was an
external world, as we were told so by the revelation
of the Bible, but tried to demonstrate that we could
have no immediate knowledge of it ; that our per-
ceptions were ideas communicated to our minds by
contact with the Divine mind, Who, as He created
everything, must have the ideas of everything in His
mind, and communicates them to us on the occasion
of their necessity. He proposed the theory that we
formed our own ideas, but rejects it as improbable ;
it is, however, I think, worthy of more attention.

Kant pointed out that if there were an external
world, our ideas of it, when right, would be of a
different value to what they would be when wrong,
and classifies the mind in these two states under
separate names. Where the evidence is not con-
clusive nor the object corresponding to the idea

B 2

4 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

formed, he calls '' opinion." Where the evidence is
not conclusive, but the idea does correspond to the
object, he calls " belief." Where the evidence is
conclusive and the idea, of course, in correspondence
with the object, this he calls " certainty." Without
considering the correctness of his nomenclature, the
observation is a valuable one, and we may frequently
remark the difference in value of the state of mind
relative to an object being correct or not, although
arrived at from the same evidence.

A sees B pass him at a little distance, and remarks
to his companion, C, " There goes L." *' No," re-
plies C, " L is out of town." " I am sure it was L,"
replies A, " I saw his face." They give chase and
overtake B. '' Well," says A, " I thought it was L.
I thought I saw his face clearly enough." Or, on the
other hand, it really turns out to be L, and A would
probably congratulate himself by saying, "Ah !- I knew
I could not be mistaken," stamping the fact of his
knowledge by how it turned out, not by the strength
of his impression.

We constantly find this distinction practically
made and allowed ; where no practical result depends
upon the correctness of a person's opinion or belief,
he is only expected to show that he had as good or
better evidence for holding that, than any other
view ; but when a result depends upon an external
fact being rightly appreciated, he is often condemned
by the result, not by the evidence he can produce in
excuse for his judgment.

Bishop Berkely showed that our perception of
visible distance was not from perceiving the angle

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 5

which straight Knes make with each other when
drawn from the eye to the extremities of the object,
but was the result of experience, not of any necessary,
but of the iLsual accompaniments of distance, as com-
parisons with known intervening objects, dimness
and diminution of apparent size.

The size or intensity of a perception, he measured
by taking the smallest possible sensation as unit and
multiplying it. " Whether or no matter be infinitely
divisible," says he, " may be questioned ; but there
can be no manner of doubt that the sensations of the
mind are not so."

The smallest possible sensation he calls " points of
perception." I think Locke had also indicated some-
thing of the same sort.

Berkely contended that, as there was no resem-
blance between the ideas communicated to us from
any object by touch and sight — between the appear-
ance of an object near and far off and under the
microscope — there was no evidence of any external
world ; that these perceptions were the words by
which the Supreme Ruler communicated to our
minds what to do, and what to prepare for, and that
when we ceased to perceive a thing it ceased to exist.
He advanced this view as an argument against
Atheism.

It is rather surprising that we should have the
same theory advanced in the present day by Comte,
to deny that we have any right to try to account for
phenomena by attributing substance to them.

"There is nothing in nature but mind and ideas,"
says Berkely. " Nay," says Mr. Hume, " there is

6 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

nothing in nature but ideas only ; for what we call
mind is nothing but a train of ideas, connected by
certain relations between themselves."

Dr. Andrew Reid was tired of trying to reconcile
the ideas in the mind with their object, and cut the
Gordian knot by supposing we did actually perceive
the object itself, " for," says he, '' when I think of
Alexander the Great, I must have the idm of Alexan-
der in my mind and think of the real Alexander as
well ; but I only think of one Alexander, therefore I
immediately think of the real Alexander without any
intermediate idea at all." With much merit Reid
applies to his theory the method of supposing it to
be correct, and then trying how it would work in
fact, and explains by it the laws of perspective.
Unfortunately we cannot so easily explain the pheno-
mena of perception ; this theory leaves error un-
accounted for ; if there had been no real- Alexander,
we might have thought about him all the same. The
merit of Reid's observation lay in pointing out that
we refer sensations received from what we believe to
be an external object, there, where we believe the
object to be.

Dr. Thomas Browne showed Reid's mistake, and
laid great stress upon the feelhig that accompanied
any phenomenon being the means of discerning its
relation to ourselves and other phenomena. Memory
he describes as *' certain feelings arising in the mind,
with the feeling that they have been there before."

Gall, Spurzheim, Combe and the phrenologists
attempted to prove that the whole range of human
action is the result of separate organs of the brain

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 7

specially adapted to each class of ideas ; so that ex-
ternal objects only excite ideas in that mind which
has a particular organ adapted for its reception.

Although their system can hardly rank as a theory
of perception, still in their works are found some first-
rate studies and exercises on individual peculiarities
of perception, showing that objects, which are as
clear as the sun at noonday to some minds, are en-
tirely unperceived by others.

Let us try and come to some understanding of the
meaning in which we are to take this word perception,
before trying to account for our possession of the
faculty of which it is the name.

If I look at a statue of Apollo, I say, I perceive it.
Now if I shut my eyes, I shall have an idea of it in
my mind, and with that idea I have also the convic-
tion that there is still the real Apollo there where I
see it when my eyes are open ; but still I do not say
I perceive it ; perhaps the most intelligible way of
expressing this will be to say that I have a concep-
tion of it. But whilst I look at it, I am conscious
that the variously shaded figure which meets my
eyes is not the conception of it which I have when
they are shut, nor very much like it, although I may
have an impression that one is derived from the
other. As well as the figure on the eye I conceive
of another side to it, which would present another
shaded figure to the eye, if I went round it ; I con-
ceive of some weight and hardness in it ; if I saw it
falling upon me, I should not enter upon any very
abstruse reasoning before moving out of the way.
The variations of shading make me conceive that if

8 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

I alter my position so as to bring these parts into
profile, they will manifest certain relative modifica-
tions of outline. Although I can see the whole of
the statue through the pupil of the eye, and there-
fore on the surface of a circle of less than a quarter
of an inch in diameter, yet from the knowledge of
its distance from me, and certain sensations of per-
spective, I conceive of it as being some seven or
eight feet high. Therefore, as well as the abiding
conception I have of the statue when I perceive it, I
have a certain indication of its relative position to
myself coming through the eye and altering with
every alteration of this position. This, which can
be excluded by obstructing the organ of sense which
receives it, we will call sensation ; and as both
sensation and conception are necessary to perception,
our definition may stand thus : —

Our conception of the external world immedi-
ately accompanying sensation.

It may be objected that this definition leaves out
those perceptions of our own states, which Locke
classifies under the head of reflections ; but I think
we may willingly leave them out as likely to
confuse us, and not legitimately belonging to our
subject.

It is not very difficult to classify the whole of our
consciousness under three heads.

We can will. That is, imagine some end to be
attained, desire to attain it, and act for its attain-
ment.

We can feel. That is, experience pain or pleasure,
happiness or misery, joy or grief.

TO man's place in nature. 9

We can perceive. That is, become conscious of
external things, facts, etc.

Let us consider if the origin of feeling and percep-
tion can be traced to the will.

With regard to feeling, it seems pretty clear that
the presence of external objects gives us pleasure or
pain. The presence of a friend gives us pleasure, of
fire to our fingers, pain and so on. All objects would
be equally indifferent to us unless we had had some
previous preparation relative to them, and as we
could have no preparation before we existed it is
evident that we could have no ideas of pleasure or pain
relative to external objects at the commencement of
existence. Now, we may notice in ourselves and
others every day that the will is often set upon
otherwise indifferent objects, and then the simple
fact of obtaining them gives pleasure, or of losing
them gives pain. Thus, then, it is not difficult to
derive feelings of pleasure or pain as legitimately
flowing from the will. And, moreover, it strikes us
as an intelligible and sufficient cause, appreciable to
our understandings.

To imagine, is a necessary ingredient to the will,
as is well pointed out in the following quotation
from Hobbes.

" And because going, speaking, and the like
voluntary motions, depend always upon precedent
thought of whither, which way and what, it is
evident that imagination is the first internal begin-
ning of all voluntary motion." (Hobbes' Leviathan,
vol. iii., p. 38.)

Having the power to will something I will take it

10 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

for granted that we do so, that is desire, and try to
fulfil our desires ; in other words we act. But as
there are external objects and forces surrounding us
of which we are entirely ignorant (perception not
being yet allowed), we will inevitably come into
collision with them, that is, will find our will
resisted. This will give us pain ; we therefore act
in another direction to avoid this pain and meet
with fresh obstruction, perhaps differing in some
manner relatively to our actions to the former
obstacle, until at last we begin to imagine the
causes of these obstructions, in order to avoid or
make use of them.

Having imagined a cause to certain resistances,
we shall act accordingly ; when we are right we
shall succeed, and the conviction that our ideas are
correct will arise ; whereas, when wrong, we shall fail,
and then try and form fresh ideas by acting about
the obstacle until we have got! all its relations.
Thus, I think we may account for conception ; the
imagination formed upon past action. But soon we
are aware that some of these external objects are
available to assist us in attaining our desires, the
presence of these no longer gives pain but pleasure ;
and then again we find them hindering our designs,
so that the same ideas being sometimes associated
with pain, sometimes with pleasure, at last in them-
selves become indifferent though equally distinct,
and hence we get simple sensation.

Hobbes has the following remarkable paragraph
which very nearly expresses this view of the subject.
" Concerning the thoughts of man, I will consider

TO man's place in nature. II

them first singly and afterwards in train or depend-
ence upon one another ; singly, they are every one a
representation or appearance of some quality or
other accident of a body without us ; which is com-
monly called an object, which object worketh on the
eyes and ears and other parts of a man's body ; and
by diversity of working produceth diversity of
appearances." (Leviathan, vol. iii., chap, i.)

*' The cause of sense, if the external body or object,
which presseth the organs proper to each sense
either immediately as in taste or touch, or medi-
ately as in seeing, hearing, and smelling, which
pressure by the mediation of the nerves and other
strings and membranes of the body, continued inward
to the brain and heart, causeth there a resistance or
counter-pressure, or endeavour of the heart to
deliver itself, which endeavour, because outward,
seemeth to be some matter without, and this seem-
ing or fancy is that which men call sense, all w^hich
qualities called sensible are, in the object that
causeth them, but so many several motions of the
matter by which it presseth our organs diversely."
Again, he says, " And, although unstudied men do
not conceive any motion at all to be there where
the thing moved is invisible, or the space it is
moved in is for the shortness of it invisible, yet that
doth not hinder but that such motions are. For let
a space be never so little, that which is moved over
a greater space whereof that little space is part, must
first be moved over that. These small beginnings of
motion, within the body of man before they appear
in walking, speaking, striking and other visible

12 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

actions, are commonly called endeavour." (Levia-
than, vol. iii., p. 38,) Hobbes considered life but a
quality of matter, and therefore describes all human
action and passion as merely the relations existing
between this live matter and the external world ; if
he had but given the initial motion with the power
to choose in what direction it would move to the
will, I should have had nothing to do but to have '
accepted his definitions and worked them out ; but
if the order of motion be exactly reversed, it will
fairly represent the theory advocated.

When we have got so far as to receive conceptions
of our own body and the rest of the external world
immediately accompanying sensation, in other words,
perceive, we shall perceive that all external objects
stand in some relation to our actions, either to facili-
tate or oppose their attainment, and it is by no
means derogatory to the initial freedom of J:hat
will to say that once determined it will become a
law that we must desire all those relationships
which are subservient to the original volition, and
the absence of those averse to it.

Now, according to our premises, the satisfaction
of our will gave a feeling of pleasure. Therefore,
with the perception of the relationship to our desires
of any external object a feeling of pleasure or the
reverse would arise.

To this feeling of the relationship of anything to
the desire, I can find no very well authenticated name.
It is rather more, I think, than the '' general feeling of
relationship " of Browne, and more peculiarly indi-
vidual than the " Divine idea " of Fichte. It is possi-

TO man's place in nature. 13

bly that known by poets under the name of spirit ;
as the spirit of the woods, mountains, mammon, etc.
But there is a popular word which is often used
with this meaning in a superficial manner, and as it
is the best I can find at hand I shall make use of it.
It is Purpose, and its definition will be as follows : —
" That feeling of relationship to our actions
which accompanies the perception of any external
object." For convenience, the word will be used
objectively as well as subjectively. Objectively it
will be the relationship of any object to our actions.

The following are a few general definitions of
words used in this sense : —

To imagine an end to be attained, to desire that
end and to try to attain it — is — TO will. To meet
with resistance is Sensation, with uncertainty of
success — Anxiety.

To try to overcome the resistance is Effort. Con-
tinued uncertainty of success is — Difficulty,

With continued effort — Fatigue.

Success — is Joy, Pleasure, Happiness, etc.

Failure — is Pain, Grief, Unhappiness, etc.

To form ideas of the external world from resis-
tance is — Conception.

The same objects of conception being found some-
times in aid of, sometimes against the will give —
simple Sensation.

A change in the relations of the same object gives
the idea of — Time.

More than one object at the same time gives the
idea of — Space.

Motion gives at once the idea of Time and Space.

14 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

A consciousness of identity existing with change 'of
states, of will, sensation and feeling — gives an idea
of — substance.

The recurrence of a sensation gives the conception
already formed of the substance supposed to give it

AND IS PERCEPTION.

When the conception of the external world is
sufficiently correct to maintain a consistent, con-
tinuous form, so that the general outlines need not
be often altered, memory begins.

Passed sensations, whose ideas are relied on, when
used to make fresh conceptions, are — evidences.

On the look out for fresh evidences to complete a
required idea, is attention.

External objects, when used to make the desires
of one mind known to another, are called words.

The feeling of relationship to our will, and there-
fore, in the second place to our actions, of- any
object, or combination of objects, or state of things,
is purpose.

The correct purpose of anything — the truth.

But if there be no special sense to the nerves of
each organ, it may be asked why we have the differ-
ent organs. To this, the following reply may be
made : —

It cannot be denied that the external world differs,
as much as it appears to the senses to differ ; and
not only so, but the means by which it is manifested
to us must equally differ, for there could be no
difference of perception where there was no differ-
ence in the evidence. Hence it will be seen that
our bodies are continually surrounded and assailed

TO man's place in nature. 15

by all those forces or manifestations, which we call
light, heat, sound, scent, taste, touch, &c. If all
these were received by one organ of sense, we may
well understand how next to impossible it would be
to get any clear ideas out of such a confused chaos
of sensation ; but by having several organs, so con-
structed that each one shuts out all the motions or
impacts, with the exception of those giving a particu-
lar class of evidence, and arranging these for the best
advantage to the sense, we may arrive at all the
beautiful harmony and yet distinctness of the senses
as we now find them. And we shall have, as it were,
a natural analytical machine which classifies, and
sets in order food for our minds without any effort of
our own.

The idea of the different organs of sense will rather
be, that they are sieves or gauges of divers sizes
which reject all matters except those of a particular
fineness ; and that our conceptions of wherein one
class of sensation differs from another, will lie in the
difference of purpose of one class from that of
another.

Tactile and muscular pressure are commonly re-
garded as alone sensible to resistance, because of the
greater visible bulk and displacement which accom-
pany their sensations, and of the much greater ex-
penditure of force which these consume. The speedy
exhaustion of the nervous centres by muscular action,
is the cause of muscular effort being so much more
speedily followed by weariness than other perceptive
effort ; but the same organ, nerve, conveys the powers
of resistance to the muscles as conveys the power of

l6 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

touch to the fingers, or sight to the eye, and recom-
municates the kind of resistance met with to the
sensorium.

In touch we are made aware, by filaments of
nerves disposed over our bodies, of any displacement
which their parts suffer by contact with external
bodies.

When we conceive of any injury by these means
occurring to our frame, by which we are to attain all
our ends in the world, of course it gives us pain.
Pain seems best associated in purpose as " a sense of
injury," which, being very defined in all its relations,
is acute, and being material in its origin, is commonly
known as physical pain. Thus, a small accession of
heat, which, being but a form of force, in some way
rather promotes the easy working of the machinery,
gives us the pleasurable sensation called warmth ; a
larger amount disintegrates the matter of our bodies
and throws it out of gear, and we have a painful
burn.

The conceptions we have from muscular action
have generally been associated with those of touch,
because touch is necessary to muscular action, and
conveniently provided to its use ; but they are in
reality the most widely separated of any of the
senses. Mere touch is perhaps the simplest of all
the senses, whereas ,by our muscular action our
highest intellectual requirements are attained.

The letters of the alphabet are only twenty-six in
number, and yet how apparently infinite are their
combinations. The muscles of the body number
some hundreds, so that it is not suprising if the con-

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. I7

ceptions acquired by different combinations of their
action should be also infinite.

But so evident is the connection between our
muscular actions and the conceptions to be derived
from them, that I think I need no further refer to
it.

The next sense, in order of fineness, will probably
be taste.

Here, as well as tactile sensations, and muscular
action, feeling the forms or consistencies of bodies,
the organ is so arranged as to take in the differences
of liquids and so judge of solids as they dissolve. It
is placed so as to judge of the suitableness of those
substances from which, from time to time, the body
receives fresh supplies of substance and force, and
what wonder if it arrives at peculiarly agreeable or
disagreeable feeling in accompaniment of its sensa-
tions ?

The surface of the tongue is covered by minute
papillae of very different forms, in which fine filaments
of the nerves are differently disposed ; and there is no
more difficulty in supposing that this mere mechanical
difference should give difference of sensation, and each
sort of papilla be enabled to comprehend something
that the other could not, than there is in supposing
that the same sensation of touch gives a different
perception, whether we touch a tumbler with the
elbow or grasp it with the hand.

Our conception by smelling is probably of some
sensible object floating in the air, or the quality of
gaseous bodies. We pass these over our tongues,
but no difference of sensation is caused ; but we often

c

l8 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

find that certain sensible qualities floating in the air
are the forerunners of food, and hence a savoury
smell will probably be one of the first pleasures of
this sense.

The organ of smell is certainly sensible to solids
and liquids, but they are so inimical to its well-being,
that we soon learn to avoid paying attention to them
through this channel ; hence sensations of this sort
do not much enter into our conceptions of scents.
Sometimes in early attempts at bathing, we may
smell salt water, but this is an exception — perhaps
rarely becomes a habit ; and on our first acquain-
tance with snuff, we shall probably reject it as un-
suited to the general purpose of the organ.

The nose is a chamber which is crossed in many
directions by thin plates of convoluted bones, over
which is spread a membrane in which lie the fibrils
of the olfactory nerve. Through this chambel" we
have the power of passing at will a current of air or
gas ; when we do so, the whole of the displayed fila-
ments are cognizant of the same sensations at once ;
there are no sudden successions of vibrations which
force their way in, whether we will or not, as in
sound ; there are no parts partially affected as in
sight. So that grant but nerves delicately organized
enough to perceive the differences which can float in
gaseous bodies, and the organ as we find it in its
mechanical arrangements, and I do not see how we
want any ideas of special sensation to account for
notions of smell.

Hearing disputes the palm of rank in the intellec-
tual scale with sight, because by means of it, in con-

TO man's place in nature. 19

nection with the muscular actions of the vocal organs,
we can so readily convey our purposes to each other.
It is also perhaps the one in which it is easiest to
disassociate the sensation from its cause, and to
show that there is nothing at all resembling the
sensation of sound external to the ear (save in how
far is preserved to it the order and degree in which
the motions fall).

These motions of the air pass off from their cause,
so far as surrounding objects will permit them, in
globular ripples at about the rate of 1120 feet per
second ; and as they are pretty regular in their com-
parative relations to their causes, and are capable of
infinite modification, they are a palpable means for
affording us evidence of all the resisted motions going
on for a good distance round us. They are made
available in the following manner : — At the end of a
funnel which somewhat concentrates the force of the
vibrations, they strike upon the surface of a flexible
diaphragm, which, being thus moved, communicates
the motion to a series of small bones, and they, in
their turn, convey the message to the true ear. The
last bone of the chain is called " stapes " or " stirrup,"
which fits exactly into an aperture in the bony part
of the second chamber of very complicated and
curious shape, of which the object is not, I believe,
very well known ; this is filled with a fluid in which
the fine filaments of the auditory nerve float, and
which receives sensations from concussions of the
liquid, in at any rate the same order and relative
degrees of intensity as has occurred externally.

Is there any wonder that the conception of sound

c 2

20 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

diifers from that of smell and taste ? It ceases with
the cessation of the interrupted motion, and there-
fore we cannot attach to it the idea of being a
quality of any external body. Motion here, is
scarcely possible without friction, so that in a
general way one of its chief purposes is to warn us
of passing events in aid of our eyes, and also by
many complex processes, in combination with all our
other faculties, to enable us to learn of each other,
in some dim manner, what feelings, sensations, per-
ceptions and purposes we are experiencing, when in
bodily presence one of another.

Now, far greater in number, importance and
worth, are our desires regarding each other, than
concerning the rest of the external world ; so,
associations of pleasures of a higher class may fairly
be expected to accompany the exercise of this organ
than either that of touch, taste or smell.

Just such superiority, in fact, as we find claimed
by lovers of music for its pleasures over those of the
three former senses.

Lastly sight, of all the organs of sense, grandest
and most truthful ! It seems profanity to suggest
that there is only a difference in degree of velocity,
size, form, &c., between the sensations of colour and
that of a cricket ball striking the body ; and yet I
suppose I shall not have the physical philosophers
against me, if I assume that light is but a mode of
force or motion.

But whether it be a mode of motion, or a sub-
stance in motion, there is no doubt that we see by
means of the light coming from the object, and

TO man's place in nature. 21

producing an impression upon the retina of the eye ;
not from our seeing through the hght to where the
object is.

However we may move round an object, so long
as the rays of Hght can reach our eyes in a clear
straight line, we see it ; therefore there must be rays
of light proceeding from the object in all directions,
in fact forming the same globular ripples as those
forming sound, and it evidently depends upon the
external mechanical arrangement of the organs, that
our sensations of light are not similar to those of
smell or sound, except perhaps in the fineness or
acuteness of them. For if the rays of light were
allowed to fall immediately upon a net-work of
nerves delicate enough to be affected by them, it is
evident that the whole of the displayed nerves
would be affected by every object within their scope,
and the only difference which each new object would
make to the field of vision, would be a general alter-
ation of tint.

But the direction of the ripples of light are all
changed by falling upon and passing through the
varied surfaces of the lens in front of the retina, in
such a manner that the radii of the ripples of light
converge after passing through the lens, so that
their point of meeting again shall be just upon the
retina, which of course will give a different point
for every external object to which straight lines can
be drawn from the eye. Now, as the axis of
these doubly converging rays will be a straight line
from the point of sensation on the retina, the
following will be an illustration of the relationship

22 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

to external things which the visual picture repre-
sents.

Ornamental mosaic work, of tables, work-boxes,
&c., is made by taking a number of thin strips of
differently coloured woods and gluing them together
in such order as to form a beam, the transverse
section of which, at any part, will show the required
pattern ; thin slices are then cut off one end, to be
used as required. Such a mosaic work of colours
will explain our conception of sight, with the excep-
tion, that the bars of colour must be supposed to be
radiating, instead of parallel and ever changing with
our changing positions.

What we see is the opaque cut end of the beam,
and all our conceptions of the different lengths of
the rods at the other end are the result of other
combinations and previous experience. Thus, as
Bishop Berkely very truly remarks, the visual image
is not really like anything that exists, or is like very
few things. It is, perhaps, something like a paint-
ing or photograph on a flat surface ; but it expresses
our position in relation to things externally, and vice
versa, and we form conceptions of those things just
so far as all the actions of our other powers enable
us to ; in other words, we get with the sensation of
the coloured image 2. feeling of its purpose.

The artist sees a glorious sunset, with freedom of
space, wildness, power, and a lovely assemblage of
harmony and contrasts of colour, giving him a
motive or purpose for a painting, where the fisher-
man only sees a storm coming.

Light is composed of impulses or waves so

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 23

minute, that 20,000,000 would measure but one
inch ; these fall upon the eye with intense velocity.
The intensest sensation we receive from them is
produced by gazing at the sun, but as this causes
with it some feeling of pain by being injurious to
the organ, we may take the purest white we can
gaze upon without such pain as the purest, simple
sensation of light. If we come upon a well-defined
surface giving off this motion, we shall see a white
figure, and if a defined space in the centre of this is
devoid of motion, we shall see a black figure there !
If we get an intimate mixture of these figures so
small that they are separately indistinguishable, we
shall get shades of black or white, whichever pre-
dominates. Now suppose we get figures equally
brilliant to these shaded ones, but composed of
different modifications of motion — giving equal
degrees of contrasts among themselves, but at the
same time giving no difference of sensation to any
other organ of sense, what better idea can we form
for these than colour ? Sensation being, as it were,
the substance of the w^ill itself, which may be, and
probably is, different in every man, although, re-
latively modified by external facts, the same in every
one. Thus A's sensations of red, blue and yellow,
may differ from B's, but they will differ from each
other as much in B as in A.

Having acquired the use of our senses, we shall
rapidly acquire other conceptions. We shall see a
form always accompany us, which, whilst other
forms are continually changing place, is more
constant ; we shall find that changes in the visible rela-

24 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

tionship of other objects to this form affect our other
senses, whence we shall soon get a determined idea
of our own body as such. We shall probably con-
ceive all substances to be as like ourself, in essence
as they are in motion ; we see the child hurt by the
table call it " naughty table/^ and strike it.

It is not necessary that there should be any great
logical acumen, or much cogitation, to account for
the great precision and accuracy to which common-
sense perceptions attain. The law which regulates
their growth, I believe to be very similar to
Darwin^s theory of the origin of species.

It is a common observation of any new or untried
theory that as much may be said against as for it.
The same may be said of almost any logical theory,
but when it comes to be acted upon, there will be
the tendency, in facts, to establish the correct and
dissolve away the false. In the struggle for exist-
ence the weak ideas go to the wall.

It may be objected that we are not conscious of
any effort or action in perception ; but one reason of
this is because we commonly think of muscular
motion as action, as it is so visible, and uses up our
stock of physical force so quickly, thereby causing
that anxiety for the means to carry out our designs
called fatigue ; another reason is because our use of
the muscles has a greater variety of choice and
irregularity of action, so that they are more readily
analyzed as voluntary efforts. Nevertheless, there is
a continuous stream of force passing to all the
organs of sense along the nerves from the sen-
sorium, and if this is interrupted in any organ,

TO man's place in nature. 25

sensation there at once stops. We may cease that
continual acting upon the most internal parts of our
sensitive system which we call attention, if this is
only partial, from being strongly occupied elsewhere,
we shall not perceive anything through the neglected
sense, and the person is said to be absorbed ; if from
desire for rest, we gradually withdraw our attention
from all the senses, we are said to sleep.

It may be objected that we attribute the sensation
to be there, where we conceive the object to be ;
but in the first place it is clear that it is not because
we perceive it there ; because if we touch anything
with a long rod it will appear to us that we perceive
it with the end of the rod, whereas, evidently we
have no sensation in the end of the rod, it is only
that the contrecoup of the rod in the hand gives us
the idea of the object at the other end.

In the second place, as sensation is the first ex-
perience and the conception of an external cause
comes after, the difficulty is rather to disassociate
them than to account for their association.

Where this is easily done we do it, as for instance,
when we do not attribute pain as a quality of the
edge of a dagger, because they are not often asso-
ciated, or are easily separated ; but we do associate
our sensation of green with that quality in grass
which causes it, because we can through our senses
form no other idea of it.

In the third place, as it is only by our sensations
that we can get any notion of comparative locality,
there is no more difficulty in attributing the colour
of pink to those walls, where I conceive its cause

26 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

to be, than there is of attributing locality to myself
at a distance from it.

A similar reply may be made to those who query,
how are we to know that our life is not all a dream
without any external world at all ? The very actions
and experiences which make us assume that a dream
is not reality, are what have given us our belief in
reality, and therefore to deny that they are sufficient
authority for our belief is in fact to attack the belief
itself.

On the other hand, if this theory of perception is
applied, I think we shall find it rationally explain any
problem properly comprehended under it.

According to it there must be many erroneous
conceptions of men, which rank to them with all
the authority of true perceptions. And do we not
see whole nations have acted, and do continually act
in complete error and confidence, in a manner inex-
plicable, unless they attributed their conceptions to
external real things perceived by them ?

In conclusion to sum up the whole argument. If
we have no means of telling whether our concep-
tions of external objects are similar to the objects
themselves, except by the evidence that acting
amongst them gives, I think we shall not be very
presumptuous if we assume that it was by acting
amongst them that we got these conceptions, if we
can find ground for believing that we have this
power of conception. Is there a power in us to
imagine, desire, and act, or are we only as lumps of
wax, beautifully tempered, it is true, but only capable
of receiving impression.

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 27

For myself, I confess, I cannot avoid the con-
sciousness that I can act — that is, cause change in
external objects with intention to do so — I can
choose which of two courses of action I will pursue.
That is, make a choice, an influence which did not
before exist, nor was caused.

I can form an intention — din idea of something to
be done in the future, and therefore not impressed
upon me by any external object.

I can remember the past, which does not exist,
and therefore again form an idea not impressed by
any external object.

And last, though not least, I can make a mistake,
and thus undoubtedly form an idea not impressed
upon me by any external object.

This essay is no doubt very crude, and some of
its positions hardly now tenable ; but one of the
points raised seems to demand attention, namely,
"that there can be no instincts or ideas implanted in
any living being before it existed, they must therefore
have come afterwards. ^__

I have allowed it to stand without entirely
recasting, as some of the metaphysical points dis-
cussed in it I have been accused of not having
considered.

28 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER 11.

HUMAN AND BRUTE INTELLIGENCE.

Reasons why writers on "• Instinct and Reason" generally con-
trast, instead of compare, human and brute intelligence —
Development of intelligence following lines of inheritance —
Increment in man following the use of implemients, articu-
late language and reflection — Physiological laws more
nearly allied to habits of action than Chemistry or Physics
— Co-ordination of perceptive and active organs — Sym-
pathy of association — Variation of business in man parallel
to variation of species in brutes.

Having arrived at the conclusion in the previous
chapter, that our perceptions, as we now find them,
must have been acquired after the commencement
of our existence, whenever that was, let us com-
pare our faculties with those of the lower animals
and see if this consideration throws any light on the
subject.

Previous to the popularity of the doctrine of
evolution writers on mental science have been
careful to exclude the mental or moral faculties of
the lower animals from the limits of their subject
before entering upon the examination of those of
man ; or if they have compared human with brute
intelligence, it has been in its most violent con-
trasts, with the object of establishing essential
differences.

TO man's place in nature. 2g

This may have arisen partly from a feehng which
considers it derogatory to man's moral dignity to
trace any kinship, however remote, between him
and his humbler fellow-creatures ; and from a sus-
picion that to allow of any such comparison is
inconsistent with the belief, that he has a soul
capable of an' immortality not to be attained by
brutes ; but also, and I think principally, from
ignorance.

In consequence, however, of the knowledge which
has been accumulated and systematized by modern
naturalists, and more particularly in consequence of
" Darwin^s theory^' having suggested an hereditary
connection between them, there is a wave of thought
now passing over us which makes the tracing and
comparing of the affinities between the intelligence
of man and the brutes inevitable. Such a com-
parison cannot fail to give some aid towards the
comprehension of each, even if we are not yet able
to lay down exactly wherein lies the great difference
between them.

The more highly organized the animal, the greater
its intelligence ; so that the development of this
faculty may be expected to keep pace in parallel
steps with the evolution of physical organization.

The embryonic stages in the growth of many
animals show marked resemblances to species lower
in the scale, as has been pointed out in support of a
hereditary connection. In the same way, when we
analyze the human intelligence in order to conceive
its simplest state and growth, we find a parallel re-
semblance to the evolution of intelligence as con-

30 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

ditioned by the organization of the lower animals,
which may be roughly tabulated thus : —

Simple volition accompanied by action and pre-
ceded by an imagined purpose.

This action being resisted by the external world,
ideas are formed of this resistance, in order
to overcome it.

Action repeated meets with resistance as before.
The idea previously formed, to account for
this resistance, suggests itself, and a perception
is made.

It becomes more easy to repeat the same action
than to try fresh ones to which unforeseen
resistances occur ; hence habit is made.

Habit, or the will, or perhaps habit and the will,
modifies the body for the better performance
of certain actions ; hence organization.

Offspring inherit this organization. Their intelli-
gence is conditioned to flow more readily in
the same actions as that of their parents ;
hence instincts or other hereditary mental
faculties.

Thus far human and brute intelligence seem to
run parallel. Then come the following conditions,
wherein man's intelligence seems to have got quite
beyond that of the brute : — ^v^^-

The increase of power by the use of implements.
The communication of information and the lessons

of experience by articulate language.
The consideration of his own mental state with a

view to improving it ; hence reflection.

TO man's place in nature. 31

Animals can be arranged, according to their
structures and most essential characters, so as to
form a more or less perfect genealogical tree.
This suggests one of two conclusions : either
the arrangement represents the successive steps of
idea or invention by which they were created, or that
all the different species have in reality the con-
sanguinity which this classification appears to in-
dicate.

One of the simplest forms of animal life presents
itself as a little jelly-like mass, which, to quote Pro-
fessor Huxley, " possesses all the essential qualities
and characters of vitality ; it is produced from a body
like itself ; it is capable of assimilating nourishment,
and of exerting movements." It has no definite
organs or parts ; when it moves it pushes out any part
of its body which is convenient. When it wishes
to assimilate food, it can hardly be said to eat ; it
places itself over or against the food, which then
passes directly into it through any part.

For such animals to be able to maintain their
existence, the surrounding conditions of life — that is,
a supply of food and the absence of a liability to
mechanical or chemical injury — must be of the most
favourable kind. Consequently we find that one of
the first things done by animals of this type is to
cover their delicate bodies with a tiny calcareous
shell.

We have here, in one of the simplest forms of
physical life, voluntary action, with power of chang-
ing the form of its body, power of adding to that
body from other substances so as to grow by taking

32 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

food, and a power of separating from itself a part
which shall commence a new life with similar
powers.

Such animals form the models of the ultimate
parts from which all the tissues of all animals are
developed.

Physiological laws, then, instead of having chemi-
cal or mechanical laws as their highest principles,
can be best explained as habits of action. Each
tissue and organ of the body is the record of volun-
tary action passed into habit and perpetuated into
instinct by the " survival of the fittest," or some
other law of suitability to the surrounding conditions
of life. Every animal has therefore within it all the
instincts of which its organs or tissues are evidence.

Here the question of individuality thrusts itself
upon us. Is it the same life that continues on from
C ^ parent to offspring ? How do all these aggregations
of separate animals lose their individuality and
humbly class themselves as cells with fixed duties ?
W Does intelligence pass down from father to son ?

"^ Have we dim memories of what our parents did ? \

/Or does each individual begin his own experience
/y / and develop his own intelligence with such aid as the
O^ ( arrangement of his inherited organization may give
Vhim ? '^ ■■ -^

In many of the lower forms, the individuality of
community only seems to have been arrived at. A
Sponge, for instance, is built up of a great number
of small particles into canals and chambers, each of
which particles " is provided with a cilium," to quote
Professor Huxley again, " and as all these cilia work

TO man's place in nature. 33

in one direction they sweep water out in that direc-
tion. The currents of water sweep along such
matters as are suspended in them, and these are
appropriated by the sponge particles lining the
passages, in just the same way as any one of the
Rhizopoda appropriate the particles of food it finds
in water to itself. So that we must not compare
this system of apertures and canals to so many
mouths and intestines ; but the sponge represents a //
kind of subaqueous city, where the people are ^

arranged about the streets and roads in such a
manner that each can easily appropriate his food
from the water as it passes along."

