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CO Q DL^ _ ^<^0103^ Q C ini!iSNi“'NViN0SHiii^s^s3 idvaan'^LiBRARi es^smithsonian“'institution"' r- ,, 2 r* 2 _ 2 2 — /TooT^oNv O rr, H Z ^ /^£^■ 3 > ^ CO ~ CO 3 CO RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVINOSHiltNS S3iava9n CO _ 2 r ^ 2: ^ SI ~ ^ ^ ” ^ ' ^ ' S > iniliSNI NVIN0SHill^S^S3 I d Vd 8 ll^LI B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION " ^ V J 2 RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NtfINOSHilWS SaiUVaaiT , 'THE X EEXAS JOURNAL SECTION I MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research SECTION VIII SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION VI CHEMISTRY SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION II PHYSICS SECTION III EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES Anthropology Education SECTION IV BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Agriculture Botany Medical Science Zoology Economics History Psychology Sociology AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS Texas Section, American Association of Physics Teachers Texas Section, Mathematical Association of America Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers GENERAL INFORMATION Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro¬ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00. Dues should be sent to the Secretary- Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. _ ■ ’ . ’ clirvnM cptii In tVio Editor, Manuscripts submitted for pubilcation in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P. O. Box 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901 Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, q Texas, ITS. A. (Second Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angela, Texas ^ 76901). Please send form 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P. O. Box ’ 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Volume XXII, No. 1 September 15, 1970 CONTENTS The Dry Cave Mammalian Fauna and Late Pluvial Conditions in Southeastern New Mexico, by Arthur H. Harris . 3 A Pleistocene Herpetofauna from Eddy County, New Mexico, by J. Alan Hol¬ man . 29 Late Pleistocene (Woodfordian) Gastropods from Dry Cave, Eddy County, New Mexico, by Artie L. Metcalf . 41 A Checklist of the Cave Fauna of Texas. V. Additional Records of Insecta, by James R. Reddell . 47 The Racer Coluber constrictor (Serpentes: Colubridae) in Louisiana and East¬ ern Texas, by Larry David Wilson . 67 NOTES SECTION Marine Shells from Archeological Sites in Southwestern Texas, by Thomas Roy Hester . . 87 Observations on the Eruption of Volcano Arenal in Costa Rica, by Victor Op- penheim . 88 The Current Geographic Distribution of the Armadillo in The United States. by Arthur G. Cleveland . . 90 First Record of the Pocketed Free-Tailed Bat for Coahuila, Mexico and Addi- ditional Texas Records, by David A. Easterla ....... 92 DIALECTIC Anomalous Water, Does It Exist?, by J . A. Schufle 95 ERRATUM: NORMAL VIBRATIONS OF n-PENTANE [Texas J. Science 21, 213-222 (1969)] Kunio Fukushima and Bruno J. Zwolinski Thermodynamics Research Center, Department of Chemistry Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 Corrections are as follows: Page 216 Line 2 of text, “ (Shimanouche,” should read “ ( Shimanouchi,” Line 4, “atcion” should read “action” Line 11, “(trans-trans isomer)” should be '\trans-trans isomer) ” Last line of text, “not to be to” should read “not to be assigned to” Page 218 Line 1 of text, “or trans-gauche (I) isomer)” should be “or {trans- gauche (I) isomer)” Page 219 Line 1 of Table III footnotes, “Shimanonche” should read “Shimanouchi” Line 6 of Table III footnotes, “727” should read “^27” Line 4 of text, “739” should read “1^39” Page 221 Line 9 of text, “decreases it fre-” should read “decreases its fre-” Line 12, “to gauche (I)- gauche (I) isomer.” should read “to {gauche {l)-gauche (I) isomer).” Line 17, “The author’s” should read “The authors’ ” Line 7 under LITERATURE CITED, “Colleye” should read “College” Page 222 Line 1, “A to.” should read “Acto” No results or conclusions are affected. The Dry Cave Mammalian Fauna and Late Pluvial Conditions in Southeastern New Mexico By Arthur H. Harris Museum of Arid Land Biology, Biology Department The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso 79999 ABSTRACT Forty- five species of mammals are tentatively identified from the late Wisconsin deposits of Dry Cave, 4200 ft, southeastern New Mexico. A date associated with the fauna is 14,470 ± 250 BP. Most extralimital, extant species may now be found in the Transition Life Zone of central Wyoming; others live at present in the Southwestern high mountains. Vegetation at the time of deposition is believed to have been sagebrush grassland on northern slopes, grading into Upper Sonoran grasslands on southern slopes. Heavy riparian growth occurred in drainage ways. Groves of trees were limited to steep slopes, though individuals may have been dis¬ tributed parsely elsewhere. Other late pluvial faunas in New Mexico^ are consistent with this interpretation. Between late pluvial times and the present, several animals that likely could survive under current conditions in nearby highlands became extinct in southern New Mexico. This probably was a result of late winter-early spring drought periods even more severe than characteristic of the Southwest today. INTRODUCTION In 1965, members of the Texas Speleological Society noted bones in 2 areas of Dry Cave, McKittrick Hill, Eddy Co., N. Mex. (Skinner and Lindsley, 1965). In July, 1966, Mr. Pete Lindsley of the Texas society invited me to join an undertaking (Project Under the Hill) designed to increase knowledge of the several caves in the immediate area; specifically I was to assess the importance of the Dry Cave bone finds and take appropriate action. The initial explorations on 2-4 Sept. 1966 made it clear that important fossil faunas were present and that addi¬ tional exploration and excavation would be required. Further work was done during 28-31 Dec. 1966, 21-23 March 1967, 28-30 May 1967, and 10-12 April 1968. It early became apparent that 2 different time periods were repre¬ sented. One fauna includes vertebrates now found only under more mesic and generally cooler climatic conditions; this pluvial fauna is the only one yet studied and is the one reported here. The other fauna has vertebrates expectable under climatic conditions as warm as at present. Attempts to age the latter have been unsuccessful; presumably interpluvial conditions are represented. ‘^STilbTlON The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 4 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE As Study of the pluvial fauna has progressed, it has become apparent that more excavation within the cave will be required to secure the maximum amounts of data obtainable from the deposits and that most taxa deserve study in much greater detail than has been possible in the limited time available. Yet the nature of the identified fauna, even though some identifications are tentative, reveals important new evidence on late Pleistocene environments in New Mexico and adja¬ cent areas; delay in publication of the broad environmental interpre¬ tation until completion of all studies seems a disfavor to other workers. Therefore I have decided to publish now the preliminary information on the pluvial mammalian fauna and my interpretation of the climatic- vegetational environment represented. ' Dr. J. Alan Holman, Michigan State University, has identified the ii amphibians and reptiles (see p. 29); Dr. Robert D. Weigel, Illinois |l State University, is studying the avian fossils; and Dr. Artie L. Met- I calf. The University of Texas at El Paso, has completed study of the j associated gastropod fauna, (see p. 41 ) . Some plant macrofossils and a '' few insect remains are as yet unstudied. j: i MODERN ENVIRONMENT ;; i' Dry Cave (= Dry Pot) is an extensive maze cavern some 15 miles west of Carlsbad, Eddy Co., N. Mex., at approximately 104° 28' 55" i west longitude and 32° 22' 25" north latitude (SEi/4 Sec. 22, T22S, Ij R24E, NMPM) . Elevation at the entrance is 4200 ft above sea level, [ The cave lies within the prominence known as McKittrick Hill, j with the entrance opening on a south-facing slope a short distance I below the crest. A low saddle separates that part of the hill from a ! higher portion, Azotea Peak, 4297 ft (Fig. 1). Several other caves | occur in the same anticline, one of which (McKittrick Cave) has been I mentioned in the biological literature (Bailey, 1928). Dry Cave’s j entrance lies in such a position that the source of potential drainage : into the cave is limited to the slope immediately above; thus animal | and plant remains must be of very local origin or brought in by •; predators. i; The nearest official weather reporting station is at Carlsbad, about [ 1000 ft lower in elevation. Data are summarized in Table 1 from j Hardy (1941). The higher altitude at Dry Cave likely results in j slightly greater precipitation and some decrease in temperature ex- ; tremes. Bailey (1913) places the lower border of the Upper Sonoran Life ' Zone at about 4000 ft in the Pecos Valley, “varying of course with ^ DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 5 Fig. 1. Topographic relationships of Dry Cave fo the upper portion of McKittrick Hill. Note particularly the restricted potential drainage area into Dry Cave. Table 1 Climatic summary for Carls-bad, Eddy Co'., N. Mex. Annual Precipitation 13.13 inches July Average Temperature 80.5° F January Average Temperature 44.3° F Maximum Temperature Recorded 112° F Minimum Temperature Recorded 7 Growing Season 220 days slope exposure. . . . Along the upper edge of the [Lower Sonoran] zone there is the usual overlapping of Upper and Lower Sonoran species, often resulting on gradual slopes in a complete mixture of the two zones for a considerable distance ...” This is the situation at McKit¬ trick Hill (Fig. 2) . Plants in the immediate vicinity include Crucifix¬ ion-thorn {Koeberlinia spinosa) ^ Sotol {Dasylirion wheeleri) ^ Sacahu- ista {Nolina sp.) , One-seeded Juniper {Juniperus monosperma) , Mexi¬ can Buckeye {Ungnadia speciosa) , Desert Sumac {Rhus microphylla) , 6 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Skunk-bush {Rhus trilobata) , White-thorn {Acacia constricta) , Mor¬ mon Tea {Ephedra sp.), Ocotillo {Fouquieria splendens), narrow leafed and broad leafed yuccas {Yucca spp.), Mahonia {Berberis tri- foliolata), Hackberry {Celtis reticulata) ^ and several cacti, including Cholla and pad types {Opuntia spp.). Some grasses occur. Creosote Bush {Larrea divaricata) grows sparsely nearby, though the upper border of the main stands are at several hundred feet lower elevation. At present, soil is thin or absent in most places and much of the surface consists of bare limestone bedrock or of variously sized stones. Fig. 2. Present entrance to Dry Cave. View is approximately south. The southern Guada¬ lupe Mts. are in the background. Lechuguilla is prominent in the immediate foreground; Sotol is visible throughout the area. Shrubby growth includes Rhus, Ungnadia (at cave entrance), and Juniperus. FOSSIL SITES During initial study of the pluvial deposits, each bone-producing area that was not clearly equivalent to and contiguous with another was given a separate locality number; each specimen has been cata¬ logued by individual number preceded by the locality number. Museum of Arid Land Biology (MALB) locality numbers referring to this fauna are 3, 4 (Bison Chamber), 6 (Harris' Pocket), and 12 (Balcony Room) (Figs. 3 and 4) . The earliest discovered fossils were in Loc. 3. This area consists of a number of interconnected passageways. The fill, absent in some 7 DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO Fig. 3. Schemafic sketch showing the vertical relationships between the fossil localities within Dry Cave. Not t© scale. places and seldom surpassing 2 cm in depth, appears to be composed almost entirely of country rock residue. Bones were on the surface, within the fill, and in crevices under limestone fragments. Loc. 3 was surface picked and some fill examined manually. Attempts to trace the source of Loc. 3 fossils led to the discovery of Loc. 4. This locality is in deposits beneath a debris slope from a now closed sink which undoubtedly is the source of most of the pluvial material. Material of pluvial age blocks the passageway leading to the former entrance (which also can be located on the surface) ; as it spills into lower passages, the slope wash debris passes beneath a large, fallen block of limestone. A cavity beneath the block is Bison Chamber, so named because limb bones of Bison were visible when the area was first investigated. From Bison Chamber, the slope continues down an incline and the deposits eventually pinch out. Bones of animals on the debris slope are veneered by a thin cover¬ ing (generally 2-3 mm) of flowstone that continues over much of the slope surface. Most of the fossil bones are from a test pit in Bison Chamber and another test area in the corridor below. Under the flow- stone cap (locally absent) , a light yellowish stratum, variable in depth but averaging about 10 cm, lies over a dark “soil” layer having a 8 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 4. Sketch showing the horizontal relationships between the Dry Cove fossil localities. Many lateral passageways are omitted and only the levels involved with the localities are shown. thickness of at least 70 cm. Both strata are mixed with angular frag¬ ments of cave breakdown. Bone was present throughout the deposits, perhaps slightly concentrated in the light colored layer. Bison bones, likely from one individual, occurred throughout the top 45 cm of fill. Hackberry seeds were present on the surface of the flowstone and throughout the deposits beneath. The general impression given by the distribution of the fossils in Loc. 4 is of animals having died about the cave entrance and their : DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 9 I j remains then working downslope by action of gravity, rain waters, movements of other animals, and the like, until stopped by entrapment among the limestone fragments or buried by other debris. No size j- sorting or special orientation was seen. ' The western side of the debris slope passes through a tunnel opening i onto a ledge (the “balcony”) on the northeastern wall of Balcony 1 Room. Debris washing off the ledge to the floor of the chamber (over ! 20 ft below) possibly was responsible for most of the fill in Balcony i Room. However, the passage from the present entrance also enters j Balcony Room, though high on the northwestern side. While there is I no obvious evidence in the present entrance tunnel of material having I been carried through the passageway, the floor of Balcony Room indi- ! cates considerable water was received from that direction; moreover, some seemingly fresh plant matter occurs on the floor surface in this area. Balcony Room’s floor is Loc. 12. Two test pits, both toward the southern side, were dug under the pressure of time to see if Pleistocene fossils were present and if there likely was a connection between the I Balcony Room deposits and Loc. 6 (there was not) . One test pit was a continuation of a pit already present (possibly dug by Burnet and others in the 1930’s) ; the other a new pit beside the western wall. The former is located in Fig. 4 at approximately the “O” of “LOG.”; the latter, to the left of the “L” of the same word. The old pit had been dug to a depth of about 375 mm below floor level. Undisturbed fill at this level was of bat guano; below this was a light colored layer several centimeters thick; thereafter, to about 750-770 mm, a tan, silt to sandy silt fill occasionally mixed with bat guano. A poorly consolidated “false floor” was found at the lower limits of this fill. The fossil material occurred throughout, becoming most concentrated toward the bottom. Below the poorly cemented layer was a mixture of break¬ down products and presumed bat guano, but no identifiable bones. Limestone fragments prevented further progress at about 870 mm from the original floor level. Locality 6 (Harris’ Pocket) is an extraordinarily rich concentration of bone in a small chamber (ca. 6' X 3%' X 3%') located at the low spot of a small passageway. The fill appears to have come from the east, where the passage is too small to be negotiated; presumably the tunnel originates from near the toe of the debris slope of Loc. 4. The northwestern passage, through which the chamber is entered, has several areas which should have trapped bone if the source were in that direction, but none has been found. This northwestern tunnel 10 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE originates at the northern “balcony” of Balcony Room, No possible source other than these 2 tunnels is present. Fill in Harris’ Pocket showed 3 layers. On top (Stratum III) was a medium dark matrix quite variable in thickness, but averaging about 150 mm. A middle stratum (II) was predominately yellowish in color with much dung included (mostly of wood rat, ISeotoma^ a few poorly preserved carnivore coprolites were recovered) . Thickness varied from about 95 to 125 mm. The basal layer (I) seemingly consisted almost entirely of light colored breakdown products which were absent on bedrock slopes near the edges of the deposits and reached a maximum depth of about 20 mm toward the center. Bone was most common in the middle layer, but not uncommon in the top layer; little occurred in the bottom stratum. Fossil elements vary in size from shrew jaws and individual bat teeth to a horse meta¬ carpal, an artiodactyl sacrum, and large ribs. The top 2 layers ob¬ viously had been partly mixed, probably by earlier cave explorers turning around in the restricted quarters. Wood rat dung from the middle level was collected for dating and palynological studies; the considerable loss of organic carbon dis¬ played by the material, however, required additional dung from dis¬ turbed areas to meet carbon requirements for dating. The resultant date, then, may be composite. The Loc. 6 bones display differences in coloration and porosity, and a few elements have limy encrustations. Many bones are rodent chewed. Initial concentration of small animals may have been by owls (which are represented by several elements) and other predators, but the unbroken state of many of the larger bones (e.g., jack rabbit) seems to indicate entrapment by a pitfall arrangement. From what can be seen of the situation today near the closed entrance by Loc, 4, such an explanation seems feasible. Owls would not have entered Harris’ Pocket voluntarily nor, likely, would other predators. Bones of owls, of young birds such as might have fallen from nests at the old entrance, of animals probably trapped by the pitfall nature of the old entrance sink, and the differential preservation all indicate redeposition from a position nearer the old entrance. This is discussed further below. CHRONOLOGY AND CORRELATIONS Present stratigraphic data are insufficient for sure correlation be¬ tween the 4 localities. The only date presently available is 14,470 ± 250 BP (Isotopes, Inc.; 1-3365). This is from Loc. 6 and clearly places dry cave mammalian fauna in southeastern new MEXICO 1 1 the Harris’ Pocket material in the late Wisconsin, even if some mixing of upper and middle levels has resulted in a slightly “young” age. The deposits of Loc 6 are not clearly equivalent to those seen at Loc. 4. The flowstone cap over the upper level at Loc. 4 seems to have been formed after the last deposition from the sink and probably was itself a result of increased cave humidity following closure. Thus deposition of any portion of Loc. 6 material after Loc. 4 deposition is unlikely. Since there is no obvious correlation between any of the levels in the 2 localities, it seems most likely that Loc. 6 deposits entirely predate those of the Loc. 4 test pits (earlier deposits should be present at Loc. 4 beneath the closed entrance) . The faunal evidence, discussed later, also bears out a slightly more recent date for the Loc. 4 deposits. Why would deposition cease at Loc, 6 but continue at Loc. 4? Probably the source tunnel to Loc. 6 became clogged with silt at the end nearest Loc. 4, blocking further deposition (such silting appears common in the southern portion of the cave). The extraordinary richness of the Loc. 6 deposits so far from the old entrance seems to require redeposition of concentrated material (as do the features dis¬ cussed earlier) . Possibly the deposits are the result of an exceptionally heavy water flow, with an unusually heavy storm carrying earlier concentrated debris from about the entrance area down to Loc. 6. Or, temporary reblocking of the sink after it had opened may have allowed a pond to form in the sink, with rebreaching releasing a sudden surge of water into the passageways below. Level I at Loc. 6 obviously repre¬ sents in situ formation, but differences between Levels II and III may be the result of differential settling out of the debris rather than different times of deposition. The relationship of Loc. 12 to localities 4 and 6 is not apparent from the sediments, due perhaps to lack of sufficient data. The test pit exca¬ vated by myself lacks the upper 375 mm of fill; notes on the sediments were not taken by the assistant at Test Pit 2. By virtue of position, Loc. 12 should contain the equivalents of all other localities. If the hypothesis of formation of Loc. 6 deposits shortly after the opening of the entrance is correct, then the lower deposits from Loc. 12, Test Pit 1, should be partly equivalent to the deposits of Loc. 6; the equivalents of Loc. 4 should be nearer the surface, perhaps in the missing portion of Test Pit 1. Presence of Sigmodon in the Loc. 12 test, however, seems inconsistent with faunal evidence from localities 4 and 6. Locality 3 fill appears to have formed mostly within the cave. A few large bones (e.g., horse metapodial) presumably have washed into 12 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the area or been carried in by man or other animal. Possibly the hypothesized early surge of water carried a few elements into this region while most others went the more direct route into Loc, 6 or into Loc. 12. In summary, the hypothetical sequence of events is as follows; (i) Deposition at Loc. 6 between 14,000 and 15,000 BP, perhaps with Levels II and III being redeposited from nearer the entrance in one event (ii) Deposition at Loc. 4 test pits of material somewhat later than at Loc. 6; possibly deposits about equal in age to Loc. 6 are present nearer the closed entrance (hi) Loc. 12 with a complete sequence (?) (iv) Loc, 3 possibly with fossils from the entire time span, but in scanty amounts. The faunal evidence, as the geological, indicates some chronological differences between localities 4 and 6. Differences may be partly attributable to natural sampling error, but in view of the large number of elements available from Loc. 6 (5786 catalogued vertebrate speci¬ mens), real differences between that locality and Loc. 4 (825 cata¬ logued items) seem likely. Several species present in Loc. 4 (Dipo- domys spectabilis, Microtus ochrogaster^ and Perognathus hispidus) are generally associated with grassland habitats; their presence at this time but not during deposition of Loc. 6 material might reflect the onset of late pluvial warming or drying. Continued presence of the several species of microtines would indicate that such a trend was not yet well established. Locality 6 contains several species unrecorded from Loc. 4 that may indicate slightly more mesic conditions. Further work at Loc. 4 is planned to clarify the situation. Presence of Sigmodon at Loc. 12 may indicate warmer conditions, but the possibility that Sigmodon ochrognathus (primarily a Mexican mountain species) is represented rather than S. hispidus has not been ruled out (further work in Loc, 12 also is planned) . MAMMALIAN FAUNA The mammalian faunal members are listed in Table 2. Identifica¬ tions are tentative in that not all possible alternative taxa have been ruled out. In most cases, however, species which might logically be involved on the basis of geography and morphology have been studied. The list also is tentative in that not all individual specimens, par¬ ticularly post-cranial elements, have been studied. For example, Loc. 12 lacks specifically identifiable cranial parts of jack rabbits — further study of the post-cranial remains may result in at least tentative i! dry cave mammalian fauna in southeastern new MEXICO 13 I identifications to species. Likewise, Loc, 6 may prove to have kinds of ' jack rabbits in addition to the species listed here. ' Table 2 Pry Cave pluvial mammals listed according to the minimum number of individuals j known from each locality. In several cases, counts have not been made and presence is indicated by “X”. Many species will prove to have more individuals when further i study is completed. Locality Scientific Narae Co'nTioii Na.T;c 3 ^ 6 12 Sorex va^rans Sorex merrlami Notiosorex cravrf ord i My Otis spp. (4) Bptesicus fuscus g;randls Laslurus cf. cinereus Plecotus cf. tomsendi Sylvlla'^us sp. Sylvilagus nut tall i Lepus sp, Lepus townsendi Marmot a of, flavlventris Spermophilus ?rlchardsoni Spermophilus trideoeml ineatus Cynomys (Leucocrossuromys) sp, Thomomys bottae Thomomys talpoides Peroficnathus ?hispidus Peroe;nathus sp . ( small ) Dipodomys spectabilis Reithrodontomys sp. Peromyscus ?orinitus Leromyscus cf. manioulatus Peromysous leucopus Peromysous ?pect oralis Peromysous of. dif f icllis Onychomys leuco^^aster Vagrant Shrew Kerrlam’s Shrew Desert Shrew Mouse-eared Bats Large Big Brown Bat Hoary Bat Townsend's Big-eared Bat Cottontail Nuttall's Cottontail Jack Rabbit White-tailed. Jack Rabbit Yellov:-bellled iiarraot Richardson's Ground Squirrel 13-llned Ground Squirrel White-tailed prairie Dogs Southern Pocket ;Gopher Northern Pocket Gopher Hispid Pocket Mouse Silky Pocket Mouse Banner-tailed Kangaroo Rat Harvest Mouse Canyon Mouse Deer Mouse White-footed Mouse White-ankled Mouse Rock Mouse Northern Grasshapper Mouse - - 10 - - 1 10 - 1 1 - - X X X X - 1 10 - _ „ 1 - - - 11 - X X X X -16- X X X X - - 2 - - _ 2 - - - 1 - - 2 7 - - - 1 - -131 -17- 1 - - - l 2 - - 1 1 - - -1-1 - 1 2 - -221 1 - - - - - 1 - - - 1 1 14 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 — Continued Scientific Name Common Name 3 Locality 4 6 12 Si^modon sp. Cotton Rat - - - 1 Neotoma mexicana or cinerea Mexican or Bushy-tailed Wood Rat (or both) 2 Neotoma cf. albi^ula White-throated Wood Rat - - 1 - Microtus lonc^icaudus Long-tailed Vole - 1 6 - Microtus mexicanus Mexican Vole 1 3 14 - Microtus ochrocraster Prairie Vole - 2 - - Lagurus curtatus Sagebrush Vole 1 10 - Ondatra zibethicus Muskrat - - 1 - Erethizon dorsatum Porcupine - - 1 - Canis latrans Coyote - - 2 - Vulpes cf. velox Swift Fox ~ - 2 - ?Ursus Bear " - " 1 Mustela frenata Long-tailed Weasel - - 2 - Equus spp. Horses 1 1 1 - Equus ?conversidens Extinct Horse - - 1 Cf. Antilooapra Pronghorn 1 - ? - Bison sp. Bison - 1 - - ^Fovmd on surface- — may not be Pleistocene. DISCUSSION Several prominent faunal elements are now found in the high mountain forests of northern New Mexico. Not unreasonably, the finding of Lepus townsendi, Marmota flaviventris, and Neotoma cinerea in fossil faunas has led to the simple interpretation that these boreal forests migrated south and to lower altitudes more or less as units during Pleistocene pluvials. Such was the interpretation, for example, of presence of these species in Burnet Cave in the Guadalupe Mts, (Murray, 1957). However, Harris and Findley (1964) pointed out in a study of a late Pleistocene fauna from north=central New Mexico that these animals also occur in other habitats and that their presence in conjunction with non-forest forms may actually indicate an open habitat such as now exists even farther to the north. This is the condition represented by the Dry Cave fauna. A large proportion of the animals occur now in the Transition Life Zone of DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 15 central Wyoming adjacent to Upper Sonoran grasslands (specifically, Natrona and Converse counties — see Long, 1965) . There is some inter¬ gradation with the Upper Sonoran biota. Transition zone species common to the Dry Cave fauna and central Wyoming are listed in Table 3. Such habitat is not the familiar Ponderosa Pine forest of the Southwestern mountains, however — instead, the countryside is (as described by Cary, 1917) “in its greater part open and treeless.” Cary further describes the zone: “Sagebrush, yellow pine, and grasses are prominent types of vegetation in the Wyoming Transition area. The sagebrush . . . , the most widely distributed shrub, usually occurs in pure growth, while the yellow pines are restricted largely to the lower mountains, foothills, and rough tracts. . . . On streams along the bases of the mountains generally the zone is marked by narrow-leafed cottonwood . . . , diamond willow, and usually by a dense shrubbery of Rocky Mountain birch, black and red haws, cornel, wild gooseberry and currant, serviceberry, and silverberry; on foothill and lower mountain slopes both in the forest as undershrubs and in the open, by Rocky Mountain and creeping junipers. . .” Table 3 Mammals recorded from the Transition Life Zone of central Wyoming (Cary, 1917; Long, 1965) and also occurring in the Dry Cave Local Fauna. Sorex Vagrans Neotoma cinerea Sorex merriami Microtus longicaudus Eptesicus fuscus Microtus ochrogaster Plecotus townsendi Lagurus curtatus Lasiurus cinereus Ondatra zibethicus Sylvilagus nuttalli Onychomys leucogaster Lepus townsendi Peromyscus maniculatus Marmota flaviventris Canis latrans Spermophilus richardsoni Vulpes velox Spermophilus tridecemlineatus Ursus sp. Cynomys (Leucocrossuromys) sp. Mustela frenata Erethizon dorsatum Antilocapra sp. Thomomys talpoides Bison sp. Two of the small mammals {Spermophilus tridecemlineatus and Microtus ochrogaster) listed in Table 3 are more typically Upper Sonoran Life Zone creatures, with the bulk of their range in the grass¬ lands to the east. A few other small forms occur in the Wyoming Upper Sonoran more or less marginally {Sorex merriami^ Plecotus townsendi^ Spermophilus richardsoni^ Marmota flaviventris, Thom- omys talpoides, Neotoma drier ea^ Ondatra zibethicus, and Peromyscus 16 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE maniculatus) ^ but are commoner in higher life zones (Cary, 1917; Long, 1965). Table 4 Mammals occurring in the Dry Cave deposits and in the Southwest, but which are unknown from central Wyoming. Notiosorex crawfordi Myotis velifer Thomomys bottae Neotoma mexicana\ Neotoma albigula Microtus mexicanus Sigmodon sp. Dipodomys spectabilis Peromyscus difficilis Peromyscus pectoralis% Peromyscus crinitus f Possibly not represented $ Possibly not Pleistocene Several mammals (Table 4) do not now occur as far north as central Wyoming, but do occur today in the Southwest. These forms are inseparably associated with many of the northern species in the deposits. The Transition Life Zone of central Wyoming exists under the relatively dry conditions of approximately 7-15 inches of precipitation, though tending more toward the latter figure. Summers are fairly cool (average July temperatures generally between 60° and 70° F). It is under this climate that the vegetation described by Cary (1917) occurs. Many mammals, which farther south are limited to moist, cool high¬ lands, live here successfully at lower altitudes, often under conditions of less actual annual precipitation. Their success may be due as much to lack of notable seasonality of precipitation during the growing season as to increased effectiveness of the moisture because of cooler temperatures. Conditions in the central Wyoming sagebrush grass¬ lands are quite similar to those a short distance to the east, where Upper Sonoran grasslands thrive under somewhat greater precipita¬ tion but also generally warmer summer temperatures. In contrast to the situation in Wyoming, there is a marked spring drought period in much of the Southwest. In general, this is best developed in southeastern New Mexico and adjacent Texas, the pro¬ portion of winter-spring precipitation to summer moisture increasing to the west and north. In lowland areas, stored winter precipitation is not sufficient to allow forbs and grasses to grow throughout the period from the start of the growing season to the beginning of the summer rains. As a result, mammals reliant on such growth for food or cover DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 17 are limited to higher altitudes where winter precipitation is sufficient to carry growing plants through this period of moisture deficiency. The area with the majority of extant species found in Dry Cave is a region of intergradation between a Great Basin Transition Life Zone biota and an Upper Sonoran biota, though the former is most promi¬ nent. The precipitation is relatively low, but rather evenly spread throughout the year; there is no pronounced spring-early summer drought. How can the forms listed in Table 4 be reconciled with such a climate type? As pointed out by several authors {see Slaughter, 1967), northern animals tend to be limited in their southern distribu¬ tion by warm season conditions, but southern animals tend more to be limited by winter conditions. Dalquest (1965), among others, has suggested an absence of the southward-striking cold fronts that now so severely affect the southern plains. Thus the winters may have been almost as mild as they are now when cold fronts are not moving through the area, and animals now limited in their northern extent by such periodic cold spells were free to expand their ranges to the north. Among the climatic conditions in Wyoming that cannot be trans¬ ported to the south are insolation values. Although the Dry Cave area may quite reasonably have been under a general precipitation-air mass regimen such as to approximate conditions much farther north, insolation values must have remained Southwestern in character, albeit modified by increased cloud cover. Effect of such insolation would be particularly exaggerated on south-facing slopes. Temperature differences between north and south slopes must have been greatly accentuated over those now found either to the north or in the South¬ west. Presence of southern animals on these slopes in close proximity to more northerly types is to be expected. Biotic conditions at the time of deposition are reconstructed as follows. Gentle north-facing slopes supported good growths of sage¬ brush {Artemisia tridentata) intermixed with grasses. Junipers prob¬ ably grew in suitable areas and possibly other scattered conifers were present. Mammals limited mostly to these slopes included Sylvilagus nuttalli^ Thomomys talpoides, Spermophilus richardsoni, Cynomys {Leucocrossuromys) sp., Onychomys leucogaster, Neotoma cinerea, and Lagurus curtains. On south-facing slopes, well developed grassland, possibly with occasional Ponderosa Pines intermixed, covered the area, though sage¬ brush, junipers, and the like would be present locally. Limited mostly to these slopes were Notiosorex crawfordi, Spermophilus tridecem- 18 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE lineatus, Thomomys bottae^ Perognathus hispidus^ Dipodomys specta- hilis, Neotoma albigula, Sigmodon sp., Microtus mexicanus, and Microtus ochrogaster. Several forms would be expected more or less commonly on both slopes: Sorex merriami, Lepus townsendi (if Lepus californicus was not present; otherwise, L. townsendi likely would be most common in grassland habitat), Perognathus sp. (dependent somewhat on the species actually involved), Reithrodontomys sp., Peromyscus mani- culatus^ Canis latrans, Vulpes velox, Ursus sp., Mustela jrenata, Equus spp., Antilocapra sp., and Bison sp. Certain forms would be most frequent along drainage ways or where sinks and other irregularities allowed somewhat more mesic conditions to prevail. Here, riparian trees, shrubs, and forbs would offer protection to Sorex vagrans and Microtus longicaudus; Ondatra zibethicus would be associated with permanent pools. Possibly spruce and fir trees occurred on steep northern slopes above the riparian vegetation. Marmots were limited mostly to rocky outcrops. Peromyscus diffi- cilis and Peromyscus crinitus also are rock dwellers, but the former likely was mostly confined to northern exposures and the latter (if actually present) to southern. Presence of prairie dogs and relatively large sized pocket gophers implies a considerably deeper soil mantle than found today, with Cynomys indicating at least several feet of fill in some areas. Forty percent of the herptile fauna identified by Holman occur now in central Wyoming. The remainder of the fauna exists at low eleva¬ tions in southeastern New Mexico, though most species occur some¬ what farther north also. The amphibians and reptiles, then, seem to show the same general mixture of warm and cold elements as the mammals, but the warm faunal elements dominate. This is not sur¬ prising since examination of herptile ranges (Stebbins, 1966) shows central Wyoming has few cold faunal elements to contribute. In the Southwest, we may expect late Pleistocene herptile faunas to be more similar to those of the Holocene than are mammalian faunas. Other late Pleistocene pluvial faunas fit well into the model pro¬ posed here. Deposited at an elevation about 400 ft higher than Dry Cave, the Burnet Cave fauna does not seem to represent a situation more mesic, though Murray (1957) hypothesized spruce-fir forest extending down to about 4500 ft in the Guadalupe Mts. on the basis of the fauna. The deposits likely represent a time period starting slightly later than that of Dry Cave since similar or possibly slightly more DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 19 xeric conditions are represented despite the higher altitude; a date of 7432 ±300 has been questioned on faunal and cultural grounds (Wormington, 1957). Animals probably present at the start of depo¬ sition included Marmota flaviventris^ Neotoma mexicana^ N, cinerea, Microtus mexicanus, and M. longicaudus. A mountain form of Sylvi- lagus floridanus^ Dipodomys ordi, Neotoma lepida (probably = N. stephensi)^ Vulpes macroura (= V . vulpes)^ and V. velox may repre¬ sent an Upper Sonoran grassland habitat with piny on- juniper wood¬ land in suitable locations. Finally, Sylvilagus auduboniy Lepus alleni^ Cynomys ludovicianus, Cratogeomys castanops, and IPappogeomys may represent appearance of desert grassland. Unfortunately strati¬ graphic data are lacking (Murray, 1957), so such a sequence is con¬ jectural. Hermit Cave, also in the Guadalupe Mts. and at an elevation of between 5800 and 6000 ft, dates approximately 12-13000 BP (Hester, 1960). Shrews from this cave were studied by Findley (1965) and found to represent Notiosorex crawfordi, Sorex nanus, and a small sized Sorex vagrans (individuals from Dry Cave also are smaller than present Vagrant Shrews from the nearby Sacramento Mts.). These identifications suggest that Sorex merriami, which tends to occur in somewhat more arid circumstances than other Southwestern members of the genus Sorex, lived in the more xeric conditions at lower eleva¬ tions and S. vagrans in the more mesic lower elevation habitats; that at Hermit Cave, habitats xeric enough to be dominated by S. merriami were absent, leaving S. vagrans living in situations similar to its habitat at lower altitudes while S. nanus inhabited the more mesic areas. It seems likely, as Findley (1965) suggests, that a relatively mesic forest was present and we might tentatively suggest a lower Canadian Life Zone habitat, at least on north-facing slopes. Presence of Notiosorex may indicate once again the exaggerated differences between slopes and also that the area was not far from the lower margin of the Canadian zone. Since Lindeborg (1960) has taken a Desert Shrew from postclimax Pinus ponderosa in northeastern New Mexico, nearby slopes did not necessarily have to bear extremely xeric vegetation. Williams Cave, near the southern end of the Guadalupe Mts., lies at an elevation of about 4900 ft and contained a number of late Pleisto¬ cene mammals (Ayer, 1937). In light of later knowledge, several identifications cannot be considered accurate, but small mammals ^ This specimen should be reexamined to investigate the possibility that the closely related Mexican plateau species, Lepus callotis, is represented — the latter species would make more sense zoogeographically. 20 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE include a Cynomys, apparently of the white- tailed group; a cottontail even smaller than the Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani) and thus there is at least a small possibility that the Great Basin Pygmy Rabbit {Sylvilagus idahoensis) is represented; and a wood rat identified as Neotoma albigula albigula but said to be in some ways similar to N. lepida (probably = N. stephensi) . Restudy of this fauna might show these forms to be Great Basin species. An important, but undated, late pluvial fauna is that of the Isleta Caves (Harris and Findley, 1964). It includes Sylvilagus floridanus (a Great Plains form of the species), Neotoma cinerea, Microtus sp. (most like M. pennsylvanicus, a grassland hydrosere species, and M. montanus, a Great Basin form), Lagurus cf. curtatus^ Marmota flaviventris ^ Vulpes vulpes, and V. velox. Once again there is a mixture between faunas of sagebrush grassland {N. cinerea, Lagurus, and Marmota) and of grasslands {S. floridanus and V. velox). The Isleta Caves fauna is similar in many ways to the Recent fauna of southeastern Wyoming and adjacent north-central Colorado (Harris and Findley, 1964) rather than central Wyoming. In view of the rela¬ tively high elevation (ca. 5630 ft) of the Isleta sites, and the more northern and western position, the fauna likely represents a later time than does that from Dry Cave. The eastern grasslands extended farther west and to higher elevations than in Dry Cave times and the Transition Life Zone fauna may be more dilute. A time near 1 1 ,000 BP may be hypothesized. Only one other New Mexican fauna dating from the late Wisconsin and containing numerous small mammals has been published. This is the Brown Sand Wedge local fauna of Blackwater Draw (Slaughter, 1964) . This is essentially a grassland fauna with the addition of a few woodland and a possible Transition Life Zone species. Of particular interest are Sorex cinereus, Sciurus cf. arizonensis, Peromyscus cf. truei, Microtus ochrogaster, M. pennsylvanicus, and M. cf. mexicanus as representative of generally more northern situations or of higher altitude habitats; Dasypus bellus and Sigmodon hispidus are of south¬ ern affinities. Although Sorex cinereus is predominantly a shrew of higher alti¬ tudes today, it does descend to Upper Sonoran Life Zone habitat at elevations as low as 3800 ft in Wyoming (Long, 1965). During the Pleistocene it extended its range as far south as San Josecito Cave in Nuevo Leon (Findley, 1953), probably mostly in a grassland context. Microtus ochrogaster and M. pennsylvanicus likewise are mainly grassland forms. In the more arid Southwest, M. pennsylvanicus tends DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 21 to be associated particularly with sedge beds (Harris, 1963) and under those conditions, summer temperature does not appear to be a severely limiting factor in New Mexico and northern Mexico. Along the San Juan River near Bloomfield, M. pennsylvanicus endures a July mean temperature of 74.7° F and extreme summer temperatures as high as 106° F (Hardy, 1941). Peromyscus truei today is limited fairly strictly to piny on- juniper woodland, but occasionally does descend into heavy riparian vegeta¬ tion and sagebrush wash types of habitat near such woodland; in extreme northwestern New Mexico, it occurs rarely as much as several miles from woodland conifers (Harris, 1963) . Thus, woodland may have occurred on nearby steeper southern slopes, with grassland on leveler ground. Microtus mexicanus now is primarily associated with Ponderosa Pine forest, but frequently is found iti rather dry meadows within such forests. It may have occurred near Blackwater Draw on northerly slopes, possibly with some scattered Pinus ponderosa. Presence of a gray squirrel indicates deciduous riparian growth occurred along Blackwater Draw, while D. bellus and S. hispidus indicate mild winter temperatures (Slaughter, 1964). The above interpretation fits closely that of Slaughter (1964), though given here with somewhat more detail, and seems to fit in well with the other faunas discussed. At this east-central New Mexican site, some 3000 ± years later than the more southerly Dry Cave deposits, occurred a predominately Upper Sonoran grassland-wood¬ land fauna with cooler northerly slopes bearing remnants of a Tran¬ sition Life Zone biota. It seems likely that conditions were beginning to ameliorate slightly from those seen at Dry Cave — very possibly a more complete Transition zone fauna was present earlier, at the prob¬ ably moister time represented by the preceding Gray Sand member (Slaughter, 1964). Also fitting into this picture of sagebrush grassland animals far to the south at lower elevations in New Mexico during the late Pleisto¬ cene is a record of Sagebrush Grouse {Centrocercus urophasianus) from the Little Hatchet Mts. of southwestern New Mexico (Howard, 1962). That at least some faunal elements extended far south of Dry Cave during the Pleistocene is indicated by a partial skull tentatively identi¬ fied as Cynomys cf. gunnisoni^ collected by Dr. A. L. Metcalf from late Quaternary sediments (PNeville) along Hwy 118 ca. 5 miles south of Alpine, Brewster Co., Texas (MALB 13-1). This is over 300 22 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE miles southeast of its current known range and about 150 miles from Dry Cave. On the basis of the several relatively large faunas now known from New Mexico, we can reconstruct much of the late pluvial climatic- vegetational environment of the region. Decreased summer temper¬ atures with relatively mild winters and a precipitation regimen that included ample winter-spring precipitation resulted in a complex mixture of northern and southern elements rather than a simple down¬ ward shift of the nearby mountain biota. The only eastern animals thus far seen to reach the area are those that even now span the northern or central Great Plains. Canadian Life Zone vegetation occurred onto lower mountains than at present, probably to around 6000 ft or slightly less in southeastern New Mexico during the time under consideration. The possibility cannot be ruled out that some prominent elements (including quite possibly spruce itself) may have mingled with Ponderosa Pine to a greater degree than common at present. If so, they may have extended to very low altitudes along stream valleys, accounting for increased spruce pollen in the plains to the east (Wendorf, 1961). There is no evidence in the faunas considered here for or against such a possibility, but there is evidence that the Canadian Life Zone biota did not extend to as low as 4200 ft as a unit during the times represented by the faunas. The Transition Life Zone, rather than being well developed Ponder¬ osa Pine forest, was more typical of the zone far to the north. Areas without prominent relief were primarily covered by Big Sagebrush, associated shrubs, and various grasses. Only on steeper slopes did Pinus ponderosa occur in groves. The zone probably extended some¬ what below 4000 ft on northerly slopes and to near 6000 ft or above on south-facing slopes. The Upper Sonoran Life Zone extended on southern slopes from at least as high as 4200 ft in southeastern New Mexico to an unknown lower limit. Probable connections between piny on- juniper woodland in the Big Bend region of Texas with the Edwards Plateau (Wells, 1966) indicates an Upper Sonoran biota throughout lower altitudes of New Mexico and western Texas. As shown by Wells (1966), Lower Sonoran elements apparently were present mixed with Upper Sonoran species, at least on southern exposures. Mild winters and cool summers, in conjunction with greater tem¬ perature differences between slopes, allowed a somewhat greater degree of mixing of vegetational life zones. Even today, extremely DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 23 Steep slopes in such mountains as the Magdalenas in central New Mexico may bear some Upper Sonoran plants immediately across small, steep-walled canyons from spruce groves. Even greater differ¬ ences can be expected between similarly steep slopes during the late Pleistocene. As temperature and moisture relationships changed rapidly at the end of the Pleistocene, animals dependent on evenly distributed pre¬ cipitation, large amounts of moisture, or cool temperatures became locally extinct, remaining in the Southwest only where highland regions met their requirements. There is considerable fossil evidence in southern New Mexico of mammals that now occur no farther south than the high mountains of northern New Mexico. These fossil species include Marmota flavi- ventris from a number of localities (a summary is given by Murray, 1957) ; Neotoma cinerea at Isleta, Burnet Cave, and Dry Cave; Lepus townsendi at Burnet Cave and Dry Cave; and Sylvilagus nuttalli at Dry Cave. Why have some of these species been able to maintain themselves in northern mountain ranges but not in apparently suitable mountain habitats in the south? One possible explanation is that the southern highlands have a climatic history different, at least in degree, from those of the north. One animal, in particular, seems to give a hint as to what this factor might be. Numerous authors have discussed the Yellow-bellied Marmot as an indicator of climate. Stearns (1942) and Murray (1957) accepted presence of marmot at low elevations as indicating a life zone depression of some thousands of feet. These authors based their arguments on supposed lower elevational limits in the Southwest of 9600 ft and 1 1 ,000 ft respectively. But marmots occur in extreme northwestern New Mexico at eleva¬ tions slightly below 6000 ft (Harris, 1963). This may well be an artificial depression in their ecological range since they are living adjacent to a creek fed by irrigation runoff, but the record serves to show that temperature is not the factor preventing occupation of lower elevations — instead, sufficient water to provide green fodder during the active season of these hibernators seems to be the limiting element. If the mountains of Arizona and southern New Mexico are excepted, marmots occur in the West where there is sufficient winter and early spring precipitation to support green plants during the critical spring- early summer drought period, regardless of elevation. At present, approximately 2 in. of winter precipitation seems to be sufficient in the southern Rockies. 24 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Elimination of marmots from the Arizonan and southern New Mexican mountains must have occurred after any mesic corridors between them and the northern mountain masses had been broken; otherwise repopulation would have occurred. Quite possibly popula¬ tions in the southern Rockies also were affected, but migration back into such areas from the north would be possible. Isolated ranges south of the Sangre de Cristo-Jemez ranges now lack marmots even where distances to those highland masses are short. This situation implies a late or post Pleistocene climatic pattern (not necessarily synchronic throughout the region) in which a severe winter-early spring period of precipitation deficiency was prominent and resulted in extermination of marmots even in now suitable loca¬ tions in the southern high mountains. Supposition of a long interval of such seasonal drought is not necessary, and survival of spruce, fir, and other mesophytes indicates tolerance limits of these plants were not reached. (Survival rather than recolonization over short gaps is indicated in many mountains by presence of animals dependant on spruce-fir forest — e.g., Tamiasciurus hudsonicus. Some other ranges — see Wells, 1966 — may have been repopulated by mesophytes via “sweepstakes” recolonization.) A total annual precipitation deficit was not necessarily present — summer rains may even have been greater than at present, as sug¬ gested by Martin, et al. (1961) for the Southwestern Altithermal. There is widespread survival of microtines in the same southern mountains from which marmots were eradicated. This suggests that summer-fall rains regularly provided sufficient food and cover to support voles through their time of greatest stress, the period from late fall until commencement of spring growth. The ecology of such forms as Lepus townsendi, Neotoma cinerea, and Sylvilagus nuttalli is not well enough known to support claims that the same factors limit them as limit marmots; however, the present distributions are suggestive that such may be the case. Several other mammals of mesic habitat are absent from the moun¬ tains east of the Rio Grande and south of the southern Rockies, though present in high mountain masses west of the Rio. These include Gapper’s Red-backed Mouse, Cleithrionomys gapperi; Abert’s Squir¬ rel, Sciurus aberti (recently introduced by man into the Sandia- Manzano chain, however) ; the Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus lateralis-^ and the Montane Vole, Microtus montanus. These are unknown as fossils in the area and may be forms that never DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 25 reached these southeastern mountain outposts; or, these species may have been extirpated by late or post Pleistocene events. The times represented by the faunas discussed here are after the presumed peak of glaciation and shed little light on the problem of maximum life zone depressions during the classical Wisconsin, Wells’ (1966) evidence from the Big Bend suggested to him that a depression as great as any during the Wisconsin continued up through the times involved here. Work on the Llano Estacado (Wendorf, 1961), how¬ ever, indicated a peak of spruce pollen during the Tahoka Pluvial (estimated at 15,000 to 22,500 BP), and thus a probable greater life zone depression at a time earlier than the Dry Cave fauna. It is not unlikely that the Big Bend and adjacent areas had a precipitation-air mass regimen somewhat modified from areas to the north and west by virtue of their geographic positions, but until further evidence is examined, knowledge of Wisconsin events in the Southwest must remain unsatisfactory. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Among the many contributors to the research and preparation of the manuscript, I wish particularly to thank A. L. Metcalf and C. E. Freeman for contributions dur¬ ing discussions. They also criticized the manuscript as did my wife, Anita. R. G. Babb, J. M. Hardy, and J. J. Corcoran acted as guides during the early explorations and the latter generously supplied original maps drafted for the Texas Speleological Society. R. R. Johnson, W. E. Johnson, D. Pitts, and V. L. Goebel aided in excava¬ tion. J. S. Findley briefly inspected some of the shrew material and made several suggestions. J, A. Holman kindly made available his manuscript on the herptile material from Dry Cave. Others too numerous to mention by name have my sincere thanks. I also wish to thank J. K. Jones, Jr., The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History; M. Bogert, Museum of Southwestern Biology, The University of New Mexico; E. D. Fleharty, Ft. Hays Kansas State College; and B. H. Slaughter, Shuler Museum of Paleontology, Southern Methodist University, for the loan, gift, or op¬ portunity to inspect specimens under their care. Some comparative material was collected during research on another problem supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant GB-6843). The Texas Speleological Society has been helpful in many ways. The U. S. Dept, of the Interior granted permission for excavations on government lands. Financial support was received through grants from the University Research Institute, The University of Texas at El Paso. LITERATURE CITED Ayer, M. Y., 1937 — The archaeological and faunal material from Williams Cave, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.^ 88: 599-618. 26 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Bailey, V., 1913 — Life zones and crop zones of New Mexico. N. Amer. Fauna, 35. - , 1928 — Animal life of the Carlsbad Cavern. Monogr. Amer. Soc. Mammal., 3. Cary, M., 1917 — Life zone investigations in Wyoming. N. Amer. Fauna, 42. Dalquest, W. W., 1965 — New Pleistocene formation and local fauna from Harde¬ man County, Texas. /. Paleo., 39: 63-79. Findley, J. S., 1953 — Pleistocene Soricidae from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Univ. Kan. Publ. Mus. Nat, Hist., 5: 633-639. - , 1965 — Shrews from Hermit Cave, Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico. /. Mamm., 46: 206-210. Hardy, E. L., 1941 — Climate of New Mexico. In: Climate and Man, Yearbook of Agriculture, p. 1011-1024. LF. S. Dept. Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Harris, A. H., 1963 — Ecological distribution of some vertebrates in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Mus. New Mexico Press, Papers in Anthrop., 8. - , and J. S. Findley, 1964 — Pleistocene-Recent fauna of the Isleta Caves, Bernalillo County, New Mexico. Amer. J. Sci., 262: 114-120. Hester, J. J., 1960 — Late Pleistocene extinction and radiocarbon dating. Amer. Antiq.,2Q: 58-77. Howard, H., 1962 — Bird remains from a prehistoric cave deposit in Grant County, New Mexico. Condor, 64: 241-242. Lindeborg, R. G., 1960 — The desert shrew, Notiosorex, in San Miguel County, New Mexico. Southwest. Nat., 5: 108-109. Long, C. A., 1965 — The mammals of Wyoming. Univ. Kan. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14: 493-758. Martin, P. S., J. Schoenwetter, and B. C. Arms, 1961 — The Last 10,000 years. Geochronology Laboratories, Univ. Arizona, Tucson. Murray, K. F., 1957 — Pleistocene climate and the fauna of Burnet Cave, New Mexico. Ecology, 38: 129-132. Skinner, L., and P. I.indsley, 1965 — Dry Cave, New Mexico. Texas Caver, 10: 107-109. Slaughter, B. H., 1964 — An ecological interpretation of the Brown Sand Wedge Local Fauna, Blackwater Draw, New Mexico: and a hypothesis concerning late Pleistocene extinction. Preprint from: Paleoecology of the Llano Estacado, 2. Assembled by F, Wendorf and J. J, Hester. - , 1967 — Animal ranges as a clue to late-Pleistocene extinction. In: Martin, P. S., and H. E. Wright, Jr., Pleistocene Extinctions. The Search for a Cause, p. 155-167. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. Stearns, C. E., 1942 — A fossil marmot from New Mexico and its climatic signifi¬ cance. Amer. J. Sci., 240: 867-878. Stebbins, R. C., 1966 — A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians. River¬ side Press, Cambridge. Wells, P. V., 1966 — Late Pleistocene vegetation and degree of pluvial climatic change in the Chihuahuan Desert. Science, 153: 970-975. DRY CAVE MAMMALIAN FAUNA IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO 27 Wendorf, F., 1961 — An interpretation of late Pleistocene environments of the Llano Estacado. In: Paleoecology of the Llano Estacado, p. 113-133. Assembled by F. Wendorf. Museum New Mexico Press, Fort Burgwin Research Center, 1. WoRMiNGTON, H. M., 1957 — Ancient Man in North America. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., Pop. Series, 4. A Pleistocene Herpetofauna from Eddy County, New Mexico by J. Alan Holman Museum, Michigan State University East Lansing, 48823 ABSTRACT A late Pleistocene herpetofauna from Dry Cave, Eddy County, New Mexico (Ele¬ vation 4,200 feet) contains the remains of at least 7 amphibians and 8 reptiles. None of these are extinct, but at present Pseudacris triseriata is known in New Mexico only from a few localities in the northwestern part of the state, and Phrynosoma douglassi is found at much higher elevations in the region, usually above 7,000 feet. INTRODUCTION Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles are well known from Texas, but there are practically no records from New Mexico other than a report of a few forms from late Pleistocene to early Holocene caves in the south central part of the state (Brattstrom, 1964a). Recently, Dr. Arthur H. Harris of the Museum of Arid Land Biology of the Univer¬ sity of Texas at El Paso has collected Pleistocene vertebrates from Dry Cave in Eddy County, New Mexico. Among these remains are bones representing at least 7 species of amphibians and eight species of reptiles. Dr. Harris (1970) has studied the fossil mammals of Dry Cave and Dr. Robert D. Weigel of Illinois State University is studying the fossil birds. Dr. Harris has supplied data from which the following information is taken. Dry Cave is a limestone maze cavern that lies within a prominence called McKittrick Hill. It is approximately 15 miles west of Carlsbad, Eddy County, New Mexico, at approximately 104° 28' 55" west longitude and 32° 22' 25" north latitude (SE 1/4 Sec. 22, T 22S, R 24E, NMPM) . Elevation at the entrance of the cave is 4,200 feet above sea level. Bones were first taken from the cave in 1965, and systematic excava¬ tions were first begun 2~4 September, 1966. Additional excavations were made during 28-31 December, 1966; 21-23 March, 1967; 28-30 May, 1967; and 10-12 April, 1968. It was soon noted that 2 fossil faunas were present; one representing a pluvial stage with more mesic and generally cooler climatic conditions than today; and another that The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 30 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE represents an interpluvial stage. Only the pluvial fauna has been studied. During the excavations, each bone producing area that was not clearly equivalent to another was given a separate locality number. Each specimen listed in the present paper has its individual number preceeded by a hyphen and its locality number. Locality numbers are 3, 4, 6, and 12. A C-14 date of 14,470 ± 250 BP is available for the middle of the three layers comprising Locality 6. This middle layer contains wood- rat dung which was submitted for dating. But since more dung from upper layers had to be collected to meet carbon requirements, the actual date for the middle layer may be slightly older than indicated by the sample. It is though that part of Locality 4 is equivalent in age to Locality 6, while another portion of 4 is slightly younger than 6. Localities 12 and 3 appear to be the youngest, with elements from Locality 3 being surface or near surface finds. The majority of the fossils were collected from Localities 4 and 6. Specimen numbers are those of the Museum of Arid Land Biology at the University of Texas El Paso. All measurements are in milli¬ meters. I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Arthur H. Harris for the privilege of studying the fossils collected and curated by him. Donna Rae Holman made the drawings. Following is a check list of the Dry Cave fossil amphibians and reptiles as to their occurrence by locality. I am unable to discern any marked differences between the faunas of the various localities of the cave, although Pseudacris triseriata^ the only form that is not found in or near the area today, is restricted to Locality 6. CHECK LIST Locality 3 Phrynosoma douglassi Crotalus sp. indet. Locality 4 Amhystoma tigrinum Scaphiopus bombifrons Scaphiopus hammondi Scaphiopus sp. indet, Bufo punctatus Bufo w. woodhousei Bufo sp, indet. Rana pipiens Phrynosoma douglassi Phrynosoma cornutum Crotaphytus collaris Sceloporus undulatus Elaphe guttata Salvadora sp. indet. Thamnophis proximus Thamnophis sp. indet. Crotalus atrox Crotalus sp. indet. Locality 6 Amhystoma tigrinum Scaphiopus bombifrons Scaphiopus sp. indet. PLEISTOCENE HERPETOFAUNA FROM EDDY COUNTY 31 Bufo w. woodhousei Pseudacris triseriata Phrynosoma douglassi Sceloporus undulatus Salvador a sp. indet. Thamnophis sp. indet. Crotalus sp. indet. Locality 12 Scaphiopus bombifrons Bufo punctatus Bufo sp. indet. Phrynosoma douglassi Crotaphytus collaris Sceloporus undulatus Thamnophis sp. indet. Crotalus atrox Crotalus sp. indet. Following is a more detailed annotated list by species. ANNOTATED LIST Amby Stoma tigrinum (Green) Material. — Five vertebrae: 4-366, 5-585, 6-4315, 6-5319, and 6-5380. Remarks. — These remains are assigned to species on the basis of characters discussed by Tihen (1958) and Holman (1969b). Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope Material. — Sphenethmoid: 4-611. Two left (12-16 and 6-5393) and one right (12-15) ilia. Two sacrococcyges: 4-612 and 12-44. Remarks. — The sphenethmoid of Scaphiopus bombifrons (Fig. la) is easily separable from that of S. couchi and S. hammondi (Fig. lb) on the basis that, is dorsal view, the anterior median process of S. couchi and S. hammondi is narrow (width into length 4-5 times), whereas in 5. bombifrons in much wider (width into length 2-21/2 times) . Based on skeletons of Holocene spadefoots S. couchi^ 15 5. bombi¬ frons ^ and 4 S. hammondi) the ilia of S. bombifrons are distinctive in that the dorsal protuberance is usually well-developed, elongate, and in that it is usually produced well above the level of the dorsal acetab¬ ular expansion. In S. hammondi the protuberance is obsolete in 3 of 4 specimens. In the other skeleton the protuberance is small and rounded rather than elongate as in most S. bombifrons. The sacrococcyges are tentatively assigned to 5. bombifrons on the basis of the well-developed sacral webbing (Tihen, 1960) in the fossil and in 14 of 15 Holocene specimens of S. bombifrons. In S. hammondi 2 of 4 specimens have the webbing well-developed, whereas the other 2 have the webbing poorly developed. 