In animals higher in the scale of life, when a ner-
vous system has been evolved, this republican form of
individuality soon ceases to exist. In communities / f^,,
of animals which have one economy, such as exists
in a hive of bees, the individuality of the separate
members is sufficiently evident. Thus, one solution
of the difficulty which presents itself is, that through
the nervous system a central government is esta- i
blished to the individuality of which all the rest of
the organization of cells is subservient.

All action is not the result of intelligence. The
heart beats, the watch ticks, without our considering
either as signs of intelligence, because they continue
their actions regardless of external circumstances
which do not immediately affect them. If we saw
them forecast and alter their actions to suit coming
events, we should attribute the quality to them. If
we conceive of a being understanding the working of a
piece of machinery, we should allow intelligence to it.

D

34 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

To understand is in reality to translate the prin-
ciples involved into the principles of the actions of
the understanding one. So far, intelligence will
stand for a power of a being to see the relation of
external things to its own powers and purposes.
Again, the formation of an intention or purpose
would show intelligence. Or the consideration of
its own purposes in relation to its circumstances,
choice of some to encourage in preference to others,
or formation of fresh ones, would manifest intelli-
gence. Is intelligence, then, the power of creating
idea — the imagination ?

We concede to the man who does difficult and
responsible things, requiring at the same time
great imaginative power, more intelligence than to
him who, whilst giving evidence of equal power of
creating ideas, is not capable of producing successful
actions of equal difficulty. Is it not, then, the*power
to perceive truth ? and, as practically manifested, the
power to perceive the relation of external things to
a purpose, and vice versa f

Is this power of perceiving truth a substance or
an attribute ? Intelligence perhaps could not exist
without action, action without willing and feeling,
yet our own consciousness bears us witness that
these states are distinct ; hence we believe that they
are but states of substance.

We are conscious we are the same individuals we
ever were, whilst the substance of our bodies is
being constantly changed by material loss and
addition ; hence we get one distinct notion of a
difference between mind and body, namely, that one

TO man's place in nature. 35

is always the same and indivisible, whilst the other
is easily divided and always changing/

Our appeal to consciousness gives us the same
answer ; we can conceive that a mind cannot grow
by little bits of substance being added to it, whether
these possess intelligence or not ; though this does
not dispose of the question as to whether mind
itself is not an attribute of life.

Intelligence is, then, the power of the mind to see
the relation of external things to its own purposes,
and vice versa : but it cannot see or know anything
beyond its own experience ; it cannot grow, save by
the efforts and experience of the mind to which it
belongs.

I think if we take a clear view of these two con-
clusions—

The mind cannot be divided ; '

Its intelligence can only grow by its own efforts
and experience ;
and add to them another —

The mind cannot be prepared before it begins to
exist (is created) ;

we shall get rid of a great many indistinct notions
which make many of the actions of animals appear
inexplicable, and the direction in which we should
seek their solution will be considerably restricted.

The conditions under which intelligence acts
divide into two heads : —

First, the organization of the animal to which the
intelligence belongs ; its body, with which it is

* This position seems no longer tenable.
D 2

36 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

always associated in time and place (so far as we
are speaking of it), over the actions of which it has
great power. This body is its instrument in carry-
ing out its ends, and requires constant attention to
keep in good repair and readiness for use.

Second, the external world — liable to change in
time and space — in which it must seek to satisfy its
desires. If the animal can only perform few actions
the conditions necessary to its existence must be
easily fulfilled. If, on the contrary, the conditions
of life are varied and scattered, they require more
considerable perceptive powers and complicated
actions in order to enable an animal to avail itself of
them ; then, according to any theory of evolution,
the organization of the animal will have been gradu-
ally fitted to meet those requirements, a more highly
developed species will be the result, giving conditions
for developing a higher degree of intelligence. It
might be impossible for it to know how to perform
such complicated action without considerable ex-
perience, and we find that where a high degree of
intelligence is attained a more or less lengthened
period of parental care is given. The necessity for
parental care no doubt has a powerful reactionary
influence in stimulating the intelligence of the
parent, and may prove the elementary condition for
developing sympathy into affection.

But there is a consideration which will show us
that evolution, if a fact, must implant in every
animal a tendency to perform the actions most con-
ducive to its existence as a species.

The most simple animal has to use its intelligence

TO man's place in nature. 37

on what perceptions it can make. It finds some
things suitable for food or covering, which it appro-
priates ; some unsuitable, which it rejects. This
relationship of the object to the uses of the
animal I propose to call its purpose, using the word
for the object or combination of conditions, as
well as for the volition of the animal to or from
them.

All animals, except the lowest, possess special
organs, those of sense enabling them to perform
those acts by which they recognize general qualities
of objects, as well as special organs of physical
movement. When a perception of anything takes
place, a conception is 'made, including all the sensa-
tions received from that object, together with what-
ever purpose or relationship to itself the animal may
imagine it to have.

Now, if all that part of the organization by which
information only is obtained has been gradually
evolved from species to species as we ascend in the
scale, the external conditions which brought them
into existence must, at the same time, have entirely
co-ordinated them, with the other active parts of the
body, in accordance with the purposes of the
species.

Whatever perceptions its organization conditions
the intelligence of any animal to make, will be ac-
companied by a co-ordination of its other active
powers corresponding to the usual purposes of that
species.

There must always be in a species the organization
to maintain its existence, get its food, propagate

38 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

offspring, etc. ; and the perceptive faculties which
enable it to perceive the opportunity or right time
to do this will be co-ordinated with the active
powers for doing it. By this co-ordination the
volition easily performs its purpose ; and when con-
ditions containing a purpose are perceived by an
animal, the subjective purpose combining the neces-
sary actions naturally flows forth.

In animals of high organization we should expect
a proportionate number of subordinate purposes co-
ordinated by superior purposes, which were com-
manded finally by the individual intelligence which
directed the voluntary actions.

This co-ordination is established by means of the
nervous system of which a general notion may be
conveyed by comparing it to a telegraphic system
permeating the body, in which the nerves represent
the wires, and the grey matter of ganglia, or brain,
the offices where messages are received and sent out.
Intelligence is required to read the purpose of the
message received, and to form the purpose which
directs the actions ordered. For example, a fish
pursues a smaller one in order to devour it. It does
not use its intelligence to act all the complicated
sets of muscles necessary in following the turns and
twists of its prey ; it merely forms a purpose from
the information received from its eyes, and this pur-
pose uses the already co-ordinated powers in pursuit.
On a near approach, however, the fish sees some-
thing which makes it suspect its expected prize is a
snare. It perceives an opposite purpose from almost
the same visual sensations, and flies from it, the

TO man's place in nature. 39

same co-ordination of muscles taking place under
command of the contrary purpose.

Intelligence can only grow by its own efforts and
experience ; but a great deal of information or help
may be had by the association of animals having
similar wants. Sexual association must have im-
mense influence in this direction. In animals of
associated or gregarious lives it begets a sympathy of
action which opens up a wide field for the transmission
of motives or purposes thus becoming common to a
species, which it might not be possible to transmit
by the co-ordination of inheritable organization
alone.

Amongst men, fashions, habits, and feelings are
thus perpetuated ; such as are necessary or '' fittest "
surviving, whilst those less perfectly adapted to life
drop out. A law, with regard to motives, habits,
etc., may be laid down almost identical in statement
to Darwin's theory of the " Origin of Species."
Habits of action, we'lmow, can be thus transmitted
by association, as when an English child brought up
in France speaks French.

The power of the sympathy of association may be
noticed in looking at a flock of sanderlings, which
wheel and turn as if under the influence of one spirit.
May not the migrations of many animals be thus
explained ?

Man supplements the powers of his body by the
use of implements, and so varies his purposes or co-
ordinated actions as to give a choice as to what sort
of business of life he will pursue.

The choice of business to man may be compared

(y^

40 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

to that of variation of species, and at once throws
open conditions of action and reaction, to the
development of his intelHgence, of immense import-
ance.

TO man's place in nature. 41

CHAPTER III.

comparison of metaphysical and physiological
methods of examining the mind.

Phrenology based on observation — Sir W. Hamilton exposes
error in Phrenology — Metaphysics hopeless in physiology
or pathology — Confucius on knowledge and heartsease —
Knowledge of connection between Nervous System and in-
telligence only commencing — Law of reflex action —
Nervous centre of speech in brain proved by diseased cases
— Socrates, Shakespeare — Physiological Mental Science
Materialistic — Sir W. Hamilton on absolute knowledge —
Illustration from sound — Defence of spirituality placed
upon procession of life from ovum.

There is perhaps no science which has undergone
so complete a revolution of late years as that of
metaphysics.

At one time considered the queen of sciences, its
methods were almost entirely dependent on intro-
spection of the consciousness. This position was
attacked about the end of last century by Gall and
Spurzheim's so-called science of phrenology, which
at once became popular.

The cause of this popularity is not far to seek.
Phrenology was founded to some extent on observa-
tion ; so that there was considerable vitality in its
nomenclature. It recognized and accommodated
itself to an infinity of different modifications of

42 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

personal character, a position which was abhorrent
to the scholastic metaphysicians, who sought to
maintain the doctrine of the absolute unity of the
mind, and hence an essential identity in the funda-
mental state of consciousness.

Phrenology also professed to be so applicable that
an adept could give the approximate mental charac-
ter of any subject by examining the shape of his
skull. It thus became at once interesting to a great
many persons, thanks to a laudable curiosity which
is not entirely vanity ; though it is doubtful if the old
philosophical admonition, " Know thyself," was in-
tended to be fulfilled in this manner.

The metaphysicians felt the attack ; and later. Sir
William Hamilton, from 1836 to 1845, made nume-
rous observations on human brains and skulls, and
also those of some lower animals, with the view of
exposing the fallacy of phrenology. He was com-
pletely successful in showing that the phrenologists
were wrong in the functions they assigned to the

rebellum, and the mental faculties assigned to
organs of the brain lying behind the eyebrows ; and
yet it may be questioned if he had not already given
up the cause of pure metaphysics as a lost battle, by
bringing it to the practical test of observing the facts
of action in connection with thefunctions of_t]ie —
brain. He may be said to have been the last of the
scHolastic metaphysicians of pure consciousness of
any note.

Since that time the physiologists and pathologists
have been winning points all along the line, and
raising questions as to the unity or solidarity of the

TO man's place in nature. 43

consciousness, and its separableness from matter,
which the old metaphysical method has been found
inefficient to answer.

This new departure in the science has proved of
immense use in improved treatment of mental disease.
In the last century the treatment of the insane seems
to have been shameful. According to a work on
"The History of the Insane in the British Isles," by
Dr. Hack Tuke, chains, flogging, and exposure to
the climate without clothes, were by no means the
worst of the common treatment. That this arose
entirely from the scientific opinion of the unity of
the mind, I should be loth to maintain : it is as
difficult to imagine that it was pure inhumanity,
though, to a certain extent, the logical outcome of a
behef in the unity of the mind ; for if the mind were
an elementary substance, essentially distinct from
matter, the delusions of insanity could only be
understood as obstinacy, wilful error, wickedness,
or possession by the devil. Such an explanation
raised combative feelings in the caretaker, which re-
sulted in harsh and punitive treatment. But, what-
ever the connection may have been, it is certain that
with advance in knowledge of the connection between
the nervous system and the mind, there has been an
ameliorative and more humane treatment of the in-
sane.

As was well said by an ancient eastern philosopher
— Confucius, I think — " Let knowledge be increased.
When knowledge is increased, the way is made easy.
When the way is made easy, the heart is enlarged.
When the heart is enlarged, the country is at peace."

;.-

44 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

It is not to be supposed that phrenology is to bear
all the honour of this change of front. The general

C advance of the correlative sciences, as well as the
use of the microscope, alone made it possible.
"" " Still," to quote Ladd, '' it is a surprise from
which investigation can never recover, to find that
the connection between our sensations, mental
images, and volitions, and the peculiar material
constitution and functions of the cerebral mass of
nervous matter, should be so intimate as it un-
doubtedly is."

The doctrine of evolution also had a helping hand

in drawing attention to the relative facts of mind

and nervous system ; for if the mind, as we find it in

human beings, was placed ready-made in the body,

with all its emotions and capacities for action and

reaction, a solution of the manner of their connecftion

seems at once hopeless, but if, on the other hand,

f mind 4iid body tev^e- grown up together through a

^/^^' struggle of ages from the most elementary form,

jil^^'X ^^^i^ intimate connection would be natural, and

"-^^"^^ their relations capable of being traced. Those

,/ £»^' ■ who pursue this inquiry in comparative physiology

\c^^ >-^^y ^^^3^ ^^^ facts in accordance with this concep-

■^^^. Without recapitulating the order and increment
of complexity, it may be stated that the funda-
mental parts of all nervous systems seem to be
central cellular or granular masses, called ganglia,
supposed to be capable of sensation, forming ideas,
purposes, &c., from which nerves run to the ex-
tremities and other parts of the body. The nerves

TO man's place in nature. 45

are classed under two heads : around one are formed
the active organs as muscles and glands ; around
the other are grouped the perceptive organs, as
eyes, ears, &c. The generally received opinion is,
that stimuli from the external world, impinging on
the perceptive organs, cause these to transmit a
message to the central ganglia, where an idea is
formed from the message, judgment given on the
relative import of the information received, and a
suitable combination of active organs stimulated
through the other or efferent nerves, to make what
efforts the exigencies of the case require. In man
the principal of these ganglia are the spinal cord, the
medulla onloitgata, the cerebellum and the cerebrum^
as well as a great many smaller ones scattered about
the body.

This circle of action, i.e., first impact of external
stimulus on the organ of sense, transmission of in-
telligence to central ganglion, and transmission
thence of co-ordinated action, is called the law of
" reflex action. '■'

Such of these actions as must, from the necessity
of things, have been continually or commonly re-
curring, seem to have become automatic, i.e.,
proceed from the external stimulus without any
further consciousness or judgment being used. For
instance, Ferrier found that " a fish deprived of the
brain maintains its normal equilibrium in the water,
and uses its tail and fins in swimming with as great
precision and co-ordination as before. It is, how-
ever, continually on the move. Left to itself in the
water it swims in a straight line, and unlike other

46 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

fishes, which stop to smell or nibble at this or that,
it keeps on its course as if impelled by an irresistible
impulse, and is only stopped by the sides of the
vessel, or worn out by fatigue." (Functions of the
brain, by Ferrier, p. 35.) The sensation of the
water on the skin supplied the stimulus which re-
sulted in the continued swimming.

It will be seen that the question of the unity of
consciousness is here raised. The fish had lost in
its brain the higher conscious or judging-power
instructed by the various organs of sense, and there-
fore these no longer influenced the spinal cord ; but
the query remains, whether the spinal cord itself is
conscious in its co-ordination of the swimming
muscles. If merely automatic, it is still usually
under the power of the higher nervous centres, as
its actions are modified when in connection with
them by their particular direction. Another ques-
tion arising here is, whether the action of the spinal
cord, if merely automatic and unconscious, was so
always ? or was it initiated in consciousness, and
has it, after ages of use, passed out of conscious-
ness ?

The law of reflex action is a very general one, and
a great many actions which we are perhaps accus-
tomed to regard as voluntary or intelligent, are
really produced by reflex action on a previously pre-
pared nervous connection. Take, for instance, the
act of reading. By slow and continual efforts we
have established a nervous connection between the
visual shapes of printed or written words, their
sound to the ear, their oral utterance, and the usual

TO man's place in nature. 47

meaning or relation which they have to our every-
day actions. When we read, our action is almost
entirely reflex ; the sight of the words excites the
corresponding idea or purpose in the sensorium of
the brain, which combines and sends out the very
complicated muscular actions which produce the
articulate voice. In the case of blind people, who
can read by feeling with the fingers, the initiation of
the connection may have been by writing. We
have thus seven or more different sets of reflex
actions over words.

1. In three ways by hearing. We can hear a
word — say the word rim. This can be reflected
through the mouth by our repeating the word, or
through the hand by our writing it, or through our
legs by running.

2. In three ways by seeing. We read the word
run, which, exciting the central motor centre, can
issue forth by vocal utterance, by the hand in copy-
ing the word, by the legs in running.

3. By feeling. As a blind man reading, which
usually only issues out in action as reading.

There is the still wider and probably older set of
reflex actions connected with words, where the
various conditions under which we are placed pro-
duce thoughts or states of mind which we wish to
communicate to others. In this there has to be a
deal more intelligent effort used to find the right
words ; but the history of persons possessed of great
gifts in this respect, points to the fact that there
has arisen in the human sensorium certain connec-
tions between particular states of thought or feel-

48 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

ing and words, so that the appropriate expression
naturally occurs.

Persons under great excitement or peculiar con-
ditions, utter often peculiar and unconventional
phrases, which, however, at once strike the hearer
as appropriate or natural, showing some previous
connection between the feelings or thoughts and
the words.

It is the word which excites the appropriate
action in its complexity, the consciousness or will
only giving it permission to go forth. This will
perhaps be made plainer if I give in illustration the
cases of Aphasia, or loss of speech ; and Agraphia,
or loss of power of writing, from disease of the
speech centre in the brain. To quote Ferrier :
" Examples of all these different conditions are to
be met with in those afflicted with Aphasia. S.ome
can neither speak nor write ; some can write, but
cannot speak; some can write their names, but
nothing else. All can comprehend spoken language,
many can comprehend written language ; others not
at all, or only imperfectly.^'

To quote Ladd : " Aphasia is far more frequently
due to changes in the left, than in the right side of
the skull. Out of 260 cases. Dr. Seguin found the
lesion in 243 on the left side, and only 17 on the
right." This is no doubt due to the fact that the
right hand is usually used in writing, as motor
stimuli would cross over from the left to the right
side, according to a well-known law or fact. He
goes on to say, " Remarkable cases of left-handed
people, who have become aphasic through lesions of

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 49

the right hemisphere, are actually recorded." It
must be remembered that intelligence in other
respects is apparently unimpaired ; the articulating
muscles of mouth and voice are not paralyzed, and
can be used in other acts, as also the writing muscles
of the hand and arm can be used voluntarily and
intelligently.

The illustration occurs to us that the diseased
nervous system is somewhat like a very complex
railway junction, connecting a great many different
lines, but some catastrophe has broken up all the
rails, turning-tables, and shunting levers, into a con-
fused marsh of soft clay and broken iron ; so that
when the trains come in from their separate courses
theyare lost, and can no more issue on the rightroutes.

But what would Socrates have said to this — " I
am he who is talking to you, not that which you
will soon see buried." Yet in this case we see that
the " he who talks to you " is gone ; and yet, at any
rate, part of the intelligent being remains with his
body, which is not about to be buried.

Shakespeare seems to have perceived the fact of
there being subordinate motor centres. You may
remember the scene in Macbeth, where he is wait-
ing for the time to arrive when he shall murder
Duncan. The motive centre forms the idea of a
dagger, which is about to be used ; but as the
action cannot yet issue forth by the har»d«^ and arms,
the intense excitement actually forces the idea down
the optic nerves on to the retina, so that Macbeth
fancies he sees a dagger in the air before him, and
commences his soliloquy : —

£

50 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

" Is this a dagger which I see before me?'^ &c.
Also in Juhus Caesar, where Brutus is contemplating
the assassination of Caesar : —

*' Between the acting of a dreadful thing
And the first motion, all the interim is
Like a phantasma, or a hideous dream ;
The genius and the mortal instruments
Are then in council ; and the state of man,
Like to a little kingdom, suffers then
The nature of an insurrection."

But does not this lead us to materialism ? I do
not think that necessarily it does ; but still I am
afraid that the arguments as against materialism,
drawn from introspective considerations of the con-
sciousness, in attempts to isolate it from matter by
attributes of unity, inextensibility and solidarity,
must be considered at present, at any rate, as having
the weight of evidence against them. One ^reat
gain has certainly been attained in its being made
clear that training is _pf much greater value than
scolding in producing right action.

^It used to be a philosophical apothegm, if not
originally an oracle, that the highest knowledge was
" to know that we knew nothing," which may have
had three meanings, i. That as a maxim of humi-
lity it was a good and wise position to take. 2. That
the common-sense or knowledge of mankind,
although a sort of knowledge, was usually so power-
ful that it was only the highest intellects that were
capable of examining its nature, and who then found
it so aberrant and unaccountable, that all they could
say about it was that they only knew that they knew
nothing. 3. That at the time of its utterance it was

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 51

perceived how much there was to be known, but how
little they then knew.

This maxim has been beaten out perhaps in almost
every direction to absurdity. Some philosophers have
denied that mind existed ; some, as Berkeley and the
idealists, that matter existed ; whilst Hume, who
was more consistent, denied the existence of either,
and affirmed that only a sequence of sensations J
existed. Even Sir W. Hamilton considered that we ?^
had no absolute knowledge. y v^

He says, " I virtually assert we know nothing
absolute — nothing existing absolutely ; that is, in
and for itself, and without relation to us and our
faculties. I shall illustrate this by its application.
Our knowledge is either of matter or mind. Now
what is matter ? Matter, or body, is to us the name
either of something known or of something unknown.
.... In short, it is a common name for a certain
series of appearances manifested in co-existence.

•' But as these phenomena appear only in conjunc-
tion, we are compelled to think them conjoined in
something. But this something, absolutely and in
itself, is to us as zero. It is only in its qualities or
effects that it is cognizable. That which manifests
its qualities is called the substance. To this sub-
stance of the phenomena of extension, solidity, etc.,
the term matter or material substance is given, and
is therefore, as distinguished from these relative quali-
ties, unknown and inconceivable.

" The same is true as regards mind. In so far as
mind is the common name for the states of knowing,
feeling, willing, desiring, etc., of which we are con-

E 2

52 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

scious, it is only a name for a certain series of con-
nected phenomena, and, consequently expresses only
what is known. But in so far as it denotes that
subject or substance in which these phenomena in-
here, it expresses what in its absolute existence is
unknown."

But is not this overstating the case ? That our
senses often give us false impressions is true, and
that their information is very partial and often
insignificant, must be allowed.

Take the illustration most commonly given, that
of sound. If we hear the blow of a hammer on an
anvil, it appears to us that the sound is produced
there where the hammer touches the iron. If we
hear it at a greater distance we hear the sound some
time after we see the blow fall, and it appears then
to us that the sound has traversed the space straight
to us from the blow. But when we find that all
persons standing a distance in a circle round the
anvil hear the sound after the blow is struck, but at
the same time as one another, we get the idea that
the sound has travelled from the centre like a circu-
lar ripple on a pond when a stone is thrown in ; and
when we find that the same holds good in all direc-
tions of space, we get the idea that the sound has
progressed hke a rapidly expanding bubble. Still
we conceive it as sound proceeding in this form.
But when we are shown that sound is only a sensa-
tion produced in the ear, not at all like what produced
it, we gain the further conception of this bubble
being only a film of compressed air or motion com-
municated to the particles of air without there being

TO man's place in nature. 53

any sound at all outside our ear. The question
arises, what has become of our absolute knowledge ?
We thought we were absolutely certain " we heard a
sound."

If anything exists and has relations, including
actions and reactions, what do we mean by having
absolute knowledge concerning it ? Is it not abso-
lute knowledge if we know that it does exist, and has
such and such relations, actions, and reactions ?
What more can there be to know about it ?

To say, therefore, that we do not know anything
absolutely about the substance of matter or mind
seems to me in reality only to amount to saying that
we cannot know all their relations, actions and re-
actions ; which may or may not be true.

Now we know that matter exists by the sensations
it produces in us, which is one of its relationships ;
and we also know that its actions must differ rela-
tively, as there are relative differences in these sen-
sations. For instance, the sound in our ear may be
said to be unlike the blow of the hammer on the
anvil, yet in the same relation as those blows fall
will be the sounds in our ears ; as they are heavy or
light, slow or quick, so will the sounds be in our
ears. So that I think we may still say correctly that
we are absolutely certain we heard the blows,
although we certainly do not know all the relations,
actions and reactions set agoing by these blows.

The argument for the materialist, therefore, lies
something like this : It is not a good argument to
say that the mind is not a quality of the body be-
cause it does not feel a bit like the body looks, as

54 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

that is merely saying that it does not feel, when you
are in it yourself, like it appears to the organs of
sight when in another person, or like certain portions
of the anatomy appear when dead.

It seems to me that so far the materialist has the
best of the argument, and that we shall have to shift
the field of battle to the primordial cell from which
all life comes, for if it can be shown that of two cells
originally precisely the same, as far as material
qualities are concerned, one proceeds to become a
tomtit and the other a turkey, it will go hard with
the materialist to deny something within that cell
beyond its material qualities.

TO man's place in nature. 55

CHAPTER IV.

ON SOME OF THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TEETH
AND OTHER ORGANS IN MAMMALS.

Adaptation of teeth to requirements of animal — Indication that
this points to use of flint implements, as reducing size of
human canines — Cuvier, Owen — Echidna, ornithorynchus,
Sloths, Armadillos, anteaters, no front teeth, huge claws —
Kangaroos' teeth, action of — Guinea-pigs' teeth, action of —
Hedgehogs' teeth, action of — Narwhals' tusk, development
of rhinoceros, no teeth as weapons, horn instead — Hippo-
potamus' teeth as weapons, no horn — Ruminants rarely
canines, horns instead — Teeth of ruminants, action of hogs
with teeth for weapons, no horns — In most mammals lower
canines close in front of upper.

This chapter consists, for the most part, of a paper
originally read before the Odontological Society in
i86g. It is given here as bearing on the question of
the adaptation of the organs of an animal to its* re-
quirements ; also because of a statement of an
apparent correlation existing between organs which
are used as weapons.

Front teeth being absent, immense claws furnish
weapons or tools. Canine teeth disappearing, horns
appear.

This is not a universal law, as some extra-
ordinary fossils have been described by Professor
O. C. Marsh in America, " Dinocerata," with

56 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

trenchant canines and apparently horns as well.
However, these animals are very aberrant forms, and
looking at drawings of the skull I feel impressed
with the idea of the supposed horn cores rather sup-
porting hard callosities of the skin than actual fight-
ing horns ; in fact, the idea suggested is that the
animals used their heads in moving piles of fallen
timber, either to get at prey or some particular food,
or perhaps form retreats in which to shelter. But
be this as it may, the correlation existing between
the various organs of offence and defence, showing
that as one weapon increases in efficiency another
dwindles or disappears, has a bearing in the evolu-
tion of man.

If a man be descended from an ape, which seems
almost certain, it would appear that the adoption of
actual weapons, as stones or clubs, would have a cor-
relative action in reducing his canine teeth.

The immense difference in size between human
canine teeth and those of any of the large apes being
a very conspicuous and one of the main distinctions
between their dentitions. What follows, with the
exception of two lines at the end of chapter, was
written before i86g for the Ovonological Society.

In studying the mechanical arrangements of the
teeth in man, I found it necessary to dip into the
comparative anatomy of teeth. Here, the dynamical
provisions, and the correlation which exists between
the teeth and several other of the natural external
organs of animals is very evident and beautiful. I
have thought it best to avoid scientific names of the
different species, trusting that those who would have

TO man's place in nature. 57

preferred the more precise way will be willing to
receive as an apology that the subject is rather one
of mechanics than of natural history.

The conditions of animal life which are universal,
and at the same time most subject to variation and
exigence are, shelter from the weather, defence from
foes, and a continual supply of food. Wherever we
meet with a combination of these conditions, an
animal may be expected, which will fulfil in its
concrete organization the requirements thereof, to
fill the place. These necessities are sometimes
partially arranged for in the beast itself; some
animals are sheltered by warm coatings of fat or fur,
whilst others dig burrows, hide in holes of trees or
clefts of rocks, or build warm nests. As a means of
defence, some bristle with spines, some trust to their
speed, some use their horns, whilst others seek their
burrows, or fly up cliffs inaccessible to their pursuers.
Where food varies with the seasons, we find some
animals remove their habitations to where they can
get the same or similar food, whilst others are so
constituted that they can subsist on a change of
diet. Of these conditions, the supply of food is pre-
eminent ; hence, the kind of food made use of has a
strong bias in determining the character of the
organs of the animal.

Teeth, principally of use in taking and preparing
aliment, are likewise often used as instruments of
defence and of preparing shelter ; they have, there-
fore, always been of high importance to the com-
parative anatomist in classifying the brute section of
nature.

58 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Cuvier makes principal use of them and the feet,
the two most active organs ; whilst Owen, on the
contrary, though led by these to some extent, gives
a higher place to the brain, the most subjective of
organs.

The classification of Owen will be followed in this
paper, as the affinities of the species seem placed
in better order, though I cannot help thinking that
the principle upon which it is said to be based is less
intelligible than Cuvier's.

Teeth are placed in mammalia at the entrance of
the alimentary canal, between the lips and tongue ;
they are implanted in the upper and lower jaws, in
a manner and with an action with which we are so
familiar that they are both difficult and unnecessary
to describe.

The details of the maxillary apparatus rday be
divided into two heads — firstly, the forms of the
teeth, and secondly, the arrangement by which they
are used. The former may be arranged roughly
into cutting, piercing, and chewing ; the latter into
bones to carry, and muscles to give force to the
former.

The muscles may be divided into those for open-
ing the jaws, and those for biting, crushing, and
grinding.

In the skull of a fossil tortoise (the dicynodon),
we find the three forms of teeth in their simplest
conditions.

The temporal muscle is the biting muscle, reach-
ing from the upper back part of the skull through
the zygomatic arch. It is inserted into the coronoid

Kangaroo lower jaw.

Lower molar, 'birds eye 'view
to sJiBW longitacUnaL riAge
hetwe&n transverse^ blades .

Upper ancl lower molars
sid& view to sJiB'W relative^
position in chewrn^ .

2.

a Upper prerrwlar of Leopard., vc
relaJxve- position to i, lowtr molar
previous to livbng to shew shear-
lxk& action . ^ ■

Lower molar Hyanxh to shew hasaZ
ruige, compare with hedgehog's at- 4,]d,
and leopard's at 2 .i .

Hedge-hog .

Lower rrwlur Htdgehog to
shew protecttve basal ridg&

of enamel .

TO man's place in nature. 59

process of the lower jaw, so near to the hinge of the
joint that it makes of the lower jaw a feeble lever of
the third power, being far too weak to do much
work in crushing or masticating the food ; but what
it loses in power it makes up for by the quickness
with which it can throw the front teeth through a
large space, giving to all predatorial animals that
sudden snap by which they seize an agile living prey.
Hence we find it largely developed in all such beasts —
badgers, hyaenas, cats, bears, wolves, seals, hedge-
hogs (Plate I., fig. 4), bats, some monkeys, etc. ;
whereas, in the herbivorous — sheep, horses, etc., it is
exceedingly small.

In some rodents, however, as the guinea-pig (to
which I shall allude further on), it is tolerably
developed, and, from a peculiar form of the coronoid
process, is of use in drawing the jaw backwards
rather than upwards.

In chewing, the crushing power exerted only for a
short comparative distance requires greater force ;
hence we find the masseter and internal pteregoid
muscles, which are more advantageously placed, to
render it large in herbivorous animals, but parti-
cularly so where the food is very hard, as in the
horse, beaver, etc.

Wherever there is required a slow but powerful
upward thrust of the lower incisors, as in pigs (root-
ing), many rodents (gnawing, etc.), these muscles,
or at any rate the masseter, have their efficiency
increased for this purpose by having the posterior
angle of the jaw largely developed backwards (see
hedgehog, Plate I., fig. 4, m).

60 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Cementum, dentine, and enamel, are found in
most teeth, but in some the enamel is wanting, as in
the tusks of the elephant ; in others the cementum is
absent, as in the incisors of rodents ; but dentine is
common to alL

The office of dentine is to give strength to the
tooth. The enamel forms a protective cap to the
tooth, sustaining wear much better than the dentine,
though too brittle to form the body ; also it often
serves to keep a certain form constant, by arrange-
ments in which the dentine and cementum surround-
ing it, being softer, are constantly worn away to a
lower level.

The cementum, more highly organized than either
of the foregoing, seems to form a connective tissue
with the vascular system. At other times it takes its
place as a yet softer substance than dentine, in main
taining an efficient form to the tooth.

In mammalia the lower jaw alone moves ; and it
has been observed by Owen that the condyle is
always convex, whereas in cold-blooded reptiles and
hot-blooded birds the articulating surface of the
lower jaw is concave, receiving a projection from the
skull, on which it moves. To account for this fact,
I will hazard the following conjecture : —

In mammals there is always some variety of
motion required from the jaws in preparing food ;
being warm-blooded, the quick consumption of
their system requires it, hence the condyle must
have some scope of action. In such a case, it is
best economy for the most movable of the contiguous
surfaces to play within the other, in the same

TO man's place in nature. 6i

way that a pestle moves in a mortar — the power
is appHed to the convex part, the pestle, not the
mortar.

In neither birds nor reptiles does this chewing
take place. In birds, that the head may be light
and not over-balance them in flight, the masticating
apparatus, the gizzard, is removed into the body.

Reptiles, being cold-blooded, probably do not re-
quire to masticate their food, but swallow it as nearly
whole as possible. Thus there is no variety of move-
ment, the jaws simply open and shut, added to which
(in all the specimens I have been able to observe),
the lower jaw is more massive than that part of the
skull with which it articulates.

At the bottom of our classification stands the
echidna, a spiny ant-eater, which possesses no teeth,
but has the deficiency supplied by immense claws,
which serve him at the same time to obtain access
to his food, and to escape from his foes. The latter
he can do so effectually (according to Waterhouse),
that one disturbed by some travellers in Van
Diemen's Land, sunk itself perpendicularly into the
earth, keeping its spiny back only accessible to the
intruders. In consequence of this faculty it has not
the power of rolling itself into so complete a ball as
our common hedgehog, which, not possessing much,
if any, burrowing powers, requires this means of
making a similar coat defensive.

The ornithorynchus has weak, horny molars, and
no front teeth, but in compensation, the most per-
fectly webbed feet of any mammal, enabling it to
pursue its food — aquatic insects and mudworms ; it

62 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

has likewise powerful burrowing claws, which it is
able to use by folding back the web, which, whilst
swimming, completely blinds them.

We may notice that wherever the front teeth above
and below are wanting, an extraordinary development
of claws supplies their place.

The genera marked by this omission were united
in one order by Cuvier — that of Edentata — and the
affinity seems very close, for all the other genera —
sloths, armadilloes, and different ant-eaters — have
immense claws.

In the sloths these claws serve to suspend the
animal from the lower sides of branches, whilst it
feeds on their leaves secure from enemies. One
species, indeed, possesses canines, but it only has two
claws on each limb, whilst its less fortunate relatives
possess three.

The armadilloes, besides burrowing, are defended
by a scaly coat of mail. Their grinding teeth are of
a very simple description, and they seem to live on
insects, decomposing carcases, and vegetables. So
formidable are their burrowing powers that (accord-
ing to D'Azara) inhabitants of the parts fre-
quented by them are obliged to protect their dead
by driving boards deep into the ground round their
graveyards.

The true ant-eaters possess no teeth, nor can I
learn that they burrow ; their enormous claws seem
sufficient protection. Their mode of defence is to
await the adversary sitting up, seize him in their
forepaws and press their claws into him. In "The
Naturalist of the Amazons," the author gives a

TO man's place in nature. 63

graphic engraving of one of these animals punishing
a dog of his own in this manner.

Of the marsupial carnivora, dasyures and thyla-
cines, there does nor seem much to notice which we
shall not find more typically developed among the
placentals. Not having the speed of the dog, or the
retractile claws of the cat, they content themselves
with less active or feebler prey, and the molars
possess an inner cusp, which is probably of use in
holding in place the cylindrical bones of small
animals, whilst they are crushed by the opposing
tooth, as these isolated talons are found less and
less numerous in flesh-eating animals in direct ratio
with the comparative size of the prey to the animal,
until we find in the feline species there is only one in
the large upper premolar.

Of the phalangers and opossums I cannot find
much information, nor do they present very manifest
characteristics.

Occupying a similar position amongst marsupials
to that taken by ruminants in the placentals, are
kangaroos. They possess, however, very different
teeth. Having upper as well as lower front teeth,
the latter being found in the higher form of animals
alone, they are enabled to crop harder and dryer
herbage, and their molars are superlatively formed
for clipping into short lengths such food as dry
grass or hay ; they are composed of a series of trans-
verse short blades (Plate I., fig. i, a), in which the
lower close just behind the upper like the blades of a
pair of scissors (Plate I., fig. i, c), with the exception
that the edges close parallel to each other instead of

64 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

at an angle. That the food should be seized and
cut when the jaw moves from side to side, instead
of falling away on either side, it is necessary that the
blades should be a little hollowed on their edge ; to
accomplish this, a slight longitudinal ridge rises
between the blades, which is just reached by the
edge of the opposer when the mouth is shut (Plate
I., fig. I, b), this wears the middle part to a lower
level than the corners, and keeps the required form.
The blades, wearing against each other, keep them-
selves sharp ; altogether it is a very efficient chaff-
cutter.

The front paws of the kangaroo are so short that
its head is nearly horizontal when grazing ; in rela-
tion to which position the lower incisors are hori-
zontally placed, and the upper perpendicularly, so
that the grass rising into its mouth is divided by
these teeth at an equal angle, the lower being pro-
bably thrust forward by the pteregoid muscles, instead
of being shut in the ordinary manner; for in addition
to the relative inclination of the lower incisors, there
is a peculiar hollowing of the inside back part of the
lower jaw, corresponding to the position of these
muscles, but not having succeeded in getting a fresh
head for dissection, I am unable to describe it.

Burrowing animals are very liable to meet with
roots in their way, and those who are not possessed
of powerful claws to enable them to force, as the
armadilloes or moles, are provided with sharp teeth
to gnaw a passage ; these would be liable to great
wear, and we have the endless chisel-shaped incisors
of the rodents. They form part of a circle of pris-

TO man's place in nature. 65

matic section, the anterior surface strongly guarded
by enamel. The end, which is implanted in the jaw,
is open, and filled by the formative pulp, as in all
continuous-growing teeth, which supplies the con-
tinual wear. The dentine, from its softer consis-
tence, wearing to a lower level than the enamel in
front, maintains the tooth sharp. To bring this
construction to its highest efficiency, it is necessary
that there should be no lateral motion, which would
throw the edges of the front teeth across each other,
and destroy that evenness of wear essential to sharp-
ness. In the wombat, a burrowing marsupial rodent,
this is not provided for ; the front teeth are so placed
that they wear themselves flat upon each other, and
a sharp edge is obtained by allowing the teeth to
follow the curve of a large, instead of a small circle
— a manifest disadvantage.

Amongst the true rodents this is not the case, and
they file up their food by a backward and forward
motion, to which end we find the condyle of the
lower jaw laterally compressed, and working in a
longitudinal furrow in the skull.

Many of the patterns of molar teeth in rodents
are very beautiful, their form being mostly main-
tained by various dispositions of dentine and enamel.
The softer dentine, continually wearing to a lower
level, always keep them sharp.

The common guinea-pig presents some interest-
ing features of this order. In gnawing, a large
swift bite is not required, but a slow, powerful one,
so we find the coronoid process of the lower jaw
but rudimentary, and the temporal muscle elongated

F

66 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

and attached to the bone, anterior to the usual
position, so as to enable it to draw the jaw back-
wards ; the posterior angle of the jaw, on the con-
trary, is lengthened backwards into a considerable
process, so as to give greater scope to the masseter,
and internal pteregoid muscles in throwing it for-
ward, which is yet further enhanced in the masseter
by part of this muscle being produced through the
bone to the front of the face, and thus a forward and
backward motion is obtained.

Amongst those animals whose condyles do not
permit of much lateral motion, the leverage of any
such force upon the front of the mouth would
throw too great a strain upon them. This is
guarded against in the carnivora by the lower
canines being set so as to lock in front of the upper ;
but, the little animal under consideration not having
any canines, the molars are so arranged that the
faces of the lower ones slope inwards at an angle of
about 45 degrees, whilst those of the upper slope
outwards to correspond (see Plate II., fig. i, b).

Those animals, on the other hand, which grind
their food by lateral motion, are enabled by this
motion to bring the surfaces of the teeth out of
opposition, so that they can receive and carry back,
into a position where it can be crushed, food from
the cavity of the mouth.

In the guinea-pig, to meet this requirement, the
teeth are approximated at an acute angle, anteriorly,
so that in the mere backward and forward motion
before mentioned, the surfaces are brought from
opposition (Plate II., fig. i, a, e). But that the

a, (mneoy'pigs upper jnolars vitwedircfrn ie'iovi/
tc show indirjoti/jn of ttiz general 1jj>je, ofitetli.
on eacksiJ^ toihe other on ?icnvzoniolj>lane

p. , Rectong'ks rqTrvseritcng thz relojtive positions
ofupper& hvertc.eth. where the. lower are, nwved/
forwarcL sTmmgJiowmuch. of the v^pperfsJiaded)
would lie. th.eri, vnooYered..

Front view of Gmn&apigs moUors tTie incisors
hemg removed, chzwing incUnxitiorL ofsvjrfaces
to eojzh otJ^.er on vertLcoL plcuie. . _

Side view of GvJjua pigs uppermolorsto shew
xrtclinaiwrL ofgenervl Ixae ofgrmdmg sujfaces
to Ime ofrrwUon f. g.

d

di,Iiec&irigles representing uvperdc lower ynolars
asatQ plcicedy dioigonaJUy on the sides of
tivo troughs, which coji slide TionmntaZ one
widdnthie other; teing the recdreloJive position
ofthe- grinding sw foxes of teeth. ot''thLe
Gimieapig.

a, Tfpperjawofmole- i, hwerjaw.

d , Section of worm in position
between teeth before being
hitten.-

c. Worm shewing id^e y.ri.e anrlniunl/er- of pieces
inwhij-A itwovW be cvt by a bite from, rnole .

upper
lower

TO man's place in nature. 67

surfaces should incline to the vertical plane, whilst
the lines of the teeth inclined on the horizontal
plane, and, at the same time, that there should be a
free horizontal motion, requires yet another modifi-
cation, for on this simple construction it is evi-
dently impossible.

Let us suppose two troughs, each composed of
two rectangular planes, meeting in the same angle
on their longest sides. These troughs would fit
each other, and would slide freely backwards and
forwards. Now we will make a band on each side
of one of these troughs, straight from the angle at
the bottom of the trough in front, up to the corner
at the edge of the trough above behind, and similar
bands on the other, so that the bands on the one
trough exactly superpose those on the other. We
shall thus have two converging bands on each
surface which incline towards each other when seen
either in front or from above, and which are at the
same time capable of a forward and backward
motion in the horizontal direction. Now, if we out-
line upon these bands the shape of the guinea-pig^s
upper and lower molars respectively, we shall have
their precise relative position, thus accounting for
the fact that the tops of the molars are much
lower, relative to the line of their horizontal motion,
in front than behind (see Plate II., fig. i, c, d).

The hedgehog is a familiar example of in-
sectivora ; possessed of only rudimentary canines,
and, not having either teeth or claws suitable
for burrowing, he is defended from his foes by his
prickly coat, into which he has the power of con-

F 2

68 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

tracting himself. With projecting lower incisors for
grubbing up stones, etc., in pursuit of insects, he,
in like manner with the guinea-pig, has the angle of
the lower jaw produced backwards, to enhance the
power of the masseter muscle, to give a forward
and upward thrust (Plate I., fig. 4, m). Insects
having systems supported generally by an external
framework, and being often cylindrical in shape, the
teeth of insectivora bristle with sharp cusps, which
at the same time keep the prey from slipping away,
and crush in its covering. Some insects, beetles,
etc., upon which the hedgehog feeds, possess thorny
coverings, sharp claws, etc., to prevent which
wounding the gums, the teeth are surrounded by a
protective guard of enamel, which stands out round
the base of the crowns (Plate I., fig. 4, b).

We meet with similar provision in the hy^na.
This animal, not possessing sharp retractile claws of
the cat tribe, nor the elongated muzzle and speed of
the dog, is at a disadvantage, and is often driven to
feed on the leavings of these species, to avail him-
self of which he is possessed of muscles capable of
cracking bones which have been left ; and its teeth,
similar to cats' in other respects, are analogous to
those of the hedgehog in possessing the protective
basal ridge of enamel, w^hich in this case serves to
ward off splinters of bone (Plate I., fig. 3).

To return to the insectivora. The mole does not
possess the gnawing front teeth of the rodent, as it
requires teeth by which it can seize and drag out
worms — its principal prey — as they quickly shrink
into their holes ; it is furnished, in compensation,

TO man's place in nature. 69

with immensely powerful fore-paws, by which to
force its way past obstructions, as is familiar to
most of us ; but it is the arrangement of the molars
which are especially interesting from a mechanical
point of view. Animal food does not seem to re-
quire much crushing, but rather comminution ; and
the molar teeth of the mole are so formed as to
mince up their food into numerous triangular
morsels at each bite. This is effected in the follow-
ing manner : —

Imagine two cutting edges, one above and one
below, on each side of the mouth, so arranged as to
pass each other, and cut like the blades of a pair of
scissors ; it is evident that these would only make
one division of the worm at a time on each side,
and if it fell on the lower blade longitudinally (the
most convenient position) it would probably be
allowed to fall on one side, or at most would be
only split in two ; if now, we zigzag these blades,
keeping the same reciprocal cutting relation between
the upper and the lower, whilst there will be width
of edge for the worm to lie upon, it will also be cut
into as many pieces as there are angles in the zigzag,
that is, supposing the worm not to-be wider than
the mean width of the tooth. But there would still
be a tendency to slip on one side, therefore, a longi-
tudinal notch is cut the whole length of the zigzag,
both above and below. An end view of the row of
teeth, with the worm in position, would give the
appearance of a circle embraced between two angular
forks (see Plate II., fig. 2, d).

This curious pair of zigzag scissors is constructed

70 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

in the following manner : each of the three molars
in the upper and lower row is composed of two
triangular prisms, placed so that their bases form a
continuous line, the angle standing outside in the
lower jaw, and inside in the upper, and so arranged
that the angles of the one fit exactly between the
angles of the other (see Plate II., fig. 2, a, b). As
these prisms are solid, to give the edge spoken of
above, a notch is cut out of each base, the angle of
which slants up to the angle of the prism, and both
the other sides are noticed by the longitudinal cut
before spoken of. As there are three molars, a thin
worm, such as the wire-worm, would thus be cut up
into twelve little pieces at each bite, or there would
be six pieces taken out of the side of a larger one
(see Plate II., fig. 2, c).

The lowest genera in the next sub-class, that with
convoluted brains, is that of the whalebone whales,
w^hich, however, possess no true teeth, their want
being compensated to the animal by the whalebone
filter, which has been repeatedly described.

Among the toothed whales which follow, the nar-
whal has an extraordinary development of one of
the teeth homologous to the central incisor. This is
prolonged to the front of the mouth, nearly in a line
with the long axis of its body, to the extent of six or
eight feet ; it is straight, and of the form of a gradu-
ally tapering, slender cone. This species inhabits
the bays in the Arctic Circle, where, in the winter,
ice is often rapidly formed on the surface ; and it is
supposed that the function of this spear-like tooth is
to pierce an air-hole through the ice, in case of
emergency.

TO man's place in nature. 71

This suggestion is strengthened by the following
analogy ; — The walrus, living in the same neighbour-
hood, is provided with two large tusks, projecting
downwards from the front of the mouth, to assist it
in raising its massive body on to the ice. These
teeth, which are canines, he dashes into the ice, as
far forwards as he can reach, and then, by means of
powerful neck muscles, draws himself up to repeat
the process. Dentine, as dentists very well know, has
a tendency to split down the long axis of the tooth,
like wood, and the violent concussions to which the
walrus subjects his canines would be likely to split
them, if solid, of the ordinary tooth substance ; but
when the tooth is about half formed in thickness,
from the outside inwards, the formative pulp changes
the character of the calcified mass, and the dentine
forms in nodules, a little like granite in structure,
though maintaining the same density and firmness
as before. This unsplitable central column succours
the outside layer of dentine, though to the latter the
tooth owes its longitudinal strength and immunity
from transverse fracture. The narwhal's tusk, it is
true, has not this central granular column, but it
has a feature which, as it would accornplish the same
end, indicates a similar function ; it is spiral in itself,
that is, twisted like a rope, not like a corkscrew, and
thus any tendency to split is avoided, as transmitted
force would be divided, and, proceeding in opposite
directions, would nullify itself. This spiral growth
also insures the straight development of the tooth,
any irregtilarity, being soon transferred to the oppo-
site side, corrects itself. The same method of pre-
serving unsplitability could not be used in the case of

72 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the walrus, whose tusks, being employed as hooks,
require a slight curve.

Some doubt (based on the microscopic structure)
has been expressed by Mr. Spence Bate, as to whether
the tusk of the narwhal does really turn as it grows,
and as it is not very easy to put the question to the
test by catching a young narwhal and marking the
tusk at different stages of growth, I shall give the
following theoretical reasons for believing that such
is the case.

In the first place, it is perfectly straight and projects
almost horizontally from the snout of the animal.
Now, from what we know of the effects of gradual
steady pressure on the shape of growing teeth, we
may believe that, if it merely grew straightforward,
the force alone of gravity would give it a downward
bend, for the weight of the tooth is very considerable
long before it has attained its full development.

In the second place, the dentinal pulp only grows
forward from the base ; there is no interstitial growth
of the dentine, so that there would be no motion
during formation between the pulp and this tissue ;
therefore, although the fibres might arrange them-
selves in spiral succession, there would be no micro-
scopical evidence of it; they would still run in
straight lines in the radii of the transverse section,
just as we see bristles in the common spirally-twisted
bottle brush. On the other hand, as it is exter-
nally marked with a spiral twist, if this grew straight
forward from the basal pulp, it is evident that the
external form of this must keep constantly revolving,
whilst its substance, in this relation, remained

TO man's place in nature. 73

motionless. This alternative appears to me much
more improbable than the other. The opinion that
the tooth does revolve in growth is yet further
strengthened by reference to the formation of the
cementum. The capsule which forms this substance
does not follow the growth of the tooth like the
dentinal pulp, but remains in a band round the out-
side of the base, laying the cementum on the dentine
as it passes, and therefore the layer close to the
dentine will be laid when that part is on the internal
edge of the formative band, whilst the last layer will
come from the external edge ; and we might expect
to find some traces of this lateral motion left in a
vertical section, just such indeed as we do find.
Taking all these indications into consideration, I
cannot but believe that the narwhal's tooth does
revolve during its growth.

There is another mechanical advantage in the
construction of this tooth pointed out by Owen. In
order to lighten it somewhat, the pulp remains un-
calcified, to the amount of about one-third of its
thickness throughout the front part of the tooth, but
narrows in, so as to leave that part implanted in the
socket nearly solid.

Passing over the manatee and dugong, of which
little seems to be known, we next, among recent
mammals, arrive at the elephant. This animal
presents us with some features in its dentition
analogous to that of rodents ; its tusks, like their
front teeth, have persistent formative pulp, and
continue to grow during the life of the animal.

It may be a question whether a change of climate

74 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

did not deprive the northern circles of woods, before
it exterminated the members of this genus within
its confines, as the great tusks of the northern mam-
moth are often recurved to a considerable extent,
just as we might imagine those of the elephant would
grow, if deprived of the wear and tear of use. If
this be a correct guess, it would be a rather curious
illustration of how far adaptation can go, as there is
good evidence that the mammoth of Siberia, in its
latest stage of existence, was abundantly covered
wdth hair. In this case the cold, which had rendered
its tusks useless, had failed to remove them when
only an incumbrance, but had, at the same time,
stimulated the adaptive faculties of the animal into
greatly increasing the warmth of its covering by a
warm coating of haii .

The molars of elephants still strengthen the idea
of relation to rodents, being very similar to those of
the capybara, the largest existing representative of
this order. They are composed of a number of
transverse layers of dentine, enamel, and cementum,
which, by their irregular attrition, give the top of the
tooth always the surface of a very rough file. There
is a difference in the disposition of these tissues in
the African and Indian elephant, of which I will
hazard a guess in explanation.

The enamel of the African elephant is arranged so
as to enclose diamond-shaped spaces of a softer tis-
sue ; the diamonds are placed, touching each other by
their obtuse angles, all along the centre of the top, the
length of the diamond corresponding to the width of

TO man's place in nature. 75

the tooth. In the Asiatic species, the surface of the
grinder presents a nearly parallel series of transverse
lines of enamel, the comparative result of the two
methods being that the African tooth is a much
coarser rasp than the Asiatic. The female of the
former species has nearly as large tusks as the male,
whilst in Asia she is either totally devoid of them, or
they are exceedingly small. Now the principal use
of the tusks is to prise up trees, in order to browse
on the branches ; hence it would appear that the
female of the Asiatic elephant, being unable to pro-
vide herself with such large branches as the African
from her want of tusks, does not require so rough a
molar for their mastication, and for this reason the
teeth have been modified in the whole species.

Among the odd-toed mammals, the rhinoceros,
an almost exclusive grass-eater, is very poorly fur-
nished, for his size, with front tusks, in comparison
with his rivals in bulk, the elephant and hippo-
potamus, having only insignificant incisors, to com-
pensate for which deficiency he carries on his nose a
powerful horn, to use either as a weapon, or for
forcing his way through impediments in the under-
growth of the thick forests he inhabits.-

The solid-hoofed genera — horse, ass, zebra, etc. —
seem to be the type of speed among herbivorous
quadrupeds, and their superiority in this respect
over the ruminants (which, embracing the antelopes,
deer, etc., possess many very swift species) seems to
turn on the fact of their having upper front teeth as
well as lower. In consequence of this, they are

7b THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

enabled to take harder and more nourishing food,
such as ripe corn, beans, etc., to the grinding of
which their molars are specially adapted. This
more concentrated food furnishes them, in smaller
bulk, with that force which is the reservoir of their
speed. Being thus able at any time to set a pursuer
at defiance, they do not require to eat their food in
haste and retire to obscure retreats for protection.
Their hoofs are therefore formed for rapid progres-
sion on the unvaried plains where they browse.
Here, in the midst of their sustenance, they can
afford time to chew it properly as it is eaten, and
therefore have no need for chewing the cud after-
wards.

In the various accounts of foreign sports, such as
Gordon Gumming, etc., one reads of most of the
antelopes, deer, buffaloes, etc., being run into by
the mounted hunter, but of zebras or quaggas,
never ; whilst it is reported that the Arabs, in
order to capture the wild ass, are obliged to place
relays of fresh horses along the route of its expected
flight.

True, ruminants embrace many widely spread and
numerous species. Vast herds of antelopes in Africa,
which, browsing on the open plains, retreat to the
hills, woods, or marshes, to chew the cud, living less
amongst woods than the deer tribe, are furnished
with superior weapons of defence, in the shape of
long, sharp, powerful horns without prongs, which
they use with such effect, that Gordon Gumming
relates of a wounded oryx held at bay by his dogs,

TO man's place in nature. "]"]

that, ere he could come up, four powerful hounds
were placed hors de combat, the antelope stabbing
right and left but twice.

Closely allied to this genus are the deer, which,
being more sheltered in woods, their usual habitat,
do not require, perhaps, so deadly a weapon of
defence, but combine with it a means, in the shape
of diverging prongs, of quickly lifting up, in order to
pass under any obstruction of branches, etc. Sheep
and goats select mountains for their fastnesses, and
their horns are generally so turned at the end as to
protect the head, and receive the brunt of falls over
rocks, etc.

Oxen depend upon their powerful horns, and the
mutual protection of association for defence; and
often seek a succulent pasture, combined with
shelter, amongst the reeds of marshes and river
banks.

As I have before stated, this family have no front
teeth ; and only a few — the camels, llamas, and
musk-deer — possess canines. It is worth remark-
ing that these are not supplied with horns. Pos-
sessing no front teeth, they cannot take such con-
centrated food as the horse tribe, and are, therefore,
not so capable of saving themselves by flight, partly
because from the nature of their food they require
a greater quantity, which interferes, to some extent,
with the compactness of their build ; and partly, prob-
ably, from the inferior force-producing nature of that
food. They are, therefore, provided in their economy
with an arrangement by which they are enabled to

78 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

crop quickly a large quantity of food, without chew-
ing it at the time, and then, retiring to safe quarters,
submit it to mastication at leisure. In doing this,
they will have to travel over more varied and un-
stable foot-hold than the plain-keeping horses ; and,
in order the better to do so, their hoofs are cloven,
which gives them greater holding power. In the
before-mentioned books of field-sports it is common
to meet with instances where the hunter on horse-
back lost his game by its taking to hilly ground,
where his horse, which had been previously gaining
upon it, was entirely thrown out.

The entangled mass of grass which ruminants
have to chew requires to be cut and crushed in every
direction, and the means adopted for this is very
perfect and complicated. The molars are arranged
in a series of semi-lunar plates of dentine and
enamel, the convexity in the upper being inwards,,
in the under, outwards, so that in chewing the action
is reciprocal. The tops of the teeth present two
platforms at different levels, which reciprocate
between the upper and lower jaws when they meet ;
that is, the innermost platform of the upper tooth
falls upon the outer-most platform of the lower ;
whilst the outer-most of the upper and the inner-
most of the lower fall free of any opposition (see
Plate III., fig. 3). The walls, which form the step
from the higher to the lower level, in the upper and
lower teeth respectively, pass each other with a
scissors-like action, by which a mass of food is first
divided and then enclosed between them, until the

1. Side^ x'iew ofmolccrs of SKeep , to shew xig T-ccg lute- of wear-.

2. Grirtding sixpfkces of mclaTs in their
relccti??^ lateral posiiioru, sKewing that aJJ-^
the- tooth suhstaziae- hetween the lines a,l),
in. thee- upper would- wear against the sfnall
quantity' i&iM'eerL a.t, in., the lower whilst the,
locrge mass hetween L, c, in the lower would
weojr against -^he- small mass hetweenh.c.
m the v-pper thus prodtacyng the zzg xag wear
of'FigtJ.- The dotteoL lunje- represents the.
acta/xL position of the- lx>wer on the upper
and. shews how the Fig. 4 is ohtazized^.

4

e e

3. Seodon of upper and lower Tnolars
of sheep to shew their relaiive position
jujst previous to bittrug food, also how
the dzsposition. of enamel 'keeps one
platform higher than the other.

/S/\AA/\A/\^\

4. ■Li'hsws the 'zigyju/ row of larui^eulate sha:pes, which wo ttUL represent the cryflied
grass. pwvJ-ied, oat by thie sheep, at each lite., on each side.

TO man's place in nature. 79

lower-level platforms meet, and crush it. I am
afraid this description is not very clear ; but any one
who will take a sheep's skull in his hand, I think
will readily understand it.

The maintenance of this form to the tooth is
regulated by the shape of the teeth and the dis-
position of the dentine and enamel. For example :
in the transverse vertical section of the upper molar
of a sheep, first comes a strong layer of enamel,
then a thicker one of dentine, another of enamel,
then a deep slit dividing the wall of the external
platform from the internal one ; next, a very slight
film of enamel, another layer of dentine, and, lastly,
an outside of enamel again. The consequence of
this disposition is that the dentine which is pro-
tected next the indentation by only a rudimentary
film of enamel, wears to a much lower level than the
other, and the required step is produced on this
side of the lower platform, whilst the enamel on its
other side, which would otherwise keep it high there,
is worn down by being opposed to a much greater
body of enamel in the tooth which meets it ; that is
to say, the broad platform, which is the higher one
in each tooth, wearing the convex platform, which
is the lower one (Plate III., figs. 2 and 3). But, if
these platforms were mere plain longitudinal steps,
it is clear that the enclosed food, finding no escape,
would offer too great resistance to be crushed. But
by disposing them in a series of angles, only part
will meet at a time which will facilitate the action.
To produce this form, the teeth are so placed that

80 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the middle of the sohd part of the teeth in one jaw
falls exactly between the semi-lunar convexities in the
other (Plate III., fig. 2), where it, of course, meets
with less tooth substance to wear ; the reciprocal
effect of which is that a side view of the teeth
presents the appearance of two zigzag lines, the
angles of the one corresponding to the depressions
of the other (Plate III., fig. i). By this arrange-
ment, also, so much of the flat surfaces do not meet
each other ; the semi-lunar margins alternating
when they meet, cut out and crush a series of zig-
zag lanceolate forms, thus dividing the blades of
grass in every direction, however they may lie (Plate

HI., fig. 4)-

The even-hoofed mammals, which do not chew
the cud, are yet slower again than the ruminants,
but are generally fiercer in disposition, having large
developments of their canines, which, like the
incisors of rodents, are always growing.

The hippopotamus inhabits rivers, and feeds much
on the roots of aquatic plants, and is well provided,
in the incisors and canines, with picks to root them
up, and shears to clip off the more stubborn.

The hog tribe are also probably root-eaters,
principally having protruding lower incisors with
which to grub them up. They defend themselves
vigorously with their long powerful canine tusks.

The fin-going animals, the seals, live on fish, and
their molars mostly present a series of tridents, with
which they can hold firm their slippery prey when
seized, whilst they have well-developed canines as a
means of defence.

TO man's place in nature. 8i

Toe-walkers comprehend the most agile of the
carnivora. Of these, the cats, possessing retractile
claws, are unable to run down their prey, but spring
upon it from a place of concealment ; these sharp
claws enable them to hold it whilst they destroy life
with their formidable canines. They are among the
largest of the genus, and the lion and tiger, by their
weight, are able to drag down such large game as
buffaloes, and the larger antelopes and deer. The
mane of the lion is a valuable protection from the
rude shocks which would be met with if he sprang
upon one of these animals in a rocky place, and both
rolled over rogether. With small incisors for
scraping the bones, they have large trenchant
canines, the lower passing in front of, and within
the upper, thereby preventing any danger of disloca-
tion to the jaw in the struggles of the prey. This
disposition of the canines is all but universal, and, I
believe, with the same object, viz., to secure the
lower jaw from closing out of its place, and so getting
the cusps of the teeth entangled, or straining the
articulation of the jaw.

The molars in the fore part of the mouth in cats,
are mostly composed of one strong laterally-com-
pressed cone, guarded before and behind by a small
tubercle, which protects the gum ; their function
seems to be to assist the canines in holding
the captive, and to joint the larger bones. Behind
these, above and below, comes a single large tooth
on each side, which is so indicative of the flesh-eater,
that Cuvier named it the carnassial tooth. They
have two strong cutting edges, which meet and pass

G

82 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

each other like the blades of a pair of shears. If the
edge were straight, as observed with regard to the
kangaroo, there would be a tendency in any unyield-
ing substance to slide forward, therefore the edge
forms a waved notch, so that on closing the jaw it
encloses the substance first, and then cuts it (Plate
I., fig. 2). In order to preserve this form, as the
teeth wear away, they slope at an acute angle from
the side which rubs against the opposer, which latter
side is perpendicular.

Dogs, having no retractile claws to help in seizing
and holding their prey, have their muzzles elongated,
which gives room behind for more molars, one of
which is tubercular and possesses a large masticating
surface ; whether this has any relation to his en-
durance in running, or not, I can only surmise.

Cuvier speaks of the carnassial tooth of cats as
particularly adapted for cutting up flesh, but I
imagine that they tear off as large pieces of flesh as
can be swallowed, which receives no further chewing,
and that the essential function of these teeth is rather
to divide the tough tendons which attach the muscles
to the bones.

Amongst the lemurs, the galeopithecus, or flying
lemur of the Indian islands, presents a unique denti-
tion. It is destitute of upper front teeth, while those
in the lower front jaw are deeply indented, like the
teeth of a comb ; and as its back teeth are of a well-
marked insectivorous type, it is possible that a solu-
tion of their function consists in their use in search-
ing the backs of other animals for parasites or
larvae.

TO man's place in nature. 83

The teeth of monkeys are generally frugivorous in
their character, but they vary so much, and in many
cases so nearly approach the human type, that I will
refer to them again in a future paper.

G 2

84 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER V.

A DIFFICULTY FOR DARWINISTS^

Mivart's statement of difficulty — Convenient definition of word
species — Isolation of marsupials — Different theories of
classification, best represented as genealogical tree — Com-
parison between marsupial thylacine and dog — Huxley's
view of probable derivation of dog from thylacine — Teeth
of wrasse, parrot fish and rodents — Comparison of growth
of bone to clusters of foraminiferas — Question of difficulty of
physiological construction and maintenance of teeth in
living body.

The third chapter of Mivart's " Genesis of Species "
states a difficulty to the acceptance of Darwin's
theory of the origin of species thus : — '' On this
theory the chances are almost infinitely great against
the independent accidental occurrences and preser-
vation of two similar series of minute variations
resulting in the independent development of two
closely similar forms." Amongst other illustrations
of his theory, he mentions that Professor Huxley
had called his attention to the very striking resem-
blance between certain teeth of the dog and the
thylacine. Having had this difficulty very strongly
forced upon my own mind in studying mammalian
teeth, I will try and state it more fully than is done
by Mivart.

TO man's place in nature. 85

There are certain highly speciaHzed and compli-
cated organs found upon different animals, which are
so similar that, upon Darwin's theory, they ought to
be hereditarily descended from or related to each
other, and yet, by the same theory, it seems almost
possible to prove that such could not be the case.
Now, if this proof does hold good, some very con-
siderable modifications of the theory will be necessary.

It is a fact familiar to every child that there are
many kinds of animals differing from one another in
their general characters, and that some of these
animals are more alike than others, so that a rough,
common-sense classification soon takes place in the
mind of every individual, by which all the animals
they are most familiar with, are probably arranged
according to the peculiar conditions of that individual.
A settler in a new and wild country might have two
sub-kingdoms, viz., wild and domestic, of which the
wild might be divided thus : —

Dangerous to human life ;

Noxious, but not dangerous ;

Injurious to crops ;

Useful for food ;

Furnishing useful furs or skins ;

and so forth. It would soon be observed that there
were many animals so similar in appearance that
they might easily be mistaken for each other, and
that these similar animals had a similarity of habits,
that their offspring resembled them, and that there
was a community of blood-relationship between
them. Thus a rough idea of species is arrived at ;

86 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

but when scientific men have tried to define the'
limits of these different species there has arisen the
greatest difficulty, each definition generally depending
upon what the arranger really believed to be the
origin of species, and therefore impossible to be used
in discussing that origin without begging the whole
question.

Now as a merely useful word, and not a dogmatic
one, I think " species " may be used in two ways :
the first, I suppose, would be the logical one, that it
was the lowest or simplest unit of generalization —
i.e. that all animals so nearly alike that they cannot
be conveniently divided into smaller groups should
belong to the same species. The second requires a
little elucidation : all animals between whom there
is consanguinity are not exactly alike, although
more or less similar, and minor differences amongst
animals having such community are sometimes
capable of generalization ; still, this blood-relation-
ship seeems to be the central fact around which all
affinities of form, habit, or character, group them-
selves, and there is no dispute that where a certain
amount of divergence in these affinities or resem-
blances is found, there is no longer any possibility of
fertile interbreeding.

A definition framed on this fact will suit very well
for the purposes of this discussion, and is included
in the first explanation. Taking as the simplest
unit of generalization those animals amongst whom
there is the possibility of interbreeding belong to
the same species, and where there is no such possi-
bility to different species.

TO man's place in nature. 87

This is not given as a correct definition of the
term " species," when used zoologically. But as
orthodox naturalists, Darwinists, and common-
sense observers are all agreed in the fact that
there is such a limit, it is accepted as convenient.

The number of species of animals in the world is
immense, and it might occur on first thoughts that
however these different forms of life originated, they
must be capable of some classification by their
resemblances ; but a very slight acquaintance with
the science of zoology forces upon us a conviction
that a classification is possible expressing more than
this.

Numbers of these species consist of animals of
great complexity of organization, and the resem-
blances and affinities of construction of many of
the organs belonging to animals of different species
are so interlinked and graduated as to suggest
irresistibly some mysterious continuity between
them. The permanence of animal life is provided
for amongst each species by the reproduction of
young, which generally develop into animals like
their parents, although in some of the lower forms
it takes two or three generations for the return to
the same form. All animals can be so arranged,
according to their organic structures, and most
essential characters, as to form a sort of genealogical
tree.

Three theories are tolerably widely accepted to
account for the classification by scale of develop-
ment and affinity of construction of which animals
are capable ; one is, that they were created in

88 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

general harmony of idea, to educate the soul of man ;
another, that of Darwin, supposes that there were
but few of the simplest forms, that all the rest have
been developed by a severe competition amongst these
forms, which, in reproduction, continually varied
slightly ; that in this severe struggle for existence,
the best forms survived, and gradually the higher
types of life were thus developed, without any
further interference of any other power. The third
view is held by those who are not satisfied with the
first mentioned opinion, inasmuch perhaps as the
width of creation, coming so little within the view
of the majority of mankind, it seems rather a pre-
sumptuous and inadequate idea to suppose that this
infinity of gradation was made for the education of
men, so few of whom could ever see its meaning.
These persons also doubt the power of the second
principle to be capable of surmounting all the
difficulties of organic construction, or of producing
the originality, beauty or sensibility which is
actually found in the organic world ; they are
rather inclined to believe that they behold the real
steps of evolution, invention, and creation, by which
not only is man to be educated, but by which he
was invented and created (if these two words should
not stand for the same act).

According to this last theory, whether there has
been, or has not been a material continuity between
the lower and higher types, might be open to dis-
cussion ; the main difference between it and
Darwin^s theory is, that it maintains that a material
continuity is not necessary, and that the mere laws

TO man's place in nature. 8g

of necessity (granted a low type of life) and the
general conditions of the world are not sufficient
to account for that classification of the organic
world, which is possible, but that an ideal bond of
unity of design is plainly indicated. Whereas
Darwin maintains that the bond of unity has been
material continuity, produced entirely by the action
of the general laws of this planet upon an original
simple form of life. Here are Mr. Darwin's views in
his own words : —

" As each species tends by its geometrical ratio of
reproduction to increase inordinately in number, and
as the modified descendants of each species will be
enabled to increase by so much the more as they
become diversified in habits and structure, so as to
be enabled to seize on many and widely different
places in the economy of Nature, there will be a
constant tendency in natural selection to preserve
the most divergent offspring of any one species.
Hence, during a long-continued course of modifica-
tion, the slight differences characteristic of varieties
of the same species tend to be augmented into the
greater differences characteristic of species of the
same genus. New and improved varieties will
inevitably supplant and exterminate the older, less
improved and intermediate varieties, and thus
species are rendered to a large extent defined and
distinct objects. Dominant species belonging to
the larger groups tend to give birth to new and
dominant forms, so that each large group tends to
become still larger, and at the same time more
divergent in character. But as all groups cannot

go THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

thus succeed in increasing in size, for the world
would not hold them, the more dominant groups
beat the less dominant. This tendency in the large
groups to go on increasing in size and diverging in
character, together with the almost inevitable con-
tingency of much extinction, explains the arrange-
ment of all the forms of life, in groups subordinate
to groups, all within a few great classes which we
now see everywhere around us, and which has pre-
vailed throughout all time. This grand fact of the
grouping of all organic beings seems to me utterly
inexplicable on the theory of creation."