32 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A B Fig. 1. Af sphenethmoid of Holocene Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope from Meade County, Kansas. B, sphenethmoid of Holocene Scaphiopus hammondl Baird from Lake Japaia, Jalisco. Each line equals two millimeters. Scaphiopus hammondi Baird Material. — Sphenethmoid: 4-136. Two left (4-29 and 4-493) and one right ilia (4-609) . Remarks. — The sphenethmoid differs from that of S. bombijrons based on characters discussed above. The bone is assigned to S’, ham¬ mondi rather than to S, couchi on the basis that, in dorsal view, the ventrolateral processes are more rounded throughout in S. hammondi than in S. couchi which has these processes more angular. The ilia are assigned to this species on the basis of their location in the deposit and on the basis of their obsolete dorsal protuberances. Scaphiopus sp. indet. Material. — Left maxilla: 4-330, Femur: 4-284. Three tibiofibulae: 4-285, 6-2887, and 6-4027. Radio-ulna: 6-2886. Remarks. — These elements do not appear to be diagnostic at the specific level. Bufo punctatus Baird and Girard Material. — Two left (12-12 and 12-63) and one right (4-282) ilia. PLEISTOCENE HERPETOFAUNA FROM EDDY COUNTY 33 Remarks. — The ilia represent small toads with the low ilial promi¬ nences of Bufo punctatus and B. debilis of the Caribbean Section of the B. valliceps group of Tihen (1962a and b) . I assign the above 3 ilia to B. punctatus on the basis that, in available Holocene material, the posterior slope of the ilial prominence slopes less precipitously into the dorsal acetabular expansion in B, punctatus than in B. debilis. Bufo woodhousei woodhousei Girard Material. — ^Angular: 4-43. Vertebra: 6-696. Sacrum: 4-495. Two right ilia: 4-56 and 4-494. Femur: 6-5348. Tibiofibula: 4-5315. Humerus: 4-610. Remarks. — These elements appear readily assignable to the Holo¬ cene subspecies Bufo w. woodhousei rather than to the extinct Pleisto¬ cene subspecies B. w. bexarensis Mecham on the basis of size and on subjective characters (Tihen, 1954, Mecham, 1959, Tihen, 1962a and b). The femur of B. w. woodhousei may be easily distinguished from that of B. speciosus and B. cognatus on the basis of the flattened upper surface of the femural crest in B. w. woodhousei. This part of the femural crest is quite elevated in the latter 2 species. The femur (the type element of B. w bexarensis) represents B. w. woodhousei in that the V-shaped elevation formed by the femural crest is wide, in fact almost as wide as the shaft. Bufo woodhousei bexarensis was a much larger toad than B. w. woodhousei^ and all of the Dry Cave Bufo wood¬ housei bones fall within the range of B. w. woodhousei. Thus far B. w. woodhousei has been identified from the late Pleisto¬ cene of Kansas (2 localities) and New Mexico (one locality) by Tihen (1954 and 1962b) and in the present paper; whereas B. w. bexarensis has been identified from 2 late Pleistocene localities of the Edwards Plateau of Texas (Holman, 1969a, Mecham, 1959) . Bufo sp. indet. Material. — ^Humerus: 4-513. Three tibiofibulae: 4-377, 4-514, and 12-17. Urostyle: 4-516. Remarks. — I am unable to assign these elements to species. Pseudacris triseriata (Wied) Material.- — Left ilium: 6-4463. Remarks. — Chantell (1964) provides a discussion of the ilial char¬ acters of the species of Pseudacris. The fossil is assigned to the species P. triseriata rather than to P. clarki in that in P. triseriata the free 34 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE margin of the ventral acetabular expansion is straight to angularly concave-convex, whereas in P. clarki this margin describes a convex outline. The fossil represents a large individual. Measurements of the fossil are: height through dorsal and ventral acetabular expansion 2.8; height of acetabular cup 1.6; height through dorsal protuberance and ventral acetabular expansion 2.7. Fig. 2. Recent (shaded) and Dry Cave fossil (solid circle) distribution of Pseudacris triseriata. In New Mexico today, P. triseriata occurs only in the mountains of the northwestern part of the state, where it has been recorded from only 7 localities (Gehlbach, 1965). Figure 2 shows the Recent and fossil distribution of Pseudacris triseriata. Rana pipiens Schreber Material. — One right and one left ilium: 4-607-608. Remarks. — These ilia are identical to R. pipiens and can be distin¬ guished from R. catesbeiana on the basis that the slope of posterodorsal border of the ilial shaft into the dorsal acetabular expansion is much less precipitous in R. pipiens than in R. catesbeiana. Phrynosoma douglassi (Bell) Material. — Twenty-seven maxillae: 4-83, 4-195, 4-331, 4-375- PLEISTOCENE HERPETOFAUNA FROM EDDY COUNTY 35 376, 4-509, 4-620-624, 6-370, 6-553, 6-1925, 6-2388, 6-2874-2879, 6-3301-3302, 6-4189, 6-4462, 6-5487, and 6-5716. Twenty- two fron- tals: 4-338, 4-374, 4-508, 4-541, 4-625, 4-626-628, 6-519, 6-2864- 2865, 6-6286-6287, 6-3308, 6-4028, 6-4458-4459, 6-5056-5057, and 6-5711-5713. Twenty parietais: 3-55, 4-59, 4-362, 4-373, 4-401, 4_500, 4-615-619. 6-492, 6-763, 6-2868-2869, 6-3304-3307, and 6-5717. Six squamosals: 4-81-82, 6-3303, 6-4202, and 6-2870-2871. One occipital complex: 6—2882. Thirty-five dentaries: 4-54, 4-85, 4-325-329, 4-363, 4-378-379, 4-632-633, 6-761, 6-951, 6-968, 6- 2335-2337, 6-2851-2861, 6-4460-4461, 6-5055, 6-5714-5715, and 12-42. Six scapulocoracoids: 6-2872-2873, 6-3299, 6-3300, 6-5718, and 12-12. Two humeri: 4-84 and 6-3328. Two pelves: 4-380 and 6-697. Remarks. — Many of the bones of this species are quite distinctive from those of the other horned lizards of the region. Phrynosoma douglassi usually occurs above 7,000 feet in the area today, and it appears to be restricted to the Bowl and Upper Dog Canyon of the Guadelupe Mountains (Frederick Gehlbach, in. litt.) . Phrynosoma cornutum (Harlan) Material. — Left dentary: 4-631. Remarks. — The dentary of P. cornutum differs from that of P. douglassi in being shorter, and in having blunter, lower-crowned, more peg-like teeth; the Meckelian groove is widely open throughout. In P. douglassi the dentary is longer, the teeth are more numerous, higher- crowned, and pointed; the Meckelian groove is closed anteriorly. In P. modestum the dentary is very high, and it is sculptured ventrally. The teeth are minute and quite numerous; the Meckelian groove is closed anteriorly. The fossil represents an adult P. cornutum with a tooth count of 18. Crotaphytus collar is (Say) Material. — Left maxilla: 4-540. Basioccipital: 12-45. Pelvis: 12-46. Remarks.~T\ie bones are indistinguishable from the Holocene species. Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille) Material. — Four left (4-635-636, 6-2849, and 12-41 ) and one right (6-2850) dentaries. 36 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Remarks. — The dentary of S. undulatus may be distinguished from that of Holbrookia on the basis of characters listed in Holman (1969b) ; and on the basis that in S. undulatus there appears to be much more of a tendency for the Meckelian grove to be open anteriorly than in H. texana. Based on material at hand, the dentary of S. undulatus is easily distinguished from that of S. graciosus on the basis of the much more distinctly tricuspid teeth of the latter species. Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus) Material. — Three precaudal vertebrae: 4-66-67, and 4-277. Remarks. — These vertebrae differ from Pituophis in having much lower neural spines. They are similar to Arizona elegans and to large Lampropeltis t. triangulum. But they differ from these species and are similar to Holocene Elaphe guttata in having the accessory processes much blunter and less delicate than in A. elegans, and in having higher, shorter neural spines and shorter accessory processes than in L. t. triangulum. Salvadora sp. indet. Material. — Three precaudal vertebrae: 4^65, 4-586, and 6-4335. Remarks. — The vertebrae of Coluber, Masticophis, and Salvadora are similar to each other and rather distinct from other North Amer¬ ican colubrids. All have a thin neural spine, the tendency to have epizygapophyseal spines, and a pronounced, thin hemal keel that is uniform in width throughout its length. But the vertebrae of Salvadora may be distinguished from those of Coluber and Masticophis on the basis of the smaller condyle and neural canal and more robust acces¬ sory processes in Salvadora. I am unable to distinguish the vertebrae of the species S. hexalepis and S. grahamiae on the basis of available comparative material. Thamnophis proximus (Say) Material. — Right angular: 4-614. Precaudal vertebra: 4-584. Remarks. — The angular of Holocene T. proximus (5) differs from that of T. elegans (7), T. marcianus (4), T. radix (7), and T. sirtalis (8) in that its surangular crest is higher and has steeper anterior and posterior slopes than in the other species. The fossil angular represents a large ribbon snake. Its measurements are here compared with those of an angular from a Holocene T. proximus with a total length of PLEISTOCENE HERPETOFAUNA FROM EDDY COUNTY 37 113.7 cm. from 3 miles northeast of Con Can, Uvalde County, Texas. The measurements of the Holocene form are in parentheses: total length and angular 19.6 (19.9); height through surangular crest 3.2 (3.2). The vertebra is also from a large ribbon snake. This fossil differs from T. cyrtopsis^ T. elegans^ T. marcianus^ and T. radix and is similar to T. sirtalis and T. proximus in having the neural spine with little anterior overhang. It differs from Natrix erythrogaster, N. fasciata, and N. rhombifera in having its neural spine lower than long. The measurements of the fossil vertebra compared with those of the 113,7 cm. Holocene specimen are: greatest height of vertebra through hypa- pophysis and neural spine 8.7 (7.6); greatest length through zyga- pophyses 7.7 (7.5); greatest width through postzygapophyses 7.5 (6.9). This snake is found at lower elevations than 4,200 feet in the area today (Frederick Gehlbach, in, lift.). Thamnophis sp. indet. Material. — Seventy-seven precaudal vertebrae: 4-69-71, 4-276, 4— 370-371, 4-503, 6-578, 6-2330-2334, 6-2880-2881, 6-3310-3325, 6- 3480, 6-4196-4198, 6-4316-4334, 6-4896, 6-5050-5053, 6-5309, 6- 5320-5323, 6-5381-5391, 6-5490, and 12-30. Remarks. — The neural spines of the precaudal vertebrae of most of these fossils and of T. cyrtopsis^ T. elegans^ T. marcianus, and T. radix have the top of the neural spine with more anterior and posterior overhang than in T. sirtalis and T. proximus, but I am not able to distinguish between the vertebrae of species of the former group, Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard Material. — Left maxilla: 4-499. Right articular: 12-39, Remarks. — The articular bone, according to Brattstrom (1964b) has a characteristic shape for each species of pit viper in that the surangular crest (“high medial hump”) that lies just anterior to the quadrate differs in its outline. The right articular from Dry Cave resembles Holocene C. atrox at hand and differs from C. viridis, C. molossus, C. lepidus, and C. scutulatus (Brattstrom, 1964b, fig. 1) in having the surangular crest with less steep anterior and posterior slopes, and in having its dorsal border more rounded and angular throughout than in the other species. The maxilla of C. atrox also appears to be diagnostic. In anterior view the process on the lateral part of the facial pit area is much 38 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE blunter and less distinctly developed than in C. viridis, C. molossus, C. lepidus^ and C. scutulatus (Brattstrom, 1964b, fig. 21 ) . Crotalus sp. indet. Material. — Twenty-seven vertebrae; 3-6, 3-84-85, 4-63-64, 4- 332-333, 4-336, 4-369, 4-501-502, 4-536-538, 4-587, 6-579, 6-1200, 6-1398, 6-3326, 6-4343, 6-4896, 6-5324, 12-26-29, and 12-110. Remarks. — Many of the larger vertebrae probably represent Cro¬ talus atrox, but the possibility exists that other species are also repre¬ sented. DISCUSSION Lundelius (1966) points out that large accumulations of bones in cave deposits almost always represent some other factor than the random deaths of animals on the surface. He indicates that 2 major sources for bones in caves are (1) from the leavings and feces of carnivores, and (2) from the pellets regurgitated by owls. Bones de¬ rived from carnivores are usually in the form of large concentrations of broken bones and chips. Bones derived from owls are generally more complete (although skulls may be disarticulated) and represent small animals up to young rabbit size; with the largest animals being represented by juveniles. Based on the unbroken nature of many of the herpetological remains, it seems possible that at least a part of the fossil herpetofauna was dervied from owl pellets. The Great Horned Owl, which is a part of the modern fauna of the Dry Cave area, is reported to feed upon snakes and “horned toads” as well as other small vertebrates (Bailey, 1928) . Moreover, Bailey noted the occurrence of Great Horned Owls in several caves near Carlsbad Caverns. These birds were nesting in “high niches” in the twilight zone of the cave, and examination of pellets showed a representation of practically the whole rodent and small animal population of the region. Thus, it seems that owls might have been the collectors of at least part of the Dry Cave fossil herpetofauna. But today owls would have to travel roughly 50 kilometers from the site to reach the areas were both the low and the high altitude species occur. The only amphibian or reptile from the Dry Cave fossil herpeto¬ fauna that is not presently found in southeastern New Mexico is Pseudacris triseriata which today occurs only in the mountains of northwestern New Mexico and is known from only 7 localities in the state (Gehlbach, 1965). Harris (1970) suggests that the extinction of PLEISTOCENE HERPETOFAUNA FROM EDDY COUNTY 39 marmots in southern New Mexico and in Arizona (fossil marmots are present in Dry Cave) might be due to a period of winter=early spring aridity rather than to an annual deficit. Possibly this also could have been a factor in the withdrawal of Pseudacris triseriata from southeastern New Mexico. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, F. M., 1928 — Birds of New Mexico. New Mexico Dept. Game and Fish. Brattstrom, B. H., 1964a — Amphibians and reptiles from cave deposits in south- central New Mexico. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci., 63(2) : 93-103. — - 1964b— Evolution of the pit vipers. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 13(11): 185-268. Chantell, C. J., 1964 — Some Mio-Pliocene hylids from the Valentine formation of Nebraska. Amer. Midi. Nat., 72(1): 211-225. Gehlbach, F. R., 1965 — Herpetology of the Zuni Mountains Region, northwestern New Mexico. Proc. U . S. Nat. Mus., 116(3505) : 243-332. Harris, A. H., 1970— The Dry Cave Mammalian Fauna and Late Pluvial Conditions in southeastern New Mexico. Tex. J. Sci., 22: 3-27. Holman, J. A., 1969a. — Pleistocene amphibians from a cave in Edwards County, Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 21(1): 63-67. - , 1969b. — Herpetofauna of the Pleistocene Slaton Local Fauna of Texas. Southwest. Nat., 14(2): 203-212. Lundelius, E. L., 1966 — Marsupial carnivore dens in Australian caves. Stud. Speleol, 1(4): 174-180. Mecham, j. S., 1959 — Some Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles from Friesenhahn Cave, Texas. Southwest. Nat., 3: 17-27. Tihen, j, a., 1954 A Kansas Pleistocene herpetofauna. Copeia, 1954 (3): 217-221. - - , 1958 — ^Comments on the osteology and phylogeny of ambystomatid salamanders. Bull. Fla. State Mus., 3: 1-50. - , 1960 — On N eoscaphiopus and other Pliocene pelobatid frogs. Copeia, 1960(2): 89-94. - , 1962a. — Osteological observations on New World Bufo. Amer. Midi. Nat., 67(1): 157-183. - , 1962b — A review of New World fossil bufonids. Amer. Midi. Nat., 68(1): 1-50. Late Pleistocene (Woodfordian) Gastropods from Dry Cave, Eddy County, New Mexico by ARTIE L. METCALF Department of Biology, T he University of T exas at EL Paso, El Paso 79999 ABSTRACT A gastropod fauna of late Pleistocene (Woodfordian) age is reported from Dry Cave, Eddy County, New Mexico. Fifteen species were collected, of which 9 occur in the general area today and 6 occur at higher elevations in southern New Mexico or farther to the north in the Rocky Mountains. INTRODUCTION This paper is supplementary to a paper by Arthur H. Harris (1970) treating paleoecological aspects of a Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Dry Cave, Eddy County, New Mexico. Dr. Harris kindly made available to me fossil gastropods collected in association with vertebrate fossils from several localities within the cave. Specimens are in col¬ lections of the Museum of Arid Land Biology, The University of Texas at El Paso. Dry Cave is located ca. 15 miles west of Carlsbad, New Mexico, at 104° 28' 55" West Longitude; 32° 22' 25" North Latitude and in SEi/4, Sec. 22, T. 22 S, R. 24 E. The present (as well as a former) mouth of the cave lies on a prominence called McKittrick Hill at an elevation of 4,200 feet. The cave lies near the border of the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life zones. The present vegetation consists chiefly of desert shrubs with sparse occurrence of grasses and a few hackberry and juniper trees. Details concerning environment of the area and a de¬ scription of the cave are presented by Harris (1970) . The mammalian and gastropod faunas reported in these papers suggest, paleoecologi- cally, deposition during a pluvial time of the Pleistocene and this is reinforced by a radiocarbon date of 14,470 ± 250 B.P. obtained from dung of Neotoma collected at Locality 6. Thus, materials reported here seam to postdate only slightly the time of the Woodfordian maximum suggested by the late Quaternary sea-level curves constructed by Mil- liman and Emery (1968). Fossil gastropods are reported from Localities 4 (Bison Chamber), The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 42 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 6 (Harris’s Pocket), and 12 (Balcony Room) — see Harris (1970). De¬ posits at the various localities are judged to be generally equivalent in age. Deposits are water-laid and seem to have been derived from the area near the former mouth of the cave. Localities represented (in italics) and number of specimens collected (in parentheses) are indi¬ cated after names of species in the annotated list below. LIST OF SPECIES 1. Stagnicola cockerelli (Pilsbry and Ferriss). ^(1). One specimen of this l5annaeid snail was taken in Bison Chamber. It is the only aquatic snail in the fauna. This species is seemingly highly tolerant of desiccation. Baker (1911: 220) mentioned reviving specimens from northwestern New Mexico that had been out of water for 45 days and Leonard (1959: 51) found the species inhabiting ephemeral ponds in western Kansas. It seems likely that small pools existed near or in the mouth of Dry Cave and were inhabited by this snail. 2. Gastrocopta procera (Gould). 4(153). This pupillid was the 2nd most numerous species taken in the cave deposits, although it seems completely absent from the area today. Nearest occurrences, to my knowledge, are in the Sacramento Mountains, Otero County, New Mexico, where it has been taken in grassy meadows at 7,000-8,000 feet. It occurs in the Texas Panhandle at least as far southwestward as Randall County. In the Texas Panhandle, and north and eastward in the Great Plains of Oklahoma and Kansas it commonly occurs in grass¬ lands. 3. Gastrocopta pellucida hordeacella (Pilsbry) .4(32). This is a snail of the southern United States. It seems to reach the northern limits of its range in Kansas (Leonard, 1959: Fig. 74), where it is rare, and southeastern Colorado (Pilsbry, 1948: 914). In the Texas Panhandle, it commonly occurs in grasslands. It occurs at low elevations in the southwestern United States, including the area of Dry Cave. 4. Gastrocopta armifera armifera (Say). 4(2). This is a common snail of most of the eastern United States, extending westward as a common species to Kansas and Oklahoma. It occurs along streams ap¬ proximately the distance westward across the Texas Panhandle. Southwestward, present populations seem widely scattered. I have found it living along the Tularosa River in the Sacramento Mountains, Otero County, New Mexico, at 7,200 feet and it occurs in the southern Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico (Pilsbry, 1948: 878). However, living populations from these mountains possess the larger anguloparietal and columellar denticles of G. a. ruidosensis Cockerell, LATE PLEISTOCENE GASTROPODS FROM DRY CAVE 43 whereas specimens from Dry Cave are of the typical subspecies. Al¬ though G. armifera seems to be restricted to montane forests in the southwestern part of its present range, it occurs in grasslands in the central Great Plains (Metcalf, 1962: 277, 287) . 5. Pupoides hordaceus (Gabb). 4(3). Collections from many late Pleistocene and early Holocene localities in western Texas, New Mex¬ ico, and northern Arizona have contained P. hordaceus. I have col¬ lected living specimens at Echo Amphitheater, ca. 14 miles S. of Cebolla, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. Beetle (1960: 155) re¬ ported a fresh shell from Platt County, Wyoming, at 4,400 feet. The types (USNM 382466; MCZ 86105) of Pupoides eupleura Chamber- lain and Berry (=P. hordaceus) from Cannon ville, Garfield County, Utah, as well as specimens (UMMZ 166727, 166815) from the vicinity of Moab, Grand County, Utah, seem to contain fresh shells. Thus, P. hordaceus seems a species of the Colorado Plateau and perhaps of the eastern piedmont of the central Rocky Mountains, where its relation¬ ship to Pupoides inornatus Vanatta is unclear. 6. Pupilla hlandi Morse. 4(62) , 6 (2) , 12 {2) . P. blandi presently oc¬ curs in the central and northern Rocky Mountains and in the north¬ western Great Plains (Hibbard and Taylor, 1960: 130). It occurs in mountain ranges of New Mexico southward to the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in the east and to the Black Range in the west. In higher mountains of southern New Mexico, it seems to be replaced by Pupilla sonorana (Sterki). P. sonorana occurs in the Guadalupe Mountains to the west of Dry Cave at 7,000-9,000 feet. During late Pleistocene pluvials, P. blandi seems to have spread, at lower elevations, far southward from its present range. At such times it seems to have flourished along the Pecos and Rio Grande river val¬ leys (Leonard and Frye, 1962: 27; Metcalf, 1967: 43), and in inter- montane basins at 4,000-5,000 feet in southern New Mexico and western Texas. Thus, populations seem to have surrounded, at lower elevations, the mountains occupied by P. sonorana. Numerous col¬ lections of shells of Pleistocene age from the Sacramento Mountains contain only P. sonorana. However, in the Franklin Mountains of El Paso County, Texas, P. sonorana and P. blandi occur together in de¬ posits of late Pleistocene age. P. blandi also extended its range eastward onto the High Plains of Kansas and Texas (Hibbard and Taylor, 1960: 131; Frye and Leonard, 1957: Fig. 7, 8, 9) during late Pleistocene pluvials. 7. V allonia perspectiva Sterki. 4(10), 12{2). This small V allonia presently occurs in many of the mountain ranges of southern New Mexico. It seems to descend to lower elevations and to tolerate slightly 44 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE more arid enYironments than the 2 species of Vallonia reported below. I have collected it at 4,750 feet along a creek above Sitting Bull Falls 15 miles S.W. of Dry Cave, where it occurred in leaf mulch under deciduous trees. In the Guadalupe Mountains, it seems to be ‘the only Vallonia present and is common in the Ponderosa Pine zone above 6,500 feet 8. Vallonia cyclophorella Sterki. 4(13), 12(1), 9. Vallonia gracilicosta Reinhardt. 4(94), 6(4), In New Mexico in mountain ranges above 7,000 feet, V. cyclophorella and V, gracilicosta are commonly associated. V, gracilicosta seems to descend to lower elevations; I have taken it as low as 5,400 feet along the Tularosa River in the Sacramento Mountains, Otero County, at the 'bases of clumps of tall grasses. It is common in grassland at ca. 6,000 feet near Springer, Colfax County, New Mexico. I have found it in the High Plains at the following localities: (1)4 miles N.E. of Kenton, Cimarron Co., Okla¬ homa, (2) 2 miles S. of Stratford, Sherman Co., Texas and (3) 5.2 miles N. of Alanreed, Gray Co., Texas. 10. Succineidae 4(268), 6(32), 12(11). Shells of succineids, un¬ identifiable to species, were numerous. 11. Bulimulus dealbatus (Say). 4(1), 12(1). Only 2 apical whorls of B. dealbatus were found. The species is common in the Guadalupe Mountains and their foothills today and probably occurs in the vicinity of Dry Cave. 12. Helicodiscus singleyanus (Pilsbry). 4(1). This species occurs in southern New Mexico, especially in foothills of mountains' at 4,000- 7,000 feet. 13. Retinella indentata (Say) .4(9). This species presently occurs in southern New Mexico chiefly in mountains above 6,000 feet. However, I have collected it as low as 4,750 feet in leaf litter under trees along the spring-fed stream above Sitting Bull Falls, ca. 15 miles S.W. of the cave. 14. Hawaiia minuscula (Binney). 4(30), 6(1), 12(1). This snail is widespread both at lower and higher elevations in southern New Mex¬ ico at the present time. 15. Thysanophora korni (Gabb). 4(1). One specimen of this species was recovered from sediments in Bison Chamber. This is a snail of the southwestern United States and Mexico. Pilsbry (1940: 986) listed it from the states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, with ‘the north¬ ernmost record in New Mexico being from Sierra County. It occurs characteristically at lower elevations (4,000-7,000 feet) in southern New Mexico. Several fragments of a large, discoidal snail may appertain to an LATE PLEISTOCENE GASTROPODS FROM DRY CAVE 45 Ashmunella, perhaps A. carlsbadensis Pilsbry, which has been re¬ ported (Pilsbry, 1940: 978) from a cave in Dark Canyon in the Guada¬ lupe Mountains southwest of Dry Cave. DISCUSSION Of the snails listed above, the following 6 occur in arid habitats in the eastern foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains today and are tol¬ erant of habitat like that around Dry Cave: Gastrocopta pellucida hordeacella^ possibly the succineids reported, Bulimulus dealbatus, Helicodiscus singleyanus, Hawaiia minuscula, and Thysanophora horni. Vallonia perspectiva and Retinella indentata also occur in this foothills region, but seem to be restricted to the best watered areas along permanent streams. Stagnicola cockerelli may occur in the area. Of the remaining 6 species, 4 {Gastrocopta procera, G. armifera, Val¬ lonia cyclophorella, and V. gracilicosta) occur as near as the Sacra¬ mento Mountains some 70 miles to the northwest, where they are characteristic of montane meadows and forests above 7,000 feet ele¬ vation. Pupilla blandi occurs in mountains in the northern half of New Mexico, but is “replaced” by P. sonorana southward. Living Pupoides hordaceus may not occur any closer to Dry Cave than southeastern Wyoming or the Colorado Plateau. At present, the ranges of B. deal- batus and T. horni seem to extend northward only to central New Mexico and that of G. p. hordeacella only to southeastem Colorado. Thus, the fauna shows a mingling of present-day northern and southern species. Taylor (1965: 601) noted that Pleistocene molluscan faunas from the southern Great Plains characteristically exhibit such mingling. An analysis of the mammalian pluvial fauna of Dry Cave by Harris (this volume) indicates a similar mingling and is discussed by him. All of the species reported with the exception of the aquatic S. cockerelli are known to occur in grasslands in at least parts of their present ranges. Grasslands like those found along the Rocky Mountain piedmont in northeastern New Mexico and Colorado at 6,000 feet may have spread southward in Woodfordian time in association with several of the snails listed. Although the interfluve on which the former cave mouth was located was probably grassy, trees might have existed in nearby valleys and on hillsides. I know of no place where all the species reported presently occur together. In the Sacramento Mountains, between the altitudes of 6,000-7,000 feet I have collected 12 of the 15 species from Dry Cave, suggesting a “life zone depression” of 2,000-3,000 feet. However, this 46 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OP SCIENCE may be misleading, since species such as G. procera, G. armifera, P, hordaceus, P. hlandi^ V. cyclophorella, and V. gracilicosta may more correctly be visualized as migrating southward in connection with an extension of piedmont grasslands rather than (or in addition to) mi¬ grating downward from nearby mountain ranges. Thus, P. blandi seems to have migrated southward, whereas P. sonorana remained a montane species in nearby ranges. LITERATURE CITED Baker, F. C., 1911 — The Lymnaeidae of North and Middle America, Recent and fossil. Chicago Acad. Sci. Spec. Publ., 3. Beetle, D. E., 1960 — Noteworthy records of Wyoming Mollusca. Nautilus, 73(4); 155-157. Frye, J. C. and A. B. Leonard, 1957— Studies of Cenozoic geology along eastern margin of Texas High Plains, Armstrong to Howard counties. Rep. Invest. Bur. Econ. Geol. Univ. Tex., 32: 1-62. Harris, A. H., 1970 — The Dry Cave mammalian fauna and late pluvial conditions in southeastern New Mexico. Tex. J. Sci., 22; 3-27. Hibbard, C. W. and D. W. Taylor, 1960 — Two late Pleistocene faunas from south¬ western Kansas. Contrih. Mus. Paleont. Univ. Mich., 16(1): 1-223. Leonard, A. B., 1959 — Handbook of gastropods in Kansas. Univ. Kan. Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ., 20. - and J. C. Frye, 1962 — Pleistocene molluscan faunas and physiographic history of Pecos Valley in Texas. Rep. Invest. Bur. Econ. Geol. Univ. Tex., 45: 1-42. Metcalf, A. L., 1962 — Gastropods of Cowley County, Kansas. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci, 65(2): 275-289. - , 1967 — Late Quaternary mollusks of the Rio Grande Valley, Caballo Dam, New Mexico, to El Paso, Texas. Univ. Tex. at El Paso Sci. Ser., 1: 1-62. Milliman, j. D. and K. O. Emery, 1968 — Sea levels during the past 35,000 years. Science, 162: 1121-1123. PiLSBRY, H. A., 1940 — Land Mollusca of North America (North of Mexico). Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Monogr., 3(Vol. 2, Pt. 2). - , 1948 — Land Mollusca of North America (North of Mexico). Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Monogr., 3(Vol. 2, Pt. 2). Taylor, D. W., 1965 — The study of Pleistocene nonmarine mollusks in North America. In H. E. Wright, Jr. and D. G. Frey (Eds.) — The Quaternary of the United States. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, pp. 597-611. A Checklist of the Cave Fauna of Texas. V. Additional Records of Insecta" by JAMES R. REDDELL^ Texas Speleological Survey^ Austin, Texas ABSTRACT Seventy-three species of insect are reported for the first time from caves in Texas; new records and bibliographic citations are included for 93 species previously re¬ ported from Texas caves. Unpublished records are included for the following groups: Collembola, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Odonata, Blattidae, Gryllacrididae, Psocoptera, Dermaptera, Lepidoptera, Formicidae^ Siphonaptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera. Of special significance are new records for species of the carabid genus Rhadine. INTRODUCTION This report is the 2nd of 3 intended to supplement the comprehen¬ sive checklist of the cave fauna of Texas previously published (Reddell, 1965; 1966; 1967a). The first part, covering the non-insect inverte¬ brates, has already been published (Reddell, 1969), Included in this supplementary report are all insect species newly found in Texas caves, new records and bibliographic citations for species reported in the checklist, corrections and nomenclatural changes, and the names of newly described species. As in the previous checklist comments on habitat and nomenclature are included where appropriate. This supplement increases the total number of insects known from Texas caves from 208 to 301. Many of the species newly reported are the result of studies of collections of collembolans, flies, hemipterans, and beetles. Still unexamined, however, are large series of flies and beetles. New records of the beetle genus Rhadine are of special interest in further delineating the range of this abundant troglophile and troglo- bite group. The following symbols have been used to indicate the probable ecologic classification of the species: troglobite (**), troglophile (’*'), trogloxene (f), and accidental (ft). A question mark preceding a record indicates that it is only tentatively assigned to the taxa in ques- 1 Supported in part by a grant from the Water Resources Center, Texas Tech¬ nological College, Lubbock, Texas, 2 Present address: Box 7672 Univ. Sta., Austin. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 48 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE tion. Numbers preceding the scientific name if below 540 refer to the number assigned to the species in the first 3 parts of the checklist; if the number is 540 or above it is a continuation of the numbering from the previous list. The systematic arrangement in this report generally follows that of the previous checklist. All of the material, unless other¬ wise acknowledged, was collected by members of the Texas Speleologi¬ cal Survey. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am particularly grateful to William H. Russell for his assistance in collecting a large part of the material covered by this report. Others who supplied specimens or assisted in the collecting were: Ed Alexander, Eddie Bull, Jane Calvert, Dewayne Dickey, William Elliott, T. R. Evans, John Fish, Suzanne Fowler, Ruben M, Frank, Jim Goodbar, Carl Kunath, Pete Lindsley, David McKenzie, Tom Meador, David Meredith, Robert W. Mitchell, Terry Raines, Eric Remington, Carol Russell, R. C. Schroeder, and A. Richard Smith. To all of these I wish to express my sincere thanks. My special appreciation also goes to Nell B. Causey, Thomas C. Barr, Jr., Willis J. Gertsch, Theodore H. Hubbell, and Robert W. Mitchell for their continued support and advice. I wish to express my appreciation to each of the following systematists for their identification of material covered by this report: Thomas C. Barr, Jr., University of Kentucky, carabid and pselaphid beetles; 0. L. Cartwright, United States National Museum, scarabaeid and trogid beetles; Kenneth Christiansen, Grinnell College, collembolans; Arthur C. Cole, University of Tennessee, ants; D. R. Davis, United States National Museum, oinophilid moths; O. S. Flint, United States National Museum, damselflies; Richard C. Froeschner, United States National Museum, hemipterans; R. J. Gagne, United States National Museum, sciarid dipterans; Ash¬ ley B. Gurney, United States National Museum, roaches and earwigs; Lee H. Herman, American Museum of Natural History, staphylinid beetles; R. W. Hodges, United States National Museum, gelechiid moths; William Jellison, Rocky Moun¬ tain Laboratory, Hamilton, Montana, fleas; John M. Kingsolver, United States National Museum, dermestid beetles; J. P. Kramer, United States National Museum, homopterans; Edward L. Mockford, Illinois State University, psocids; Stewart Peck, Museum of Comparative Zoology, catopid beetles; P. J. Spangler, United States National Museum, hydrophilid beetles; T. J. Spilman, United States National Mu¬ seum, alleculid, cantharid, elaterid, ptilodactylid, ptinid, scraptiid, and tenebrionid beetles; A. Stone, United States National Museum, psychodid dipterans; D. M. Weisman, United States National Museum, acrolophid and tineid moths; W. W. Wirth, United States National Museum, drosophilid dipterans; D. L. Wray, United States National Museum, collembolans. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA CLASS INSECTA Order Diplura Family Japygidae 239. *Evalljapyx sp. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 49 Order Thysanura Family Nicoletiidae 243. **Nicoletia texensis Ulrich Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967); Smith and Reddell (1965). Order Collembola Family Entomobryidae 603. ‘WEntomobrya atrocincta Schott Texas records. — T ravis County: Lost Gold Cave. Comment. — ^This probable accidental was taken near the entrance on the wall. 604. 'WEntomobrya nivalis (Linnaeus) Texas Yecords— Travis County: Lost Gold Cave. Comment. — This species was taken from off of the wall near the entrance. 605. 'WEntomobrya multifasciata Tullberg. Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — This species was taken from leaf litter below the cave entrance. 606. \\Lepidocyrtus cyaneus group Texas records. — Schleicher County: Oglesby Ranch Cave. Comment. — ^This species was taken near the cave entrance. 245. *Pseudosinella violenta (Folsom) Texas records. — Bexar County: Government Canyon Bat Cave and Headquar¬ ters Cave; Burnet County: Snelling’s Cave; Comal County: Rittiman Cave; Crockett County: 09 Well; Edwards County: Deep Cave, Hughes Cave, and Punkin Cave; Hays County: Boggus Cave; Kerr County: Seven Room Cave; Kimble County: Llewellyn Rose Cave; Medina County: Coontop Pit, Lutz Cave, and Weynand Cave; Travis County: Broken Straw Cave, Midnight Cave, and Mold Hole; Uvalde County: Carson Cave, Dripstone Cave, and Grape Hollow Cave; Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — ^This species was previously confused with Pseudosinella petterseni Bomer and was so listed in the previous checklist. All records cited there for P. petterseni rightfully belong here. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith ( 1 965 ) ; Smith and Reddell ( 1 965 ) . 246. ^Tomocerus flavescens (Tullberg) Texas records. — Bexar County: Bullis Hole; Travis County: Tooth Cave. Comment. — In both of these caves specimens were taken from the area im¬ mediately below the entrance. QQ7 . '\\Willowsia platani (Nicolet) Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — ^This species was taken from leaf litter at the bottom of this small sink. Family Podufidae 608. ^\Pseudachorutes subcrassoides Mills Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — This species was taken from leaf litter below the entrance. Family Sminthuridae 248. ** Arrhopalites sp. 50 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Texas records. — Kendall County: Cascade Caverns. Comment. — Several specimens of this genus, possibly representing a new species of troglobite, were taken from off of small pools along the main passage. 609. * Arrhopalites pygmaeus (Wankel) Texas records. — Travis County: Tooth Cave. Comment. — This species is a probable troglophile. Order Hemiptera Family Cimicidae 250. *Primicimex cavernis Barber Bibliography. — Beddell (1967); Ueshima (1966; 1968); Usinger (1966). Family Cixiidae 610. ff Unidentified genus and species Texas records. — Travis County: Cotterell Cave; Uvalde County: Tampke Ranch Cave. Comment. — Immature specimens of this family were present near the entrance in both of these caves. Family Cydnidae 252. Galgupha sp. Bibliography. — Pveddell (1967). Family Lygaeidae 6\\ . WCnemodus mavortius (Say) Texas records. — Edwards County: Deep Cave. Comment. — One specimen of this species was taken in the entrance area. 612. \\Lygaeus kalmii Stal Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — This species was present among surface debris at the bottom of the main entrance drop. Family Pentatomidae 613. \\Hymanarcys nervosa (Say) Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — Specimens of this species were taken from below the entrance drop among logs and other debris. Family Reduviidae 614. '\Melanolestes ahdominalis (Herrick-Schaeffer) Texas records. — Edwards County: Deep Cave; Medina County: Weynand Cave. Comment. — ^This species was taken in the dry upper levels of Deep Cave and in the small entrance room of Weynand Cave. 615. \Triatoma sp. Texas records. — San Saha County: Horseshoe Fissure; Uvalde County: Sandtle- ben Cave. Comment, — Specimens were taken from the dry entrance area. 259. -[Triatoma gerstaeckeri (Stal) Texas records. — Bexar County: PHeadquarters Cave; Comal County: Kappel- man Salamander Cave; Medina County: Weynand Cave; Travis County: A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 51 PArrow Cave and Under-the-Road Cave; Uvalde County'. PCarson Cave and PTampke Ranch Cave. Comment. — Records marked with a question mark are represented only by im¬ mature specimens and so the identification is tentative. All specimen's were found in dry areas near the entrance. Bibliography. — Mohr and Poulson (1966); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965). 616. \Triatoma sanguisuga indictiva Neiva Texas records. — San Saba County. Crystal Lake Cave. Comment. — ^T'his species was found in the dry entrance area on goat droppings. 617. Emesinae gen. et sp. Texas records. — Edwards County. Devil’s Sinkhole. Comment. — A nymph of this subfamily was taken in the entrance area. Family Veliidae 618. *Microvelia sp. Texas records. — T ravis County: Balcones Sink. Comment. — ^This species was abundant on the pools in this cave. Order Homoptera Family Cicadellidae 619. WXestocephalus sp. Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — This genus was taken in leaf litter below the entrance. 620. ffGyponinae gen. et sp. Texas records. — Travis County: Tooth Cave. Comment. — ^This subfamily was taken at the bottom of the entrance drop. Order Odonata Family Coenagrionidae Q21 . WT elehasis 7salua (Hag.) Texas records. — San Saba County: Cicurina Cave. Comment. — An immature specimen was taken in a pool several hundred feet from the cave entrance. It had probably washed into the cave. Order Orthoptera Family Blattidae 261. \Arenivaga erratica Rehn Texas records. — Williamson County: “Cave” at Georgetown. Comment. — This is probably the source of Chopard’s reference (1931) to the occurrence of this species in Texas caves. This record may well refer to Arenivaga tonkawa, a common trogloxene in Texas caves. Bibliography. — Hebard (1917). 262. \ Arenivaga tonkawa Heb. Texas records.. — Bexar County: PHeadquarters Cave; Kerr County: PSeven Room Cave; Medina County: PLutz Cave; Real County: PTucker Hollow Cave; Uvalde County: PCarson Cave, PSandtleben Cave, and Tampke Ranch Cave. Comment. — Localities indicated by a question mark are represented only by 52 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE immature or female specimens and so only tentative identification is possible. Bibliography — Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell ( 1 965 ) . 263. WPseudomops septentrionalis Heb. Texas records. — Hays County: PTarbutton’s Cave; Uvalde County: PCarson Cave; Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — Records marked by a question mark are immature and so only tentatively assigned to this species. Specimens from Four Mile Cave were found in the entrance crawlway following a flood of the cave. Family Gryllacrididae 264. \Ceuthophilus {Ceuthophilus) spp. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968); Mitchell (1968); Mohr and Poul- son (1966); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Red¬ dell (1965). 265. \Ceuthophilus {Ceuthophilus ) sp., cf. apache Hubbell Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 269. ^Ceuthophilus {Ceuthophilus) secretus Scudder Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965).^ 270. \Ceuthophilus {Ceuthophilus) variegatus Scudder Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). 272. ^Ceuthophilus {Geotettix) cunicularis Hubbell Bibliography. — Barr (1968); Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967); Red¬ dell and Smith (1965) ; Smith and Reddell (1965) . Order Psocoptera Family Psyllipsocidae 622. *Psyllipsocus sp. Texas records. — Kerr County: Seven Room Cave. Comment. — This is probably representative of an undescribed species, but no mature individuals were present in the collection. 278. *Psyllipsocus ramburii Selys-Longchamps Texas records. — Edwards County: Hughes Cave; Lampasas County: Enough Cave; Uvalde County: Carson Cave and Sandtleben Cave. Comment. — Although all of the above specimens were taken near the cave entrance, this species almost certainly completes its life cycle within caves. It is wide-spread in caves throughout the world and has been taken in caves in Mexico. Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). Order Dermaptera Family Labiduridae 279 WEuborellia annulipes (Lucas) Texas records. — Val Verde County: Oriente Milestone Molasses Bat Cave. Comment. — Originally reported as unidentified material, this species has now been identified. It is known also from Grutas de Juxtlahuaca, Guerrero, Mexico. Its ecological status is uncertain, but at least in this cave it is probably an accidental. A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 53 Order Lepidoptera Family Acrolophidae 623. •^■fAcrolophus sp. Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — Larvae of this genus were taken in leaf litter below the entrance. Family Gelechiidae 624. WFilatima sp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — A larva of this genus was taken below the entrance on surface debris. Family Oinophilidae 625. WPhaeoses sabinella Forbes Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — A single moth of this species was taken below the entrance. Family T ineidae 626. WAmydria sp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole; Travis County: Lost Gold Cave. Comment. — Larvae of the above genus were found in the entrance areas. 282. *Myrmecozela sp., nr effrenatella Clem. Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 627. Tinea sp. Texas records. — “Little Cave.” Comment. — The location of this cave is unknown. It is probably in Kendall, Comal, or Hays County, The ecological status of the species is also un¬ known. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). Order Hymenoptera Family Formicidae 287. '\\Crematogaster sp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Deep Cave. Comment. — This species was found near the entrance. 289. ■{Eciton (Labidus) coecum (Latreille) Texas records. — Kerr County: Seven Room Cave; Medina County: Lutz Cave; Travis County: Weldon Cave; Williamson County: Beck Sewer Cave and Cricket Cave, Comment. — ^The continued appearance of this species in caves indicates that it should be considered at least a trogloxene. Several colonies were present in organic debris in the entrance area of Beck Sewer Cave. In Lutz Cave an enormous number of ants were present and many cave animals were found to be carried by the ants. Bibliography. — Reddell ( 1967) . 628. WPachycondyla harpax montezumia F. Smith Texas records. — Medina County: Weynand Cave. Comment. — This species was taken in the entrance room. It has also been found in caves in San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, and Yucatan, Mexico. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 54 294. \\Pheidole sp. Texas records. — Edwards County. Punkin Cave. Comment. — Several specimens of this genus were found in surface debris below the entrance drop. 295. \\Pogonomyrmex barbatus (F. Smith) Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). Order Siphonaptera Family Dolichopsyllidae 629. *Ceratophyllus sp. Texas records. — Sutton County: Felton Cave. Comment. — Females of this genus were taken from a nest of the Coahuilan Cliff Swallow, Petrochelidon fulva pallida, in the entrance room. Family Ischnopsyllidae 299. j-Myodopsylla collinsi Koch Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell (1965). 302. * Sternopsylla texana (Fox) Bibliography. — Constantine (1967) ; Reddell (1967). Family Pulicidae 303. -^Echidnophaga gallinacea (Westwood) Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 305. ^Pulex simulans Baker Texas records. — Lampasas County: Jackson Flea Cave. Comment. — Fleas were present in vast numbers on the floor and in the silt in this cave. It is frequented by goats and wild animals. Family Tungidae 307. * Rhynchopsyllus pulex Haller Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). Order Diptera Family Drosophilidae 630. \Leucophenga sp. Texas records. — Comal County: Bad Weather Pit. Comment. — Flies were present in large numbers in small domes at the entrance. Family Muscidae 309. \\Synthesiomyia nudiseta van der Wulp Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). Family Mycetophilidae 3 1 0 . f /? hymosia sp . Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 63 1 . -{Rhymosia triangularis Shaw Texas records. — Hays County: Cricket Cave; Kendall County: Cascade Caverns and Prassel Ranch Cave. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). Family Phyllomyzidae 313. *Leptometopa sp. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965). A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 55 Family Psychodidae 632. W7T elematoscopus sp. Texas records. — Burnet County: Snelling’s Cave. Comment. — single larva of this genus was taken in this cave. Family Scenopinidae 633. ffUnidentified genus and species Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — Only larvae of this family were found; they were taken below the entrance. Family Sciaridae 634. Bradysia sp. Texas records. — Comal County: Rittiman Cave; Travis County: PSpanish Wells. Comment. — Females of this genus were taken in Rittiman Cave. Only larvae were found in Spanish Wells. The ecological status of this species is unknown. Family Streblidae '6\%.^Trichohius major Coq. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967a); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965) ; Smith and Reddell (1965). 635. '\Trichobius major quadrisetosus Kessel Texas records. — Kendall County: Cascade Caverns and Prassel Ranch Cave. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). ‘^17 . '\Trichobius sphaeronotus Jobl. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967a); Reddell (1967). Order Coleoptera Family Alleculidae , 636. Unidentified genus and species Texas records. — Val Verde County: Langtry Lead Cave. Comment. — larva was found in the main passage. 637. *Hymenorus prolixus Casey Texas records. — Comal County: Little Gem Cave No. 1. Comment. — This species is tentatively considered to be a troglophile. The presence of larvae of alleculids indicates it may be completing its life cycle in caves. 322. *Lobopoda subcuneata Casey Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). Family Cantharidae 638. 'WCantharis sp. Texas records. — Bexar County: Headquarters Cave. Comment. — One specimen of this genus was taken near the entrance. Family Carabidae 330. *Agonum spp. Comment.— Material from Battery Cave, Lampasas County, has now been identified as Agonum texanum. 639. * Agonum sp., nr. texanum (LeConte) Texas records. — Culberson County: New Cave and Razor’s Edge Cave. 56 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Comment. — This species was taken off of walls in darkness throughout these 2 gypsum caves. A few specimens were also foimd in organic debris. 332. \Agonum ( Circinalia ) punctiforme (Say) Texas records. — Bexar County. Bullis Hole. Comment. — This specimen was taken in organic debris below the entrance. 640. *Agonum texanum (LeConte) Texas records. — Lampasas County. Battery Cave. Comment. — This material was previously included under species ^330, 641. *Agonum viride (LeConte) Texas records. — Bexar County. Bullis Hole. Comment. — This species was abundant among debris washed into the cave. 642. *Anisotarsus (Eurytrichus) sp. Texas records. — Uvalde County. Indian Creek Cave; Val Verde County: H. T. Miers Cave. Comment. — This species was abundant in darkness in both caves, 643. Apenes sinuata Say Texas records. — Val Verde County: H. T. Miers Cave, Comment. — The ecological status of this species is unknown. 336. Bembidion spp. Texas records. — Culberson County: Gyp Joint and Razor’s Edge Cave; William¬ son County: Beck Ranch Cave. Comment. — The species from Culberson County is certainly a troglophile. It is quite abundant in debris throughout the caves. Material previously listed here from Devil’s Sinkhole, Edwards Comity, has now been identified as Bembidion (Peryphus) texanum. 644. Bembidion picipes Kby. Texas records. — Kendall County: Cascade Caverns. Comment. — The ecological status of this species is unknown. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). 645. Bembidion (Notaphus) viridicolle La Ferte Texas records. — Val Verde County: H. T. Miers Cave. Comment.— The ecological status of this species is unknown, 337. * Bembidion (Peryphus) texanum Chaudoir Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole. Comment. — This record was previously included under species #336. Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell (1965). 646. Brachynus sp. Texas records. — Comal County: Grosser’s Sink; King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — The ecological status of this material is unknown. 339. WBradycellus (Triliarthrus) sp. Bibliography, — Reddell ( 1 967 ) . 647. Bradycellus nubifer LeConte, Texas records. — Collingsworth County: Turtle Cave. Comment, — This species, of uncertain ecological status, was found in organic debris throughout the cave. 648. Bradycellus rupestris Say Texas records. — Comal County: Fischer Cave; Edwards County: Blowhole Cave; San Saba County: Cicurina Cave. Comment. — The ecological status of this species is uncertain, but it may be a troglophile or trogoxene. A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 57 340. '\\Calathus opaculus LeConte Texas records. — Culberson County: New Cave. Comment. — This species was probably washed intO' the cave. 649. ^Calosoma sp. Texas records. — Menard County. Powell’s Cave. Comment. — This species was taken at the bottom of the mine shaft entrance. 650. \\Chlaenius ( Chlaenius ) erythropus Germar Texas records. — King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — This species was probably washed into the cave. 341 . Clivina sp. Texas records. — Bexar County: Bullis Hole; Williamson County: Inner Space Caverns. Comment. — The material in Bullis Hole was taken in debris at the bottom of the entrance drop. 65 1 . 'WCymindis villigera Chd. Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole. Comment. — This beetle was taken on the talus slope below the entrance drop. 652. '\\Dicaelus ( Dicaelus ) crenatus LeConte Texas records. — Burnet County: Snelling’s Cave. Comment. — This is almost certainly an accidental. 653. “WOoniolophus sp. Texas records. — Culberson County: New Cave. Comment. — This species probably washed into the cave. Q^^.WHarpalus (Harpalus) sp. Texas records. — King County: River Styx Cave; Uvalde County: Indian Creek Cave. Comment. — These beetles certainly were washed into the caves. 655. ■\‘\Harpalus caliginosus F. Texas records. — San Saba County: Cicurina Cave. Comment. — This beetle almost certainly was washed into the cave. 345. WHellumorphoides ferrugineus (LeConte) Texas records. — Edwards County: Deep Cave; Williamson County: Mural Cave. Comment. — These beetles probably fell into the caves. The record for Mural Cave was previously recorded as Hellumorphoides sp. 656. \\Metabletus americanus (Dej.) Texas records. — Culberson County: Wiggley Cave. Comment. — This specimen was probably washed into the cave. 346. -^Pasimachus sp. Comment. — Material from Powell’s Cave, Menard County, and Felton Cave, Sutton County, has since been identified as Pasimachus californicus. 347. -^-Pasimachus californicus Chaud. Texas records. — Edwards County: Deep Cave; Sutton County: Felton Cave; Travis County: Balcones Sink. Comment. — Specimens were taken in the entrance area of each of the above caves. The record of Felton Cave was previously cited under species #346. 348. *Rhjadine sp. {larvalis group) Texas records. — Blanco County: Buffalo Cave. Comment,— This is only the second cave collection for this comparatively rare species. The species has most often been found in mammal burrows. 58 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 349. * *Rhadine spp. {subterranea group) (Hind) Texas records. — Comal County. Voges Cave; Travis County i Arrow Cave and Midnight Cave. Comment. — These records represent undescribed species. Bibliography. — Reddell ( 1 967 ) . 350. ^Rhadine sp. {subterranea group) (eyed) Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 657. *Rhadine sp., nr. longipes Csy. Texas records. — Culberson County: Razor’s Edge Cave. Comment. — This is apparently an undescribed species. It was taken from rocks on the floor of the cave. 351. *Rhadine bahcocki (Barr) Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell and Smith (1965). 353. *Rhadine howdeni (Barr and Lawrence) Texas records. — Edwards County: Fallen Stalagmite Cave; Kerr County: Seven Room Cave; Kimble County: Fleming Bat Cave; Medina County: Rattle¬ snake Cave; San Saba County: Board-Covered Cave; Uvalde County: Carson Cave, Sheep Trap Cave, and Whitecotton Bat Cave; Val Verde County: Centipede Cave and Fern Cave. Comment. — This includes the first record of Kimble County for the genus. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell (1965). 356. ^*Rhadine koepkei (Barr) Comment. — Dearolf (1953) cites Rhudine subterranea as occurring in Schneider Ranch Cave. It is certainly this species. Bibliography. — Dearolf ( 1 953 ) , 358. *Rhadine longicollis Benedict Texas records. — Culberson County: New Cave, Olive’s Cave, Porcupine Cave, and Windlass Cave. Comment. — This species will certainly appear in many more caves in the gypsum plain and surrounding mountains of Culberson County. It is usually found on silt or on silt-covered walls. Bibliography. — Barr and Reddell (1967). 359. '^Rhadine rubra (Barr) Texas records. — Collingsworth County: Turtle Cave; Hardeman County: Walkup Cave; Irion County: Comgrinders Cave; Schleicher County: Cave Y; Sutton County: Roberts Cave, Comments, — This species had not been previously recorded from any of the above counties; therefore these records are valuable in further delineating the range of this^ abundant troglophile. 360. **Rhadine speca (Barr) Texas records. — Comal County: Kappelman Cave. Comment. — One specimen of this troglobite was found in the cave on silt. 361. **R.hadine subterranea (Van Dyke) Texas records. — Travis County: Kretschmarr Cave. Comment. — This species has been taken from the walls in the inner dome room of this cave. A record of this species by Dearolf (1953) from Schneider Ranch Cave, Kendall County, certainly applies to Rhadine koepkei. Bibliography. — Barr (1968); Bolivar (1944); Dearolf (1953); Mo'hr and Poulson (1966), A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 59 365. Selenophorus sp. Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 366. *Tachys (Tachys) sp. Texas records. — Kendall County. Cascade Caverns; Menard County: Powell’s Cave. Comment. — The specimens from Powell’s Cave were taken from silt. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953); Reddell (1967). 367. *Tachys (Tachys) proximus Say Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 368. * Tachys (Tachyura) ferrugineus Dej, Texas records. — Kimble County: Cameron Ranch Cave and Llewellyn Rose Cave. Comment. — This is the first Kimble County cave record for this species. Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 369. WTrichotichnus sp. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). Family Catopidae 370 *Ptomapkagus (Adelops) cavernicola Schwarz Texas records. — Comal County: Little Gem Cave No. 1 ; Edwards County: Deep Cave and Hughes Cave; Schleicher County: Oglesby Ranch Cave; Travis County: Tooth Cave; Williamson County: Chinaberry Cave and Inner Space Cave. Comment. — This species was previously cited as Ptomaphagus (Adelops) sp. This is apparently the only troglophile catopid found in Texas. These are the first records for this species from Schleicher and Travis Counties. Bibliography. — Peck (1966); Reddell and Smith (1965). Family Chrysomelidae 658. WChrysolina auripennis Say Texas records. — Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — Specimens of this species were taken in the entrance crawlway following a flood of the cave. 659. WLeptinotarsa sp., prob. libatrix Suff. Texas records. — Burnet County: Snelling’s Cave. Comment. — This species was probably washed into the cave. Family Dermestidae 660. \Anthrenus sp., prob. verbasci (L.) Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — A larva of this species was taken from guano. 661. \Attagenus sp. Texas records. — San Saba County: Horseshoe Fissure. Comment. — larva of this genus was taken in this cave. 379. *Dermestes caninus Germar Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 380. *Dermestes carnivorus F. Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment.— This species was taken from bat guano. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967a); Reddell (1967); Smith and Reddell (1965). THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 60 Family Elateridae 384. *Colaulon rectangularis (Say) Texas records. — Edwards County. Punkin Cave. Comment. — This species was taken from bat guano. 385. WEsthesopus sp. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 662. Horistonotus simplex LeConte Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — The ecological status of this beetle is not known. It was taken from bat guano. Family Histeridae 386. Unidentified material Texas records. — Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — This material was taken off of bat guano in the Bat Room. 663. Anapleus marginatus (LeConte) Texas records. — Kendall County: Cascade Caverns. Comments. — The ecological status of this species is unknown. Bibliography. — Dearolf ( 1 953 ) . Family Hydrophilidae 664. *Cymbiodyta sp. Texas records. — Crockett County: 09 Well; Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole, Comment. — Many individuals of this genus were seen in 09 Well in all parts of the cave, but especially in small pools near the entrance. 665. Paracymbus sp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole, Comment. — The ecological status of this beetle is unknown. Family Languriidae 389. Languria laeta LeConte Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). Family Noteridae 393. \\Notomicrus sp. Bibliography. — Reddell ( 1 967 ) . Family Pselaphidae 394. **Batrisodes sp. Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965). 396. *Batrisodes (Babnormodes) schneiderensis Park Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). 398. *Hamotus sp. Texas records. — Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave, Comment, — A single specimen was taken under a small rock in the main passage. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967); Smith and Reddell (1965). 400. examaurops reddelli Barr and Steeves Bibliography. — Barr (1968). Family Ptilodactylidae 402, Y^Lachnodactyla Itexana Schaeffer Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 61 403. *Ptilodactyla sp. Texas records. — Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — The continued appearance of both adults and larvae of this genus in caves indicates that this is actually a troglophile. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 666. *Ptilodactyla serricollis (Say) Texas records. — Kendall County: Cascade Caverns. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1953). Family Ptinidae 667. fj-Niptinus ovalipennis Fall Texas records. — Travis County: Tooth Cave. Comment. — One specimen of this spider beetle was taken in the cave. It is almost certainly an accidental. 405, *Niptus abstrusus Spilman Texas records.^ — Val Verde County: Fern Cave. Comment. — This species was originally reported as Niptus sp., but it has since been described. It is abundant on guano in the Bat Room. Bibliography. — Spilman (1968). Family Scarahaeidae 668. \\Ataenius platensis (Blanch.) Texas records. — Travis County: Mold Hole. Comment. — ^Two specimens of this species were taken in leaf litter at the bottom of the 10-foot drop into this small sink. 669. *Onthophagus cavernicollis Howden and Cartwright Texas records. — Kendall County: Century Caverns. Comment. — Other species of this genus are troglophiles in Mexican caves. Bibliography. — Howden and Cartwright (1963). Family Scraptiidae 67i}.'\\Allopoda lutea (Hald.) Texas records. — Real County: Tucker Hollow Cave. Comment. — One specimen of this species was taken in the entrance room. Family Staphylinidae 410. Unidentified genus and species. Texas records. — Culberson County: Gyp Joint. Comment. — A larva of this family was taken in silt on the floor. 411. *Belonuchus sp., nr. moquinus Casey Texas records. — Bandera County: Fossil Cave; Bexar County: Government Can¬ yon Bat Cave and Headquarters Cave; Comal County: Rittiman Cave; Culberson County: Gyp Joint; Edwards County: Blowhole Cave, Deep Cave, Hughes Cave, and Punkin Cave; Kerr County: Seven Room Cave; Kimble County: The Hole; King County: River Styx Cave; Kinney Coun¬ ty: Webb Cave; Lampasas County: Enough Cave; Mason County: Zesch Ranch Cave; Schleicher County: Oglesby Ranch Cave; Travis County: Arrow Cave, Midnight Cave, Mold Hole, and Spanish Wells; Uvalde Coun¬ ty: Carson Cave, Cedar Brake Cave, Grape Hollow Cave, McNair Cave, and Whitecotton Bat Cave; Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave. Comment. — This extremely abundant troglophile is here reported for the first time for caves in Bandera, Bexar, Culberson, Kerr, King, Kinney, Schleich- 62 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE er, and Val Verde Counties. It will probat ly appear in caves throughout Texas. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965). 671. Carpelimus sp. Texas records. — Culberson County: New Cave. Comment. — ^This species was taken from organic debris. Its ecological status is not known. 672, '\Homoeotarsus sp. Texas records. — Bexar County: Bullis Hole. Comment. — ^This species was taken in the entrance area, 673. \Homoeotarsus {Gastrolobium) sp., nr. pimerianum LeConte Texas records. — Kimble County: 700 Springs Cave. Comment. — This species was taken in 'surface debris in the twilight zone. 415. Lithocharis (Stilocharis) sp. Texas records.—Hardeman County: Walkup Cave. Comment. — This may prove to be a comparatively common troglophile in the gypsum caves of Northwest Texas. 416. *Orus (Leucorus) rubens (Casey) Texas records. — Burnet County: Snelling’s Cave; Edwards County: Hughes Cave; Lampasas County: Enough Cave; Schleicher County: Oglesby Ranch Cave, Comment. — ^This is the first record for each of the above co^unties for this abundant troglophile. Bibliography. — Herman ( 1 965 ) . 