Now if this grouping has been the result of here-
ditary connection, how does Darwin account for
similar or homologous organs having an indepen-
dent source ?

This is the case in point. The marsupial mam-
malia form a natural order. No naturalists have
ever attempted to separate them in classification,
and the fact of their being almost exclusively found
in Australia and adjacent islands (only one genus,
that of the true opossums, being found elsewhere,
in North and South America), gives us all the more
confidence in regarding them as such. At the same
time this isolation tells very well in favour of Mr.
Darwin's theory. The marsupial is a very early
type of mammal, and was at one time much more
widely distributed than at present. Prof. Owen
figures the lower jaw of a small insect-eating mar-
supial taken from the Stonesfield oolite in Oxford-
shire, England. Now, if the placental type, which
is a higher and prevailing one, had arisen from one

TO man's place in nature. gi

species of marsupials, it would, if the advance was
of sufficient importance, have gradually supplanted
the lower type, wherever it came into competition
with it ; and we have only to allow that this struggle
did not first occur in Australia, and that all com-
munication with the rest of the world was cut off
before the predominating race could reach Australia,
and we should expect to find, according to Mr.
Darwin, exactly what we do find : all the animals
there retaining a distinct classification grouped
around the old marsupial type.

The sheet-anchor of Darwinism is, that the
adaptations of organs to the needs of the animal
are not produced by external circumstances, but
that out of the infinite slight variations which arise
the one which gives its possessor the advantage irl
the " struggle for existence " prevails, the less ex-
cellent dies out.

Out of the infinite possibilities for improvement
which surround any animal, it would be extremely
improbable that the same should be arrived at by
different species, and a fortiori when this improve-
ment consists of organs exceedingly complicated and
apparently difficult of development.

Let any one consider the wing of a bird, a fly or a
bat, and he will understand what I mean ; if we
only knew of one organ of flight we might be led to
suppose that it was the only mechanical contrivance
possible to this end, and yet we see in these
instances, how entirely distinct are the means to the
same action.

How rational and in accordance with a priori

92 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

reasonings it seems to be, that bones should be
within the body to support the soft parts and give
them by leverage the means of determined motion ;
and yet when we compare invertebrate with verte-
brate animals it shows us that we may allow infinite
scope for variety of construction. Mr. Darwin has
referred to the growth and affinities of language in
illustration of the growth and affinities of species ;
it will bring it home to us, and may be not much
overstraining the case, if I say that to expect to find
the same organization developed from similar ex-
ternal conditions, on Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, will
be a parallel case to expecting to find the same
language evolved from two originally distinct people
who had no communication, because their external
conditions were similar. Imagine the European
discoverers of Japan finding the natives speaking a
European language, or one so near it as readily to
be understood by them. Would they not find it
very difficult to believe in an independent origin for
that language ? Just so, then, we ought to find
an absence of placental animals in Australia, if it
was separated from the rest of the world before that
type was introduced. So far the illustration is en-
tirely against us.

But let us look at this order of marsupial mam-
malia a little more closely, and see of what divisions
it is composed. We have the familiar kangaroos,
which take the place in the Australian fauna that the
lighter ruminants — antelopes, goats, sheep, and deer
— do in the larger continents, browsing on the
herbage of the plains or amongst the rocks during

TO man's place in nature. 93

the dusk, and lying hid in the hght day-time. Here
is the same place in nature filled by how different and
original a type. Then we have the wombat ; this
animal is to all intents and purposes a rodent ; its
four front teeth possess a persistent pulp and con-
tinually grow forwards on the arc of a circle as they
wear away, with a strong plate of enamel arming their
front surfaces, so as to keep this sharp by the greater
wear of the softer tissues. Behind, the body of the
tooth, consisting of dentine, is surrounded on its
surface by a layer of cementum or bone substance.
These incisors are separated from the grinders by a
wide space unoccupied by any teeth. The same
arrangement may be seen by any one who will take
the trouble to examine the skull of a rat or guinea-pig ;
a rabbit or hare differs in having four instead of two
upper front teeth. But it is possible that the
placental type may, in the first instance, have
branched off from a marsupial rodent. Mr. Darwin
himself draws attention to the affinity exhibited by
the viscacha, a rodent of South America, something
like a hare in general appearance.

We may imagine a genealogical tree of the prin-
cipal divisions of mammalia, hypothetically connect-
ing the marsupial and placental divisions by the
rodents, through this affinity of the wombat for them.
According to natural selection, as I understand it,
we should expect to find such a connecting link, and
this evidence at any rate is not antagonistic to the
theory.

But what is to be said about the thylacinus, the
hyena or tiger of the settlers in Van Dieman's Land,

94 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

a predacious marsupial, the size of a large dog, whose
skull is so very similar to that of a dog that it would
need a good naturalist to distinguish it from a dog's
if he found it lying about on an English common.

The dog has six insignificant incisors above and
below ; thylacinus eight above and six below. The
dog has two large curved conical canines above and
below ; thylacinus precisely similar ones ; the lower
canines, in both cases, close in front of the upper,
although the lower incisors close behind the upper.
Next behind the canines in both animals a row of
spear-headed teeth are placed to help to hold a
struggling prey. The molars of the marsupial, six
in each jaw, are formed for cutting flesh and break-
ing small bones ; two of the teeth in each jaw of the
dog are similarly formed ; four posterior ones above
and below being tubercular grinders, more adapted
for crushing than cutting. The homologies of their
respective dental formula are : —

THYLACINUS.
Incisor. Canine. Premolars. Molars.

Above

8

2 6

8 = 24

Below

6

2 6
DOG.

8 = 22

Incisor.

Canine. Premolars.

Molars.

Above

6

2 8

4 = 20

Below

6

2 8

6 = 22

1 = 46.

42.

Anyone who will compare the skulls of the badger
or seal with that of the dog cannot fail to be struck
with the much greater dissimilarity they exhibit than
do the two skulls we have been considering ; yet both

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 95

these animals are indubitably classed with the dog
in the same order of carnivora, far removed from the
marsupials. Some naturalists, led no doubt by this
fact, classed marsupials as a sub-order of carnivora,
but in that case we should only reverse the difBculty
by having to account for the homologies of the
wombat with the higher rodents.

There is a solution which may perhaps be offered,
that the higher rodents and carnivora arose on
parallel lines from the marsupial rodents and carni-
vora ; but in that case it will give the same difficulty
in another form, for it will admit that the placental
type had arisen from at least two separate origins,
which, according to our previous argument, is in-
finitely improbable.

The more I ponder the subject the more I am
convinced that the difficulty is no mere quibble. To
look at the three skulls of a thylacinus, a dog and a
seal, and to consider that by any possible genealogy
the dog is more nearly related to the seal than to the
thylacinus, and in fact that before the relationship
between the dog and the marsupial can be traced
every sign of a carnivorous animal must have been
lost and reproduced, presses it strongly upon my
mind that there is some force at work unaccounted
for by the theory of the evolution of species in their
struggle for existence.

I find the following remarks bearing on this
subject by Oscar Schmidt in his work on " Mam-
malia in relation to Primeval times" (page 269).
*' Huxley states, in several hundred species of dogs
he found fibrous formations which are said to corre-

96 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

spond with the marsupial bones, the distinguishing
feature of the marsupial group. If this observation
becomes an established fact, the direct descent of
dogs from marsupials would seem in the highest
degree probable."

This, of course, opens out the question of all the
higher mammalia descending from dogs, the higher
rodents and insectivora being re-evolved ; otherwise
we must suppose that, on advancing lines, the three
orders gradually abandoned pouch-bearing and
adopted placentation and longer gestation on
parallel lines.

Let us review the complexity and apparent diffi^
culty of the evolution of teeth in such definite form
and arrangement as those I have been describing.
I say appare^it difficulty, because in making re-
searches the student can hardly fail to be impressed
with a feeling as if ages upon ages had been spent,
and myriads of forms evolved for every little step in
advance.

I will try and give a general outline of what seems
to have been the path of the evolution of teeth, as a
great deal of the strength of my argument is based
upon the very high type of organization which they
evince.

We do not find that teeth maintain any important
place in the animal economy until we arrive at the
sub-kingdom, Vertebrata. There are a few curious
examples among the lower forms, as in Echinus, the
leech, and amongst mollusks ; but it is amongst
animals possessing a bony skeleton that teeth are
met with in endless variety of form, structure and

t^

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 97

arrangement. Amongst the lowest vertebrates
(fishes) we find, as we should expect, the lowest
types of teeth, some of which seem to consist of a
tissue scarcely varying from bone in structure, so
that it may be well to say a few words about bone
itself as illustrative of our subject.

The essential requisites of bone seem to be, that it
shall possess a certain amount of mechanical strength
and hardness, in order to support the soft parts and
Pprovide them with rigid bars to be used as levers ;
\. also that it shall be capable of such change of shape,
W as the general growth of the animal requires, that
^ this last process may take place. Bone is occupied
f\ throughout its substance by small hollow spaces,
technically termed lacunae, which communicate with
each other and with the nearest vascular surface by
means of very fine tubes termed canaliculi ; these
lacunae and their canaliculi are occupied by soft
livingu-c^s which seem to possess the power of
uilding up or taking down whatever is required.
Little animalcules (foraminiferas) have the power
of secreting small shells around them, leaving fine
holes all over the shells through which to pass fine
processes of their bodies, which only consist of a
little jelly-like protein.

We may look upon each of these cells occupying
the lacunae of bone as so many foraminiferae which
have lost their individuality, and have had implanted
in them a sort of instinct, or habit, of building up
around them, or pulling down, or merely keeping in
repair, just what is required by the physiological
well-being of the animal ; like a colony of bees,

H

gS THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

always hard at work attending to their duty. In -
order to provide them with requisite food, bone of
any thickness is traversed by vascular canals, called
Haversian canals, which give fresh bone its pink
colour, and the blood vessels within which, bring
the food and take away the debris as required.
Around these canals the cells group themselves,
communicating with them by the canaliculi.

The problem to be solved in the construction of
teeth is rather different from that of bone. Here
part of the organ has to resist more or less severe
direct mechanical friction, has to be exposed, and at
the same time maintain a strong connection with
the living and sensitive body. One of the first dis-
tinctions between tooth-substance and bone seems
to be in the elimination of the requisites for pulling
down and re-building. No normal tooth, that I am
aware of, alters its shape after formation. The
calcigerous or bone-forming cells retire to the cir-
cumference of the space around each vascular canal,
and dwindle in size until they disappear, or they
retire into the vascular canal and remain there as a
persistent soft pulp. The fine canaliculi, around
which the salts of lime which harden the tooth were
deposited, remain. Professor Owen mentions having
observed the tooth of a fish composed only of this
structure, which he calls vaso-dentine (See Owen's
*' Odontography" or C. Tomes' " Dental Anatomy") ;
an advance upon this vaso-dentine is made by the
whole exposed part of the tooth being protected by
a layer of the calcified tissue traversed by canali-
culi, but possessing neither lacunae nor vascular

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. gg

canals. This is a very common form amongst
fishes.

In the common wrasse or connor of our shores we
find this harder external layer developed inwards, to
the extinction of all the vaso-dentine. The tooth is
entirely composed of hard, very finely tubular dentine,
but this construction seems to interfere with the
vital connection of the tooth with the living jaw, as
there is a provision for a constant succession of teeth
from below.

In fishes generally, there seem to be few examples
of teeth implanted by fangs in a socket, and no
great permanency of connection between the teeth
and their possessors ; there is generally provision
for a constant succession from behind forwards, as
in the sharks and rays, or from below upwards, as in
the wrasse, already mentioned, or the angler, where
new teeth rise up between the old ones, which fall
away. The law seems to be that of irrelative repeti-
tion. There is no instance amongst fishes of such
a continuously growing tooth as we find in the
wombat, which if it were a probable structure to
occur from separate origins we might expect, since
there is much greater variety of form and number of
species among fishes than mammals. The dental
apparatus of the parrot-fish is one of the nearest re-
semblance to the teeth of rodents in function that I
can find ; that of the lepidosiren looks something
like in section, but I do not know sufficient of the
habits of this animal to say anything of the
functions of its curious-looking jaw. Amongst
reptiles the same law of constant succession of

H 2

100 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

teeth holds good, which looks as if there was the
same difficulty of retaining the teeth permanently ;
but when we arrive at mammalia we find at most
only one change of teeth, and this apparently in
order to accommodate the adult animal with a larger
set than would have been convenient for its young
state.

The peculiarities of structure which perform this
apparently difficult feat are these : the part of the
tooth most exposed to wear is protected by enamel,
which is extremely hard, and, so far as we know,
entirely devoid of life ; below this, and immediately
surrounding the single vascular permanent originally
formative pulp, is the body of the tooth, formed of
dentine, which is traversed by an immense number
of fine tubes passing from the pulp to the circum-
ference ; these tubes being occupied by fine pro-
cesses of the formative cells, which, as we have before
seen in the development of teeth amongst fishes,
have retreated into the vascular pulp. Around the
outside of such part of the dentine as is not covered
by enamel there is a layer of bone substance contain-
ing plenty of calcigerous cells ; this layer is called
the cementum. This cementum surrounds the fang
in those teeth which are thus attached to the jaw,
and no doubt, by its highly vital character, plays
an important part in maintaining the life of the
tooth, and by its plastic nature perhaps helps to
accommodate the fitting of fang and socket to-
gether.

Teeth such as those found in the dog, thylacine,
wombat and rodent, are organs of an exceedingly

TO man's place in nature. ioi

high order of organic construction, and there is an
exceedingly close resemblance between them respec-
tively, i.e. between thylacines and dogs, between
wombats and some rodents.

102 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER VI.

AN UNNAMED FACTOR IN ORGANIC CONSTRUCTION.

Objection to evolution as inimical to morality must be invalid
if theory is true — Cumulative evidence — Exclusion of
question of origin of life — Habitation — Convergent lines of
development — Internal factor recognizes improvement in
organ and reproduces it teleologically — Evolution of canine
tooth, or ruminant grinders — Growth of tissues an instinct
— Goethe — Socrates — Herbert Spencer.

Many educated persons fear that Darwin's theory of
evolution will have a depressing effect upon moral
excellence. With this conclusion I do not feel that
I can agree, as I think that the present state of
knowledge establishes evolution as a science on as
sound a foundation as that of geography or astro-
nomy.

The evidence in favour of evolution is afforded by
the independent concurrent testimony of the sciences
of astronomy, geology, geography and biology, the
latter including paleontology, anatomy, physiology,
embryology and histology, each science being the
product of the accumulation of an immense number
of facts by a great number of workers ; the records
being of the remotest antiquity, the evidence such
as is admitted by all men ^ everywhere^ and at all times.

TO man's place in nature. 103

The facts of all these sciences arranged inde-
pendently, and the accumulation of a multitude of
labourers, all point in the direction of the evolution
or progression of life.

It must be remembered that the old prophets and
philosophers had not the knowledge which we now
possess, which makes it seem impossible to many to
think connectedly on the plan of the Universe and
their own relations in it on any theory which does not
admit evolution or progression as an established law.

That life can spontaneously appear where there is
no life, is an essentially different proposition to that
which asserts that a simple form of life may progress
to a higher state. I do not know of any evidence
establishing the former proposition as a fact. But,
whether a fact or not, in all logical fairness it should
be eliminated from the discussion of the laws of
evolution. For life, however simple, to start up
where there is no life, is no evolution, but either a
direct creation, in the dogmatic meaning of the word,
or an inconceivable explosion.

Evolution, so restricted, is a doctrine which is
circumstantially, if not directly, proved by the con-
current testimony of too many sciences to be gain-
said. It must be remembered that we have only
lately had the immense store of facts accumulated
by the spiritual descendants of older observers at the
present day, that our predecessors longed for more
knowledge, that some of them seem almost to have
foreshadowed many of the facts now well-established,
that their cry was how little they knew — how much
there was to be known.

104 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Another restriction may be required on a point in-
the theory of evolution which has seized upon the
popular imagination. I do not think it is necessary,
to a theory of evolution, to hold that there has been
an unbroken hereditary genealogy between the lowest
and highest form of life, or, to come to the point of
popular interest, that man is descended from an ape.
(I now think it all but proved, and no doubt true :
1891.)

Whether there has been one break of genealogical
descent in the tree of life, on the evolutionists' plan,
or many, or none, it does not appear that we have
sufficient scientific evidence to lead us to a conclu-
sion. Here, therefore, our proper position is to hold
our judgment in suspense until more evidence is
advanced, or is exhaustively proved to be not forth-
coming.

It may be competent to us to speculate as to which
way the evidence seems to point, so as to direct our
search for fresh facts either for or against our sup-
positions ; but I hold that it is as vicious to jump to
conclusions beyond the evidence before us, as it is to
shut our eyes to facts because they may seem to point
to conclusions which do not harmonize with our
previous conceptions. In taking truth for our guide
we must not try to dictate where she shall lead us —
in putting our '' hand to the plough, we must not
look back."

In geography it is well understood that all the
land on the globe has a solid connection either above
or under the ocean, but still each island and conti-
nent requires survey to inform us of its special shape

TO man's place in nature. 105

and connections above water ; so in the science of
evolution, as applied to animal life, we feel assured
that there is some connection linking the whole, yet
still we require that each species or genus shall be
distinctly surveyed to note its connections, and where
facts are not forthcoming, must be content to hold
our judgment.

Mr. Darwin believes that from a low or simple
form of life, all the more complex and higher types
have been evolved, by the necessities of the struggle
for existence, and the consequent survival of the
fittest or higher type ; the changes taking place by
irrelative spontaneous variations modelled and directed
by the external conditions in which the animal is
placed, without the interference of intelligence,
except so far as it is allowed in the provision of
external conditions, so arranged as to conduce to
such progressive development.

External conditions are, no doubt, of immense
importance in modelling and determining the form
of different species. It is difficult to get them defi-
nitely described, for — as has been pointed out, and
notably so by Darwin — they are often of an exceed-
ingly complicated and involved nature. A great part
of these conditions is formed by the habits or pro-
ductions of other animals or plants, forming series
of vortices of complex interdependencies of necessarily
synchronous development, which remind us of the
" house that Jack built." These conditions are
assumed in the life histories of animals, they have
not yet, I think, been very clearly treated by any
one, but must assume more and more importance as

I06 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the battle of the theory of evolution is fought out.-
They are the moulds in which species are cast, the
possibilities without which they could not exist, and
not being capable of tangible or visible representation,
are apt to be lost sight of. The scholar will perhaps
tell us that these conditions were known to old philo-
sophy by the name of " mothers." Cuvier and later
naturalists have generally spoken of them as the
*' conditions of life." '' The environment " seems to
be a later term. Are not these terms too vague and
inflexible ?

There seems some evidence that species are
formed and varied by their habits ; the word habita-
tion then suggests itself as exactly appropriate, and
at the same time is a more convenient word. It is
familiar, and has the stamp of antiquity upon it, with
almost, if not precisely, a similar signification (Isaiah
xxxiv. 13), " And it shall be a habitation of dragons
and a court for owls " ; or where the word house or
mansion is used in almost a synonymous sense (as
in Job xxxix. 6-7), " Of the wild ass whose house I
have made the wilderness." As applied to man, the
term would include not only his dwelling place, but
all his surroundings, by which he subsisted or which
gave him position. What made a man's rank, title,
business, profession, living, handicraft, work, could
all be more easily included under the term habitation
than environment.

■ But do not the facts of modern research show that
more than the influence of the various habitations on
the globe must betaken into consideration to account
for the various forms of animals ? An energy must

TO man's place in nature. 107

be allowed to the physiological growing powers of
life, including a faculty more nearly resembling
intelligence than it has been the custom hitherto
to assign to these functions. An energy throwing
out growths or variations in search of the required
necessary improvement which is to preserve the
continuation of the species, or a modification of it
in the way of life; also a comprehensive unity of
mind prompting the individual towards the right
path.

It has been objected against the doctrine of evolu-
tion, that if the theory were true we should find
similar species evolved on parallel lines, instead of
constantly diverging ones.

In the previous chapter I tried to prove this very
position, as I pointed out that the higher mammals
must have arisen from at least two branches of the
marsupials, viz., the carnivorous and rodent ; and I
find that Professor Huxley and many other naturalists
are of opinion that " several distinct groups of pla-
cental mammals, differing in the beginning, arose
from several distinct groups of marsupials." Whether
it be possible to separate the placental mammalia
into different groups, I do not pretend to offer an
opinion, but as far as the evidence at present stands,
it seems to manifest the presence of unity of purpose
acting beyond the individuality of the particular
animal or species.

The purpose of the present chapter is to present
some evidence of a factor within the body of the
individual creature, forming the organs with unity of
purpose and a consciousness of what is being done

I08 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

in other parts of the same body, which it is difficult,-
if not impossible, to reconcile with the theory that it
is the result of " irrelative spontaneity," however
controlled and directed by its " habitation " in the
*' struggle for existence." Should this conjecture be
correct, it may tend to show that intelligence is more
latent or unconscious in its workings than is com-
monly supposed ; as Goethe said, " We are uncon-
scious when we are doing right, it is only when we
do wrong we begin to feel."

The nature of the evidence will be taken from the
analogies and homologies of teeth, which are organs
extremely high in the scale of specialization. Instead,
however, of comparing the development of teeth in
different animals, the argument will rest upon the
development, differentiation, and approximation of
form and function in teeth in the same individual ;
the point desired to be proved being : that, granting
some theory of evolution to be an established fact,
still we must allow to the energetic principle we call
life some power beyond that of ^' spontaneous
irrelative variation " to account for the repetition of
highly organized similar constructions in the same
mouth.

A tooth stands extremely high in the scale of
organized tissues ; to keep so dense and hard a sub-
stance alive seems to have been a physiological
problem of great difficulty. Teeth are dermal
appendages, like the nails and hair, and therefore
are not part of the internal skeleton, as has been
clearly stated by the younger Tomes, notwithstand-
ing which we find them, with few exceptions,

TO man's place in nature. log

arranged homologically with regard to the bones,
and symmetrically with regard to a bi-lateral
division.

Amongst fishes, for example, where all the bones
of the mouth, and some in the throat, may carry
teeth, often in great numbers, which are continually
falling off and being renewed, we do not always find
a precise bi-lateral symmetry either of form or
arrangement. Yet even here the law is observed to
such an extent that without further evidence we
should feel obliged to inquire what had caused such
a parallel evolution of teeth on two sides of the
mouth. For although the teeth amongst fishes do
not present the high development or such definition
of sculptured complexity as those of mammals, yet
the diversity of form amongst them is almost infinite,
and even that between teeth in the same mouth
often very great. For example, in the Port Jackson
shark the front teeth are like prickles, the back
teeth like a tesselated pavement. The same may
be said of the common wrasse of our shores, or
the wolf-fish, whose front teeth are like grappling
irons, the back ones like paving stones. These
teeth are approximately symmetrical and homolo-
gous in arrangement. But by the doctrine of evolu-
tion these teeth have all been developed from the
same elementary form of spine or prickle, such as
we find covering some of the rays and sharks.
Without going further, I think we might work out
an argument on this evidence to show that a
unity is required to effect this beyond the power
of external conditions alone — something havino-

no THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

an attribute very much akin to intelligence, as if the-
whole were conscious of the growth of its several
parts, and ready to avail itself of any improvement
any part had attained, and adopted the same in
other parts similarly circumstanced.

The force of the evidence in favour of this un-
named factor being cumulative, let us take the
evolution of the canine tooth as we find it in pre-
datory animals, as a unit or standard, so as to
compare the amount of time or the number of
successive stages which this tooth has passed
through before it reached the perfect definition
which we find it in amongst the carnivorous
animals. We will allow that this tooth has been
evolved by mere irrelative variation^ controlled by
external conditions ; I do not say that it has been
so evolved, but being tolerably simple in form,
few in number in the same mouth, and clearly
defined in place and function, we will suppose that
it has been so formed for the sake of the argu-
ment, as the interference of any other factor must
have tended to shorten the time of its evolution.
Taking the time therefore required by the evolu-
tion of the canine tooth as a standard, if we find
a much more complicated tooth and series of such
teeth produced in much less time, and passing
through much fewer gradations, we shall begin
strongly to suspect that there has been some other
factor at work than that of " irrelative variation,
controlled by habitation."

The more intelligence we find in the life histories
of animals, the more highly organized do we find

TO man's place in nature. Ill

their bodies, taken as a whole, or in each particular
organ or systems of organs. Thus keeping pace
with the general organization and intelligence, we
find particular organs more highly organized and
effective, and the more perfected any special differ-
entiation is, with the greater tenacity it is retained ;
that is, it can be traced through a greater number of
genera.

To begin with the lowest type, amongst fishes the
commonest form is two long rows of teeth of an
acutely conical shape, nearly equal length, slightly
curved backward, and distributed around the margin
of the jaws. These are very suitable for seizing
and holding a flying prey. In the crocodiles,
amongst reptiles, the snout is greatly prolonged,
probably giving greater facility in the capture of
their food. Such an even row, however, does not
soon extinguish life, and their possessors either
take small prey, which they swallow whole, or re-
sort to various expedients to procure death. The
pike holds his capture ten minutes in his mouth
before pouching it, serpents kill by poison or com-
pression, or are forced to swallow their prey alive,
whilst crocodiles when they seize a large mammal
hold its muzzle under water until it is drowned.

Among predatory fishes and reptiles we often
find some of the front teeth elongated to emphasize
their holding and lethal power, as in " Dentex,"
eels, and some crocodiles. These are not very
definitely arranged homologically, and there are
often several nearly in the same place, as if they
were feeling about for their right and most efficient

112 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

position. But they do not persist through many,
widely diverging genera, many of the crocodiles
having an even row of teeth. A generalization
suggests itself here, which, although rather hastily
made, I suspect will prove near the truth — that in
proportion as the canines approach their highest
development the whole of the jaw will be found
to be shortened, probably to give them greater
power. For example, compare the head of the
gangetic gavial, with its immensely long snout and
row of sub-equal teeth, with that of the fossil
machairodos, with its huge canines, or even that of
the recent lion or cat.

In the highly developed mammals, of which the
inference is that they are the result of a struggle
for existence which has been more intensely severe
and protracted than that to which reptiles and fish '
have been subjected, the definition of the canine
tooth has become more precise, both in form and
position, and much more retentively persistent
through many groups. It varies slightly in form
and function, but is of all the teeth the most con-
sistent in its general characters, homologies or
functions.

Its requirement as a weapon, either predatory or
for offence or defence, seems to have been the ex-
ternal cause determining its evolution. It would
have weakened its power by removing it too far from
the acting muscles, if placed in the front of a long
snout, and so the jaw is shortened ; at the same time,
if placed centrally or near together, there would not
have been a sufficiently firm grasp, whilst if placed

TO man's place in nature. 113

too far back in the mouth there would not have
been the same facihty for seizing the prey or foe.

The mean between these extremes finally settled
the canines in carnivorous mammals, wide apart at
the turning angle of a short comparatively wide
jaw.

Notice that although the typical form of the
canine tooth is one of the earliest developed, it is
not finally determined in position so as to be of
homological value until pretty high up amongst
mammalia. If, then, " external conditions acting
alone upon irrelative variation " have produced it,
we must allow these forces to have acted for an
immense time, all through the evolution of fishes and
reptiles, before it was definitely pronounced ; and we
should expect that where we find a much more com-
plicated tooth, the external conditions to which it is
adapted, being less powerful and universal in time
and space, it must have taken a longer series of
gradations to develop, and a Jortiori, an infinitely
longer time to have produced a series of such teeth.
But when we find, as we do, that not only is this
the case, but that the row in the upper jaw is re-
versed to that in the lower, although the shape is
maintained, in order to enable them to act more
efficiently, I think we may be excused if our minds
are staggered at the possibility of " irrelative varia-
tion " having ever produced such a result.

Instead, however, of this result being the product
of a longer series of gradations than that which was
required to produce the perfected canine tooth, it
has been brought about within comparatively a very

I

114 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

short range, and I think this, at any rate, indicates
that to produce this result we must look for some
factor within the animal having in some way a
consciousness of, and being influenced by, what is
going on in other parts of its organization.

Although there have been, practically, infinite
varieties in the forms and arrangement of teeth
among the lower vertebrates, fishes, frogs, lizards
and snakes, there is no very perfect definition of
character; roughly speaking, the teeth are bilater-
ally symmetrical, yet where they differ much in the
same mouth, there is usually a complete series of
gradations ; nor is there the same exactness of
classification possible between the different forms
that we find among the higher animals — as if the
lower animals had had a wider scope for varying
the forms of their teeth independently under differ-
ent conditions, but had not been subjected to the
discipline of so fierce a competition. In the lowest
large group of mammals, however, teeth begin to be
well-defined, both for function and classification, so
that we can arrange them under four principal heads,
namely, incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. It
cannot be said that all mammalian teeth can be per-
fectly so classed ; but function has generally so
definitely marked their relative position that their
homologies are to be traced ; this is not the case
with the groups lower in the scale.

Let us consider the type of the dentition of
ruminating animals. The form of the primitive
tooth we have seen was that of a thorn or prickle.
In the process of evolution this became coated ex-

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. II 5

ternally with a harder crust called enamel, and be-
came rooted ; this latter process, however, we will
dismiss from the argument, as it does not affect it,
and attend only to the development of the crown.
We find this prickly-shaped crown in some sharks'
mouths becomes flattened, presenting a shape like
the point of a stout surgeon's lancet, two smaller
similar cusps bud off at the base on the edge,
giving us a shape like that of some old spear-heads ;
this is the typical shape of the premolars in many of
the carnivora. But let us suppose this lancet-shaped
shark's tooth to be curved into a gouge shape, and
two such blades placed side by side by their edges,
then we should have the form of the lower masti-
cating teeth of the rhinoceroid animals. If two such
teeth are now placed surface to surface, so that the
convex faces of one fit into the concave surfaces of
the other, with the edges coalesced so that external
coatings of enamel and internal substance of dentine
flow together, each to its own tissue, we shall have
the typical molar of the ruminant order.

This tooth, which, you see, is of considerable
complexity, is one of high rank as an evolved form ;
it runs with little variation through all the sheep,
goats, deer, antelopes and oxen, and traces more or
less distinct show themselves among the pigs,
rhinoceri and horses. It is doubtful if a trace of it
can be found among the lower placentals, the very
diversified forms of teeth of the marsupials, or in
the lower forms of vertebrates.^

^ I have recently found a somewhat similar pattern in the
lower molars of the Koala (Phascolarctos Cmereous) a mar-
supial

I 2

Il6 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

The necessity, or external conditional requirement
for it, therefore, has not been of such universal
potency, either in time or space, as that which called
forth the canine type of teeth, and yet we find com-
paratively few species of animals intervening be-
tween its first sketch in the premolar of a pig, and
the perfected t3''pe being adopted for all the masti-
cating teeth above and below in the typical ruminants.
How can mere " irrelative variation " account for
this sudden change in shape of all the molar series,
when we have seen how long was taken by the much
simpler and more necessary canine tooth to be
definitely pronounced ? Surely the principle requires
fortifying, by allowing it the aid of some internal
uniting bond of sympathy. But even supposing
that it were possible to conceive of some internal
bond of sympathy having been itself developed by
'' irrelative variation," controlled and directed by
the survival of the fittest, this would certainly place
the series of the teeth homologically in their sockets
in the same positions relatively to the cavity of the
mouth in the upper, as in the lower jaws. However,
this sympathy or polarity — for between the upper
and lower jaws it is impossible that there can be any
hereditary succession, as they are always contem-
poraneous— has not so placed them. In order to
give the best functional activity, the relative posi-
tions of the curve of the teeth is reversed, the con-
vexity pointing inwards in the upper teeth, outwards
in the lower.

To this it may be replied that the skull is made of
differentiated vertebra or parts of them, and that

TO man's place in nature. 117

there may have been an inversion of the mandible
so as to make the opposite parts of the teeth meet
each other, instead of the homologous parts ; for
among the higher animals, a great many of those
having highly differentiated grinders have this re-
versed arrangement. In this case, however, we
should find the whole of the teeth of one jaw stand-
ing in reversed position to those of the other jaw,
which is not the case, but only those teeth whose
functions require it. We must, therefore, regard the
functional efficiency as the determining cause, but
must look further for a predisposing cause.

It is therefore plain that if we accept some theory
of evolution as necessary and true, it is in evidence
that it has taken countless ages to produce a
ruminant's molar tooth, but being produced there
has been at work some power able to recognize its
efficiency, remodel the other masticating teeth in the
same mouth on the same pattern, and reverse them
in opposition — a feat of incalculably greater com-
plexity, and utterly improbable to have ever been
accomplished by irrelative variation alone, but
which has in reality been accomplished in a very
much shorter time than it took to arrive at the first
sketch of the tooth. The evidence would be strong
enough if met with in only one group, but we meet
with the same facts in other groups, the mole and
its congeners, and many rodents present the same
features. In these cases, although the same general
law is observed, it has been carried out by different
details. It is scarcely possible to trace any con-
nection between the teeth of a sheep, a mole and a

Il8 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

guinea-pig, yet in all these species the functional
parts the molars and premolars are repetitions of
each other, and upper and lower series stand in
reversed relative positions.

I think these facts almost give us ground for
educing some general law. I cannot conceive of
any merely chemical or mechanical laws intelligibly
accounting for them.

The analogy seems to me very close between this
group of facts and the history of an invention.
Looked at merely from the outside and historically,
we might infer that inventions were accidental dis-
coveries, perpetuated and accumulated by the
struggle for existence. To a certain extent no
doubt this is true, but the adoption and quickly
spread application of a new invention to different con-
ditions requires also recognition and intelligence.

It will be asked, do I think there is any intelli-
gence displayed by an animal in its own growth ? I
do not say that this can be proved, but at any rate
there is evidence showing something very nearly
akin to it, something which seems to have grown in
intelligent work with the general rank of the animal
in the scale of being, and therefore with its own
general intelligence.

In a previous chapter on " Human and Brute
Intelligence," I tried to show that *' all organs must
have in themselves in life all the instincts of which
the organs were evidence." Now I shall try to show
in the remainder of this paper that growth is an
instinct, as much as any other inherited tendency
of action.

TO man's place in nature. 119

In the chapter on perception it was maintained that
we had to make the ideas with which we perceived
things by a process of the imagination suggested by
such difficulties as were met with in action. If this
theory be true, or only true in part, it may account
for the very different views we take on some sub-
jects. The battle used to rage between freewill and
necessity. Those who paid attention to the history
of men as individuals, or reflected on mental science,
generally leaning towards freewill ; whilst those who
had to do with the exact sciences gravitated towards
necessity, and could not accept the idea of sponta-
neity, which was involved in the idea of freewill.
Now, however, the flanks of both schools have been
turned by the biologists, who previously observed a
modest silence on these occasions. These latter do
not usually believe in freedom of the will on the one
hand and rank spontaneity, under the head of causal
necessity, on the other.

Having understood that spontaneity was a neces-
sary part of the doctrine of freedom of the will, I
can the more readily recognize the possibility that
spontaneity has had a large part to play in the evolu-
tion of species, nor do I see that such an admission
at all imposes the tenet of causal necessity or in
any way interferes with moral responsibility.

The farther histologists have traced the various
tissues to their elementary functional constituents,
more clearly has it been proved that although
mechanics and chemistry have a very important
share of the work to be done, they are but secondary
causes, and that the primary agent in the growth of

120 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

all tissues is a nucleus. This increases in number
by division or proliferates, and takes from the
nourishing fluids around it the material it wants,
with which it proceeds to build up the tissues to
which it belongs.

We are familiar with the idea that there is a
certain parallelism to be drawn between the advance
of species from the lower to the higher forms, and
the development of a highly organized individual
from its embryo. Here is an illustration, taken from
" Carpenter's Physiology," of a parallelism between
one of the lowest forms of life and the cells of bone,
one of the commonest tissues of the body. In an
amaeba we have a soft glutinous mass, capable of
taking any form and receiving food through any
part. It makes spontaneous movements, takes food
into its substance and rejects what is unsuitable.
In the gromia ovifor7nis, a little higher in the scale,
we have an animal that has encased itself in an ovoid
case, through apertures in which it takes its food.
It at once suggests itself to the mind that if a colony
of these gromia kept out their feelers for the sake of
receiving nourishment, and filled up the interstices
between themselves with the same material as that
of which they had already made their shells we
should have such a substance as is represented by a
section of bone. Different modifications of the same
arrangement will represent the elementary structure
of nearly all the organic tissues. Here, I think, we
are forced to draw a parallel between instinctive and
intelligent actions on the one hand and organic
growth on the other.

TO man's place in nature. 121

Habit is second nature, it is said, and the proverb
is perhaps "wiser than it was 'ware of." We know
our own actions often repeated become habits.
These may become hereditary, and will then be
instincts.

If it be allowed that habits or instincts can be
intelligently traced to intentional or spontaneous
action, the same chain of reasoning will lead us to
the conclusion that growth may be included in the
same law.

We have in this lowest form of life a state of
almost unconditional spontaneity. Its powers are
small, but they can act in any direction, and the
first action with intention seems to be to move and
get food, that is, add to its own substance. Growth
then, is an action. And if after a time an animal
got to add a covering to its body in a particular
manner so as to repeat the same action often, it
would become a habit, and if when it separated into
two parts the lesser preserved the same habit, it
would be an instinct. Thus growth of tissues will
be as much instinct as a bee making its comb.

On this theory the body is the expression of the
whole past history of effort, experience and intelli-
gence which any animal has passed through in its
evolution — truly a wonderful temple of record. The
poet Goethe has beautifully expressed it in the
following lines in '' Faust " : —

*' Here in the roaring loom of time I ply,
To weave the garment that thou seest me by."

Some recognition of this fact was probably made by

122 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the old philosophers when they termed man the
microcosm, as having within himself a reflex of the
whole external world, all of which is his habitation.

Plato makes Socrates give as one of his proofs of
the immortality of the soul, the fact that man had
more intelligence in him than was possible to have
been derived from his own experience, and that,
therefore, he must have had a previous existence.
Recently, Herbert Spencer has boldly propounded
that ideas are hereditary ; he supposes that the
universal recognition of time and space may be
because they must have been experienced, and
therefore, been inherited by every one. Canon
Kingsley, in his beautiful story of ''Water Babies,"
says three times over that the only true doctrine is
that the soul makes the body.

In conclusion, therefore, I will say that I see at
present no ground for believing that a living being
ever springs spontaneously out of dead matter, yet
I do see evidence for the necessity of some doctrine
of evolution. Nor do I see any ground for fear that
morality or the higher life of man need suffer by such
an hypothesis. On the contrary, it seems to me to
lend solidity to a belief in a yet higher life in the
future, only to be entered by continual strif^in the
-,. ri^ht direction, and to emphasize the warnings of
those who would point out to us the importance of
getting into, or keeping in, the life of that branch of
the tree of life whose habitation will have no end.

TO man's place in nature. 123

CHAPTER VII.

HABITATION OR ENVIRONMENT.

The word environment not satisfactory— Habitation more
ancient, scientific and vital — Decline of teleology — Herbert
Spencer on environment, — Interdependencies — Salmon
probably evolved from trout — Relation between grizzly
bear and bison — Camels and llamas and rainless regions —
Similar forms of whales and fishes — Wide face of Asiatic
man and orang-outang — Projecting face of negro and
African apes — Reflection of habitation on inner life of
animal — Reasons for supposing consciousness at organ
end of nerve instead of in brain — Ferrier — Reflex of habi-
tation in nervous centres produces acting conceptions, or
building instincts — Query : Are the pyramids an instance
of recognition of this — Position of dignified equivocation
— Lauder Lindsay — Man differentiated from other
animals, probably by words or weapons — The calendar's
story.

It is the object of this chapter to point out the
relationship which exists between animals and those
surrounding conditions to which each species is
peculiarly suited.

In doing this, a word is required, applicable to
these conditions, and at the same time definite as
well as intelligible. The w^ord environment, used in
a certain class of literature, with somewhat of the
meaning wanted, has a haziness and inflexibility
about it which is not satisfactory ; and as the

124 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

differentiation of the organs and characters of animals
seem to be formed in great measure by their habits,
I shall use the word habitation in the sense
indicated.

I have applied to several scholars to see if any
connection were traceable between the words
*' habit " and " habitation " in their early use ; but,
save that both words have the same Latin deriva-
tion, have received no information on this head. I
can, however, quote the book of widest distribution
in the English language as using the word in the
sense given. The Bible makes frequent use of the
word, as, for instance, in the 104th Psalm ; speaking
of the " springs," it says, " By them shall the fowls
of the air have their habitation." A little further on,
the word house is used in the same way — " As for
the stork, the fir trees are her house." The 34th
chapter of Isaiah says, in speaking of a land unsuit-
able for man, " It shall be an habitation of dragons
and a court for owls ; " and in the 35th chapter, in
referring to a further change, he speaks of ^' The
habitation of dragons where each lay, shall be grass
with reeds and rushes."

The word house, or mansion, is often used in this
way, and a Hebrew scholar might tell us that in the
context the same word was originally used, but had
been differently translated. We have, for instance,
in the 39th chapter of Job, a description " Of the
wild ass-; whose house I have made the wilderness,
and the barren land his dwelling."

The word refers to those surroundings of man
or lower animals, which are particularly conve-

TO man's place in nature. 125

nient to habitual actions, suited to their manner of
Hfe.

Habitation is a word more definite, more sub-
stantive, more apphcable, more full of purpose and
life than the word environment, which reduces us to
the region of abstract ideas at once. Teleology
will always rank above abstract philosophy or exact
science. It has seemed barren of results of late,
because its problems are so complex that terms
have become confused and the logical thread lost.
No one seriously doubts that to feel, to think, to
initiate good or bad purposes, to act, is really higher
matter than all the facts of chemistry or astronomy.

Herbert Spencer himself does not seem quite satis-
fied with the word " environment." In his " Princi-
ples of Biology " (vol. i. p. 85), he says, " It requires
to be observed that as the life becomes higher,
the environment becomes more complex." Then
he observes, "Though literally the environment
means all surrounding space with the co-existences
and sequences contained in it ; yet practically it
often means but a small part of this. The environ-
ment of the entozoon can scarcely be said to extent!
beyond the body of the animal in which the ento-
zoon lies — that of a fresh-water alga is virtually
limited to the ditch inhabited by the alga — and
understanding the term in this restricted sense,
we shall see that the superior organisms inhabit
the more complicated environment." It is diffi-
cult to use the word so restricted. To say a simple
or complex, large or small, humble or grand, strong
or weak environment, is a mixture of concrete and

126 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

abstract ideas which do not harmonize ; but
we can readily so quahfy the word habitation, and
may extend its use to morals and religion as a
habitation of righteousness, justice, beauty, truth,
wisdom or the reverse.

The higher animals, including man, depend for
their existence on other animals and on plants, which
are on the whole, though with some large exceptions,
lower in the scale of being than themselves. They
also depend directly or indirectly upon past genera-
tions of animals or plants, and on past geologic and
geographic changes which have made their present
existence possible. To use a teleological expression,
the habitations on the present globe have been
prepared by successive ages of change, generally
slow and gradual, sometimes locally great and
sudden.

We may safely build upon the fact that the chrono-
logical evolution of life corresponds with gradual
geologic and geographic change. We find the older
rocks contain the remains of the simpler forms of
life, those of later formation yielding fossils of the
higher types in direct relative ratio ; and the present
distribution of life on the globe, as far as known,
corresponds in the main with geographical change
and limitation.

I will give an illustration or two of the relationships
which exist between the evolution of an animal, its
habits and its habitation. Let us examine the facts
which support the idea that the salmon was evolved
from the common brown trout. The young of both
fish are very similar, and if a brown trout finds a

TO man's place in nature. 127

home of peculiarly good feed, his flesh acquires a
pink tinge. There are fish answering in shape, size,
and habits to intermediate forms between the trout
and salmon. For instance, in the tidal waters of
the Cork estuary there is a large pink-fleshed trout
which seems to remain in the tidal waters. Then we
have sea-trout, salmon-trout, salmon-peel, bull-trout,
sewin, etc., varieties which approach more to the
brown trout on the one side, to salmon on the other.
The suggestion is, that the salmon was evolved from
the trout by its having formed habits suited to a
larger habitation ; salmon migrating to the sea
during a portion of the year, where they would have
more abundant feeding-ground, more numerous and
fiercer enemies, and have access to other rivers,
whilst trout on the other hand always remain in
fresh water. We infer that salmon is older than
any of the intermediate varieties previously referred
to, the one which had most perfectly adapted itself
to its habitation, that the other varieties would be
gradually amalgamated with it by the power of
adaptability fitting them more and more perfectly to
the habitation, and by inter-breeding with the
salmon ; or if any peculiarities of location gave
either variety a decided advantage over salmon,
there it would become the stereotyped and prevailing
form. This is said to have taken place in the River
Coquet, where bull-trout have nearly supplanted
salmon. Here, if the facts are correctly interpreted,
are two factors necessary to the case ; a habitation,
composed of rivers, sea, food, enemies, etc., and a
fish having impulses and instincts capable of entering

128 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

and gradually adapting itself to these conditions.
There are many fish as favourably circumstanced as
trout for adopting the habit of migration to the sea
if they pleased, which yet do not do so, this fact
tells in favour of species altering by special rather
than individual tendencies to variation.

Let us take another example. The grizzly bear is
only found at present in America, occupying the same
area as the bison, on which he feeds. He is the only
carnivore there capable of killing this beast. At one
time he roamed over Europe and North Asia in
company with the Bovidae, but over Europe and
Asia have also roamed lions and tigers, whilst the
larger herds of Bovidas have been almost exter-
minated or domesticated by man. Can we doubt
that the presence in America of the grizzly bear is
due to the presence of the bison and the absence of
superior rivals in the lion and tiger ?

Another instance of special adaptation to par-
ticular habitation is the camel. The range of this
animal is the same with that given on hydrographical
maps as the largest rainless region, and, curiously
enough, I find the second largest rainless region,
that down the coast of South America, west of the
Andes, corresponds to the habitat of the Llamas, the
animals most closely allied to camels.

Now, although camels and llamas may have had
a common origin in North America, yet I think we
can hardly avoid the conclusion that their present
distribution in such widely separated regions as the
deserts of Asia and Africa on the one hand, and Chili
on the other, can only be accounted for by the con-

TO man's place in nature. 129

ditions in which these regions so remarkably resemble
each other, viz., their rainlessness.

A familiar instance of the effect which similar habi-
tations have in producing animals externally alike,
although their internal structure and their habits of
life point to different places in a true classification, is
found in the similarity of form possessed by whales
and fishes.

It is difficult to avoid being struck, in this connec-
tion, with the analogy which exists between the wide
flat faces of the Chinee and Mongul type of man,
and that of the Asiatic ape, the orang-outang. The
prognathous type of the negro's face and its similarity
in this respect with that of the African apes, gorilla
and chimpanzee. No evolutionist is bold enough to
suppose that man could have arisen independently
from these three sources. The inference is that
some local peculiarity, perhaps of food, heat, or light
has favoured the development of the broad face in
Asia, the prognathous one in Africa.

Dentists of the present day are well aware of an
instance in which modification of the conditions of
human life is producing a variation, or to speak more
correctly, stereotyping a variation in human dentition.
The civilized races use much more luxurious food
than the less civilized ; this is prepared by cooking
and other means, so that it is much softer and
requires much less muscular effort in mastication.
The consequence is, that the jaws are not sufficiently
developed in size to receive in symmetrical order the
full complement of teeth. These are, therefore,
unduly crowded. Apparently to meet this difficulty,

K

130 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the wisdom teeth are being eliminated, as it is an
established fact that among civilized races these are
often absent or stunted in size. According to tables
recorded by Mr. Weiss, in London, only about half
the normal number of wisdom teeth are erupted in
English patients. In a less marked degree the same
process is taking place with the upper lateral incisor
teeth, which are more frequently absent or dwarfed
in size than any other teeth except the wisdom teeth.
But although this tendency is often observed to be
hereditary, it is far too widely spread to have had its
origin in only one progenitor. It may, therefore, be
taken as a very good example of how external con-
ditions tend to create, or rather perpetuate, varieties.
An illustration of the persistence of the hereditary
type showing its distinct nature from that of the
surrounding conditions or habitation, is found in the
fact that all the monkeys of the New World possess
three premolar teeth on each side of each jaw, whilst
all the Old World monkeys possess only two. As
the greater number of teeth is the older type, the
presumption is that the common ancestors of both
branches had three premolars, but that one branch
from this became established in the Old World,
which for some reason or other dropped one of its
teeth. This must have been advantageous or it
would not have been maintained in the variations
which it subsequently underwent to form all the
species of the Old World. The monkeys of the
New World have continued to the present time, and
have, therefore, had just as long a time to vary in as
their Old World relations ; but although they have

TO man's place in nature. 131

diverged into many species, they have all maintained
the three premolars.

In the problems with which we are dealing, we
have always two main factors to bear in mind — the
internal life of the animal which builds its body and
directs its actions, and the external surroundings of
land, water, air, food, friends and foes being the
habitation to which it has to adapt itself. It remains
to be seen whether this latter does not produce a
reflection of itself within the former, gradually
forming those ideas and that intelligence by which it
is perceived.

In a previous chapter (on human and brute intelli-
gence) we came to the conclusion that on the doctrine
of evolution, every animal, and all the organs of an
animal, ought to have within themselves the instincts
and intelligence which the past history of their
development should have imparted to them. In
taking the organs as evidence, we must remember
that these are material witnesses of the consciousness
which lay behind and produced them.

The nervous system being the chief organ of
active consciousness, we should expect to find in it
evidence of correspondence between animals and
their environment, involving, also their grade in the
scale of being, the height of the habitation they had
risen to.

The lowest animals have no nervous systems ; yet
we must allow them consciousness, of however low a
grade. Impressions received from without pervade
their substance, and produce corresponding action.

In the Ascidian we have an elementary type of a

K 2

132 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

nervous system. Instead of the whole body becom-
ing conscious of external impression and making a
corresponding action, we have a special part told off
to pay attention to change of circumstance and
communicate orders for a corresponding action.
This formulates for us three distinct relations
between the animal and its environment : Firstly,
what it can perceive by sensory nerves and senses.
Secondly, how its desires are affected towards, or
from, what it perceives, by previous preparation of
motor centre. Thirdly, what it can do to achieve
its desires or avoid its aversions in accordance with
what it perceives of change of circumstance through
the motor nerves and active organs.

In the progress up the scale of being the special
senses are built up round twigs of the sensory
nerves, the active organs around the twigs of the
motor nerves ; whilst the motor centres are increased
in number and size in correspondence with the
sphere of life in which the animal moves.

The sensory nerves are usually termed afferent
nerves on the supposition that they convey im-
pressions received from without by a sort of molecu-
lar change to the motor centre, which passes on
the corresponding message to the necessary active
organs through the motor nerves, thence called
efferent nerves. Although I may use these names
as convenient, I must object that I believe this
efficiency of molecular change has not been proved
by any actual fact. I am, therefore, free to sup-
pose, on the other hand, that consciousness flows
equally from the motor centre to the termination

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. I33

of sensory and motor nerves. The reasons which
seem in favour of this view are as follows : —

Firstly, we must allow to consciousness the
powers of extension and motion ; because we are
conscious of both extension and motion.

Secondly, we must allow to the motor centres
the power of sending out messages by the fact of
action.

Thirdly, the nerves of sensation are precisely
similar to those of motion ; and, therefore, as con-
sciousness can send motion down the motor nerve,
as far as similarity of organ implies similarity of
function, it might also move down the sensory
nerves.

Fourthly, there are special organs placed at the
ends of the sensory nerves, especially differentiated
to receive special external impressions. There are
no special means of reproducing these impressions
in the nervous centres. Is it possible to conceive
such different impressions as those of sight and
hearing, passing up similar nerves and being re-
translated in that very dark chamber, the brain,
without any special organ there to do it ? There is
none, for the peculiar formations of the nervous
centres, as far as known, may be explained on the
hypothesis of gradual development and the require-
ments of packing. There are no arrangements for
reproducing in the nervous centres the impressions
received by the organs of the senses. On the other
hand, so far as we can understand them, the external
organs of the senses are exactly adapted to acquire
the special information obtained by them.

134 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

If we allow that consciousness may flow down the
optic nerve, and spread itself over the retina, the
visual picture we see becomes to some extent in-
telligible ; but to suppose that each nervous fibre
transmits to the brain a certain sensation of colour,
which is there re-arranged as a picture, without any
corresponding organ for doing so, seems to me un-
necessarily mysterious.

Other arguments in favour of this view, are that
intense attention of consciousness through part of
the nervous system, as that of soldiers in action,
withdraws the function of sensation from other
parts, and they are wounded without feeling pain.
Persons giving great attention through the eyes or
in thought, do not hear when spoken to. Although
there is not ordinarily any effort in using the senses,
yet, in times of weakness or disease we do feel a
sense of fatigue in their action. When we take the
most perfect rest, consciousness is withdrawn from
them, to a great extent, and we sleep.

Assuming the nervous system, then, to be the par-
ticular organism of perception, consciousness and
action, let us see what evidence it gives of particular
adaptation in the lower animals and man, between
them and their habitations or environment.

As we should expect, the exact functions of the
nervous system are still extremely doubtful ; the
following is a slight sketch of what seems fairly
established :

The lower in the scale of life, the less scope for
variety of action will occur to the animal ; as life
rises in complexity of organization, the greater the

TO man's place in nature. 135

variety of circumstance which will happen in its
habitation. This calls for the exercise of imagina-
tion, speculation, hesitation and judgment. When
life has risen from one habitation to another, so as
to be perfectly adapted to it, a co-ordination takes
place between the nervous centres and their percep-
tive and active avenues ; so that immediately on
a certain perception being made, a corresponding
action would be ordered, not exactly unconsciously,
but immediately, without speculation, hesitation or
judgment.

As the habitation became still higher, the per-
plexities of occurrence would be such that a large
nervous centre would be required to form complex
sensations into relative acting conceptions.

In those animals which only perceive what
actually touches their bodies, a series of nervous
ganglia are found ; but in those which have special-
ized senses, we find, at any rate in the vertebrate
series, a nervous mass, the cerebrum or brain
proper, set apart to acquire information through the
senses, centralizing it, forming it into acting con-
ceptions, judging of the relation of these to the
general desires of the animal, and ordering the
corresponding actions of the lower motor centres.

According to Ferrier, the spinal cord is the centre
of reflex action simply, i.e., if the foot is tickled, it
is drawn up, without there being any necessary con-
nection between it and the brain. Ferrier says
there is no consciousness in this (he seems to have
felt the difficulty) ; because, although a decapitated
frog moved its foot to the place, when part of the

136 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

skin was irritated by an acid, as if to remove the
cause of annoyance, yet it showed no sign of pain
or other uneasiness when the water in which it was
placed was gradually heated.

And here I must pause to remark, that although,
considering the importance of the knowledge gained
to curative science, the experiments recorded by
Ferrier, were, perhaps, justifiable ; having read
them, I cannot but think that their repetition should
be strictly limited to what is absolutely necessary.

We may remember that one of the functions
which we assigned to the motor centre, was that it
must have a special previous preparation towards
any information which it is put in relation with
before it will act in reference to it, and this may
explain the apparent apathy of the decapitated frog.
If the consciousness of the spinal cord of the frog
had not been previously prepared with reference to
heat, or if it had given up judgment of this sensa-
tion to the higher nervous centres, it might not be
conscious of heat, towards which it did not re-act,
without that fact proving that it was not conscious
of the irritation of the acid towards which it did re-
act.

The medulla oblongata, just above the spinal cord,
seems to be the co-ordinating centre of the reflex
actions, essential to the maintenance of physical
life : as breathing, swallowing, digesting, heart-beat-
ing, etc.

The cerebellum seems to be greatly, if not princi-
pally, occupied in co-ordinating the actions necessary
to maintain the locomotive equilibrium. It seems,

TO man's place in nature. 137

in connection with the semi-circular canals of the
ear, to maintain a very clear conception of the three
principal directions in space in relation to the force
of gravity, and the usual direction of locomotion of
the animal. We should expect to find it large in
athletes, wrestlers, tight-rope walkers, good skaters,
and amongst the lower animals, in such as had a
good deal of quick and dangerous climbing to do.

The mesencephalic centres co-ordinate more
complex forms of activity, such as locomotion and
emotional expression. They pay attention to occa-
sion for grief, joy, pain, etc., and give expression to
these emotions by crying, smiling, laughing, or other
spontaneous emotional expression.

The basal ganglia, according to Ferrier, seem to
" be the centres of a form of activity, subordinate
to the hemispheres proper. The various sensory
and motor centres which are differentiated in the
hemispheres are integrated in these ganglia, and
organic nexuses may be established between them,
so that actions at first requiring volitional education
and conscious exertion, become organized reflexly or
automatically in these ganglia."

You will observe that all these great nervous
centres have direct relations to the environment ;
the lowest, what touches the body ; next, to
swallow food, breathe, circulate blood through the
body ; thirdly, to keep the perpendicular, with a
strong sense of the force of gravity ; fourthly,
recognition of occasion for and expression of grief,
mirth, joy, etc. ; fifthly, a power of co-ordinating
fresh habits of action.

138 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

And above all, lies that part which has to imagine,
speculate, combine, hesitate, form fresh conceptions,
decide and command, allow ox forbid^ the actions of
the lower centres.

As has before been said, in proportion as more
variety of action, ideation, judgment is required or
is forthcoming, so is this organ large or small.

The query will naturally suggest itself from these
considerations as to whether, if there has been such
a series of development of life gradually rising to
higher and higher habitations, the very fact of the
existence of these invisible habitations would not at
last become an acting conception in the conscious-
ness of animals. We certainly do find such an act-
ing conception, instinct, or idea. The lower
animals add to themselves coverings in their own
bodies ; as they rise in intelligence they seek for or
construct external places of shelter. Although the
rule is by no means universal, yet we find intelli-
gence considerably developed in the direction of
architecture, as those who have read " Homes with-
out Hands" will readily admit.

We find no evidence among the lower animals
that they have thought about the habitations of
other animals, except as they are directly affected by
them. Do we find any such evidence in man, and
if so, may not this be one essential difference between
them and him ?

What would be the simplest diagrammatical ex-
pression of the recognition of such a series of habi-
tations or houses as I have been attempting to
describe ? To form the lowest, take a simple super-

TO man's place in nature. 139

ficial figure, say a square. The lowest life must
cover a large superficial area, and as it occupies
some space, we must raise a platform upon this
square to represent a covered area. The next, more
complex, life above this would be forced up by the
one below having occupied all the available room,
and as it would have to depend for subsistence to a
great extent upon the life in the lower habitation, it
would have to occupy a region restricted by the
exigencies of the life below. Its habitation, there-
fore, would have to be smaller as well as higher.
We must represent it by placing a lesser square
layer concentrically upon the larger one, and thus
by building up a series of such layers we should get a
pyramid, and if we consider our king to be the head
of the series, we might either place a monument of
him on the top or bury him in the middle of it.

As Piazzi Smith's theory of the pyramids of Egypt
seems to have broken down, the ground is open for
this suggestion in explanation of them ; but whether
the illustration will bear this application or not, it
may help us to form a conception of the various
grades of real but unseen habitations, which have
existed and do exist in relation to life in our globe.

A good deal has been said about the variation of
species and their correct classification, and I think
we may profitably discuss what we mean when we
talk about correct classification. We may not call
a porpoise or a lobster a fish ; a bat a bird, a spider
an insect, or a barnacle a mollusc. Herbert Spencer
has well expressed the point when he says (p. 102,
P. of B.) : " Organisms do not admit of uniserial

140 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

arrangement either in general or detail, but every-
where form fresh groups within groups. Hence
having traced the phases of morphological composi-
tion up to the highest form of any sub-kingdom, we
find ourselves at the extremity of a great branch
from which there is no access to another great
branch except by going back to some place of
bifurcation low down in this tree." He says further
on, that such terms as sub-kingdom, classes, orders,
genera, species, etc., are " only convenient terms."
This must not be understood to mean that they do
not represent something real in the past and present ;
but only that they are not terms of constant value.
We might speak of the limbs, branches, twigs and
stems of a tree, without meaning that these words
were of precisely definite value ; but they would still
bear real significance of life, growth and divergence.

The real classification of animals is that of a genea-
logical or hereditary tree. Whether life has pro-
ceeded on this plan by actual descent, or by provi-
dential, gradual preparation of habitation with
simultaneous inventions and creations of life to suit
them, the statement in either case holds good that
the Creator, the Provider, and the Eternal Father
are the same.

I am not going to assert that man is descended
from the ape, as there seem great difficulties in the
way of such an admission. The judicious place is
one of dignified equivocation. But, although the
safest place at present is to " sit on the fence," it
must be said that the anatomical argument in favour
of this view is so strong, that we are obliged to look

TO man's place in nature. 141

about for some means of getting down on the ape
side without breaking any bones, if it should be
necessary. One of the difficulties in the way of the
ape descent, is that the members of that family
having the nearest approach to man, viz., the
gorillas, chimpanzees and orang-outangs, are all
found upon the equator. Nor can they bear the
temperate climate of Europe for even a short time.
It is hard to conceive that a branch of this family
should have such a capacity for adapting itself to
climate, that in a comparatively short time it has
penetrated almost as far north as any other mammal
however specially qualified to resist cold.

Another point to be noticed, in this connection, is
the exceedingly slight anatomical difference which
this divergence of location has produced. Suppos-
ing the anthropoid apes to have had a common
ancestor, they have differentiated infinitely more than
man, under slight difference of circumstance. They
have shown much greater plasticity of form than
man with much less power of adapting themselves
to change of circumstance. Man, on the contrary,
has shown a power of adapting himself to change of
condition altogether unparalleled' in the rest of the
animal world, with an inveterate obs.tinacY as to
change of form ; in this respect contrasting markedly
with the ape?*

It may be safely asserted that a surgeon would
feel much more confidence in operating on any man
anywhere, than a comparative anatomist, familiar
with the dissection of an orang, would feel if called
upon, for the first time, to dissect a gorilla.

142 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

We cannot, therefore, yet accept it as proved
that man is descended from the ape. If it be a
fact, we must bow to the fact ; but if so, rehcs of
intermediate types, of no doubtful definition, should
be forthcoming in abundance. These, indeed,
would probably be found in equatorial regions, and
this may account for their being at present con-
spicuous by their absence.

The following is a rough sketch of what may
have been the line of descent of man on the
evolutionist plan. I say may have been, because
several genealogies may be laid down with about
equal probability : protQZ9on, pollyp, molluscoid,
mollusc, fish, reptile, rnohotreme, marsupial, small
carnivora, lemur, monkey, man.

Now, how comes it that man, who comes down,
at any rate, during the latter part of this career, a
comparatively feeble line, should have suddenly
flared out into dominance of all the rest ?

Is there anything in man's consciousness to
favour the idea of such a descent ? If there has
been this path, it ought to have left some record
there. The struggle between a life that has at last
resulted in an animal especially capable of feeling
sentiments of religion, beauty, justice, pity, etc.,
and the life of the great dragons of a bygone period,
the great carnivores and poisonous serpents of the
present era, should have left strong terrors and
aversions to these beasts. As a fact we may note
that no animals, except birds, have such a horror of
serpents as monkeys ; that among men, dragon and
serpent worship is a very old form of religion, and

TO man's place in nature. 143

that the dragon, the lion, and especially the serpent,
are almost universally taken as types of evil.

Supposing man to have descended from the ape,
there must still be a line of distinction ; it is of im-
portance that we should consider in what the
essential difference lies. Our authorities upon the
great antiquity of man are remarkable for the clear-
ness of conviction and unanimity with which they
can pronounce upon his presence. Signs of weapons,
drawings, cooking, ornaments, etc., are without
doubt, good evidence of his presence. Whereas
some evolutionists who have written upon mind in
the lower animals as compared to man, Lauder
Lindesay to wit, seem hardly able to find any differ-
ence between them.

Here the great fight and popular interest centres.
It is almost impossible to take up a periodical with-
out finding the theory of evolution touched upon in
its application to morals, laws, arts, and sciences,
and in these applications lies a particular danger.
Frequently a writer who recognizes the general law
correctly, stultifies himself in his application of it in
the logical reduction.

I will take an illustration of what I mean from a
supposed case of the application of the law of gravity.
We recognize its universality of application in the
material world. We buy by weight, with practical
uniformity. But we may also deduce from this
law of gravity, that a plummet will fall perpendicu-
larly to the general surface of the earth, and that,
therefore, if we build perpendicularly to the surface
of the ground we should build right. As long as we

144 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

built on a level plain no great harm would arise ;
but if we erected a wall perpendicularly to the side
of a hill, we should find we had made a wrong applica-
tion of the general law ; our wall would fall.

In the same way, when writers on the subject of
evolution get so carried away as to make wholesale
applications of it to existing laws and institutions,
they often make a wrong application of the theory,
one of the mainstays of which is, that all change must
be made very slowly.

Some of the attacks of this sort are exceedingly
offensive and reprehensible, and will necessarily be
passed over here in silence- Others are only
amusing, and of these I will quote the following as
being germane to a great deal of sentiment on the
subject.

Lauder Lindsay {" Mind in the Lower Animals,"
vol. i. p. 238) says that he believes "that could they
only be induced to bestow them, the patient efforts
of our missionaries in this direction, i.e., on our
' anthropoid ' poor relations instead of their fellow-
countrymen, the negro, might produce results of a
startling character, results that might put an end
at once and for ever to current sneers as to the
physical connection between men and monkeys."

Upon this question of the difference or similarity
of man to monkey the popular interest mainly hangs :
it is in vain for the evolutionist to assure his
audience that this is only a bye-issue, and to try and
excite attention on other ground. Back to the ape
descent, and the essential difference between the
mind of man and beast, the argument always comes.

TO man's PLACE IN NATURE. I45

and is fought pro and co7i ; disputants are angry or
pleased with the theory to a large extent, whether
this view of the case accords or not with their own
preconceptions.

A definition has two principal parts. The first
includes the subject in a class. The second dis-
tinguishes it from all the other members of its class.

Man, according to the first part of this proposition,
must be defined as an animal. According to the
second part he must be distinguished from all other
animals.

Classical and theological authors have been so
long engaged upon the second part of this defini-
tion that they seem sometimes to have forgotten the
first part altogether.

Now, unless the first part, i.e-, that man is an
animal, be allowed, the second part, showing how he
differs from other animals, is impertinent.

Some scientific evolutionists, and some other
writers not at all scientific, have turned the tables
upon this school, and for the time, at any rate, seem
to have the w^hip handle. But these have often
fallen into the opposite error of maintaining only the
first part of the definition, i.e., that man is an animal.
Indeed, some of them seem fascinated with this part,
Lauder Lindsay in particular. On this subject will
hang a great deal of future law, and the attitude
civilized nations will adopt towards those lower in
the scale. If there is to be no definite line between
man and the lower animals, what is to prevent man
high in the scale of intelligence and power, treating
those lower down on the same footing as the other

L

146 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

lower animals ? Instead of such treatment being
wrong and reproachful, it will be justifiable and right-

One explanation of the wide distribution and
diverse conditions under which man is able to live
without much change of organization, may depend
upon his faculty of adding to his active powers by
the invention of implements. By these he can make
clothes and fire which will enable him to bear change
of climate, and with the latter cook food otherwise
indigestible.

The importance of weapons has attracted so much
notice, that periods in civilization have been named
after the advance in the materials of which weapons
are made. The stone, bronze, and iron ages,
reminding one of the prophet Daniel's description of
Nebuchadnezzar's dream. Perhaps the use of teeth
of other animals as weapons may have even preceded
the stone age, in which case we might find an
explanation of the classical legend of Cadmus, who
sowed dragon's teeth and they came up armed men ;
at any rate, teeth have been so used by savages.

But the central and dominating faculty seems
to be that of language. By means of this,
experience could be transmitted by tradition, so
that what advance was made towards a higher life
could be handed down, not only in the line of organic
descent, but in a much wider and more accurate
manner. The lowest types of man have articulate
language, and generally some sort of depicted repre-
sentation of this, which may be taken as an inception
of writing. Figures of animals are generally the
first step in this direction.

TO man's place in nature. 147

To name the animals that are brought to him
seems to be always one of man's essential pre-
rogatives ; from the savage, who is always interested
in distinguishing and defining those around him, the
infant, who as soon as it has learnt to say " Da-da "
and ''Ma-ma," proceeds to define the ''bow-wow"
and the " gee-gee," up to the scientific naturalist, who
has no greater delight than to get a new animal to
name. Certainly he would be a bold man who, if he
found a delineation of an animal, no matter how
old, should suggest that it was the production of any
other animal than man. We can conceive that the
faculty of language, and writing, or drawing, would
result in the production and perpetuation of weapons ;
but not that the occasional use of a stone or stick as
a weapon should lead to its universal adoption and
the final evolution of language.

The question here arises whether we get any
direction from the facts of evolution, as to what
would be the state of the higher nervous centres,
towards the rest of creation, should this be towards
manifesting a higher development of the power of
weapons or of words ?

The answer seems, on the facts of evolution,
decidedly in favour of words. The higher animals
rise in the scale of being, the more is parental
affection developed as a fact, not a theory ; birds
and mammals standing highest in this respect ; and
although there are fierce birds and mammals, still,
without doubt, the progress of parental affection is
against carnage.

It is a question whether the famous doctrine of

L 2

148 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

*' Survival of the fittest " may not require to be
supplemented on the facts of the case by the doctrine
of " Survival of the highest and best " ; that is, if
we are agreed that parental affection is better and
higher than the reverse, however fit for selfish
survival. Without the importation of any sentiment
into the case, the facts are on this side ; i.e., the
dominant species are mammals and birds in whom
the greatest warmth of parental feeling is manifested.
There is a Mahometan myth which seems to have
touched so graphically all the heads of this question
that I cannot forbear quoting it : " The Second
Calendar's Story in the Arabian Nights." The
Calendar, you may remember, descends into an
underground vault or chamber — that is, he becomes
a materialist ; this contains a beautiful lady, with
whom he has an illicit amour. In consequence of
this he falls into the power of an earth spirit or
genius, the spirit of materialism or sensuality, who
transforms him into an ape, as this spirit always does
when it can. In this guise he wanders about ; but,
finally, because he retains the faculty of writing, he
is made acquainted with a king's daughter, who
should have been his legitimate bride. She under-
takes to bring him back into human form again. In
doing this, there is a terrible fight between the
princess and the earth spirit, representing a logical
contest between spirituality and materialism ; and a
retrograde metamorphosis is represented. First, the
struggle lies between a sword, our weapon, and a
lion ; then a wolf and cat ; serpent and scorpion ;
large and small fish ; cock and pomegranate. In

TO man's place in nature. 149

demolishing the latter the cock misses one seed, i.e.,
cell or fact, and, in consequence, the method by fire
is resorted to. This ends in victory to the right
side. The Calendar is restored to his human shape
by a cup of water being thrown over him ; probably
a reminiscence of the Christian rite of baptism. He
regains his humanity, with the loss of one eye to
show that a man, after such a fall, is imperfect in
perception ; but loses his bride, a regretful allusion
to the separation of the Mahometan from the
Christian religion. The metamorphosis, no doubt,
is very faulty, and yet we cannot but wonder that
the main points were hit off so correctly. Still, we
may be heartily glad that we have arrived at a period
when we may try to pick up the grains of the
pomegranate without fear of having the method by
fire resorted to.