417. *Philonthus sp. Texas records,- — Culberson County: Gyp Joint, New Cave, Olive’s Cave, and Wiggley Cave; Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole; Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave; Wheeler County: Big Mouth Cave. Comment. — Although this s-pecies has been observed in all parts of caves and it apparently re-produces in caves, individuals have been observed to fly into the entrance to New Cave and begin to crawl inward. It may be better to list it as a trogloxene. It is frequently taken off of cave walls. This genus is troglophilic or tro'gloxenic in caves in Mexico. 674, *Stamnoderus sp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Hughes Cave. Comment. — An apparently undes-cribed species of this genus, it was found on debris in the lower rooms. Otehr species of this genus inhabit caves in Mexico. 418. *Stilicolina sp. Comment. — Mate-rial from Beck Ranch Cave, Williamson County, has now been identified as Stilicoliim condei, 419. *Stilicolina condei Jarrige Texas records-. — Bandera County: Fossil Cave and Haby Water Cave; Burnet County; Longhorn Caverns; Comal County: Fischer Cave, Rittiman Cave, and Voges Cave; Culberson County: Gyp Joint, Olive’s Cave, Ulk Cave, and Wiggley Cave; Edwards County: Deep Cave and Hughes Cave; Hays County: Boyett’s Cave; King County: River Styx Cave; Real County: Pape Cave; Uvalde County: Carson Cave and White-cotton Bat Cave; Val Verde County: Langtry Lead Cave; Williamson County: Bat Well and Beck Ranch Cave. A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 63 Comment, — This constitutes the first record for this species from Bandera, Culberson, and King Counties, Bibliography. — Barr and Beddell (1967); Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell (1965). Subfamily Aleocharinae 420. Unidentified genus and species Texas records, — Culberson County. Cutoff Cave, Gyp Joint, New Cave, and Olive’s Cave; Edwards County: Blowhole Cave and Deep Cave; Travis County. Mold Hole and Spanish Wells. Comment. — None of the above material can be identified at this time. More than one species is apparently represented. Family T enebrionidae 428. \Cryptoglossa mexicana mexicana Champion Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment, — This species was taken from off of bat guano. This species is abundant in caves in Coahuila, Chihuahua, Durango, and Nuevo Leon, Mexico. 429. ^Eleodes sp. Texas records, — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole and Punkin Cave. Comment. — In both instances specimens were taken from bat guano. Both adults and larvae were present in Punkin Cave, indicating that this may be a troglophile. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 675. \Eleodes carbonaria (Say) Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave; Val Verde County: Four Mile Cave and Langtry Lead Cave. Comment. — Thousands of tenebrionids were present on bat guano in Punkin Cave. In the other 2 caves several specimens were found on silt in the entrance area. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 430. '\Eleodes goryi Solier Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole. Comment. — This species was taken from off of bat guano. A'^i.'\Eleodes hispilabris (Say) Bibliography. — Reddell and Smith (1965); Smith and Reddell (1965). 676. “\-Eleodes tricostata (Say) Texas records. — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — This species was taken from off of bat guano. 434. ^Eleodes ventricosa ventricosa LeConte Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 435. \Embaphion sp., nr. contractum Blair Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 436. ^Embaphion sp,, nr. muricatum Say Bibliography. — Smith and Reddell (1965). 439. '\Embaphion muricatum n.subsp. Texas records. — Edwards County: Devil’s Sinkhole, Hughes Cave, and Punkin Cave; Kerr County: Seven Room Cave; Medina County: Davenport Cave; U valde County: Sandtleben Cave. Comment. — These specimens were taken off of bat guano in Devil’s Sinkhole 64 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE and Punkin Cave. In the other caves they were found in dusty entrance areas. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967); Reddell and Smith (1965). 440. •■{Embaphion muricatum muricatum (Say) Bibliography, — Reddell and Smith (1965). Family Trogidae 44 *Omorgus suberosus (Fabricius) Texas records, — Edwards County: Punkin Cave. Comment. — This species was previously placed in the genus Trox. Specimens from Punkin Cave were taken from off of bat guanO'. Bibliography, — Reddell (1967). LITERATURE CITED Barr, T. C., Jr., 1968 — Cave ecology and the evolution of troglobites. Evolutionary Biol, 2: 35-102. Barr, T. C., Jr., and J. R. Reddell, 1967 — The arthropod cave fauna of the Carlsbad Caverns region, New Mexico. Southw. Nat., 12(3) : 253-274. Bolivar y Pieltain, C., 1944 — Descubrimiento de un Rhadine afenopsiano' en el estado de Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Col, Carab.). Ciencia, 5(1-3): 25-28. Chopard, L., 1931 — Campagne speleologique de C. Bolivar et R. Jeannel dans FAm-erique du Nord (1928). 8. Insectes Orthopteres. Biospeolo'gjca, LVI, Archiv. zool. exper. gen., 71: 390. Constantine, D, G., 1967 — Bat rabies in the southwestern United States. Pub. Health Repts., 82: 867-888. - , 1967a — Rabies transmission by air in bat caves. U. S. Pub. Health Serv. Publ, 1617. Dearolf, K., 1953 — The invertebrates of 75 caves in the United States. Proc. Penn. Acad. Scl, 27: 225-241. Hebard, Morgan, 1917 — The Blattidae of North America north of the Mexican boundary. Mem. Amer. Entomol. Soc., 2: 1-284, 10' pis. Herman, L. H., Jr., 1965 — Revision of Orus. 11. Subgenera Orus, Pycnorus and Nivorus (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) . Coleopterists’ Bull., 19: 73-90. Howden, H. F., and O. L. Cartwright, 1963 — Scarab beetles of the genus Ontho- phagus Latreille north of Mexico (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 114: 1-135. Kunath, C. E., and A. R. Smith, 1968 — The caves of the Stockton Plateau. Tex. SpeleoL Survey, 3 (2) : 1-1 1 1 . Mitchell, R. W., 1968 — New species of Sphalloplana (Turbellaria; Paludicola) from the caves of Texas and a reexamination of the genus Speophila and the family Ke^nkiidae. Ann. SpeleoL, 23(3): 597-620. Mohr, C, E., and T. L. Poulson, 1966 — The Life of the Cave. New York; McGraw Hill. 232 pp. Peck, S. B., 1966 — The systematics and ecology of the cavernicolous Ptomaphagus (Coleoptera, Catopidae) of the United States. M.S. Thesis. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University. A CHECKLIST OF THE CAVE FAUNA OF TEXAS 65 Reddell, J. R., 1965 — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. I, The Invertebrata (exclusive of Insecta). Tex. J. Sci., 17(2) : 143-187. - , 1966 — checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. II. Insecta, Tex. J. Sci., 18(1): 25-56. - , 1967 — The caves of Medina County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 3(1); 1-58, - , 1967a — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. III. Vertebrata. Tex. J. Sci., 19(2): 184-226. - , 1969 — ^A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. IV. Additional records of Invertebrata (exclusive of Insecta). Tex. J. Sci. In press. Reddell, J. R., and A. R. Smith, 1965 — The caves of Edwards County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 2(5-6): 1-70. Smith, A. R., and J. R. Reddell, 1965 — The caves of Kinney County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 2{7): 1-34. Spilman, T. j., 1968 — Two new species of Niptus from North American caves (Coleoptera: Ptinidae). Southw. Nat., 13(2): 193-200. Ueshima, N., 1966 — Cytology and cytogenetics. In: R. L. Usinger, Monograph of Cimicidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) . Thomas Say Foimdation, 8: 183-245. - , 1968 — Cytology and bionomics of Primicimex cavernis Barber (Cimici¬ dae: Hemiptera). Pan-Paa'/i'c EntomoZ., 44(2) : 145-152. Usinger, R. L., 1966 — Monograph of Cimicidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) . Thomas Say Foundation, 8. The Racer Coluber constrictor (Serpentes: Colubridae) in Louisiana and Eastern Texas by LARRY DAVID WILSON Department of Biology, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette, 70501 ABSTRACT Geographic variation in color pattern within Coluber constrictor is most pro¬ nounced in the state of Louisiana. In no other area of similar size within the range of the species do so many subspecies occur. Three nominal subspecies are found in Louisiana (Auffenberg, 1955); C. c. priapus Dunn and Wood, C. c. anthicus (Cope), and C. c. flaviventris Say. Two new subspecies from Louisiana, one of which also occurs in eastern Texas, are described herein. INTRODUCTION Auffenberg (1955) was the first to attempt a review of this wide¬ spread and common North American snake subsequent to Orten- burger’s (1928) monograph of the genus. Auffenberg was, however, mainly concerned with the eastern subspecies (C. c. constrictor, C. c. priapus, C. c. helvigularis, and C. c. paludicolus) and especially those occurring in Florida (the latter 3 of the above-mentioned forms). It was for this reason and because comparatively little was known regard¬ ing the variation in the forms inhabiting Louisiana and eastern Texas that the following study was undertaken. Because color pattern is so important in defining subspecies within Coluber constrictor^ the study of this character has been my prime concern. Capitalized color names are those of Ridgway (1912). Data was also gathered on variation in the numbers of ventrals, subcaudals, preoculars, postoculars, loreals, supralabials, infralabials, temporals, and dorsal scale reduction. A considerable amount of field work was undertaken to become familiar with the area inhabited by each subspecies and to collect material from areas of intergradation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Richard Etheridge who graciously donated his own data on Coluber from this area. His advice has also been invaluable, I should also like to thank Richard M. Blaney (RMB), William H. Buskirk (WHB), A. James Delahoussaye, Donald E. Hahn (DEH), Edmund D. Reiser, Brent B. Nickol, Fran- The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 68 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE cis C. Rabalais, Anthony W. Romano, Richard E. Tandy, Robert A. Thomas (RAT), Gerald C. Schaefer, and Kenneth L. Williams for other specimens. Where I have utilized material in their private collections, the abbreviated designations are in¬ cluded in parentheses. It has been my great pleasure to have worked in the field with most of these people. I am also indebted to my former major professor, Douglas A. Rossman, for providing a continuing interest in my outside research. I would also like to thank the following individuals for the loan of materials under their care (abbreviated museum designations are included in parentheses) : Bryce C. Brown, Strecker Museum (SM and BCB, private collection), Bill Davis, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute (LPI), A. James Delahoussaye and Edmrmd D. Reiser, University of Southwestern Louisiana (USL), Neil H. Douglas, Northeastern State College of Louisiana (NLC), Harold A. Dundee, Tulane University (TU), Gerald G. Raun, Texas Memorial Museum (TNHC), Douglas A. Rossman, Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology (LSUMZ), Wilmer W. Tanner, Brigham Young University (BYU), and Kenneth L. Williams, Northwestern State College of Louisiana (NLSC). In all, I have examined 334 specimens of Coluber constrictor from Louisiana and eastern Texas. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Edmund D. Reiser for his construc¬ tive criticism of this manuscript. VARIATION Preoculars. The number of preoculars is usually 2. Deviations from this number are infrequent and involve, most commonly, the forma¬ tion of a suture in the upper preocular, thus giving a count of 3. Only 1.9% of the specimens examined have a count of 3 on one or both sides of the head, and only one specimen has a count of one on both sides of the head. Postoculars. The number of postoculars is usually 2. Deviations from this number are infrequent. Those deviant specimens observed have one of the 2 normal postoculars divided horizontally. Only 1.9% of the specimens examined have 3 postoculars. Loreal. The loreal is normally single in this species. However, 3.9% of the specimens examined have the loreal horizontally divided. Temporals. The temporal scales are arranged in 3 rows of 2 each. These scales, however, are highly variable and may fuse with one another or split up into a group of smaller scales. Of the specimens examined, 57.2% have some deviation from the normal count on one or both sides of the head. Infralabials . The number of infralabials varies from 7 toT 1 (mean, 8.65) without significant geographic variation. The mean number of infralabials for the 5 subspecies ranges from 8.57 to 8.78. Scale reduction formulae. The number of dorsal scales in Coluber constrictor drops from 1 7 at midbody to 1 5 at the vent. In 1 5 1 speci¬ mens the reduction takes place between the 80th and 128th ventral. The mean value for the point of scale row reduction does not differ THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 69 significantly among the various subspecies, nor does it differ signifi¬ cantly between the sexes. The ranges and means for the various sub¬ species are as follows (males listed first, females second) : anthicus — 91 to 116 (102.2), 92 to 125 (105.5) ; 89 to 108 (100.0), 82 to 120 {\Q\.7) ; flavwentris—99 to 113 (104.4), 90 to 115 (103.9); latrunculus — 97 to 123 (106.2), 80 to 128 (105.8) ; priapus — 93 to 116 (103.8), 99 to 110 (103.6). Supralabials . The subspecies of Coluber constrictor in the eastern portion of the range {constrictor, priapus, helvigularis, paludicolus, anthicus, flaviventris, and 2 new subspecies described herein) are characterized by a high percentage of individuals having 7 suprala¬ bials. The western subspecies {mormon and oaxaco) are character¬ ized by having 8 supralabials. Forms on the western edge of the range of the eastern group (i.e., the subspecies in Louisiana and eastern Texas) show a more-or-less gradual increase in mean number of supralabials from east to west. The mean number of supralabials from east to west are as follows (means for etheridgei and anthicus include both Louisiana and Texas specimens; means for the other 3 include only Louisiana specimens): priapus — 7.11; latrunculus — 7.30; an¬ thicus — 7.32; flaviventris — 7.30; etheridgei — 7.52. Exact means for the subspecies occurring outside of Louisiana and eastern Texas are not available, but Ortenburger (1928) stated that C. c. constrictor (including the now-recognized subspecies priapus, helvigularis, and paludicolus) has a mean supralabial number of 7.1. On the other hand, Ortenburger also stated that most specimens of C. c. mormon have 8 supralabials, but that the number is very often 7. Auffenberg (1949) stated that in C. c. oaxaca {C. c. stejnegerianus auctorum) “supralabials were most consistently 8/8; 8/7 and 7/8 were uncommon.” Although these data are not strictly comparable, they give the impression of a predominance of 7 supralabials in the east and 8 in the west. Ventrals. C. c. latrunculus is significantly distinct in mean number of ventrals (Fig. 1) from all the other subspecies in the area studied. C. c. priapus is significantly distinct from C. c. flaviventris (in addition to C. c. latrunculus) but not from any other subspecies in the area studied. With the exception of C. c. priapus there is no significant difference between the sexes in mean number of ventrals. The ranges and means for each of the subspecies is as follows (males first, females second): priapus— -17 7 (170.6), 171-181 {17 S .0) ; latrunculus — 171-186 (178.0), 171-192 (180.4); flaviventris— lQl-17 9 (165.9), 160-173 (167.9); anthicus— 16^-19^ (170.6), 163-182 (173.3); etheridgei— 166-17 (168.8), 169-178 (173.0). 70 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A B C tf — I 4" I — d* - h— I - ^ - 1 4^ I E 160 170 180 190 200 Fig. 1. Variation of ventrals in Coluber constrictor in Louisiana and eastern Texas A. C. c. priapus. B. C. c. latrunculus. C. C. c. flaviventris. D. C. c, anthicus. E. C. c. etheridgei. Hori¬ zontal line, observed range; vertical line, sample mean; open rectangle, one standard deviation on either side of the mean; black rectangle, twice the standard error on either side of the mean. Subcaudals. A very high percentage of the specimens examined have incomplete tails. Little reliance can be placed either on the range or the mean of the subcaudal numbers in the subspecies flaviventris or etheridgei (Fig. 2) . Of those remaining, there is no significant dif¬ ference between the males in mean number of subcaudals, but the females of anthicus do appear to be significantly distinct from females of priapus and latrunculus. The ranges and means for each of the sub¬ species is as follows (males first, females second): priapus — 81-105 (97.1), 77-97 (93.5); latrunculus—S2-\0^ (96.1), 88-106 (93.7); flaviventris — 85-93 (88.8), 72-87 (80.4); anthicus — 89—103 (94.6), 79-93 (86.3); etheridgei — 92-97 (94.8), no counts available for females. Color pattern. Color pattern is the most important character utilized THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 71 80 90 100 NO Fig, 2. Variation of subcaudals in Coluber constrictor in Louisiana and eastern Texas. A. C. c, priapus. B. C. c. latrunculus. C. C. c. flaviventrh. D.C. c. anthkus. E. C. c. etheridgei. Symbols as in Figure 1 . in defining subspecies within Coluber constrictor. In the area studied, the variation in color pattern can be easily subdivided into 5 categories. In the Florida Parishes of Louisiana (that portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi River) adult specimens have a black dorsum and venter. In north-central Louisiana, south-central Arkansas, and some portions of extreme eastern Texas adults have a dark blue to dark blue-black or blue-green dorsum with a variable amount of gray, white, or light yellow spots. In extreme southwestern Louisiana and much of the eastern half of Texas adults are olive green dorsally and yellowish ventrally. These 3 color pattern types are those to which the names priapus^ anthicus, and flaviventris have been applied, re¬ spectively. In addition to these color pattern variations, 2 of these color pattern variants are present in the area under discussion, both of which are herein described as new subspecies. In one of these forms the adults 72 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE have a slate gray dorsum, a light grayish-blue venter, and black pig¬ ment on the temporal region of the head. This form inhabits the lower Mississippi River Valley. In the other form, the adults have a light tan dorsal coloration with a variable amount of light spotting. This form is found in extreme west-central Louisiana and some portions of extreme eastern Texas. Inasmuch as these 2 forms, like the nominal subspecies, inhabit a distinct range, exhibit a basically uniform color pattern within that range, and intergrade with adjacent forms along common range boundaries, I have designated them as new subspecies. Information on intergradation among and color pattern variation within subspecies is included under each appropriate subspecies account. SUBSPECIES ACCOUNTS Coluber constrictor anthicus (Cope) Buttermilk Snake Bascanion anthicum Cope, 1862: 338; 1875: 40, 79 (part); Davis and Rice, 1883: 38 Zamenis constrictor: Cope, 1900: 793 (part) Coluber constrictor flaviventris: Ortenburger, 1928: 176 (part); Bmrt and Burt, 1929: 10 (part); Blanchard, 1930: 85 (part); Viosca, 1944: 57 (part); Guidry, 1953: 49 (part) Coluber constrictor anthicus: Dunn and Wood, 1939: 1; Burt, 1946: 427; Clark, 1949: 249; Fitch, 1949: 88; 1963: 371; Brown, 1950: 140; Cagle, 1952: 27; Guidry, 1953: 49 (part); Schmidt, 1953: 187; Auffenberg, 1955: 90 (part); Wright and Wright, 1957: 136; Dowling, 1959: 40; Walker, 1963: 97; Olson, 1967: 104 Diagnosis — A subspecies of Coluber constrictor usually with a dark blue to dark blue-black or blue-green dorsum (the coloration of the posterior portion of the body and tail is some shade of light brown). The dorsum is speckled with a variable number of gray, white, or light yellow spots. The venter is white to grayish-white, sometimes with a few light yellow spots. Holotype. — The type specimen was stated to be in the United States National Museum by Cope (1900), but it is not listed by Coch¬ ran (1961); type locality is unknown, erroneously stated as possibly “Siam” by Cope, and arbitrarily designated by Schmidt (1953) as Natchitoches, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Description. — The color pattern of a typical adult specimen of anthicus (RAT 1452, collected 5.2 miles S junction of La. Hwy. 488 and U.S. Hwy. 165, Rapides Parish, Louisiana) may be described as follows: dorsum nearest Rluish Slate-Black (very dark blue) grading to grayish-brown posteriorly; venter white with slight tinge of light creamy tan; spots on dorsum near Ivory Yellow, some few a little THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 73 lighter; venter with a few light yellow spots; head Bluish Slate-Black with light brown blotching on prefrontals, frontal, supraoculars, and parietals; temporals mostly Bluish Slate-Black but with one or 2 light brown blotches; supralabials mostly white on ventral half, light gray¬ ish-brown on dorsal half; eye very dark brown with an ivory yellow dorsal spot. Scutellation characteristics of the subspecies are as follows: ventrals in males 163-193 (x 170.6), in females 163-182 (x 173.3); subcaudals in males 89-103 (x 94.6), in females 79-93 (x 86.1) ; lateral point of reduction in males 93-116 (x 103.8), in females 99 to 110 (x 103.5); supralabials 7 to 8 (x 7.32); infralabials 7 to 10 (x 8.57); temporals usually 2+2+2 (63.1 %), but there may be a fusion of 2 scales of one row or the addition of one or more scales in any of the 3 rows; pre¬ oculars 2-2, except in one case where the count is 1-1 ; postoculars 2-2. Range. — Shortleaf-loblolly pine and hardwood areas of north- central Louisiana and south-central Arkansas and western portions of longleaf pinewoods of Louisiana and eastern Texas (Fig. 3). Known from most of the parishes of north-central Louisiana and from Colum¬ bia and Union counties in Arkansas as well as several counties in eastern Texas. C. c. anthicus intergrades with C. c. priapus at the north¬ ern and northeastern edges of its range. I have been intergrades from Bossier (TU 3775), West Carroll (NLSC 10653; LPI uncatalogued), and Richland (NLSC 1320) parishes. The intergrade zone between the 3 subspecies, anthicus, latrunculus, and priapus, is in northeastern Louisiana, but it is difficult to determine the exact affinities of any one specimen, especially if preserved. I have seen integrade specimens between anthicus and latrunculus from Catahoula (TU 12639, 13015, NLSC uncatalogued), Richland (TU 12733), Tensas (LPI uncata¬ logued), and Avoyelles (LPI uncatalogued) parishes. Intergrades between anthicus and etheridgei have been examined from the northern edge of the range of etheridgei in Vernon Parish (BYU 13053, TU 3683, NLC 10050), the eastern edge of the range in Calcasieu Parish (TU 5556), and from the western edge of the range in Hardin (BCB 6267) and Tyler (LDW 3247) counties in Texas. Additional information on intergradation between flaviventris and anthicus and between anthicus and etheridgei has been supplied by Richard Etheridge (pers, comm.). He states that “there is a road that runs north from Liberty (Liberty County) , Texas that I have traveled a good many times, picking up dead racers. . . . The range of anthicus begins just to the north of Liberty where it forms a narrow band be¬ tween flaviventris to the south and the tan racer to the north. Going 74 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE north from Liberty one first finds typical fLaviventris . Racers with 3 or 4 white spots then appear as one continues north, the spots becoming more numerous until ‘typical’ anthicus are reached. Continuing north, the ground color begins to fade from blue-green to light tan, beginning on the tail and advancing forward. The last patch of dark ground color to disappear is in the dorsal neck region, so that just before entering good tan racer range one finds snakes that have an elongate patch of blue-green with white spots above the neck, with the rest of the ani¬ mal uniform light tan. Thus, at least in this region, in ter gradation between anthicus and fLaviventris results in a reduction in the number of white spots, whereas intergradation between anthicus and the tan racer does not result in an increase in the number of light spots (until, one would suppose, the animal is all white spots, i.e., uniform light color) but rather by a general lightening of the ground color until the light spots are not distinguishable from the light ground color.” Remarks. — The pattern of adult C. c. anthicus is quite variable. I found counting the spots to be virtually impossible. The spots vary in size and intensity and may overlap 2 or more scales. Thus I have used the subjective means of assigning each animal to one of the fol¬ lowing pattern classes: very light spotting, light spotting, medium spotting, heavy spotting, and very heavy spotting. Obviously, the utili¬ zation of this scheme by another worker may not produce exactly the same results. Early in this study I thought that it might be shown that color varia¬ tion was a function of the distance the specimen had been taken away from the center of the range; i.e., that the specimens from the center of the range are more highly spotted than are those from the edges of the range. However, this is not the case. It is apparent that there is a correlation between spotting and the age of a snake as judged by snout- vent length. Thus, a juvenile has a pattern consisting of a series of dorsal blotches extending the length of the body, a pattern that is typical of all juveniles of the subspecies of Coluber constrictor. At about 400 mm the juvenile pattern is lost and the snake becomes more-or-less uniformly colored. Thus, DEH 78 (snout- vent length 323 mm) has no trace of a juvenile pattern, but there are still no spots on the dorsum. Soon thereafter (and sometimes before) spots begin to develop: TU 18067, with a snout- vent length of 412 mm, still has the juvenile pattern slightly evident but the body is very lightly spotted (about 12 spots present). As the snake grows larger, the number of spots increases. Snakes ranging from 650 to 750 mm in length are, in some instances, heavily spotted in the sense of my pattern categories. THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 75 The specimen anthicus illustrated by Wright and Wright (1957) is said to have come from New Orleans. C. c. anthicus does not occur near New Orleans. The specimen was obtained by Percy Viosca, Jr., who lived in New Orleans, and must have been obtained elsewhere. Coluber constrictor etheridgei subsp. nov. Tan Racer Coluber constrictor anthicus: Brown, 1950: 140 (part); (?) Guidry, 1953: 49 (part); Auffenberg, 1955: 90 (part) Diagnosis. — A subspecies of Coluber constrictor characterized by having a light tan dorsal coloration in the adult. The dorsum is cov¬ ered with a variable number of light spots. Holotype. — Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology 16462, collected 30 April 1967 at Dallardville, 11 miles north of the junction of Texas highways 1276 and 943, Polk County, Texas, by Larry David Wilson. Description of holotype. — An adult male with the following colora¬ tion in life: dorsum near Benzo Brown (grayish-tan) with a heavy amount of Drab (light grayish- tan) spotting; venter light grayish- white with some white spotting; head grayish-tan; lower portion of supralabials white; chin white; eye mostly dark brown except for a dorsal tan spot. Supralabials 7-7, 3rd and 4th entering the orbit; infralabials 8-8, 4 touching the anterior chin shields and the 5th the largest; no contact between the loreal and the 1st supralabial; loreal 1-1; preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2; temporals 2+2+2/2+2+2. Dorsal scale reduction 4+5 (103) formula 17 " a TT' Ventrals 168, subcaudals 97, anal plate 4+5 (106) divided. Snout- vent length 879 mm. Tail length 337 mm. Paratypes. — LSUMZ 11836, collected 6 May 1956 on the Alabama and Coushatta Indian Reservation on U.S. Highway 190, Polk County, Texas, by Henry Hermann; BCB 13453, collected 10 April 1964, 10 miles N Orange, Orange County, Texas, by Dick Quick; TNHC 2215, collected 8 mi. N Voth, Hardin County, Texas. Variation. — In the following discussion, I have utilized data from 16 specimens, including 3 paratypes and 13 specimens that show minor influence from C. c. anthicus in color pattern. Scutellation characteristics are as follows: ventrals in males, 166- 174 (x 168.8), in females 169-178 (x 173.0); subcaudals in males 95-97 (x 96.0) , no counts available for females; lateral point of reduc¬ tion in males 89-108 (x 100.0), in females 82-120 (x 101.7); supra- 76 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE labials 7-8 (x 7.52); infralabials 8-10 (x 8.68); temporals usually 2+2+2 (77,4%), but there may be a fusion of the 2 scales of one row or the addition of a scale in any of the 3 rows; preoculars 2-2; post¬ oculars 2-2, LSUMZ 11836 has the right loreal divided horizontally. There is a moderate amount of variation in the dorsal coloration. The holotype and paratypes are uniformly light tan dorsally. The fol¬ lowing specimens, BCB 4697 (Jasper, Jasper Co., Tex.), BCB 4696 (Orange, Orange Co., Tex.) LSUMZ 6064 (De Bidder, Beauregard Par., La.), TNHC 5255 (14 mi, E Livingston, Polk Co,, Tex.), TNHC 5275 (7 mi. W Woodville, Tyler Co., Tex.), have a few light blue- gray spots on the scales of the neck and fore part of the body. Other specimens (BCB 13451 and 13452, both from Orange, Orange Co., Tex.) have even more blue-gray spotting. This variation is an expres¬ sion of the amount of influence from C. c. anthicus present in each specimen. Range. — Longleaf pine flatwoods of extreme west-central Louisiana and eastern Texas (Fig. 3). Known from Beauregard and Vernon parishes in Louisiana and Jasper, Tyler, Polk, Hardin, and Orange counties in Texas. Remarks. — It seems that the range of C. c. etheridgei corresponds fairly well with the former range of the longleaf pine {Pinus palustris) forest of eastern Texas and western Louisiana (Etheridge, pers. comm.). Dr. Etheridge, who has collected this subspecies extensively in Louisiana and eastern Texas and after whom it is named, states {in lift.) that “it is . . . my impression from field work that the tan racer, unlike other Coluber^ is predominantly a forest dweller. I have col¬ lected tan racers deep in the shaded pine forest but Eve seen anthicus^ flaviventris^ etc. mostly in old fields, along the edges of forest and open areas in general. There does seem to be the possibility that the tan racer is a long-leaf pine forest adapted form, and that with the disap¬ pearance of this habitat over the last century or so, anthicus has begun to invade its relatively small range.” The holotype has one of the hemipenes completely everted and it resembles closely those of other Coluber in Louisiana. The records given by Guidry (1953) are difficult to interpret be¬ cause he confused anthicus and flaviventris and, in addition, appar¬ ently was not aware of the existence of etheridgei. C. c. etheridgei oc¬ curs within the study area outlined by Guidry but apparently he saw no specimens. Coluber constrictor flaviventris Say Eastern Yellow-bellied Racer Coluber flaviventris 1^93: 185 THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 77 Diagnosis, — subspecies of Coluber constrictor with an olive green dorsum and yellowish venter in Louisiana and eastern Texas. There are no black postorbital stripe and no spots on the dorsum. Holotype. — Probably none designated; type locality, Stone quarry on west side of Missouri River, 3 miles above Boyer’s River, Pottawat¬ tamie County, Iowa (Schmidt, 1953). Description,— Nevj little variation is evidenced in the color pattern in Louisiana. Several specimens seen alive (RMB 4977, 4978, DEH 1324, LDW 2121, all from Cameron Parish, Louisiana) may be de¬ scribed summarily as follows: dorsum olive green grading to olive brown or light brown on the posterior portion of the body and tail (LDW 2121 showed a bluish-green tinge to the lateral portion of the body) ; venter light yellow anteriorly grading to yellowish-cream or cream on the posterior portion of the body and tail; chin white. Scutellation characteristics are as follows: ventrals in males, 161- 170 (x 165.9), in females 160-173 (x 167.9); subcaudals in males, 85-93 (x88.8), in females, 72-87 (x 80.4); lateral point of reduction in males, 99-113 (x 104.4), in females 90-115 (x 103.9) ; supralabials 7-8 (x 7.26); infralabials 8-9 (x 8.58); temporals usually 2+2+2 (53.1%), but there may be a fusion of the 2 scales of one row or the addition of one or more scales in any of the 3 rows; preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2, except in one case where the count is 3-3. Range, — Marsh Region of Cameron and Calcasieu parishes in Lou¬ isiana (Fig. 3) and approximately the eastern half of Texas. This sub¬ species intergrades to the east with C, c, latrunculus in Vermilion (RMB 4956, USL 4979-80), St. Mary (DEH 2868), and Lafayette (LSUMZ 9506, TU 10813, 12164) parishes. I have seen one intergrade between this subspecies and C, c, anthicus. This specimen (LSUMZ 16011) came from 5 miles E. Vinton in Calcasieu Parish. C, c, flaviven- tris has a large range outside of the states of Louisiana and Texas. Brown (1950) gives the range of C, c, flaviventris as “eastern Texas west to San Patricio, Kendall, Burnett, Eastland, and Swisher counties except for the extreme southeastern section of the state.” In the ex¬ treme northeastern portion of its range in Texas, C. c. flaviventris intergrades with C. c, priapus, the range of which extends on eastward through Arkansas to Florida. Intergrade specimens have been ex¬ amined from northern Caddo and Bossier parishes, Louisiana, Cass County, Texas, and Lafayette County, Arkansas. Intergrades between anthicus and flaviventris in Texas have not been examined. Remarks, — I have seen several living specimens which are inter¬ mediate in coloration between C. c. flaviventris and C, c, latrunculus (see above). The color pattern of these intergrades may be described 78 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE as follows: dorsum grayish-olive to grayish-brown; venter light yellow grading to yellowish-cream or light pink posteriorly; head grayish- brown above, the temporal region and the upper portion of the supra- labials behind the eye smudged with dark gray (but not black) . Thus, these intergrades show evidence of flaviventris in the olive green cast (which is mixed with the slate gray coloration of latrunculus to pro¬ duce the grayish-olive or grayish-brown dorsum) , and the yellowish cast to the anterior venter. They show influence of latrunculus in the grayish cast to the dorsum, in the presence of a somewhat muted post¬ ocular stripe (lacking in flaviventris) and in the presence in some specimens (DEH 2868, USE 4979) of a light pinkish cast to the posterior venter. Intergrades between C. c. flaviventris and C. c. priapus are deter¬ mined by the presence of a black to blue-black dorsum with a light grayish-blue venter. Coluber constrictor latrunculus subsp. nov. Black-masked Racer Coluber constrictor flaviventris: Ortenburger, 1928: 190 (part); Viosca, 1944: 57; Liner, 1954: 82 (part); Auffenberg, 1955: 90 (part); Tinkle, 1959: 194 Diagnosis. — A subspecies of Coluber constrictor characterized by having a slate gray dorsal coloration, a light grayish-blue venter, and a black postocular stripe. Holotype. — Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology 19283, collected 30 April 1967 at St. James, St. James Parish, Louisiana, by Claude Gravois. Description of holotype. — An adult female with the following color¬ ation in life: dorsum gray; venter light bluish-gray; lower postocular, lower temporal in first row and dorsal portion of 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th supralabials black, some black mottling on scales adjacent to these; some light brownish-gray mottling on gulars. Supralabials 7-7, 3rd and 4th entering the orbit; infralabials 9-8, 4 touching the anterior chin shields and the 5th the largest; loreal 1-1 ; preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2; temporals 2+2+2/2+2+2. Dorsal 3+4 (94) scale reduction formula 17 3+4 (91) 15. Ventrals 171; tail incom¬ plete; anal plate divided. Snout- vent length 1000 mm, tail incomplete. Variation. — I have examined 86 specimens of this subspecies. Of those which I have examined alive, there is little variation in color pattern. The dorsa are some shade of gray, usually a dull or slate gray. The venters are light, usually a light bluish-gray, but may also be THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 79 cream. Some specimens show a light pink tinge to the ventrals, especially those on the posterior portion of the body. The dark post¬ ocular stripe is always present, varying somewhat in extent of cover¬ age of the temporal region but almost always present on the lower temporals and upper portion of the supralabials behind the eye. Scutellation characteristics are as follows: ventrals in males, 171- 186 (x 177.7), in females 171-192 (x 180.4); subcaudals in males 82-104 (x 95.9), in females 88-106 (x 93.3); lateral point of reduc¬ tion in males 97-123 (x 106.2), in females 80-128 (x 105.8); supra¬ labials 7-8 (x7.30); infralabials 8-11 (x 8.64) ; temporals usually 2+2+2 (52.5%), but there may be a fusion of the 2 scales of one row or the addition of a scale in any of the 3 rows; preoculars 2-2, except in one case where the count is 3-3 ; postoculars 2-2, except in one case where the count is 3-3 and one in which the count is 2-3. Range, — Bottomland Hardwoods and Cypress Region of the Missis¬ sippi River Valley in southeastern Louisiana from West Feliciana and St. Landry parishes southwest to St. Martin Parish and southeast to St. Bernard Parish (Fig. 3) . Intergrades between C. c, latrunculus and C. c. anthicus are discussed in the section on anthicus and between C. c. latrunculus and C. c. flaviventris in the section on flaviventris. Remarks. — -The area of intergradation between priapus and latrun¬ culus is poorly known because of both a lack of material from critical areas and the difficulty in distinguishing an intergrade specimen from latrunculus in preservative. In preservative the dorsum of latrunculus becomes very dark and the black postocular stripe is thus obscured. I have, however, seen a specimen of priapus (TU 5417) from as far south as Slidell in St. Tammany Parish. Another specimen (TU 5553) , which was collected only approximately 2% air miles away, along Salt Bayou, has a light belly and a blue dorsum. Yet another specimen (TU 13811) from Rigolets, one of the outlets of Lake Ponchartrain to Lake Borque, has a lighter venter than is usual for priapus in the Florida Parishes. It is not as light, however, as the specimen from Salt Bayou, which is north of Rigolets. The subspecific name, latrunculus^ is derived from Latin and means “little robber,” in reference to the black “mask.” Coluber constrictor priapus Dunn and Wood Southern Black Racer Coluber constrictor priapus Dunn and Wood, 1939: 4; Auffenberg, 1955: 97 Diagnosis. — A subspecies of Coluber constrictor with a black dorsum and a slate gray to black venter. The chin is white and there is a vari¬ able amount of white pigment on the throat. The hemipenis has en¬ larged basal spines. 80 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 3. Distribution of the subspecies of Coluber constrictor in Louisiana and eastern Texas. Holotype. — ANSP 16111; type locality, West Palm Beach, Palm Beach County, Florida. Description. — The color pattern of a typical example (WHB 334) may be described as follows: dorsum black; venter very dark gray; chin white and the first ventral with a little white pigment on the medial portion of the scale; ventral half of supralabials white. Scutellation characteristics are as follows: ventrals in males 165- 177 (x 170.6), in females 171-181 (x 175.0); subcaudals in males 81-105 (x 96.8), in females 77-97 (x 93.5) ; lateral point of reduction in males 91-116 (x 102.2), in females 92-125 (x 105.5); supralabials 7-8 (x7.11); infralabials 8-10 (x8.78); temporals usually 2+2+2 (48.6%), but there may be a fusion of the 2 scales of one row or the addition of one or more scales in any of the 3 rows; preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2, except in one specimen where a count of 2-3 was obtained. Range. — Longleaf Pine Region of southeastern Louisiana (the “Florida Parishes”) (Fig. 3). C. c. priapus intergrades with C. c. THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 81 latrunculus in the bottomland hardwood area along the eastern side of the Mississippi River. Remarks. — There is little variation in color pattern in priapus in the Florida Parishes of Louisiana. The dorsum may vary from very dark gray to black. There is some variation in ventral color which is difficult to determine unless specimens are compared side by side. In the southern portion of the Florida Parishes, in the region north of Lake Maurepas and Lake Pontchartrain, the priapus have a lighter ventral color. One specimen (TU 5553) from Salt Bayou in the extreme southeastern corner of St. Tammany Parish has a very light belly, yet the dorsum is very dark. This difference from priapus further north may be due to influence from C. c. latrunculus from the south. The amount of white pigment on the ventrals varies but little. Using the Dowling system (1951) to determine which is the first ventral, from none to 4 ventrals may have some white pigment on them. DISCUSSION Coluber constrictor is widespread in Louisiana and eastern Texas, having been recorded in almost every parish and county and in every principal forest type. The ranges of the subspecies of Coluber con¬ strictor in Louisiana correspond well to the outlines of the major tree regions of Louisiana (Brown, 1965). Thus, C. c. flaviventris is found in the Marsh Region in Cameron and Vermilion parishes. C. c. ethe- ridgei is found in the Longleaf Pine Region in southwestern Louisiana and several counties in eastern Texas. C. c. anthicus is distributed throughout the Shortleaf Pine-Oak-Hickory Region as well as portions of the Longleaf Pine Region. C. c. latrunculus occurs in the Bottomland Hardwoods and Cypress Region of the Mississippi River Valley. C. c. priapus is found in the Longleaf Pine Region of southeastern Louisi¬ ana. With the description of 2 new subspecies, there are now 10 sub¬ species recognized in Coluber constrictor. These are Coluber con¬ strictor constrictor Linnaeus 1758, C. c. anthicus (Cope) 1862, C. c. etheridgei subsp. nov., C. c. flaviventris Say 1823, C. c. helvigularis Auffenberg 1955, C. c. latrunculus subsp. nov., C. c. mormon Baird and Girard 1852, C. c. oaxaca (Jan) 1863 (C. c. stejnegerianus (Cope) 1895 auctorum), C. c. paludicolus Auffenberg and Babbitt 1953, and C. c. priapus Dunn and Wood 1939. At least 3 subspecies groupings in C. constrictor can be set up depending on the emphasis placed on various characters. C. c. mormon 82 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE and C. c. oaxaca agree in having a high percentage of occurrence of 8 supralabials; all of the remaining subspecies are characterized by a high percentage of occurrence of 7 supralabials. Another way of grouping is according to the length of the hemi- penial spines. Auffenberg (1955) states that “all of the races of constrictor, with the exception of constrictor constrictor, appear to have basal spines which may be termed ‘hooks’.” The 2 new subspecies described herein agree with the majority of the subspecies in this regard. Another method of grouping is according to adult coloration. Three subspecies, C. c. constrictor, C. c. helvigularis , and C. c. priapus, have an adult coloration consisting of a black dorsum and venter. Four sub¬ species, C. c. oaxaca, C. c. mormon, C. c. ftaviventris, and C. c. paludi- colus, are characterized by having a dorsal coloration of some shade of green, usually olive green {oaxaca, mormon, and some fLaviventris) , or blue (some ftaviventris and paludicolus) and a light venter (often yellowish). One subspecies, C. c. latrunculus, is characterized by having a gray dorsum and light bluish-gray venter. Finally, there are 2 subspecies, C. c. anthicus and C. c. etheridgei, which show some dorsal spotting. C. c. anthicus has a predominantly blue or blue-green ground color, while in C. c. etheridgei the ground color is tan. Some of the relationships between the subspecies are fairly clear and others are rather obscure. It seems quite likely that priapus and helvigularis are closely related; the latter differs from the former primarily in having a large amount of light brown or tan pigment on the supralabials, infralabials, chin, and throat. The relationship be¬ tween these 2 and the nominate subspecies is less clear. Since constric¬ tor agrees with priapus and helvigularis in color, the unique character of constrictor (the small size of the basal hemipenial spines) may have developed subsequently to the development of a black dorsal and ventral coloration. Thus, constrictor may be more closely related to the other “black” racers than it is to any of the other subspecies. The relationship of the spotted forms is reasonably clear. C. c. etheridgei would appear to have evolved from C. c. anthicus by the development of a uniform tan coloration {anthicus is blue or blue- green anteriorly, but the posterior portion of the body is usually tan) . C. c. etheridgei has retained the spotted dorsum, but it is not so notice¬ able as on anthicus due to the light ground color of the former. The range of etheridgei appears to be completely or almost completely surrounded by that of anthicus. The closest relationship of the spotted forms would seem to be with C. c. ftaviventris, becaues of the resem¬ blance in basic ground color. THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 83 The relationship of the' green or blue forms to one another and to the other subspecies is a little more confused. Within this color group¬ ing are forms having predominately 8 supralabials and forms having predominately 7 supralabials. It is possible to assume that the 2 forms having 8 supralabials are more closely related to one another than either is to the forms having 7 supralabials. As I have pointed out previously (Wilson, 1967), there seems to be very little consistent difference between C. c. oaxaca and C. c. mormon. C. c. flaviventris agrees generally in coloration with these 2 and could have developed from C. c. oaxaca. It appears from Auffenberg’s (1955) work that the area occupied by C. c. oaxaca (C. c. stejnegerianus auctorum) is the focal point from which a number of dines diverge and, indeed, that oaxaca is closest to the ancestral stock. The relationship of C. c. paludicolus to C. c. oaxaca.^ mormon, and flaviventris is the least clear of all. Auffenberg (1955) says nothing at all regarding the evolution of paludicolus but it is more or less implicit from his discussion (pp. 102, 112) that paludicolus is most closely related to flaviventris. How paludicolus came to be distributed in 2 disjunct populations in southern and southeastern Florida is a matter for conjecture. The relation of C. c. latrunculus would seem to be with C. c. flavi¬ ventris. Auffenberg (1955, p. 92) discussed several populations which he surmises might be incipient subspecies. He stated that in the Missis¬ sippi Delta and associated mainland “C. c. flaviventris . . . seems to be rather distinct from populations throughout the remainder of the range of this subspecies. These differences mainly concern coloration and scutellation.” These individuals are distinct in coloration and mean number of ventrals from C. c. flaviventris, and I prefer to recog¬ nize them as constituting the distinct subspecies, latrunculus. Further¬ more, they appear similar to the rest of the recognized subspecies, because within the central portion of the range they are quite uniform in coloration and on the edges of the range the specimens show evi¬ dence of influence from the surrounding races {priapus, flaviventris, anthicus) . LITERATURE CITED Auffenberg, W., 1949 — The racer, Coluber constrictor stejnegerianus, in Texas. Herpetologica, 5: 53-58. - , 1955 — reconsideration of the racer, Coluber constrictor, in eastern United States. Tulane Stud. ZooL, 2: 89-155. Blanchard, F. N., 1930 — The white-spotted phase of the racer {Coluber constrictor flaviventris (Say)) in Louisiana. Copeia, 1930: 85-86. 84 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Brown, B. C., 1950 — An annotated check list of the reptiles and amphibians of Texas. Baylor Univ. Press. Brown, C. A., 1965 — Louisiana trees and shrubs. La. Forestry Comm. Bull., 1: 1-262. Burt, C. E., 1946 — A report on some amphibians and reptiles from Louisiana. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., 48: 422-428. Burt, C. E., and M. D. Burt, 1929 — A collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Mississippi Valley, with field observations. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 381: 1-14. Cagle, F. R., 1952 — ^A key to the amphibians and reptiles of Louisiana. Tulane Univ. Book Store. Clark, R. F., 1949 — Snakes of the hill parishes of Louisiana. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 24: 244-261. Cochran, D. M., 1961 — Type specimens of reptiles and amphibians in the United States National Museum. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull., 220: 1-291. Cope, E. D., 1862 — Notes upon some reptiles of the Old World. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 14: 337-344. - , 1875 — Check-list of North American Batrachia and Reptilia. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull, 1: 1-104. - , 1900 — The crocodilians, lizards, and snakes of North America. Rept. U.S. Natl Mus. for 1898: 153-1270. Davis, N. S., Jr., and F. L. Rice, 1883 — North American Reptilia and Batrachia found east of the Mississippi River. Bull. Ill State Lab. Nat. Hist., 5: 1-64. Dowling, H. G., 1951 — A proposed standard system of counting ventrals in snakes. Brit. J. Herpetology, 1: 97-99. - , 1959 — The spotted racer, Coluber constrictor anthicus Cope, in Arkansas. Southwest. Nat., 4: 40. Dunn, E. R., and G. C. Wood, 1939 — Notes on eastern snakes of the genus Coluber. Notulae Naturae, 5: 1-4. Fitch, H. S., 1949 — Road coimts of snakes in western Louisiana. Herpetologica, 5: 87-90. ■ - , 1963 — Natural history of the racer Coluber constrictor. Univ. Kan. Publ Mus. Nat. Hist., 15: 351-468. Guidry, E. V., 1953 — Herpetological notes from southeastern Texas. Herpetologica, 9: 49-56. Liner, E, A., 1954 — The herpetofauna of Lafayette, Terrebone and Vermilion parishes, Louisiana. Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 17: 65-85. Olson, R. E., 1967 — Peripheral range extensions and some new records of Texas amphibians and reptiles. Tex. J. Sci., 19: 99-106. Ortenburger, a. L, 1928 — Whip snakes and racers. Genera Masticophis and Coluber. Mem. Univ. Mich. Mus., 1: 1-247. Ridgway, R., 1912 — Color standards and color nomenclature. Published by the author, W ashington, D.C. Say, T., 1823 — In Edwin James, Account of An Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, Performed in the Years 1819, 1820. H. C. Peary and /. Lea, Philadelphia. THE RACER COLUBER CONSTRICTOR IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS 85 Schmidt, K. P., 1953 — A check list of North American amphibians and reptiles. 6th ed. Univ. Chicago Press. Tinkle, D. W., 1959 — Observations of reptiles and amphibians in a Louisiana swamp. Amer. Midi. Nat.., 62: 189-205. VioscA, P, Jr., 1944 — Distribution of certain cold-blooded animals in Louisiana in relation to the geology and physiography of the state. Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 8: 47-62. Walker, J. M., 1963 — Amphibians and reptiles of Jackson Parish, Louisiana. Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 26: 91-101. Wilson, L. D., 1967 — The range of the Rio Grande Racer in Mexico' and the status of Coluber oaxaca (Jan). Herpetologica, 22: 42-47. Wright, A. H., and A. A. Wright, 1957 — Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Vol. 1. Comstock Publ. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 1 ! *1 a fi i i I i j Notes Section MARINE SHELLS FROM ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS. The purpose of this brief note is to put on record the occurrence of species of marine shell in archeological sites in southwest Texas. At least 3 Gulf of Mexico species are represented, including Heart Cockle {Dinocardium robustum Solander), Sunray Clam {Macrocallista nimbosa Solander), and Conch {Busycon sp.). In their normal habitats, these species occur some 160 to 200 miles E-SE of the southwestern Texas sites in which they were found. These specimens are deemed significant primarily because they indicate one (or more) of the 3 following possibilities: (1) the roving hunting and gathering bands of southwestern Texas (perhaps members of certain bands) occasionally visited the littoral, returning to their territory with examples of marine shell; or (2) the shells were obtained through direct trade with coastal peoples; or (3) the shells were obtained through trade with some inter¬ mediary group or through contacts with wandering traders from the coast. This 3rd possibility seems the most likely. It is interesting to note that Cabeza de Vaca (when living among coastal peoples early in the 16th century) often went into the interior of southern Texas to exchange pieces of sea shell, “conchs used for cutting,” and “sea beads” for hides, flint, and deer hair tassels (see R. P. Schaedel, 1949, Southw. J. Anthropol. 5: 131). Fragments of Dinocardium robustum (Solander) have been documented at the Hines Ranch site and at site 41 DM 30, both in Dimmit County (J. W. House Coll.; T. C. Hill, Jr. Coll.), At the Hines Rranch site, one small rectanguloid fragment and one small trianguloid fragment were found; each bears a single perforation, and were undoubtedly used as ornaments. At 41 DM 30, a sizable triangular fragment of Dinocardium was found, though no modification was evident. Both sites have Archaic components, and a Late Prehistoric component (with pottery) is present at 41 DM 30 (for additional data on 41 DM 30, Nunley and Hester, Tex. J. Sci. 18: 245). Other fragments of Dinocardium have been observed in collections in the south Texas region, but specific provenience data are lacking. Only one example of Macrocallista nimbosa (Solander) is known, and was found at a large site in eastern Zavala County (41 ZV 14: T. C. Hill, Jr., pers. comm.). The fragment is rather small (47 X 30 mm.); the ventral margin of the specimen has been chipped and it is possible that it functioned as a scraper, as did similar specimens on the lower Texas coast (see Campbell, 1952, Bull. Tex. Archeol. Paleon. Soc., 23: PI. 6; Hester, 1969, St. Bldg. Comm. Kept. No. 15\ Fig, 19). Both Archaic and Late Prehistoric components are present at 41 ZV 14. Specific site provenience for the occurrence of conch {Busycon sp.) shell at south¬ western Texas sites is not available. However, I have seen disc-shaped beads and small trianguloid pendants made from conch shell in private artifact collections in both Dimmit and Webb Counties. A large gouge made from conch columella has been reported from a collection in Live Oak County, but in this instance, such a specimen would not be too distant from a possible source (T. N. Campbell, pers. comm.). Weir (1956, Bull. Tex. Archaeol. Soc., 26: 77) has noted ornaments made of conch shell (as well as other unnamed marine shell fragments) from a large site in Starr County. Here again, however, the source of such materials is rather close at hand (especially in the Brownsville Complex, 40-60 miles to the south). Both professional and amateur archeologists conducting research in the south The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 88 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Texas area should watch for additional examples of marine shell. With more data, such specimens might prove extremely valuable in telling us more about the trading and/ or traveling habits of the prehistoric peoples of that region. Thanks are due to J. W. House (Carrizo Springs) and T. C. Hill, Jr. (Crystal City) for making materials available for study, Thomas Roy Hester, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley 94720. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ERUPTION OF VOLCANO ARENAL IN COSTA RICA. Central America represents one of the world’s most active volcanic regions. Of the 77 known volcanoes in Central America, 42 are outstanding and of latent activity. Eighteen are now active between Panama and northwest Guatemala. Volcano Arenal (el. 1630 m.) is one of the 11 active or latent volcanoes distributed from southeast to northwest along the Cordilleran Ranges of Costa Rica (Fig, 1). On the morning of July 29, 1968, it began its first recorded eruption. This started with no warning. Incandescent gases accompanied the initial explosions which shook the countryside. Judging by the victim’s scorched bodies, the emission was a glowing cloud (“nuee ardente”). The fact that glass in abandoned farm houses was completely melted, indicates that the temperature must have been on the order of 1000°C. The victims in contact with the incandescent gases died instantly. Some were killed by volcanic bombs and hot ashes which fell in an area of many miles around the crater and the flanks of Arenal. Within the first days of this eruption, 120 persons perished, as well as many thousands of cattle. The towns of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo, and Fortuna were badly damaged and evacuated. Ashes from the eruption spread into Nicaragua and out to the Pacific Ocean. The falling ashes prevented rescue parties from approaching the volcano. Lava was not observed in these initials stages of the eruption. The eruption could be classed as of a Mt. Pelee type. When I examined the area of the volcano on August 2, 1968, during a lull between explosions, I approached to within 2 miles of the crater. A thick blanket of ashes covered the slopes of Arenal. Houses of local farmers were mostly destroyed, roofs caved in by falling bombs and the weight of ashes. Later, I made a first overflight of the crater, but thick clouds of ashes obscured the view. The second overflight was more successful. The original crater of Volcano Arenal was not errupting. A lateral crater had opened on the northwest flank of the volcano, and this was actually in eruption. Intermittently, explosions with ashes continued through August and September. These, however, were gradually weaken¬ ing. On September, 19, lava was emitted from the newly opened lateral crater. It started moving at the approximate rate of 3 meters per day, and appeared as an incandescent mass about 200 meters wide and 50 meters high. The lava was moving northwesterly in the direction of the valley, Rio Tabacon, By the end of October, its speed increased to about 10 to 30 meters per day, while the height of the ad¬ vancing lava front diminished to about 20 meters. Apparently related to the activity of Arenal, was the eruption in November, 1968, of the volcano Cerro Negro to the northwest in Nicaragua. This eruption was accompanied by a considerable effusion of lava. Some activity appeared in the crater of Volcano Irazu (el. 3432 m.), southeast of Arenal. The last intense eruption of Irazu was in 1963-64. Of the other active or latent volcanoes which I have examined in Costa Rica in NOTES 89 LA ^ALMA @.S 1968, Volcano Turrialba (el. 3328 m.) had numerous active fumarolse and a very hot inner caldera in the main, and most recently active, of the 3 craters. Although this volcano was last active in 1866, it was apparent that it may erupt again in the not- too distant future. Volcano Poas (el. 2704 m.) was active in 1953, and con¬ tinues emitting steam and gasses. Volcano Rincon de la Vieja, in Cordillera de Guanacaste, is still quite active. Although surface obse^rvations in the Costa Rican volcanic ranges are obscured by thick volcanic cinder deposits and lavas, the trend in the alignment of the volcanoes indicates a definite pattern related to the geologic ages of the ranges. Thus, the northern ranges (Cordillera Central), with active volcanoes, are pre¬ dominantly of Quartemary or late Tertiary ages. The western and southwestern 90 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ranges (Cordillera de Talamanca), facing the Pacific, are of early Tertiary and Mesozoic ages. This alignment in Costa Rica, and probably throughout Central America, indi¬ cates that the volcanic vents are situated along major crustal fault lines or crustal fracture zones. Apparently, the evolution of the southern ranges preceeded the up¬ lifting of the northern volcanic chain. Southern Central America (southern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama) can be assumed to have grown by accretion through the evolution of a volcanic island-arc, consolidation of the arc into a volcanic range, and subsequent accretion of the land-mass into a subcontinental or continental area. This same pattern of evolution may apply to northern Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and part of Nicaragua) at an earlier geologic time, Mesozoic to Paleozoic. Following the results of the latest geological and geophysical work in Central America (Dengo, 1968, Inst. Centroamericano de Investigacion y T echnologia) it would appear that the principal tectonic or crustal movements affecting southern Central America and the Caribbean basin have been directed northward and east¬ ward, contrary to the assumption of a westward expansion of the Atlantic Ocean floor (Oppenheim, 1967, Amer. Assoc. Petr. GeoL, Bull. 51). This is also suggested by the northeastwardly directed crustal fault and fracture lines. These are the bases for the emplacement of Costa Rican volcanic ranges. By Victor Oppenheim, Consulting Geologist, Republic National Bank Building, Dallas, Texas. THE CURRENT GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARMADILLO IN THE UNITED STATES. Hamlett (1939 Jour. Mammalogy, 20: 328-336) recorded the nine-banded armadillo {Dasypus novemcinctus) as ranging throughout South America from northern Argentina to the southern United States. The early history of this animal’s spread from the extreme southern tip of Texas was reviewed by Buchanan and Talmage (1954, Tex. Jour. Sci., 6: 142-150), exactly 100 years after the first record of armadillo activity in the United States by Audubon and Bachman (1854, Quadrupeds of North America). In 1958, Buchanan revised his previous study to reflect the range after the mid-1950 drought (1958, Tex. Jour. Sci., 10: 349-351). Basically, no great change was noted by Buchanan with the exception of Florida which was reported as having a 50% increase. The Florida population was introduced as early as 1924 (Bailey, Jour. Mammalogy, 5: 264-265). This current study was aimed at determining the present United States distribution of the armadillo. Since a northern range boundry was drawn by Cope (1880, U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull., 17, Fig. 1), this animal has literally crossed through all gulf states. One-page questionnaires were sent tO' game wardens in counties where the occur¬ rence of the armadillo was questionable and in a number of instances to game wardens in areas of known distribution for comparison of results. A total of 220 questionnaires was mailed to wardens in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma. Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Florida and South Carolina. Of the questionnaires mailed, 139 were returned. Rather than attempting to establish a static line depicting geographic distribution, the range is recorded in terms of relative abundance (Fig. 1) Game wardens were asked to report recent changes in density of the armadillo populations in their individual counties. The wardens were also asked to rate the county as to numbers of armadillos present by checking either large numbers present, frequently observed, or rarely observed. The results of the game warden reports (Fig. 1) provide evidence that the NOTES 91 armadillo has pushed across the southern United States reaching the Florida pan¬ handle. Armadillos are still being reported in southern Kansas and Missouri. Texas. Of special interest in Texas is the expansion of armadillos into Wilbarger and Hardeman counties and the reporting of the armadillo as a rare resident of Reeves and Terrell counties, in the Trans-Pecos region. The warden of Reeves county reports the armadillo in the Davis Mountains. Of counties replying, 10 indicated larger numbers of armadillos in the past 10 years. New Mexico. Game wardens replying indicated none present. Louisiana. Apparently the entire state has abundant populations of armadillos. Two of the reporting counties indicate larger numbers of armadillos in the past 1 0 years. Oklahoma. The advance into north central and eastern Oklahoma is evident. Four counties report larger numbers in the past 1 0 years. Kansas. The records in Kansas confirm the persistence of the armadillo as a rare resident of Kansas as noted by Hall (1955, Univ. Kan. Mus. Nat. Hist., Misc. Publ., No. 7). Arkansas. The armadillo is found in the lower %ds of the state. Eight counties report larger numbers in the past 1 0 years. Missouri. The rare occurrence of the armadillo in Missouri is in agreement with such records in northern Oklahoma and northern Arkansas. Mississippi. Armadillos have crossed this state and are well established. Game wardens ask for advice in eradication because of large numbers. Eight counties report larger numbers in the past 1 0 years. Alabama. The armadillo is becoming established in southeastern Alabama and spreading across the state. Three counties report larger numbers in the past 10 years. Georgia. Golly (1962, Mammals of Georgia, Univ. Ga. Press) only reports records of armadillos from 3 western counties. Camden county currently reports large 92 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE numbers present which is substantiated by their abundance in northern Florida. Two counties report larger numbers in the past 10 years. South Carolina. The 2 rare occiirrences support the records reported by Golley (1966, Mammals of South Carolina., Univ. Ga. Press) in the state. Florida. A majority of the state is populated. Nine counties report larger numbers in the past 10 years. It is interesting to note how closely the distribution of the armadillo compares to an area comprising the Texan, Comanchian, Austroriparian and Tamualipan biotic provinces of Dice (1943, The Biotic Provinces of North America, Univ. Mich. Press) This relationship seems to help substantiate reports of armadillos in southern Kansas and Missouri as well as the probability of a connection of eastern and western populations within a short time. Explanation for this rapid advance has been tied primarily to environmental temperature and climatic changes (Price and Gunter, 1943, Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26: 138-156). However, the work by Johansen (1961, Physiol. ZooL, 34: 126-144) shows that the nine-banded armadillo is physiologically more capable of surviving cold temperatures than previously thought. A prediction now as to eventual advances or regressions in the range of the armadillo would be premature, but such developments should prove to be ex¬ tremely interesting. Arthur G. Cleveland, Department of Biology, Texas Wesleyan College, Fort Worth 76105. FIRST RECORD OF THE POCKETED FREE-TAILED BAT FOR COAHUILA MEXICO AND ADDITIONAL TEXAS RECORDS. On the night of 7 August 1969, 15 miles south of Boquillas, Coahuila, Mexico, Ted Brown and I netted 11 (9 females and two males) pocketed free-tailed bats, Tadarida femorosacca. They were captured over a lake with 139 other bats of the following species: Mormoops megalophylla (1), Myotis yumanensis (3), M. velifer (1), M. californicus (2), Pipistrellus hesperus (19), Antrozous pallidus (20), Tadarida brasiliensis (91), T. macrotis (1) and Eumops perotis (1). 