150

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Grey Seal caught off Plymouth.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE EVOLUTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU-
TION OF SEALS.

Sir J. W. Dawson's opinion not accepted — No close affinities
with manatees or whales — Three main divisions : — otaries,
walruses, and earless seals — Distribution, habits, and
commercial pursuit — Seals found in Caspian and Lake
Baikal— Behring Straits centre of distribution — Other
probable derivation.

Sir J. W. Dawson, in his excellent little work " The
Chain of Life in Geological Time," written osten-
sibly to controvert the evolutionary theory, remarks
of seals, " They are more elevated than whales in
type, appear much later, and without any probable
ancestry." The latter part of this sentence I cannot
accept.

Pinnipeds form a very natural and circumscribed
sub-order of mammalia, and some of the facts of
their comparative anatomy, habits, and geographical
distribution are in favour of the hereditary deriva-

TO man's place in nature. 151

tion of different species from the same ancestry — the
doctrine of evolution.

In the first place, notice the close affinities which
constitute seals a natural sub-order. They are all
distinctly marine in their habits ; with two excep-
tions, never frequenting rivers or lakes at any
distance from the sea. There are two other marine
mammalian sub-orders inhabiting similar localities
— the Sirenia (Dugongs and Manatees) and the
Cetacea (Whales). From these they are distin-
guished by the fact that they are all well covered
with hair or fur ; have hind as well as fore limbs ;
tail small, in no case broadened into the piscine-like
member of the other two groups ; and possess also
the power of erecting and turning the head with a
double angle, more or less like the letter Z, in a dog-
like way. This, in the eye of common observation,
has always saved them from the ignominy re-
served to cetaceans, of being generally classed with
fishes.

Another striking point of affinity in which they
differ from other marine mammals, is that they all
bring forth and suckle their young out of water, for
which purposes they resort to rocks, beaches, or ice ;
and it is on this necessity in their economy that the
hunters place their principal reliance for a supply.
These rendezvous, to which many of the species
resort in vast numbers, are sedulously sought for,
and in some cases carefully preserved. In others,
indiscriminate slaughter has sometimes destroyed
the whole species inhabiting the locality.

The characters of their teeth differ entirely from

152 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

those of the Sirenia which have broad or flat-topped
teeth, suitable for vegetable feeding, and closely ap-
proximate the terrestrial carnivora, on the one hand,
whilst on the other they show a slight tendency to
degenerate towards the dentition of the dolphins,
and as this point is interesting as suggesting a
possible derivation for the latter cetaceans, it will be
dealt with a little more in detail.

In the skull of an Icthyosaurus we have a long
series of slightly recurved acute cones arranged
along the sides of each jaw, in two nearly parallel or
converging lines, continued so as to meet in the
front of the mouth. As we advance higher in the
scale of life, these teeth are gradually differentiated,
those in front becoming chisel-shaped for cutting ;
those at the angle being greatly elongated and
strengthened for seizing ; those next in order short-
ened and made more blade-like for splitting or
breaking ; and those behind blunted on their crowns
and gradually transformed into grinders. The
differentiation between these teeth at first is not
very marked, the intermediate teeth often partaking
of an intermediate character ; but as the teeth be-
come more highly specialized, the intermediate forms
are eliminated, the jaws shortened, and the teeth
reduced to four or fewer definite classes of teeth,
each being often very distinct from its neighbours.
These four classes are known as incisors, canines,
premolars and molars.

In the land carnivora these teeth are all more or
less marked. They have six incisors above and
below, with one or two exceptions, two canines

TO man's place in nature. 153

above and below of the highest type, and behind
these, premolars and molars of at least two definite
forms and functions ranging from a large amount of
grinding surface in some mixed feeders, as bears and
badgers, to teeth almost entirely formed for splitting
bones and cutting flesh, as in the cats, etc.

The dolphins show a degradation, or reversion,
towards the older type of animals which had long
narrow jaws, and rows of similar conical teeth.

Seals show some tendency in the same direction,
inasmuch as whilst their general cranial and dental
aspect is unmistakably canine or leonine, the teeth
behind the canines approximate more or less to this
type of a series of cones. The teeth of various
genera and species differ a good deal, but they all
agree in this, that in each species all the teeth
behind the canines are similar ; there are not here,
as in the land carnivora, two or more distinct sorts
of teeth, — and where the species differ, they still
keep up the type of a series of recurved, more or less
acute cones.

A very common form of carnivorous tooth \vas
perhaps taken as the pattern of an old-fashioned
spear-head, having a central sharp blade, supported
on each side by two smaller cusps to help give it
grip and steadiness in action ; such teeth are quite
common in the land carnivora, as anyone may
judge by examining a cat or dog. Such teeth are
the basis of the pattern of the back teeth of seals.

Sometimes, as in Lobodon carcinophaga, a seal
from the Antarctic Seas, there are three minor cusps
behind the principal one, as well as one in front,

154 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

making five, whilst in others, as in our own Hah-
chaerus grypus, the inferior cusps are reduced to a
mere indication, and the teeth have all nearly
arrived at the degradation of a merely conical type.
Still, in each case all the teeth behind the canines
are similar.

Pinnipeds include the eared seals (Otariidse), the
" sea-lions," and fur seals ; The Walruses (Odo-
bsenidae), and the earless or true seals (Phocidae),
comprising the common seals, the " sea leopards "
of the South Pacific, and the " sea elephants." It
has often been suggested that an affinity between
the walrus and the dugong is indicated by the tusks
of the latter ; but the relationship is only superficial,
the tusks of the dugong being enlarged incisors,
while those of the walrus are canines. The dugong
is a true vegetable-feeder, whilst the walrus — in
spite of a recent writer in the Century magazine,
who considers it a vegetable-feeder — is a true
carnivore, the peculiar conformation of the skull
being correlated with the support and use of its
enormous tusks. With these it digs up the mol-
lusca which form its principal food.

The Otariidae, or eared seals, form the first
division ; these are chiefly distinguished from their
congeners by the following characters : — They all
possess external ears or conches, turn the hind
limbs forward to aid in terrestrial progression, and
are distinctly and jealously polygamous in their
habits. Some of the species are commercially
valuable, as furnishing the " sealskin " of fashion ;
these, which are known as " sea bears," are smaller

TO man's place in nature. 155

than those without this valuable coating, which are
called '* sea lions."

In his " History of North American Pinnipeds,"
Mr. Allen recognizes nine species of Otariidse, of
which five are hair seals or sea lions, and four are
fur seals ; but as they are very widely distributed
and still imperfectly known, there are probably a
greater number. They are : —

1. Otaria jubata. The large " Sea Lion " of the
south coasts of South America.

2. Phocarctos hookeri. Auckland Isles.

3. Eumetopias stelleri. The large northern " Sea
Lion " of the coast of California, and North of
Japan.

4. Zalophus californianus. The lesser " Sea
Lion " of California and Farallone Islands.

5. Zalophus lobatus. The lesser " Sea Lion " of
the Australian coast, with soft under fur.

6. Callorhinus ursinus. The northern Fur Seal
of California and Japan, northward to Behring
Strait.

7. Arctocephalus australis. Round the south
coast of South America, from Galapagos Isles to
Rio de la Plata.

8. Arctocephalus antarcticus. Cape of Good
Hope.

9. Arctocephalus forsteri. The fur seal of
Australia and New Zealand.

Of the walruses, Mr. Allen labours hard to estab-
lish two species, which he names : —

I. Odobaenus rosmarus. The walrus of the North
Atlantic and Arctic Oceans.

156 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

2. Odobaenus obesus. The walrus of the North
Pacific.

The differences which he points out, however, are
shght, and as the " Vega," in its north-eastern
passage to the Pacific, found the walrus in nearly all
parts of the Arctic Ocean, it seems more probable
that his second species is only a variety which has
attained a larger size than its congener by obtaining
better food, or being less disturbed.

The walrus is earless, like the true seals, but
differs from them in its huge canines, and in the
fact that it bends its hind legs forward to assist in
progression on ice or land. It is also truly Arctic
in habitat, abounding in all parts of the Arctic Ocean
from which it has not been driven by man. Mr.
Allen speaks of it as polygamous in its habits, whilst
other authors assert it to be monogamous ; it is,
at any rate, not so decidedly polygamous as the
Otariidse.

The true or earless seals have hairy bodies, but no
fur, have the hind limbs bent backwards so as to
serve as a tail in swimming, and are incapable of
turning them forward to assist in progression on
land. The most noticeable species are :

1. Phoca vitulina. The common seal of our
Islands ; ranges all round the Arctic circle from the
North Atlantic to the North Pacific and Japan.

2. Phoca greenlandica. The Greenland seal, the
seal of the Newfoundland and Jan Mayen Fisheries.

3. Phoca faetida. North Atlantic, North Pacific,
and Arctic Oceans.

4. Phoca caspica. Caspian and Aral (?) Seas. .

TO man's place in nature. 157

5. Phoca siberica. Lakes Baikal and Oron (?).

6. Histriophoca fasciata. The Ribbon seal of the
North Pacific.

7. Erignathus barbatus. The great seal of the
Arctic circle from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

8. Halichaerus grypus. The grey seal of North
Britain and Newfoundland northwards.

g. IMonachus albiventer. Mediterranean and
Black Seas.

10. Canaries, East Coast of Africa.

11. Crystophora cristata. The bladder-nosed
seal, North Atlantic and Arctic.

12. Macrorhinus leoninus. Sea elephant. South
Pacific, South Indian and Antarctic Seas.

13. A variety of above. Coast of West Mexico
and South California.

Four sea leopards in Antarctic and South Pacific,
New Zealand, Lord Howe's Islands, etc., viz. —

14. Ogmorhinus leptonyx. New Zealand Coast.

15. Lobodon carcinophaga. Antarctic Seas.

16. Leptonychotes weddelli. East Patagonia.

17. Ommatophoca rossi. Antarctic Seas.

Of these it will be seen that four, namely, P.
vitulina, P. greenlandica, P. Foetida, and E.
barbatus, range from the North Pacific across the
Arctic into the North Atlantic. One, viz., H.
fasciata, has its habitat where the North Pacific and
Arctic join.

Two, viz., H. grypus and C. cristata, range down
from the Arctic Ocean, north of the Atlantic, into
the latter ocean.

One, Monachus, is certainly found in the Mediter-

158 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

ranean and tropical Atlantic, although the seal of
the West Indies is supposed to be of a distinct
species.

One, Macrorhinus, is found in the tropical Pacific,
coasts of Lower California and Mexico, and in the
South Pacific and South Indian, and Antarctic
Oceans ; whilst four species of the genus Leptonyx
are found in the Antarctic Ocean and the southern
parts of the oceans bordering thereon.

One great distinguishing feature between the true
seals and the eared seals is evident. The true seals and
the Walrus are more capable of bearing cold, and as
none of the Otariidse reach above Behring Straits,
the seals diminish in species and numbers as they
approach the equator. It is also noticeable that the
eared seals are not found in the Atlantic north of the
Cape of Good Hope ; nor are there any Pinnipeds
in the North Indian Ocean.

I will now give a few extracts from Mr. Allen's
work on the life histories and manner of hunting
some of these animals, beginning with the Otariidse.
The most interesting account, perhaps, is derived
from the culture of the northern fur seal, Callorhinus,
by the United States on the Prybilov Islands, two
small islands near Behring Straits, which they
received with Alaska territory from Russia. These
islands were leased to the Alaska Commercial Com-
pany, with the right to take 100,000 skins annually,
and of course it became a matter of pecuniary im-
portance to take these in their best season and value,
so as to keep up the stock on the island. The
number of fur seals present on St. Paul's Island, as

TO man's place in nature. 159

estimated by Mr. Elliot in 1872, was three millions,
and on St. George's 163,000.

A party of natives live on the islands to attend to
the interests of the company and collect the skins.
At first, when indiscriminate slaughter was allowed,
the yearly take was reduced to 7000 or 8000 in 1882 ;
but by preserving them, and driving away the " Sea
Lions " so as to give more room, they have in-
creased in numbers, so that it was calculated there
were over 4,700,000 on the islands ; and Mr. Elliot
conjectures that this is as many as that breeding
station will hold.

St. Paul's, which is the largest island, has a coast
line of forty-two miles, of which sixteen miles of
sandy beach are occupied by seals. To these
beaches the old males begin to resort about the
middle of May, when, till about the middle of June,
there is a continual accession to their numbers, each
on its arrival taking the best position closest to the
water which it can. By the 12th of June all the
best positions have been appropriated and fought for
by the strongest males, who are, as a rule, never
under six years of age. These stations are about
ten to twelve feet square, and are jealousy guarded.
Those who cannot keep or get in the front rank take
the next, and so on till the whole beach is full to a
depth of five or six rows, and each *' bull," after
occupying a position, never leaves it an instant till
the end of the season in August, being thus three
months without food, and undergoing the most
arduous exertion in maintaining his position.

Some of these "bulls" show wonderful strength

l60 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

and courage. Mr. Elliot remarked one veteran on
the water-line, where at least fifty or sixty battles
were victoriously fought by him. The fighting is
mostly done with the mouth, opponents seizing each
other with the mouth, clenching the jaws, each bite
leaving an ugly wound, shredding the skin into
ribbons.

About the middle of June the females begin to
arrive, and are received by the males with much
attention ; but no sooner is wife No. i fairly installed
in the home of her master than he sees another
about to land whom he immediately approaches to
escort, and, whilst so engaged, the male on the
station next above his reaches out his great neck
and abstracts wife No. i, to be placed in his own
pen ; and this process is repeated until the whole of
the pens are supplied, averaging to twelve each.
The cows have one " pup " within a few days of
landing, so that family life on the beach is tolerably
stirring. By the 8th or loth of August, the pups
born nearest the water begin to swim, and by the
gth of September the colonies are broken up.

It will be noticed that only males of six years old
and upwards are able to keep their ground as
beach-masters, and the younger males range in
large squads in the sea and on the beach, and
from these bachelor squadrons are taken those
which furnish the required 100,000 skins. It is
found that the young four-year-old male furnishes
the best skin, and the natives select by careful
management droves of these, and drive them further
inland, where they kill and skin them.

TO man's place in nature. i6i

A small colony of " sea-lions " is preserved on
the islands for the subsistence of the natives, who
find its flesh more palatable and its skin more
useful than that of the fur seal.

All w^riters agree in describing the very playful
character of the young, and many intelligent traits
might be mentioned. One hunter had his rifle in
hand levelled at the head of an old " sea-lion "
w^hich was roaring and barking at him from the
water, and had his finger in the act of pulling the
trigger, when a cub swam up to the irascible
parent and put up his nose for a kiss, which was
immediately bestowed. This had such an effect on
the sealer's heart, he not having seen his own family
for some time, that his gun was lowered and the
beast allowed to go in safety. Another observer
coming suddenly upon the nursing of some '' sea-
lionesses," said that they looked at him with so
intelligent, so distressed, and yet so lady-like an air,
that he retired with the sense of having committed
an impropriety.

The walruses (whether two or one species) may
be considered as now nearly confined to the Arctic
Ocean, though at one time they came much further
south. In 1534 they occurred as far south as Cape
Sable in Nova Scotia, exemplifying the rapidity with
which pinnipeds are exterminated on their breeding-
grounds. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
great numbers were killed in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. They are now found in western
American waters, south of Davis' Straits, and the
north part of Hudson's Bay. East of Greenland

M

l62 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

they are still met with on the N.E. coasts of Spitz-
bergen and the eastern shores of Nova Zembla
in considerable numbers. In the Pacific they
occur on the American and Asiatic coasts as far
south as the Aleutian Islands, and in numbers
(according to a late writer in the Century) in Bristol
Bay and Norton Sound.

The chase of the walrus has been so often and
so popularly described that I need not dwell upon
it. In one respect this animal differs remarkably
in its domestic economy from its congeners. The
3'oung is suckled by its mother until nearly three
years old ; for, living upon mollusca principally,
it cannot get its own living until its tusks have
grown a certain length to enable it to dig for them
itself.

Besides a great number caught locally by the
native Esquimaux in America, and Tchuckchees and
other tribes inhabiting the north shores of Europe
and Asia, there are two large seal *' fisheries " carried
on in the North Atlantic ; one, a small area about 200
miles N.E. from Jan Mayens Island (about the
middle of April), where annually some 200,000 are
killed. The majority of these are young Greenland
seals. Their rapid increase in size is remarkable ; at
birth their weight is six or eight pounds, they are
suckled for fifteen or eighteen days, in which time
they increase to from fifty-five to sixty pounds, of
which the skin and fat — alone the object of pursuit —
is about forty or forty-five pounds. It is at this age
that the sealers prefer to take them, as they are then
left by their mothers to shift for themselves, and,

TO man's place in nature. 163

consequently, for some time they deteriorate in
condition.

Another great breeding station is on the loose ice
off the coast of Newfoundland, where the season
begins about the middle of March and lasts for two
months. About 500,000 are annually taken here.

In the Pacific, South Atlantic, and South Indian
Oceans the only true seal that has been found in
sufficient numbers to form a regular " fishery " is the
sea elephant. This immense beast is described by
the first observers, Peron, Anson, Pernetty, and
others, as from twenty-five to thirty feet in length with
a circumference of sixteen to eighteen feet» Modern
observers do not find them of this size ; but as two
authentic skeletons measured sixteen feet, which
would make the animal when in the flesh about
twenty-two or twenty-three feet long, it is probable
that the systematic hunting to which they have been
subjected does not allow them to attain their full
growth. This species was formerly found by Peron
in large numbers on the Falkland Islands, where it
is now extinct, and along the west coast of Patagonia.
It was also taken in large numbers off the coast
of Mexico and Lower California. Mr. Allen thinks
this a distinct species ; it is said to occur still in
small numbers at St. Barbara and Cerros Islands,
in this locality. In the South Indian Ocean, the
Crozets, Kerguelen, and Heard Islands used to be
regular stations for these seals ; but they are probably
only to be found in any great numbers now on Herd
Islands. In Kerguelen Island they would long ago
have become extinct but for one inaccessible beach,

M 2

164 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

"where they still haul up every spring (October,
November) ; the beach is limited at each end by pre-
cipitous cliffs, across which it is quite impossible to
transport oil in casks ; nor can boats land from the
sea, or vessels lie at anchor in the offing, as the
beach is on the windward side exposed to the full
violence of wind and waves." So that here, at all
events, there is some hope of the species being
preserved.

I possess an interesting account of these seals,
with a narrative of four years spent on the Crozets
after shipwreck there, by a sealer named Goodridge.
One habit is generally noticed of this species,
although it is common to the group, which is to
swallow large quantities of stones. Sealers and
sailors usually attribute the function of this action
to its use as ballast ; some naturalists seem not dis-
posed to allow this, and attribute it to a digestive
craving. The point may be one for discussion ; I
rather incline to the sailors' theory, for the reason
that fishes seem to require some means of altering
their gravity, which is furnished by an air-bladder,
and as seals have not this arrangement, the taking
in stones as ballast would seem to fulfil the need
very well.

Now I think that the facts of distribution, etc.,
recapitulated all point to Behring Straits as the
centre of distribution of seal life. Here, and here
only, the three large groups meet. Here are
walruses, eared and earless seals. From here we
may suppose the walrus and earless seals spread
over the Arctic Circle into the Atlantic Ocean, one

TO man's place in nature. 165

species, at any rate, reaching as far as the Mediter-
ranean. From here the Eared Seals, accompanied
by earless species, spread all down the Pacific
coasts of America, doubling Cape Horn, and creeping
up the South Atlantic shores of South America,
perhaps to the Gulf of Mexico ; another stream,
following the Antarctic ice, reached up to the Cape
of Good Hope and some of the islands in the South
Indian Ocean ; but we do not find that any reached
the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of India, or
the Malay Peninsula. Another stream seems to have
migrated from Behring Straits down the Japan
Archipelago and part of the N.E. coasts of China.
Whether it was this stream which supplied the seals
of the South Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand, or
the one from round Cape Horn, remains to be set-
tled by reference to the affinities of the different
species.

How seals came in the Caspian Sea and Lake
Baikal are two distinct problems. That they exist
in both is beyond doubt. On the Caspian is a
regular "fishery," where some 100,000 are annually
taken ; and various trustworthy travellers and
missionaries give details of the native " fishery " for
seals on Lake Baikal. As to seals reported to exist
in the Sea of Aral, or Lake Oron in Siberia, I can
find no authentic account. The Caspian being below
the general ocean-level, and the species being similar
to Arctic species, points to some former connection
between these oceans. Lake Baikal, however, is
several thousand feet above the sea-level, the River
Yenisei running down some 1200 miles from it into

i66

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the Arctic Ocean. If seals have ascended this
distance from the coast, the case is unique ; for
nowhere else are they found much above the tidal
part of a river. This case therefore remains a
mystery.

Behring Sea is also the headquarters of the sea
otter, Enhydris liUris, which occurs from Behring
Island down the north-west coast of North America,
as far as upper California. In many respects this
animal forms a sufficiently good link between river-
otters and seals to emphasize the locality as the
centre of distribution and evolution of the group of
pinnipeds. Its fur, the most costly of any, has more
affinity to that of an eared-seal than that of any

Mouth of Grey Seal.

other otter. In size it approaches many seals. Its
feet are more webbed and its tail shorter than in
river-otters ; and, lastly, its pelagic habits make it
a very good forerunner of Otariidse. If we assume
that one branch of the otter family acquired pelagic
habits and a beautiful fur, its exclusively piscine food

TO man's place in nature. 167

gradually tending to the differentiation of its molars
and premolars into a series of tridents, whilst another
branch of the family, preferring Crustacea and
mollusca, developed its hind teeth into sufficient
shell-crackers, and, requiring more prehensible power
in its paws to search for its prey under stones, etc.,
did not develop these so completely into fins as its
congener — the relative geographical distribution of
the different species seems sufficiently plain.

l68 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER IX.

THE POSITIVE EVIDENCE OF THE TEETH ON MAN'S
LINE OF DESCENT.

" Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn,
which came up from the washing ; whereof everyone bear
twins, and none is barren among them." — Canticles, chap. x. 2.

Weight of evidence — Modern variation from normal human
dentition — Typical formula of dentition — Cases of rever-
sion— Probable progression — Opinion of Cope — Approxi-
mal derivation from ancestors of chimpanzee — Seven
cervical vertebra — Case of solidification in Rissos grampus
— Weapon the human factor? — Upright gait — Absence of
close hairy fur — Clothes — Fire — Rob Roy — Batten skull.

However strong a theory may be, positive material
evidence in verification thereof must always be
adduced to gain for it general acceptance. But even
for material evidence to gain a hearing, some judicial
training is necessary before its weight can be duly
estimated, and on this ground the writer claims for
this chapter more weighty consideration, if the reader
is interested in the subject, than he can pretend to
for some of the preceding essays, having been
professionally engaged in the critical examination of
the peculiarities of the teeth of the British public for
more than thirty years.

TO man's place in nature. i6g

The facts which will be given he believes will
verify the following points in confirmation of Darwin's
theory : —

Firstly, that there is a frequent occurrence of
variations from the normal type.

Secondly, that there is evidence of occasional
reversion to older types.

Thirdly, that this reversion is towards the apes and
particularly the chimpanzee.

Fourthly, that there is evidence of a further
alteration of the human dentition in the elimination
of the wisdom teeth and upper lateral incisors, and
perhaps the addition of another cusp to the superior
molars (back grinders).

Fifthly, that there is evidence that man's resem-
blance in organization to the lower animals is not
an ideal one merely, but one of actual descent.

There are a number of variations from the normal
standard, which seem to be aimless, or the result of
disease or degradation, these need not be noticed.

The typical number of permanent teeth in the
higher mammalia is given by Owen as forty-four,
that is on each side of each jaw above or below,
or for four repetitions, 3 incisors, i canine, 4 pre-
molars, 3 molars, =11x4 = 44, or to place it more

m p c i c p m
,. ^. „ S 4 I 6 I 4 3 22 ^ TT

diaerammatically, ^^-^ — ;, — ^'^-^ = — = 44- -t ew ani-
•^3416143 22

mals have the exact numbers, the pig being the most
familiar instance ; but none of the higher mammalia
have more, although many have less, of any par-
ticular class of teeth.

170

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Man has only — = 32 permanent teeth, therefore

in the progress he must have lost 12 teeth, that is
3 from each half jaw. These are i incisor, and 2
premolars, so that his formula for each half jaw is
incisors 2, canine i, premolar 2, molar 3.

Not a single monkey of the old world has any
other formula than man.

The first deviation we find going backwards is in
the American monkeys, which possess three pre-
molars, i.e., the teeth between the canines and large
molars, and which have had milk predecessors ;
nevertheless Mr. Andrew Wilson mentions two
cases of man coming under his notice, in which
there were three premolars or bicuspides on each
side below ; such cases are, however, rare, and I have
never seen one myself.

Fig. I.
2 2, Deciduous second incisors. 3 3, Deciduous third incisors.

To find 3 incisors in the line of our probable
ancestry, we should have to go back to the lemurs ;

TO man's place in nature.

171

nevertheless I hold in my hand the model of a
child's upper jaw, taken by myself, Fig. i, and
having for the first set of teeth 3 incisors, and the
accompanying figure is from the model of the upper
jaw of a clergyman's son, also taken by myself, show-
ing 3 incisors on one side of the permanent denti-
tion. (See Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2.

b by Permanent second incisors. a, Permanent third incisor.

c c, Canines.

The additional one in this case is evidently on the
wane.

These cases may be quoted as reversions ; on
the other hand, pointing in the direction that the
same path of gradual diminution of teeth is being
followed. Every dentist is familiar with the fact
that the wisdom tooth or third molar, is frequently
absent, but I think Mr. Felix Wiess, of London,
was the first to definitely establish from a series of
tabulations, that only about half the normal number
appear in modern Englishmen.

In a paper which I read at a dental meeting at
Bath, in 1880, I showed, by models produced, that
the superior lateral incisor was the tooth, next to the
wisdom tooth, showing symptoms of disappearance.

T72

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

In the same paper I adverted to the fact that an
additional cusp was apparently being added to the
upper molars. The accompanying figure shows a
good example of this, Fig. 3, in a model from my
own little boy of seven years old.

Fig. 3.

a a, Extra lingual cusp on second temporary

molar.
b b, Extra lingual cusp on first permanent

molar.

Fig. 3'.

a, Side view of
extra cusp.

The extra cusp is shown on both second temporary
molars as well as the first permanent molars.

It may be questioned whether this development
does not rather indicate that the three permanent
molars belong to the first set of teeth, and that the
term second set ought correctly to be only applied
to the premolars, and those teeth anterior to them
which actually supersede a milk dentition.

Oscar Schmid in his popular handbook to the
mammalia, 1885, quotes the American Naturalist
Cope, as predicting for the man of the future in-

TO man's place in nature. 173

cisors - canine - premolars - molars ~ and i -
21 231

122
c - p - m -
12 2.

I cannot myself verify this prediction for English

people, having only seen one instance in which the

lower lateral incisors were missing; the following

would be in accord with my own observations : in.

- c - p - m - with an extra lingual cusp on the
2122

superior molars.

The general type of teeth with similar formulas
seems quite sufficient to establish the relationship
between men and the old world monkeys.

For it must be remembered that on the wide face
of the earth there are no animals possessing similar
dentitions ; still, there are considerable distinctions
between them.

In the three great anthropoid apes, the upper
premolars are implanted by three roots, the lower by
two, as they are in most other monkeys. In the
human first upper premolar there are often, perhaps
usually, two roots, the others have only one each.

Out of many thousand recent English teeth
which I have examined, I have occasionally found
upper bicuspids with three roots, more rarely lower
ones, with two, but I think the fingers on both
hands would number up these cases. In 1880 I
examined a collection of skulls in the museum of
the College of Surgeons, London, and found in
about 400 skulls, two cases, a " Gilbert Islander,"
and an inhabitant of the Malay Archipelago, in each

174

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

of which five out of the eight premolars possessed
more roots than normal.

Another point to be noted is that the human
lower premolar is usually nearly circular in hori-
zontal section, whereas many of the old world apes
have these teeth considerably compressed laterally.
The accompanying figure compares a tooth from a

Fig. 4.

a, Old world monkey's tooth, left second premolar (Semnopithecus
Sp.?). b. Recent human tooth, left second premolar, from model
taken by author, c, Melanesian, left second premolar, from
model of skull in R.C.S. Museum, No. 1245. d, Ofdinary
English left second premolar, for comparison.

monkey (Semnopithecus Sp. ?) with one of a patient
of my own, a tooth of an African in the College of
Surgeons Museum, and a normal English tooth, all
being second lower premolars of the left side.

The second upper premolar in man is more feebly
pronounced than the first, in that it has only one root,
whilst the first has usually two. The crown of the
first also is rather larger and better defined than
that of the second, in the lower jaw this is reversed,
the first premolar being decidedly feebler than the
second.

In the illustrations of the anthropoid apes, given
by F. Cuvier and Owen, there does not seem much.

TO man's place in nature. 175

if any, difference between their premolars in this
respect ; but in the Museum at South Kensington,
where skulls of all three apes are beautifully ex-
hibited with their roots displayed, it will be noticed
that, whereas in the Gorilla and Orang, if there is
any difference in the size of the first and second pre-
molars in the upper and lower jaws, it is opposite in
relation to what holds good in man, in the chim-
panzee it is the same as in man ; and that notably
the upper second premolar of the chimpanzee has
only one root displayed, whilst the first has two.
Probably in each case there is a hidden root, but the
tendency towards the human character is manifest.

There is 3^et another point illustrated by these
three skulls, which is interesting as pointing to the
chimpanzee as our probable ancestor, which was
kindly pointed out to me by Mr. Charles Tomes,
namely, that in both gorilla and orang, the roots of
the teeth are huge and out of all relative proportion
to the size of the crowns, as compared with human
teeth, whereas, those of the chimpanzee, barring of
course its large canines, were not strikingly different.

Those who are of a grateful disposition, may
remember, when they go to have out a tooth next
time, to be thankful that their ancestor was a
chimpanzee, and not an orang-outang.

It must be allowed, however, that the illustrations
of F. Cuvier and Owen do not show such striking
contrasts in the implantation of the teeth, in the
three species, as the specimens at South Kensington
Museum, and knowing how much teeth do differ in
individuals, it is not impossible that these have been

176 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

specially selected to illustrate the afBnity and con-
trast ; certainly they do it exceedingly well.

That any animal which is examined shows more
intelligence in the construction of the adaptation of
its organs to its habits of life, than it can display by
its actions on the occurrence of current unexpected
emergencies, is a very old observation ; whether this
is entirely the result of an intelligence, acting from
without, or entirely during the course of ages, by the
intelligence acting from within, is perhaps one main
point of present controversy.

The following consideration of rather a wider
generalization than those preceding may help the
reader towards understanding the point.

It is usual for comparative anatomists to say that
all mammalia, except the sloths, have only seven
cervical or neck vertebra, that is seven distinct bones
in the backbone between the skull and the ribs, and
certainly this is itself a sufficiently remarkable
fact. A giraffe and a pig have exactly the sam^
number of neck-bones.

The statement, however, has other exceptions,
which we shall see still further emphasize the fact,
that this relationship in number of the neck vertebrae
is a mark of ancestral relationship.

In 1886 I was fortunate enough to secure a recent
example of a Rissos Grampus, caught near
Plymouth, and prepared the skeleton for our
museum ; in doing this I found that the seven neck
vertebrae were anchylozed into one bone, still com-
pletely showing their separate derivation.

Here we have a complete abandonment of any

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 177

functional use in separate bones by their being
solidified into one, whilst their separate origin is
still distinctly indicated.

In an older specimen in the South Kensington
Museum, the indications of the seven-fold origin are
almost, if not quite obliterated ; and the same
remark applies to a skeleton of the common porpoise,
in the museum of the Plymouth Institution.

Now, if it is not clearly written here, that the
formation was from within, and not from without,
it seems to me all inquiry is useless, and we may as
well at once cease to consider if there is any mean-
ing in anything or not.

The relationship of mammalia having been thus
clearly indicated, it is perhaps needless to say that
man also has seven cervical vertebrae.

In " Hartman's Anthropoid Apes," p. 132, is a
very good illustration of the skeletons of man and
gorilla, placed side by side for comparison, which
cannot fail to strike any intelligent person by their
likeness and unlikeness. The notation of differences
between similar objects is the usual method of
observation, because it is here that discrimination is
of most importance ; no one requires to have pointed
out to them the difference between a " hawk and a
hernshaw," and therefore perhaps the first thing a
casual observer remarks is, *' How very different these
two skeletons are " ; but a little deeper observation
will convince him, that whatever superficial differ-
ences there may be, the essential substratum of
resemblances is infinitely greater and more pro-
found.

N

Human skeleton -a, Parietal bone 6, Frontal bone. ^' Cervical vertebrae.
<Z sternum. e, Lumbar vertebra. /.Ulna. ^, Radms. A, Carpus,
t MetacaSus. ;^ Phalanges, i, Tibia. «t. Fibula. «, Tarsus, o, Metatarsal
bonis ?.?Pbalange8. q, Patella. r, Femur. », Os mnommatum.
t, Humerus. «, Clavicle.

Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.
N 2

l80 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Let us, however, dwell a moment on the differences.
In the ape all the bones are more massive and
rugged, evidence of greater muscular power and
exertion.

The great toe of the ape is a grasping thumb, and
there is no definite heel as in man.

The arms of the ape are much longer, and here I
cannot forbear giving Sir Walter Scott's description
of Rob Roy, whom he seems to have taken as the
type of a very natural or unsophisticated man, which
observation is all the more valuable as giving,
perhaps, an instance of reversion, that the author
cannot be accused of prejudice in the matter.

^ " The greatest peculiarities of his frame were the
breadth of his shoulders, and the great and almost
disproportionate length of his arms, so remarkable,
indeed, that it was said he could, without stooping,
tie the garters of his Highland hose, which are
placed two inches below the knee."

But to continue our contrast of skeletons of man
and ape, the ape has much longer canines com-
paratively to the other teeth, much smaller brain
cavity, and large bony crests on the skull to
support the great biting muscles which the canines
require.

Let us indulge in a little free speculation and
suppose some chimpanzee took in a more definite
manner to fighting with implements, a broken branch
of a tree, perhaps, instead of his teeth.

We can see that as this path was pursued his

^ Notes to " Rob Roy," by Sir W. Scott.

TO man's place in nature. iSi

canines would decrease from want of use. He
would cling to his weapons for defence, hence would
not be able to use his arms in climbing, so that these
also would diminish in size and power.

In his retreats he would be thus thrown almost
entirely on his hind legs and thus reduced to the
ground for locomotion, where the great toe would be
more useful in the spring of the foot than as a
grasper. In fighting with weapons, the one who
could get above the other would gain an advantage,
and the upright position would be indicated.

The upright position and locomotion on the
hinder extremities might lead to the human walk,
this giving the greater length of leg and enlarged
calf, thigh and buttock, muscles, whilst the com-
plication and improvement of weapons would tend
to increase intelligence and the size of brain, until at
last he attained to the flint implement and later the
bow and arrow.

The importance of the invention of the stone
hammer or axe is handed down to us in the Scandi-
navian myth of Thor, and his achievements with his
stone hammer.

What was the chief factor in eliminating the hairy
covering reducing man to external clothing is more
obscure. The acquisition of fire may have occurred
in making flint implements or from natural sources.
We have, however, an inverse analogy in the mam-
moth of an animal gaining a hairy covering in con-
sequence of general change of conditions. Bodies
of these animals as well as of the rhinoceros having
been found in Siberia thickly covered with hair,

1 82

THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

TO man's place in nature. 183

whilst in hot climates, presumably their original
home, they are almost hairless.

The Ainos, a lower race of men inhabiting North
Japan, according to modern accounts have many
hairy individuals amongst them.

In receiving the evidence described in this chapter
and the accompanying appendices I think we must
admit that there has been an unbroken line of life
through the apes to man ; that his teeth on close
inspection do corroborate Darwin's views by showing
continual slight deviations and occasional reversions,
and also a forward movement on the lines indicated
by the previous path in life.

Whilst preparing this paper, Mr. R. N. Worth
drew my attention to a skull which had been disin-
terred at Mount Batten, near Plymouth, and which
he described in a paper on " Crouched interment at
Mount Batten " in the transactions of the Devon
Association, xix., 38.

The accompanying illustration is from a block
kindly lent by him.

The skull is interesting in this relation as pos-
sessing no upper lateral incisors, the canines being
close to the central, as can be seen by reference to
the lower figure.

184 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER X.
Appendix to Chapter IX.

ON BI-LATERAL SYMMETRY IN IRREGULARITIES OF
DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN TEETH.

Appendix I. Read August 2nd, 1880. Read at the
meeting of the British Dental Association, Western
Branch, held at Bath, Mr. Parkinson in the chair :

Mr. President and Gentlemen, — A year ago, whilst
studying the theory of evolution in its application to
the development of teeth in the higher animals,
the question suggested itself whether there was not
some law relating to the development and formation
of teeth capable of being traced in connection with
the repetition of a complicated type of tooth in the
same mouth.

For instance, the masticating teeth of the sheep,
although of considerable intricacy of form and pre-
cision of definition, are all on the same pattern. The
same may be said of the guinea-pig or the mole.

Now, if these teeth have been formed by gradual
slight alterations, according to modern theories, this
would tend to show that there was some hidden link,
perhaps in the nervous centres, controlling the

TO man's place in nature. 185

development of the teeth, which was able to appro-
priate and reproduce in the other teeth any advan-
tageous variation which may have arisen in one
tooth.

Since then I have collected such cases in human
dentition as seemed to corroborate this idea, and I
have brought them before you to-day, thinking that
they might have some general interest ; for the theory
of evolution is entering into every-day questions
on all sides ; and also in the hopes that some of my
brethren may be thereby induced to give me models
or specimens bearing on the subject, which shall be
duly acknowledged if I find anything more to say on
the subject, and also that by placing the facts and
models I have before a body of experts in the
observation of the human dentition, they may be
authenticated.

The variations are not of any startling monstrosity,
or often, perhaps, of practical importance ; yet, as
showing a tendency, are worthy of remark.

Beginning with the lower jaw, I will describe such
irregularities as I have found also bi-lateral. The
lower canine sometimes has the roots divided, as in
these specimens ^ (No. i). I have had under notice
for some years a lower jaw in which the teeth were
absent, but which clearly showed by their alveoli
that both the canines had divided roots. The next
tooth having a noticed peculiarity is the second
bicuspid. I have seen at least three examples in
which this tooth is much compressed from the lingual

^ Specimens shown.

l86 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

to the labial sides — something like a deciduous first
molar or the corresponding tooth in some monkeys.
(No. 2 model shown). The first lower molar has some-
times one of its roots divided so as to have three. Of
course, on extracting such a tooth one is not in a
position always to verify the fact of the corresponding
tooth of the opposite side being similarly formed ;
but on one occasion after extracting two of these
teeth under nitrous oxide gas for regulating, I was
equally pleased to find I had secured an example of
this variation and mortified to find I had left both
the extra roots behind. (Specimens shown, No. 3.)

Fig. 4. {For description^ see p. 174.)

(Specimens shown No. 4.) These are the second
lower molars of a Chinee, showing a slight pe-
culiarity in the confluence of the roots on labial
aspects.

The irregularities of the wisdom are too familiar
and too well established by Mr. Weiss to need
referring to here. In the upper jaw the laterals are
those which will first take our notice. These teeth
show, although in a slighter degree, similar evidences
of degradation or abortion to those shown by the
wisdom teeth. The presiding genius, if I be allowed
a metaphor, seems to be full of vagaries, sporting,
hesitating, and stammering, in its definition of this

TO man's place in nature.

187

tooth, and sometimes refusing to produce it at all.
Some of these variations are so common that I have
not thought it necessary to bring models to prove
the point.

Firstly, a definite lingual cusp is sufficiently
common.

Secondly, a folding round of the two lateral
buttresses, forming a sulcus, is often a source of
decay needing filling. Model shown (No. 5), has
both these peculiarities.

Thirdly, supernumerary teeth are more frequently
thrown off in the neighbourhood of this tooth, and it

c ' '^i— ^ Ir

Fig. 5.
b c, Second incisors, spiky. From a model taken by the author.

is more often malformed than any other tooth except
the wisdom tooth.

No. 5. Malformed lateral.

Then we have diminutive cylindrical laterals, spiky
laterals (see Fig. 5), and lastly the tooth is deficient
altogether.

Nos. 6 and 7 are cases showing the left lateral
absent.

No. 8. Left lateral spiky ; first molars have extra
cusp on lingual side. The two daughters of this
lady also had extra cusps on their first and second
molars.

l88 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

No. 9. Left lateral spiky, right small.

No. 10. Right spiky, both small.

No. II. Both laterals small and cylindrical (lady).

No. 12. Right lateral spiky, left extracted in
youth (lady).

No. 13. (Male.) Both laterals small and cylin-
drical.

No. 14. (Female.) Both laterals spiky, right, very
small.

No. 15. (Female.) Right lateral absent ; patient
said she never had it.

No. 16. (Female.) Right lateral absent; patient
said she never had it.

■ In cases Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21, both laterals
are entirely absent. No. 21 thinks one of her sisters
also has these teeth absent.

No. 22. (Female.) Both laterals and all the
upper bicuspids absent. As this mouth shows a
general deficiency of developing powers, the palate
being excessively narrow and arched, this case would
hardly have come within the scope of the subject,
were it not that her sister (No. 23) also never had
any upper laterals.

No. 24. (Female.) Both laterals absent. This
lady's eldest daughter, whom I have seen, also has
them absent, and she says her father and a sister
have the same deficiency.

No. 25. (Female.) Both laterals absent ; says
she thinks a brother and a sister have them absent
also. The first molars in this case also have an
extra lingual cusp.

No. 26. (Female.) Both laterals absent ; says

TO man's place in nature. i8g

she has a sister with the same deficiency as well as
the brother.

No. 27. (Male.) Brother of above.

For the lay reader it may be mentioned that a
dentist's model, so far as it goes, is as authentic as a
photograph.

In strong contrast with the aberrations and
occasional absence of the lateral comes the canine
teeth, and a practical point in regulating teeth may
be noted here, that if retarded in eruption or not
showing, we may confidently rely upon its presence
within the bone, which is evidently not the case with
the laterals. Only two cases worth noticing have
come under notice.

No. 28. (Male.) Two upper deciduous canines
with a small but decided lingual cusp.

No. 29. (Male.) Small spiky right canine.

The second deciduous upper molar often has an
extra cusp on the lingual surface.

No. 30. Right upper deciduous molar with extra
cusp, no sign of the same on first molars.

No. 31. (Male.) In the mouth of this lad extra
cusps on both deciduous second molars and first
permanent molars seem to point to some develop-
mental bond of sympathy between them, although
I believe it is considered to be established that
their germs arise independently. A duplicate of
this model was forwarded to Professor Flower,
who said that he had not noticed this cusp on any
aboriginal races, so that it is possible that this
extra cusp is now being added to the definition
of upper molars in the English race. It is exceed-

igO THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

ingly common on first molars, sometimes occurring
on one tooth only, sometimes on both, and less
frequently on the second molars, and more rarely on
the wisdom teeth.

No. 32. (Male.) Good example of this cusp on
both first molars.

No. 33. (Female.) Ditto.

No. 34. Extra cusp on right second molar only.

I have to thank the late Mr. Spence Bate, F.R.S.,
and my partners, Mr. Stratton J. Coles and Mr.
Robert S. Coles for some of the models, etc.^

^ Since the above was written I have seen a case of a healthy
English lad of nineteen, where all four lower incisors were
absent, the t\vo permanent canines being nearly close together;
without any history of accident or other sign that they ever
were formed or at present exist in the jaw.

TO man's place in nature. 191

Appendix II.

NOTES on some MORPHOLOGICAL DENTAL IRREGU-
LARITIES IN SOME OF THE SKULLS IN THE
MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS
OF ENGLAND.^

Mr. President and Gentlemen, — In 1880, when
interested in the development of irregularities in the
cusps of modern English teeth, I wished to com-
pare these with those of less civilized races.
Through the courtesy of Professor Flower, I was
allowed to examine the collection in the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons in London, of which
at that time he was Conservator.

I took notes of the teeth of about 400 crania, and
hoped at some future time to enlarge these observa-
tions, which, however, not having done, I wish to
place these notes on record as some of them may
prove interesting, and at any rate are then at the
service of future investigators.

The skulls were on shelves in cabinets, and
apparently had been frequently re-arranged, as the

^ Transactions of Odontological Society, Great Britain,
June, 1891.

192 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

numbers on the skulls were by no means conse-
cutive, but the numbers on each particular skull do
not seem to be altered ; as during the summer of
1890, wishing to take models of two, I easily found
them again, although a large collection had been
added since I previously examined them ; I should
think, therefore, that any skull might be referred to
by the numbers here given.

On examining each batch of skulls, I noted any
peculiarity observed with the number of skull, and
then, before closing the cabinet, counted the number
of skulls examined with such description, if any, as
was labelled on the shelf.

The following is a transcript of the notes : —

First lot of skulls examined — 24.

1542. — Old Roman. Sulcus in upper lateral.

327. — St. Michael's Church, St. Albans. Two
supernumeraries between laterals.

302. — From Tumulus, Cemetery, Berkshire.
Extra cusp to upper molar.

Second lot of skulls examined — 52.

1301. — Boschisman girl. Wisdoms not through,
teeth crowded, extraordinary development of second
lower bicuspids on both sides, teeth approaching in
size a badly formed molar, all the teeth very
clubbed.

A model of the lower jaw accompanies the paper
with photograph ; ^ these do not, however, give a
good idea of the teeth, as from their crowded
position the model was a good deal dragged.

^ See Proc. Odontological Society.

TO man's place in nature. 193

154. — African Negro, Bahia, Brazil. Left super-
numerary opposite wisdom.

1234. — Amazon, Dahomey, Africa. Slight sign
of extra cusp on second and third right molars only.
(Note probably upper.)

1228. — Dahomey. Supernumerary molar.

1650. — Eboe, Old Calabar. Upper wisdoms
absent ; second bicuspids smaller than first.

1363. — Negro. Lower left canine and lateral
apocryphal.

1624. — Debeara. Apocryphal left central.

35. — Apocryphal lower bicuspid.

36. — Ditto right upper canine.

31. — Ditto all over.

84. — Apocryphal.

52. — Ditto.

125. — Ditto left upper bicuspid.

1290. — Left wisdom slight extra cusp.

1261. — Apocryphal.

1292. — Right upper first bicuspid crowded in.

1284. — Upper first molar slight extra cusp
anterior (lingual ?) aspect.

Third lot of crania — 15.

1302. — Only left wisdom (upper ?) second molar
same side decayed, teeth crowded, second lower
molars decayed.

Africa.

1264. — Right and left upper first bicuspids decayed
on both sides. Three roots, or nearly so, on one
side more than the other.

o

194 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

Foil rth lot of era n ia — 48 .

292. — Eboe, Guinea. Anterior extra cusp, as in
1284, o^ both first upper molars.

Fifth lot of crania — 48.
Melanesia.

1079. — M- Fs-^j fi^st upper molars, extra cusps as
in 292.

1626. — Debeara. Cluster of supernumerary teeth
in region of left bicuspids ; alveolus for third bicuspid
on right side.

Fig. 4. i^For description^ see p. 174.)

1245. — Extraordinary lower second bicuspids
width of molar {See Fig. 4).

3380. — Slight mark of extra cusp, upper molars.

1224. — Ditto, ditto.

1216. — ^Teeth crowded, sulcus in upper laterals.

Sixth lot of crania — 22.
Papua.
82. — Extra cusp on first molar.

Seventh lot of crania — 47.
New Caledonia.
1 159. — Right upper first molar, extra cusp

TO man's place in nature. 195

Australia.
1062. — Upper wisdoms dwindling.

Eighth lot of crania — 25.

America.
Comparatively feeble.

Ninth lot of crania — ^il*
Eskimo.

I have no note taken of these thirty-seven Eskimo
skulls, but speaking from memory the arches of the
jaws were full, round, and uncrowd€djthe__shape_

of the cranium, on the other hand, was long and
narrow, an observation contrary to my expectation.
The suggestion occurred whether if the Eskimo are
in the habit, as related by some travellers, of chewing
the seals' skins in dressing them to render them soft,
this practice may not account for their fully archec
jaws.

Tenth lot of crania — 34.

OV^YHEE.

803. — Left upper wisdom, extra cusp small.

Maori.

769. — Supernumerary between upper centrals.

766. — Extra cusp both first molars (upper ?).

749b. — Skull of Gilbert Islander ; large masticating
teeth ; feeble upper incisors, which are decayed ;
three roots in right upper pre-molar (first or second ?),
left bicuspid alveolus, showing division as i( for two

o 2

196 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

external roots ; lower left second bicuspid, signs of
division in external roots ; lower right first and second
bicuspids, the same strongly.

Eleventh lot of crania — 47,.

InDO-MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

284. — Nay Kay. These roots right first lower
molar.

1376. — Signs of slight divisions in outer bicuspid
roots in first and second upper right side, first upper
left side, first lower right side, first lower left side.

Twelfth lot of crania — 8.
Asia.

Thirteenth lot of crania — 26.

Asia.

The following are the points which seem worthy
of noting : —

In the first place it was evident that many of the
skulls belonged to owners who met violent deaths,
which had often spoiled the dental armature.

Interested parties had supplied the deficiencies
thus caused to make up appearances before parting
with the skulls to the museums. Those skulls
found in this state have been marked apocryphal.
I had supposed that the extra lingual cusp of the
upper molar often observed in English patients
would not have appeared in savage tribes ; in this
I was mistaken, as I found ten crania having extra
lingual cusps on the superior molars out of the four

TO man's place in nature. 197

hundred and thirty-three examined, but this cusp
was situated rather anteriorly to the position
observed in Enghsh patients.

Two skulls, No. 749b and No. 1376, had extra
roots or indications of them in five bicuspids, in each
case showing a Simian approximation.

Two skulls, No. 1301 and No. 1245, have peculiarly
formed and large second lower bicuspids, as shown
by models and photographs.

In practice I have occasionally met second lower
bicuspids with peculiarly flattened crowns.

igS THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER XI.

FLIGHT OF BIRDS.

Preliminary remarks— Flight in insects but not in spiders —
In fishes — Reptiles — Mammals — Birds probably an off-
shoot from reptiles — Pterodactyls — Archeopteryx —
Anatomical affinities between reptiles and birds — Toothed
birds — Plumag'e of birds — Mechanism of feather — Flight
by rowing — Flight by sailing — By buzzing — By skating —
A cone of air compressed by downward stroke — M. Marey's
work — Swoop of birds of prey — Captain Hutton — Power
of visual picture — Problem of soaring — Will man ever fly ?

There are probably few natural tissues of which
the evolution is more difficult to establish than
that of a feather ; yet, to the elaboration and
adaptation of this skin appendage no doubt birds
owe the perfection to which they have attained in
atmospheric navigation.

But although evidence of a strict gradation in
the evolution of a feather is conspicuous by its
absence, there are a good many isolated examples
of efforts, more or less successful, to accomplish or
extend aerial progression.

Animals in the pursuit of prey, or whilst making
efforts to escape capture, either in passing through
water or over land, sometimes leaped or were pro-
pelled through the air, and found from its gaseous

TO man's place in nature. igg

nature facility for more easy and rapid movement.
Leaping and jumping was then, perhaps, the
initial step towards flying. But between casting
their bodies through the air by spring of legs or
fins, because of its offering less resistance and
friction than accompanied the support of water or
solid bodies, and making use of such comparatively
slight resistance as it possesses, for their continued
support, and progression was a very wide gap which
required something beyond mere effort and good-
will.

The following illustration will explain my mean-
ing, and is at the same time a curious fact.

Most insects possess in greater or less perfec-
tion the power of flight, and although they are
pursued everywhere by spiders by all manner of
snares and direct hunting, we know of no case in
which a spider has begun to develop links in the
direction of flight ; the nearest approach being
gossamer spiders which float in the air on web
filaments. I once caught such a small spider as it
floated by, and, breaking away the thread connected
with it, confined it to the top of my finger, expecting
it to drop by a line as spiders are wont to do, as I
was curious to see how it would detach the line
from my finger end. Instead of this, however, the
spider, when it saw that there was no other escape,
went to the highest point, elevated its abdomen and
discharged a thread perpendicularly into the air ; this
slowly rose till about eighteen inches or so was paid
out, when the spider tucked up all his legs, left my
finger and securely floated away into space.

200 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

The lowest animal which seems to have made any
attempt or flight beyond a jump, is a calamary, a
mollusc something like a squid.

According to Owen " Calamaries by means of
powerful muscles in their terminal fin, and by the
elasticity of internal pen, not only propel themselves
in the sea, but raise themselves like a flying fish, and
dart for some distance through the air."

Above calamaries (omitting insects) come fishes ;
of which there are at present two species, one a
Gurnard (dactylopterus volitans), the other (exo-
cgetus calleropterus) somewhat resembling, though
not nearly allied to a herring. These fishes make
short flights of from 150 to 200 yards, and to a
height of 30 or 40 feet, as evidenced by the height
of the freeboard of vessels on whose decks they have
fallen in their excursions. •

Among reptiles there have been some efforts in
this direction.

In our own time there is a lizard (draco volans)
whose ribs are extended and covered by a wing-like
membrane, having quite sufficient surface to enable
it to fly if actively used, but in fact it is only used as
a parachute to sail down from some elevated place.

Wallace, in his Malay Archipelago, describes a
tree-frog which was seen to descend from a tree, in
a long curve to the ground ; this, on examination,
showed an expansion of the webs of its feet of 12
square inches, its own body being about four inches
long.

The greatest perfection of flight in reptiles was
reached probably a little before the Mesohthic

TO man's place in nature. 201

epoch, by a whole group of lizards called Ptero-
dactyles, ranging in size from a crow to a beast,
with an expanse of wing of twenty-five feet. The
wing, something like that of a bat, was membranous,
but instead of being spread over several phalanges
was extended from one lengthened finger down the
side of the body. Some of these strange beasts had
teeth, and some had not, and, as we shall presently
see, there are reasons for assigning to birds a
reptilian ancestry.

Bats are the highest flying mammals, led up to by
flying squirrels, phalangers and lemurs (galeo-
pithicus). These are a feeble or degraded race,
flying at night only, and subsisting on insects or
sucking blood from sleeping animals, or at best
living upon fruit.

Strange as it may seem, it had long been sus-
pected by comparative anatomists, that there was an
aflinity between birds and lizards, and this is now
generally conceded.

In the triassic, Jurassic, and chalk periods of the
Mesolithic epoch, are found many fine remains of
flying reptiles — long-tailed rhamphorynchia, and
short-tailed pterodactylae, of many species ; some
possessed teeth, some beaked.

There were other reptiles belonging to this period :
anomodontia, also possessed of beaks, and from
one or other of these groups birds probably sprang.

In our own day turtles and tortoises are the only
representatives of reptiles possessing horny beaks.

There are other affinities of structure connecting
birds with reptiles, one of the most obvious being

202 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

their habit of depositing eggs to be hatched in the
sand.

There is a region on the coast of Celebes, as
described by Wallace, where beaches of a black
volcanic sand are regularly visited by a gallinaceous
bird, for the purpose of laying its eggs in the sand,
where they are left to be hatched by the heat of the
sun. According to Wallace, these birds are so fully
developed, that on being hatched the chicks are able
to fly. This is a wonderful instance of the power of
inheritance of instinct, and development of organ,
at the same time ; the bird having retained or re-
trograded to the old reptile instinct of laying its
eggs in sand to be hatched by solar heat, the chick
at the same time having in it so perfectly developed
the organs of flight, as to be able to use them suc-
cessfully without previous trials. •

Another point of affinity which may be men-
tioned classifying reptiles with birds ; but distin-
guishing them from mammals, lies in the articula-
tion of the head to the back bone. Taking the
head of a dog or cat in the hand, we observe that
there are two points or knuckles by which it is
articulated to the atlas, whereas in a turtle or
crocodile, a pigeon or an albatross, there is only
one.

A stronger and more remarkable link, however,
has been discovered.

In 1861, Herman von Meyer described a bird's
feather, found in lithographic slate of Solenhofen, in
Bavaria, belonging to the upper Jurassic deposits.
This was much earlier than birds were before known.

TO man's place in nature. 203

but was confirmed by Professor Owen, and named
archasopteryx lithographica.

In 1863, Professor Owen described a slab found
by Doctor Haberlein, of Pappenheim, which showed
clearly the bird from which, doubtless, the feather
came.

There was a pelvis, the legs and a long rat-like
tail furnished with feathers, and a few wing feathers,
but no head or other anterior parts. Here was
another link in the direction of lizards, as no known
bird has a long bony jointed tail.

Pictures of the restored animals were drawn to
represent the tail, but with a beak !

In this retrospect, however, naturalists for once
were wrong. About ten years afterwards, 1874 or
1875, the son of the same Doctor Haberlein found a
slab containing a very perfect example of the
archseopteryx with the head, which he exposed with
great care and success. In this the head was a true
reptile's head, without beak, and possessing in front
two small teeth.

Amongst other affinities to recent birds, the feet
possess four toes, of which one is placed behind,
giving its grasping power in perching.

Here is a link which will well bear some reflection,
an animal with a long jointed bony tail, a small
lizard-shaped head, teeth, no beak, but with feathers
and perching feet.'

Hesperornis regulis a sort of diver, and Icthyorais
Victor a sort of gull ; other extinct forms of birds

1 Ibis, 1880, p. 436.

204 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

show their origin by still possessing teeth with a
beak.^

In the struggle for existence, however, in order to
lighten the head, the powers of the beak suppressed
the teeth, the comminating functions of which were
fulfilled by a gizzard.

From the Archaeopteryx, all through the Mesozoic
rocks, the strata of Triassic age, the Jurassic into
the Cretaceous beds, we find in different parts of the
world many forms that show in their skeletons every
imaginable shade in point of structure between
reptile and bird ; some were of mastodontic propor-
tions, others were small ; undoubtedly some were
covered with feathers, some had beaks, others had
teeth, a few could fly, some lived on land, some on
sea, while others were amphibious.

Recent birds are divided into two great* orders.
Birds with a breast bone, flat like a raft — Ratitse ;
and birds with a keeled breast-bone — Carinatse. It
might be thought, that, as the keeled breast-bone is
correlated with the power of flight, giving attach-
ment to the large breast muscles necessary for the
powerful downward stroke of the wing, the ratitse
preceded the carinatae in the process of evolution.
Yet in all probability this was not so.

Many of the largest extinct remains of these
flightless birds have been found on Madagascar and
New Zealand, islands devoid of rapacious foes ; so
that they developed here probably by finding the
labour of flight unnecessary to their protection, until
finally they lost the power.

^ Professor Marsh, U.S.

MECHANISM OF PLUMULES OF BIRD'S FEATHERS

•f

PIGEON

\Ttt

AMERICAN BUZZARD

STAPLING

PHEASANT

Y

SNIPE

SWIFT

j.£.noao Sc plym?

WOODCOCK

TO man's place in nature. 205

In New Zealand undoubtedly, and probably in
Madagascar, the advent of man quickly led to their
entire destruction. The same is threatened to the
emus and cassowaries of Australia and its adjacent
islands, in which haunts, however, the birds are still
able to maintain a precarious existence.

In New Zealand still exists a case of this tendency
to degrade, in a large parrot — the kakapo. This has
given up its powers of flight, lost the keeled breast,
which from its evident relationship in the family of
parrots it no doubt at one time possessed ; it is
nocturnal in its habits, and on the point of extermina-
tion by shepherds and their dogs.

Before entering upon a consideration of the
problem of the flight of birds, it may be well to make
a short description of their special organs of flight.

Feathers are a production of the skin; like the scales
of fishes and the hair of quadrupeds, their general
appearance is too familiar to need many words.
Composed of a quill and plume, so disposed as to
combine great strength, lightness and elasticity with
considerable extent of surface, somewhat in the
shape and for the same function as an oar or paddle.
Each fibril of the plume is nearly a repetition of the
whole feather, only that the mid-rib instead of being
square like the feathered part of the quill is very
deep in section to give it additional strength,^ and

^ The variations in the mechanical contrivance of the
plumules does not seem to have met with much attention.
The best illustration I have seen is by Mr. R. S. Wray, in the
Ibis, 1887, p. 420. I give a plate with a few that I have
examined, which show such distinctions as points to the
characters as having possibly generic value.

206 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the fibres of the plumule hook over those of its
neighbour, so as to present an unbroken surface to
the air. Besides their office as organs of flight,
feathers form a warm covering, and are adapted by
their position, in lying in a tiled manner all pointing
backwards, to make a smooth surface offering little
resistance to the air or other obstacles.

They fulfil this purpose also in another manner
by plumping out and padding over many inequalities
of a bird's body, in a manner which is easily seen
when comparing the body of a bird plucked with
one in full plumage. In the latter case the body
without the wings has a great resemblance to that
of a fish, or, as the tail is horizontal, to a porpoise ;
whereas the ' shape of a plucked bird does not
strike us at all with the same ideas of beauty in
adaptation to speed of locomotion. •

Another use of the feathers, by their coloration, is
to aid in concealment of their possessor from their
enemies ; and anyone who knows how difficult it is
to see a partridge when lying at your feet in a
stubble field will readily concede this.

Another point is, by ornament to attract the
opposite sex, that the parties concerned, may, by the
appropriate display thereof, assure each other of
harmonious tastes, suitable rank in life, powers to
make a proper provision for the future home, and
ensure a family of which each parent may be justly
proud.

The coloration of a bird's feather presents one
of the most difficult problems in evolution, for it
must be remembered that the pattern on the wing

TO man's place in nature. 207

has no direct structural deposition such as might be
supposed to occur on the skin of a fish.

The pattern appears as if stamped on the feathers,
whereas the fibres of which it is composed are quite
separate down to the barrel of the quill. How each
fibre should receive transverse bands of different
colours, so that when laid down side by side they
form a pattern, is still, so far as I know, an unex-
plained mystery.

Any lover of nature who spends a day at the
Museum of Natural History at South Kensington,
must be very dead to all feelings of wonder and
admiration if his imagination is not stirred to awe
and worship at the extraordinary productions of the
Creator, displayed there.

The mimicry by insects of leaves for the sake of
concealment, of more powerful or noxious insects by
harmless or feeble ones for the sake of protection, as
well as the imitation by the plumage of birds of their
habitat, all suggest some law by which this desirable
resemblance is produced.

I must say that the mere conservance of occasional
variations seems hardly adequate to the task.

Mr. Cunningham, of the Plymouth Biological
Laboratory, has been investigating this subject in
fishes, and proves that the pigment cells on the
surface of the skin of fishes undergo rapid change in
size under changed colour of the surrounding bottom,
though I do not understand that he claims to have
made out how the original pigmentation takes place.

One idea is, that it is through the visual picture
continually before the eye in some way conveying a

208 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

similar coloration to the terminal twigs of the
nerves or at any rate stimulating them with a
selective power in coloration of the visible surface of
animal. Jacob's method of increasing his own stock
by use of this idea is of course familiar to all of us,
and I hear from a rabbit breeder that he considers
at the present time that they can control the future
coloration of a litter of young rabbits by surrounding
the doe at certain seasons with particular colours.

Jardine's Naturalist's Library is easy of access to
most, and a very good example of gradation in this
respect is given in the volume on " Fishes of
Guiana."

If the reader will turn to the illustrations, he will
find a curious series in nearly every degree from a
slight dark spot to the most vivid reproduction at
the root of the tail, of the brilliant colours of the
fish's own eye.

My own opinion is, but the point wants working
out, that feathers of birds are coloured from with-
out, not by pigments laid down in the fibres as
they grow, but by a pattern laid on after formation
by the external enclosing capsule.

There seems no doubt that the coloration of
eggs is thus laid on nearly the last thing.

The wing of a bird is as you all know more or less
triangular in shape with the base next the body,
the apex extended, the anterior margin flexed, with
the point bending backwards, convex above, concave
below; the bones are nearly the same as in the
human arm, the bones of the wrist and hand being
reduced in number and size continuing the member

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 209

to a point. The flight feathers continue and
extend the anterior margin of the wing, and thus
take the greatest duty in the stroke ; for this reason
they are the stiffest in the body and the vane is
arranged so as to have the greatest surface along
the posterior edge. These feathers, called pri-
maries, are arranged on that part of the limb which
would correspond to our hand and wrist, and as their
posterior margin is much longer than the part of the
limb into which they are inserted, they gradually radi-
ate backwards, each lying partly over and supporting
its anterior neighbour.

Behind these, implanted in the fore arm, come
the secondaries, which in the extended wing lie
nearly directly backwards, and in these the quill
becomes more nearly central.

Between these and the body come the tertiaries
generally still feebler, shorter, and broader in the
blade.

These feathers are supported both above and
below by successive rows of other feathers, each
superior layer being shorter and feebler than that
beneath the upper and lower wing coverts.

When the wing is extended, the feathers are
retained evenly in position and retracted in due
order, when it is flexed, by an elastic network of
ligaments which also slightly rotates them when
stretched.

Two points in the economy of the wing are worth
noting which I have not found previously mentioned.
One is the advantage of a flexed anterior margin :
if this were perfectly straight it would be almost

p

210 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

impossible to prevent its being completely rotated by
the resistance of the air to the surface of the wing,
all of which is posterior to it, by which means either
the bone would be dislocated or all power lost.

Another point is the perfect power of accommo-
dation in folding which feathers allow of. A bat
finds his wings sadly in the way when on the
ground, and figures very badly beside a mouse in
his attempts at pedestrianism ; even a flying squirrel
or lemur looks somewhat as if encumbered by a bag
of old clothes, whereas a land or water-rail runs as
nimbly through close vegetation as a rat or weasel.

The other principal organ in the act of flight is
the tail, which is composed of longish feathers with
a stiff quill placed in or near the centre of the
web.

These feathers, in all birds of the present day, are
attached to a short representative of the originally
long vertebral tail, popularly known as the Pope's
nose, which practically places them as starting from
the same level arranged like a fan, the outer feathers
lying and folding beneath the more central ; like
the wing feathers, the tail is supported above and
below by upper and lower coverts.

The principal function of the tail seems to be that
of raising the bird by presenting an inclined surface
when depressed to the current of air through which
the bird is passing, and on the contrary, by being
elevated and thus removing this resistance, it allows
the force of gravity to direct the bird downward. In
a lesser degree also, it may quicken the direction
downward by pressing upon the current of air above

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 211

the bird's back, although this action must be con-
sidered more in the Hght of a theoretical hypothesis
than an actual observation, at any rate its power in
this way is very feeble.

The Duke of Argyle in his essay on the flight of
birds in his " Reign of Law," says this is the only
power of the tail ; considering that as the plane of
the tail is horizontal and not vertical, it can have no
power in steering a bird by any lateral motion ; but
I am far from sure that he is right in this conjecture.
Birds differ greatly in their powers of quick turning,
and also in the shape of their tails, and there is, I
believe, a correlation to be established between the
two.

Since writing the above, I have met the following
observation in Audubon : —

" The flight of the goshawk is extremely rapid and
protracted. He sw^eeps along wath such speed as to
enable him to seize his prey by deviating a few yards
from his course, assisting himself on such occasions
by his long tail, which, like a rudder, he throws to
the right or left, upwards or downwards, to enable
him suddenly to alter his course."

Tails are short and round, presenting an outline,
something like that of a scallop-shell, like those of a
partridge, a snipe, or a common wild duck ; long and
square ended like a sparrow or kestril, wedge-shaped
like a pheasant, a magpie, or the passenger pigeon of
America, notched like in a kite or swift, or fully
forked like in the chimney swallow, some humming
birds, the swallow-tailed falcon and some of the
terns.

p 2

212 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

No doubt many birds with short tails are capable
of quick turns, as, for instance, the short-eared owl ;
the common peewit also is an example which every-
one must have observed who has tried to find the
nest in the breeding season. Still, these birds are
comparatively light for the expanse of their wings,
which gives them a sort of butterfly flight with no
great momentum to overcome in turning. But I
cannot help believing that the forked tail acts as a
rudder in the exceedingly rapid flight and turns of
such birds as the chimney swallow and swallow-
tailed falcon.

The swift, with a more powerful flight, indeed, has
not so deeply forked a tail as the swallow, but keeps
more to the open, high latitudes of the air ; whereas
the swallow threads his way down lanes between
high hedges, misses your head by a yard or so, and
twists sharp round through a gateway and round a
rick picking up a fly here and there with a snap of
his bill at the highest speed. Of course the tail is
not turned vertically like a rudder, but I imagine,
and I fancy I have observed, that in the swallow and
in other birds the tail is depressed and turned
slightly towards the direction to which the bird
wishes to turn.

It seems also probable that in the highest attain-
ment of flight, that of soaring without flapping the
wings, or as Marey calls it, "flight by sailing," the
tail is directly used as an organ of propulsion. To
this I shall refer at greater length further on.

In Marey's work on the '' Flight of birds," the
latest book on the subject, flight is classified under

TO man's place in nature. 213

two heads : " Le vol rame " flight by rowing, and
" Le vol voile " flight by sailing. Neither of these
designations is perhaps quite correct, but the titles
are sufficiently descriptive as indicating what appears
to the eye the method of progression.

Flight by rowing or flapping, the more ordinary
method, has many variations.

There is flight by buzzing, as in the humming-
birds, where the vibration of the wings is so rapid as
to leave only a blurred image on the eye, and to give
the humming sound of an insect from which the
birds have received their name. This buzz of the
wings is so rapid that, when performed when the
bird is stationary, whilst sucking honey from a
flower, which is effected by the bird placing its body
in a vertical position so as to neutralize its forward
tendency, it is difficult to imagine that the air
beneath the pinion can resume its density between
each stroke ; and the suggestion arises that it is more
to the friction of the end feathers on the surrounding
atmosphere, than to the separate strokes of the
under-surface of the wing that the bird owes its
suspension.

Many of the gallinaceous birds, as the partridge
or pheasant, possess this buzzing flight, only in a
much less rapid manner.