110 of these bats were banded and released. Six of the T. femorosacca were banded and released, one died and was discarded, and four were preserved as study skins and skulls (DAE 2163, 2197, 2198, 2199) and are at Big Bend National Park Museum and Northwest Missouri State College. The area of capture was bordered on one side by a limestone canyon, and at a dis¬ tance of about 4 miles the high cliffs of the Sierra Del Carmen Mountains (el.- 7423 ft.) were evident. Chihuahuan Desert plant dominants in this area were: leatherplant, Fatropha spathulata-, creosote bush, Larrea divaricata; sotol, Dasyli- rion leiophyllum-, candelilla. Euphorbia antisyphilitica', Hechtia, Hechtia scarioa; mesquite, Prosopis glandulosa-, and ocotillo, Fouquieria splendens. Apparently this is the first record of the pocketed free-tailed bat for Coahuila, Mexico (Hall and Kelson, 1959. The Mammals of North America, Ronald Press, Vol. 1: 207). The nearest recorded locality (Easterla, 1968. /. Mamm., 49: 515-516) is at Giant Dagger Yucca Flats, Big Bend National Park, Texas, an air distance of 41 miles. However, other records (some closer) exist from Big Bend National Park. On the night of 14 July 1969, D. J. Easterla and I netted one male T. femorosacca over a large earthen water tank at Rio Grande Village. This area is adjacent to Coahuila and is only 17.5 miles from the described Mexican site. During 13 nights of netting between 24 June and 27 August 1968 and 10 June and 11 August 1969, I NOTES 93 netted 39 T. femorosacca over waterholes near Castolon. 26 of these were banded and released, and the remainder were either discarded because of accidental injury, deaths and spoilage, or preserved as study skins and skulls. During June and July, adults of both sexes were captured, with both pregnant and lactating females being found. Juveniles of both sexes were captured in August. It seems evident from these records that in the proper habitat, the pocketed free-tailed bat is well established as a summer resident in the Big Bend area. Appreciation is extended to the Mexican government for cooperation in this project and to Ted L. Brown, David J. Easterla and Patti Easterla for field assistance. I am grateful to Roland H. Wauer and Luther T. Peterson for con¬ tinued cooperation and support in this study (Big Bend Natural Science Research Project 18). — David A. Easterla, Department of Biology, Northwest Missouri State College, Maryville, 64468 Dialectic Anomalous Water, Does It Exist?^ by J. A. SCHUFLE Department of Chemistry- New Mexico Highlands University- Las Vegas 87701 The announcement of the discovery of anomalous properties of water in capillaries by Derjaguin et al. (1967) was a confirmation of results we had obtained up to a certain point. We had independently discovered a shift in the temperature of maximum density of water, when it is held in fine capillaries (Muller and Schufle, 1968). This was one of the principle anomalous properties attributed to anomalous water by Derjaguin. We were skeptical of the statement by Derjaguin that his anomalous water must be “grown” in the capillaries by suspending them over a solution of K2SO4 to maintain an atmosphere of water vapor at a pressure about 95 % of that of normal water. Our capillaries had been filled with distilled water in an ordinary manner and no growing-in process, such as that described by Derjaguin, was involved. We began to work with Dr. Sherman Rabideau and Dr. Al Florin of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, on this problem and both of our groups began to grow Derjaguin’ s anoma¬ lous water. We were immediately successful and were elated at the discovery. The temperature of maximum density was at about —18°C. On cooling to about — 60°C, 2 phases were observed as described by Derjaguin. Our observations were similar to those reported by Willis, et al. (1969). We also squeezed some of the anomalous water out of the capillary and it remained in this state overnight. This would seem to confirm Derjaguin’s finding of an abnormally low vapor pressure for anomalous water. However, we began to observe certain peculiar properties that were not confirmed by anything Derjaguin reported. We began to observe 2 phases at room temperature, not just at the very low temperatures reported by Derjaguin. We also noticed solid material appearing in many of the capillaries containing anomalous water. Everyone who saw these crystals immediately suggested that they indicated a con¬ taminant of some kind in the anomalous water. The obvious suggestion 1 (Paper presented before the Symposium on Water Stmcture, Minneapolis Meet¬ ing of the American Chemical Society, 13-18 April 1969). The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 1, September, 1970. 96 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE is that somehow some of the silica from the quartz capillary had become dissolved in the water and was producing a gel. It is obvious that an analysis of the anomalous water is called for. Any chemist worth his salt would want to do that. The only trouble is, anomalous water can only be prepared in minute amounts in capil¬ laries a few microns in diameter. Rabideau and Florin had available to them at Los Alamos an electron microprobe. They squeezed some of the anomalous water out on a platinum planchet and analyzed it with this instrument. They found no trace of silica but did find evi¬ dence of potassium and sulfur. Obviously then, potassium sulfate must be creeping up the walls of the container in which the capillaries were held over the potassium sulfate solution. Is anomalous water then nothing but a solution of potassium sulfate? A solution saturated with potassium sulfate has a temperature of maximum density in the neighborhood of — 14°C. Are we contami¬ nating our anomalous water, whereas Derjaguin is not? These are questions which need to be answered. I believe the finding of potassium sulfate by Rabideau and Florin (1970) in anomalous water prepared by Derjaguin’s procedure casts enough doubt on the results previously reported that a fresh start must somehow be made in the study of this interesting phenomenon. We must return to Derjaguin' s original procedure and grow anomalous water over a reservoir of nothing but pure water. If necessary, we must maintain the 95 % of vapor pressure in the atmosphere by means of temperature control of the reservoir as Derjaguin did originally. Then, if anomalous water is found in the capillaries which then exhibits the anomalous properties described by Derjaguin, we can proceed with confidence to unravel the meaning of this peculiar behavior. (Note added in proof: Rabideau and Florin in the meantime have indeed grown anomalous water over distilled water, but have obtained weighable amounts of solid residue from the anomalous water. This residue was found to contain sodium and boron. Prepared solutions of sodium tetraborate exhibited properties similar to anomalous water.) REFERENCES CITED Derjaguin, B. V., N. V. Churyaeg, N. N, Fedyakin, M. V. Talaev and 1. G. Ershova, 1967 — The modified state of water and other liquids. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 10: 2178. Muller, Ralph H. and J. A. Schufle, 1968 — The shift in temperature of maximum density of water in capillaries. /. Geophys. Res., 73: 3345. Rabideau, Sherman and A. E. Florin, 1970 — Characterization of anomalous water by physical methods. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission Report LA-DC-11357. Willis, E., G. K. Rennie, C. Smart and B. A. Pethica, 1969^ — “Anomalous” Water. Nature, 22: 159-161. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: bob h. slaughter, Southern Methodist University President-Elect: james d. long, Sam Houston State University Secretary-Treasurer: a. w. roach, North Texas State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. o. hartley, Texas A&M University II — Physics: Bernard t. young, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences: william d. miller, Texas Tceh University IV — Biological Sciences: Robert d. yates, Univ. of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston V — Social Sciences: william c. adams, East Texas State University VI — Environmental Sciences: Robert l. Packard, Texas Tech University VII — Chemistry: archie o. parks, Southwest Texas State University VIII — Science Education: jacob w. Blankenship, Univ. of Houston Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: w, e. norris, jr., Southwest Texas State University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer, Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS bob h. slaughter. Southern Methodist University JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University w. E. NORRIS, JR., Southwest Texas State University A. w. roach. North Texas State University GERALD G. RAUN, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, The University of Texas at Austin eb carl girvin. Southwestern University PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E. EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology Cover Photo A schematic diagram of Dry Cave, southeastern New Mexico. For further information on this subject see, “The Dry Cave Mammalian Fauna and Late Pluvial Conditions in South¬ eastern New Mexico,” by A. H. Harris, pp. 3-27, and the two following articles. CLASS P' A" - ‘ ‘ ■ TE> - - ■ ■ LI B R A R Y SMITHSON W A S H I N G T IAN INST 0 N DC 20560 THE EXAS JOURNAI, OF SCIENCE 7S ' 13' 1 3 i- SECTION I MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research SECTION Vlll SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION VII CHEMISTRY SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION III EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology 3 SECTION IV BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES ‘ Agriculture SECTION II PHYSICS SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES Botany Medical Science Anthropology Education Zoology Economics History Psychology Sociology AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS Texas Section, American Association of Physics Teachers Texas Section, Mathematical Association of America Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers GENERAL INFORMATION Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro¬ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00. Dues should be sent to the Secretary- Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P. O. Box 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901. Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. (Secoiid Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Please send form 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P. O. Box 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901). I Volume XXII, Nos. 2 & 3 April 30, 1971 CONTENTS Semi-Closure, By S. Gene Crossley and S. K. Hildebrand . 99 An Extension of a Technique for Summing Series, By T. L. Bouillon and L. E. Batson ............... 113 Quadratic Diophantine Equations, By W. V. Parker and A. A. Aucoin . . 117 Semi-Closed Sets and Semi-Continuity in Topological Spaces, By S. Gene Crossley and S. K. Hildebrand ........... 123 Diamagnetic Susceptibilities of Some Single Crystals, By Donald /. Arnold and Raymond W. Mires . . 127 Kinetics and Mechanism of the Cerium (IV) -Tartaric Acid Reaction. By E. N. Drake 1 1 and J. L. Nutt . . . 133 A Checklist of the Cave Fauna of Texas. VI. Additional Records of Vertebrata, By James R. Reddell . . . .139 A Report on Freshwater Monogenetic Trematodes of Garza-Little Elm By N. J. Clayton and E. A. Schlueter . . . . . 159 Locomotor Activity in Trichogaster Leeri (Pisces, Belontiidae), By Darrell D. Hall . . 169 The Mammals of Baylor County, Texas, By John T. Baccus . . . . . 177 Effects of Phytohormones on the Growth and Morphology of Escherichia coli. By B. D. Vance and L. Little . . 187 The Effects of Posterior Hypothalamic Stimulation on Plasma Corticosterone and Eosinophil Levels in X-Irradiated Rats, By James R. Lott, Joe Burks, and Robert L. Agnew . . . . 199 Pleistocene Snakes from a Cave in Kendall County, Texas, By William H. Hill 209 Upland Gravels in Dallas County, Texas, and Their Bearing on the Former Extent of the High Plains Physiographic Province, By Fred J. Menzer, Jr., and B. H. Slaughter . . 217 K^*^/Ar^o Ages of the Alkalic Igneous Rocks of the Balcones Fault Trend of Texas, By O. D. Baldwin and J. A. S. Adams . 223 SCIENCE EDUCATION What is Different About the Elementary Science Program in San Angelo, By Claude Wooley . Pitfalls of Doing Science Education Research, By Lloyd M. Bennett . . . 237 NOTES SECTION Stimulation of Rooting of Cuttings with 2,4-Dichlorophenozyacetone, By Janet E. Yount and Charles G. Skinner . . . 241 Theoretical Yield of 3'-or 5'-Uridylic Acid from 5'-Kilouridylic Acid by Suc¬ cessive Actions of Pancreatic Ribonuclease (conditioned to make oligo¬ mers), Escherichia coli Alkaline Phosphatase, and Phosphodiesterase of Spleen or Snake Venom, Respectively, By Willis W. Floyd .... 242 Clinical Values in the Nine-Banded Armadillo, Dasypus N ovemcinctus Mexi- canus. By J. D. Prejean and J. C. Travis ........ 245 Incidence of T oxocara Canis (Werner) ccnA Ancylostoma Caninum (Ercolani) From Dogs in Brazos County, Texas, By Richard N. Henson and Salih Yilmaz . . 247 Infestation of a Texas Red-eared Turtle by Leeches, By Albert C. Hendricks, J. T. Wyatt, and D. E. Henley . . . 247 Trapping Wood Rats: Effectiveness of Several Techniques and Differential Catch by Sex and Age, By Curtis J. Carley and Frederick F. Knowlton . 248 An Extension of the Kolmogorov-Smimov Test on Uniformity, By W. B. Smith and F. M. Speed ............. 252 DIALECTIC The Origin of Terrestrial Amphibia, By J. Alan Feduccia . 255 ABSTRACTS OF 1970 ANNUAL MEETING . 265 Semi-Closure by S. GENE CROSSLEY and S. K. HILDEBRAND Department of Mathematics Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 INTRODUCTION Levine (1963) has stated that, in a topological space, a set A J^s semi-op^ if and only if there exists an open set O such that O £ A C O, where () denotes the closure in the topological space. A subset A is semi-open if and only if A C (A"^), ()“ denoting the interior in the topological space. Any union of semi-open sets is semi-open. S.O. (X.t) denotes ihe class of all semi-open subsets of (X,t). All open sets are semi-open. It should be pointed out that if r and t* are 2 topologies on a set X, it is possible that U may be a proper subset of r while S.O.(X,t) is a proper subset of S.O. (X,t’*' ) . This will be illustrated in the following example. Example O.i : Let r be the usual topology on R, the real numbers, and let r* — ^Uer; 1/U) U {R}. It can be verified that t* is a topology. Let 0 and ()* denote the closure in r and t* respectively. Observe that r* is a proper subset of r. Also, note that if A C R, A* — (A U {1}). First, it will be shovm that S.O. (R,t) Q S.O. (R,t* ) . If A e S.O. (R,t), then there exists U f t such th^U £ A c U. Case I: If 1/A, then 1/U. so that UetL Thus U c A c fj c 0% or A ^ S.O.(R.t*). Case IT If IeA, then 1 may be in U. Define W = (U— {!}), and note that Wet’*'. Furthermore, W Q A Q W*. Thus A e S.O.(R,t*). Hence S.O.(R,t) c S.O.(R,r*).^ Now it will be shown that S.O. (R.r) is a proper subset of S.O.(R.t*). Consider ({1} U (2,3)) which is not semi-open in the usual topology. However, if we let W — (2,3), Wsr* and furthermore W Q B c W* so that B f S.O.(R,t*). Thus S.O.(R,t) is a proper subset of S.O.(R,t"). SEMI-CLOSURE IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES Definition i.l: A subset A of a topological space X is said to be semi-closed if and only if (X-A) is semi-open. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 100 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Remark i.l: Since all open sets are semi-open, it follows that all closed sets are semi-closed. Remark i.2\ In a topological space, all nonvoid semi-open sets must contain nonvoid open sets. Theorem lA: A set A is semi-closed if and only if there exists a closed set C such that C° c A c C. Proof: Necessity: If A is semi-closed, (X-A) is semi-open. Thus there exists an open set 0, such that 0 Q (X-A) Q O. Consequently, (X-C)'’)° ■— (X~0) c A £ (X-0), and since (X~0) is closed, the proof of this part is complete. Sufficiency: If there exists a closed set C such that C° C A C C, it must be shown that (X-A) is semi-open. Note that (X-C) Q (X-A) C (X-C°) = (X~C) and (X-C) is open; thus (X-A) is semi-open. Theorem 1 .2: A set A is semi-closed if and only if ( A) ° £ A. Proof: A is semi-closed if and only if (X-A) is semi-open. (X-A) is semi-open if and only if (X-A) £ ((X-A)°). But (X-A) £ ((X- A)°) if and only if A D (X-( (X-A) °) ) ) = (X-(X-A)°)° = (X- (X-A))°= (A)°. Theorem i3: A nonvoid nowhere dense set is semi-closed and not semi-open. Proof: If A ^ 0 is nowhere dense, (A) ° = 0 £ A, so that by The¬ orem 1.2, A is semi-closed. Furthermore, the only open subset of A is 0, and 0 = 0 so that A is not semi-open. Remark i3: Two different topologies on the same set of points may have the same collection of semi-open sets. This is illustrated in the following example. Example iA\ Let X= {a,bx}, and consider the topologies = {0,{a},{a,b},X} and r = {0,{a},{a,b},{a,c}.X}. Now, considering the topology t’', and observing the following: (0°) = 0; ({a}°) = {a} X; (W) - = 0; (“{^)={^}=X; (T^)=R-X; ({b.c}°) =0; and (X°) =X; we see that S.O.(X,r*) = r. Following the same procedure with the topology r (the same nota¬ tion will be used even though the topology is different), we obtain: (W)=0; 0^) {7} = X; (J^) = (ITy) = 0; ({a.b)°)^ {a,b} - X; ({a,c}°) = {a,c} - X; ({b,c}°) = 0; and (X°) - X; and observe that S.O.(X,t) -■ t = S.O.(X,t* ) . Remark iA\ Since any union of semi-open sets is semi-open, it follows that any intersection of semi-closed sets is semi-closed. Definition 1 .2: For any set A in the space X, the semi-closure of A, denoted by A, is defined by A = ( where S’ = {D:D is semi- closed in X, and A £ D}. Definition i3 : For any set A in the space X, the semi-interior of A, SEMI-CLOSURE 101 denoted by Ao, is defined by Ao = ( where F = {D:D e S.O. (X) and D c A). Theorem i.4: (1) A is semi-open if and only if Ao = A. (2) A is semi-closed if and only if A = A. Proof: The proofs of both parts are completely analogous to the corresponding proofs for closure and interior. Theorem 1.5: If A £ X, then A° £ Ao £ A c A c A. Proof: This follows immediately since all open sets are semi-open and all closed sets are semi-closed. Remark i.5: By remark 1.4 and since any union of semi-open sets is semi-open, it follows that A is semi-closed, and Ao is semi-open for all A c X. Theorem 1.6: (1) Ao=(X^(X^)) and (2) A = (X~^(X-^A)o) . Proof: The proof is completely analogous to the proof of the cor¬ responding results for closure and interior. Theorem IJ: (1) 0 == 0, (2) A c A, (3) A = A, (4) (A U B) □ (A U i),aiid (5) (.AJU) c (A n F). Proof: ( 1 ) Since 0 is semi-closed, 0 = 0. (2) This part follows from the definition. (3) This follows by Remark 1 .5 and Theorem 1 .4. (4) (A U B) □ (A U F) since (A U B) is semi-closed, (A U B) D A, and ( A U B) D B. (5) (A n F) is semi-closed by Remark 1.5 and Remark 1.4. Also (A n Bj □ (A n B), so that (A H B) Q (A H BJ. Example 1 .2: In general it cannot be said that, (A n B) □ (A n B)^ for if X= [0,1] with the usual relative topology, consider A = ([0,1/2) U (1/2,1]) and B = {1/2}. Then A=X, and F=B, so that (A n F) = (X n B) = B. But (A n B) =0 = 0. Example 13: In general it cannot be said that (A U F) £ (A U F), for in X as in Example 1.2, consider A = [0,1/2), B = (1/2,1], then A = A, and F = B, so that ( A U F) = ( A U B) . However (A U B) = X, which is not a subset of (A U B), Theorem i.8: If A and O are open, and 0£S£0(Sis semi-open)^ then (A fl O) = 0 implies that (Ajl S) = 0. Proof: O £ (X-A) implies that 6 £ (X-A) since A is open. S £ O,. thus O £ (X™A) implies that S £ (X-A). Hence the theorem has been proven. Theorem iS: If A is open and S is semi-open, then (A fl S) is semi-open. Proof: If (A fl S) =0, the result is immediate. Assume (A n S) ^ 0, and recall that there exists an open set O such that O £ S £ O. 102 THE. TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Thus by Theorem 1.8, (A O O) ^ 0. Furthermore, (A H O) is open, and (A n O) C (A H S). Also if x e (A n S), then either x is in both A and O, or x in both A and (S-0) . Case I: If xeA and xeO, then xe (A n O) C (A H O). Case II: If xeA and X£(S-0), then xeA and x is a limit point of O since S C 0. Let N be any neighborhood of x, then (N n A) is a neighborhood of x, and ((N fl A) f) O) =A0 since x is a limit point of O. Thus (N n (A n Q) ) =^0, which implies that xc (A” H O). Hence (A fi S) c (A fi O), so that (A D S) is semLopen. Theorem i.lO: If C is closed and T is semi-closed, then (C n T) is semi-closed. Proof: (X-C) is open and (X-T) is semi-open, so that ((X-C) H (X-T)) is semi-open by Theorem 1.9. But ((X-C) H (X-T)) is (X-(C U T)).Thus, (C U T) is semi-closed. Remark i.6: Since closed sets are semi-closed, (A) = A. Theorem IJl: (A U B) = (A U 5). ^ Proof: By Thorem 1.7, (A U B) D ( (A) U B) = (A U B). Fur¬ thermore, (A^ U B) c (A U B) and (A U fi) is semi-closed by The¬ orem 1.10. Thus, (A U B) c (A L’},and (A U B) = (A U fi). Theorem 1 .12: (A)„ c A if and only if A = A. Proof: Necessity: If (A)o £ A, recall that A is semi-closed, so by Theorem 1.1 there exists a dosed set C such that C° C A C C. Thus C“ £ (A)o £ A c ^ c C. Hence A is semi-dosed by Theorem 1.1, and A = A by Theorem 1 .4. Sufficiency: If A = A, then (A)o = Ao £ A. Theorem 1 .13: ( (X-A)-(X-A) ) D (A-A) if and only if A =' A. Proof: All of the following ten statements are equivalent: (1) ( (X- A)-(X-A)) D (A^A); (2) (A^((X^A)^(A^A)J)^C A;J3.) (,A n (X-((_X-A)-(X-A)_))) c A; (4:> (A M dX-((X A) n A A; (5) (A n ((X-(X-~A)) U (X3A)))^c A; (6) ((A n (X-(X^A))) U (A n (X-A))) C A; (7) (A n (A)d C A, (8) (A)» c A; (9) A is semi-dosed by Theorem 1.2; (10) A = A by Theorem 1.4. Theorem 1.14: (A-A)o = 0. Proof: The proof is by contradiction. Assume that (A™A)o^0; that is, there exists some nonvoid semi-open set, say Q, such that Q C (A-A). Remark 1.2, there exists a nonvoid open set O such that O Q Q Q (A-A). Also (X-A) is open, so that ((X-A) U O) is open. Thus, (X^iiX^A) U 0) (A n (X-0)) = (A--0) is dosed. Fim- thermore, A c (A-0) c A, but this contradicts the definition of A. Corollary 1.1: (A-A)^ = 0. Theorem / A 5: (X-(A~A)) X. Proof: (A-(A-A)) -- (X-(X-[X-(A-A)])o) by Theorem 1.6 = (X-(A-A)d (X-0) by Theorem 1.14 = X. SEMI-CLOSURE 103 AN OPERATOR APPROACH Definition 2.1: Let ()c be an operator on subsets of X such that: (1) 0e = 0; (2) AC A,; (3) (A,).--- A,.; and (4) (A U B), D (A. U Be). Then ()c is called a pre-semi-closure operator ^ abbreviated as p-s-c operator. See Theorem 1.7 and Example 1 .3, Theorem 2.1: Condition (4) is Definition 2.1 is equivalent to condi¬ tion (4') if A c B then Ap c B,.. Proof: (4) implies (4^: If A c B, then B,. = (A U (B-A)),. □ (A. U (B^A)e) □ Ae. (4^) implies (4) : If A,B, c X, then A c (A U B) and B c ( A U B) so that Ac c (A U B)e and B,. c (A U B)e. Thus (Ac U B,.) c (A U B)e. Remark 2.1: If ()c is a p-s-c operator, and r is a topology for which the semi-closed sets are (A: A c X, A ~ A,.}, then A*, is the r-semi- closure of A for all A c X. Proof: Let A be an arbitrary subset of X, and consider A,, and A where A is the r-semi-closure of A. A, c A^ and by condition (4'), A,, c (A)c. But A is semi-closed so that {A)^, — A by hypothesis. Thus, Ac c A. Furthermore, since (Ac),: = A,., A,, is semi-closed by hypothesis. Thus by Definition 1.2, since A c A,., A c A,.. Therefore, we have Ac~ A. It is well-known that for a Kuratowski closure operator O^' on subsets of a set X, if F is the family of all subsets A of X such that A'‘ = A, then r, the family of complements of members of T is a topology for X, and A'" is the r-closure of A for each subset A of X. Let A' denote the r-interior of A (induced by 0^"). The results of Section 1 hold in this setting with this notation. Note that the only difference between a p-s-c operator and a Kuratowski closure op¬ erator is that for a Kuratowski closure operator the set inclusion in (4) is equality. Definition 2.2: Let be a Kuratowski closure operator as above, then a p-s-c operator ()c is consistent with 0^^ if and only if (1) (A*') ‘ c Ac, and (2) if (A'’) ' Q A then A,. A. Theorem 2.2: If ()c is a p-s-c operator consistent with the Kuratow¬ ski closure operator ( ) then ( A'- ) ~ A^ for all A c X. Proof: ( (A'’)") ‘ = (A'“) ‘ c A"" so that by condition (2) of Definition 2.2, A^-*- (A^')e. Theorem 2.3: If ()c is a p-s-c operator consistent with the Kuratow¬ ski closure operator ( ) then A,, c A'' for all A c X. Proof: A c A‘‘, so that Ac £ (A‘ ) by condition (4') of Theorem 2.1. Thus, Ae £ A"-' by Theorem 2.2. Let D be the family of all subsets A of X that A,, = A, and let S be 104 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the family of complements of elements of D, where ()o is a p-s-c operator. Theorem 2.4: If 0^ is a p-s-c operator consistent with the Kuratow- ski closure ( ) then F C D. Proof : If A f F, then A ~ A‘’. Furthermore, by Theorem 2.2, Af. = (A"’),. = A"‘ = A, so that A e D. Theorem 2.5: If (),. is a p-s-c operator consistent with ()‘‘, then D is the set of all semi-closed sets of X with respect to the topology t, generated by ( ) - , Proof: If A r D then A = A... By condition (1) of Definition 2.2, (A^ ) ' Q A,. = A, so that (A^‘) ' Q A which means that A is semi-closed in the topology r, by Theorem 1 .2. If B is semi-closed in t, then (B^)' c B by Theorem 1.2, so that B = B,. by condition (2) of Definition 2.2. 'Theorem 2.6: If (),. is a p-s-c operator consistent with ()‘\ then S is the set of ail semi-open sets of X with respect to the topology t. gen¬ erated by ()'■. Proof: This is a direct consequence of Theorem 2.5. Theorem 2.2 : If (),. is a p-s-c operator consistent with A,, is the T-semi-closure of A for all A £ X. where t is the topology generated Iw ()-. Proof: This result follows directly from Theorem 2.5 and Re¬ mark 2.1. There are examples showing that neither condition (1) nor con¬ dition (2) of Definition 2.2 without the other condition is sufficient to guarantee a p-s-c operator and a Kuratowski closure operator will be related as in Theorem 2.5 and Theorem 2.7. The following two examples illustrate this. Example 2.1: Let A = {a,b,c} with the topology r = {0,{a},{a,b}, X}. The closed sets are {X,{bx},{c},0}. Thus we note the following: X,ifaf A I 0, if a /A, S.O.(X,t) = {0,{a},{a,c},{a.b}.X}, and the semi-closed sets are {X,{b,c},{b},{c},0}. Furthermore. (A-) = (A)‘' = . _ ^ X, if a f A ~ ^ A, if a / A. However, defining A,. = ^ X, if A 7^ 0 ) 0, if A = 0. we see that (),. is a p-s-c operator. Also () is a Kuratowski closure operator and (A)" c A,, for all A c X. But condition (2) of Definition 2.2 is not satisfied since ({b})*' = 0 c {b}, but {b},, = X {b}. Therefore ()e is not consistent with the closure on X. Example 2.2: Let X be the set of real numbers, and let A^, — A for all A c X. Let ()' be the closure in the usual topology on the real SEMI-CLOSURE 105 Define Ac = A = l numbers. Note that ()c is a p-s-c operator. Furthermore, (A'”)' £ A implies that A = Ac since A = Ac in any case. But note that if B = (H,0. IJ (0,1)), (8*=)' = (-1,1), and (B')' 4 B. = B. Clearly ()e is not the semi-closure in the topological space induced by the usual closure operator on the real numbers. Also note that they are not consistent. Example 23: A p-s-c operator may be consistent with more than one Kuratowski closure operator. Let X = {a,b,c}. ^ X, if a e A A, if a / A. Then Ac is the semi-closure in the topology of Example 2. 1 , so that ( ) c is consistent with X , if a e A {b,c), if a/ A. b e A [A , if a / A, b / A. But if we define A*" = A,., then 0" is a Kuratowski closure operator, and ()c is also consistent with ()^. See Remark 1.3 and Example 1.1. Theorem 2.8: If ()c is a p-s-c operator on subsets of X, and if {A.}. is a collection of subsets of X such that (A.)c = A. for all j ^ r, then ( A,)„ = (n A,). Proof: By condition (2) of Definition 2.1, (n. . ) C (O. ^.A^c* Furthermore, ( fl . ^,A.) c A^ for all n e T. Thus, by condition (4') of Theorem 2.1, (fl. A.)c C (A,,),. ™ A„ for all n e T. Hence, ( H . A.) j pP J -IfF ^ i£l ^ A.), and ( H . A.), sT ^ j^r T (n. A,). ^ jfcT L c(n^ Theorem 2.9: If ()c is a p-s-c operator on subsets of X, and A and B are subsets of X such that A C B and B = Be, then Ac £ B. Proof: A c B = Be, so that by condition (4') of Theorem 2.1. Ac C (Bc)c = Bc = B. Definition 23: If ()c is a p-s~c operator, define ()i as follows: A|= (X-(X^A)c). Theorem 2 JO: If (),. is a p-s-c operator on subsets of X, then for every subset A of X, there exists a minimal set of Da such that (A U Da U B)c = (A U Da U Bp) for all B C X. Da is minimal in the sense that it is a subset of any set satisfying this same condition. See Theorem. 1.11. Proof: The following lemmas will be useful in the proof of Theorem 2.10. Lemma 2J : Under these hypotheses, if A C X, there exists a set such that (A U Ea U B)e = (A U Ea U Bp) for all B c X. Proof of Lemma 2.1: Consider Ea = X, then for all B c X, (A U X U B)c = X= (A U X U Be). 106 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Lemma 2.2\ Under these hypotheses, if A £ X, and Ea is such that (A U Ea U B)c = (A U Ea U Be) for all B £ X, then (A U Ea)c = (AUEa). Proof of Lemma 2.2: Consider B = 0, and recall that 0c = 0. This completes the proof of Lemma 2.2. | Now define Da to be the intersection of all Ea such that (A U Ea i U B)e=- (A U Ea u Be) for all B c X. | Lemma 23: Under these hypotheses, (A U Da)c= (A U Da). ■ Proof of Lemma 2.3: (A U Da)c == (A U ( n Ea))c = (H I ( n (A U Ea))c- But by Lemma 2.2, for all such Ea, (A U Ea)c = i (A U Ea), so by Theorem 2.8, (A U Da)c = ( Pi (A U Ea))c = (H (A U Ea)) (A U Da). This completes the proof of Lemma 2.3. * To complete the proof, we show that Da satisfies the proper condi¬ tions. Clearly if Da is such that (A U Da U B)c = (A U Da U Be), j for all B c X, it will be the minimal such set, by the manner in which Da is defined. i (A U Da U B)c □ ((A U Da).c U Be) = (A U Da U Be) by Defh ; nition 2.1 and Lemma 2.3, for all B c X. i Also, ( A U Da U Be) = ( ( n ( A U Ea) ) U Be) = ( n (A U Ea U ; Be) ) = ( n (A U Ea U B)c), for all B £ X. But ( (A U Ea U B)c)c = (A U Ea U B)c for all Ea and Be X, thus by Theorem 2.8, (A U Da U Be)e (n(A U Ea u B)c)c = (n(A U Ea u B)e) = (A U Da U Be) for all B e X. Now (A U Da U B) e (A U Da U Be), for all | B c X, and by Theorem 2.9, (A U Da U B)c e (A U Da U Be) for all Bex. Thus, (A U Da U B)e = (A U Da U Be) for all B e X. I There will appear examples in the proof of Theorem 2.1 1 for which I Da = 0, and Example 2.6 will show that Da need not always be empty. Theorem 2.11: Let ()c be a p-s-c operator on subsets of X. For i A C X, let — (A U Da) where Da is as in Theorem 2.10. Then ()^ : is a Kuratowski closure operator. Proof: (1) Note that D_ = 0, since (0 U 0 U B) = Be for all Bex. Thus 0*' = 0. I (2) A c (A U Da) = A^ ; (3) D(Ak) = ( n E(Ak)) where {E(Ak))} is the collection of sets such ; that (A*' U E(Ak) U B)c (A*" U E(Ak) C Be) for all B £ X. The prob- I lem is to show that 0 is such an E(Ak). (A^ U 0 U B),c (A U Da U B)c = (A U Da U Be) = (A^ U 0 U Be) for all B £ X by The- ! orem2.10. Thus, D(Ak) — 0, and (A^)’" = (A‘" U 0) = A^. ' (4) It only remains to be shown that (AU B)^ = (A^ U B*^). Note | that (AU B)’^= (AU BU ), and (A^UB^)=:(AUDaUBUDb). ^ Thus for all CcX, (AUBUDaUDbUC)c — (AUDaU (BUDbUC) )c ■ = (AUDaU (BUDbUC)c) = (AUDaUBUDbUCc) = (AUDaUBU- i SEMI-CLOSURE 107 DrUC,) so that (DaUDb) □ Hence, (AUB)'‘= (AUBU- C (AUDaUBUDb) = (A'-UB"). Now consider (BUDj^Ui^i) and (AUD^^up^ ). Note that (AU (BUD,^u,„)UC)c= (AUBUD,^^^,ua) for all CcX, so that (BUD,^uii. ) 2 Da. Similarly, (AUD,^^^^) D D„. Thus (AUB)'' = (AUBUD,,^„,) = (AUBU(AUD,,^j„,) U (BUD^^^j,,)) D (AUBUDaUDh) = (A’^UB'*). Hence, (A'-UB'O = (AUB)^ Thus a pre-semi-closure operator has been defined. It has been shown in Theorem 2.7 that, if a pre-semi-closure operator is consistent with a Kuratowski closure operator, it corresponds to the semi-closure in the topology induced by the Kuratowski closure operator. Further¬ more, it has been demonstrated how one may proceed from a pre- semi-closure operator to construct a Kuratowski closure operator. However, this Kuratowski closure operator constructed from a pre- semi-closure operator may or may not be such that consistency will follow. Example 2.4: Actually it is readily apparent that conditions (1) through (4) of Definition 2.1 are insufficient to define an operator on sets corresponding to semi-closure in a topological space. Note that all Kuratowski closure operators satisfy conditions (1) through (4) of Definition 2.1 ; whereas the closure given by some Kuratowski closure operators do not satisfy other conditions satisfied by semi-closure in a topological space. For example Theorem 1.12 indicates that in a topological space (A)o C A if and only if A = A. If we define a p-s-c operator ( ) ,, to be the usual closure on the real numbers, and consider A ~ (0,1 ] , we see that {A^)i = (0,1 ) C A, but A Ae. Definition 2.4: A p-s-c operator ()c is said to be a semi-closure operator if and only if in addition to conditions (1) through (4) of Definition 2.1, 0^ also satisfies (5) D^x-Ak) D Da if and only if A,. = A. See Theorem 1.13. This definition is given here although it will not be mentioned explicitly until Example 2.5, because it is related to the preceding discussion. All theorems for p-s-c operators are clearly true for semi¬ closure operators, and for that reason the hypotheses in many of the following theorems will require only that the operator be a p-s-c operator. Theorem 2.12: If ()c is a p-s-c operator and is the Kuratowski closure operator induced by ( ) c-, then ( A^) e = A*'. Proof: = (AUDaU0),= (AUDaUDc) = A*^. 108 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Theorem 2.13: If ()c is a p-s-c operator and is the Kuratowski closure operator induced by ()c, then Ac CA’\ Proof: Ac A*^ so that Ac C(A'")c = A‘^ by condition (4') and Theorem 2.12. Theorem 2.14: If AC X, and Da is as defined in Theorem 2.10 where ()c is the p-s-c operator, then (Da n A) = 0 so that (A^— A) = Da. Proof: Let Ca = ( (A UDa) — A) C Da. Then (AUCaUB)c = (AUDaUB)c= (AUDaUBc) = (AUCaUBc) for all BC X. Thus CaD Da: that is, Ca = Da and (Da HA) = 0. Also A*" = (AUDa) so that (A^-A) = Da. Theorem 2.15: If ()c is a p-s-c operator which also is a Kuratowski closure operator, then Da = (Ac— A) for all AC X; that is, A'" = Ac for all A C X. Proof: Ac Ac CA’^ by Theorem 2.13. Thus (Ac— A) C (A^— A) = Da, by Theorem 2.14. Furthermore, since ( ) c is a Kuratowski closure operator, ( A U B) c = ( Ac U Be) for all A,B C X. Thus, considering an arbitrary fixed A C X, (AU(Ac-A)U B)c= (Ac UB)c=((Ac)cU Bc) = (AcU Be) = (AU (Ac— A) U Be) for all B CX. Thus Da C (Ac— A), and we have Da = (Ac-A). Example 2.5: There are p-s-c operators such that Da CD(x-Ak) but Ac ^ A for some A C X even though Ac = A does imply that Da CD(x-Ak). See Definition 2.4. If we let X be the set of real numbers and ( ) c the usual closure as in Example 2.4, we see that if Ac = A, Da — 0 CD(x-Ak) by Theorem 2.15. However, if A = (0,1], Da = {0}, D(x-Ak) = {0,1), but Ac 7^ A. Example 2.6: There are p-s-c operators such that Ac = A but Da CD,x-Ak) for some ACX even though Da CD(x-Ak) does imply that Ac — A. Let X— (a,b,c,d}, and define ()c as follows: 0c = 0;(a}c otherwise. First, ()c is a p-s-c operator; it can readily be verified that conditions (1), (2), (3), and (4') are satisfied. Thus the Kuratowski operator 0*^ may be induced by ()c. Clearly, we have 0^ — 0. Note thus D[a]D{c,d}. Furthermore, {a,b,c,d} = (D[a] U (a,c}) ; so that D[a] D {b,d}. Becall that D[a] Cl (a) = 0, therefore D[a] = {b,c,d}, and (a)^ = X. Similarly (b)’" = (c)*' = (d)^ = X and it follows im¬ mediately that A^ = X for any nonvoid A. Thus ()^ may be sum¬ marized by A*^ ( 0, if A = 0 X, if A 7^ 0. SEMI=CLOSURE 109 Now we note that D(x-Ak) = Dx = 0 if A = 0, and D(x-Ak) = = 0 if A ^ 0. Thus if D(x-Ak) D Da, then Da = 0 so that A is either 0 or X; that is Ac = A. But observe that if A = {a}, Ac — A while Da = {b,c,d) and D(x-Ak) = 0. Now we shall consider the nature of the p-s-c operator given in Example 2,6. If there were a topology such that the p-s-c operator corresponded to the semi-closure in the topology, then the semi-closed sets would be 0, {a),(b},(c},{d},{a,d}, and X. The semi-open sets would be X, {b,c,d), {a,c,d}, {a,b,d), {a,b,c}, {b,c}, and 0. Further¬ more, the topology would have to be a subset of the collection of semi¬ open sets, and each nonvoid semi-open set would have to contain a non void open set. Thus the topology in question would have to contain at least {b,c}, {a,b,d), and {a,c,d}. Therefore, since ({a,b,d} D {a,c,d}) = {a,d}, (a,d} would have to be open and semi-open. Hence we see that there can be no topology with the above collection of sets as its semi-open sets. Thus there can be no topology for which ()c in Ex¬ ample 2.6 corresponds to the semi-closure in the topology. Theorem 2.16: If ()c is a p-s-c operator and ()'" is the Kuratowski closure induced by () c, then ( Ac) = A^. Proof: (Ac U(A‘^-Ac)U B)c = (A^U B)e = (AUDaUB)c = (AUDaUBc) = (A^UBc) == (Ac U(A^-Ac)UBe) for all B C X. Thus C (A'<--A„). Furthermore, ACAc so that A*" C (Ac)^ and (D^^ ^ UAc) D A*"; that is, D D (A*"— Ac). Thus D = (A^— Ac), and (Ac)‘' = AE ' c ^ c Theorem 2.17: If ()c is a semi-closure operator, and ()'' is the Kura¬ towski closure operator induced by ( ) c, then ( ) c is consistent with O'", Proof: First, it must be shown that (A^) ^ C Ac. Now (Ac) c = Ac so by condition (5) of Definition 2.4, D^^ ^k^ D D^^ ^ ; that is, D(x-Ak) D D^^ ^ = (A^— Ac) by Theorem 2.16. Thus, (A^)‘ = (X— (X— A^)‘0 = (X-((X-A'<)UD,x-Ak))) = (A‘^n(X-D(D-Ak))) C (A^n(X- (A'^-Ac))) = (A^n(X-(A"n(X-Ac)))) = (A^n((X-A>0UAc)) = ( (A'^n (X— A^) ) U (A"^ n Ac) ) = Ac by Theorem 2.13. Second, it must be shown that if (A*") ‘ C A then Ac = A. If (A*^) ^ C A, consider (A^) ' == ( A" n (X-D(x-Ak) ) ) = (A^-D(x-Ak) ) . Thus (A^— D(x-Ak) C A, so that D(x-Ak) D (A^— A) = Da. Thus by con¬ dition (5) of Definition 2.4, Ac = A. Lemma 2.4: If a p-s-c operator ()c is consistent with a Kuratowski closure operator ()% then Da C (A^—A) for all A C X or A^'C A'^ for all A C X. Proof: By Theorem 2.7, Ac is the semi-closure of A for all A C X in the topology induced by ( ) '^. no THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Consider (A U (A^’—A) U B),, = (A‘'UB)c = (A'^U B^) = (AU (A^"— A) UB,.) for all B CX by Theorem 1 .1 1 . Thus Da C (A*^— A) or A'^ C A". Theorem 2.18: If a p-s~c operator (),. is consistent with a Kuratowski closure operator ()^, then (),. is a semi-closure operator. Proof: By Theorem 2.7, A,, is the semi-closure of A for all A, in the topology induced by ()^’. Thus, since (A^'U B),. = (A^'U B,.) for all Be X, by Theorem 1.11, we have Da C (A'^—A). Also by Theorem 1.13, (A^’-A) C ((X-A‘-‘)‘'‘- (X-AD) if andonly if A, = A. Thus it only remains to show that (A"-’— A) C ((X— AD'''~ (X — A‘’)) if and only if DaC D,x Aki to demonstrate that ()c is a semi-closure ojierator. If (A‘-A) C ( (X--A‘^)‘^ - (X-A^‘) ) then A= A,,. Thus ( (X-A'O U D,x Ak, U A) = ((X-A‘0 U D,x Ak, U A,) == ((X-A*^ U D,x Ak, U A).. D (A U (X-A'O),. = (X-Da). D (X-(A^'-A))e = X by Theorem 1.15. Therfeore D,x Ak, D Da- If Da C D,x Ak, it, must be shown that (A'^— A) C ((X— AD‘'“ (X~A‘ )), for which purpose it will suffice to show that (A^'—A) C (X-AD^'or (X-AD^' □ (X-A). First it will be shown that (X— A'')'" = (X— A*^)''. Since A’' C A*', (X— A'') C (X— A'') and (X— A^" Q (X— A*")'', so that to complete this part of the proof it need only be shown that (X— A^')'' D (X— A'O''- For this purpose, consider ((X — A"-') U A''),. = (X— [A'-’ H (X— A'')]),- = (X— (A' — A'O ),. D (X— (A'‘— A) ),. = X by Theorem 1.15. It follows that X= ((X-A'O U D,x aC, U A>0-= ((X-AD U D,x-aC, U (AM.-) = ((X-AD U D.x aC, U A‘0 by Theorem 2.12. Thus (X-A^'^ ((X-A^-O U D,x aC,) D (X-A'O; sothat (X-A‘0'^ C ((X-AC'0'^ = (X — A' )''. Hence it has been shown that (X — A'')’" = (X— A'^^)’''. Now consider (X-A")^' D (X-A‘-)'^= (X-AD'^== ([X-(AUDa)] U D,x-Ak.) = ([(X-A) n (X-Da)] u D,x Ak,) = ([(X-A) U D.x- Ak,] n [(X-Da) U D,x..Ak,]) = ([(X-A) U D,x.-Ak,] n X) D (X-A). The p-s-c operators in Examples 2.1, 2.2. and 2.3 all correspond to semi-closure in some topological space and therefore they are semi¬ closure operators. Thus the definition of consistent is justified even for semi-closure operators. Also Example 2.3 shows that a semi-closure operator may be consistent with more than one Kuratowski closure o[)erator. Theorem 2.19: Let (X,t) be a topological space. As in Section 1, for any set A C X, there exists a semi-closure A. (J is a semi-closure operator by Theorem 1.7 and 1.13. Taking (J as a semi-closure oper- SEMI-CLOSURE 111 ator we define ()'' as in Theorem 2.11. Then r is coarser than the topology induced by ()‘\ Proof: If C is closed in (X,t). then C = C where () is the r-closure. It will be shown that if C = C, then C*"' = C. Note that if C = C, (Cy0UB) = (CUB) = (CUB) = (CUB) for all B CX by Theorem 1.11. Thus Dc = 0 and O' = C. Hence, if C is closed in (X,t), then C is closed in the topological space induced on X by ( ) Thus t is coarser than the topology induced by ( ) Theorem 2.20: If (),. is a semi-closure operator on subsets of X, and O'Hs the Kuratowski closure operator defined from (),. as in Theorem 2.1 L then the topology induced by ()'' is the finest topology for which the semi-closed sets in the topology are {A:A C X, A,. = A}. Proof: If T is any arbitrary topology for which the semi-closed sets are {A: A C X, A,. = A) then by Remark 2.1. B,. is the r-semi-closure of B for all B C X. Thus by Theorem 2.19, r is coarser than the topol¬ ogy induced by ()*'.' Since r was an arbitrary topology such that the semi-closed sets in r are {A: A C X, A,. = A}, the topology induced by ()'' is the finest topology for which the semi-closed sets are {A: A C X. A.. = A}. Theorem 2.21: If D is a collection of subsets of X such that 0 and X are in D and if {A ) is any subset of D then ( H A ) e D, then for B C X. defining B,. — ( P* C i ) , ()<• is a p-s-c operator. Proof :( 1 ) Since 0 £ D, 0,. = 0. (2) By definition, A C A,, for all A C X. (3) By the definition of A,, and the fact that arbitrary intersections of sets in D are again in D, A,. £ D. Thus (A,.), = A,.. (4') If A C B, then A,. C B,. by the definition of ( ) ... Theorem 2.22: If D is a collection of subsets of X as in Theorem 2.21, then defining a p-s-c operator (),. as in Theorem 2.21. there is a topol¬ ogy T such that D is the collection of semi-closed sets in (X. r) if and only if ( ) ,. is a semi-closure operator. Sufficiency: The assumption is that (),. is a semi-closure operator. Since arbitrary intersection of elements of D are again in D, we have that A,, f D for any A C X. Thus if A = A,.' then A £ D. Furthermore, if A £ D by the definition of ()<.' A,. = A. Thus D is the collection of subsets A and X such that A,. = A. By Theorem 2.17 and Theorem 2.5 there exists a topology r (That generated by the induced Kuratowski closure operator) such that D is the set of semi-closed sets in (X. -). CONCLUSIONS In this paper, another operator approach to topology has been intro- 112 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE duced. It has been determined that a topology may be constructed from a pre-semi-closure operator. Furthermore, under additional conditions this topology is the finest topology for which semi-closure in the topological space coincides with the operator. In addition, it has been determined that there are conditions on a collection of subsets of X such that a topology may be introduced from this collection so that it is the finest topology for which the original collection of subsets of X is the collection of semi-closed sets in the topological space. LITERATURE CITED Levine, N., 1963 — Semi-open sets and semi-continuity in topological spaces. Amer. Math. Monthly, 70: 36-41. An Extension of a Technique for Summing Series by T. L. BOULLION and L. E. BATSON^ Department of Mathematics^ Texas Tech University, Lubbock 74909 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to extend the technique for summing power series found in Boullion and Batson (1969) to Laurent series and Fourier series. The notation will be the same as in Boullion and Batson (1969). MAIN RESULTS It is well-known that the general expression for the coefficients f (n) of a series which is the Laurent series expansion of a function g about a point a is given by f(n) = J-/--L^,n=0,±l,±2,.. 27ri c (t-a)"""^’-* where c is a closed contour around the point a. Lemma 1 : Let f (n) be defined as in ( 1 ) , then f(n) (x-a)*' = f(Da) (x-a)" for each n. (1) Proof: f (Da) (x-a)" 1 C g(t)dt - / - (x-a)" 27ri c (t-a)^a+^ = — / ( t-a ) -». ( x-a ) Mt 27ri c (t-a) = (t-a)~“(x-a)"dt by Lemma 3 (Boullion and Batson, 27ri c (t-a) ' 1969). = f (n) (x-a)". We now extend the technique to Laurent series. 00 Theorem 1 : Let L(x) = ^ i (n) (x-a) " where f (n) is given as in (1 ) , n=:-oo then 1 T. L. Boullion was partially supported by Texas State Research Grant ^191- 4732. 2 Present Address: Department of Mathematics, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette, Louisiana. 114 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE L(x) -f(Da) r 1 1 +f(-Da) r -1 1. L l-(x-a) “* L l-(x-a) J CO — 00 Proof: Express L(x) = 2 f(n)(x-a)^+ 2 f(n)(x-a)^. From theorem 2 from Boullion and Batson (1969) with p=l, the first expression on the right hand side is just f(Da) f 1 1. Applying ^ l-(x-a) ^ Lemma 1 to each term of the second expression we have 2 f(n)(x-a)-= 2 f(-n)/J_y .= | f(-Da)p V nz=-i n=l n:=l 'x-a' x-a' = f(-Da) E ( 1 )" = f(-Da)r -1 1 u=i / L i_(x-a) Example 1. Let L(x) = 2 then n::-- 00 L(x) A + A 1 l_xe-i^ i-xe Batson (1969) . After simplification one gets _ -2xcos A 1 +x^-2xcos A We now extend the technique to Fourier series. - - - by Lemma 3 of Boullion and l_xeiA Theorem 2: ljet¥ {z) = 2 f(n)z‘\where 11=.- 00 f(n) = / F(re'9^) (re''?^)“''d^, then Ztt 0 F(z) =f(D)(-l-) +f(-D)(^-). 1-z 1-z f (D) (^) = 7 F(re^^) (re^^)-^(-^)dc/>. 1-z Ztt 1-Z Proof: Expanding - — and operating on each term with (re^*^)”^ yields 1 27r . /F(re^^ 2 (re^^)“"z^d^ •= 0 11 = 0 2w 2 r 1 / F(re'^) (re'^)”*'d^1 z'' = 2 f(n)z". n=0 L Zj-T ® Similarly, f(-D) (A) =^/F(re‘^)“ 2 (P)"d0 AN EXTENSION OF A TECHNIQUE FOR SUMMING SERIES 115 — 2 r 1 / F(re'^) (re'^)'^d^l — 2 f(n)z''. n=l L"^ 0 J n=.-l Hence, the result follows. To enable one to apply theorems 1 and 2 to series where the coeffi¬ cients consist of positive powers of a monomial in n in the denominator, it is necessary to define what is meant by the operator 1 (Da+b)^- This operator is now defined. Definition: 1 f e~^ t^^“^ (Da+b)'‘‘ ' » r(k) provided the integral resulting from the operation is convergent. An example now be given to illustrate the above techniques. cos(nx“hx) Example 2: Let F(x)*= 2 - - • To apply the above tech¬ niques it is convenient to work with °° cos(nx~l~x) 2 - - y"^ and obtain F(x) by evaluating this series at y=l . We first evaluate 1 pi(x+xD) I p-i(x + xD) i cos(xD+x)(— )= - g - (— ) 1 r e'"^ e"^"" 1 _ cos x-y l-ve-^^-l L Now applying 1 1-ye'^ l_ye- to this result yields -2ycosx+y^ D+1 f ( cos x-v l--2ycosx+y dt = ;e-. (- 0 !■ cosx— ye"^ dt. -2ye“Tosx+y^e‘ Letting y=l and evaluating the resulting integral yields which reduces to log ( 2sin E) for 0 < x < tt . REFERENCE Boulhon, T, L. and L. E. Batson, 1969 — A technique for summing power series. Tex. /. ScL, 21(1): 25-27. Quadratic Diophantine Equations by W. V. PARKER and A. A. AUCOIN Department of Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36850 Department of Mathematics, University of Houston, Houston 77004 We solve in this paper several types of quadratic Diophantine equations. The equations are homogeneous and have integral coeffi¬ cients. The solutions are given in terms of parameters and are integral for an integral choice of the parameters. It has been shown by A. Desboves (see Dickson, 1934:432) that given a solution of a homogeneous quadratic Diophantine equation, other solutions may be determined. All equations considered in this paper are such that a particular solution may be noted by inspection, but they are solved by methods independent of a particular solution. The method of Desboves is illustrated in the first theorem. Theorem 1 . If x j — pj is a solution of (1) 2 aijXiXj=0, ij=l then every solution which is not also a solution of (2) (aij + aji)pjXi = 0 i,j=l is proportional to one of the solutions given by (3) Xj=pjs-ajt (j = 1, 2, . . . ,n) where n n n (4) s = 2, aijCtiaj, t = 2 aijOjai 2 aijOiaj ij=l i,j=l i,j=l and the a’s are arbirtary integers. n Proof. If Xj = pj is a solution of (1) then 2 empipj = 0. If we i,j=l let Xj = pjS — ajt, (1) becomes n n n St[ 2 aijpjai + 2 Uijpiaj] + T 2 aijaiaj = 0 i,J=l ij=l i,j=l which is satisfied identically in the a’s if s and t are given by (4) . Suppose now that x j — cfj is any given solution of ( 1 ) . If we choose — o-j have that s=0 and the solution becomes Xj = — ajt, which is proportional to the given solution provided t ^ 0, i.e., provided Xj = (Tj is not also a solution of (2) . 118 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Theorem 2. Every solution of the equation (Dickson, 1934:427, 428,435) (5) 2 E bi^z^ i=l iz=l n where all the a’s are different from zero and 2 ^ 0, is propor¬ tional to one of the solutions given by Xj = 2A 2 aibi«i — Ajbj 2 ai^ 0:1“ (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) (6) z = A 2 ai^ai^ i=l where A is the least common multiple of the a’s, Aj = A/aj, the a’s being arbitrary integers. Proof. We may write (5) in the form (7) 2^(bi2z2-ai2xi2) =0. If we let (8) bjz + ajXj = ajajt (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) then (7) becomes 2tz 2 aibitti = T 2 ai^ ai^ i=l i=l which is satisfied identically in the a’s if t = 2A 2 Uibiai, z = A 2 ai^. i=l 1=1 These values, with (8), give (6) as a solution of (5) . Suppose now that Xj = pj, z= o- is a solution of (5) . Then (9) 2 = 2 i=l izz:l If we choose aj = A pj + Ajbj o-, (6) becomes (10) z = cfR, Xj ^pjR (i = 1,2, . . . ,n) where R = 2A® 2 hi (aipi + hi a) . If we choose aj = A pj — Ajbjo-, (6) becomes (11) z = -0-S, Xj^pjS (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) where S = 2A^ 2 hi (aipi — hi or). iz3l If RAO, (10) is proportional to the solution Xj = pj, z = a. If s A 0, (11) is proportional to the solution Xj = pj, z = —a. We now show that R and S are not both zero unless the solution is the trivial one pj = o” = 0. n If R = 0, then since A A 0, 2 hi (aipi A biO-) = 0 and so i=l n 2 bicr(aipi A biO-) = 0. i=l (12) QUADRATIC DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS 119 This relation, together with (9) gives (13) 2 aipi (ajpi + bicr) = 0. izzl n From (12) and (13) we have E (aipi + bio-)^ •— 0, and so (14) ajpj+bjor = 0 (j = 1, 2, . . . , n). If S = 0, we find similarly (15) ajpj-bj(T = 0 (j = 1, 2, . . . ,n). From (^14) and (15) it follows that each pj = 0 and so o- = 0. If each aj = 1, hi = 1, bj ’= 0 (j = 2, 3, . . . , n), then (5) reduces to the sum of n squares equal to a square (Dickson, 1934:318). The solution in this case is Xi = aT — E aT, Z = E Xj = 2 ai aj (j = 2, 3, . . . , n) . i=r2 i=:l Theorem 3. Every solution (Dickson, 1934:433) of n n E diXi^ = E diz2 i=l i=l is proportional to a solution given by z = E ditti^, Xj = 2 aj E ditti - E di (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) . i=il izrl 1=1 Proof. The proof follows from Theorem 2, by setting aj^ = bj^ = dj, where each dj > 0 or each dj < 0. Theorem 4. The equation (16) _E^ (aiXi + biyi) (CiXi + diyi) = 0 has solutions and every solution which is not also a solution of (17) _E aiCi (Axi + biAiyi)^ = 0, where A is the least common multiple of the a’s, Aj = A/aj, is pro¬ portional to a solution given by (18) xj = ajt — bjAj /3jS, yj = jdjAs i = l,2, ...,n) where (19) s = E^ aiCiOii^, t = A E^ (biCi — aidi), the a's and ^’s being arbitrary integers. Proof. Let a^Xj + bjyj = ajajt, yj = /IjAs. Then Xj = ajt — bjAjydjS. With these values (16) becomes n n t- = E aiCiOfi^^stA E aiPi (biCi — aidi), i=l i=l which is satisfied identically in the a’s and /3’s if s and t are given by (19). Hence (18) is a solution of (16) with s and t given by (19). Suppose now that Xj = pj, yj = o-j is a solution of (16) . If we choose «i = A pj + bjAj aj, jdj = O-J, then 120 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE n t = A cTi (biCi — aidi) (A pi + biAio-i) n S= HiCi (A Pi + biAi€ri)2 = A^ (aiCi + biCipiCJi) + A2_ 2^ biCipiO-i aibi-CiAiVi’’ n II and since S (aiCi pi^ + biCi pio-i) = — 2 (aidipio-i + bidio-i-) i=l i=l s = (— A^aidipiCJi — A^bidiCJi^ + A“biCipi n i=l i=l may be written in the form. n m (Xi— yi)(xi + yi) =^2^y-i — ,2 x\ which is a special case of Theorem 5. If we let yj = ajt then (26) be- comes Ill m (27) 2 Xi^= 2 1=1 1=1 where aj = 0 for j > n. Then (27) is a special case of Theorem 2 and 122 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE may be solved for Xi, Xg, . . . , x^, t in terms of m parameters. It will be noted that the first method gives the solution in terms of m ^ n — 1 parameters, while the second method gives the solution in terms of m + n parameters. We may obtain a solution proportional to any solution of some equa¬ tions of type (20) with a combination of Theorem 1 and Theorem 5. For example, consider (28) 2x2 -j_ y2 _ — yz + yw — 2zw — 0 which may be written in the form (x + y) (2x + y) = xz + yz — yw + 2zw. From (22) and (25) the solutions X = — p2 + pq — pr + 2qr (29) y = 2p2 — pq-2qr z = pq - qr w = pr — r^ and X = — p2 + pq — pr + 2qr (30) y = P" - pq - 4qr z — pq + q2 — 2qr w = — pr + qr — 2r2 are obtained. A solution, proportional to any which does not satisfy (31 ) x + y — w = 0 is given by (29), and a solution proportional to any which does not satisfy (32) 2x + y — z + 2w = 0 is given by (30) . Now any common solution of (28), (31), and (32) is proportional to (1, — 1, 1, 0) or (— 7, 10, 2, 3) . A partiuclar solution of (28) is (2, — 2, — 1, — 1 ) obtained from (29) by choosing p = 0, q = r = 1. From this particular solution Theorem 1 gives X — a2 4_ 4^^ 2/32 — -- 2^y + 2/38 — 4y8 (33) y = 4«2 - Qa/S - 4^2 + 2ay - 2^S + 4y8 Z = - 2q:2 - 3ap - ^2 _ 2ay — /3y — 2y2 ~ ^8 + 2y8 W = — 2a2 — SajS — (3^ ay Py — 3«8 — 3/38. But (33) gives a solution proportional to any which does not satisfy (34) 3x + 2y + 2z = 0, and (28), (31), (32), and (34) have no solutions in common. Hence for any solution of (28) , a proportional one is given by (29) , (30 ' . or (33). LITERATURE CITED Dickson, L. E., 1934 — History of the Theory of Numbers. G. E. Stechert & Co.. N.Y., Vol 2. Semi-Closed Sets and Semi-Continuity in Topological Spaces by S. GENE CROSSLEY Idaho State University and Texas Tech University^ Lubbock 79409 AND S. K. HILDEBRAND Western Washington State College and Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 INTRODUCTION Levine (1963) defined a semLopen set in a topological space as a set A such that there exists an open set 0 so that 0 C A C 0, where ( ) denotes closure in the topological space. Also, Levine (1963), among others, established the following 4 results: 'Theorem 0.1 : Any union of semi-open sets is semi-open. Theorem 0.2: If A is semi-open in (X,t) and A C B C A, then B is semi -open. Theorem 0.3: Open sets are semi-open. Theorem 0.4: If A is semi-open in (X,t), then A (0 U B) where (1 ) 0 f r. ( 2) (0 n B) = „--, by definition. (2) By Theorem 0.9, A,, is semi-open, and then by Theorem 0.7, (Ao)n=- An. (3) An and B,* are both semi-open, and both are subsets of (A U B). Thus by Theorem 0.1, (A,, U B,,) C (A U B),,. (4) (A n B)n is a semi-open subset of both A and B. so that (A n B)n C An and (A D B),» C B,,. Thence, (A fl B)o C (A,, H B,,). Example 1.2: In general, it cannot be said that (A H B)n 3 SEMI-CLOSED SETS AND SEMI-CONTINUITY IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 125 (An n Bo), for if X = [04] with the usual relative topology, consider A = (V4.V2I. B = [1/24]- then A,, = A. Bo == B. and (Ao H Bo) = (A n B) = {t/2}. But (A n B)o == {1/2}.,= . Example 13: In general, it cannot be said that (A U B),, C (Ao U Bo), for if X = [0,1] with the usual relative topology, consider A = (0.t^), B = {V2}. then A,, = A, Bo = , and (Ao U Bo) == A. But (A U B)o- (0,i/2]o- (0,1/2]. Theorem 13: If A is semi-open, then A", A,,, A, and A are semi-open. Proof; A" and Ao are immediately seen to be semi-open. By Theorem 0.8, A C A C A so that by Theorem 0.2, A is semi-open. Similarly. A is semi-open. Theorem 1.8: If A is semi-closed, then A", Ao, A and A are semi- closed. Proof: The proof is analogous to that of Theorem 1.7. e.xcept that Theorem 1 .4 is used rather than Theorem 0.2. A number of relationships concerning semi-closure are presented at this time. Theorem 1.^: (A) = A. Proof; A C A so that A C (A). Furthermore, A C A and A is closed so that (A) C A. Theorem 1.10: (A)" C A. Proof: This result follows from Theorem 0.9, Theorem 0.5, and llieorem 1.9. llieorem 1.11: (A)„ D (A)". Proof: By Theorem 1.10, (A)" C A. so that (A)" C (A)„ since all open sets are semi-open. Theorem 1.12: ((A).,)" = (A)”. Proof: (A)" C (A)„ by Theorem 1.11. so that (A)" C ((A Also A C A so that (A)„ C A, and ((A),,)" C (A)". Theorem 1 .1^: (A),, C ((A)" U A). Proof; Now (A)" C ((A)" U A) C A so that ((A)" U A) is semi- closed. Thus, since A C ((A)" U A), it follows that (A),, C A C ((A)" U A). Theorem 1 .14: ((A)„-A) = ((A)"-A). Proof: By Theorem 1.13. (A)„ C ( (A)" U A), so that ( (A ),rA) C ([(A)" U A I -A) = ( ( A) "-A) . Also, by Theorem 1.11, (A),, D fA)'^ so that ( (A), .-A) 1) ((A)"-A). Corollary 1 .1 : ((A)n-A) C (A)". Theorem 1.15: ((A)n-(A)'’) C A. 126 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Proof: ((4).r(A)^0 = (r4]o n IX-(A)‘*]) c (Tdlo n rx-((4)o- A)]) by Corollary 1.1. Thus, ((4)o-(A)'’) C ([Alo H [X-([4],> n [X-A])]) = [(A), n ([X-(A)o] u A)3 = ([(A)o n (X-(A)„)] u [(A)o n A]) = ((A)o n A) C A. Theorem 1.16: A function f:S T is semi-continuous if and only if, for every subset A of S, f(A) C f(A). Proof: Necessity: If A C S, then consider f (A) which is closed in T. Thus, by Theorem 1.3, f'Tf(A)) is semi-closed in S. Furthermore, A C f“’(f(A)) C TTf(A)). Therefore, by the definition of semi¬ closure, A C TTf(A)), and then f(A) C /(T’ (f (A) ) ) — (f (A) nf(S)) cf(A). Sufficiency: If C is closed in T, consider T’ (C). Note that f(T’ (C)) C f(f-TC)) = ('C n 7TS)) C C = C. Hence. TTC) C T’ (C),“^lhat C (C) = T’(C), and by Theorem 0.7, T'(C) is semi-closed. Thus f is semi-continuous by Theorem 1.3. Theorem 1.17: A function f:X-^ Y is semi-continuous if and only if, for every subset B of Y, f~^ (B) CTY^). Proof: Necessity: B is closed in Y, so that T’ (B) is semi-closed in X by Theorem 1.3. Since T’ (B) C f ^ (B), it follows by the definition of semi-closure that TYB) CTYB). _ Sufficiency: If B is closed in Y, then B = B. By hypothesis, T’(B) C f“‘(B) C f~ Y B ) = f~ Y B ) ; that is. f~ Y B ) — f (B) . Thus, by Theo- rem 0.7. f'YB) is semiclosed, and by Theorem 1.3, f is semi-continuous. LITERATURE CITED Crossley, S. Gene and S. K. Hildebrand, 1970 — Semi-closure. Tex. J. Sci., 22(2-3): 99-112. Levine, Norman L., 1963 — Semi-open sets and semi-continuity in topological spaces. Amer. Math. Monthly, 70: 36-41. Diamagnetic Susceptibilities of Some Single Crystals^ by DONALD J. ARNOLD and RAYMOND W. MIRES Department of Physics, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 ABSTRACT The magnetic susceptibilities of some diamagnetic crystals have been measured by the Faraday method between 1.0° and 300°K. The crystals are some of those com¬ monly used as host crystals to study the magnetic properties of dilute atomic systems. The results indicate that common impurities in these host crystals may make sig¬ nificant contributions to the magnetic properties at low temperatures. The study of isolated magnetic ions is often accomplished by meas¬ uring the temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic crystal containing a small concentration of the magnetic ion. To extract the information on the magnetic ion in these dilute systems, it is necessary to correct the measured susceptibilities for the diamagnetism of the host crystal. The diamagnetic susceptibilities of many materials were tabulated by Foex (1957) from existing publi¬ cations, but the samples used were mostly powdered or in solution and many corrections and assumptions were often necessary to obtain the desired value. The results reported here were obtained using single crystal samples. Since paramagnetic susceptibilities depend on temper¬ ature, measurements were made at 2 temperatures to be assured that indeed the diamagetic susceptibility was being measured (2 exceptions will be discussed later). Also since the diamagetism is isotropic, an¬ other check was made by taking 2 sets of measurements with the magnet rotated 90° for each. These data were always in agreement within the experimental error. The Faraday apparatus used was similar to one previously described (Arnold and Mires, 1968) but equipped with a low-temperature dewar and manifold for pumping on the liquid-He vapor. Heluim exchange gas at approximately 5 cm of Hg pressure was used for thermal contact between the samples and the temperature sensors. The crystals were cleaved or cut into nearly regular rhombohedral-shaped samples with masses between 150 and 300 mg and were kept in a dry box until measured. They were suspended in a clean quartz basket at the end of 1 Work supported by the Advanced Research Projects Agency under Grant No. DAHC15-69-G2. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 128 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE a quartz rod, and a measured correction for the quartz suspension, amounting to no more than 5%, was made to the measurements. The sample chamber was evacuated to less than 30 microns pressure for 48 hours prior to measurements on each sample to remove surface con¬ taminants not chemically bound. The Faraday apparatus, consisting of the Cahn electro-balance and a movable permanent magnet, was calibrated using previously measured samples of pure platinum and palladium samples (Arnold, 1967). Table 1 Measured magnetic susceptibilities. Crystal •x(x 10 ^ emu/gm) at T ^ 80®K ”6 -x(x 10 emu/gm) at T ^ 300°K SrCio 0.355 0.357 KCl 0.522 0.527 NaCl 0.519 0.516 CaFg (Natural Fluorite) 0.344 0.342 MgO^ 0.287 0.364 AI2O3 0.339 0.343 ■Si ^"4" Known Mn impurity . The results of measurements on the single crystal samples taken at the temperature of boiling nitrogen and at room temperature are shown in Table 1. The values shown are the mean of 20 determina¬ tions, 10 each in the 2 directions mentioned previously. Since no measurable anisotropy was observed, the 2 sets were averaged together. All samples, except the MgO, indicate the absence of any measurable paramagnetic impurity at these temperatures. The MgO sample was known from electron spin resonance experiments to contain an Mn^^ impurity, although its concentration had not been determined. Mn“+ has a ®S5/2 ground state and its susceptibility should follow a Curie law, i.e., X = C/T + Xdia (1) where C = N/Ao“g^s(s + l)/3k. For Mn“+, g = 2.0 and s = 5/2. Using these parameters, Figure 1 shows a least squares fit of Eq. (1) to the data with N/xo^ and Xdia, the diamagnetic susceptibility of the host DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF SOME SINGLE CRYSTALS 129 Fig. 1. Measured magnetic susceptibility of MgO:Mn^^ in units of 10"® emu/gm. Rep¬ resentative error bars are shown. The solid line is the least squares fit to a Curie law. Fig. 2. Masured magnetic susceptibility of “pure” A1203 in units of 10'® emu/gm. The solid line is the least squares fit to a Curie law. MgO, as parameters. The value of N/xo^ corresponds to approximately 0.03% and Xdia = —0.393 X 10"® emu/gm. This is significantly different from the room temperature value as measured directly. 130 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE As a result of some studies on transition metal ions in ALOg, it became of some interest to know the possible effects of a few ppm of common impurities in available “pure” single crystals of this host. The data shown in Figure 2 were taken on a sample from a crystal with spectroscopic impurities of a few ppm Mn and Fe. Both have a possible ground state in AI2O3, A least squares fit to Eq. (1) corresponded to approximately 7 ppm of an S-state impurity, with Xdia = —0.339 X 10“® emu/gm. The measurements were isotropic over the entire temperature range, thus supporting the assumption of an S-state impurity. Table 2 Diamagnetic susceptibilities. This Experiment 3. Previous Results Crystal “6 "X (^ 10 emu/ gm) ~x(x 10 ^ emu/gm) SrCl. 0.356 + 0.009 0.397 2 KCl 0.524 + 0.012 0.523 NaCl 0.517 + 0.013 0.518 CaF^ 0.343 + 0.008 0.359 2 MgO 0.393 + 0.006 0.253 AI2O3 0.339 + 0.005 0.363 From tables in Constantes Selectionees Diamagnetisme et Paramagnetisme Relaxation Panama gnetique , Vol. 7 (1957). Table 2 shows the results for all of the single crystal samples studied along with previous results for comparison. It is interesting to note that the natural fluorite was pure enough to obtain the diamagnetic sus¬ ceptibility at room temperature. A sample of natural rock salt was also measured and gave the same results as the grown NaCl crystal. The value obtained for MgO is in good agreement with theoretical values mentioned by Prasad, et aL (1948). DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF SOME SINGLE CRYSTALS 131 The authors wish to thank Dr. C. R. Quade for the AI2O3 crystal and Dr. L. A. Boatner for the MgCrMn^^ and SrCh crystals. LITERATURE CITED Arnold, D. J., 1967 — M.S, Thesis, Texas Technological College, Lubbock. - , and R. W. Mires, 1968 — /. Chem. Phys., 48: 2231. Foex, G., 1957 — Constantes Selectionees Diamagnetisme et Paramagnetisme Relax¬ ation Paramagnetique^ Vol. 7. Prasad, M., S. S. Dharmatti, and H. V. Amin, 1948 — Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., A26: 312. Kinetics and Mechanism of the Cerium (IV) — Tartaric Acid Reaction by E. N. DRAKE, II and J. L. NUTT Department of Chemistry , Angelo State University San Angelo, 76901 ABSTRACT The rate of the cerium (IV) sulfate oxidation of d-tartaric acid was measured spectrophotometrically for solutions with a total sulfate concentration of 0.35 M and a pH of 0.96 at 29.6° C. Kinetic data over a 10-fold range of tartaric acid concentration indicate that the reaction proceeds by a rapid, reversible formation of a 1:1 cerium (IV) — tartaric acid complex ion intermediate which subsequently decomposes by a unimolecular mechanism. Calculated values for the specific rate constant of the unimolecular step and the stability constant of the 1:1 cerium (IV — tartaric acid complex ion were 5.3 ± 0.4 X 10“^ sec-i and 1.6 ± 0.2 X 10^ liters mole~^ respectively. INTRODUCTION The rate of oxidation of tartaric acid by cerium (IV) sulfate in 1 M sulfuric acid solution has been investigated (Davis, 1961) chronopo- tentiometrically and is reported to obey the rate equation [Ce(IV)] dt k, [Ce (IV)] [Tart] (1) in which is the specific rate constant, [Ce(IV)] in the molar con¬ centration of cerium (IV), and [Tart] is the molar concentration of tartaric acid. The bimolecular mechanism found is consistant with the results of Krishna and Tewari (1961) obtained for similar oxidations of other n-hydroxy carboxylic acids. Littler and Waters (1960) , on the other hand, have demonstrated that the oxidation of ethylene glycol by cerium (IV) sulfate occurs via complex ion formation. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suppose that complex ion formation might also be important in a-hydroxycarboxylic acid oxidations with cerium (IV) sulfate under favorable experimental conditions. Since the acids must compete with the sulfate ion in complex formation, low pH and low sulfate ion concentration should favor the formation of the cerium (IV) — tartaric acid complex (Wiberg, 1965) . The present work was under¬ taken to establish the importance of complex ion formation in the cerium (IV) sulfate oxidation of d-tartaric acid. The Texas Jounial of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 134 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EXPERIMENTAL A Stock solution of cerium (IV) sulfate was prepared by dissolving G, F. Smith reagent grade Ce(HS04)4 in 1 M sulfuric acid solution. Stock solutions of sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid, and tartaric acid were prepared by dissolving commercial reagent grade chemicals in water. The stock solution of cerium (IV) was standardized using electrolytic iron wire according to the procedure described by Blaedel and Meloche (1963) . Stock solutions of tartaric acid were standardized with sodium hydroxide solution using a Leeds & Northrup Model 7406 pH meter equipped with glass and calomel electrodes. All solutions studied were made 1 .41 X 10“^ M in cerium (IV) . Initial concentrations of d-tartaric acid used ranged from 5.34 X 10”^ to 6.14 X 10~^ M. All solutions were prepared with distilled water. The rate of disappearance of cerium (IV) was monitored spectro- photometrically with a Beckman Model DB-G spectrophotometer using a wavelength of 430 m/x. Absorbance of the tartaric acid or reaction products could not be measured at the wavelength and con¬ centrations employed. A calibration curve for cerium (IV) was pre¬ pared and proved to be linear over the range of concentrations ob¬ served. All experiments were conducted at a temperature of 29.6 ± 0.2 °C. Temperature regulation was achieved by passing water from a constant- temperature bath through the jacket provided on the cell compartment of the spectrophotometer. Solutions of reagents were allowed to reach thermal equilibrium by placing them in the constant- temperature bath for at least one hour prior to mixing. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All solutions were studied with a total sulfate concentration of 0.35 M, a cerium (IV) concentration of 1.41 X 10“^ M, and a pH of 0.96. The reaction rate dependency upon the cerium (IV) concentra¬ tion was not investigated because it is not useful in distinguishing between reasonable mechanisms. Moreover, all cerium (IV) oxidations of organic compounds studied to date (including tartaric acid) have been found (Wiberg, 1965) to be first order of cerium (IV) . Typically, reagents were mixed and immediately placed in the spectrophotometer. Absorbance readings were taken at regular time intervals until the absorbance ceased to change. The absorbance versus time plot shown in Figure 1 is considered representative of the kinetic data obtained for this reaction. Initial concentrations and reaction rates were used in all calculations. Since the absorbance versus time plot is linear for the first 80-85% of the reaction as indicated by the line KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF THE CERIUM (iv) 135 Fig, 10. Absorbance vs. time for ceriumCfVI— fartarie ocid reaction with 1.41 X 10 ^ M Ce(IV), 2.62 X lO^^M tartaric acid, 0,35 M total sulfate, and pH = 0.96 at 29.6°C, constructed in Figure 1, excellent precision was achieved in the esti¬ mation of initial reaction rates. Inspection of Figure 1 reveals that the reaction rate is sensibly constant until the reaction is approximately 85% or so complete. Such behavior indicates that the reaction in zero order with respect to the concentrations of both tartaric acid and cerium (IV). If one presumes that the rate- determining step is bi- molecular, then the rate equation may be written - ^ = k. [Ce (IV) ] [Tart] (2) dt in which the subscript t is used to denote the total (analytical) con¬ centration. Equation (2) may be rewritten in the form Where ci[Ce(IV)]t dt kobsCCedV)] kobs = k2[Tart]. (3) (4) From equation (4) it is evident that a bimolecular mechanism requires 136 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 2. Plot of vs. tartaric acid concentration for cerium(IV) oxidation of tartaric acid at 29.6°C. 137 KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF THE CERIUM (iv) a linear relationship between kohs and [Tart]. From the plot of kobs versus [Tart] shown in Figure 2 it is apparent that the rate-determin¬ ing step in this reaction under these conditions is not bimolecular. If, instead, it is assumed that the reaction proceeds by the rapid, reversible formation of a 1:1 cerium (IV) — tartaric acid complex followed by the unimolecular decomposition of the complex, then it is easily shown (Ardon, 1957) that the rate equation takes the form _ d[Ce(IV)]t _ k,K[Ce(IV)]t[Tart] dt l+K[Tart] ^ ^ in which ki is the specific rate constant for the unimolecular decompo¬ sition, and K is the stability constant for the 1 : 1 complex ion. Rewrit¬ ing equation (5) we get d[Ce(IV)]t dt kobs[Ce(IV)] where kr kiK[Tart] (6) (7) 1 +K[Tart] From equation (7) we see that a plot of 1 /kobs versus 1/ [Tart ] should be linear with a slope of l/kJL and an intercept of 1 /k^. This type of plot for the reaction is shown in Figure 3. The linearity of the plot indicates that the complex formation mechanism is correct. From the slope and intercept of Figure 3 one calculates a value of 5.3 ± 0.4 X 1 sec~^ for ki and 1.6 ± 0.2 X 10^ liters mole“^ for K. As far as we know^ these are the first values of ki and K reported for this reaction. How¬ ever, a comparison can be made with the similar cerium (IV) — ethylene glycol complex ion stability constant which is 1.1 X 10“ liters mole“^ (Littler and Waters, 1960) . LITERATURE CITED Ardon, M., 1957 — Oxidation of ethanol by ceric perchlorate. /. Chem. Soc.: 1811— 1815. Blaedel, W. J., and V. M. Meloche, 1963 — Elementary Quantitative Analysis — Theory and Practice^ Second Edition, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York: 477-479. Davis, D. G., 1961 — Chronopotentiometry of Ce(IV). Anal. Chem.., 33: 1839. Krishna, B., and K. C. Tewari, 1961 — Kinetics and mechanism of oxidation of mandelic, malic, and lactic acids by ceric sulfate. /. Chem. Soc.: 3097-3100. Littler, J. S., and W. A. Waters, 1960 — A comparative study of the oxidation of alcohols and glycols by cerium(IV), vanadium (V), and chromium (VI). /. Chem. Soc.: 2767-2772. WiBERG, K. B., 1965 — Oxidation in Organic Chemistry, Part A, Academic Press^ New York: 243-266. A Checklist of the Cave Fauna of Texas, VI. Additional Records of Vertebrata^ by JAMES R. REDDELL^ Texas Speleological Survey, Austin, Texas ABSTRACT Seventeen additional species of vertebrate are reported from Texas caves. This includes 3 fish, 2 frogs, 2 turtles, 1 skink, 4 snakes, an opossum, a jackrabbit, and 3 rodents. New records and bibliographic citations are included for about 47 previously reported species. Of particular interest are additional locality records for salamanders (genus Eurycea), the barking frog {Eleutherodactylus augusii latrans), the cliff frog (Syrrhophus marnocki), the cave swallow {Petrochelidon fulva pallida)^ and bats. Brief comments on habitat are supplied for most species. An index to Parts IV-VI of this checklist is appended. INTRODUCTION This report concludes a three-part supplement to the previously- published three-part checklist of the Texas cave fauna (Reddell, 1965; 1966; 1967a) . Parts IV and V include all additional records of inverte¬ brates (Reddell, 1969; 1970). Included in this report are all vertebrate species newly found in Texas caves, new records and bibliographic citations for species reported in the checklist, and corrections to the previous checklist. As in the previous checklist brief comments are made on the habitat in which the animals were found or on the circum¬ stances of their capture. This supplement increases to about 100 the total number of verte¬ brate species known from Texas caves. Still neglected are rodents and, to some extent, bats. The systematic arrangement in this report generally follows that of the previous checklist. Common names and systematic arrangement follow Blair et al. (1968) . The following symbols have been used to indicate the probable ecologic classification of the species: troglobite troglophile (*), trogloxene (+), and accidental (++). A question mark preceding a 1 Supported in part by a grant from the Water Resources Center, Texas Techno¬ logical College, Lubbock, Texas. 2 Present address: Box 7672 University Station, Austin, Texas 78712. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, December, 1970. 140 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE record indicates that it is only tentatively assigned to the taxon in question. Numbers preceding the scientific name, if below 540, refer to the number assigned to the species in the first three parts of the checklist; if the number is 540 or above it is a continuation of the numbering from the previous list. All of the material was collected by members of the Texas Speleological Survey unless otherwise acknowl- i edged. Appended to this report is an index to the caves included in the three supplementary parts to the checklist. Locations are given only for caves not listed or located in Reddell (1967a). Travis County localities are given from the state capital building in Austin, while other locali¬ ties are generally from the center of the county seat or nearest signifi- j cant town marked on the state highway maps. All locations are given in miles. The numbers following each cave are keyed to the numbers j preceding each taxon in the checklist. If a cave is known by more than j one name that name in official use by the Texas Speleological Survey is given with cross references for each additional name to be found in the literature. Detailed descriptions and maps of many of the caves from which collections have been made are available in the various publications of the Texas Speleological Survey. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my special thanks to David McKenzie and William H. Russell for their assistance in collecting a large part of the material covered by this report. Others who supplied specimens, records, or assisted in the collecting were: Ed Alexander, Rryce Brown, Hector Cuellar, Walter Dalquest, Dewayne Dickey, William Elliott, Jane Evans, T, R. Evans, John Fish, Russell Harmon, Carl Kunath, Tom Meador, David Meredith, Robert W. Mitchell, Tony R. Mollhagen, Terry Raines, Eric Remington, A. Richard Smith, and Suzanne Wylie. To all of these go my sincere thanks. My special appreciation is ex¬ tended to Robert W. Mitchell for his continued support and advice. Most of the new records of birds and bats are based on identifications by Tony Mollhagen. PHYLUM CHORDATA CLASS TELEOSTOMI Order Cypriniformes Family Cyprinidae 677. -j-Hybognathus placita Girard Plains Minnow Texas records.— County: River Styx Cave. VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 141 Comment.— A population of this minnow was found in the above cave by Hector Cuellar. Family Ictaluridae 445. -'rlctalurus melas (Rafinesque) Black Bullhead Texas records. — King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — This species was reported from the above cave by Hector Cuellar. 447. ** Satan eurystomus Hubbs Widemouth Blindcat Bibliography. — Blair et al. (1968); Dearolf (1956); Husmann (1967); Thines (1956). 448. **Trogloglams patter soni Eigenmann Toothless Blindcat Bibliography. — Blair et al. (1968); Dearolf (1953); Gianferrari (1923); Husmann (1967); Thines (1956); Vinciguerra (1956). Order Cyprinidontiformes Family Cyprinodontidae 678. -\-Fundulus kansae Garman Plains Killifish Texas records. — King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — This species was reported from this cave by Hector Cuellar. 679. -{-Cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis Fowler Red River Pupfish Texas records. — Hall County: Estelline Salt Spring; King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — The River Styx Cave record was provided by Hector Cuellar. This is apparently an abundantly occurring fish in the salt springs of the area. Bibliography. — Creel ( 1 964) . Order Perciformes Family Centrarchidae 450. -\-Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque Green Sunfish Texas records. — Bexar County: Bullis Hole; King County: River Styx Cave. Comment. — The record for River Styx Cave was supplied by Hector Cuellar. Speci¬ mens from Bullis Hole were identified by R. A. Kuehne. This species was abundant in both caves. CLASS AMPHIBIA Order Urodela Family Plethodontidae 454. Eurycea spp. Texas records. — Bandera County: Haby Water Cave; Blanco County: T Cave; Comal County: Bad Weather Pit, Bender’s Cave, and Grosser’s Sink; Real County: Tucker Hollow Cave. Comment. — Apparently several undescribed species are represented by the above records. The T Cave record is based on specimens seen by William H. Russell. This material is presently under study by the author in conjunction with Robert W. Mitchell. Bibliography. — Baker (1967); Bogart (1967); Brown (1967a), 455. ** Eurycea latitans Smith and Potter Cascade Caverns Neotenic Salamander Bibliography. — Andrews (1962); Baker (1956); Blair et al. (1968); Brown (1967); Dearolf (1956) ; Holsinger (1966); Wake (1966). 456. ** Eurycea rathbuni {Ste]negeY) San Marcos Blind Salamander 142 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Comment. — Wake (1966) in a recent study contends that this species is sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a separate genus. In my opinion this is not warranted. Bibliography. — Anonymous (1968); Andrews (1962); Baker (1956); Banta and Gortner (1916); Barr (1968); Benn (1945); Blair et al. (1968); Bogart (1967); Brandon (1968); Burt (1938); Dearolf (1956); Dundee (1961); Dunn (1918); Eigenmann (1899; 1900; 1900a); Funkhouser (1951), Gilmore and Cochran (1930); Holsinger (1966); Kingsbury (1905); Kingsbury and Reed (1909); Lane (1945); Ley (1955); Milne and Milne (1947); Mohr and Poulson (1966); Piatt (1935); Poulson (1964); Poulson and White (1969); Reed (1920); Smith (1920); Stejneger and Barbour (1917); Stone (1903) ; Terent’ev (1965) ; Thomson (1926) ; Vandel and Bouillon (1959); Wake (1966) ; Yeatman (1967). 457. **Eurycea tridentifera Mitchell and Reddell Honey Creek Cave Blind Salamander Comment. — Wake (1966) removed this species to the genus Typhlomolge, but I do not feel that his evidence warranted this action. Bibliography. — Blair et al. (1968); Bogart (1967); Mohr and Poulson (1966); Wake (1966); Yeatman (1967). 458. **Eurycea troglodytes Baker Valdina Farms Neotenic Salamander Bibliography. — Baker (1967) ; Blair et al. (1968) ; Bogart (1967) ; Mohr and Poulson (1966); Reddell (1967); Wake (1966). 460. *Plethodon. glutinosus albagula Grobman Slimy Salamander Texas records. — Bandera County: Haby Water Cave; Comal County: Brehmer’s Cave and Kappelman Cave; Hays County: Blue Hole and Vertical Cave; Kendall County: Fairy Cavern; Kerr County: Mingus Root Cave, Mingus Swallow Cave, and Smith Cave; Travis County: Cave near McNeil, Arrow Cave, Goat Cave (=Cave on Brode Lane near Oak Hill), Kretschmarr Cave, and Pipeline Cave. Comment.— These are the first cave records for Kerr County for this species. Speci¬ mens previously reported from “Cave on Brode Lane near Oak Hill” came from Goat Cave. Bibliography.^ — Baker (1956); Dearolf (1956); Dunn (1918); Highton (1962); Marx (1958). Order Anura Family Bufonidae 680. -{-Bufo compactilis Wiegmann Sonora Toad Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave; Val Verde County: Fern Cave. Comment. — These records were originally reported as Bufo speciosus. The toads in each case were found in the area of the entrance. Bibliography. — Gehlbach and Baker (1962). 463. -\-Bufo punctatus Baird and Girard Canyon Toad Texas records— Edwards County: Dunbar Cave; Hardeman County: Walkup Cave; Val Verde County: Fern Cave and Four Mile Cave. Comment. — In each case these toads were taken in the general area of the entrance. Specimens from Walkup Cave were found on the breakdown slope below the second sink entrance. Bibliography.— Gehlbach and Baker (1962) ; Kunath and Smith (1968). 464. -\-Bufo valliceps Wiegmann Gulf Coast Toad VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 143 Texas records. — Bandera County: Big Toad Cave; Kendall County: Century Caverns; Kerr County: Seven Room Cave and Smith Cave; Travis County: Goat Cave (i=Cave on Erode Lane near Oak Hill); Val Verde County: Langtry Lead Cave. Comment. — In each case, with the exception of the specimens from Langtry Lead Cave which were found in the Hall of the Unicorns near the end of the cave, the specimens were taken immediately below the entrance. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956). Family Leptodactylidae 465. -\-Eleutherodactylus augusti latrans (Cope) Barking Frog Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave and Schulze Cave; Kendall County: Cave 5 mi. E. Boerne and Schneider Ranch Cave; Real County: Cave on Mrs. H. A. Sparks Ranch and Tucker Hollow Cave; Uvalde County: Cave 3 m.i. E. Concan and Cave on H. M. Bludworth Ranch. Comment. — With the exception of the Edwards County records and the record for Tucker Hollow Cave these records were supplied by Bryce Brown. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Gehlbach and Baker (1962); James (1966). 466. -]-Syrrhophus marnocki Cope Cliff Frog Texas records. — Bandera County: Fossil Cave and Haby Water Cave; Comal County: Brehmmer-Heidrich Cave, Little Gem Cave No. 1, and Natural Bridge Caverns; Edwards County: Dunbar Cave; Hays County: Cave west of Ezell’s Cave, Mc¬ Carty Cave, and Wonder Cave; Kendall County: Schneider Ranch Cave and Spring Creek Cave; Kerr County: Mingus Root Cave and Mingus Swallow Cave; Medina County: Rattlesnake Cave; Real County: Cave on Mrs. H. A. Sparks Ranch and Tucker Hollow Cave; Travis County: Austin Caverns, Bandit Cave, Cotterell Cave, Goat Cave, Jack’s Joint, Kretschmarr Cave, Salamander Cave, and Tooth Cave; Uvalde County: Cave 3 mi. E. Concan; Val Verde County: Fawcett’s Cave and Fern Cave. Comment. — Many of the above records were supplied by Bryce Brown. These are the first cave records for this species from Bandera, Comal, and Real Counties. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Gehlbach and Baker (1962); Jameson (1955); Kunath and Smith (1968); Poulson (1966); Reddell (1967). Family Hylidae 681. H — \- Acris crepitans ^dLird Northern Cricket Frog Texas records. — Travis County: West Cave. Comment.— This species was taken in the cool interior of this shelter-like cave. Family Ranidae 469. -\-Rana pipiens Schreber Leopard Frog Texas records. — Culberson County: Box Canyon Cave and Wiggley Cave; Edwards County: Dunbar Cave; Kerr County: Mingus Swallow Cave; Travis County: Cotterell Cave; Val Verde County: Fern Cave and Four Mile Cave. Comment. — Specimens of the leopard frog were taken in each of the above caves, with the exception of Wiggley Cave, immediately below the entrance drop. A large chorus of this species could be heard in the Lake Room of Wiggley Cave about 400 feet from the entrance. Bibliography. — Gehlbach and Baker (1962); Reddell (1967). Family Microhylidae 470. -\-Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell) Great Plains Narrow-Mouthed Toad Texas records. — Hays County: Hunter Uncave; Kirig County: River Styx Cave; San Saba County: Board-Covered Cave; Val Verde County: Fern Cave. 144 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Comment. — Single specimens of this species were taken in each of the above caves. This species apparently seeks the cool, moist interior of cave entrances. Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). CLASS REPTILIA Order Chelonia Family Emydidae 682. H — \-T errapene ornata (Agassiz) Western Box Turtle Texas records. — Collingsworth County: Turtle Cave. Comment. — A single individual of this species was found near the end of this small cave. It had obviously been washed into the cave. Family Kinosternidae 683. H — V-Kinosternon flavescens (Agassiz) Yellow Mud Turtle Texas records. — Culberson County: Box Canyon Cave. Comment. — A single specimen of this turtle was seen in a lower-level crawl of this small gypsum cave. It had apparently been washed into the cave. Order Squamata Family Scincidae 684. -\-Eumeces ohsoletus (Baird and Girard) Great Plains Skink Texas records. — Kimble County: Lizard Cave. Comment. — A large skink of this species was taken in the entrance room of this cave. Family Colubridae 685. H — \-Elaphe obsoleta (Say) Rat Snake Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave. Bibliography.— Gehlbach and Baker (1962). 476. H — \-Elaphe subocularis (Brown) Trans-Pecos Rat Snake Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 686. H — \-Hypsiglena torquata Gunther Night Snake Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave. Bibliography. — Gehlbach and Baker (1962). 687. H — \rLampropeltis rnexicana blairi Flury x mexicana alterna (Brown) King- snake Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave. Bibliography.^ — -Gehlbach and Baker (1962). 688. -\—\-T hamnophis cyrtopsis (Kennicott) Black-necked Garter Snake Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave. Bibliography. — Gehlbach and Baker (1962). 479. H — \-T hamnophis cyrtopsis ocellata Cope Black-necked Garter Snake Texas records. — Bandera County: Big Toad Cave. Comment. — A single individual of this subspecies was seen in the entrance room of this small cave. Family Crotalidae 482. -\-Crotalus sp. Rattlesnake Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). 483. -\-Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard Western Diamondback Rattlesnake VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 145 Texas records. — Edwards County: Dunbar Cave; Kimble County: Rattlesnake Trash Sink. Comment. — Two large rattlesnakes were seen in the entrance to Rattlesnake Trash Sink. Bibliography. — Gehlbach and Baker (1962) ; Kunath and Smith (1968). 485. i — YCrotalus molossus molossus Baird and Girard Black-tailed Rattlesnake Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). CI.ASS AVES Order Passeriformes Family Tyrannidae 494. -\-Sayornis sayus (Bonaparte) Say’s Phoebe Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). Family Hirundinidae 495. -\-Petrochelidon fulva pallida Nelson Cave Swallow Texas records. — Culberson County: Windlass Cave; Kerr County: Mingus Swallow Cave; Presidio County: John’s Guano Mine. Comment. — The records for Windlass Cave and John’s Guano Mine were previously considered doubtful, but recent visits to the cave confirmed the presence of this species there. Bibliography.- — Kohls and Ryckman (1962). Family Troglodytidae 498. -\rCatherpes mexicanus (Swainson) Canyon Wren Texas records. — Val Verde County: Fisher’s Fissure, Plecotus Cave, and Wren Cave. Comment. — The canyon wren was observed flying into the entrances to each of the above caves. In Wren Cave a nest with eggs was found and the wren in Plecotus Cave was apparently searching for a nesting site. 499. -\-Salpinctes obsoleius (Say) Rock Wren Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). CLASS MAMMALIA Order Marsupialia Family Didelphidae 689. -\-Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus Common Opossum Texas records. — Uvalde County: Frio Bat Cave. Comment. — As indicated by many opossum bones in caves the opossum may be a far more frequent visitor to caves than this single record indicates. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967a) . Order Chiroptera Family Phyllostomatidae 501. -\-Leptonycteris nivalis longala Stains Long-nosed Bat Bibliography. — Davis (1966); Dearolf (1956). 502. -\-Mormoops megalophylla megalophylla Peters Leafchin Bat Bibliography. — Brennan (1965) ; Brennan and White (1960) ; Caballero y C. (1960) ; Constantine (1967b); Dearolf (1956); Loomis and Crossley (1963); Reddell (1967); Vercammen-Grandjean (1965; 1967). THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 146 Family Vespertilionidae 503. -^Antrozous pallidus (LeConte) Pallid Bat Texas records. — Val Verde County: Fisher’s Fissure. CommenI:. — This cave is apparently used as a night roost for the pallid bat. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956) ; Kunath and Smith (1968). 504. -{-Eptesicus fuscus pallidus Young Big Brown Bat Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Packard and Judd (1968). 507. -\-Myotus thysanodes thysanodes Miller Fringed Brown Bat Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Judd (1967). 508. -^Myotis velifer incautus (Allen) Mexican Brown Bat Texas records. — Presidio County: John’s Guano Mine; Uvalde County: Whitecotton Bat Cave; Val Verde County: Emerald Sink, Fawcett’s Cave, Fisher’s Fissure. Four Mile Cave, and Icebox Cave. Comment. — Sizeable colonies of this species are present in all but Icebox Cave and John’s Guano Mine. In Icebox Cave a few individuals were found roosting in nar¬ row holes in the ceiling. In John’s Guano Mine only a single individual was seen. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b); Constantine and Woodall (1964); Dalquest (1968); Dearolf (1956) ; Krutzsch and Hughes (1959) ; Kunath and Smith (1968); Reddell (1967). 509. d;-Myotis volans (H. Allen) Western Brown Bat Bibliography. — Dearolf ( 1 956) . 510. -{-My Otis yumanensis yumanensis (H. Allen) Yuma Brown Bat Texas records. — Val Verde County: Fisher’s Fissure. Comment. — A single specimen of this species was netted late at night as it was en¬ tering the cave. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Kunath and Smtih (1968). 513. -\rPipistrellus hesperus maximus Hatfield Western Pipistrelle Bibliography. — Dearolf ( 1 956) , 514. -\rPipistrellus suhflavus suhflavus (Cuvier) Eastern Pipistrelle Texas records. — Edwards County: Schulze Cave; Uvalde County: Whitecotton Bat Cave, Val Verde County: Fern Cave, Fisher’s Fissure, and Langtry Quarry Cave. Comment. — The Val Verde County records apparently mark the western limit of the known range of this species, with the Fisher’s Fissure and Langtry Quarry Cave records being the first west of the Pecos River. Bibliography.- — Dearolf (1956); James (1966); Kunath and Smith (1968). 515. -\-Plecotus townsendii pallescens (Miller) Townsend’s Big-eared Bat Texas records. — Collingsworth County: Bumpas Cave; Val Verde County: Emerald Sink, Fisher’s Fissure, Langtry East Gypsum Cave, and Plecotus Cave. Comment. — Specimens from Bumpas Cave were taken in winter and were in hibernation. Bibliography. — ^Dalquest (1968); Dearolf (1956); Kunath and Smith (1968); Radovsky (1967). Family Molossidae 516. -{-Tadarida hrasiliensis mexicana (Saussure) Mexican Freetail Bat Texas records. — Val Verde County: Fisher’s Fissure and Mile Canyon Talus Cave. Comment. — ^A few specimens of this species were captured as they entered Fisher’s VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 147 Fissure late at night. A sizeable colony is apparently present in Mile Canyon Talus Cave. Bibliography. — Adams and Baer (1966); Baker (1961); Barr (1968); Caballero y C. (1960); Cockrum (1955); Constantine (1966; 1967; 1967a; 1967b); Constan¬ tine, Tierkel, Kleckner, and Hawksins (1968); Constantine and Woodall (1964); Dearolf (1956); Emmons, Klite, Baer, and Hill (1966); Herreid (1967; 1967a); Krutzsch (1959); Krutzsch and Hughes (1959^; Kunath and Smith (1968); Mohr and Poulson (1966); Radovsky and Furman (1963); Reddell (1967); Villa R. (1967). Order Edentata Family Dasypodidae 518. -\-Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus Nine-banded Armadillo Texas records. — Uvalde County: Frio Bat Cave. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b). Order Lagomorpha Family Leporidae 690. H — \-Lepus californicus Gray Black-tailed Jackrabbit Texas records. — Culberson County: Jackrabbit Cave. Comment. — A jackrabbit was found in the lower level of this small gypsum cave, where it had apparently fallen or leaped and been unable to escape. Order Rodentia Family Sciuridae 691. -\-Citellus variegatus (Erxleben) Rock Squirrel Texas records. — Uvalde County: Frio Bat Cave. Bibiliography. — Constantine (1967b). Family Heteromyidae 520. -\-Perognathus merriami gilvus Osgood Merriam Pocket Mouse Bibliography. — Osgood (1900). Family Cricetidae 692. -{-Neotoma albigula albigula Hartley White-throated Packrat Texas records. — Hardeman County: Walkup Cave. Comment. — This specimen was collected in March. Bibliography. — Packard and Judd (1968). 693. -\-Neotoma micropus Baird Plains Packrat Texas records. — Uvalde County: Frio Bat Cave, Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b). 523. -\-Peromyscus maniculatus (Wagner) Deer Mouse Bibliography. — Reddell (1967). Order Carnivora Family Procyonidae 528. -\-Bassariscus astutus (Lichtenstein) Ringtail Texas records. — Jeff Davis County: Powderkeg Cave; Terrell County: Deaton’s Cave; Val Verde County: Langtry Lead Cave. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). 148 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 529. -\-Bassariscus astutus flavus Rhoads Ringtail Texas records. — Williamson County: Bat cave near Georgetown. Comment. — The identity of this cave is not known, but it may be Chinaberry Cave. 530. -ArProcyon lotor (Linnaeus) Raccoon Texas records. — Kendall County: Old Indian Cave; Val Verde County: Fern Cave. Bibliography. — Dearolf (1956); Reddell (1967); Smith and Reddell (1965). Family Mustelidae 532. -\rConepaius mesoleucus mearnsii Merriam Western Rooter Skunk Texas records. — Uvalde County: Frio Bat Cave. Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b); Reddell (1967). 533. -\-Mephitis mephitis (Schreber) Common Striped Skunk Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b); Dearolf (1956). Family Felidae 537. -\rLynx rufus (Schreber) Bobcat Bibliography. — Constantine (1967b); Dearolf (1956). Order Artiodactyla Family T ayassuidae 538. -^T ayassu tajacu (Linnaeus) Collared Peccary Texas records. — Crockett County: Friend Bat Cave. Comment. — Peccary were found in the entrance area. Bibliography. — Kunath and Smith (1968). LITERATURE CITED Anonymous, 1968 — The Texas blind salamander still survives. Tex. Herpetol Soc. Newsletter, Feb. 1968, pp. 4-6. Adams, D. B., and G. M. Bear, 1966 — Cesarian section and artificial feeding device for suckling bats. /. Marnm., 47: 524-525. Andrews, M. M,, Induced metamorphosis in neotenic salamanders. M.A. Thesis. San Marcos: Southwest Texas State College, vi + 32 pp. Baker. J. K., 1956 — Cave salamanders of Texas. Tex. Caver, 1(11): 12-13, 15. - , 1961 — What about batsl Carlsbad, N. Mex., Carlsbad Caverns Nat. Hist. Assoc. 55 pp. - , 1966 — Eurycea troglodytes. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, p. 23. Banta, a. M., and R. A. Gortner, 1916 — An albino salamander, Spelerpes bilinea- tus. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 49: 377-379. Barr, T. C., Jr., 1968 — Cave ecology and the evolution of troglobites. Evolutionary Biol, 2: 35-102. Benn, J. H., 1945 — Composite observations on cave life. Bull. Nat. Speleol. Soc., 7: 11. Blair, W. F., A. P. Blair, Pierce Brodkorb, F. R. Cagle, and G. A. Moore, 1968 — Vertebrates of the United States. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 616 pp. VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 149 Bogart, J. P., 1967 — Life history and chromosomes of some of the neotenic sala¬ manders of the Edward’s Plateau. M.A. Thesis. Austin: University of Texas, vii + 79 pp. Brandoist, R. a., 1968 — Structure of the eye of Haideotriton wallacei^ a North Amer¬ ican troglobitic salamander. /. Morphol.^ 124: 345-349, pL I. Brennan, J. M., 1965 — Two new species and other records of chiggers from Texas (Acarina: Trombiculidae). Acarologia, 7: 79-83. - , and J. S. White, 1960 — New records and descriptions of chiggers (Acarina— Trombiculidae) of bats in Alabama. /. ParasitoL, 46: 346-350, Brown, B. C., 1967 — Eurycea latitans. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, p, 36. - , 1967a — Eurycea neotenes. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, p. 36. Burt, C. E., 1938 — Contributions to Texan herpetology VII. Amer. Midi. Nat., 20: 374-380. Caballero y C., Eduardo, 1960 — Trematodos de los murcielagos de Mexico. VIII. Catalogo taxonomico de los trematodos que parasitan a los murcielagos (Mam¬ malia, Chiroptera Blumenbach, 1774). An. Inst. Biol. Mex., 31: 215-287. CocKRUM, E. L., 1955 — Reproduction in North American bats. Trans. Kansas Acad. Scl, 58: 487-511. Constantine, D. G., 1966 — Transmission experiments with bat rabies isolates: Reaction of certain Carnivora, opossum, and bats to intramuscular inoculations of rabies virus isolated from free-tailed bats. Amer. J. Vet. Res., 27(11): 16-19. - , 1967 — Activity patterns of the Mexican free-tailed bat. Univ. New Mexico Publ. in Biol., 7.79 pp. - , 1967a — Bat rabies in the southwestern United States. Publ. Health Repts., 82: 867-888. - , 1967b — Rabies transmission by air in bat caves. US Publ. Health Serv. Publ., 1617. 51 pp. - , E. S. Tierkel, M. D. Klegkner, and D. M. Hawksins, 1968 — Rabies in New Mexico cavern bats. Publ. Health Repts., 83: 303-316. - , and D. F. Woodall, 1964 — Latent infection of Rio Bravo virus in sa¬ livary glands of bats. Publ. Health Repts., 79: 1033-1039. Creel, G. C., 1964 — Hemigrapsus estellinensis: A new grapsoid crab from North Texas. Southw. Nat., 8: 236-241. Dalquest, W. W., 1968 — Mammals of northxentral Texas. Southw. Nat., 13: 13-22. Davis, W. H., 1966 — Arizona expedition. Bat Research News, 7(3): 25-30. Dearolf, Kenneth, 1956 — Survey of North American cave vertebrates. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sci., 30: 201-210. Dundee, H. A., 1961 — Response of the neotenic salamander Haideotriton wallacei to a metamorphic agent. Science, 135: 1060-1061, Dunn. E. R., 1918 — The collection of Amphibia Caudata of the Museum of Com¬ parative Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. ZooL, 62(9): 445-471. 150 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Eigenmann, C. H., 1899 — The eye of Typhlomolge from the artesian wells of San Marcos, Texas. (Abs.) Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 1898, p. 251. — - , 1900 — The blind fishes of North America. Pop. Sci. Monthly, 56: 473- 476. - , 1900a — Degeneration in the eyes of the cold-blooded vertebrates of the North American caves. Science (n.s.), 11: 492-503. Emmons, C. W., P. D. Klite, G. M. Baer, and W. B. Hill, Jr., 1966 — Isolation of Histoplasma capsulatum from bats in the United States. Amer. J. Epidemiol., 84: 103-109. Funkhouser, j. W., 1951 — The cave salamanders of California. Bull. Natl. Speleol. Soc., 13: 46-49. Gehlbach, F. R., and J. K. Baker, 1962 — Kingsnakes allied with Lampropeltis mexicana: Taxonomy and natural history. Copeia, 1962(2): 291-300. Gianferrari, Luisa, 1923 — Uegitglanis zammaranoi, un nuovo siluride cieco Africano. Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat. Milano, 62: 1-3. Gilmore, C. W., and D. M. Cochran, 1930 — Amphibians. Smithsonian Sci. Ser., 8(2): 157-208. Herreid, C. F., II, 1967 — Mortality statistics of young bats. Ecology, 48: 310-312. - , 1967a — Temperature regulation, temperature preference and tolerance, and metabolism of young and adult free-tailed bats. Physiol. Ecol., 40: 1-22. Highton, Richard, 1962 — Revision of North American salamanders of the genus Plethodon. Bull. Florida St. Mus., Biol. Sci., 6: 235-267. Holsinger, j. R., 1966 — Subterranean amphipods of the genus Stygonectes (Gam- maridae) from Texas. Amer. Midi. Nat., 76: 100-124. Husmann, Siegfried, 1967 — Die okologische Stellung der Hohlen- und Spaltenge- wasser innerhalb der subterranaquatilen Lebensbereiche. Internatl. J . Speleol., 2: 409-436. James, Don, 1966 — Cave gives up complex secrets. Wichita Falls Times — Feature Mag., Feb. 13, 1966, pp. 12-13. Jameson, D. L., 1955 — The population dynamics of the cliff frog, Syrrhophus marnocki. Amer. Midi. Nat., 54: 342-381. Judd, F. W., 1967 — Notes on some mammals from Big Bend National Park. Southw. Nat., 12: 192-194. Kingsbury, B. F., 1905 — The rank of Necturus among tailed Batrachia. Biol. Bull., 8(2): 67-74. - , and H. D. Reed, 1909 — The columella auris in Amphibia. Second con¬ tribution. J. MorphoL, 40(4) : 449-628, pi. I-X. Kohls, G. M., and R. E. Ryckman, 1962 — New distributional records of ticks as¬ sociated with cliff swallows, Petrochelidon spp., in the United States. J. Parasit., 48(3): 407-408. Krutzsch, P. H., 1959 — Bat business. Netherworld News, 7(2): 40-42. Reprinted in: Speleo Digest, 1959 (2): 136-138. Pittsburgh Grotto Press. 1961. - , and A. H. Hughes, 1959 — Hematological changes with torpor in the bat. J. Mamm., 40(4): 547-554. VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 151 Kunath, C. E., and A. R. Smith, 1968 — The caves of the Stockton Plateau. Tex. Speleol. Survey, d{2): 1-111. Lane, H. H., 1945 — A survey of the fossil vertebrates of Kansas. Part II: Amphibia. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., 48: 286-316. Ley, Willey, 1955 — Salamanders and other wonders. New York: Viking Press. X + 293 pp. Loomis, R. B., and D. A. Crossley, Jr., 1963. New species and new records of chiggers (Acarina: Trornbiculidae) from Texas. Acaralogia, 5: 371-383. Marx, Hymen, 1958 — Catalogue of type specimens of reptiles and amphibians in Chicago Natural History Museum. Fieldiana: ZooL, 36: 409-496. Milne, L. J., and M. J. Milne, 1947 — A multitude of living things. Dodd, Mead & Co. 278 pp. Mohr, C. E., and T. L. Poulson, 1966 — The life of the cave. New York: McGraw' Hill. 232 pp. Osgood, W. H., 1900 — Revision of the pocket mice of the genus Perognathus. N. Amer. Fauna, 18: 1-65, 4 pis. Packard, R. L., and F. W. Judd, 1968 — Comments on some mammals from western Texas. J. Mamm., 49: 535-538. Piatt, Jean, 1935- — A comparative study of the hyobranchial apparatus and throat musculature in the Plethodontidae. J. MorphoL, 57(1): 213-251. Poulson, T. L., 1964 — Animals in aquatic environments: Animals in caves, pp. 749- 771. In: Handbook of physiology: Adaptation to the environment. Washington, D.C.: American Physiological Society. - , and W. B. White, 1969 — The cave environment. Science, 165: 971-981. Radovsky, F. j., 1967 — The Macronyssidae and Laelapidae (Acarina: Mesostigmata) parasitic on bats. TJniv. Calif. Publ. EntomoL, 46: 1-288. - , and D. P. Furman, 1963 — The North American species of Steatonyssus (Acarina: Dermanyssidae) . Ann. EntomoL Soc. Amer., 56: 268-276. Reddell, j. R., 1965 — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. 1. The Invertebrate (exclusive of Insecta) . Tex. J. Sci., 17(2): 143-187. - , 1966 — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. IL Insecta. Tex. J. Sci., 18(1): 25-56. - , 1967 — The caves of Medina County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 3(1): 1-58. - , 1957a — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. III. Vertebrate. Tex. J. Sci., 19(2): 184-226. - , 1969 — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. IV. Additional records of Invertebrate (exclusive of Insecta). Tex. J. Sci., 21 (4): 389-415. - , 1970 — A checklist of the cave fauna of Texas. V. Additional records of Insecta. Tex. J. Sci., 22(1) : 47-65. - , and A. R. Smith, 1965 — The caves of Edwards County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 2(5-6) : 1-70. Reed, H. D., 1920 — The morphology of the sound-transmitting apparatus in caudate Amphibia and its phylogenetic significance. /. MorphoL, 33(2): 324-387. 152 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Smith, A. R., and J. R. Reddell, 1965— The caves of Kinney County. Tex. Speleol. Survey, 2(7): 1-34. Smith, Louise, 1920 — The hyobranchial apparatus of Spelerpes bislineatus. J. Morphol, 33 (2) : 526-583. Stejneger, Leonhard, and Thomas Barbour, 1917 — A Check List of North Ameri¬ can Amphibians and Reptiles. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 125 pp. Stone, Witmer, 1903 — A collection of reptiles and batrachians from Arkansas, In¬ dian Territory and western Texas. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 55: 538-542. Terent’ev, P. V., 1965 — Herpetology; a manual on amphibians and reptiles. Tr. of Gerpetologiya, uchenie o zemnovodnykh i presmykayu-shchikhsya by A. Mer¬ cado. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations, v -}- 313 pp. Thines, G., 1956 — Les poissons aveugles (1) Origine — taxonomie — repartition geographique — comportement. Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. Belgique, 76(1): 5-128. Thomson, J. A., 1926 — The New Natural History. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 3 vols. Vandel, a., and Michel Bouillon, 1959 — Le protee et son interet biologique. Ann. Speleol, 14(1-2): 111-127. 'Vercammen Grandjean, P. H., 1967 — Revision of the genus Tecomatlana Hoff¬ mann, 1947 (Acarina: Trombiculidae) . Acarologia, 9(4): 848-868. Villa R., Bernardo, 1967 — Los Murcielagos de Mexico, Inst. Biol., LTniv. Mexico, xvi + 491 pp. ViNCiGUERRA, D., 1956 — ^Descrizione di un ciprinide deco proveniente dalla Somalia Italiana. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, 51 : 239-243. "Wake, D. B., 1966 — Comparative osteology and evolution of the lungless sala¬ manders, family Plethodontidae. Mem. So. Calif. Acad, Sci., 4. Ill pp. Yeatman, H. C., 1967 — Artificially metamorphosed neotenic cave salamanders. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 42(1 ) : 16-22. CAVE INDEX Armstrong County Hedgecote Ranch Cave, 29 SS'W Claude — 598 Bandera County Big Toad Cave, 30 WN'W Bandera — 464, 479 Fossil Cave, 30 WNW Bandera— 116, 145, 147, 191, 411, 419, 466 Haby Water Cave, 30 WNW Bandera— 116, 188, 587, 419, 454, 460, 466 Station “C” Cave No. 1 — 594 Bell County Nolan Creek Cave — 552, 560 Bexar County Airport Cave, ION San Antonio — 209 Bullis Hole, 14 NNE Helotes— 545, 110, 118, 584, 246, 332, 641, 341, 672, 450 Government Canyon Bat Cave — 114, 123, 136, 145, 147, 167, 178, 191, 245, 411 Headquarters Cave— 56, 113, 145, 147, 191, 245, 259, 262, 638, 411 Helotes Hilltop Cave — 594 Madia’s Cave — 594 VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 153 Blanco County Buffalo Cave, 4 NW Johnson City — 348 T Cave, 6 E Blanco— 454 Brewster County O.T.L. Cave— 208 Split Tank Cave — 209 Burnet County Beaver Creek Cave — 212 Longhorn Caverns — 419 Marble Falls Cave No. 3 — 208 Snelling's Cave— 42, 52, 78, 560, 120, 123, 147, 191, 201, 245, 632, 652, 659, 416 Collingsworth County Bumpas Cave, 9 NNW Wellington — 515 Turtle Cave, 9 NNW Wellington — 647, 359, 682 Comal County Bad Weather Pit, 30 WNW New Braunfels — 544, 40, 116, 587, 630, 454 Bender's Cave, 23 NW New Braunfels— 67, 100, 116, 454 Bracken Cave — 568, 572 Brehmmer Cave — 460, 466 Comal Springs — 558 Dierks Cave No. 1 — 116, 188 Eisenhauer’s Horror Hole — 209 Fischer Cave— 56, 123, 147, 648, 419 Goat Cave — 100 Grosser's Cave — 646, 454 Grosser’s Sink — see Grosser’s Cave Hitzfielder’s Cave — 209 Kappelman Cave — 360, 460 Kappelman Salamander Cave — 259 Little Gem Cave No. 1 — 123, 477, 637, 370, 466 Natural Bridge Caverns — 466 Rittiman Cave, 23 NW New Braunfels — 105, 116, 169, 245, 634, 411, 419 Voges Cave — see Voges Sink Voges Sink— 116, 123, 349, 419 Coryell County Tippit Cave — 552, 554, 560 Crockett County Friend Bat Cave — 538 09 W^ell, 22 NNE Ozona— 191, 245, 664 Water Cave, 32 NW Ozona — 191 Culberson County Box Canyon Cave, 61 NNW Kent — 469, 683 Cutoff Cave, 64 NNW Kent— 117, 172, 420 Grass Cave, 64 NNW Kent — 192 Grassy" Grotto, 63 NNW Kent — 192 Gyp Joint— 178, 336, 410, 411, 417, 419, 420 Jackrabbit Cave, 61 NNW Kent — 690 New Cave, 64 NNW Kent— 117, 122, 172, 639, 340, 653, 358, 671, 417, 420 Olive’s Cave, 65 NNW Kent— 117, 172, 358, 417, 419, 420 Porcupine Cave — 178, 358 154 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Razor’s Edge Cave, 64 NNW Kent — 639, 336, 657 Tumbleweed Pit, 64 NNW Kent — 209 Ulk Cave, 62 NNW Kent— 419 Wiggley Cave, 64 NxNW Kent— 587, 656, 417, 419, 469 Windlass Cave — 358, 495 Dallas County Seeps, Turtle Creek — 553 Edwards County Blowhole Cave — 648, 411, 420 Bobby Jetton Cave — 123 Deep Cave— 39, 105, 114, 123, 136, 569, 573, 145, 147, 207, 245, 611, 614, 287, 345, 347,370, 411,419, 420 Devil’s Sinkhole— 556, 567, 570, 580, 599, 617, 626, 337, 651, 664, 665, 417, 429, 430, 439 Dunbar Cave— 594, 680, 463, 465, 466, 469, 685, 686, 687, 688, 483 Fallen Stalagmite Cave, 32 SW Rocksprings — 353 Hughes Cave— 105, 147, 178, 201, 245, 278, 370, 411, 416, 674, 419, 439 Pumpkin Cave— 104, 135, 572, 147, 578, 583, 192, 199, 202, 597, 214, 245, 612, 613, 624, 289, 633, 660, 380, 384, 662, 411, 428, 429, 675, 676, 439, 444 Schulze Cave — 465, 514 Wheat Cave — 568 Wyatt Cave — 568 Hall County Estelline Salt Spring, Estelline — 561, 679 Salt Hole — see Estelline Salt Spring Hardeman County Walkup Cave— 147, 150, 178, 201, 589, 590, 359, 415, 463, 692 Hays County Cave W Ezell’s Cave — 466 Blue Hole, 36 NW San Marcos — 460 Boggus Cave — 116, 123, 147, 245 Boyett’s Cave — 96, 591, 419 Cricket Cave — 93, 631 Donaldson Cave — 116, 136, 145 Ezell’s Cave— 566, 573, 576 Hunter Uncave — 147, 470 McCarty Cave — 466 Tarbutton’s Cave^ — -263 Vertical Cave — 460 Wonder Cave — 466 Howard County Cramer’s Scenic Mountain Cave, Big Spring — 191 Irion County Corngrinder’s Cave— 359 Jeff Davis County Powderkeg Cave, 20 N Ft. Davis — 528 Kendall County Cave 5 E Boerne — 465 Cascade Caverns— 541, 555, 560, 248, 631, 635, 644, 366, 663, 666 Century Caverns — 554, 557, 147, 587, 594, 669, 464 VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 155 Dead Man’s Cave — 67, 100 Fairy Cavern — 460 Galden Fawn Cave — 67, 68 Little Water Cave — 100 Old Indian Cave — 530 Prassell Ranch Cave — 50, 631, 635 Schneider Ranch Cave — 82, 554, 465, 466 Spring Creek Cave — 466 Kerr County Mingus Root Cave, 21 SW Kerrville — 460, 466 Mingus Swallow Cave, 21 SW Kerrville — 460, 466, 469, 495 Seven Room Cave— 39, 103, 113, 116, 123, 145, 147, 201, 245, 262, 622, 289, 353, 411, 439, 464 Smith Cave, 8 SW Kerrville — 460, 464 Stowers Cave — 84, 560 Kimble County Beetle Cave — 193 Cameron Ranch Cave— 123, 368 Fleming Bat Cave — 136, 172, 212, 353 Garter Snake Cave, 20 SW Junction — 147, 579, 201 The Hole, 14 SSE Junction — 147, 201, 411 Live Dog Cave, 14 SSE Junction — 147, 201 Lizard Cave, 15 SW Junction — 147, 201, 684 Llewellyn Rose Cave, 20 SW Junction — 123, 147, 245, 368 Rattlesnake Trash Sink, 14 SSE Junction — 483 700 Springs Cave, 17 SW Junction — 118, 188, 673 King County River Styx Cave— 587, 646, 650, 654, 411, 419, 677, 445, 678, 679, 450, 470 Kinney County Rattlesnake Cave — 568 Webb Cave— 572, 594, 411 Lampasas County Battery Cave — 640 Dead Goat Cave — 42, 123, 201 Enough Cave— 147, 173, 278, 411, 416 Falling Cricket Fissure — 123 Jackson Flea Cave — 305 Jackson One-Bat Cave — 115, 123, 201 Jaunt Joint, 15 W Lampasas — 123 Sullivan Knob Cave — 554 Mason County Zesch Ranch Cave — 543, 60, 560, 411 Medina County Coontop Pit— 47, 106, 123, 147, 245 Davenport Cave, 19 NNW Hondo— 114, 145, 150, 587, 201, 439 Goat Cave, 24 NW Hondo — 114 Lutz Cave— 123, 147, 201, 245, 262, 289 Rattlesnake Cave — 353, 466 Valdina Farms Sinkhole — 551, 572, 595 Weynand Cave— 123, 145, 147, 202, 245, 614, 259, 628 156 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Menard County Neel Cave — 209 Powell’s Cave — 116, 649, 366 Presidio County John’s Guano Mine — 495, 508 Randall County Big Rock Cave, Palo Duro State Park — 202 Confusion Cave, Palo Duro State Park — 565, 201 Real County Cave on Mrs. H. A. Sparks Ranch — 465, 566 Haby Cave — 591 Pape Cave — 116, 519 Skeleton Cave — 594 Tucker Hollow Cave, 4 W Leakey — 104, 116, 123, 147, 262, 670, 454, 465, 466 Turkey Pens Cave — 209 San Saba County Board-Covered Cave, 16 SE San Saba — 353, 470 Cicurina Cave — 104, 621, 648, 655 Crystal Lake Cave, 14 SE San Saba — 123, 616 Fence Line Fissure, 14 SE San Saba — 123, 201 Gorman Cave — 550, 554, 560 Harrell’s Cave — 542, 554, 560, 568 Horseshoe Fissure, 16 SE San Saba — 615, 661 Lemon’s Cave — 592 Whiteface Cave — 559 Schleicher County Cave Y — 359 Oglesby Ranch Cave, 10 W Eldorado— 123, 606, 370, 411, 416 Sutton County Felton Cave— 61, 65, 209, 629, 347 Roberts Cave — 359 Terrell County Blackstone Cave — 568 Deaton’s Cave, 2 SSW Dryden — 528 Travis County Cave near McNeil — 460 Cave on Erode Lane near Oak Hill — see Goat Cave Adobe Springs Cave — 549, 560 Arrow Cave, 9 SW Austin — 39, 123, 147, 259, 349, 411, 460 Austin Caverns — 466 Balcones Sink^ — -560, 618, 347 Bandit Cave — 591, 216, 466 Bee Creek Cave — 118, 596 Broken Straw Cave— 52, 115, 123, 136, 145, 191, 245 Cave X — 552, 560 Cotterell Cave — 210, 610, 466, 469 Dead Dog Cave No. 2 — 560 Goat Cave — 460, 464, 466 Ireland’s Cave — 96, 560 Jack’s Joint, 29 NW Austin — 554, 560, 466 VERTEBRATES FROM TEXAS CAVES 157 Kretschmarr Cave — 361, 460, 466 Lost Gold Cave — 603, 604, 626 Lunsford’s Cave — 147, 209 Midnight Cave, 10 SW Austin— 118, 123, 145, 191, 245, 349, 411 Mold Hole, 12 NW Austin— 123, 574, 169, 605, 245, 607, 608, 619, 623, 625, 658, 411,420 Pennie’s Cave — 123 Pipeline Cave, 9 SW Austin — 116, 123, 460 Salamander Cave — 39, 47, 560, 466 Schulze Cave — 575 Spanish Wells— 540, 39, 560, 105, 562, 147, 201, 634, 411, 420 Tooth Cave— 573, 575, 581, 596, 246, 609, 620, 370, 667, 466 Under-the-Road Cave — 259 Weldon Cave— 52, 548, 593, 596, 289 West Cave, 24 WSW Austin — 195, 681 Uvalde County Cave 3 mi. E Concan — 465, 566 Cave on H. M. Bludworth Ranch — 465 Burial Cave — 563 Carson Cave— 147, 245, 259, 262, 263, 278, 353, 411, 419 Cedar Brake Cave, 25 NE Uvalde — 113, 116, 123, 41 1 Dripstone Cave — 114, 123, 145, 245 Frio Bat Cave— 217, 234, 600, 601, 602, 689, 518, 691, 693, 532 Grape Hollow Cave, 25 NE Uvalde — 123, 147, 245, 411 Indian Creek Cave — 564, 594, 642, 654 McNair Cave— 84, 123, 136, 145, 411 Picture Cave No. 1 — 47 Rambie’s Cave — 594 Sandtleben Cave— 104, 147, 209, 594, 595, 615, 262, 278, 439 Sheep Trap Cave, 25 NE Uvalde — 353 Tampke Ranch Cave— 113, 116, 123, 136, 145, 147, 150, 582, 188, 191, 192, 201, 610, 259, 262 Whitecotton Bat Cave, 25 NW Uvalde — 145, 178, 191, 201, 353, 411, 419, 508, 514 Val Verde County Cave near Pandale Crossing, 22 N Langtry — 155, 587 Centipede Cave, 58 N Del Rio' — 123, 147, 353 Diablo Cave — 595, 217 Emerald Sink — 508, 515 Fawcett Cave — 466, 508 Fern Cave— 114, 572, 353, 405, 680, 463, 466, 469, 470, 514, 530 Fisher’s Fissure — 498, 503, 508, 510, 514, 515, 516 Four Mile Cave— 571, 585, 217, 245, 263, 658, 386, 398, 403, 411, 417, 675, 463, 469, 508 H. T. Miers Cave — 147, 594, 642, 643, 645 Icebox Cave, 1 E Langtry — 508 Ladder Cave — 595 Langtry East Gypsum Cave — 515 Langtry Lead Cave — 636, 419, 675, 464, 528 Langtry Quarry Cave — 514 Mile Canyon Talus Cave, 1 E Langtry — 516 158 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Oriente Milestone Molasses Bat Cave — 279 Painted Cave — 546 Plecotus Cave, 37 N Del Rio — 498, 515 Wren Cave, 36 N Del Rio — 498 Wheeler County Big Mouth Cave — 417 Williamson County Cave at Georgetown — 261 Bat cave near Georgetown — 529 Bat Well— 547, 53, 419 Beck’s Ranch Cave— 39, 575, 210, 336, 419 Beck’s Sewer Cave — 47, 169, 210, 289 Bone Cave — 596 Chinaberry Cave — 370 Cricket Cave — 289 Elm Water Cave — 552 Inner Space Caverns — see Laubach Cave Laubach Cave— 118, 575, 145, 588, 592, 341, 370 Man-with-a-Spear Cave — 210 Mural Cave — 345 Ramsel’s Corral Cave — 123, 147 Williams Cave — 591 A Report on Freshwater Monogenetic Trematodes of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Texas by N. J. CLAYTON^ and E. A. SCHLUETER Department of Biological Science, North T exas State University, Denton 7 6203 ABSTRACT Gill material from 66 fishes was removed and studied for monogenetic trematode infestation. The individual parasites were examined and measurements and figures were made microscopically with a calibrated ocular micrometer. The descriptions of Mizelle and the keys of Hoffman (1967) and Yarnaguti (1963) were used to deter¬ mine the correct nomenclature of the organisms. Five of the 9 hosts studied provided new host species records. INTRODUCTION The Garza-Little Ellm reservoir, located approximately 14 miles from Denton, Texas, was authorized for construction on March 2, 1945. Construction of the project actually began in December 1948, under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers at a cost of $23,108,000. The Corps of Engineers is currently operating and maintaining the park recreational facilities along the 183 miles of shoreline. The reservoir was designed to serve as a flood control measure, recreational facility, and as a conservation project for water storage for the cities of Dallas and Denton. The project encompasses some 962,800 acre-feet of water at the maximum conservation level. The Garza-Little Elm, because of its size, volume, and piscine species present, as well as its proximity to the University laboratory, offers an immediate source of parasitic forms utilized in our studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 66 fishes was collected by seining and angling at various locations and the fish were transported back to the laboratory directly from the fishing site. The gills were dissected, the trematodes examined in situ, placed in vials containing 1 : 4000 formalin solution, frozen, and removed from the gill according to the method described by Mizelle and Klucka (1953) . Gill material was transferred from vials to a Syra- 1 Present Address: De La Salle High School, New Orleans, Louisiana. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIL No. 2 & 3, December, 1970. 160 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE cuse watch glass, diluted with distilled water, and decanted until reasonably clear to examine with a dissecting microscope. Parasites were removed from the decanted solution by a capillary pipette and placed in a watch glass containing distilled water to remove excess mucus. This process was repeated until most of the gill mucus was removed from the trematode. Individual specimens were transferred to a clean slide and the excess water was blotted away. A drop of warm glycerin-gelatin was placed on the parasite and a cover slip was allow¬ ed to settle as the medium cooled and congealed. Thus a permanent mount was made for microscopic examination. Measurements of the organism were made according to the procedure of Mizelle and Klucka (1953) . Photomicrographs of the slides were taken and used as an aid in identifying the parasites. Drawings of the haptor, cirrus, and an accessory piece were done with the aid of a camera lucida. DISCUSSION Three families of teleosts, including 10 species, served as hosts for 9 different monogenetic trematodes (Table 1 ) . Our study indicates that 2 Tetraonchinae genera infest the bluegill sunfish {Lepomis macrochirus) . Of the 22 L. macrochirus examined, 20 were infested with Actinocleidus fergusoni (Mizelle, 1938). This report suggests that a larger population of L. macrochirus should be collected. Mizelle (1936) reported that both largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, and smallmouth bass, M. dolomieu, were infested with U rocleidus principalis . Our findings indicate that the spotted bass, M. punctulatus, is also parasitized by Z7. principalis. Mizelle (1938) reported that Cleidodiscus vancleavei, C. capax, C. longus. and C. uniformis were recovered with great regularity from the gills of the white crappie {Pomoxis annularis). Cleidodiscus robustus (Mueller. 1934) should be added to this list since all 21 specimens of P. annularis examined were infested by this parasite. Mizelle (personal communication) confirmed our identification of C. robustus. Mizelle, et. al. (1943) reported C. vancleavei. and C. capax from the gills of the black crappie {Pomoxis nigromaculatus) . Our specimens indicate that U rocleidus grandis (Mizelle and Seamster, 1939) is also a parasite of P. nigromaculatus. The white bass, Lepibema chrysops was reported to host Urocleidus chrysops (Mizelle and Klucka, 1953). U. chrysops was found, in this study, on the gills of 5 white bass. This is the first report of U. chrysops infesting the gills of L. chrysops in Texas. Dactylogyrus perlus was first described by Mueller (1937) from the Table 1 Host-parasite summary — Garza-Little Elm Reservoir. FRESHWATER MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GARZA 161 Indicates new host record for Texas 162 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Cleidodiscus pricei (Mueller, 1936) has also been reported by Lawrence and Murphy (1967) infesting the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus in studies on Benbrook Lake, Tarrant County, Texas. Previously reported hosts and localities listed for the 5 new host records for A. fergusoni, U. attenuatus, U. chrysops^ and U. grandis which follow are in each case those given by Mizelle, et. al.^ 1956. C Fig. 1. Fig. la. Actinocleidus fergusoni: 1. Hook, 2. Accessory piece, 3. Cirrus, 4. Anterior anchor, 5. Anterior bar, 6. Posterior bar, 7. Posterior anchor, b. Dacfylogyrus pelus: 8. Ventai ba, 9, Dosal bar, 10. Cirrus and accessory peice, 11. Hooks, 12. Dorsai anchor, 13. Ventral anchor. C. Uroc/eidus attenuatus: 14. Dorsal anchor, 15. Dorsal bar, 16. Ventral anchor, 17. Hook, 18. Accessory piece, 19. Cirrus, 20. Vagina. FRESHWATER MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GARZA 163 b Fig. 2. Fig. 2a. Urodeidus chry$ops: 21. Hook, 22. Pharynx, 23. Ventral bar, 24. Ventral anchor, 25. Accessory piece, 26. Cirrus, b. Urodeidm grandis: 27. Cirrus, 28. Accessory piece 29—30. Hooks, 21. Ventral anchor, 32. Dorsal anhcor, 33. Ventral bar, 34. Dorsal bar. 164 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE common shiner, Notropis cornutus, of Chautauqua Lake, New York. Mizelle and Donahue (1944) found D. perlus in N . cornutus of Proulx Lake in Algonquin Park, Ontario, Canada. We found D. perlus infest¬ ing gills of the red shiner, A. lutrensis. Our specimens closely resemble the redescription of the species (Mizelle and Donahue, 1944) . Nowlin, et. aL (1967) has reported Actinocleidus longus (Mizelle, 1938) infecting the green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus, from waters in the proximity of Prairie View A. and M., Texas. Actinocleidus fergusoni Mizelle, 1938 Host and Locality: Blue gill Sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, Garza- Little Elm Reservoir, Lewisville, Texas. Previously Reported Host and Localities: Lepomis macrochirus Refinesque, Lake Senachwine, Henry, Ill.; Boomer Creek, Stillwater, Okla.; Local Ponds and Streams near Stillwater, Okla.; Reelfoot Lake, Tiptonville, Tenn., Lake Okeechobee, Moore Haven, Fla.; Canal, North Everglades, Fla.; Bass Lake (Hatchery), Canal Lake, Madeline Lake, Minocqua Thoroughfare along Woodruff Hatchery (all) near Woodruff, Wis., Yellow River Flowage next to Fisheries Laboratory near Spooner, Wis.; Westhampton Lake, Univ. Richmond, Va. Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bar- tram), Westhampton Lake, Univ. Richmond, Va. Lepomis humilis (Girard), Local Ponds and Streams near Stillwater, Okla. Previously Reported Host and Localities from Texas: None Specimens Studied: 2 Site of Infestation: Gills Description: Minimum body length 0.306 mm; body width 0.061 mm; anterior anchor 0.045 mm; posterior anchor 0.038 mm. Cephalic lobes not demonstrated. Eyes 4, posterior pair larger than anterior pair. Pharynx not clearly observed. Cirrus curved and sickle shaped, not projecting into the accessory piece. The accessory piece measures 0.024 mm. Hooks small, 14 in number, averaging .0068 mm in length (Fig. la). Urocleidus attenuatus Mizelle, 1941 Host and Locality: Bluegill Sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, Garza- Little Elm Reservoir, Lewisville, Texas. Previously Reported Host and Locality: Stump-Knocker Sunfish, Lepomis micro- lophus (Gunther), Englewood Pond, Englewood, Fla., Everglades Canal, Naples, Fla., Lake Okeechobee, Moore Haven, Fla.; Canal, North Everglades, Fla.; Reelfoot Lake, Tiptonville, Tenn. Lepomis macrochirus Refinesque, Canal, North Everglades, Fla. Lepomis miniatus Jordan, Reelfoot Lake, Tiptonville, Tenn. Previously Reported Host and Locality from Texas: None Specimens Studies: 6 Site of Infestation: Gills FRESHWATER MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GARZA 165 Redescrip tion: Length .84 mm; greatest body width 0,23 mm. Cephalic lobes 3. Cephalic glands not observed, Eyespots 4, posterior pair larger and farther apart than anterior pair. Pharynx oval, largest diameter 0.07 mm. Width of haptor 0.19 mm. Ventral anchor width 0.26 mm. Dorsal anchor length 0,32 mm. The hooks of pairs number 5 and are situated between the ventral pair of anchors and the haptor. The copulatory complex consists of a cirrus 0.18 mm. in length and an accessory piece of 0.05 mm in length (Fig. 16). The vagina is lo¬ cated mid- ventral on the right side of the body. Urocleidus grandis Mizelle and Seamster, 1939 Host and Locality: Black Crappie, Pomoxis nigromaculatus , Garza- Little Elm Reservoir, Lewisville, Texas. Previously Reported Host and Locality: Warmouth Bass, Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram), Roadside Canal, Naples, Fla., Woodmere Pond, Englewood, Fla.; Reel- foot Lake, Tiptonville, Tenn. Specimens Studied: 2 Site of Infestation: Gills Redescription: Maximum length 0.430 mm., maximum width 0.092 mm. Cephalic lobes not demonstrated. Cephalic glands present but not distinct, Eyespots 4, the posterior pair larger than the anterior pair. Pharynx oval in outline with a diameter of 0.015 mm. The copulatory complex consists of a cirrus 0.057 mm in length and accessory piece of 0.025 mm. The cirrus has a cirral thread wrapped around the shaft. Vagina not observed. Haptoral bars dissimilar. Dorsal bar 0.03 mm, ventral bar 0.032 mm. Dorsal anchor maximum length is 0.063 mm., ventral anchor 0.068 mm. Hooks in 2 lateral groups of 5 each similar in appearance. One pair of hooks situated anterior between lateral groups; one pair posterior, giving the organism a total of 14 hooks. The hooks do not have an opposite piece (Fig. 2b) . Urocleidus chrysops Mizelle and Klucka, 1953 A new host record Host and Locality: Sand Bass, Lepibema chrysops^ Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Lewisville, Texas. Previously Reported Host and Locality: Lepibema chrysops (Rafinesque), Upper Lake Pepin, Miss. River (both) Wis.; Upper Lake Pepin, Miss. River, (both) Fountain City, Buffalo Co., Wis. Specimens Studied: 4 Site of Infestation; Gills 166 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Redescription: Length 0.58 nun, greatest body width 0.12 mm. Cephalic lobes 3, cephalic glands consist of 2 pairs containing 5 glands. Eyespots 4, posterior eyespots larger than anterior pair by a factor of 2. Pharynx oval. Diameter of pharynx 0.024 mm. Dorsal bar bent posteri¬ or; with length of 0.035 mm. Hooks similar in structure and without opposable piece. Dorsal anchor 0.054 mm, ventral anchor 0.058 mm. Copulatory complex well developed and consisting of a cirral thread wrapped around the shaft. Length of the cirrus shaft 0.044 mm. (Fig. 2a) Vagina not observed. Vitellaria description the same as previously described by Mizelle and Klucka, (1953) . Dactylogyrus perlus Mueller, 1938 Host and Locality: Red Shiner, Notropis lutrensis, Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Lewisville, Texas. Previously Reported Host and Locality: Common Shiner Notropis cornutus, Chautauqua Lake, N. Y. (Mueller, 1938). Previously Reported Host and Locality from Texas: None Specimens Studied: One Site of Infestation: Gills Redescription: Length 0.365 mm, greatest body width 0.080 mm. Cephalic lobes 4. Eye spots 4, posterior pair larger than anterior pair. Pharynx not clearly defined in specimen. Peduncle short and stout. Haptor oval in outline, average diameter 0.22 mm. Hooks 14; sickle- shaped termination with a small opposable piece, shaft of hooks solid. Anchor length 0.28 mm. Copulatory complex strongly curved with a bladelike accessory piece. (Fig. lb). Vagina located mid-ventral on the right margin of the body. Testes and seminal receptacle not ob¬ served. Vitellaria well developed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was made possible by funds granted by the National Science Founda¬ tion. The authors wish to express their sincere appreciation to J. B. Murdock, Ed¬ ward Block IV, and Frank McDonald. I wish to thank Professor J. D. Mizelle, of Sacramento State University, for his help in identifying some of the parasites used in this study. LITERATURE CITED Hoffman, G. L., 1967 — Parasites of North American Freshwater Fishes. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Lawrence, J. E., and C. E. Murphy, 1967 — Parasites of five species of fish from Benbrook Lake, Tarrant County, Texas: Tex. J. Sci., 19(2): 164-174. FRESHWATER MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GARZA 167 Mizelle, J. D., 1936 — New species of trematodes from the gills of Illinois fishes: Amer. Midi. Nat., 17(5): 785-805. - , 1938 — -Comparative studies on (Gyrodactyloidea) from the gills of North American Freshwater fishes: 111. Biol. Mongr., 17: 1-81. - , 1941 — Studies on monogenetic trematodes. IV. Anchor adiscus, A new dactylogyrid genus from the Bluegill and Stump Knocker Sunfish: /. Parasii., 27: 159-163. - , and W. J. Brennan, 1942 — Studies on monogenetic trematodes. VII. Species infesting the Bluegill Sunfish: Amer. Midi. Nat., 27: 135-144. - - , and Sr. M. Angela Donahue, R.S.M., 1944 — Studies on monogenetic trematodes. XL Dactylogyridae from Algonquin Park Fishes: Amer. Midi. Nat., 31: 600-623. - , and B. J. Jaskoski, 1942 — Studies on monogenetic trematodes. VIIL Tetraonchinase infesting Lepomis miniatus Jordan: Amer. Midi. Nat., 27: 145- 153. - , and A. Klucka, 1953 — Studies on monogenetic trematodes. XIV. Dac¬ tylogyridae from Wisconsin fishes: Amer. Midi. Nat., 49: 720-733. - •, D. R. LaGrave, and R. P. O’Shaughnessy, 1943 — Studies on mono¬ genetic trematodes. IX. Host specificity of Pomoxis Tetraonchinae: Amer. Midi. Nat., 34: 673-700. - , P. S. Stokely, B. j. Jaskoski, A. P. Seamster, and L. H. Monaco, 1956 — North American freshwater Tetraonchinae: Amer. Midi. Nat., 55: 162- 179. Mueller, J. F., 1937 — Further studies on North American Gyrodactyloidea: Amer. Midi. Nat., 18: 207-219. Nowlin, W. J., C. E. Price, and E. A. Schlueter, 1967 — First report of freshwater monogenetic trematodes of Texas: T ex. J. Sci., 19(1): 11 0-1 1 1 . Yamaguti, S., 1963 — Sy sterna Helminthum IV. Monogenea and Aspidocotylea. In¬ terscience Publishers, New York. Locomotor Activity in Trichogaster Leeri (Pisces, Belontiidae) by DARRELL D. HALL Department of Biology^ Sam Houston State University, Huntsville 77340 ABSTRACT Circadian rhythms locomotor activity at 28° and 33° C in the pearl gourami, Trichogaster leeri (Bleeker), are compared for fish maintained on an LD 12:12 photoperiod. An activity-detecting-and recording system is briefly described which utilizes photoelectric circuits and an Esterline-Angus event recorder. T. leeri appears to be normally diumally-active with ranges of high activity from 7 AM-1 PM and from 4-6 PM. Lowest activity was recorded from 12 midnight— 5 AM. The amplitude of the rhythm of locomotor activity shows an increase with a 5°C increase in water temperature. INTRODUCTION This Study dealt primarily with clarification of the nature of the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity in the pearl gourami, T richo- gaster leeri (Bleeker) and, secondarily, with the relationship of water temperature to locomotor activity. Trichogaster leeri is a relatively small (TL = 4-10 cm), air-breathing teleost of Southeast Asia and is one of approximately 50-55 species of anabantoid fishes which are found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and China (Forselius, 1957) . Few attempts have been made to quantitatively measure locomotor activity under carefully controlled laboratory conditions in fishes. Field studies, such as those by Wells (1935b), Carlander and Cleary (1949), and Hoese, et ah (1968) have shown that certain fishes do exhibit daily and seasonal variation in locomotor activity. Forselius (1957),Daugs (1965), Hall (1966), and Marshall (1967) reported on the spawning periodicity of various anabantoids. Marshall (1967) also showed that spawning rhythms of Trichopsis vittatus and T. pumilus can be changed by artifically varying photoperiods. Spencer (1939), Spoor (1941, 1946), Childers (1956), Myrberg (1958), Bainbridge and Brown (1958), Kleerekoper, et al. (1961), Davis (1962, 1964), Davis and Bardach (1965), Thines and Dlea- bastita (1965), Smit (1965), 011a (1967), Thines and Van Ermengem The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 170 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (1965), MacLeod (1967), DeGroot and Schuyf (1967), Chaston (1968), and Hall and Armstrong (1968) have also reported on cir¬ cadian (=diurnal, diel, nocturnal) rhythms and/or methods for measuring locomotor activity in fishes. Few studies, however, have been conducted to determine the causal factors involved, methods for modification of locomotor rhythms, or the role and significance of locomotor rhythms in fishes. This study does little to clarify the nature of causal factors involved, but hopefully, does reveal some approaches for control and/or modification of these rhythms. This study was designed to determine whether or not a circadian rhythm of locomotor activity is operant in T. leeri. A diurnal rhythm of spawning activity was observed in T. leeri by Hall (1966). Both sexes were more active during the morning than in the afternoon and most spawning sequences began before noon. Much of this activity consisted of pre-spawning courtship behavior, and most spawnings (80%) occurred during the period from 9 AM-2 PM while fish were maintained on an LD 12:12 photoperiod (6 AM-6 PM). No night spawnings were observed nor was there any indication that this occurs in T. leeri. Afternoons were usually characterized by less activity by both sexes, little or no nest-building (unless spawning had occurred), hovering near the bottom of the tank or in vegetation, bottom feeding, and other low threshold activities. TERMINOLOGY Terminology, with some exceptions, follows that of Halberg, et al. (1959) and Harker (1964). Amplitude. The extent or range of an oscillating process measured from the mean to an extreme. Circadian Rhythm. An endogenous biorhythm with a period of ap¬ proximately 24 hours. Diurnal. Day active. Locomotor Unit. A unit of activity registered by an Esterline- Angus event recorder in response to the passage of a fish through a photoelectric circuit. Nocturnal. Night active MATERIALS AND METHODS The activity-detecting-and-recording system used in this study con¬ sisted of an Esterline-Angus 620X event recorder, 9 International Rectifier CS 120 Cadmium Sulphide Photoconductive Cells and a 40 V D/C transformer which provided adequate voltage for the photo- LOCOMOTOR ACTIVITY IN TRICHOGASTER LEERI 171 cells which were mounted on the side of a 7.6 x 30.5 x 45.7 cm all-glass test aquarium. Photocells were mounted in 2 horizontal rows with 4 cells in the top row and 5 in the bottom row. Each photocell received a beam of white light from the opposite side of the aquarium and through a change in resistance in the photocell completed an electrical circuit from the transformer to the event recorder. As the beam of light was broken by the passage of a fish, the movement, a locomotor unit, was registered as to time and position by the event recorder. The data were then counted for each 24-hour test and graphed. The light sources used to activate the photocells were 9 Sylvania high intensity 40 W lamps housed in a 15.2 x 30.5 x 50.8 cm wood cabinet. Lamps were mounted on a horizontal level with the photo¬ cells. Optical lenses, mounted in 5.1 x 5.1 x 10.2 cm wood blocks and placed on shelves between the lamps and photocells, were used to modulate light beams to obtain maximum activation of the photocells. The details, as well as advantages and disadvantages, of the monitoring apparatus have been reported by Hall and Armstrong (1969). All tests were conducted in a constant temperature room approxi¬ mately 2.8 X 3.3 X 4.0 m, where 2 overhead 96 W fluorescent lamps provided illumination. Photoperiod (LD 12: 12, 6 AM-6 PM) was con¬ trolled by an electric appliance timer. Twenty-five sexually-mature T. leeri obtained from Everglades Aquatic Nurseries, Tampa, Florida, comprised the population for this study. Stock fish were maintained until used in a 15-gallon aquarium; removed one at a time to the test aquarium; and then removed perma¬ nently, after testing, to a tank outside the constant temperature room. Five males and 4 females were tested in this study. The experimental procedure used with each fish was as follows: acclimate fish within the test aquarium for 24 hours; record activity for the next 24 hours at 28°C; siphon water from test aquarium and replace with preheated water (33°C) from an adjacent identical-size aquarium; move the 150 W aquarium heater to the test aquarium to maintain the 33 °C water temperature; record activity for the following 24-hour period. Water and heater transfers were made slowly and quietly to avoid excitement of fish. Temperature within the room was maintained at 28 ± 1°C for the duration of the study. Fish were fed Daphnia^ Artemia, and commercial dry foods. Fish were fed at irregular inter¬ vals to prevent development of “pre-feeding activity patterns” (Davis and Bardach, 1965) which may obscure normal activity patterns. Experimental fish were not fed during the 48-hour recording period. Each locomotor activity value in Fig. 1 represents the mean activity for 9 fish for the hour immediately forthcoming. 172 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE RESULTS The circadian rhythm of locomotor activity in T . leeri at 28 °C is shown in Fig. 1. Peaks of locomotor activity were recorded during the “lights on” period from 7 AM-1 PM and from 4-6 PM. Lows were recorded from 3-5 AM and 1-3 PM. In an attempt to modify the rhythm of locomotor activity, fish were subjected to a 5°C increase in water temperature (from 28 °C to 33°C). As shown in Fig. 1, the rhythm was maintained at the higher AM NOON PM Fig. 1. Circadian Rhythms of Locomotor Activity in Trkbogaster leeri at 28°C and 33°C. temperature. The amplitude of the rhythm was affected with highest activity recorded at 9 AM and 5 PM, both within the ranges of high activity recorded at 28 °C. Lows at 33 °C were recorded at 4 AM and 7 PM. Fish were not tested at a temperature lower than 28 °C due to lack of facilities for maintaining a constant low water temperature. The higher temperature used in this study is well below the upper lethal temperature (approximately 38 °C, pers. observation) for this species, therefore, it does not appear likely that the increased activity at 33 °C was simply a stress response to increased temperature. There were no overt behavioral changes (other than increased activity) or LOCOMOTOR ACTIVITY IN TRICHOGASTER LEERI 173 color changes at 33 °C, both of which may occur in fishes under stress. Data for males and females were separately analyzed statistically for possible sex differences in the rhythm of locomotor activity. No significant differences were found, however data obtained recently indicate that males of a related species, Trichogaster trichopterus^ do show pronounced seasonal changes in locomotor rhythm which seem to be correlated with the breeding cycle. DISCUSSION Obvious biological advantages accrue to a fish species in the syn- chonization of the activities of its members. Not only do the sexes have a better chance of meeting during spawning periods if their rhythms of activity are synchronized, but there is also less likelihood of direct competition or interaction with “differently-cycling” congeners, thereby reducing the probability of hybridization and/or loss of gam¬ etes through mismatings. Marshall (1967) has suggested that a cir¬ cadian spawning periodicity may effect reproductive isolation in the sympatric anabantoid species, Trichopsis vittatus and Betta splendens. Empirical proof for this, however, is lacking. Darker (1964) stated that the phases and periods of circadian rhythms are generally not appreciably affected by temperature fluctu¬ ations (within the tolerance limits of the organism). She also stated that temperature normally affects only the amplitude of the rhythm. With an increase of 5°C the locomotor rhythm of T. leeri was not appreciably different in form from the rhythm observed at 28 °C. Water temperature plays a major role in determining the amplitude of the rhythm of locomotor activity in T. leeri^ but apparently has little effect on other aspects of the rhythm. This study serves to re¬ inforce Harker’s (1964) hypothesis of circadian rhythm independence of temperature. Brown (1957) found that most animal species showing circadian rhythms of locomotor activity in nature maintain 2 peaks of activity. T richogaster leeri shows 2 ranges of high activity during each 24-hour period. Peaks occur at or near 8 AM and 6 PM at 28 °C. The peaks are not as distinct at 33 °C, with greatest activity observed from 8-10 AM and 4-6 PM. SUMMARY From data obtained in this study it was evident that a circadian rhythm of locomotor activity existed in the laboratory population of T. leeri sampled. Using an LD 12:12 (6 AM-6 PM) photoperiod to 174 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE simulate “normal” environmental light/dark periods it was found that peaks of locomotor activity w^ere recorded during the 1 2-hour light period. T. leeri appears to be normally diurnally active with greatest activity in the morning and just before the onset of darkness. Lowest activity was recorded from 12 midnight-5 AM. It should be noted that the rhythms observed may normally occur in nature, but may have been imposed, at least in part, by laboratory conditions, methods of lighting, and photoperiod. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported by grants from The Society of The Sigma Xi and the TFH Fund of the Smithsonian Institution. LITERATURE CITED Bainbribge, R., and R. H. J. Brown, 1958 — An apparatus for the study of locomotion of fish. /. Exp, Biol 35: 134-137. Brown, F. A., 1957 — The rhythmic nature of life, p. 287-304. In Recent Advances in Invertebrate Physiology. Univ. of Ore. Pub., Eugene. Carlander, K. D., and R. E. Cleary, 1949 — The daily activity patterns of some freshwater fishes. Amer. Midi. Nat., 41 : 447-452. Chaston, L, 1968 — Influence of light on activity of brown trout (Salmo trutta). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 25(6): 1285-1289. Childers, W. F., 1956 — Daily activity periods as related to feeding of the black crappie and white crappie. M.S. Thesis, University of Illinois. Daugs, D. R., 1965 — Factors influencing spawning behavior of Betta splendens (Regan). Aquarium, 34: 9-11. Davis, R. E., 1962— Daily rhythm in the reaction of fish to light. Science, 137: 430-432. - , 1961 — Daily “predawn” peak of locomotion fish. Anim. Behav., 12: 272-283. - , and J. E. Bardach, 1965 — Time-co-ordinated prefeeding activity in fish. Anim. Behav., 13: 154-162. DeGroot, S. j., and A. Schuyf, 1967 — A new method for recording the swimming activity in flatfish. Experientia, 23: 574-579. Forselius, S., 1957 — Studies of anabantid fishes. III. A theoretical discussion of the differentiation, function, and causation and regulation of reproductive behavior. Zoo/. Bidr. Upps., 32: 379-597. Halberg, F., E. Halberg, C. Barnum, and J. Bittner, 1959 — In: Withrow R. B. (Ed.), P hotoperiodism and Related Phenomena in Plants and Animals. AAAS, No. 5, Washington D.C., pp. 803-878. Hall, D. D., 1966 — Physical and physiological factors influencing spawning in two species of anabantoid fishes (Pisces, Belontiidae) . Tex. J. Sci., 18: 352-360. LOCOMOTOR ACTIVITY IN TRICHOGASTER LEERI 175 - , and M. E. Armstrong, 1969 — An Apparatus for Quantitatively Re¬ cording Locomotor Activity in Fishes. Tex. J. Sci., 20, 3: 327-342. Harker, J. E., 1964 — The Physiology of Diurnal Rhythms. Cambridge University Press, England. Hoese, H. D., B. j. Copeland, F. N. Mosley, and E. D. Lane, 1968 — Fauna of the Aransas Pass Inlet. III. Diel and seasonal variations in trawlable organisms of the adjacent area. Tex. J. Sci., 20: 33-60. Kleerekoper, H., G. Taylor, and R. Wilson, 1961 Diurnal periodicity in the activity of Petromyzon marinus and the effects of chemical stimulation. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 90, 1: 73-78. MacLeod, J. C., 1967 — A new apparatus for measuring maximum swimming speeds of small fish. /. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 24: 1241-1252. Marshall, J. A., 1967 — Effect of artificial photoperiodicity on the time of spawning in Trichopsis vittatus and T. pumilus (Pisces, Belontiidae), Anim. Behav., 15: 510-513. Myrberg, a. a., Jr., 1958 — The use of photoelectric eye in the measurement of locomotor activity of fishes. M.S. Thesis, University of Illinois, 24 pp. Olla, B. L., 1967 — Biological rhythms in fishes and other aquatic animals. Under¬ water Naturalist, 3: 5-10. Smit, H., 1965 — Some experiments on the oxygen consumption of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) in relation to swimming speed. Canad. J. ZooL, 43 : 623-633. Spencer, W. P., 1939 — Diurnal activity rhythms in freshwater fishes. Ohio J. Sci., 39: 119-132. Spoor, W. A., 1941 — A method for measuring the activity of fishes. Ecology, 22: 329-331. - , 1946^ — A quantitative study of the relationships between the activity and oxygen consumption of the goldfish, and its application to the measurement of respiratory metabolism in fishes. Biol. Bull. Woods Hole, 91: 312-325. Thines, G., and H. Delabastita, 1965 — Technical design of an infrared actograph with printing unit. Anim. Behav., 13: 584-585. - , and F. Wolff-Van Ermengem, 1965 — Activity patterns in an epigean characidae and degenerated cave-relative. Anim. Behav., 13: 585. Wells, N. A., 1935b — Variation in the respiratory metabolism of the Pacific Killifish, Fundulus parvipinnis, due to size, season, and continued constant temperature. Physiol. ZooL, 8: 318-335. 7 t ■ i The Mammals of Baylor County, Texas by JOHN T. BACCUS, Department of Biological Sciences ^ North Texas State University^ Denton 76203 ABSTRACT Intensive ecological studies were conducted in Baylor County, Texas, from the spring of 1967 through the summer of 1968. Six ecological habitats were elucidated. Of the 45 kinds of mammals recorded, 13 are marginal or extensions of the known range. Eastern woodlands. Great Plains, and southern forms are present in the study area. The Brazos River permits migration of both eastern and western species. INTRODUCTION There is no previous study on the mammals of Baylor County, Texas, This county is located in north-central Texas near the eastern limits of the Kansan biotic province (Dice, 1943; Blair, 1950), and is within the Mesquite Plains biotic district (Blair, 1954). Aside from a general knowledge of the mammalian fauna in the district, little is known about the mammals in Baylor County, Earlier workers col¬ lected in the district (Bailey, 1905; Blair, 1954) , and one recent report has been published (Dalquest, 1968). Only 5 species of mammals have been recorded as occurring in the county and few specimens have been collected. This study was initiated to determine the species of mammals present in Baylor County and to accumulate ecological and geographical distribution information. The study extended from the spring of 1967 through the summer of 1968. MATERIALS AND METHODS I attempted to sample the county widely, and at random. Aerial, topographic, and edaphic maps were utilized to determine different ecological areas. The predetermined ecological areas were verified or modified by later field work. All ecological areas were sampled by standard collecting techniques at least 20 different times, and some over 200 times. Allocations of specimens to subspecies were based pri¬ marily on geographic data (Hall and Kelson, 1959). All specimens are on deposit in the mammal collection of Midwestern University. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTY Baylor County includes a land area of approximately 548,000 acres. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 178 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The altitude ranges from 1291 feet at Seymour, to about 1440 feet. The terrain has moderate hills and an area of deep ravines. Two rivers enter the county from the west. The Salt Fork of the Brazos River meanders to the southeast, and the Wichita River flows to the northeast. The North Fork of the Little Wichita River originates in the county and runs to the east into Archer County. The soils in Baylor County are varied and range from sand to hard red clays. Most of the soils developed under a cover of grass, producing dark colored, fertile soils with a high organic content. During periods of high rainfall in the past, areas of the county were heavily eroded. Redbed soils were left as high reminants, and alluvial soils were deposited in other areas of the county. There are at least 19 different major soil types, composing 14 soil combinations, in the county (Schwartz, 1963) . Thorn thwaite (1948) classified the climate of Baylor County as dry subhumid (Ci) and mesothermal (BC). Records from the Seymour weather recording station indicate a mean annual temperature of 63.1 1°F. During the study period the mean average temperature was 62.5 °F., and the mean average precipitation for the county was 26.05 inches. For the period 1966, 1967, and 1968, precipitation was above average. HABITATS There are 6 physiographic or ecologic types represented in Baylor County. They are the Mesquite Savanna, Cedar Bluffs, Western Crosstimbers, Streamside, Sand Terraces, and the Lake Cattail. A narrow ecotone of woodland and grassland occurs between each of these. The Mesquite Savanna is characterized by a variety of soil types, rolling relief, and some woodlands. The dominant woody vegetation is mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). Grama grass {Bouteloua)^ three- awn {Aristida), blue-stem {Andropogon) , and hairy triodia {Triodia) are the principle grasses. There are scattered forks and cacti. This en¬ vironmental area is widely distributed in the county, and is the largest in land area. The Cedar Bluffs occupy an area of sharply dissected relief with shallow, red, Permian clay soils. This habitat of thick brush is restricted to the western part of the county. Cedar {Juniperus) is the dominant woody plant. Ephedra {Ephedra) and cacti are common. Grass is sparse and appears as clumps in the deeper soil. Buffalo-grass MAMMALS OF BAYLOR COUNTY, TEXAS 179 {Buchloe)^ three^awn {Aristida)^ purpletop (Tridens), and finger- grass (Chloris) are dominant. The Western Crosstimbers have been studied in detail by Dykster- huis (1948). They cover a small area in the southeastern part of the county, and are characterized by light sandy alluvial soils, undulating relief, and a savanna of oaks and grasses. The dominant trees are post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack (Q. marilandica) . There is an understory of greenbrier {Smilax), Blue-stem, gramma grass, Indian grass {Sorghastrum) ^ and dropseed {Sporobolus) are the principal grasses. The Streamside habitat occurs as dense woods along and adjacent to the small streams in the Mesquite Savanna. Increased available moisture has produced an area of mixed trees. The trees present are hackberry {Celtis)^ American elm {Ulmus americand)^ green ash {Fraxinus)^ chittimwood {Rhamus purshiana)^ pecan {Carya)^ and Chinaberry {Sapindus) . A dense undergrowth of greenbrier and a variety of forbs are present. Grasses are tall and are the same as those present in the Mesquite Savanna. The Sand Terraces are areas of wind-blown sand along and adjacent to the Brazos River. Scattered cottonwoods {Populus deltoides) and dense stands of salt cedar {Tamarix) are present. Principal grasses are three-awn, bluestem, and sandbur {Cenchrus) . The Lake Cattail environmental habitat occupies a small area along the headwaters of Lake Diversion and Lake Kemp where dense growths of cattail {Typha) are near the water’s edge. The areas are scattered and of small size. The largest area is at the headwaters of Lake Diversion. SPECIES ACCOUNT Forty-five species of mammals have been recorded or verified as occurring in Baylor County. Ecological and distributional records for these species are given in the following account. Scientific and ver¬ nacular names follow Hall (1965), with few exceptions. Exact loca¬ tions in the county are not cited unless marginal to the known geographic range. Didelphis marsupialis virginiana Kerr — Opossum. This resident is common in all the terrestrial associations in Baylor County. Cryptotis parva parva (Say) — ^Least Shrew. Extensive trapping yielded one specimen from 17 mi. W. Seymour. Fifteen skulls were obtained from barn owl pellets. The Baylor County specimens confirm 180 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the range proposed by Davis (1966). All specimens were collected in the Mesquite Savanna association. Notiosorex crawfordi (Coues) — Desert Shrew. Previous records in north-central Texas are from Wichita and Hardeman Counties as skulls from owl pellets (Dalquest, 1968). Two perfectly mummified specimens were collected 1 1 mi. NE Seymour. This is a 40 mi. range extension to the south. Scalopus aquaticus intermedius (Elliott) — Eastern Mole. This fos- sorial species is confined to the deep sands along the Brazos River. Specimens were taken in the Western Cross Timbers and Sand Terraces habitats. My Otis velifer incautus (J. A. Allen) — Cave Myotis. Dalquest (1968) records a specimen from Vernon, Wilbarger County. Three specimens taken from the attic of an old school building 4 mi. E Seymour extend the range of this species 50 mi. to the south. Lasiurus borealis borealis (Muller) — Red Bat. Only 2 counties in north-central Texas, Wichita and Clay, have previously published records for the red bat (Bailey, 1905; Dalquest, 1968). One specimen was taken in a building at Seymour. Plecotus townsendii pallescens Miller — Townsend’s Big-eared Bat. Dalquest (1968) suggests an eastern range to Acme in Hardeman County. This species is recorded from Panther Cave in Hardeman County (Blair, 1954; Tinkle and Patterson, 1965). Specimens from 13 mi, NE Seymour represent a range extension of 60 mi. to the southeast. Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana (Saussure) — Brazilian Free-tailed Bat. Two specimens were collected in a church in Seymour. It is migrant in Baylor County. Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus Peters — Nine-banded Armadillo. The Western Cross Timbers, Streamside and Sand Terraces habitats yielded specimens. This mammal is uncommon on the tighter soils of the Mesquite Savanna and Cedar Bluffs. Dalquest (1968) did not record any north-central Texas localities for the armadillo. Davis (1966) indicates specimens from Cooke County to the east and Armstrong County to the west of Baylor County. Both are over 100 miles from the county. The Baylor County specimens help clarify this distribution gap. Sylvilagus floridanus alacer (Bangs) — Eastern Cottontail. All ter¬ restrial habitats are occupied. Lepus californicus melanotis Mearns — Black-tailed Jack Rabbit. The Mesquite Savanna association supports an abundance of this species, but it is present in other associations. MAMMALS OF BAYLOR COUNTY, TEXAS 181 Spermophilus tridecemlineatus texensis Merriam — Thirteen -lined Ground Squirrel, Davis (1966) indicates northern Baylor County within the range of this species. My records confirm this proposed distribution. Only a prairie dog town east of Seymour and the Sand Terraces habitat along the Brazos River yielded specimens. Spermophilus mexicanus parvidens M earns — Mexican Ground Squirrel. Specimens were collected in southern Baylor County in the Sand Terraces and Mesquite Savanna associations. A large population inhabits the Seymour golf course. I did not find this species and S. tridecemlineatus sympatric in Baylor County, but specimens were collected within one mile of one another west of Seymour. Cynomys ludovicianus ludovicianus (Ord) — Black- tailed Prairie Dog. Cottam and Caroline (1965) did not list any Baylor County speci¬ mens. All specimens were collected in the Mesquite Savanna associ¬ ation. Sciurus niger limitis Baird — Fox Squirrel. A specimen from 4 mi. N Bomarton extends the range 50 mi. to the southwest of Vernon, Wil¬ barger County (Bailey, 1905). This is the most westward locality for this species in north-central Texas. The distribution in Baylor County is dendritic and the species occurs in the Western Cross Timbers and Streamside associations. Geomys bursarius major Davis — Plains Pocket Gopher. Distribution is limited to the sandy soil along and adjacent to the Brazos River in the Western Cross Timbers and Sand Terraces habitats. Perognathus merriami merriami J, A. Allen — Merriam’s Pocket Mouse. This mouse is a common resident in the Mesquite Savanna and Cedar Bluffs association. Perognathus hispidus paradoxus Merriam — Hispid Pocket Mouse. All terrestrial habitats support this rodent. Dipodomys ordii richardsoni (J. A. Allen) — Ord’s Kangaroo Rat. Distribution is limited to the Sand Terraces association along the Brazos River. Dipodomys elator Merriam — Texas Kangaroo Rat. A highway- killed specimen (Dalquest and Collier, 1964) is the only previous record from Baylor County. Two specimens were collected 11 mi. NE Seymour. Castor canadensis texensis V. Bailey — Beaver. Information from Mr. Tate Pitman, local conservation officer, verified the occurrence of beaver in Baylor County. Reithrodontomys montanus griseus V. Bailey — Plains Harvest Mouse. All terrestrial habitats yielded specimens, Reithrodontomys fulvescens laceyi J. A. Allen — Fulvous Harvest 182 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Mouse. Specimens from southeastern Baylor County extend the known range 60 mi. SW Wichita Falls (Baccus, 1968). This species is sym- patric with R. montanus 5 mi. SW Bomarton. Peromyscus maniculatus c.f. pallescens J. A. Allen — Deer Mouse. Dalquest (1968) discussed the taxonomic status and distribution of this mouse in north-central Texas. It ranges throughout the county. Peromyscus leucopus tornillo Mearns — White-footed Mouse. Al¬ though mainly a dendritic species in the county, it occurs in all ter¬ restrial habitats. Peromyscus boylii rowleyi (J. A. Allen) — Brush Mouse. Specimens were collected only from the Cedar Bluffs association. This species, P. maniculatus^ and P. leucopus are sympatric 18 mi. NW Seymour. Dalquest (1968) recorded specimens from Hardeman County. The Baylor County specimens represent a 50 mi. range extension to the southeast. Baiomys taylori taylori Thomas — Northern Pygmy Mouse. A speci¬ men from 5 mi. SW Bomarton represents the known distributional extent of this species in north-central Texas (Baccus, 1968). It occurs in the Mesquite Savanna association. Onychomys leucogaster arcticeps Rhoads — Northern Grasshopper Mouse. Dalquest (1968) recorded this rodent from Wichita County. A specimen from 7 mi. NW Bomarton extends the range 50 mi. to the southwest and is the most southern record for north-central Texas. Sigmodon hispidus texianus (Audubon and Bachman) — Hispid Cotton Rat. All terrestrial associations yielded specimens. 1 Neotoma micropus micropus Baird — Southern Plains Woodrat. Specimens were collected in the Mesquite Savanna, Streamside, and Cedar Bluffs associations. | Neotom.a albigula albigula Hartley — White-throated Woodrat. Four specimens from 16 mi. NW Seymour extend the range 50 mi. to the southeast from Hardeman County (Dalquest, 1968). This woodrat is ; restricted to the Cedar Bluffs association. i Ondata zibethicus cinnamominus (Hollister) — Muskrat. Davis ' (1966) recorded the muskrat in Baylor County. It probably occurs in j the Lake Cattail habitat. I Rattus rattus Linnaeus — Black Rat. All specimens were trapped in i barns. ! Mus musculus Linnaeus — House Mouse. This rodent was abundant in and near human habitations. I found an apparent feral population ' with burrows in a sand bank along the Brazos River. i Erethizon dorsatum bruneri Swenk — Porcupine. I saw a specimen | MAMMALS OF BAYLOR COUNTY, TEXAS 183 killed near Seymour along the Brazos River. Dalquest (1968) reported a specimen from Hardeman County 60 mi. to the northwest. Canis latrans texensis V. Bailey — Coyote. The coyote is widespread in the county. Urocyon cinereoargenteus scotti Mearns — Gray Fox. The Mesquite Savanna association yielded all specimens. Procyon lotor juscipes Mearns — Raccoon. The raccoon was trapped and observed in all the terrestrial habitats. Mustela nigripes (Audubon and Bachman) — Black-footed Ferret. Bailey (1905) recorded a specimen in Baylor County, just south of Wilbarger County. Mustela vison mink Peale and Beauvois — Mink. I observed tracks in the Lake Cattail habitat at Lake Kemp. T axidea taxus berlandieri Baird — Badger. Specimens were trapped in the Mesquite Savanna association. Spilogale putorius interrupta (Rafinesque) — Spotted Skunk. Mr. Tate Pitman (personal communication) reported this species as com¬ mon 10 years ago in the Sand Terraces association. In recent years, it has become rare. Mephitis mephitis mesomelas Lichtenstein — Striped Skunk. A wide ranging species, this skunk was collected in all habitats. Lynx rufus texensis J. A. Allen — Bobcat. Woodland and rocky areas throughout the county were occupied. Odocoileus virginianus texanus (Mearns) — White-tailed Deer. Tracks were seen and skulls collected in the Western Cross Timbers and Sand Terraces associations. DISCUSSION The Brazos River, a dispersal route in north-central Texas, has influenced the distribution of mammals in Baylor County. The Brazos River channel is filled with deep sand (a braided stream). Wind has deposited sand as terraces along the banks and onto marginal areas adjacent to the river. Oaks have extended from the east into the county in the sandy soils adjacent to the Brazos River. The sandy soils have permitted certain western species, such as Ord’s kangaroo rat and the northern grasshopper mouse, To extend eastward into wooded areas; some eastern species, such as the eastern mole, plains pocket gopher, and fox squirrel to range westward into a more xeric environment; and a southern (Mexican) ground squirrel to extend eastward into a milder climate. This dispersion is evidenced by 20 of the resident mammals being typical grassland species, and 184 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 21 of the subspecies range into Mexico. Eight of the resident mammals were limited in distribution to the Brazos River channel. The Wichita River is also a dispersal route, but is not as important as the Brazos River. It does not have a variety of habitats. The white- throated woodrat, muskrat, and mink were limited to the Wichita River complex. Baylor County is in a zone of distributional interchange between species. Eleven of the resident species are sympatric or parapatric. The ranges of Spermophilus tridecemlineatus and S. mexicanus approach west of Seymour. Spermophilus tridecemlineatus is found in the deep sand north of the Brazos River and S, mexicanus on the Seymour golf course. Intensive trapping in the one mile that separates these species would determine if they are ecologically separated. Reithrodontomys montanus and /?. fulvescens were trapped within 5 feet of one another. In an old field 5 mi. SW Bomarton, both were abundant. Food was plentiful and the overall rodent density was high. The Cedar Bluffs association supported sympatric populations of Peromyscus maniculatus, P. leucopus^ and P. boylii, with parapatric populations of Neotoma micropus and N. albigula. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I am indebted to Walter W, Dalquest, Department of Biology. Mid¬ western University, for advice and criticism. I am grateful to many Baylor County citizens for permission to collect on their land. LITERATURE CITED Baccus, J. T., 1968 — Two noteworthy records of rodents from Baylor County. Southwest. Nat., 13(3): 362. Bailey, V., 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. N. Amer. Fauna, 25: 1-222. Blair, W. F., 1950 — The biotic provinces of Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 2(1): 93-117. - , 1954 — Mammals of the Mesquite Plains Biotic District in Texas and Oklahoma, and speciation in the central grasslands. Tex. J. Sci., 6: 235-264. Cottam, C. and M. Caroline, 1965 — The black-tailed prairie dog in Texas. Tex. /. Sci., 17(3): 235-302. Dalquest, W. W., 1968 — Mammals of north-central Texas. Southwest. Nat.. 13(1); 13-22. - , and G. C. Collier, 1964 — Notes on Dipodomys elator, a rare kangaroO’ rat. Southwest. Nat., 9(3): 146-150. Davis, W. F., 1966 — The mammals of Texas. Tex. Game and Fish Comm. Bull.,, 41: 1-267. MAMMALS OF BAYLOR COUNTY, TEXAS 185 Dice, L. R., 1943 — The Biotic Provinces of North America, Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Dyksterhuis, E. J., 1948 — The vegetation of the Western Cross Timbers. Ecol. Monogr.^ 18: 326-376. Hall. E. R., 1965 — Names of species of North American mammals north of Mexico. Misc. Puhl. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., 43: 1-16. - , and K. R. Kelson, 1959 — The Mammals of North America. The Ronald Press Co., New York. 2 vols. Schwartz, R. L., 1963 — General Soil Map of Baylor County, Texas. Texas Agr. Ext. Ser., Austin. Thornthwaite, C. W., 1948 — An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geogr. Rev., 38: 55-94. Tinkle, D. W,, and I. G. Patterson, 1965 — A study of hibernating populations of Myotis velifer in northwestern Texas. /. Mamm., 46(4) : 612-633. I Effects of Phytohormones on the Growth and Morphology of Escherichia colE hy B. D. VANCE and L. LITTLE^ Department of Biology North T exas State University, Denton 7 6205 ABSTRACT lAA showed no effect on growth rate of E. coli at low concentrations and was inhibitory at higher ones. Those concentrations of lAA that inhibited growth caused the formation of larger than normal cells. At relatively high concentrations, GAg stimulated growth but showed no effect at lower concentrations on growth rate or cell morphology. Kinetin did not affect the growth or morphology of E. coli. A syner¬ gistic inhibition of cell growth by GAg and lAA was demonstrated. INTRODUCTION The effect of the presence of an auxin on the growth of bacterial populations was first studied by Ball (1938), who reported that indoleacetic acid in concentrations of 0.0001 mg/ml to 0.001 mg/ml increased by more than 2-fold the final stationary phase titer of Escherichia coli suspensions. Later, Handler and Kamin (1948) could not detect a stimulation of E. coli growth using the same concentrations of the auxin. According to Beckwith and Geary (1940), indoleacetic acid at concentrations of 0.003 mg/ml to 0.2 mg/ml will stimulate the growth of E. coli cells taken from the logarithmic growth phase, while a concentration of 10.0 mg/ml is completely inhibitory. Fletcher (1964) reported that low concentrations of auxins can stimulate the growth of certain bacteria, but, as he pointed out, other workers have found that auxins have little or no effect on microorganisms or that at higher concentrations they are definitely toxic. An interesting finding by Dubos (1946) is that peptone and especially tryptophan can par¬ tially or completely reverse the bacteriostatic effect of auxins. Saono (1964) tested the effect of gibberellic acid on the growth of 38 species of bacteria and 2 species each of the algae Chlorella and Scenedesmus. Except for 2 strains of Azotobacter chroococcum and Actinomycetes coelicolor, the bacteria did not react to the acid at con- ^ This study was supported in part by NTSU Faculty Research Funds, 2 Present address; Communicable Disease Center, Virus Disease Section, Kansas City, Kansas 66103. The Texas Jom-nal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 188 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE centrations of 0.0005 mg/ml to 0.05 mg/ml. However, lower concen¬ trations of the acid stimulated multiplication of all 4 algal species. Kennell (1960) reported that E. coli cultures grown in a salts- glucose medium showed accelerated growth when kinetin was present at a concentration of 0.001 mg/ml. Maruzzella and Garner (1963) found that concentrations of kinetin from 0.002152 mg/ml to 0.00000002152 mg/ml exerted a marked stimulatory effect on the growth of Bacillus megaterium and Agrobacterium tumefaciens and to a lesser degree on £. coli^ Staphylococcus aureus^ and Erwinia carotovara. The growth of Corynebacterium michiganense was par¬ tially inhibited by kinetin at most concentrations used. Interestingly, no change in cell morphology or Gram stain reaction was observed in any of the tests. While numerous investigators have studied the effects of auxins, gibberellins and kinins on the growth of various microorganisms, there has been little attempt to determine whether treatment with more than one phytohormone could cause a synergistic response in either enhancing or inhibiting the growth of a bacterial population. Such synergism with these groups of phytohormones has been often reported on the growth of higher plants. Our study was made to learn the response of E. coli to various concentrations of indoleacetic acid, gibberellic acid and kinetin alone, and in combinations. MATERIALS AND METHODS Escherichia coli ATCC 11303 cells were grown in the dark at I 37° ±1° in 10-ml volumes of trypticase soy broth (TSB, Baltimore Biological Laboratory) contained in 13x150 mm colorimetrically- matched screw-cap Pyrex test tubes. The tubes were inoculated by transferring 1.0 ml from a 12-hr culture through three 9-ml sterile dis¬ tilled water dilution tubes and pipeting 0.1 from the 3rd dilution tube into each culture tube. Some cultures were treated by inclining in the growth medium various concentrations of indole-3-acetic acid (lAA), gibberellic acid (GAg), and/or kinetin, all of which were obtained from Nutritional Biochemical Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio. The number of cells present in a given culture was determined in 2 ways. Replicate plate counts were made on cultures which did not contain hormone after 0, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours of incubation. At the same time intervals, the tubes were read color- | imetrically on a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 Colorimeter at a ! wavelength of 650 mu. A regression line was plotted from the data. On other cultures not treated with hormone, replicate direct counts were made at these same time intervals using a Petroff-Hausser Count- j GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY OF ESCHERICHIA COLI 189 ing Chamber. Colorimetric readings were made as before, and a regres¬ sion line was plotted from, the data. Other untreated cultures were both plated out and read directly to compare the 2 methods of counting. It was found that the number of cells as determined by direct counts equalled approximately 1.6 X 10^ times the number of cells as de¬ termined by plate counts. In all subsequent experiments the number of bacteria present was determined colorimetrically on the basis of the turbidity- versus-direct counts regression line, which had a standard error of ±1.3953 X 10^® cells/ml at a confidence level of P = 0.05. In experiments employing lAA and/or GA3, the desired quantity of phytohormone was added directly to the culture broth. These tubes were then heated and shaken to facilitate dissolution of the hormones before the culture tubes were autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 minutes. Kinetin, insoluble in water, was dissolved in 10% NaOH before being added to the broth. Ten per cent HCl was then added to the tubes to bring the medium back to its original pH of 7.3. All experiments involving phytohormones were performed in tripli¬ cate, and all concentrations were tested at least twice. Controls con¬ sisted of culture tubes containing 10 ml TSB but no hormone. Also, in experiments employing kinetin, additional controls consisted of tubes containing TSB plus the same quantities of 10% NaOH and 10% HCl as were added to the kinetin-containing culture tubes. These tubes received no hormone. The concentrations of the phytohormones tested singly and in combination are listed in Table 1, The method employed in dissolving kinetin did not make it possible to prepare concentrations of this compound as high as were used of lAA and GA3. Measurements of phytohormone effects were made by inoculating culture tubes as previously described from inoculum cultures which were checked for E. coU growth by Gram staining and streaking on eosin methylene blue agar plates. The culture tubes were read color¬ imetrically upon inoculation and after 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 48, and 72 hours of incubation. Before each reading, each tube was shaken on a Super-Mixer (Lab-Line Instruments, Inc.) for 20 sec to bring about a homogeneous dispersion of cells. Tubes were held in a 37° water bath while out of the incubator for reading. Gram stains were made on all cultures after 8, 24, 48, and 72 hrs of incubation; these stains were examined by phase -contrast microscopy under oil immersion at 1000 X magnification using a Nikon Microflex Model EFM micro¬ scope so that the morphology of hormone-treated cells could be com¬ pared with that of cells from control cultures. Photographs of repre¬ sentative cells were taken on Kodak 35 mm TRTX Pan film with a Nikon M-35 dark box and Type B camera adapter and are on file in our laboratory. 190 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Concentrations of phytohormones added to Trypticase Soy Broth Cultures of Escherichia coli Phytohormones Employed Singly* GA^ Kinetin 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 Phytohormones in Combination* 1.0 GA3 + 0.1 lAA 0.1 GA3 + 0.1 Kinetin 1.0 GA3 + 1.0 lAA 1.0 GA3 + 0.01 Kinetin 5.0 GA3 + 1.0 lAA 1.0 GA3 + 0.001 Kinetin 0.1 GA3 + 0.01 lAA 0.01 lAA + 0.1 Kinetin 0.1 lAA + 0.1 Kinetin + 0.1 GA^ * All concentrations are given in milligrams phytohormone per milliliter trypticase soy broth (mg/ml) RESULTS Growth responses greater than plus one or less than minus one | standard deviation from the control mean were considered to be attributable to the phytohormone (s) present. The results of experi¬ ments in which stimulation (growth response of more than plus one standard deviation from the control mean) or inhibition (growth re- | sponse of less than minus one standard deviation from the control ! mean) occurred are presented in Figures 1-5. In each case, the vertical | lines represent ± 1 standard deviation from the mean for each growth • curve at 24, 48, and 72 hrs of incubation. I The numbers of cells reported are influenced by the size of cells | occurring in control cultures. In cultures having larger cells, the num- | hers reported are probably erroneously high, although accurate in I terms of total cell density per culture. i lAA effects. It can be seen in Figure 1 that growth was inhibited > in cultures containing 1.0 mg/ml I A A. Less growth occurred in cul- ! tures treated with 0.1 mg/ml lAA than in the control cultures, but . this difference was not appreciable at 48 or 72 hours. I GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY OF ESCHERICHIA COLI 191 CO -J yj o o d HOURS Fig. 1. Growth curves for cultures of I. co/i treated with lAA. Vertical lines represent 1 standard deviation from the mean. HOURS Fig. 2. Growth curves for cultures of E. co/i with GAg. Vertical lines represent ± 1 standard deviation from the mean. 192 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE j GA^ effects. Figure 2 shows that more growth occurred in cultures ! containing either 0.1 mg/ml GAg or 1.0 mg/ml GAg than in TSB cul¬ tures. Only the latter GAg concentration elicited a level of growth greater than one standard deviation above the control mean. | Comparative effects of GAs and lAA. In Figure 3 it can be seen that I 0.01 mg/ml lAA had no appreciable effect on E. coli growth, but that both 5.0 mg/ml GAg and 5.0 mg/ml lAA caused inhibition. The latter lAA concentration proved to be so inhibitory as to prevent the rapid growth characteristic of bacterial cultures during the early hours of incubation. Kinetin effects. The concentrations of kinetin used had no discern- able effect on growth when tested alone. Figure 4 shows that com¬ binations of 1.0 mg/ml GAg + 0.01 mg/ml kinetin and 1.0 mg/ml GAg + 0.001 mg/ml kinetin gave growth responses greater than one standard deviation above the control (TSB) mean response. Cultures treated with 1.0 mg/ml Gag + 1.0 mg/ml lAA gave an inhibitory re¬ sponse. Fig. 3. Growth curves of B. coli showing that a lower concentration of lAA has negligible effect on growth, but that higher concentrations of GAg and especially lAA are inhibitory. Vertical lines represent ± 1 standard deviation from the mean. GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY OF ESCHERICHIA COLI 193 Fig. 4. Growth curves for cultures of E. col! containing a stimulatory concentration of GAg and ineffective concentrations of kinetin (1 and 2) or lAA (3), and for cultures con- taining a stimulatory concentration of GAg and an inhibitory concentration of GAg and an inhibitory concentration of lAA (6). Values given in the figure are In mg/ml except for 5, the fatter representing ml 10% acid or base. Vertical lines represent ±1 standard deviation from the mean. Synergistic effects. The effect of subjecting E. coli cultures to 2 inhibitory concentrations of phytohormones, alone and together is shown in Figure 5. The level of inhibition demonstrated in cultures which received both hormones seems to indicate that the effects of the two were synergistic. Morphological effects. The only cells that were morphologically dis¬ tinguishable from control cells were those treated with 1 ,0 mg/ml lAA, 5.0 mg/ml lAA, or 1.0 mg/ml lAA +1.0 mg/ml GAg. All cultures which received these concentrations of phytohormones contained many cells that were larger than those found in any other cultures. The greatest over-all increase in cell size was seen in cultures treated with 1.0 mg/ml lAA. Many of these cells were approximately one and one-half to two and one-half times longer and larger in diameter than control cells, and tended to be more nearly coccoid in shape. 194 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 5. Growth curves of £. co/i grown in inhibitory concentrations of GA^ and lAA tested separately and together. The dashed line represents the growth curve that would be expected if the inhibition were only additive. Vertical lines represent ± 1 standard deviation from the mean. Cultures containing 5.0 mg/ml lAA produced cells that were gen- ; erally larger in diameter than control cells (though not as large as | cells treated with 1.0 mg/ml lAA), and longer by one and one-half I to several times the length of control cells. Those cells treated with . 1.0 mg/ml lAA + 1.0 mg/ml GAg were generally about the same size j as control cells, to slightly larger, and tended to be more nearly coc- | coid. No important differences in Gram stain reaction were noted. 1 DISCUSSION Our study agrees with many previous works that emphasize a high ' degree of variability which may be found in the responses of different | species of bacteria to phytohormones. The phytohormone concentra- ; tions we used may appear unusually high in comparison with those | which have been reported to affect plant growth, but they were chosen ; on the basis of results of experiments performed preparatory to this • investigation in which E. coli cultures were grown in the presence of j graded concentrations of the hormones for 24 hrs and were then plated ^ out on trypticase soy agar plates so that colony counts could be made. | GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY OF ESCHERICHIA COLI 195 The particular concentrations of the 3 phytohormones chosen to be tested in combination with one another were selected on the basis of their effects on the growth of E. coli when used singly. Until recently, there had been no reported explanation of the mechanism of lAA-induced inhibition in bacterial cells. Fukuyama and Moyed (1964) reported that riboflavin-catalyzed photooxidation products are the inhibitory agents, rather than the acid itself. One of these products was tentatively characterized as 3-hydroxymethyl- oxindole, and the other was identified as 3-methyleneoxindole. The former compound was thought to be non-enzymatically converted to the latter, which was in turn converted to 3-methyloxindole, a non¬ toxic substance. Fukuyama and Moyed (1964) presented a possible mechanism of inhibition. The effect of 3-methyleneoxindole was attributed to its high reactivity with sulfhydryl-containing enzymes. Since inhibition of any one of the large number of essential sulfhydryl enzymes could result in inhibition of growth, these w^orkers considered it unlikely that 3- meth3deneoxindole has a single major site of action. Instead, it is prob¬ able that the functions of at least several critical systems are sus¬ pended. Thus, these authors concluded, the enzymatic reduction of 3-methyleneoxindole to 3-methyloxindole may account only in part for the transient nature of the bacteriostasis. Dubos (1946) pointed out that peptone could partially or completely reverse the bacterio¬ static effect of auxins. The peptone content of the trypticase soy broth employed as the growth medium in these experiments may have pla^-ed a part in reversing lAA-induced inhibition, but to what extent and by what mechanism is not known. Conn and Stumpf (1966) commented that hormones have not been recognized to function as either enzymes or coenzymes, but that they probably function in controlling either the synthesis or activation of enzymes. While it has not been reported, it might be feasible that GAg, or one of its catabolic products, could function by inducing the produc¬ tion of an enzyme which could catalyze this product’s conversion to another substance. If this latter substance were a substrate common to some metabolic pathway of the cell, then the cell might conceivably be able to carry on a higher rate of metabolism using this increased suppU of substrate. The fact that GAg is stimulatory in one concentra¬ tion and inhibitory in another might suggest that the inducing sub¬ stance could cause the formation of a product which is an inhibitor of the over-all reaction. Thus, if too much substance were present, the inhibitor produced might slow the reaction by competing with the substrate for some essential enzyme’s active site. 196 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Since none of the concentrations of kinetin used had any detectable effect, it cannot be concluded that this phytohormone altered the biosynthesis of E. coli cells. It is of note that the only cultures which produced cells morpho¬ logically distinguishable from untreated cells were those containing either 1.0 mg/ml or 5.0 mg/ml lAA. In these cultures, cells appeared which were both longer and larger in diameter than control cells. It is generally assumed that the action of auxins, including lAA, increases the plasticity of plant cell walls. It seems reasonable that the same phenomenon could occur in bacterial cells, thus accounting for the enlarged appearance of cells grown in the presence of lAA. Whether the gibberellin effect is due to a stimulation of cell division or of cell enlargement has been extensively debated; various workers have presented data which seem to support one conclusion or the Other. In the case of bacterial cells, our investigation would tend to support the argument for increased cell division, at least at some GA3 concentrations, but not for increased cell enlargement since the only cultures treated with GA3 which produced cells larger than control cells were also treated with lAA. Since Miller, et ah (1956) separated kinetin from yeast DNA and found it to be an active stimulant of cell division, numerous reports have appeared on its ability to increase cell division in plants. Kinetin also causes marked alterations in the protein and nucleic acid com¬ ponents of plant tissue (Mothes, 1960; Mothes et al., 1959), a circum¬ stance which could be a basic part of its effect on cell division (Gutt- man, 1956). Partheir and Wollgiehn (1961) have reported that pro¬ tein content, RNA, and DNA in Nicotiana plants are all increased markedly by kinetin treatment. An argument for similar activity in E. coli is not supported by the present work, as kinetin was not seen to have any effect on either growth rate or cell size. LITERATURE CITED Ball, E., 1938 — Heteroauxin and the growth of Escherichia coli. Jour. Bad., 36: 559-565. Beckwith, T. O., and E. M. Geary, 1940 — Effect of indole-3-acetic acid on multipli¬ cation of Esch. coli and E. typhosa. Jour. Infectious Dis., 116: 78-79. Conn, E. E., and P. K. Stumpf, 1966 — Outlines of Biochemistry, 2nd ed., New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Dubos, R. J., 1946 — Inhibition of bacterial growth by auxins. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol, 63: 317-319. Fletcher, W. W., 1964 — The effect of herbicides on soil microorganisms. The Physiology and Biochemistry of Herbicides, L. J. Audus (Ed.), London, Aca¬ demic Press, pp. 20-62. GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY OF ESCHERICHIA COLI 197 Fukuyama, T. T., and H. S. Moyed, 1964 — Inhibition of cell growth by photo¬ oxidation products of indole-3-acetic acid. Jour. BioL Chem., 239: 2392-2397. Guttman, R,, 1956 — Effects of kinetin on cell division with special reference to initiation and duration of mitosis. Chromosonm, 8: 341-350. Handler, P., and H. Kamin, 1948 — Indole acetic acid and growth of bacteria with varying requirements for nicotinic acid and tryptophan, Proc. Soc. Exptl. BioL, 66: 251-254. Kennell, D. E., I960 — The effects of indoleacetic acid and kinetin on the growth of some microorganisms. Exptl. Cell Res., 21: 19-33. Maruzella, J. C., and J. G. Garner, 1963 — Effect of kinetin on bacteria. Nature, 200: 385. Miller, C. 0., F. Skoog, F. S. Okumura, M. H. von Saltza, and F. M. Strong, 1956 — Isolation, structure, and synthesis of kinetin, a substance promoting cell division. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 68: 1375-1380, Mothes, K., 1960 — Uber das altern der blatter und die moglichkeit ihrer wiederver- jungung. Naturwissemchaften, 47: 337-350. Mothes, K., L. Englebrecht, and O. Kulajewa, 1959 — Uber die wirkung des kinetins arif stickstoffverteilung und eiweisssynthese in isolierte blattern. Flora (Jena), 147: 445-464. Partheir, B,, and R. Wollgiehn, 1961 — Uber dein einfluss des kinetins auf den eiweiss-und nukleinsaure stoffwecksel in isolierten tabakblattern, Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges., 74: 47-51. Saono, S,, 1964 — Effect of gibberellic acid on the growth and multiplication of some soil microorganisms and unicellular green algae. Nature, 204: 1328-1329. Still, C. C., T. T. Fukuyama, and H. S. Moyed, 1964 — Inhibitory oxidation products of indole-3-acetic acid. Jour. BioL Chem., 240: 2612-2618. The Eflfects of Posterior Hypothalamic Stimulation on Plasma Corticosterone and Eosinophil Levels in X-Irradiated Rats^ by JAMES R. LOTT, JOE BURKS, and ROBERT L. AGNEW Department of Biological Sciences North Texas State University, Denton 76203 ABSTRACT Rats were stimulated via implanted electrodes (3V/25 impulses/second) at 3 sec¬ ond intervals for 5 minutes. Unfiltered whole-body X-irradiation (940R) was de¬ livered at 188 R/minute (100 KVP, 5 ma) for 5 minutes (FSD = 50 cm). Blood samples were taken before, and at 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours post- stimulation or/and X-irradiation. Plasma corticosterone was determined fluorometrically and the eo¬ sinophil counts were made using Pilot’s method. Whole-body X-irradiation brought about significant increases in plasma corticosterone at the 3rd and 6th hour post¬ radiation. A return to control levels occurred at the 12th hour post-radiation. A similar response was observed in those rats whose posterior hypothalamus was elec¬ trically stimulated. Concomitant with the increase in corticoid was a noticeable and sustained eosinopenia in both experimental conditions. X-irradiation of animals during the 6th hour poststimulation failed to alter either the corticosterone or the eosinopenic response. Moreover, simultaneous application of the electrical stimula¬ tion and X-irradiation failed to produce any significant additive response in re to plasma corticosterone, however, a slight enhancement of the eosinophil response was observed. INTRODUCTION In this study we attempted to demonstrate a relationship between the posterior region of the hypothalamus and the reported action of ionizing radiation on 'the adrenal-pituitary response in rats, Lott and Gaugl (1962), Hameed and Haley (1964), and Flemming, et aL (1967) have reported biphasic increases in plasma corticosterone following mid-lethal whole-body X-irradiation. Moreover. Porter (1953), Mason (1958), and Slusher (1960) have reported increases in corticosterone levels in rats and monkeys following electrical stimu¬ lation of the posterior hypothalamus. Lott (1967) and Beaumarriage This work was supported by A.E.C. Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3270. The Texas Journal of Science, VoL XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 200 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (1955) have shown that the eosinophil count was also altered with similar dosages of X-irradiation, The eosinophil count has long been used as an assay for ACTH in animals; i.e. ACTH is thought to bring about a reduction in circulating eosinophils. The question arose as to what effect stimulation of the posterior hypothalamus prior to and during X-irradiation would have on the adrenal-pituitary response in j rats. Answering this question was the specific aim of the present study. I METHODS AND MATERIALS | Briefly, monopolar electrodes were stereotaxically implanted into i the posterior hypothalamus of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (200- I 250 gms ) . Following implantation, the rats were allowed to recuperate, | for at least 2 weeks, in the room where the experiments were carried | out. Environmental factors such as light, noise, temperature, handling, j and feeding were kept as constant as possible. Electrical stimulation | consisted of applying 3 volts with a pulse frequency of 25/second at i 5 second intervals for a period of 5 minutes. Unfiltered whole-body j X-irradiation was delivered to the animal at a rate of 188 R/minute i (Target distance 50 cm) from a G.E. baryllium window X-ray unit, ; at 1 00 KVP, 5 ma, for a period of 5 minutes. The total dose, therefore, was 940 R, which falls into the effective range for the adrenal response reported by other workers. The dosimetry was determined by means ; of glass dosimeters manufactured by Bausch and Lomb Co. Blood samples (1 ml) were taken from either jugular vein cannulas or from : guillotined animals before and at various intervals (3, 6, 12, 24, and on ' occasion, 36 and 48 hrs.) following either stimulation and/or X-irradi- I ation. Eosinophil counts were made using Pilot’s method (1950) . This • technique results in the visual obliteration of all leucocytes in the chamber except eosinophils. Plasma corticosterone levels were deter- i mined fluorometically following the method of Givner and Rochefort (1965). The positions of the electrodes were verified microscopically . by histological sectioning and staining of the brain tissues following I each experiment. The control animals were carried through the same j electrode implantation and manipulative procedures as the test ani- I mals in each experiment. ' i RESULTS i Figures lA and IB show the effects of 940 R whole-body X-irradi- i ation on the corticosterone level and eosinophil count respectively in , adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. Each circle represents the mean | EFFECTS OF POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMIC STIMULATION 201 TIME IN HOURS FIG:- X. EFFECTS OF 940R X-IRRADI ATION ON PLASMA CORTICOSTERONE AND EOSINOPHIL COUNT IN RATS - value for 1 0 rats. The curves clearly indicate an immediate and rela¬ tively sustained increase in plasma corticosterone concomitant with a significant, immediate, and sustained eosinopenia. Figures 2 A and 2B show the effects of posterior hypothalamus stimu¬ lation on plasma corticosterone levels and eosinophil count respectively in sham-irradiated rats. Each circle represents the mean for 10 ani- 202 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE I HOURS POST-STIMULATION FIG. 2. EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS ON CORTICOSTERONE AND EOSINOPHIL LEVELS IN RATS • mals. In this series, the first blood samples were taken 6 hours after electrical stimulation. The data indicate a distinct rise in plasma corticosterone at the 6th hour post-stimulation, however, a return to control levels occurred at the 24th hour post-stimulation. During the same time a significant and sustained drop in eosinophil count was observed. EFFECTS OF POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMIC STIMULATION 203 It is clear from the curves in Figures 3A and 3B that X-irradiation during the 6th hour post^stimulation failed to bring about an additive corticoid response, however, a more severe (zero count) and sustained eosinopenia was noted beginning at the 6th hour post-radiation (12 hours post-stimulation). The latter finding does indicate an additive eosinopenic response when X-irradiation is applied following electrical stimulation of the posterior h3rpothalamus. The corticosterone response noted in figure 4A when the animals received X-irradiation and electrical stimulation simultaneously was not as sustained as in those animals receiving X-irradiation alone (Fig. lA). An initial but temporary rise in corticoid levels occurred and was followed by a relatively sharp decline at the 1 2th hour post¬ test period. There was an indication of a biphasic corticoid response as evidenced by a secondary rise at the 48th hour. Surprisingly, the observed eosinopenia in Figure 4B was not as severe when the two test conditions were applied together as when they were applied asynchro¬ nously (Fig. 3B). Instead, a diminution of the eosinophil response or even a slight recovery in the eosinophil count was observed to have occurred at the 24th hour post-testing. DISCUSSION The values for plasma corticosterone in the control animals fall well in the range reported by other workers. Moreover, the observed effects on the corticoid level in these animals receiving 1800 R were also in agreement with Flemming, et al. (1967), Vernikos-Daniellis and Trigg (1967), and Hameed and Haley (1964). The enhanced response to posterior hypothalamic stimulation was also in agreement with the findings of Mason (1958) and Slusher (1960). In regard to the eosinophil counts reported in this study for the control animals, the values were in the lower-range reported by Lott (1967) except during the pre-test period. We are unable, at this time, to account for these low counts. It must be remembered, however, that the control animals were also implanted i.e. electrodes were placed in their brains as well as in the test animals. This may have added to the stress of manipulation of the animal during the course of each experi¬ ment. Moreover, the pre-test blood sample was taken from a venous cannula, whereas, the other samples were guillotine blood. Two ani¬ mals always comprised a daily experiment; the control rat and the test animal. The eosinopenia observed in both the X-irradiated and hypothalamic-stimulated animals were in agreement with previous work in this laboratory (Lott 1967) and in disagreement with the data 204 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TIME IN HOURS ! FiG. 3. EFFECTS OF STIMULATION FOLLOWED BY 940R X~I RRADI ATION j ON PLASMA CORTICOSTERONE AND EOSINOPHIL COUNT IN RATS (X- I irradiation applied 6 hrs. post-stimulation). j of Beaumarriage (1955) who reported an initial rise in eosinophils ! following 800 R whole-body X-irradiation, I Only the initial (24-48 hr.) corticoid-pituitary response to X-irradi- | ation and hypothalamic stimulation was studied here. In general, the | results obtained were expected when each test condition was applied I EFFECTS OF POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMIC STIMULATION 205 FIG. 4. EFFECTS OF STIMULATION AND 940R X-IRRADI ATION APPLIED SIMULTANEOUSLY ON PLASMA CORTICOSTERONE AND EOSINOPHIL COUNT IN RATS • separately; i.e. a rise in corticosterone concomitant with eosinopenia. The results were surprising, however, in those experiments in which the animals received X-irradiation at the 6th hour post-stimulation. It was expected that during this time a more profound rise in corticoid would occur. No evidence of an additive corticoid response was noted in any of these animals. This was not the case in regard to the eosino- 206 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE phil response. A significant enhancement of the eosinopenia was observed. Even more surprising were the data from those animals receiving electrical stimulation and X-irradiation simultaneously. Neither a sustained nor any other form of additive response was observed in either the corticosterone levels or the eosinophil counts. According to Archer (1963) the eosinophil response appears to be directly dependent on the presence or action of adrenocorticoids, including corticosterone, and/or ATCH. The data here does not fully support this view. Although there was concomitant drop in eosinophils during the enhanced corticosterone period, the observed eosinopenia in most cases was sustained even at those time periods during which the corticoid levels had returned to relatively low levels. If there was a direct relationship between the corticoid levels and circulating eosino¬ phils, one would have expected a recovery of the eosinophil count. This did not occur. Concerning the dose of X-irradiation to bring about the results observed, it evidently took considerable less than the 940 R that was applied whole-body. The 940 R X-irradiation was unfiltered, there¬ fore, the hardness of the beam was less than that observed using 1 mm Aluminum filtration. Allowing an HVL (half value layer) of .7 mm (Al) unfiltered, the percentage depth dose at 2 cm deep to the skin of the rat would be about 30% with no hone correction for the calvarium. With bone correction (20%) the dose rate to the hypothalamus would be approximately 72 R/min. or 350 R total. In attempting to explain the results reported here concerning the measurement of changes of various components of the peripheral blood one must keep in mind that such an experimental approach is fraught with difficulty. An increase in a given component may either be the results of its increased production or release from some bound form or a decrease in its metabolism or binding. Moreover, another mechanism involved may be one described by McCann and Porter (1969) in their recent review on the relationship between the hypo¬ thalamus and the anterior pituitary gland. In short, the application of an external stimulus (electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus or X-irradiation of the whole animal) may trigger the output of various types of corticoid releasing factors from the hypothalamus that may bring about the production and release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. The ACTH, in turn, would then account for either the increased corticoids and the eosinopenia or both. Moreover, an inter¬ esting question arises as to whether there are specific radiation-sensi¬ tive sites in the hypothalamus that “trigger” the release of certain factors that may activate mechanisms involved in the immediate I: I EFFECTS OF POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMIC STIMULATION 207 responses of an animal to ionizing radiation. The general and direc¬ tional similarities in the corticoid and eosinophil response observed following application of two separate experimental conditions do indi¬ cate a relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary- adrenal axis during stress periods such as X-irradiation. The data presented here did not resolve the question as to whether the effects observed were due to the radiation change produced specifi¬ cally in the hypothalamus per se or due to generalized effects brought about by whole-body radiation of the animals. LITERATURE CITED Archer. R. K., 1963 — The Eosinophil Leucocyte, F. A. Davis Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Beaumarriage, M. L., 1955 — Eosinophils et rayons X, Arch. Int. Physiol. 63: 132- 134. Flemming, K., W. Hemsing, and B. Geierhaas, 1967 — II Biphasischer Ansteig der Corticosteroids in nebennitren und hint von Ratten nach gangkorper-Rontgen- bestrahlung. Zeit. Naturf. B., 22b: 85-90. Givner, M. L. and J. G. Rochefort, 1965 — An improved assay of corticosterone in rat serum and adrenal tissue. Steroids, 6: 485-489. Hameed. a. J. M. and T. H. S. Haley, 1964 — Plasma and adrenal gland cortico¬ sterone levels after X-ray exposure in rats. Radiat. Res., 13: 620-629. Lott. J. R., 1967 — Some effects of X-irradiation on circulating eosinophils in rat, Tex. Rep. Biol. Med., 25: 625-631. - and J. Gauge, 1962 — Effects of sub-lethal dosages of X-irradiation on the plasma level of corticosterone in the rat. Radiat. Res., 16: 110. Mason. J. W., 1958 — Plasma 17 -hydroxycorticosteroid response to hypothalamic stimulation in the conscious Rhesus monkey. Endrocrinology, 63: 403-411. McCann. S. M. and J. C. Porter, 1969^ — Hypothalamic pituitary stimulating and inhibiting hormones. Physiol. Rev., 49: 240-284. - and P. Haberland, 1960 — Further studies on the regulation of pituitary ACTH in rats with hypothalamic lesions. Endocrinology, 66: 217-221. Pilot. M. F., 1950 — The use of base in fluids for counting eosinophils. Amer. J. Clin. Path., 20: 870-871. Porter, R. W., 1953 — Hypothalamic involvement in the pituitary-adrenocorticoid response to stress stimuli. Amer. J . Physiol., 172: 515-522. Slusher. M. a., 1960^ — Effect of brainstem lesions on stress induced corticosteroid release in female rats. Endocrinology, 67: 374-352. Vernikos-Danellis, j. and L. N. Trigg, 1967 — Feedback mechanisms regulating pituitary ACTH secretion in rats bearing transplantable pituitary tumors. En¬ docrinology, 80: 345-351. Pleistocene Snakes from a Cave in Kendall County, Texas by WILLIAM H. HILL 4213 Autumn Lane, Cahaba Heights, Birmingham, Alabama 35243 ABSTRACT Sixteen genera and at least 21 species of fossil snakes were identified from a Pleistocene (Late Wisconsin) cave deposit in Kendall County, Texas, All of the snake genera and species identified represent living taxa, and many of these occur on the Edwards Plateau of Texas today. But a few typically eastern Texas forms are present in the fossil fauna. INTRODUCTION Fossil snakes from northern Texas have received considerable atten¬ tion, but relatively little is known of fossil serpents from the southern part of the state. The exploration of a cave on the Edwards Plateau has resulted in the collection of a large number of vertebrate fossils, including 6,208 disarticulated snake bones that represent at least 21 species. This paper deals with these snake remains which form the largest ophidian fauna known from the Texas Pleistocene, and one of the largest known from North America. Dr. Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr. of the Department of Geology of the University of Texas (in litt.) generously supplied the following infor¬ mation about the deposit. The locality, designated “Cave Without a Name”, is located 11 miles north of Boerne in Kendall County, Texas. The fossils were recovered from a one- to 2-foot thickness of red clay which was restricted to the base of an old shaft. There is a C^'^ date (UT lab; sample number Tx 205) of 1 0,980 ± years B.P. based on the organic fraction of a bone sample. Holman (1969b) reports a sala¬ mander, 2 anurans, a turtle, and 9 lizards; and Lundelius (1967) lists 30 mammals from the site. Previous records of Pleistocene snakes in Texas have been summarized by Holman (1969a). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Deepest thanks go to Dr. J. Alan Holman for his valuable advice, helpful criticism and constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. I also wish to thank the members of my advisory committee at Illinois State University for the The Texas Journal of Science, VoL XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 210 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE critical reading of the Master of Science Thesis of which this report is a part. Dr. i Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr. kindly loaned the fossil material for study. I wish to express ! my thanks to the following people for donations of skeletal material utilized in this i study: Dr. Walter Auffenberg and Dr. Howard Campbell, University of Florida, Gainesville; Dr. Richard Etheridge, San Diego State College, San Diego; Mr. Gene Hartz, Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago; Dr, J. Alan Holman, Michigan State University, East Lansing; Dr. John Legler, University of Utah, Salt Lake City; Dr. George Rabb, Chicago Zoological Park, Brookfield; Dr. Robert Simmons, Balti- ; more, Maryland; and Dr. Donald Tinkle, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. METHODS AND MATERIALS The fossil material consists entirely of disarticulated vertebrae, ribs, and skull elements. Of more than 6,000 disarticulated snake bones, 742 vertebrae were assigned to genus and 703 were identified as to species. Several cranial elements were also identified. Most of the Recent specimens used were prepared by maceration, but occasionally dissection of sections of vertebral columns from preserved specimens was necessary. All Recent specimens used were disarticulated. Skele¬ tons studied include: Regina grahami (1), Matrix erythrogaster (3), N. rhombifera (5), N. fasciata (5), Storeria dekayi (5), Thamnophis cyrtopsis (1), T. marcianus (3), T. radix (5), T. proximus (5), T, sirtalis (5), Tropidoclonion lineatum (1), Haldea striatula (4), H. Valerias (2) , Heterodon platy rhinos (5), H. nasicus (1 ) , //. simus (3) , Rhadinaea flavilata (3), Diadophis punctatus (5), Coluber constrictor ( 10) , Masticophis flagellum (7) , M. taeniatus (2) , Opheodrys aestivus (4) , O. vernalis (4), Drymobius margaritiferus (2), Drymarchon i corais (3), Salvadora hexalepis (1), Elaphe guttata (9), E. vulpina (5) , E. obsoleta (9), Arizona elegans (2), Pituophis melanoleucus (11) , Lampropeltis calligaster (8), L. getulus (8), L. triangulum (3), Rhinocheilus lecontei (3), Sonora episcopa (1), Ficimia olivacea (1), Hypsiglena torquata (1), Tantilla gracilis (3), T. nigriceps (3), Micrurus fulvius (4), Agkistrodon ccntortrix (4), A, piscivorus (6), Sistrurus catenatus (3), S. miliarius (2), Crotalus horridus (5), C. molossus ( 1 ) , C. atrox (6) , and C, viridis (1 ) . There are 2 major regions in the snake vertebral column: the caudal region where the vertebrae bear paired lateral projections, the lympha- pophyses, and the precaudal region where the vertebrae lack lympha- pophyses. The precaudal region can be further divided into anterior, middle, and posterior sections. The anterior precaudal vertebrae of all snakes have single, long, ventral projections called hypapophyses. The hypapophyses become reduced to keels in the middle precaudal verte¬ brae of all North American snakes of the subfamily Colubrinae, but remain well-developed throughout the precaudal series in the sub- PLEISTOCENE SNAKES IN KENDALL COUNTY, TEXAS 211 family Natricinae and in the families Crotalidae and Elapidae (Auf- fenberg, 1963). Middle precaudal vertebrae may be recognized by the size of their neural canals and the shape and height of their neural spines. Middle precaudal vertebrae are less variable in their structure than anterior or posterior precaudal vertebrae (Auffenberg, op. cit.)y thus I have chosen to concentrate on the identification of middle pre- caudals in the present study. Anatomical terminology follows Auffenberg (1963) and the syste¬ matic arrangement of the check list and annotated list follows Schmidt (1953). Numbers assigned to fossil specimens refer to the University of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology (UTBEG), Vernier calipers or an ocular micrometer in a dissecting microscope were used to make measurements. CHECK LIST OF FOSSIL SNAKES FROM “cave without a name”, KENDALL COUNTY, TEXAS Natrix erythrogaster (Forster) or N. fasciata (Linnaeus) Thamnophis proximus (Say) Thamnophis sirtalis (Linnaeus) Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard Diadophis punctatus (Linnaeus) Coluber constrictor Linnaeus Masticophis sp. Opheodrys sp. Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus) Arizona elegans Kennicott Pituophis melanoleucus (Daudin) Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan) Lampropeltis getulus (Linnaeus) Lampropeltis triangulum (Linnaeus) Rhinocheilus lecontei Baird and Girard Tantilla sp. Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus) Agkistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus) Agkistrodon piscivorus (Lacepede) Crotalus sp. ANNOTATED LIST Natrix erythrogaster (Forster) or N. fasciata (Linnaeus). — Ma¬ terial: 3 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1626. Middle precaudal vertebrae of Natrix may be separated from those of other North American natricine genera on the basis of characteristics of their neural spines (Holman, 1962) . The fossils represent either V. erythro¬ gaster or N . fasciata in that their neural spines are about as high as long. I am unable to separate these 2 species on the basis of vertebrae. Natrix fasciata is an eastern Texas species and is absent from the area today. Thamnophis proximus (Say). — -Material: 1 precaudal vertebra, UTBEG 40450-1627. Holman (1962) has discussed characters that separate many of the species within this genus. Precaudal vertebrae of Thamnophis proximus may usually be separated from precaudal 212 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE vertebrae of T, sirtalis in that those of the former species have acces¬ sory processes that tend to be directed obliquely to the long axis of the ; centra, whereas in the latter species they tend to be at right angles to ' the centra (Holman, 1964). : T hamnophis sirtalis (Linnaeus) . — Material: 2 precaudal vertebrae, ; UTBEG 40450-1628. This species is found in eastern Texas today and is probably uncommon or absent in the vicinity of the fossil locality at ; present. : T hamnophis sp. indet. — Material: 36 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1629. I am unable to assign these fossils to species. They may represent one or several species as T hamnophis proximus, T. march anus, and T. sirtalis are found in or near Kendall County today (Conant, 1958). Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille. — Material: 5 middle precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1630. This genus is distinguished from other North American colubrid genera in that the middle precaudal vertebrae are wider than long, have very broad, flat hemal keels that entirely cover the ventral surfaces of the centra and have depressed neural arches. The fossils have their prezygapophyseal faces more rounded than those of H. nasicus, but flatter than those of //. sirnus j (Holman, 1963). Two of the fossils have centra that are 5.0 mm. and j 6.1 mm. long and represent a relatively large specimen or specimens. ! Another has a centrum 2.1 mm. long and represents a very small 1 specimen. i Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard. — Material: 3 middle precaudal i vertebrae, UTBEG 40-50-1631. | Diadophis punctatus Linnaeus. — Material: 1 middle precaudal | vertebra, UTBEG 40450-1633. The middle precaudal vertebrae of | Diadophis punctatus are similar to those of Tantilla and Rhadinaea, \ but they may be separated from Tantilla in that they have shorter j centra and higher neural spines, and from Rhadinaea in that they have neural spines that do not project as far behind the posterior end of the | centra ( Holman, 1959). | Coluber constrictor Linnaeus. — Material: 45 precaudal vertebrae, | UTBEG 40450-1634. Precaudal vertebrae of the genera Coluber and | Masticophis may be separated from those of the other North American colubrids by a combination of the following characters: centra elon¬ gate; neural spines long and thin; epizygapophysial spines well-devel¬ oped; neural arches vaulted; and hemal keels well-developed. Verte¬ brae of M. flagellum and M. taeniatus may usually be separated from precaudal vertebrae of C. constrictor in that in lateral view the sub- j central ridges and hemal keels are almost straight in Masticophis, but PLEISTOCENE SNAKES IN KENDALL COUNTY, TEXAS 213 are curved in Coluber. Furthermore, vertebrae of Coluber tend to have more pronounced epizygapophysial spines. Masticophis sp. indet. — Material: 97 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1635. Precaudal vertebrae of Masticophis flagellum may be separated from those of M. taeniatus on the basis of size (Brattstrom, 1954). but I can separate the 2 species neither on size nor on subjective characters. The fossils may represent one or both species as both are found in Kendall County today (Conant, 1958) . Coluber sp. or Masticophis sp. — Material: 176 precadual vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1636. These vertebrae are not assigned to either genus. Opheodrys sp. indet. — Material: 2 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1637, The precaudal vertebrae of Opheodrys are similar to those of Coluber y Masticophis, and Tantilla, but may be separated from the former 2 genera in that they are smaller, lack well-developed epizygapophysial spines, and have lower, thinner neural spines. Verte¬ brae of Opheodrys differ from those of Tantilla in that the neural spines are higher throughout the entire column. Holman (1962) points out that O. aestivus has longer, narrower thoracic vertebrae with slightly higher neural spines than O. ventralis, but I cannot separate these 2 species other than by size. As separation on size alone is un¬ reliable. the fossils may represent one or both species as O. aestivus occurs in Kendall County today. O. vernalis occurs only in isolated colonies in eastern Texas at present (Conant, 1958). Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus). — Material: 1 left pterygoid, UTBEG 40450-1638. This pterygoid has 12 alveoli and has a tooth row that measures 8.1 mm. Pterygoids of Elaphe differ from those of Lampro- peltis ill that they have fewer teeth, and in that the excavations on the dorsal surfaces of their anterior ends and those posterior to the lateral protuberances are shallower. Pterygoids of Elaphe have longer tooth rows and shallower excavations on their ventral surfaces than Arizona and Pituophis. Elaphe guttata has fewer teeth and shallower excava¬ tions posterior to the lateral protuberance than E. obsoleta. Elaphe sp. indet. — Material: 56 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1639. The precaudal vertebrae of Elaphe have less pronounced hemal keels and subcentral ridges, and the neural arches are less vaulted than in Lampropeltis . Elaphe has neural spines that are less indented anteriorly than in Pituophis and neural arches that are more vaulted than in Arizona. I am unable to separate the precaudal verte¬ brae of E. obsoleta and E. guttata. Both species are found in Kendall County today (Conant, 1958). Arizona elegans Kennicott. — Material: 127 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1640. The precaudal vertebrae of Arizona closely 214 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE resemble those of Lampropeltis triangulum, but the anterior zyga- pophysial processes are more delicate and sharply pointed, directed more anteriad, and the condyles are more depressed (Holman, 1963). I find that the prezygapophysial articular faces are usually subtri- angular in Arizona, but are orbicular to oval in L. triangulum. More¬ over, the zygosphenes are flat on top when viewed from the front in Arizona, but are convex in L, triangulum. Pituophis melanoluecus (Daudin). — Material: 66 precaudal verte¬ brae, UTBEG 40450-1641. These vertebrae resemble very closely the subspecies Pituophis melanoleucus sayi. Lampropeltis calligaster Harlan. — Material: 16 precaudal verte- | brae, UTBEG 40450-1642. The precaudal vertebrae of Lampropeltis j calligaster may be separated from those of L. getulus by their less pronounced hemal keels and weaker subcentral ridges. Also, the | excavations between the subcentral ridges and hemal keels are usually j shallower. In Kendall County, this species is near the eastern limit of i its range (Conant, 1958). ; Lampropeltis getulus {lAimdieixs) . — Material: 107 precaudal verte- I brae, UTBEG 40450-1 643. I Lampropeltis triangulum (Linnaeus). — Material: 261 precaudal ! vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1644. ■ Lampropeltis sp. indet. — Material: 29 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG ■ 40450-1645. I am unable to assign these fossils to species. They may | represent one or more of the above species. I Rhinocheilus lecontei Baird and Girard. — Material; 8 middle pre- | caudal vertebrate, UTBEG 40450-1646. The middle precaudal verte- | brae of Rhinocheilus may be distinguished from those of other North ! American snake genera on the basis of the following combination of | characters: zygosphenes flat in anterior view; prezygapophysial faces ! obovate to oval; neural spines thick, flat dorsally, overhanging centra | posteriorly, with indented anterior and posterior edges; centra short; ! epizygapophysial spines absent, or if present much reduced; neural arches depressed; cotyla usually round, occasionally slightly com- | pressed; postzygapophysial faces obovate to orbicular; hemal keels 1 and subcentral ridges moderately to strongly developed; accessory | processes swollen, very flat. I am unable to distinguish the fossil verte- i brate from those of Recent specimens of R. lecontei which, in Kendall j County, is near the easternmost limit of its distribution (Conant^ 1958). ; Tantilla sp. indet. — Material; 55 middle precaudal vertebrae, UT- i BEG 40450-1647. The precaudal vertebrae of Tantilla have lower , neural spines and longer centra than those of Opheodrys and Diado- | PLEISTOCENE SNAKES IN KENDALL COUNTY, TEXAS 215 phis^ but I am unable to define the species of Tantilla on vertebral characters alone. Two species, T. nigriceps and T. gracilis, occur in Kendall County today (Conant, 1958), Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus). — Material: 2 middle precaudal verte¬ brae, UTBEG 40450-1648. Middle precaudal vertebrae of Micrurus are similar to those of small snakes of the subfamily Natricinae, but differ from them in that they have depressed neural arches, no epi- zygapophysial spines, and low, short hypapophyses. The fossil verte¬ brae are indistinguishable from those of modern M. fulvius, Agkistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus). — Material; 2 left pterygoids, UTBEG 40450-1649. Pterygoids of Agkistrodon contortrix have more teeth than those of Crotalus and Sistrurus (Brattstrom, 1964, Figs, 29- 30) , and are more curved than those of A. piscivorus. Agkistrodon piscivorus (Lacepede). — Material: 1 left dentary, UT¬ BEG 40450-1650; 1 left and 2 right pterygoids, UTBEG 40450-1651. Dentaries of Agkistrodon have more teeth than those of Crotalus and Sistrurus (Brattstrom, 1964, Figs. 31-32). Dentaries of A. piscivorus may be distinguished from those of A. contortrix in that in the former the dorsal process extends farther posteriad than the ventral process. Agkistrodon sp. indet. — Material: 90 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1652. Precaudal vertebrae of Agkistrodon may usually be separated from those of Crotalus in that the pits on either side of the cotyla are deeper and contain fewer and larger fossae (Holman, 1963) , and from Sistrurus in that they lack the small dorsal process at the base of the zygosphene. I am unable to separate A. contortrix from A. piscivorus on the basis of vertebrae, thus the fossils may represent one or both species. Crotalus sp. indet. — Material: 255 precaudal vertebrae, UTBEG 40450-1653. I am unable to distinguish the species of Crotalus on the basis of vertebral characters. Crotalus horridus, C. molossus, and C. atrox occur in or near Kendall County today (Conant, 1958) ; thus the vertebrae may represent one or all of these species. DISCUSSION The fossil snakes from the “Cave Without a Name” fauna include, as far as can be determined, no extinct forms. This ophidian assem¬ blage includes species that would have lived in the xerophytic uplands of the area, as well as those that would have lived in the more meso- phytic valleys near springs or streams. Many of the fossils represent species that occur on the Edwards Plateau today, but a few forms are typical of eastern Texas and are uncommon or absent in the area at 216 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE present. These include Thamnophis sirtalis, Lampropeltis calligaster, and Agkistrodon piscivorus. Moreover, there is the possibility that Natrix fasciata and Opheodrys vernalis were present in the fauna, and the ranges of both of these forms lie to the east of the fossil locality at present. The other herpetological remains from the cave include a salamander, 2 anurans, a turtle, and 9 lizards (Holman, 1969b) . Most of these occur on the Edwards Plateau today, but one eastern form {T errapene Carolina) and two southern forms {Sceloporus variabilis and Eumeces tetragrammus) are present. Mammalian fossils from the 1 cave represent 30 species, several of which are now found either | to the north and east or northwest in generally wetter and cooler cli- ; mates (Lundelius, 1967). | LITERATURE CITED I Auffenberg, W., 1963 — The fossil snakes of Florida. Tulane Stud. ZooL, 10(3): | 133-216. I Auffenberg, W., and W. W. Milstead, 1965 — Reptiles in the Quatemarj- of North | America. In H. E. Wright, Jr. and B. G. Frey, eds. The Quaternary of the | United States. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, pp. 557-568. j Brattstrom, B. H., 1954 — Amphibians and reptiles from Gypsum Cave. Nevada. I Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci., 53(1): 8-12. j - , 1964 — Evolution of the pit vipers. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., j 13(11): 185-268. I CoNANT, R., 1958 — A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians. Houghton Mifflin , Co., Boston. j Holman, J. A., 1959 — Amphibians and reptiles from the Pleistocene (Illinoian) of j Williston, Florida. Copeia, (2): 96-102. | - , 1962 — A Texas Pleistocene herpetofauna. Copeia, (2): 255-261, j - , 1963 — Late Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles of the Clear Creek and | Ben Franklin local faunas of Texas. Jour. Grad. Res. Center, So. Meth. Univ., [ 31(3): 152-167. I' - , 196t — Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles from Texas. Herpetologica, j 20(2): 73-83. I - , 1969a — The Pleistocene amphibians and reptiles of Texas. Publ. Mus. Mich. State Univ. Biol. Ser., A>{6): 163-192. I - , 1969b — A Pleistocene Herpetofauna from Kendall County, Texas. j Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci., 31(3): 165-172. j Lundelius, E. L., 1967 — Late Pleistocene and Holocene faunal history of central Texas. In P. S. Martin and H. E. Wright, Jr. {eds.) Pleistocene Extinction, the ! Search for a Cause. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, pp. 287-319. ! Schmidt, K. P., 1953 — A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. . Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. j upland Gravels in Dallas County, Texas, and Their Bearing on the Former Extent of the High Plains Physiographic Province by FRED J. MENZER, JR./ and R. H. SLAUGHTER Department of Geological Sciences Southern Methodist JJ niversity ^ Dallas 75222 ABSTRACT InterfluTial gravel fields in the Dallas, Texas, area contain kyanite-bearing meta- quartzite, silica-cemented orthoquartzite and chert pebbles and cobbles. The meta¬ quartzite probably came from either the Manzano Mountains of central New Mexico or the Sangre de Cristo Range near the Colorado border. We speculate that these gravels represent the lag of a more extensive High Plains blanket. If true, much of the north-central Texas topography is post Pliocene in age. INTRODUCTION Dallas County is situated in the Trinity River Basin in north-central Texas, about 275 miles (435 kilometers) east of the Fligh Plains escarpment (Fig. 1), High interfluves in north-central Texas com- monh" are strewn with gravels, the gravel fields near the Trinity River having been designated the “Buckner Home Terrace (T-5)” by Crook and Harris (1957) for a locality in southeast Dallas County. This terminology, perpetuated by Slaughter, et al. (1962), implies that the terraces are related to the Trinity River or to a proto-Trinity and that the gravels originated from within the river basin. However, this study shows these gravels w^ere derived from the southern Rocky Mountains more than 500 miles from the Trinity Basin. GRAVEL PETROGRAPHY Well-rounded pebble- and cobble-size clasts were collected from 2 upland sites, Northlake and Buckner Home, near the northwest and southeast comers of Dallas County respectively. The upland material comprises about 10% chert and 90% ortho- and metaquartzite; the latter approximately in equal amount. Half of the chert is brecciated ^ Present address: Department of Geology, Western State College of Colorado, Gunnison 81230. The Texas Jornnal of Science, VoL XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 218 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig, 1. Southern and Central Great Plains and Rocky Mountains showing Dallas, Texas, area. Districts where kyanite has been recorded are numbered. Kyanite locations were compiled from Heinrich and Sever (1957), Northrop (1959), Osterwald and Osterwald (1952), Redden (1963), Varley (1968), and Williamson (1960). Inferred minimum extent of High Plains Province In la)e Pliocene time is stippled. and most is light to dark grey. The sedimentary quartzite generally contains over 99% quartz (including trace to 5% lithic chert), and traces of zircon and tourmaline. Several samples contain trace to 2% potash feldspar; plagioclase feldspar is rare. These rocks are cemented with chalcedony and their porosity approaches zero. Over Y^rd of the metaquartzite clasts contain microscopic kyanite; pyrophyllite, garnet, and fibrolite also are present. Modal quartz averages around 98% ; these rocks are schistose. PROVENANCE OF THE GRAVELS Conglomerates of Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous age crop out in UPLAND GRAVELS IN DALLAS COUNTY, TEXAS 219 the Trinity drainage basin. In order to determine if one or both of these units could have served as a source for the upland gravels, representative samples were studied petrographically. Gravel-size clasts in the Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous conglomerates tend to be smaller than the upland lag gravels. The Pennsylvanian conglomerate contains some grey chert and one pebble of silica-cemented ortho- quartzite was collected from the Cretaceous unit. Thus, the over-all finer-grained size, the apparent scarcity of orthoquartzite and the absence of metaquartzite prompted a search for provenance outside the Trinity Basin. Numbered localities on Figure 1 show districts where kyanite has been recorded in the southern and central Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. In most of these districts the kyanite is reported from mica schists and/or quartz veins, rarely in quartzites. Kyanite has not been reported from the Llano Uplift, Texas, nor from the Arbuckle or Wichita Mountains of Oklahoma — relatively close areas with exposed basement rock. Based upon comparative mineralogy (e.g., kyanite, pyrophyllite, garnet and fibrolite), and texture, if the Dallas area metaquartzite gravels came from one of the reported localities, locality 12, the Manzano Mountains, presently seems the most probable. How¬ ever, locality 6-8, the Red River-Latir Peak-Costilla Peak area also is a possible source. GEOMORPHIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN DERIVED INTERFLUVIAL GRAVELS IN NORTH-CENTRAL TEXAS The transport of these gravels to their present sites has to predate the inauguration of modern drainage in post Pliocene time (Thorn- bury, 1965). The gravels could be residual from Ogallala-equivalent deposits or could be slightly younger, perhaps related to the Citronelle of the Gulf Coast. In either case, a pre-Brazos, pre-Pecos ramp ex¬ tending from the Rocky Mountains is required. Such a ramp, the “Gangplank” (Thornbury, 1965), remains to the north where late Tertiary deposits extend from the Laramie Mountains to east-central Nebraska. The former existence of a gangplank-type ramp connecting Pliocene Ogallala deposits of the southern Plains with the New Mexico Rockies previously has been discussed by Plummer (1932), Frye and Leonard (1959), and Van Houten (1961). These workers point out that Pliocene streams on the Ogallala ramp tended to flow due east, the upland gravels in north-central Texas providing additional confirmation. Because outcrops of the Ogallala formation are bounded by erosional escarpments, the unit originally was much more extensixe (Thorn- 220 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 2. Inferred eastern escarpment of the Southern High Plains in Kansan time marked by eastern edge of stippled Seymour Formation. bury, 1965); however, in spite of subsequent erosion, the Ogallala Formation probably has the greatest geographic extent of any pre- Pleistocene, non-marine formation in the United States (Frye and Leonard, 1959). If the upland gravels in north-central Texas orig¬ inally were part of the Ogallala blanket rather than shoestring-type deposits of Ogallala or younger streams flowing through valleys cut in older rocks beyond the limit of the blanket deposit, then the original extent of the Ogallala Formation and hence, of the southern High Plains, was over 3 times greater than at present. The widespread occurrence of upland gravels in north-central Texas favors this in¬ terpretation; however, in order to substantiate this view, it will be necessary to verify Rocky Mountain provenance for more of the upland deposits in this area. We have not prospected interfluvial areas east of Dallas County, thus do not know how much farther the sug¬ gested eastwardly-flowdng late Pliocene streams continued before turn¬ ing south toward the Gulf of Mexico. Conceivably, these streams flowed into the Mississippi embayment. If the Ogallala blanket extended east as far as north-central Texas the topography in this area (and probably the topography of much of UPLAND GRAVELS IN DALLAS COUNTY, TEXAS 221 Fig. 3. Present extent of the Southern High Plains marked by hachures. Seymour Forma¬ tion remnants are stippled. Texas) can be no older than latest Pliocene, This indicates that at this latitude the boundary of the High Plains retreated over 275 miles (435 kilometers) during the Quaternary. Late Pleistocene playa fills exposed in the High Plains escarpment in the Texas Panhandle testify to the relatively rapid retreat of the High Plains Province in that area. SUMMARY The interpretations presented here are summarized in Figures 1, 2, and 3, which show an inferred evolution of modern topography. Figure 2 is based on the notion that the Seymour Formation of west central Texas marks the approximate east boundary of the High Plains in Kansan time, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank M. J. Holdaway, R. L. Laury, C. B. Maguire, and E. L. Willimon for assistance. Our work was supported by Southern Meth¬ odist University. 222 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LITERATURE CITED 'Crook, W. W., and R. K. Harris, 1957 — Hearths and artifacts of early man near Lewisville, Texas. Tex. Archaeol. Soc. Bull., 27: 1-99. Frye, J. C., and A. B. Leonard, 1959 — Correlation of the Ogallala Formation (Neogene) in Western Texas with type localities in Nebraska. Bur. Econ. GeoL, Univ. Tex., Rept. of Investigations, 39: 1-46, Heinrich, E. W., and J. E. Bever, 1957 — Selected studies of Colorado pegmatites and sillimanite deposits: Quart. Colo. School of Mines, 52: 1-56. Northrop, S. A., 1959 — Minerals of New Mexico, Rev. Ed., Univ. of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. OsTERW'ALD, F. W., and D. B. Osterwald, 1952 — Wyoming mineral resources: Geol. Surv. Wyo., Bull. 45. Plummer, F. B., 1932 — Cenozoic systems in Texas: in E. H. Sellards, The geology of Texas, Univ. Tex. Bull. 3232, v. 1, Redden, J. A., 1963 — Geology and pegmatites of the Fourmile Quadrangle, Black Hills, South Dakota. U. S. Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper 927-D: 199-291, Slaughter, B. H., W. W, Crook, R. K. Harris, M. Seifert, and D. Allen, 1962-^ — Hill-Shuler local faunas of the upper Trinity River: Bur. Econ. Geol., Univ. Tex. Rept. of Investigations, 48: 1-75. Thornbury, W. D., 1965 — Regional Geomorphology of the United States: Wiley, New York. Van Houten, F. B., 1961 — Maps of the Cenozoic depositional provinces, western United States. Amer. J. Sci., 259: 612-621, Varley, E. R., 1968 — Sillimanite: Andalusite, Kyanite, Sillimanite: Chemical Pub¬ lishing Co., New York. Williamson, D. R., 1960 — The Sillimanite group: Colo. School Mines, Mineral Ind. Bull., 3: 1-12. I Ages of the Alkalic Igneous Rocks of the Balcones Fault Trend of Texas by O. D. BALDWIN and J. A. S. ADAMS Department of Geology Rice University^ Houston 77001 ABSTRACT On the basis of whole rock apparent crystallization ages, igneous activity in the Balcones Fault trend of Texas has a minimum range of from 63 to 86 million years ago. The last differentiates of the igneous sequence of the province are some 10 million years younger than the crystallization products of the assumed parent magma. INTRODUCTION This Study was undertaken to place the alkalic igneous rocks of the Balcones Fault trend of Texas into a temporal framework in order to evaluate their petrologic, spatial, and structural variation with respect to time. Twenty samples of the rocks of the province (Figure 1) were collected and dated by the K^°/Ar^® method. One sample from the Magnet Cove igneous complex, Arkansas, one sample from an intru¬ sion into the Ouachita belt of Texas, and 2 samples from the northern Gulf Coastal Plain, all outside the main Balcones trend, were dated for comparative purposes (Appendix 2) . A summary of previous work on the rocks of the Balcones Fault trend is contained in Spencer (1969). ROCK TYPES The petrology and petrogenesis of these intrusions have recently been studied in detail by Spencer (1969). Five major rock types are present in the Balcones Fault trend: olivine nephelinite, melilite- olivine nephelinite, nepheline basanite, alkalic olivine basalt, and analcite phonolite. The olivine nephelinites contain olivine, nepheline, and titanaugite as essential constituents. Opaques and other accessories are commonly present. The melilite-olivine nephelinites contain melilite in addition to the essential constituents to olivine nephelinite. The nepheline basanites contain plagioclase in addition to the essential constituents of olivine nephelinite. The alkalic olivine basalts contain The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 224 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE olivine, plagioclase, and titanaugite. Nepheline, analcite, aegerine- augite, and alkali feldspar are the essential constituents of the analcite phono lites. The volumetric distribution of the major rock types according to Spencer (1969) is very approximately 50% melilite-olivine nepheli- nite, 30% olivine nephelinite, 10% analcite phonolite, less than 10% alkalic olivine basalt, and less than 5% nepheline basanite. PETROGENESIS Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of the inferred courses of differ¬ entiation of these rocks. Those lines of descent which are dashed have | not been reached. On the basis of several considerations Spencer ! (1969) concluded that the alkalic olivine basalts crystallized from a j primary magma. Petrographically observed gradations between | olivine nephelinite and olivine basanite, and between olivine nepheli- j nite and melilite-olivine nephelinite suggest 2 differentiation relation- | ships relative to the olivine nephelinite. The chemical compositions of | coexisting mineral phases are consistent with the relationships based I upon texture and mineralogy. Olivine nephelinite is thus considered ( to be the most probable primary material and olivine basanite and | melilite-olivine nephelinite are considered its differentiation products, i The intermediate magma (Fig. 2) was almost certainly the material from which the analcite phonolite magma differentiated, and the j relative ease of deriving a magma of this intermediate type from a I basanitic melt points to that material as the intermediate magma ! precursor. Not only the general relationships of these lines of descent, but also the crystallization order of minerals determined from thin section are in agreement with the experimental work of Schairer and Yoder (1964). In summary, then, these rocks most probably result from the ; crystallization of a primary basaltic magma and the differentiation | and crystallization of a primary nephelinitic magma. AGES OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS The apparent crystallization ages from whole rock K^°/Ar^® analyses | of these rocks are presented in Table 1. Experimental procedures for these analyses are detailed in Appendix L Data in column D are the , result of duplicate determinations. In 2 cases, TCO-21a and UCO-15a, ( each potassium analysis was performed on a separate crushing of the ; same bulk sample. In the cases of MCO-22 and UCO-6 duplicate argon analysis (columns E and F) were performed on the same sample powder. Column E contains per cent Ar^®^ for each argon analysis. BALCONES FAULT TREND OF TEXAS 225 Figure L Index map ©f Infrusions along the Baicones Fault Trend. Olivine Basalt I { Olivine _ _ I Nephelinite Nepheline ' Basonite I _ ^Melilite - olivine j Nephelinite Intermediate Rock I Analcite Phonolite I Melilite Nephelinite I I Column F is the concentration of in the sample expressed as (moles/gram K) X 10®. The ± figures following the apparent age in column G are based upon estimates of the errors involved in the potassium analyses, argon analyses, and the constants in Appendix I. Dating whole rock samples would seem to be justified by the recent work on basaltic rocks of Burke, et al. (1969) who concluded that 226 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Whole Rock analyses A B C D 1 E F G 1 KCC-1 B 1.18, 1.19 73 0.486 255 + 10 2 KCO-2 B 0.612, 0.623 47 0.0133 73 ± 3 3 KCO~-3 B 0.674, 0.734 52 0.0145 80 + 4 4 UCO-4 0 0.627, 0.659 42 0.0156 86 + 5 5 UCO-5 0 0.383, 0.396 43 0.0141 77 ± 5 6 UCO--6 B 0.778, 0.797 40 0.0143 79 ± 5 6 uco-e^ B 0.778, . 0.797 23 0.0141 78 ± 3 7 UCO--7'^ 0 0.691, 0.695 43 0.0133 73 ± 3 8 UCC-8 M 0.961, 0.990 62 0.0134 74 ± 3 9 UCC-9 0 0.548, 0.570 52 0.0141 78 ± 3 10 UCC-10 B 1.41, 1.49 61 0.0129 71 ± 3 11 UCO-11 P 3.19, 3.28 74 0.0114 63 ± 2 12 UCO-12 M 0.481, 0.498 57 0.0149 82 ± 4 13 UCO-13 P 3.87, 3.88 66 0.0113 63 ± 2 14 UCO-14 0 0.443, 0.466 42 0.0140 77 + 3 15 UCO--15 M 0.892, 0.901 68 0.0135 74 ± 3 15 UCO-15 M 0.934 66 0.0136 75 ± 3 16 UCO-16^ M 0.620, 0.652 68 0.0150 82 + 4 17 UCO-17 0 0.916, 0.942 77 0.0137 76 ± 3 18 UCO-18 0 0.763, 0.790 68 0.0154 84 ± 4 19 FCC-19 B 0.430, 0.454 41 0.0136 75 ± 4 20 GCC~20 0 0.428, 0.439 39 0.0147 81 ± 3 21 TCO-21 L 0.551, 0.562 50 0.0148 81 ± 4 21 TCO-21 L 0.567 51 0.0143 78 ± 3 22 MCO-22^ T 2.89, 2.92 78 0.0182 100 ± 4 22 MCO-22^ T 2.89, 2.92 70 0.0186 101 ± 4 23 HAC-23'^ B 1.05, 1.10 74 0.0370 197 ± 8 24 MLC-24 D 0.855, 0.889 59 0.0367 196 ± 8 A - Locality designation in Figure 1 B “ Sample designation in text and Appendix II C - Rock type: T - trachyte P - phonolite L - limburgite B ~ basaltic rock O - olivine nephelinite D - diorite M - melilite-olivine nephelinite D - per cent potassium E - per cent radiogenic argon ^ F - radiogenic argon concentration in (moles/gram K) x 10 G - apparent age in millions of years (m.y.) fresh whole basaltic rocks yield ages consistent with those obtained from mineral separates (p, 1085). Their results on a melilite-olivine nephelinite from the Balcones Fault trend are particularly pertinent in that the whole rock age was closely similar to that from the nepheline separate and the pyroxene separate. The average age of BALCONES FAULT TREND OF TEXAS 227 about 71 m.y. (p. 1085) obtained for their mililite^olivine nephelinite is quite similar to the 74 ± 3 m.y. age of the youngest melilite-olivine nephelinite dated in the course of this study. A Rb^ySr^^ age of 99 ± 8 m.y. of biotite from a garnet ijolite from Magnet Cove, Arkan¬ sas (Zartman, et aL, 1967, p. 857), also reinforces the suitability of the whole rock method when compared with the age of 100 ± 4 m.y. obtained for MCO-22. Altered material was used in 4 cases, UCC-10, FCC-19, GCC-20, and KCC-1 (see Appendix II), for a first approximation of the ages of the subsurface rocks of the province. The first 3 yielded ages not incon¬ sistent with the remainder of the dated rocks of the province. KCC-1 represents an earlier epoch of igneous activity. The cores of the plagio- clase in UCO-6 were slightly sericitized. The 9 olivine nephelinites dated (including TCO-21 in this group) have apparent ages ranging from 73 to 86 m.y. Four melilite-olivine nephelinites range from 74 to 82 m.y., and 4 of the dated basalts have ages from 73 to 80 m.y. One of the altered basalts, FCC-19 falls within the range of the fresh material, and the other altered basalt, UCC— 10, falls just outside the range at an age of 71 m.y. The 2 phonolitic rocks dated, UCO-11 and UCO-13, have apparent ages of 63 m.y. The total picture is that of intrusion of olivine nephelinites, melilite-olivine nephelinites, and basalts during a range of from 73 to 86 m.y. ago with the emplacement of the olivine nephelinites spanning the entire period of emplacement of these rock types. Emplacement of the 2 phonolitic types 10 m.y. after the last dated olivine nephelinite is consistent with the proposed primary magma type and differentiation product rela¬ tionships proposed by Spencer (1969) . STRATIGRAPHIC AGE DATUM The Pilot Knob igneous occurrence near Austin, Texas, is an excel¬ lent marker in the isotopic geological time scale. White (1960) found the beds of the upper Dessau and Burditt formations of the Austin group north of Pilot Knob to be coarse, fossiliferous calcarenite which he interpreted as a carbonate beach and compared to Pacific atolls. Strong (1957) concluded that the embedded tuffs of the upper Dessau horizon and the intense local fracturing of upper Dessau beds nearest Pilot Knob date the volcanic episode as late Dessau. Romberg and Barnes (1954) found Pilot Knob and its associated pyroclastics to represent one volcanic episode. The average of the ages of TCO-21 and TCO-21 a, 79.5 ± 3 m.y., should then be the absolute age of the portions of the upper Dessau chalk which contains interbedded pyro- 228 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE elastics. Burke, et al. (1969) report an age of 67.5 ±1.5 m.y. for a limburgite sample taken approximately one mile south of the main knob. Assuming an age of 75 ± 3 m.y. for the Austin chalk, they esti¬ mate their age to be about 10% low and cite the presence of devitrified glass in the sample as evidence that it has undergone a partial loss of argon. Sample TCO-21 has a crystalline ground mass and should have retained its argon to a greater degree. All but about the lower 20 feet of the Dessau chalk is lower Campanian (Young, 1963). The end of the Santonian epoch and the beginning of the lower Campanian epoch should thus have occurred approximately 80 m.y. ago. BALCONES FAULTING | The total range found thus far for Balcones associated igneous | activity is 63 to 86 m.y. If one assumes that the ascent of the magma | was in some way dependent upon the faulting, then 86 m.y. (lower | Upper Cretaceous, Kulp, 1961 ) would be a minimum age for inception j of the faulting. j COMPARATIVE SAMPLES j [ Sample KCC-1 is from a post-metamorphic intrusion into the rocks ! of the interior of the Ouachita belt (Flawn, et aL, 1961 ) . The apparent j K^VAU® age of this intrusion is 255 m.y., or Middle Permian. Un- j fortunately, the available sample is altered. The plagioclase is exten- i sively sericitized, and the biotite is partially chloritized. Since it is | difficult to imagine alteration loss of potassium without some concomi- | tant loss of argon, 255 m.y. is considered a minimum age. The intru- j sion represented by KCC-l is at least 175 m.y. older than the rocks ; of the Balcones Fault trend. | Erickson and Blade (1963) consider the phonolites and trachytes to i be the oldest rocks of the Magnet Cove igneous complex near Hot ; Springs, Arkansas. The Magnet Cove complex is intrusive into folded i Paleozoic rocks of the Ouchita geosyncline. This intrusive relationship together with the fact that the average composition of the complex is that of a melanocratic phonolite indicates a possible affinity with the i rocks of the Balcones province. An age for one trachyte from Magnet j Cove, MCO-22, of 100 ± 4 m.y. and the closely similar RUySr®^ of a garnet ij elite cited earlier point to the conclusion that igneous activity ‘ began approximately 15 m.y. earlier in the Magnet Cove region than in the Balcones Fault trend, assuming that the dated rocks from the , Balcones Fault trend are representative. i BALCONES FAULT TREND OF TEXAS 229 Sample HAC~23 is a quartz diabase from the subsurface of the northern Gulf Coastal Plain. Eagle Mills is the enclosing formation. Stratigraphic evidence indicates early Mesozoic for the time of intru¬ sion of the northern Gulf Coast diabases (Kidwell, 1949) , This is con¬ firmed by the K^®/Ar^® age of the 197 ± 8 m.y. which falls at the upper Triassic-Middle Triassic boundary. This would make these diabases, if HAC-23 is representative, essentially contemporaneous with the Triassic diabase of the eastern United States. Sample MLC-24 is thought to be overlain by Eagle Mills, however no samples of the im¬ mediately overlying sedimentary formation are available, and the nature of the igneous-sedimentary contact is not known (Kidwell, personal communication, 1969). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Dr. A. B. Spencer for his cooperation, Kenneth A. Simmons for donation of the indicated samples, the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology for donation of the indicated sample, and Dr. A. L. Kidwell for donation of the indicated samples. Thanks are also due the Robert Welch Foundation which supported portions of this work with Welch Grant C-009 to J. A. S. Adams and J. J. W, Rogers and the National Science Foundation which supported O. D. Baldwin with an NSF Fellowship during the period in which this work was done. LITERATURE CITED Burke, W, H., J. B., Otto, and R. E. Denison, 1969 — Potassium-Argon dating of basaltic rocks. J. Geophy. Res., 74: 1082-1086. Erickson, R, L., and L. V. Blade, 1963 — Geochemistry and petrology of the alkalic igneous complex at Magnet Cove, Arkansas. U.S.G.S. Prof. Pap. 425. Flav/n, P. T., a. Goldstein, Jr., P. T. King, and C. E. Weaver, 1961 — The Ouachita system. Univ. Tex. Pub, 6120. Kidwell, A. L., 1949' — Mesozoic igneous activity in the Northern Gulf Coastal Plain. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Chicago. Kulp, j. L., 1961 — Geologic time scale. Science, 133: 1105-1114. Romberg, G,, and V. E. Barnes, 1954— A geological and geophysical study of Pilot Knob (south), Travis County, Texas. Geophysics, 19: 438-454. ScHAiRER, J. F,, and H, S, Yoder, Jr., 1964— Crystal and liquid trends in simplified alkali basalts. Carnegie Inst, Wash. Yearbook, 65-74. Spencer, A. B., 1969 — Alkalic igneous rocks of Uvalde County, Texas. J. Petrology ^ in press. Spencer, A. B., 1969 — -Alkalic igneous rocks of the Balcones province, Texas, /, Petrology, 10(2): 272-306. Strong, W. M., 1957 — -Structural geology of Pilot Knob area, Travis Co., Texas. M.A. thesis, Univ. of Texas. 230 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE White, R. H., 1960 — Petrology and depositional patterns in the Upper Austin Group, Pilot Knob area, Travis Co., Texas. M.A. thesis, Univ. of Texas. Young, K., 1963 — Upper Cretaceous ammonites from the Gulf Coast of the United States. Univ. Tex. Pub. 6304. Zartman, R. E., M. R. Brock, A. V. Heyl, and H. H. Thomas, 1967 — K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of some alkalic intrusive rocks from central and eastern United States. Amer. J. Sci., 265: 848-870. APPENDIX I EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Hand samples were reduced to a powder with Sturtevant crushing rolls. Thin sections were made with which to evaluate rock type and freshness. The resultant powder was seived with the fraction between 48 and 74 mesh being retained for j dating. This fraction was cleaned ultrasonically in acetone to remove dust and ] adhering fines. j Potassium was determined by dissolving one gram portions of the dating fraction j and subjecting appropriate dilutions of these solutions to flame atomic absorption spectrophotometric analysis on a Perkin-Elmer 214 flame atomic absorption spec¬ trophotometer. Ar'^o -vvas determined by isotope dilution mass spectrometry in a mass spectrometer of the general Nier type. Relevant constants for calculation of radiometric ages from the resulting data are: j = 4.72 X 10-10 I Xj. = 0.585 X 10-10 yr-i^ Atoms of Kio =r 0.000119, Atoms of K [ Atmospheric argon ratios: Ar36/Ar38 = 5.35, Arse/Ario 0.00338, Ar38/Ario = 0.00064. ! I APPENDIX II SAMPLE LOCALITIES I KCC-1: Altered basalt (microgabbro of Flawn et ah, 1961) from below 4500 feet in Magnolia Petroleum Co. # C. B. Wardlow. 16 miles west of Brackettville, Kinney County, Texas. Sample courtesy of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology i Core Library. KCO-2: Pinto Mountain olivine basalt. 9 miles north of Brackettville. Crest at j southeast corner. ' KCO-3: Las Moras Mountain olivine basalt. 31/2 miles northeast of Brackettville. | Crest of mountain. UCO-4: Allen Mountain olivine nephelinite. 12 miles west of Uvalde, Uvalde i County, Texas. Southeast crest. ' UCO-5: Obi Hill olivine nephelinite. 11 miles west by north of Uvalde, 3 miles j northwest of UCO-7. | BALCONES FAULT TREND OF TEXAS 231 UCO-6; Nueces “Knoll” plagioclase basalt. 1 mile southwest of UCO-7. Slight sericitization of plagioclase cores. UCO-7: Nueces Mountain olivine nephelinite. 9 miles west of Uvalde. Base of north slope. UCC-8: Mohole Test Core melilite-olivine nephelinite. 8 miles south of Uvalde, 1 mile north of Zavalla County line. 1397 feet. UCC-9: Mohole Test Core olivine nephelinite. 538 feet. UCC-10: Mohole Test Core altered basaltic rock. 3194 feet. UCO-1 1 : Mount Inge Intermediate. 3 miles southeast of Uvalde. UCO-12: Black Waterhole melilite-olivine nephelinite. 7 miles northeast of Uvalde on F.M. 1023 at low water crossing of Frio River. UCO-13: Ange Siding analcite phonolite. Juncture of F.M. 2369 and U.S. 90 2 miles northeast of Uvalde. UCO-1 4: Blue Mountain olivine nephelinite. 2 miles northwest of Knippa. UCO-15: Knippa Quarry melilite-olivine nephelinite. 9 miles northeast of Uvalde on U.S. 90 at Knippa. UCO-1 6: Dr. Wish Ranch melilite-olivine nephelinite. 13 miles northeast of Uvalde on F.M. 1023. 1/4 mile west of intersection of Dinner Creek and F.M. 1023 on right of way. UCO-1 7: “School House Knoll” olivine nephelinite. 12 miles northeast of Uvalde, 3 miles northeast of UCO-15. UCO-1 8: Yucca Siding olivine nephelinite. 18 miles northeast of Uvalde at Southern Pacific Yucca Siding. FCC-19: Altered olivine basalt from 3322 feet in General Crude #2 Hitzfelder, Henry Castro Survey #104, Frio County, Texas. Sample courtesy of Kenneth A. Simmons. GCC-20: Altered olivine nephelinite from 2300 feet in Hall et al. #2 McEver,. Kens Field, Jas Hodges Survey, Guadalupe County, Texas. Sample courtesy of Kenneth A. Simmons. TCO-21: Pilot Knob limburgite. 8 miles south of Austin, Travis County, Texas, Crest of Knob, MCO-22: Magnet Cove Igneous Complex, Hot Springs County, Arkansas. Trachyte, NE sec. 20. 200 feet southwest of sample L-122 of Erickson and Blade, 1963,. Plate 1. HAC-23: Barnsdall #1 Brooks Schultz quartz diabase. 34-13S-26W. 4935 feet, Hempstead County, Arkansas. Sample courtesy of Dr. A. L. Kidwell. MLC-24: Carter #C-1 Hope diorite. 7465-7467 feet. 31-22N-9E. Morehouse Parish, Louisiana. Sample courtesy of Dr. A. L. Kidwell. i ■VI ’ .'.•<■ : ■'• ■■ V--. ^ . ,: ■ , ■ . ‘ -,. ...-.,• V. _ :- i't B'"''1k/ '•■ .'•> v.;:- ■ ■« ' ■ ■;■ f-' L. S'v'i- 3 /j^:l •r Is, •: , .;teVi''^:V ■:4:f;-i:»: :-■ .. i^4r>' i'- ^' «-"■ . ’’r *■'■•' ' ■Jr,-y '. :.>/.li ■ . .i;-, . 1 ' , -" ; • • -,. ^- '^ • :■■'■•.■'• '-I, v'-', .: V ' • ..'i' :'■/ iy'" <'; ,• ■, ' vV V. « /.^ " V-' ..-.• ' ■ .•;•), W, t. [hi •:v/--: Science Education What is Different About the Elementary Science Program in San Angelo by CLAUDE WOOLEY San Angelo Public Schools, San Angelo 7 6901 Our primary objective is to provide activity oriented experiences that will result in the development of concepts in science. Our program has been developed upon the premise that each student in the system shall have the opportunity to develop all the major concepts relative to an elementary science program. A list of these concepts may be found in The Science Program of the San Angelo Public Schools and in each of the elementary science curriculum guides. Since we believe that a modern approach to science teaching and learning must b-e activity oriented, and must depend heavily on the discovery idea, it is of utmost importance that the proper materials in adequate quanti¬ ties be at the disposal of our teachers and students at all times. In 1954 our secondary science program in San Angelo was a typical traditional type program that met minimum standards. Our high school courses were laboratory oriented to about the same degree as were those in other high school systems of comparable size. Our junior high program in grade nine was a demonstration program; courses in grades seven and eight were taught almost entirely without equipment or laboratories. With a typical secondary program of this type where the quality of the offering was determined entirely by the type teacher available and hi scourage and determination, one would not even expect to find an organized program in the elementary schools. There were nO' lines of .communication between the various levels of the San Angelo Science Program; each teacher performed as though he were an independent one-teacher school system. Therefore, in June of 1954, the decision was made to make rapid and significant improvements in our entire science program by developing a carefully planned, sequential program for grades 1-12. To avoid the handicap of an early ceiling on the program, we agreed. that we must start by upgrading grades 1-6 and progress through grade 12 rather than attempt the same procedure in reverse order. To deter- The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 234 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE mine the actual value of the existing program, we made a most exten¬ sive survey including elementary students, teachers, and administra tors. The results indicated a few individuals offering a program made up primarily of nature study, but it also revealed that our science program in the elementary grades was actually another reading period. In order to insure teacher interest and participation in the completed program, and in order for the writer to learn what was feasible for the various grade levels, teachers in groups of 20 were employed for two week intervals in the summer to determine all phases of the program. It was found that large groups were not prolific writers, but they could be used to a very good advantage to evaluate and organize materials | prepared by others. At the suggestion of the majority of our elementary j teachers, we determined that our science program should consist of the following six areas of investigation: (1) Simple Machines; (2) Heat. Light, and Sound; (3) Nature Study; (4) Universe Study; (5) teachers, it was also determined that 15-20 lessons in each area should j be adequate for each six weeks instruction. Our teachers said that with I a guide consisting of three activity oriented lessons per area, and with ’ the necessary materials for the activities provided, they would be able | to plan the additional lessons needed. It was quickly determined that | most of our teachers taught only the three sample lessons. As a result of several group meetings, the science coordinator learned that with | three sample lessons written out in detail, and with the titles of the i additional topics to be taught, each teacher should be able to write their j own additional lessons. Obviously this second plan was not successful, j At this time we discarded the first guide as well as the second one ; and initiated the planning of the detailed sequential activities in each j of the six areas for grades 1-6 that, in our opinion, would contribute I most to the acquisition and development of our major concepts. Our j courses of study provided detailed explanations of each lesson to be presented with the understanding on the part of our teachers that | they may elect to follow the plan for a given lesson in the curriculum j guide, or they may use their own approach — provided the suggested topic is developed. Our minimum requirements include fifteen lessons in grades 1-3 and twenty lessons in grades 4-6 for each of the major | areas of investigation, resulting in a total elementary program con- | sisting of 630 sequential lessons. After the courses of study were com¬ pleted, each item of equipment required in these lessons was purchased, | and portable science units were constructed to house these materials, i We are now in the third revision and the fourth printing of these , courses of study. | SCIENCE EDUCATION 235 The attached picture is a representative sample of our basic science unit which remains in each school throughout the year. Four portable units may also be discerned — one on each end of the basic unit and two under it. There is a special color coded set of portable- science units for each of our six areas of study; therefore, each school will receive six different sets of equipment and materials during any¬ one year. Slides of the units will clarify these statements for those attending the Academy meeting. The value of the science equipment used by each of our elementary teachers during one year is in excess of $5,000 — yet it costs us only 45c per student to maintain these inven¬ tories. A hint as to how so much material is available at such a small cost is in our system of rotation. Our schools teach one different unit each six weeks. As we finish with one unit of materials, instead of storing the materials until the following year, we move the unit to a different school each six weeks so they are in constant use. Since it is not the purpose of this report to list in detail all the financial involve¬ ment in this type program development, the reader may contact the Science Curriculum Office at 100 North Magdalen, San Angelo, Texas for information regarding this or any other phase of our operation. The following is a list of the type materials furnished each of our- elementary teachers: 1. Science equipment including items from atom models to xylo¬ phones. 