As the Duke of Argyll has pointed out, many of
the flying, diving water-fowl use their wings in
swimming under water ; this necessitates a short
powerful stroke, and a small wing, which requires a
strong quick stroke, to raise them in the air and
continue their flight ; yet these are capable of long-

214 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

continued flights which the galhnaceous game birds
are not. It might be supposed from this that the
muscles of flight, the great pectoral muscles, form-
ing the flesh of the breast, would be found more
powerful in the water-fowl than in the game birds,
yet such is not the case.

A pheasant or grouse has a better breast than a
wild-duck or widgeon ; the explanation I would offer
is that the fibre of the muscle of the water-bird is
capable of more protracted energy than that of the
pheasant, etc., as evidenced by its darker colour, in
the same way that the darker coloured muscle of a
hare is possessed of greater endurance than the
white muscle of a rabbit.

A great many birds possessed of only limited
powers of flight, give a few vigorous flaps, and then
with closed or open wings, swing down a curve
which brings them nearly up to the previous alti-
tude ; this they attain by a few flaps to repeat the
manoeuvre. Familiar examples are our common jay
and woodpecker.

The flight of swallows, and especially swifts, is
more comparable to the action of a first-rate skater,
the rapidity with which they glide through the air
seems to have given it such a solid character in
support, whilst yet so easily penetrated by their
shape, that very little effort in flapping is required.
I have repeatedly watched swifts darting through the
air in all directions ; a sudden swoop downwards, a
sudden presentation of their wings at a different
angle to the air, and as sudden a swoop upwards
again ; again a change in the presentation of their

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 215

wings, and a further elevation without any distinct
flapping of the wings at all. All that could be seen
was an occasional slight vibration of the end of the
wing, indicating an apparent flapping of about an
inch.

The swallow, on the other hand, frequently flaps
its wings ; its flight seems to be a swoop in a long
curve, then a few flaps to recover its elevation,
perhaps a change of direction and another swoop.

The action of a bird's wings in flight by flapping
or rowing is not usually from above backwards and
downwards, indeed, some writers say that it never
is so ; but some birds, as hawks and pigeons, in very
rapid flight, seem at any rate to half open their
wings and completely close them at each flap with a
backward direction. The usual impulse, however, is,
with wings extended, to bring them downwards in
a plane at right angles to the line of flight, or
obliquely forward until the tips approximate in front
below.

In considering how this action produces a forward
motion, the force of gravity and the resisting action
of the air to bodies in motion are the principal factors.

If we take the figure of a gull, pigeon, or stork, as
given by M. Marey, from instantaneous photographs
taken during volition, and imagine a plaster of Paris
cast to be made of the lower surface, when the
wings are at the lowest point of the downward
stroke so as to give us the actual form of the
supporting surface of the air at this time, it would
show us this as a nearly complete convex, stunted
cone, with the axis pointed upwards and forwards.

2l6 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

The enclosure by the wings and forcible com-
pression of a cone of air, with such an axis would
give by contre-coup and the resolution of force an
upward and forward impulse to the bird.

According to Col. Reid, wind going

10 miles an hour gives a pressure of |- lb. per
square foot.

15 miles an hour gives a pressure of lib. per square
foot.

20 miles an hour, brisk gale, gives a pressure of
2lb. per square foot.

25 miles an hour, brisk gale, gives a pressure of
31b. per square foot.

30 miles an hour, storm, gives a pressure of 4jlb.
per square foot.

35 miles an hour, storm, gives a pressure of 61b. ;
great storm.

40 miles an hour, tempest, gives a pressure of 81b. ;
great storm.

100 miles an hour, violent hurricane, gives a
pressure of 5olb.

Now, the speed of a body through the air gives of
course the same resistance as the pressure of air
passing a stationary body. The flight of homing
pigeons is given lately in poultry newspapers at a
little under 60 miles an hour. A year or two ago
the Field newspaper made some experiments on
the speed of partridges and pheasants, and found it
about 35 to 40 miles an hour. The speed of a swift
is usually put down at 150 miles an hour, and of the
eider duck at 90 miles an hour ; though I believe these

TO man's place in nature. 217

figures require confirmation, at any rate we can form
some conception of the power for support which the
air becomes to a bird at high speed.

The weight of the bird is neutrahzed by the down-
ward flap exactly counteracting this tendency. The
forward motion is communicated by the structure of
the wing in having its anterior margin rigid, and by
the elasticity of the feathers which bend upwards at
the tip under the pressure of the air to the down
stroke, and by thus moving over the air as an
inclined plane presses the bird forwards.

Monsieur Marey has just published a work on the
subject which gives a number of beautiful photo-
graphs of birds flying. One in particular, in which
twenty-six images of a pigeon in rapid ascending
flight were obtained in half a second, gives five
distinct flaps. This figure has five attitudes depicted
for each flap.

Table from M. Marey.

Stork, if wing strokes per second = 105 per
minute.

Seagull, 3 J to sowing strokes per second = 211 to
330 per minute.

Pelican, \\ wing strokes per second = 70 per
minute.

Pigeon, 10 wing strokes per second = 600 per
minute.

Duck, g wing strokes per second = 540 per minute.

Buzzard, 6 wing strokes per second = 360 per
minute.

Another of his photographs of a gull flying can be

2l8 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH'

easily painted to be placed in a zoetrope, so that
you may to some extent test its fidelity, by reproduc-
ing the optical illusion of a bird flapping its wings.

As we might expect, pursuit of prey and escape
from capture form a great element in the function
of flight. Perhaps this began in the hunting after
insects, for these seem to have existed ages before
birds, their remains having been found in the coal
formation, which our geologists will tell us was long
before the Jurassic Period.

Weight has a great deal to do with speed ; not
only does greater weight develop a greater momentum
under speed, thereby giving the bird as it were a
capital of onward force to draw upon at emergency,
but it also enables that greater speed to be obtained.
A light-bodied bird is not capable of giving a power-
ful blow to the air, as it would lift its body out of its
course in doing so, consequently we find all the
swift winged hawks heavy birds for their size. But
this principle of weight giving speed and momentum
cannot go beyond a certain point.

The power of a muscle increases as the square of
its section ; whereas weight increases as the cube
— a much more rapid ratio.

Hence we see that as birds increase in size above
five or six pounds, their flight by flapping becomes
more laboured until weight overcomes muscle and
the bird gives up flight and takes to running instead.

The extreme weight of flying birds does not, I
believe, often exceed thirty pounds. Audubon gives
the average weight of the wild turkey at i8 to 24 lbs.,
with one instance of 35 lbs. The great bustard is

TO man's place in nature. 219

said to weigh 28 to 30 lbs., the wild swan, 18 to 24
lbs., the largest American eagle, 14 to 16 lbs. I
cannot get the weight of the condor and lammer-
geyer, but probably about 25 lbs.

Birds of prey utilize the force of gravity largely in
taking their prey. Owls flying near the ground
suddenly drop upon their victims.

Many hawks of the noble species and even the
peregrine itself, according to Audubon, check upon
seeing game on the ground, perch upon the top of
the nearest tree from which, taking aim, they swoop
down at once upon it.

According to Marey, the noble falcons as used in
falconry, immediately on being cast off flew to the
height by a series of steps, first rising against the
wind, then with the wind horizontally until they
had attained a suflicient altitude where they " waited
on " for the game to be raised. When this was done
the falcon swooped down upon the game in a series
of catenary curves ; this swoop was made with closed
wings and a rushing noise ; if nearly perpendicularly
over the game, it was called a " Royal Swoop." The
game dodged and the falcon missed " Footing her
prey ; " immediately the falcon changed the direction
of its body, opened its wings when the pressure of
the air acting against their lower surface under the
momentum of the stoop, threw the bird to nearly as
great a height as that from which he had just come
without any further effort on his part. From this
point he instantly made a fresh stoop and continued
a series of them, until the bird was taken or reached
cover.

220 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

A great many birds may be seen gliding, wheel-
ing, and swooping in their flight, as gulls, rooks,
swallows, hawks, etc. ; their actions are entirely per-
formed by the action of gravity pulling the bird down
with accelerated force, the direction being given by
the angle at which the wings are held by the bird ;
and then by altering the presentation of the wings
to the resistance of the air, at a fresh angle the
momentum gained by the speed of descent is con-
verted into an ascent to the same height as that
started from, less what the momentum has lost by
the resistance of the air during the passage.
Exactly as a car in the switch-back railway comes
up very nearly to the same level as it started from,
the difference representing the loss by friction.

Flight by soaring, or, as M. Marey calls it, vol a
voile, •

Flight by sailing must not be confused with this
swooping. It is continuously performed for hours
without a single flap, sometimes rising, sometimes
falling, sometimes gliding in horizontal circles ;
sometimes proceeding with, sometimes against the
wind : but according to most observers being pro-
tracted indefinitely. Birds which practise this sort
of flight in perfection are large ones. In this way
eagles and vultures wheel for hours around the pre-
cipices and buttresses of most large chains of moun-
tains, surveying the ground below for game or carcases
of animals that have died or been killed by falling
over the cliffs. Some storks, albatrosses, the frigate
bird, and some hawks and kites, are mentioned by
observers as soaring in this manner.

TO man's place in nature. 221

Many theories have been advanced to account for
this flight, nor is it I beheve yet considered as satis-
factorily explained. Mr. Bennet, a surgeon to a
Pacific whaler, considered the flight analogous to
sailing, and gave a plate to show that a frigate bird
could sail closer to the wind than a cutter.

Captain F. W. Hutton, writing in the '' Ibis " in
1865, shows the fallacy of this, and has observed an
albatross of fifteen pounds' weight sail directly
against the wind, and for more than an hour. He
attributes the action entirely to momentum pre-
viously gained by flapping, and considers that this
in so large a bird is suflicient to overcome friction
for an hour wdthout being spent.

The Duke of Argyll and some others consider
that the bird places its wings at such an angle that
the force of gravity is sufficient in the resolution of
forces to result in the flight, like a boy's paper kite.

But the ideas of sailing like a cutter or like a paper
kite are untenable, because in both cases the motion
is controlled ; by attachment to the ground by the
string in the case of the kite, and by part of the
body moved being immersed in a fluid of much
greater density, water, in the case of the cutter ; cut
the string of the kite and down it drops, blow the
wind ever so high. Sink the yacht entirely into the
water and it wdll cease to sail ; no matter how fast
the stream flows, it wall sink and only drift a little
with the current.

Wind only affects the flight of a bird actually in
two w^ays ; first, in starting from a fixed object. A
falcon, for instance, always rises against the wind ;

222 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

now if this is a stiff gale, say of twenty-five miles an
hour, this starts the bird with the same momentum
as if it were flying at twenty-five miles an hour.
Secondly, by the optic conception of stationary
objects, these seem to be moving away from the
bird in a wind, and she has to put on extra speed to
go from one place to another ; or they appear to be
moving obliquely, or, as the case may be, in the
opposite direction to the wind. The wind, therefore,
will not help to support a bird at all except just after
rising from a fixed object, and until the momentum
of the start is lost.

Some observers have thought that the bird in
soaring, gets an impulse by circling, as this course is
a very common one in flight by sailing ; but this does
not seem well made out.

I think it was Dr. Livingstone, but cannot find
the quotation, who suggested the " Surging head,"
and this seems to be on the right track.

I will hazard the following guess at the difficulty
for what it is worth.

When a heavy bird like an albatross has attained
sufficient momentum to support itself by gliding on
out-stretched pinions for an instant, this motion
would continue indefinitely if it were not for the loss
caused by the friction of the air, the speed and
momentum of the bird, acting through the incline of
the out-stretched wings to the line of flight, receiving
exactly sufficient support from the air to counteract
the force of gravity. There is nothing to prevent
this continuing indefinitely, except the resistance of
the air, in the horizontal Hne of flight, yet this, if

o

TO man's place in nature. 223 A P

not compensated for, is sufficient soon to bring down
the bird.

Now, I believe that a sufficient impulse to over-
come this friction may be obtained by an undulation
of the body and tail of the bird, as if swung on
pivots between the wings with very much the same
motion, only less perceptible, as that by which a ^
porpoise progresses through water. This is a point, ^
however, on which we want more observation. ; ;

The question has often been asked, Will man ever ""
be able to fly ? There is no exact ratio established
between the weight of a bird and the area of its J
wings, but for larger birds one square foot to the -^
pound weight seems about the average ; at this rate, "^
taking a man at 150 pounds, it would require wings 4
with the base next the body of five feet with a length -
of twenty-five feet to support his weight in the air. d

The picture is sufficiently portentous for me not
to wish to follow it further.

>>^

/Hr>5^|

>/j''^- V--H'-

1!'

1

224 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

CHAPTER XIL

THE BIBLE AND EVOLUTION.

The reconciliation between the Bible and evolution — A question
for theologians — Time of solution of difficulty not yet
come — Apology for making suggestions — Ezekiel considered
the term " Garden of Eden " allegorical — The tree of life —
The Eternal Father — The Kingdom of Heaven— Moses'
definition of ruminants — Rod becoming a serpent — Gothic
sacred Ash — Ezekiel on evolution — How did the Son of
Man first come on the earth ? — The science of geology, a
house builded upon the rock — Origin of language in love
of the Father — Abraham's substitution of animal for
human sacrifice — Exclusiveness of Jews in their religion
met by sacrifice of Christ.

I AM frequently asked how the doctrine of evolution
agrees with the Bible ? The question is, no doubt,
an inevitable one, but I must protest against its being
pressed upon the evolutionist. It would be just as
fair to ask a geographer how he accounts for
America, by the Bible. Natural history is not
religion any more than physiology is family affection.
Still, when one of the family is ill we are often
glad to make use of the laws of physiology, and
when religion is in danger of schism or heresy a
reference to the acts of the Creator as seen in the
creation may throw light or direction in the
difficulty.

TO man's place in nature. 225

It is a good maxim that " a shoemaker should
stick to his last," and therefore the proper persons
to apply to in the difficulty are professed theologians.
This I have done, but I cannot say that I have
received so much help from this quarter as I ex-
pected ; most of the ministers of religion are so
absorbed in the practical v^ork of their congregations
that questions of this nature hardly interest them.
Some do not consider themselves free to look at
matters from the standpoint of nature at all,
whilst others did not seem to be capable of
appreciating the weight of the evidence in favour
of evolution. Nor does it seem to me that the
time is come when any positive teaching on this
subject is possible. The first thing necessary for
a solid structure of reconciliation would be a certain
knowledge of the dates and authorship of the
various books of the Bible, so as to be able to see
the consecutive structure of Doctrine in connection
with current events. This, as I gather from theo-
logians, is far from being at present the case. A
great many things will probably be found allegori-
cal, which are often held to be narratives of
material history. The doctrines rightly derived are
no doubt perfectly true, but still we should be
glad to know what is allegory and what history, and
what again history told in the language of the
faith of the time, but of which we have lost the right
sense.

Conversing one day with a Roman Catholic priest
on the dates of the books held by the English
Church to be apocryphal, he questioned in "what

Q

226 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

sense Protestants received the Bible ? " to which
the reply was, " In the sense in which the books were
originally written, as explained by the facts as they
actually occurred," to which he made no demur.
That this is not always the same conception as is
gained by their simple reception, is only too evident
from the numerous conflicting apprehensions which
at present exist.

In a question of such vital importance affecting
so essentially our estimation by our fellow-citizens,
and the truths which it is necessary to teach our
children, it is impossible not to have been exercised
by the present conflict of opinion.

Perusing the sacred Scriptures under the pressure
of these conditions, I have been continually struck
by the fact that there is hardly one of the questions
raised, or doctrines arrived at in pursuing the
enquiry into the evolutionary hypothesis which is
not already stated or hinted at in the Bible or
Apocrypha.

No doubt it will be said that I have put into the
texts the sense which I find there, but this objection
is of such universal application to all explanations
that I must ask my readers to dismiss it from their
minds, and take the following suggestions for what
they are worth ; they may at any rate be a help to
some.

The question arises as to whether the first chapter
of Genesis is to be accepted as allegorical, or
actually historical. The evidence of geology is in
favour of its being allegorical, and I believe it is so
accepted by many good theologians. The following

TO MAN S PLACE IN NATURE. 227

passage from Ezekiel shows that it was so accepted
or at any rate used by that Prophet.

Speaking of the struggles between diverse nations,
he hkens them to trees in the Garden of the Lord,
chap. xxxi. 8 : " The cedars in the Garden of God
could not hide him (the Assyrian) ; the fir trees were
not like his boughs, and the chesnut trees were not
like his branches ; nor any tree in the Garden of
God, was like unto him in his beauty." ib. i6 : "I
made the nations to shake at the sound of his fall,
when I cast him down to hell with them that
descend into the pit ; and all the trees of Eden, the
choice and best of Lebanon, etc." ib. i8 : " To
whom art thou like in glory and in greatness among
the trees of Eden ? yet shalt thou be brought down
with the trees of Eden unto the nether parts of the
earth, etc."

We may therefore feel justified in accepting the
first chapters of Genesis as allegorical.

Now, modern science teaches, and the theory of
evolution asserts, that animal life has proceeded
down through the ages as a genealogical tree, insists
on the indwelling factor of hereditary life, as in-
fluencing, acting and reacting on all the other phe-
nomena of the environment.

We see here almost parallel statements in different .
phraseology of the main line of doctrine running
through the Bible ; the Eternal Father ; the tree of
life ; the kingdom of heaven. It is true that Ezekiel
restricts his "trees in the garden" to human
national life, but it seems probable that in Genesis
it is not so restricted.

Q 2 '

228 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

I know that some doubts have been raised as to
whether Moses actually wrote all of the Pentateuch
or more than Deuteronomy ; but we are told that he
was learned in all the learning of the Egyptians, and
there is so much more classified scientific know-
ledge in the Pentateuch than in any of the later
books, that one feels inclined to take it as it stands
until more positive information is forthcoming.
Take, for instance, the definition of ruminating
animals. Lev., chap. xi. 3, "Whatsoever parteth
the hoof, and is cloven-footed, and cheweth the cud
among beasts."

Except that it omits the camel, this definition
would stand good at the present day for the order of
ruminants ; and the camel indeed is only a seeming
exception, as the two hoof-like nails on its foot show,
the rest of the foot having been functionally modified
to suit it for sand travelling.

There is only one instance given in the Bible of an
animal supposed to have been created as by a Dens
ex Machina from without ; namely when Moses
threw down his rod before Pharaoh and it became a
serpent ; but as the Egyptian magicians also did so
by their enchantments, I do not think we can be
asked to found any doctrine on this statement.
. I thought of giving a list of all the texts in the
Bible which allegorize the process of life in the
world as a tree or vine, being at the same time
typical of the Creator and Eternal Father, but they
run through the whole of it, and no one can miss
them. Any one who will look at Mr. Darwin's
hypothetical diagram of the procession of one species

TO Mx\n's place in nature. 229

to another, cannot help being struck by its resem-
blance to the branching and budding of a vine. In
the Gothic theology I find also the same figure used
in their sacred Ash, whose roots and branches filled
the whole earth, also connected symbolically with
the " All Father." Probably it was the same symbol,
degenerated from an intelligent conception to a fetish,
which furnished the sacred trees of the groves of
Baal.

The term ''kingdom of heaven " has been so much
used ecclesiastically as a kingdom of righteousness,
or harmony, or the projected future state, that some-
times persons are in danger of forgetting its original
definition.

Gen. i. 8 : " And God called the firmament
heaven."

We see here that the word " heaven," or firmament,
almost corresponds to Herbert Spencer's environ-
ment, or the subsequent biblical term "habitation " in
its most comprehensive form. My readers will be
familiar with the idea that biologists are now work-
ing hard at the connection which the particular
surroundings of many animals have upon their
surface coloration and markings, as of flat fish to
the sandy bottom of the sea where they He ;
partridges to a stubble field ; as if they were formed
in some similitude to that place in which they dwelt,
and which may be said in a certain sense to have
created them. To this may be added the thought
that the continual growth and action under the
vicissitudes of surroundings, is simultaneously im-
planted in the nervous muscular and general

230 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

anatomy ; and that in the constant nourishment by
food and change of the particles of the body, in the
wear and tear of hfe, in the various organs, there
must be some directing, discriminating power with-
in the body, placing each molecule in its proper
place, and sweeping away the refuse into the
drought.

Ezekiel is called the " Dark Prophet," but seems
rather to be the " Physiological Prophet." Not
that he can make any pretence to the systematic or
ethical science of the Pentateuch, but he appears to
have had all these problems in view in his vision in
chapter i. We have first a cloud and a fire unfold-
ing itself, chapter i., verse 4, which puts us in mind of
modern astronomical theories of the formation of the
world on the nebular hypothesis ; and then " out of
the midst thereof came the likeness of foiflr living
creatures."

The following verses to the loth are unintelligible,
but then we have verse 10 : " They four had the
face of a man and of a lion and an ox and an
eagle," which would seem to be a very rough
generalization of the prophet's views of the princi-
pal lines of life. Then verse 13, the likeness of
the living creatures was like fire and like lamps.
Now, life and spirit are constantly symbolized in
the New Testament as a fire or lamp or candle.
Then verses 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, they are described
in close connection with wheels : " a wheel within
a wheel " ; " and they turned not as they went,"
that is they did not move on them as a carriage does,
but the wheels were somehow in the life of them.

TO man's place in nature. 231

Verses ig, 20, 21 : " For the spirit of the Hving
creatures was in the wheels."

The circulations of the body of biologists seems
here almost plainly stated, though mixed with other
matter, and then we have verse 22 : '" and the like-
ness of the firmament upon the heads of the living
creature was as the colour of the terrible crystal."
Here we have likeness of the firmament or environ-
ment or habitation reappearing on the heads of the
living creatures. This analogy, perhaps, would not
appear so striking if modern science was not now
still in amaze at the fact that within the unity of
life of a single fertilized ovum there was the poten-
tiality for the building up of all the complicated
organisms of the most highly organized animals and
man. A fact of which we are not in a constant
state of amazement at, merely because we are so
familiar with it ; by the side of which all other
miracles are as nothing.

Was it not this truth, as showing the immense
importance of preserving our life in unity, to which
our Saviour referred when he said : " If the eye is
single thy whole body shall be full of light." We
have the law of the reproduction of some simi-
larity between that which surrounds and produces
any animal or man, recognized in the first chapter
of Genesis, where man is represented as made in the
image of God, in " whom we live and move and have
our being" ; in the contrivance of Jacob to produce a
particular colouring in the fleece of Laban's flock ;
in the likeness of the firmament on the heads of the
beast and man of Ezekiel, and in many passages of

232 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

the New Testament which will no doubt occur to
the reader.

Idolatry was strictly forbidden in the Decalogue,
no doubt because of the facilities which it afforded
for dividing the national faith and countenancing
many forms of sensual vice.

Yet it may be doubted whether the highly beauti-
ful forms which image-worship gradually advanced
to in the sculptures of antiquity, did not tend in
their worship to produce a higher standard of
physical beauty in their worshippers.

It will probably be conceded that the great
question of antiquity, as now, was in what form the
Son of Man first came on the earth : by metaphor he
is represented as created in the image of his Creator
and talking with him.

There are many works written to prove the exis-
tence of God ; but I cannot say that they seem to
justify themselves to my mind. Man is a worship-
)ing animal ; this is evident wherever he is found,
except in a most degraded condition, or where by
philosophy or transcendentalism he has confused
his terms ; and the object of his worship has received
the name of God or its equivalent in all languages.
The written word in English would be spelt G-o-d,
in other languages it is spelt differently, but the
internal sentiment or word for which it stands is
universal. In the words of the apostle John : "The
word was with God, and the word was God," chap, i.,
verse i. " In him was life ; and the life was the light
of men," verse 4. " That was the true light, which
lighteth eve^y man that cometh into the world,"

TO man's place in nature. 233

verse g. That is to say, as I understand it, that
the distinguishing feature of_ man's intelhgence^ ^^"^
Hght from that of the lower animals is^this word 1
or jdea or worship of God, of which we have th^^
Mosaical metaphorical account as Adam made in the
image of his maker and walking in the Garden of
Eden and talking with God.

Different tribal worship and consequent warfares
had produced polytheism, and in the search after the
true unity of God, he appeared to Moses as a burn-
ing bush, which yet was not consumed, perhaps a
vision of the process of life, and from this revelation
Moses was inspired to bring into unity of narrative
a great number of earlier traditions and scriptures
now lost or unknown, as in Numbers xxi., verse
14, " Wherefore it is said in the book of the wars of
the Lord."
/-'i^he name or definition of God which Moses'
ears were opened to at the same time, " I am that
I am," comes very near Descartes' " I think, there-

j fore, I exist," the statement of God as the substance

I of phenomena. His spirit is described as moving
on the face of the waters, as being in the rock, as

I being a rock, and Moses is described as viewing the

\back parts of God in a cleft of the rock.

Geology may be also said metaphorically to have
seen the back parts of the Creator in the clefts of
the rocks. Our Saviour said that " God was able
of these stones to raise up children to Abraham,"
and that a house built upon the rock will not fall
though storms assail it. Again geology may be said
to be a house built upon a rock, and as so rightly

234 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

builded it will not fall. The position of the
Pentateuch, of God being the substance of all things,
and the Creator, seems unassailable, and must have
been the origin of religion everywhere.

The following from the Wesleyan missionary,
Egerton Ryerson Young's account of a sojourn
among the Cree and Salteaux Indians has so much
of the ring of reality in it that it is given as a
typical example of the universal origin of religion
among primitive races, that is of '' Adam walking in
the Garden of Eden and talking with God." Mr.
Young met a heathen Indian who had made a
wooden idol, and with the refuse wood made a fire
and cooked his food in the very manner described
by Isaiah xliv. i6. Said the Indian (page 87),

Missionary, the Indian's mind is dark and he
cannot grasp the unseen. He hears the Great
Spirit^s voice in the thunder and storms. He sees
the evidences of his existence all around, but neither
he nor his fathers have ever seen the Great Spirit or
anyone who has, and so he does not know what he
looks like. But man is the highest creature that he
knows of, and so he makes his idol like a man, and
calls it his manito. We only worship them because
we do not know what the Great Spirit looksjike^
but these we can understand."

Here we see that the origin of idolatry was the
making of God in man's image, the inversion of
the real process. It may be asked, how came the
prophets, particularly Ezekiel and Job, to do the
same thing in language which was forbidden to the
hands ; it will be replied that the figures were under-

TO man's place in nature. 235

stood metaphorically, which is, no doubt, the true
answer. It has always been one of the greatest
difficulties in religion to give such an object of
worship as shall not be liable to idolatry.

In the Decalogue and other laws which were
bequeathed as the direct application of the Mosaical
revelation one main point was to keep their seed
pure and unmixed with the surrounding nations, and
their minds free from the fear of the incomprehen-
sible by the performance of certain religious duties
and the employment of a special body of priests for
their due observance. This seems to have resulted
in an intensely tough persistent life, passionately
attached to its own tribal life and very intolerant of
all other forms of religion.

That their rehgion did not save them from being
carried into captivity seems to have been a benumb-
ing shock to their religious convictions, and we
consequently see in the Book of Esther that the
name of God is not once mentioned : although after-
wards, when they had recovered from this shock,
this omission seems to have been attempted to be
rectified in the Apocryphal book of Esther, where
the name occurs nine times in the first thirteen
verses. But although the name of God is omitte(i^\
in the Book of Esther, the same human virtues are ]
emphasized. Mordecai is represented as faithful to J
his niece, to his king, and to his people, as is Esth^Tj/

Audubon narrates a story of a heron, whTcF"^
graphically illustrates the apparent mood of the
Jews at this time that I cannot forbear quoting it.

He saw a heron wading in the sea near the shore,

236 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

when it struck its beak into a large fish ; this
dragged the bird under water and to some distance
before it could disengage itself. When the bird
did so at last, it returned to its original station, but
turned its back to the ocean and remained ap-
parently sulky and ashamed of itself as long as it
was observed.

What are usually termed the supernatural
narrations in the Bible scarcely come within the
scope of my subject ; but the age of the patriarchs
in Genesis merits a little attention, as, if their ages
could be established as being given in solar years,
it would of course upset any derivation by descent
from the lower animals ; but a reference to the
habits of primitive races will easily account for
such records being handed down by tradition or
otherwise, as among these races reckoning by
months or lunar years is quite common ; and Plutarch
in his Lives suggests this very reason to explain
the great lengths of the reigns given in Egyptian
history.

It is curious in this connection that Moses, as
if struck by the immense ages imputed to the
antediluvian patriarchs, seems to have made his
own investigation on the subject which is recorded
m Psalm xc, verse 10. "The days of our years
are three score years and ten, and if by reason of
strength they be four-score years, yet is their
strength labour and sorrow, for it is soon cut off and
we fly away ! " An estimate of life sufficiently
exact for a life insurance office at the present day.

In trying to gain an idea of the human factor by

\

TO man's place in nature. 237

retrospective projection, as exemplified in the earliest
typical man, two methods present themselves. We
can track him back by records and material traces
of his doings, or we can make a circle and enclose a
retrospective time, when no animal showed the dis-
tinctive intelligence of man, and say between such and
such times the factor has arisen. We find these dis-
tinctions in language, laws, literature, and weapons
in biblical language in " The Word," *' The Law,"
" The Scripture," and "The Sword."

How language first arose it is impossible to telL
but if we recur for suggestions to the infant, as
passing through in quick stages the history of its
ancestors, it would give us the word Dad-da or Bab-ba
or Mam-ma. Is not this the " Abba Father " of our
Saviour ?

The rise of articulate language by giving rise to
proper names, would individualize personality and
give the possibility of much greater definition to the
domestic, tribal, moral, and legal relations, which
have been finally settled in the Bible under two
heads, Life and Law ; the talking with God of Adam
with imposed restrictions. The two staves of
Zechariah xi. 7, " And I took unto me two staves ;
the one I called Beauty, and the other I called
Bands." The love of God coupled with regard for
our neighbour's rights, of our Saviour and the life
and law of St. Paul.

The terrible superiority of made weapons over
natural organs of offence and defence may have
given man his superiority over the lower animals, and
by quickening his brains in invention of diverse

328 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH

implements have laid the foundation for that diversity
of occupation, with slight difference in organization,
which, by giving him a choice of occupation, laid the
foundation for free will.

Deadly wars between different tribes would lead
to strict tribal laws and mutual obligations ; and
intense stress to find the right direction for founding
these laws may have led to human sacrifice as a
means for propitiating the unseen Creator in the first
place, and by reflex action of clearing their own
minds from any sense of reservation, and giving
determination its highest tension. At any rate,
human sacrifice was established, and to the present
day still occurs. If any charge of unorthodoxy can
be brought against my views, it is here only that I
plead guilty to any leaning which may seem in that
direction. •

The great blessing of Abraham's revelation was
not so much his obedience in offering up his son, as
in his having grace to see an angel of substitution in
the ram caught by its horns. According to the
record, he established animal instead of human
sacrifice, although it still continued, as in Israel by
Jephthah and very nearly by Saul when Jonathan
broke the order against eating whilst in pursuit of
the enemy, though this latter example partakes
partly of the character of a punishment. The
Decalogue, sublime as those laws are, was however
very difficult of application. It seems to have
degenerated at last into very narrow tribal rites,
combined with a tenacious grasp of keeping their
seed pure, which led to great injustice in their wars,

TO man's place in nature. 239

and when they returned from the captivity Dy\
Nehemiah in his ordering them to put away their/
strange wives.

This exclusiveness in Hfe, whilst it could not be
denied that their theology was the leading science in
that direction, produced a terrible problem for the
world. How could it accept their rehgion without
their domination ?

The solution, as it seems to me, was arrived at by
our Saviour, who, going back to the life which pre
ceded Moses or Abraham, founded his religion on
parental love, the love of the Father, and thus threw-
open the doors for a universal religion. Almost all
his parables turn on the love of the Father and
faithful human relationship. No doubt he sometimes
speaks of God as a king gone on a far journey, but
these figures of speech were metaphorical, and
his meaning seems clear when he says that not a
sparrow can- fall outside the consciousness of the
Father.

The Jews are very much to be felt for. Moses
distinctly forbade them to take any laws but his,
until a prophet should arise like unto him. Some
writers have supposed that this referred to Christ,
but he was not like unto Moses. The religion of
Moses was objective from the scientific revelations
of the Creator in the creation, whilst that of our
Saviour was spiritual or subjective.

Taking the measure of life in death, he set a
pattern of a life of faithfulness to truth, nor do I find
in him, either as depicted in the New Testament or
in my own consciousness, that which requires the

240 THE TESTIMONY OF THE TEETH, ETC.

belief in anything which is not true in fact, or the
rejection of anything which is ; although there may
be times when it is prudent to maintain a reserve in
statement.

THE END.

Gilbert & Eivington, Ld., St. Johu'b H uao Clerkenwell, Jl. 0.

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Works on Oriental Subjects : —

Relating to India, etc. . • . . .5

On Oriental Buddhism . . . . '9

Relating to China . . . . . .11

Relating to Islam . . . . , .12

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Jewish History and Religion . . . • '3

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Travels, Voyages, and Guide-Books

Biography .......

Works on Education .....

Greek and Latin Classics, Etc,

22

29
33

35
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38
40
42

47
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4 Contents.

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Mental and Moral Science ....

Law, Politics, and Sociology ....

Works on the Physical Sciences, Mineralogy, Geology
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page
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50
52
53
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55

58
61

63
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75

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Introduction to the Arabic of Morocco. English-Arabic

Vocabulary, Grammar, Notes, etc. By J. E. Budgett Meakin.
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Classified List of Publications. 19

Metodo para apprender a Leer, escribir y hablar el Ingles
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Italian, Method of Learning. By F. Ahn. i2mo, $s. 6d.

German Language, Grammar of the. By F. Ahn. Crown

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German and English Conversations ; or, Vade Mecum for
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South Africa. — Matabele Land and the Victoria Falls: A

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Classified List of Publications. 41

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BIOGRAPHY.

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Antonio Bosmini Serhati, Life of. By Rev. W. Lockhart.

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Classified List of Publications. 43

F. W. Robertson, Life and Letters of Edited by Stopford
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I. Library Edition, with Portrait. SvOy 12S,
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Bishop Selwyn of New Zealand and of Lichfield : A Sketch
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Pope Joan : An Historical Study, from the Greek of Rhoidis.
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William Caxton, England's First Printer, Biography and
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Classified List of Publications. 45

Major-General C. G. Gordon, His Journals at Khartoum.
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Reynell Taylor, O.B., C.S.I. : A Biography. By E. Gambier
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Classified List of Publications. 47

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Classified List of Publications. 49

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Classified List of Publications. 51

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Classified List of Publications. 65

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Classified List of Publications. 71

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Classified List of Publications.

73

With

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Classified List of Publications. 75

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Periodical Literature, Index to. By W. F. Poole. Third

Edition. Royal 8vo, £l^ 13^. 6d.

Periodical Literature, Index to. First Supplement. By W.
F. Poole and W. I. Fletcher. 1882 to 1887. Royal 8vo, £1, i6s.

American Literature, Triibner's Bibliographical Guide to.

From 18 1 7 to 1887. 8vo, half -bounds \8s.

Dictionaries and Grammars, Triibner's Catalogue of Dic-
tionaries and Grammars of the Principal Languages and Dialects of
the World. Second Edition. 8vo, ^s.

Memoirs of Libraries, together with a Practical Handbook
of Library Economy. By Edward Edwards. Numerous Illustra-
tions. 2 vols. Royal 8vOy £2, 8s.

Libraries and Founders of Libraries. By Edward Ed-
wards. 8z;o, i8s.

Free Town Libraries: Their Formation, Management, and
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