236 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 2. Science supplies including all chemicals called for in the sug¬ gested lessons, plus other chemicals we have learned our teachers will ask for during the year. 3. From 30-50 filmstrips per unit (about 250 titles per teacher each year) that have been selected to augment specific lessons. 4. Transparencies relating to specific lessons. 5. Laminated pictures to illustrate objects, ideas, or principles. The above materials are kept in the portable science units, and are inventoried and replenished each six weeks. Also, any teacher may call the Science Curriculum Office and receive, within twenty-four hours by school mail, supplementary science materials in addition to the ones in the portable units. Teachers may also request larger num¬ bers of the same items included in the portable units. Items not housed on the portable units that may be secured from the Science Curriculum Officee include a chart series by Dr. Milton O. Pella; additional film¬ strips and transparencies; large convex and concave mirrors; incu¬ bators; demonstration motors; planetaria; etc. Of course, each teacher has a copy of the course of study for his grade level. Each year, we operate a program of in-service training for our teachers either by area or by grade level. Our teachers know they may call the Coordinator of Science to receive help on a single lesson or a i group of lessons. They may also call to ask the Science Coordinator, I or other resource people, to come to their school for demonstration teaching in a single class or a group of classes. It is very common for | our office to receive a call from a teacher informing us that equipment needs repair; assistance is needed in understanding how to successfully ; operate a piece of equipment; or to set a date and time for the Science Coordinator to come to a school to demonstrate the most effective use | of a given item of material. It should be of some value to our teachers to have all this material available when needed without their having i to bother with budgets; quantity of material to order; types of ma- i terials needed; and receiving and distributing the many thousands of items needed for a program such as the one described. | Our evaluation consists of administering standardized tests which : we have prepared; we have a number of different versions of the tests. | Each school also gives a nationally known standardized test to com- ; pare the achievement of our students with that of the national average. | An item analysis is used to indicate areas where teachers, students, or both may need help. Science curriculum guides of all phases of the science are available ; from San Angelo Public Schools, Department of Instruction, 1 00 North Magdalen, San Angelo, Texas 76901. | Pitfalls of Doing Science Education Research* by LLOYD M. BENNETT Department of Science Education Texas Women^s University, Denton 76204 Quite often research for the scientist is concerned with using test tubes, chemicals and equipment, as well as with dealing with animals lower than man. The manipulation of inanimate materials and the use of lower forms of animals can be somewhat complex and often perplexing. But to deal with the highest animal, man, in doing research is more than complex or perplexing; it is downright frustrating at times. Probably the most serious problem in dealing with people, especially teachers, in doing empirical research is that their actions, although may be intended to be good, often add variables which negate empiri¬ cism or cause one to lose the standardization and randomness needed for good research results. All too often, teachers do not see the need for following certain procedures that are set up by the researcher. Indi¬ vidual autonomy is a wonderful thing until you try to fit it to a research pattern. At Texas Woman’s University during the 1968-1969 school year, there was a marine science research project underway that was de¬ signed for use in the public schools. Forty-eight different schools in four states, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana, were used in the program. The teacher in each case was to follow her own teaching procedures within the guidelines set forth by the researcher. The project concerned the teaching of a marine science unit in the sixth grade for six weeks. Eighteen hundred boys and girls from the various schools were used. Pre- and post-testing was done through the use of two different test instruments. The hypotheses being tested were: 1 . The new science material concerning marine biology will be as good as, if not better than, the science curricular materials cur¬ rently being used. * Presented at The Texas Academy of Science meeting March 6, 1970, Science Education section by Kathleen Graham, graduate student, for Dr. Bennett. The Texas Jom-nal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 238 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 2, The student will gain as much scientific factual information and conceptual understanding as is learned in the more contempor¬ ary science program. The statistical analyses of the results are currently being evaluated. However, the interest of this paper is to dicsuss briefly some of the extrinsic problems that arise in doing this type of research. One, if nothing else was clearly indicated, it certainly was shown that there is a definite lack of standardization in or comparability of the methods used to teach students as well as grouping boys and girls on the basis of ability. There was no general agreement as to what above average, average, and below average meant in grouping students. Two, it was difficult to get teachers to follow the prescribed format of the research program and to accurately and adequately relay infor¬ mation to the researcher. Often times the information received from the teachers was skimpy and totally inadequate, though each teacher was involved directly, vis-a-vis, in a pre-planning session with the researcher to emphasize the need for objective feedback. Third, there seemed to be a kind of apathy on the part of the teachers to go beyond the basic unit when told they could do so. They generally seemed to feel that every piece of information had to be in the teachers manual. Four, several teachers felt more facts were needed in the unit. The strategy of the unit was to develop concept understanding in which facts were used to build concepts. This problem indicates the traditional unyielding approach towards the acceptance of new ideas on the part of experienced teachers. Five, one idea in the unit was to break up the salt water areas of the world into four main oceans, instead of the traditional five. One teacher was in a sense harassed by another teacher because there had to be five oceans. As the teacher in the project taught the material the other teacher would try to “unteach it” in a subsequent class. Six, the teachers’ undergraduate training seemed totally inadequate for them to be able to handle this type of material. Seven, many teachers failed to read and follow the directions of the research program. Eight, the attitudes of the teachers towards the utilization of marine science seemed to be directly reflected through student performance. If the attitude was favorable, student response on the tests was good. If the attitude of the teacher was negative, then the test results were poor. All teachers volunteered for the program in the beginning, but it is difficult to tell if they were urged to volunteer by their superiors or if they volunteered on the basis of their own interest. In doing this 1 i ii i SCIENCE EDUCATION 239 type of research, the best results are obtained from an individual desire and willingness to participate free from any outside pressures. Nine, in some of the school systems, there appeared to be internal dissension and pressures stemming from the system itself. These were passed on and reflected through the way the research was handled. In summary, doing research with professional teacher groups is probably the most tenuous and difficult to do, but it is also the most rewarding at times. However, this type of research is necessary if there is to be articulation between college science educators and public school people. Additionally, the benefits to the students seem to far outweigh the problems encountered. After all, it is the student in school that must benefit from this type of a research program if education is to be meaningful and worthwhile. Notes Section STIMULATION OF ROOTING OF CUTTINGS WITH 2,4-DICHLORO- PHENOXYACETONE. It was recently observed that certain dichlorophenoxy ace¬ tones affected the auxin-induced rate of growth in Avena coleoptile sections (Masin- gale, et al., 1968, Plant Physiol., 43: 641), From a chemical viewpoint, these chloro- aryl ketones may be visualized as structural analogs of the corresponding dichloro- phenoxyacetic acids, several of which have proved to have significant biological activity in a variety of plant systems (Wain, 1958, “Advan. Pest Control Res.,” Vol. II: 263), The root-inducing activity of phenoxy acids has been extensively examined by Hitchcock and Zimmerman (1944, Amer. Soc. for Hort. Science Proceedings, 45: 187), and they observed that 2,4-dichlorophenoxyaliphatic acids were significantly more active than other halo isomers. While the stimulation of rooting of cuttings has proved difficult to utilize as an assay tool for auxin response due to its high variability (van Raalt, 1950, Ann. Borgorienses, 1: 13), the potential economic importance of finding compounds which improve rooting responses in cuttings still exists. The present report is concerned with the action of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetone (Bradsher, et al., 1953, /. Am. Chem. Soc., 75: 6304) on stimulating the rooting of English Ivy {Hedera helix) cuttings under laboratory conditions and the comparison of this rooting response with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and indole-3-acetic acid. Cuttings were obtained as needed from July to January, and only terminal cuttings possessing 7 nodules were utilized in an effort to maintain some consistency. The cuttings were immediately placed in distilled water after harvesting and removing the lower 4 leaves. Each of the assays was carried out in 250 ml glass flasks con¬ taining 200 ml. of the appropriate test solution which was changed each week during the assay period. All of the assays were carried out using 5 cuttings per flask, and each of the indicated concentrations were examined in 5 replicate experiments; i.e., a total of 50 cuttings were examined in 5 separate experiments under each of the assay conditions. The experiments were carried out under continuous lighting using 40 W daylight fluorescent fixtures yielding about 100' foot candles, and at a temper¬ ature of 25° ± 2. The data are summarized in Table 1 wherein the time required to initiate rooting in 50% of the cuttings is indicated after treatment with the indicated concentrations of the test solutions. It should be noted that the concentrations selected were based on separate assays in which lower and higher concentration levels were examined which either resulted in death of the cuttings or rooting at rates comparable to the water control. Treatment of the cuttings in solutions containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxy¬ acetone at a concentration of 100 ^g./ml. showed no evidence of lethal effect; to the contrary, this high concentration of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetone appeared to be the most active of the treatments tested and gave quantitative rooting responses within 3 days. One hundred per cent rooting was also observed with 2,4-dichlorophenoxy¬ acetic acid and indoleacetic acid; however, the time required for quantitative rooting was much longer. In contrast, in the latter 2 systems, the level of concentration required for appreciable activity was considerably less than in the case of the ketone analog; this was especially true in the case of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid which had its greatest level of activity at a concentration of only 0.001 /fg./ml. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 242 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Effect of Treatment of English Ivy with Various Compounds on Rate of Root Formation in Solutions Compound Concentration, /ig./ml. Time required for 50% of cuttings to root, days Cuttings rooted in 14 days, per cent 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetone 0.1 6 85 1.0 5 80 10.0 6 80 100.0 <3 100 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacel;ic-acid 0.001 4 85 0.01 16 50 0.1 >30 35 1.0 lethal 0 Indoleacetic acid 0.1 6 95 1.0 6 90 10.0 5 80 100.0 lethal 0 Water Control 12 55 It would appear from these data that although 3,4-dichlorophenoxyacetone is less i active on a weight basis than the more widely studied plant growth factors, 2,4- | dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and indoleacetic acid, it is significantly less toxic to the | cutting, and preliminary data on field growth of the cuttings suggest that nO' damage j to the resulting plants is evidenced. With regard to the increased rate of response in the case of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetone, it would appear reasonable that the hydrophobic nature of the ketone may permit more rapid penetration of the com¬ pound through the cell wall tO' essential sites associated with root initiation (Van Overbeck, 1961, “New Theory on the Primary Mode of Auxin Action,” Fourth International Conference on Plant Growth Regulation, The Iowa State Univ. Press, 452). ! This study was supported in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation, ; GB-7991. Janet E. Yount and Charles G. Skinner, Department of Chemistry, North j Texas State University, Denton 76203. | THEORETICAL YIELD OF 3'- OR 5'-URIDYLIC ACID FROM 5'-KILOURIDY- j Lie ACID BY SUCCESSIVE ACTIONS OF PANCREATIC RIBONUCLEASE | (CONDITIONED TO MAKE OLIGOMERS), ESCHERICHIA COLI ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE, AND PHOSPHODIESTERASE OF SPLEEN OR SNAKE VENOM, RESPECTIVELY. The ambiguity of text references to location of the phosphate on ribose in different uridylic acids occasions this paper tracing possible 3- step preparation of either 3'- or S'-uridylic acid from the same bisoynthetic 5'’-polyuridylic acid. Polynucleotide phosphorylase biosynthesis. S'-Polyuridylic acids, (pU)n, of mer numbers ranging from 100 to 6,000 are made from uridine 5 '-diphosphate, ppU, even by partially purified polynucleotide phosphoiylase in the presence of mag¬ nesium ion. The synthesized polyU is phospholyzed, however, by the same enzyme NOTES 243 as catalyzes its build-up, so that quantitative polymerization of the diphosphate is not wrought by this enzyme. Equation 1, for synthesis of 1000-mer 5'-kiloUy (pU)iooo’ written reversibly so as to show this curious case of enzymatic reversion. 1000 ppU + H^O (pU),ooo + 1000 HgPO^ (1) Step 1. RNase’s oligomerization. It is assumed that conditions can be imposed such that pancreatic RNase will hydrolyze 5'-kilouridylic acid to 3'-oligouridylic acids,, (Up)g, of mer numbers having a definite mean, g. Patently, arresting the polyolysis predominantly at the oligoU stage will require exploratory study and close control of such conditions. Equation 2 represents the hydrolysis of 5'-kiloU to 3'-decaU,. (Up)j^Q, 3'-nonaU, (Up)g, and uridine, U. (pH)j„„„ + 101 H,0 - » H3PO, + 99(Up),„ + (Up), + U (2) The oligo mer number 10 in this equation is written really to represent the mean of a wide random range of oligoU g values. From the reactant polylJ, the enzyme splits off a phosphate of the 5'-terminal and a uridine of the opposite end, conse¬ quently releasing one 9-mer 3'-oligoU, along with 99 3'decaU molecules. Step 2. End phosphatase’s dephosphorylation. Exposed to E. coli alkaline phospha¬ tase, oligouridylic acids lose all their terminal phosphates, 5' or 3'-, forming double end dephosphorylated oligouridylic acids. Equation 3 shows the operation of the E. coli enzyme on the decaU and nonaU which have been made from 5'-kiloU by conditioned pancreatic RNase. 99(Up),o + (Up)g + 100 H^O - > 99(Up)gU + (Up)gU -f IOOH3PO, (3) In the alkaline medium of this enzyme, the product phosphoric acid is actually present as a salt. Step 3. Phosphodiesterase’s nucleotidation. Double end dephosphorylated oligouri¬ dylic acids are converted by spleen phosphodiesterase completely to 3'-uridylic acid. Up, or, with apparently equal selectivity, by snake venom phosphodiesterase to 5'-uridylic acid, pU. Equations 4 and 4' depict these 2 distinctive specificities. spl. 99 (Up)gU + (Up)gU + 899 H^O - > 899 Up + 100 U (4) 99 (U(pU)g + U(Up)g + 899 31,0^ lC0U + 899pU (4') In this mononucleotidation, one terminal uridine of each oligoU comes off without a phosphate. Summation of these steps gives the degradation of 5'-kiloU to either Up or pU. (pU),ooo+ 1100 H2O - > IOIH3PO4 + IOIU + 899UP (5) or - ^ 899 pU + 101 H3PO4 + 101 U (5') In these equations, 5'-kiloU represents biosynthetic polyuridylic acids of mer numbers ranging from 100 to 6000; and decaU is taken as an average or typical sized oligouridylic acid made from polyU by conditioned pancreatic RNase. Equations for biosynthesis and oligomerization of any high molecular weight polyU, (pU)n, and for dephosphorylation and nucleotidation of a range of inter¬ mediate oligouridylic acids, (Up)g, may be written, in this connection, in general terms. 244 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Ochoa, et al. (1955, Science, 122: 907) reported the original polyU biosynthesis, as Equation L j nppU + HOH^ (pU)n + nH3P04 (I) 1st. step. PolyU oligomerization. (pU)n+(L+i)H,0— >H3P0,+ (j-l) (Up)g+(Up),_,i, +U (II) S § 2nd. step. OligoU end dephosphorylation, (^_i)(Up)^+(Up),^^,,+Jh30-^(L_i) (Up),,_„U j & o o 1, + (Up)(,^_3)U+ JH3PO, (III) j i 3rd. step. OligoU nucleotidation. I (--1) (Up),,_3,U+(Up)(^_3,U + (n-J-l) H,0 - > I (n- — -l)up + — U (IV) : ' g ' g ; or( J-l) U(pU),^_,) +U(pU),^_3, + (n-^-1 )h30 - > j Ju + (n-J-l)pU (IV') g ^ g ' Summation of these 3 steps, — Equations II, III, and IV or IV', — gives the con¬ version of biosynthetic polyU optionally to Up or to an equimolecular amount of pU. (pU)„+ (n + -)H30 - > (J+i)h3PO,+ (n- J-l)up g g ' g ' + (j + i)u (V) i \ g / . pU + (t + 0 U H3PO, (V) I ! From the 2 equinucleotide product equations, V and V', one infers that any high j molecular weight n-mer 5'-polyU, hydrolyzed initially to g-mer 3'-oligoU, (Up) , | / n \ . I yields, by the given sequence, at most. In - 1 1 molecules of either Up or ' ^ g ' pU. Specifically, 5'-kiloU, (pU)^^)^)^, hydrolyzed primarily to 3'-decaU, (Up)^^, can | produce up to 899 molecules of Up or pU, along with 101 molecules of uridine, U. Initially hydrolyzed to 3'-eicosaU, (Up) 30? kiloU may yield 949 Up or pU, plus 1 51 U. Maximum yields of either uridylic acid are listed in Table 1 for the cases i where the 3: 3'-oligouridylic acids, (Up)g, of g values ranging from 2 to 50 are made j by pancreatic RNase from 5'-kiloU. I NOTES 245 Table 1 Maximum Up or pU obtainable (pU) hydrolyzed initially to g-Mer 3'-01igouridylic acids which are end dephosphorylated and enzymized by a phosphodiesterase. OligoU Mer numbers (g) Up or pU molecules obtainable (-M Moles of U produced (--) \ g / 2 499 501 5 799 201 10 899 101 20 949 51 25 959 41 50 979 21 Larger 3'-oligouridylic acids, sacrificing fewer terminal uridine units during nucleotidation by phosphodiesterase, give higher yields of Up or pU from 5'-kiloU, than do smaller oligointermediates. Increasing the mean of the mer numbers of the pancreatic RNase hydrolysate from 5 to 25 would enhance by 20% of the yield of either 3'- or 5'uridylic acid from 5'-kiloU. In attempting to condition pancreatic RNase to hydrolyze 5'-kiloU to larger 3'- oligomers, one may (as in a personal communication Dr. George Rushizky of National Cancer Institute suggests) vary RNase- to-substrate ratio, ionic strength, digestion time and temperature, and buffer type. Certain metal ions and possibly some chemical agents may also direct the pancreatic RNase to make larger 3'- oligomers initially. Willis W. Floyd, Department of Chemistry, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, 7 7 MO. CLINICAL VALUES IN THE NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO, DASYPUS NOVEMCINCTUS MEXICANUS — During the past several years physiological studies on the nine-banded armadillo have been made by a number of investigators. Weiss and Wislocki (1956, Anat. Rec., 126:143-163) studied hematopoiesis in the peripheral armor; Measel (1964, unpubl. master’s thesis. East Tex. St. Univ., Commerce) studied the blood components; and Ebaugh and Benson (1964, /. Cell Compt. Phys., 64:183-192) investigated hemoglobin characteristics and red cell sur¬ vival. The work of these investigators suggested that the establishment of normal blood values in the armadillo would be valuable in future physiological research. Consequently, this study was undertaken to determine the normal blood ranges of sodium, potassium, calcium, glucose, hemoglobin, fibrinogen, albumin, globulin, and total serum protein in the nine-banded armadillo. Twenty armadillos were captured and placed in a communal pen with food (com¬ mercial canned dog food and vitamin supplement) and water supplied ad libitum for a 5-day adjustment period. The animals were then anesthetized with pheno- barbital sodium (25 mgAg) and blood samples were withdrawn from the right 246 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Constituent No. of Animals No . of Observations Mean 4 ■ SD Sodium 20 20 136.15 i 1.34 mEq/1 Potassium 20 18* 5.17 4- 0.70 mEq/1 Calcium 20 20 2.05 + 0.31 mEq/1 Glucose 20 20 50.60 ± 5.92 mg/100 ml Hemoglobin 20 20 16.95 4- 2.99 gm/100 ml Fibrinogen 20 20 0.46 + 0.21 gm/100 ml Albumin 20 18* 2.33 + 0.62 gm/100 ml Globulin 20 18* 3.28 + 0.94 gm/ 100 ml Alpha^ 20 18* 0.72 4- 0.24 gm/100 ml Alpha^ 20 18* 0.59 + 0.25 gm/100 ml Beta 20 18* 1.16 4- 0.39 gm/100 ml Gamma 20 18* 0.81 4- 0.28 gm/lOO ml Total Serum Protein 20 18* 5.61 + 1.46 gm/100 ml blood hemolized on 2 animals external jugular vein. The hemoglobin determinations were performed immediately using the acid-hematin method on a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 spectropho¬ tometer (Cohen and Smith, 1919, /. Biol. Chem., 39:489-496). The remaining samples were stored as serum or plasma as — 20° C until all samples were collected. Serum sodium and potassium values were measured using Sterox reagent (Monsanto Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) on a Coleman Model 20 spectrophotometer (Kingsley and Schaffert, 1953, Anal. Chem., 25: 1738-1741). The albumin and globulin fac¬ tions were measured electrophoretically on the Beckman Spinco Model R Paper Electrophoresis System (Beckman Instruments, 1961, Beckman Methods Manual for the Model R Paper Electrophoresis System). The remaining determinations were performed on a Technicon Auto-analyzer Model 1. The serum glucose was measured using a modified Hawkins and Van Slyke method (Hoffman, 1937, J. Biol. Chem., 120:51-55); the plasma calcium by the ammonium purpurate method (Wililams and Moser, 1965, Anal. Chem., 25:1414-1417); the fibrinogen by the biuret method (Campbell and Hanna, 1937, /. Biol. Chem., 119: 15-33) ; and the total serum protein by the biuret method (Failing, et al., 1960, Am. J. Clin. Path., 33:83-88). Each analysis was run on duplicate samples and when good precision resulted (5%) an average of the 2 was taken. All other samples were discarded. The values are reported as the mean with the standard deviation in Table \ . J. D. Prejean, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 55205 and James C. Travis, Dept, of Biol., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Texas 7784^. NOTES 247 INCIDENCE OF TOXOCARA CANIS (WERNER) AND ANCYLOSTOMA CANINUM (ERCOLANI) FROM DOGS IN BRAZOS COUNTY TEXAS. Twenty- four stray dogs ranging in age from approximately 6 weeks tO' several years were examined for the presence of the common dog ascarid, Toxocara canis, and the common hookworm Ancylostoma caninum. Two species of hookworms are found in our area, Ancylostoma caninum and Ancylostoma braziliense (Gomez de Faria). A. caninum is the most common. Of the hookworms critically examined in this study A. caninum was the only species present. This does not exclude the possible occurrence of A. braziliense. In examining 14 dogs over 6 months of age it was found that 9 were infected with T. canis. Three of 6 males were infected while 6 of 8 females were infected. Ten dogs under 6 months of age were examined for T. canis and all were found to be heavily infected. A resistance to T. canis with increasing age of the host is shown here as has been shown in earlier surveys by Ehrenford (1957, Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 6: 166- 170), Sprent (1958, Parasit., 48: 184^209), and Schantz and Biagi (1968, 7. Parasit., 54: 185-186). Control of T. canis is important since it is the causative agent of visceral larva migrans in humans, especially young children, and is of course detrimental to dogs. All 24 dogs, both young and old, were found to be heavily infected with Ancylo¬ stoma caninum. In summary it appears that dogs in our area are very heavily infected with the ascarid Toxocara canis, and the dog hookworm Ancylostoma caninum, with T. canis being of considerable public health importance. Richard N. Henson and Salih Yilmaz, Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843. INFESTATION OF A TEXAS RED-EARED TURTLE BY LEECHES— A large male Texas red-eared turtle {Chrysemys scripta elegans) was collected from the Sabine River at West Bluff, Orange County, Texas on August 27, 1969. The turtle measured approximately 24.4 cm. in length and 20.3 cm. in width. The animal appeared to be rather old and he was considered to be in poor health since he was sluggish and easy to capture. Several claws were missing from the front feet and from one of the hind feet. Numerous scars were noticed over the soft portions of the body and there was a large hole in the left front leg. From the area around the legs and head on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces we removed 83 leeches. All of these were attached to non-movable surfaces. Eighty- two of the leeches were identified as Placobdella parasitica (Say) and the other was identified as P. rugosa (Verrill). The P. parasitica ranged from 1.27 to 2.54 cm. in length and were greenish-gray with brown markings on the dorsal surface. No markings were noted on the venters. The P. rugosa was larger (3.18 cm.) than the P. parasitica, lacking in distinctive markings, and was dark brown in color. Pennak {Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States, 1953) describes both species as free-living or temporary parasites on fish, frogs, and turtles. Since no other C. scripta were observed to be infested with leeches and since the turtle was in rather poor condition, it is assumed that the leeches were able to colonize this individual because of his inability to avoid them or rid himself of them. Albert C. Hendricks, J. T. Wyatt, and D. E. Henley, Department of Biology, North Texas State University, Denton 76203. 248 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TRAPPING WOOD RATS: EFFECTIVENESS OF SEVERAL TECHNIQUES AND DIFFERENTIAL CATCH BY SEX AND AGE. Before initiating population studies of Neotoma micropus in South Texas, the relative effectiveness and inherent biases of several trapping techniques were explored. A study area was located on the Callaghan Ranch, near Laredo, Texas. The expansive bnishland habitats, typical of the Rio Grande Plain, provided an opportunity to expose a quantity of traps in a single habitat to a dense and apparently uniform population of wood rats. Four trapping periods were used between mid-March and May 1968 to compare the relative merits of three types of traps and three baiting procedures. Each test consisted of setting equal numbers of each type of trap and/or bait combination involved in an alternating sequence on each of 2 transects. The average distance between traps was about 20 feet, with each trap located in a wood rat trail near an active house. Traps were baited and set each evening and checked and tripped each morning. Data recorded for each trap were: (1) the number of trap-nights, (2) sex and age (juvenile, subadult, and adult according to the techniques of Raun 1966, Tex. Mem. Mus. Bull. 11.), and (3) number of traps sprung but empty. Animals caught in live traps were not released back into the population and transects were moved about a quarter mile between each of the 4 trials. Originally, 6-day trapping periods were planned, with a systematic rotation of traps midway through each test. Because of difficulties in statistical analysis and adverse weather terminating some tests prematurely, only the first 3 days of each test were used in determining the relative effectiveness of trap types and baits. Sex and age ratio information, by day of catch was tabulated from 2 6-day trapping periods. The first test compared the relative effectiveness of unbaited snap traps with traps baited with either peanut butter or moist oatmeal. The 2nd test compared the most effective technique in the first test with snap traps modified by enlarging the treadle with a 2 X 2-inch piece of corrugated cardboard. Half of the modified traps were baited with the most effective bait from the first test, and half were left unbaited. The 3rd test was similar to the first but used Havahart (Reference to trade names does not imply endorsement of commercial products by the Federal government) live traps (5 X 5 X 18 inches). The final test compared the most effective live trap and snap trap techniques. Seventy of each type of trap were exposed in the first, 2nd and 4th tests, while 30 of each type were used in the 3rd. During tests I-III, it became apparent that the relative value of the bait material was dependent upon the type of trap used (Table 1). Compared with unbaited traps, the efficiency of standard snap traps increased 2-fold when baited with peanut butter and more than 3-fold when baited with oatmeal. With the modified snap traps, baiting did not increase the effectiveness beyond that attributed tO' enlarging the treadle, but it did increase the number of sprung and empty traps from less than one percent to more than 40%. Although rodents undoubtedly sprang many of these traps, it is thought that a large percentage were tripped by large millipedes and carabid beetles that were attracted to the bait. In the case of live traps, the catch rate increased substantially when either bait was employed, with no discernible difference between them. It appeared that the rats were running through the unbaited traps fast enough to block the gravity-operated doors and make their escape, and that the presence of bait detained them long enough to permit the doors to close and lock. The increased effectiveness of baited over unbaited live traps was also^ noted by Shekel (1948, J. Wildl.Mgt., 12:155-161). Several differences among the 3 types of traps were noted. Since the snap traps with expanded treadles were as effective without bait as the standard snap traps. NOTES 249 Table 1 Number of animals captured and number of sprung and empty traps, showing per¬ cent success for each type of trap and bait tested first 3 days. Test Trap Bait Trap Nights Captiires Sprung and Empty St'd. Snap None 210 14 (6.7) 1 (0.5) ^ I St*d. Snap Oatmeal 210 48 (22.8) 93 (44.3) St'd. Snap Peanut butter 210 25 (11.9) 60 (28.6) St'd. Snap Oatmeal 210 42 (20.0) 99 (47.1) II Mod. Snap Oatmeal 210 42 (20.0) 94 (44.8) Mod. Snap None 210 47 (22.4) 1 (0.5) live Trap None 90 38 (42.2) 30 (33.3) III Live Trap Oatmeal 90 61 (67.8) 25 (27.8) Live Trap Peanut butter 90 63 (70.0) 20 (22.2) Live Trap Oatmeal 210 96 (45.7) 81 (38.6) IV Mod. Snap Oatmeal 210 33 (15.7) 166 (79.0) * Percent of trap nights. with bait, the nuisance of baiting could be avoided and the frequency of sprung and empty traps could be substantially reduced, thereby makign trap-nihgt data more accurate and meaningful. Live traps provided 3 times as many rats as modified snap traps. Cochran (1947, /. Mamm., 28:186) reported similar results with smaller species when comparing live traps and museum special snap traps. Persistent high winds during the final test reduced the capture success of both types of traps, with snap traps being the more vulnerable. Although live traps are bulky to transport, and one person can operate only half as many as he can snap traps, live traps have several favorable attributes for trapping wood rats. Catch efficiency appears nearly 3 times greater than with snap traps. Trap interference from smaller rodents and insects is substantially reduced, and the traps are less vulnerable to tripping by wind and rain. In addition, the capture of live animals is amendable to many purposes such as tagging studies, repeated reproduc¬ tive examinations, blood samples, and other uses not leasable with snap-trapped animals. Since the trapping techniques were to be used in population studies, the data were also analyzed with respect to differential vulnerability of the rats by sex and age, A chi-square test for homogeneity indicated no significant difference at the 0.95 level (7.3573 and 1.0172 respectively, 6 d.f.) between the sex and age groups captured by any of the types of traps or baits (Table 2) . Analysis of the catch from 2 6-day trapping periods (Tests I & II) also revealed males and females to be proportionately vulnerable (Fig. 1). However, when the 250 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 Sex and age composition, in percent, of wood rats captured by various types of traps and baits tested first 3 days. Adults gubadults & Juveniles Factor n.. Females Males Females Males Baits None 93 34.4 24.7 21.5 19.4 Peanut butter 86 36.0 25.6 19.8 18.6 Oatmeal 311 34.1 22.2 22.8 20.9 Total 490 * 34.5 23.3 22.0 20.2 Trap: St*d. Snap 129 32.6 31.0 20.2 16.3 Mod. Snap 116 36.2 19.0 20.6 23.3 Live Trap 245 34.7 21.2 23.3 20.8 Total 490 34.5 23.3 22.0 20.2 The sex of 19 animals reported in Table 1 was not determined due to either destruction by scavengers or escape of live animals during handling. TRAP NIGHT Fig. 1. Comparison of the reloflve distribution of catch for each sex ©f ia) adylt and (b) subadolt and fuvenile wood rats within the trapping periods. NOTES 251 TRAP NIGHT Fig. 2. Comparison of the relative distributions of catch for three age groups of wood rats within the trapping periods. daily catches were compared with respect to age, discrepancies between the relative numbers of adults, subadults, and juveniles were obvious (Fig. 2). Forty-eight percent of the adult wood rats were captured in the first 2 nights, whereas 48% of the juveniles were trapped during night 3 and 4. As might be anticipated, subadults were intermediate, with 45% captured in the 2nd and 3rd nights of the 6-day periods. Similar differential trapability between age classes was reported by Davis and Emlem (1956, /. Wildl. Mgt., 20:326-327) in Norway rats, suggesting that the length of the trapping period is an important consideration for any study where the age composition of the population is a factor. While preparing for the trap efficiency tests presented here, it was evident from the literature that there has been considerable discussion over experimental designs that would circumvent problems caused by obvious differences between habitats, population densities, and the known habits of various species. Our own design had a serious flaw which precluded use of nearly half the data for its intended purpose. In retrospect, we suggest the following procedure for consideration in future investiga¬ tions of relative trap efficiencies. The trapping techniques to be tested are applied in an alternating sequence along a linear transect. Halfway through the trapping period, the traps are rotated so that during the 2nd half equal fractions of each technique follow each of the techniques in the first half. Thus if 3 trapping techniques are to be tested, they would originally be set out on a linear transect in the sequence of A, B, C, A, B, C, etc. Midway in the test, the techniques would be rotated so' a 3rd of type A would occupy sites previously trapped by type B, another 3rd would be set where type C traps had been, and a 3rd would remain in place (in a sense it would be A following A). Techniques B and C would be rotated in the same manner (the entire exchange in the field can be facilitated while planning the initial exposure sequence). This procedure should reduce biases resulting from subtle changes in the habitat or uneven distribution of the rodents and provide data on the ability of a technique to capture animals not taken by other methods. Curtis J. Carley and Frederick F. Knowlton, U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, San Antonio, Texas 78204. 252 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AN EXTENSION OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST ON UNIFORM¬ ITY. The Kolmogorov-Smimov (K-S) test is a non-parametric (distribution-free) goodness-of-fit criterion when a hypothesized continuous distribution is specified completely. In practice, however, the K-S test is often used when the form of the null distribution is known, but the identifying parameters are unknown and must be estimated from the available data. Hypothesizing a normal (Gaussian) distribution but estimating the population mean and variance by their sample values, Lilliefors (1967, J. Amer. Stat. Assoc., 62: 399-402) simulates a new table of K-S critical values. In a later paper, Lilliefors (1969, /. Amer. Stat. Assoc., 64: 387-389) hypothesizes a negative exponential distribution with an unknown parameter, estimates the parameter from a sample, and calculates a new table of K-S critical values for this case by Monte Carlo simu¬ lation. In each of the above situations, a comparison of the new table to the standard K-S critical values (Massey, 1951, J. Amer. Stat. Assoc., 46: 68-78) shows the standard values to be extremely conservative. This paper gives results similar to those of Lilliefors except that the null distri¬ bution is assumed uniform but with unknown end points. A new table of K-S critical values is simulated for this case. In addition, certain entries are verified by ana¬ lytically deriving the critical values. Results of power studies using the new table are also reported. The usual K-S test compares from a sample of N observations the value D^^. = sup|S^^.(X)-Fo(X)l X to a standard K-S table of critical values, where Sjj(X) is the empirical cumulative distribution function and Fq(X) is the c.d.f. under the null hypothesis. In the body of this paper, the critical values of are calculated, given D^^. = sup|S^^(X)-F*o(X)|, where F*q(X) is the null c.d.f. with the parameters replaced by the “best” available estimates. For each value N from 3 to 15, then 20, 25, 30, and approximate for over 30, a Monte Carlo simulation was conducted with 5000 samples drawn. The results can be contrasted with the standard K-S table of critical values. In Table 1 a summary is presented of 5000 Monte Carlo simulated K-S critical values when the null distribution is uniform, with the end points, say a and b, estimated by a — and b = (the smallest and largest observations, respec¬ tively). For any random sample of size n > 2, it can easily be shown that x^^j^ and ^max constitute a jointlj^ sufficient set of statistics for a and b. That is, for any function of the sample, say T = T(xj, ..., x^^), the conditional distribution of T given and Xmax is independent of a and b. In addition, and are maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters. For example, when x^, x.,, Xg represent a random sample of size 3 from a uniform (a, b) disrtibution then F*o(X) =1 (x — x,^^j^)/(x„^^^ — x,^ijJ,ifx„^i„ < X < x,„^^ 1 , if X )> . Thus, the probability density function is of a mixed type and is given by 1/3, if d =3 1/3 V (d)^. 3 2,ifl/3 cJ =ra, then This can be compared with the results of Table 1. For samples of larger sizes, the exact formulation becomes intractible, thus leading us to turn to Monte Carlo results. This paper illustrates the danger of using a statistical test without satisfying the underlying assumptions. The standard table of critical values of the Klomogorov- Smimov statistic is conservative when the null distribution is specified in form, but its parameters are unknown. That is, given a particular set of data, the probability of accepting a false hypothesis is higher than the supposedly pre-assigned risk. For the particular situation studied, a corrected table (Table 1) of critical values is presented. A brief power study based on the critical value given in Table 1 is reproduced in Table 2. This study indicates, with results given by Table 2, that even using the 254 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 Estimated Probability of Rejecting a Hypothesized Uniform Distribution (1000 runs) Underlying Distribution a= .05 o I — 1 i N=10 N=20 N=10 N=20 Normal (O, l) .08 .18 .13 .26 Chi Square (3) .35 .82 .44 .89 Negative Exponential (l) .52 .89 .60 .92 Uniform .05 .10 Beta (2, 3) .06 .13 .09 .21 corrected critical values the power of the K-S test is not good. The analytic derivation of specified critical values serves as a check of the simu¬ lation procedure and as a good classroom example of a mixed distribution (that is, a distribution with both discrete and continuous parts) occurring in a common situation. Extension of this brief derivation any further is complicated by the dimensionality of the problem and the number of possible dimensions in which there can be sets of Lebesque measure zero with positive probability. This work was partially supported by the Army Research Office, Contract ^^DA- ARO-D-31-124-G793. W. B. Smith, Institute of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843 and F. M. Speed, Mathematics Department, Texas A&l University, Kingsville, 78363. Dialectic The Origin of Terrestrial Amphibia by J. ALAN FEDUCCIA Department of Biology^ Southern Methodist University Dallas 75222 Recent major paleontological reviews (Romer, 1966, 1967; and Schmalhausen, 1968) which have dealt with the origin of the first terrestrial Amphibia have failed to record many of the ideas of con¬ siderable credence concerning this emergence which are present in the literature (see Ewer, 1955; Goin and Goin, 1956; and Inger, 1957) » I wish to present various views on the origin of terrestrial Amphibia and expand the view(s) which I find the most logical and parsi¬ monious. The major hypotheses to date may be summarized as the: 1) food hypothesis; 2) the predation hypothesis; 3) the '‘seasonal drought” hypothesis; and 4) the population pressure hypothesis. Little doubt remains that the ancestors of the first terrestrial tetra- pods (ichthyostegids) were the crossopterygian fishes (rhipidistians) . Knowledge of the ancestry of the Amphibia has not, however, dispelled speculation on the ecological conditions and selection forces which shrouded the earliest transition to land. I would like first to illustrate that the problem is of purely ecological nature and that the evolution of structural adaptations associated with a terrestrial existence may for the most part be unrelated to the origin of terrestrial tetrapods. This point is best illustrated by an examination of Recent fishes. Schmalhausen (1968: 17) has summarized the types of Recent fishes which at some time may venture on the land as follows: “Some gobies (Gobius and especially Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus) ^ blennies (Blennius), snake-eyes (Ophiocephalus) ^ climbing fish {Anabas scandens), some catfishes {Clarias, Doras, and Saccobran- chus), and also {Amphipnous, crawl out of the water.” The fact that all of these teleosts (many unrelated) with very minimal adaptations for terrestrial existence may crawl out of the water to the land leads one to question the degree of structural change necessary from “fish” grade for any original transition to land to take place. Also, there are very different types of terrestrial adaptations for fishes which venture on to the land. For example, in the mudskipper {Periophthalmus) there are no special organs for aerial respiration, but the skin is highly The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 2 & 3, April 30, 1971. 256 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE vascularized and dermal respiration is used; and, in the “walking catfish” {Clarias) there is an epibranchial organ or epibranchial chamber which is located near the gills which serves as a reservoir for air (Nikolsky, 1963; 39-40). In the tropical sheat-fish {Otocinclus) there is even an outpocket of the stomach which is usually filled with air and serves an aerial respiratory function (Nikolsky, op. cit.). In totality, “lungs,” swim-bladders, epibranchial and pharyngo-epibran- chial organs, intestine, stomach, skin, and gills, may be used by various types of fishes for atmospheric respiration (Nikolsky, 1963: 43), | Aerial respiration therefore seems to be no problem. i One might ask why these accessory respiratory structures are evolved. Current opinion favors the logical idea that because most of | these forms live in the tropics or subtropics in situations where water , becomes heated and therefore oxygen deficient, accessory respiratory j organs for breathing atmospheric oxygen are of great selective value. In the gobies that occur in brackish water, cutaneous respiration may I be associated with more lengthy ventures on land instead of existence | in waters that are oxygen deficient. Much of the work on Recent fishes which are capable of breathing ; atmospheric oxygen and venturing on to the land has been done by ' Smith (1945), and summarized by Inger (1957). As Inger (1957: 374) pointed out, “With the exception of Periophthalmus, these fishes commonly live in sluggish or standing water (canals, ditches, swamps, i and lakes and ponds) though they are not restricted to such situations. | Because of the high air temperatures and the heating of the water by insulation, these tropical waters, particularly the smaller bodies, are I deficient in oxygen and only fishes tolerant of very low oxygen tension or capable of utilizing atmospheric oxygen thrive in them. The abun- ; dance of these air-breathing fishes in these warm, stagnant waters i suggests that the original selective advantage of an air chamber was to enable fishes to remain in the warm water that must have char¬ acterized the Upper Devonian.” Consider structural adaptations which are necessary for locomotion ; on land. One can close this issue very quickly by observing a catfish with somewhat elongated and strengthened pectoral spines {=Clarias^ \ the “walking” catfish), or the mudskipper {Periophthalmus) which | looks no more novel than most specialized marine teleosts. The point | here is that the types of adaptations which are necessary for any initial transition to land are very minimal, and that one need not think in terms of “grade” of structural organization in discussing the transition to land. The transition could have occurred first with fish or with , amphibian. | DIALECTIC 257 Many papers concerning the origin of the first terrestrial tetrapods have stressed the structural change necessary for the transition (see Berry, 1929; Orton, 1954; and Gunter, 1956). Gunter (1956: 496) has summarized one such view as follows: “The paired fins of fishes were first used as props and supports for resting on bottom; these were later used in a clumsy, walking manner, and this behavior perforce began first in the water, because the weak props could not support the animals without the water bouyancy; increased perfection of the mechanics of walking took place in the shallows, which was a refuge from the chief predators; the land was also attractive as a haven and as a source of food; the first vertebrate invaders of land probably had fins, and these became legs by enlargement of the fin base and less of fin rays; these original limbs and girdles were weak and probably underwent a considerable period of evolution in swampy country; later they were perfected by further selection when it became neces¬ sary for early amphibians to move across dry land because of a failing local water supply.” Orton (1954) imagined the tetrapod limb as evolving as a digging mechanism for burrowing in times of low water supply, and felt that the first transition to land would not have taken place until after a dry Upper Devonian time had passed and more humid conditions prevailed. Orton (1954: 1043) concluded that, “With pedal structure, air breathing, and associated modifications already established, the amphibians would be preadapted to extend their activities to humid land areas.” From a look at the Recent fauna, one can see, however, that the origin of terrestrial tetrapods is not complicated by the acquisition of structural change (at least in its initial stages), for the changes neces¬ sary for terrestrial locomotion and for aerial respiration in Recent teleosts seem to be of very simple nature. The primary question, therefore, seems to revolve around the “why” of the emergence. For this question there have been proposed classically several answers. First, several authors ( Schmalhausen, 1957; Cox, 1967; and Hol¬ man, 1969) point out that a predation hypothesis is a workable hy¬ pothesis. The ancestral crossopterygians were large predaceous forms, and as the young of Recent fresh-water fishes often remain in shallows as much as possible to avoid predation by adults, one can imagine the young rhipidistians venturing into very shallow situations and even onto land to avoid predation by the adult rhipidistians. The foregoing points to another theory, that the original transition took place for exploitation of the terrestrial Devonian food supply. This hypothesis might coordinate with others. If young rhipidistians emerged on to land to avoid predation they would have found ample 258 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE food in the arthropod fauna (see Gunter, 1956; and Cox, 1967), whereas, food supply might have been inadequate for the larger adults. However, there is meager knowledge of the size of the Devonian arthropod fauna. Romer (1966: 86) only argues from the standpoint of adult rhipidistians when he says of the food hypothesis, . they [meaning rhipidistians] were carnivores for whom there was, at first, little food on land.” Romer (op. cit.) also argues that the transition was not to escape enemies because, , their fish ancestors were among the most powerful of vertebrates found in the fresh waters from which they came.” The most universally accepted hypothesis is the “seasonal drought” hypothesis (see Romer, 1966, 1967). It is summarized by Romer (1966: 86) as follows: “The earliest known amphibians appear to have led much the same sort of life as the related contemporary crossopterygians. Both lived normally in the same streams and pools; both were predaceous types, presumably feeding largely on small actinopterygian ‘minnows.’ As long as there was plenty of water, the crossopterygian was the better off of the two, for he was obviously the better swimmer — legs were in the way. The Devonian, during which land adaptations originated, was seemingly a time of seasonal droughts when life in fresh waters must have been difficult. Even then, if the water merely became stagnant and foul, the crossopterygian could come to the surface and breathe air as well as the amphibian. But if the water dried up al¬ together, the amphibian had the better of it. The fish, incapable of land locomotion, would be, literally, stuck in the mud, and, if the water did not soon return, must die. But the amphibian, with his short and clumsy but effective limbs, could crawl out of the pool and walk over¬ land (probably very slowly and painfully at first) and reach the next pool where water still remained — and resume his normal existence as a water dweller!” Schmalhausen (1968: 15) also advocates the seasonal drought hy¬ pothesis as follows: “With drying out of the waters, the only means of escape was by burrowing into wet ground (hibernation) and enduring until a return of the water, or migration on the chance of reaching new waters.” One would like to attempt to substantiate the foregoing hypotheses by examining fishes in the Recent fauna which exist in conditions thought to be like those of the past. Although it is difficult to establish if any of the Recent “terrestrial” teleosts exit the water to actually forage, Schmalhausen (1968: 17) points out that, “Some marine fishes . . . habitually crawl out of the water. This is associated with the op- DIALECTIC 259 portunities for feeding in the surf zone, the high tide zone and, in particular, in mangrove thickets. The fishes most adapted to locomo¬ tion on dry land are the gobies, Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus, which find an abundance of food in the form of small fishes, crusta¬ ceans, annelids, etc., on the shore after ebb tide.” Inger (1957: 374) stated that, “A specimen of Clarias lazera in the Chicago Natural History Museum has its stomach chock full of a grain remarkably like millet.” However, there seems to be very little sub¬ stantial evidence that these fishes continuously leave the water to feed, and Inger (1957t 374) records from Smith’s (1945) work with the fishes of Thailand that, . . Anabas does not feed while on land and apparently merely moves at random from one body of water to an¬ other. Presumably its terrestrial locomotion is a means of locating new, unexploited habitats, thus removing itself from competition with other pond fishes.” Probably if one looked long enough in the Recent fauna one could find Recent examples to help substantiate almost any hypothesis, but one must search for the most likely hypothesis which is consistent with all of the data. The most widely accepted hypothesis today, the “seasonal drought” hypothesis, is also one that has a great deal of credence, but depends wholly on the paleoenvironment of the Devonian Period. There has always been much debate as to whether or not the Devonian was a period of seasonal drought in which the ponds were subjected to drying up each year (see Inger, 1957; and Romer, 1958 for summaries, and Barrell, 1916; and Krynine, 1949). The crux of the problem, then, is whether or not the meager present Devonian red beds (the “Old Red Sandstone” and its equivalents) are an indication of seasonal drought during that Period. One can find arguments for both sides, but the evidence for droughts during the Devonian is at best very weak. There does seem to be good evidence for drought in the Triassic Period by finds of mass mortality in amphibians (Romer, 1939), but the Triassic is quite a few million years younger than the Devonian. Furthermore, one can point to present-day red bed deposition in the tropics or sub- tropices, and as Inger (1957: 373) pointed out from Krynine’s (1949) studies, . . geochemical studies have shown that 95 percent of present day red soils — the primary source of red beds — are formed at mean annual temperatures above 60 °F. and in areas with annual rainfall exceeding 40 inches. These temperature requirements can be satisfied only in the tropics or subtropics. The necessary rainfall can be found today both in areas with alternating wet and dry seasons and in areas that are continuously humid. And red soils are characteristic of both 260 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE types of tropical climates.” As Inger (1957: 374) further stated, . a climatic situation very similar to that of contemporary tropical rain forests is as good an interpretation of the depositional climate of red beds as the ‘periodic drought’ hypothesis.” Additionally, Inger (1957: 374) pointed out of the Recent land- venturing fishes that, “Where the dry seasons are long enough to lower water levels to the danger point, some of these fishes, particularly Ophicephalus, and Heteropheustes, burrow into the mud and aestivate. None, however, are reported to migrate from drying pools to larger bodies of water, despite the fact that several {Anabas and Clarias) are well known for their powers of terrestrial locomotion.” The mechanism for the origin of terrestrial Amphibia which I favor, and which I feel has the most credence is essentially the phenomenon of Dispersal,^ which is, in effect, a broader view of the population pressure hypothesis. This phenomenon can account for the original transition to land under any type of environmental conditions, with abundant food and water in all areas. It was (in somewhat different terms) proposed as a mechanism by Ewer (1955), and Goin and Goin (1956). Dispersal may be defined as the movement of an individual from the site of birth to the site of reproduction. The overall effect of dis¬ persal may be extension of ranges and interpopulation gene exchange. Howard (1960: 152) distinguishes two types of dispersal, innate and environmental. Innate dispersers are animals which are at birth pre¬ disposed to disperse beyond the parental home range. The mechanism for innate dispersal is not understood, and is independent of population density. In my opinion, innate dispersal may be simply dispersal for which no ready explanation is apparent. On the other hand, environ¬ mental dispersal is density-dependent and is the, “. . . movement an animal makes away from its birthplace in response to crowded condi¬ tions (mate selection, territoriality, lack of suitable homesites, or parental rejection).” (Howard, op. cit) . Under the above circumstances a model for the original land venture by fish or amphibian can easily be formulated. Under response to intrapopulational pressure of any type, including crowding, food short¬ age (which is in a sense crowding), intense aggressive interaction (again probably crowding), etc., which could have occurred in the 1 It may be argued that drying up of ponds may be the cause of an increase in population density, and that dispersal might ensue. However, in the present context dispersal is only intended to mean under normal environmental conditions. DIALECTIC 261 ponds and lakes in which the precursors of the first terrestrial amphib¬ ians inhabited, it would be highly advantageous to certain individuals to disperse away from the pond or lake in which they were born to find another in which they could reproduce in conditions of less intra- populational pressure. As Murray (1967: 977) has put it, “Aggres¬ sively dominant individuals will occupy the suitable breeding sites, maximizing their chance of reproducing, while not so dominant indi¬ viduals maximize their chance of reproducing by moving away (dis¬ persing) rather than fighting to the death (which would reduce their chance to zero), although their chance of successful reproduction is lower than that of individuals that occupy breeding sites nearer their birthplaces.” The above would also explain why dispersal is more common in the young individuals of a species; they are usually behaviorally less dominant. As Murray (1967: 977) further stated, . . the apparent benefits to a population of range extension . . . interdeme gene exchange . . . and regulation of population density . . . are unselected consequences of selection for individuals that aggressively procure breeding sites but move away from dominant individuals. There is no reason to believe that selection has occurred above the level of the individual.” It should be pointed out here that although dispersal might result originally in less dominant individuals occupying the periphery of the range of a species, this does not mean that individuals of the peripheral populations will be any less fit. Behavioral aggressiveness may not necessarily be inherited, but may be an acquired characteristic during the late ontogeny of the individual. One would like to find a situation in the Recent fauna which fits the dispersal model, but, alas, there are so few studies of the Recent fishes that “walk” that one can only speculate. Ewer (1955) reported mass migration of Xenopus and suggested that the stimulus for such migration was population pressure caused by an initial drying up of the ponds, thus reducing water level and concomitantly causing increasing population pressure. Coin and Goin (1956) pointed out that in Florida amphibians may move from shrink¬ ing water sources, but they move following a rain. As they (Gobi and Goin, 1956: 441) put it, “Ewer’s emendation of Romer’s hypothe¬ sis is thus that the primary stimulus toward migration overland in the first amphibians was increased population pressure induced by shrink¬ ing of aquatic habitats during drought. We suggest that this stimulus was released by rainfall sufficient to moisten the surrounding terrain but not sufficient to fill up the ponds and thereby relieve the over¬ crowded conditions.” 262 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Going back to the Recent fishes which venture on to the land, Inger (1957: 375) stated, ‘"Air-breathing fresh- water fishes, though abun¬ dant in this region [Oriental], do not migrate to avoid desiccation in shrinking pools during seasonal droughts. On the other hand, some of them move overland in extremely humid climates and in the complete absence of stimulation from either shrinkage of water volume or deoxygenation.” He further points out that, . . the original function of overland movements may have been the invasion of new aquatic habitats, as in the cases of Anabas, Clarias, and Betta. with the selective advantage that accrues to wide dispersal. For Clarias and Betta^ inva¬ sion of new habitats — ‘pioneer’ habitats, in the sense of ecologists — j results in reduction of the competition to which they are exposed in | heavily populated waters. The prototetrapods would have benefited i in the same way.” Another possible example in the Recent fauna may be the “walk¬ ing” catfish, Clarias hatrachus (see Idyll, 1969) , which was introduced into Florida several years ago. This fish is highly aggressive (appar¬ ently “out-competing” other native catfishes), highly omnivorous, and exists in Florida where ponds do not dry up. In this situation, Clarias makes treks (dispersals?), even across roadways. Even if they are not true dispersal marches (that is, due to intrapopulation al phenomena) the end result must be the same, judging from their rapid i range expansion (see map in Idyll, 1969). More data on the natural history of Clarias batrachus would be of great interest. In summary, a mechanism of dispersal for the origin of the first terrestrial amphibians can account for the original transition to land without relying on structural adaptations of the organisms associated with terrestrial existence, or on hostile environmental conditions dur¬ ing the Devonian Period. Once the original transition was made (by | dispersal), then perfection of adaptations for terrestrial existence would have occurred in any number of possible evolutionary avenues. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Bob Slaughter and William B. Stallcup for criticiz¬ ing an early draft of this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED I Barrell, j., 1916 — Influence of Silurian-Devonian climates on the rise of air-breath | ing vertebrates. Bull. GeoL Soc. Amer., 27; 387-436. Berry, E. W., 1929 — Paleontology. McGraw-Hill, New York. DIALECTIC 263 Cox, C. B., 1967 — Cutaneous respiration and the origin of the modern Amphibia. Proc. Linn. Soc. London., 178: 37-47. Ewer, D. W., 1955 — Tetrapod limb. Science, 122: 467-468. Coin, C. J., and O. B. Goin, 1956 — Further comments on the origin of the tetrapods. Evolution, 10: 440-441. Gunter, Gordon, 1956 — Origin of the tetrapod limb. Science, 123: 495-496. Holman, J. A., 1969 — Predation and the origin of tetrapods. Science, 164: 588. Howard, W. E., 1960 — Innate and environmental dispersal of individual vertebrates. Amer. Midi. Nat., 63; 152-161. Idyll, C. P., 1969 — New Florida resident, the walking catfish. Natl. Geographic, 135(6): 846-851. Inger, R. F., 1957 — Ecological aspects of the origins of the tetrapods. Evolution, II: 373-376. Krynine, P. D., 194-9 — The origin of red beds. Trans. New York Acad. Sci., (2), II: 60-68. Murray, B. G., Jr., 1967 — Dispersal in vertebrates. Ecology, 48: 975-978. Nikolosky, G. V., 1963 — The Ecology of Fishes. Academic Press, New York. Orton, G. L., 1954 — Original adaptive significance of the tetrapod limb. Science, 120: 1042-1043. Romer, a. S., 1939 — An amphibian graveyard. Scient. Monthly, 49; 337-339. - , 1958 — Tetrapod limbs and early tetrapod life. Evolution, 12: 365-369. - , 1966 — V ertebrate Paleontology. 3rd ed., Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. - ^ 1967 — Major steps in vertebrate evolution. Science, 158: (3809): 1629- 1637. Schmalhausen, I. L, 1957 — [Biological basis of the origin of the tetrapods]. Izvest. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., 1 : 3-30 (in Russian) . - — , 1968 — The Origin of Terrestrial Vertebrates. Academic Press, New York. Smith, H. M., 1945 — The freshwater fishes of Siam or Thailand. Bull. U.S. Nail. Mus., 188: 1-622. Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Annual Meeting, San Angelo, Texas, March 5-7, 1970 Section I— Mathematical Sciences Friday Morning, March 6 INTRODUCING A STUDENT TO NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS — Gerald Pitts and Paul B. Crawford, Texas Petroleum Research Committee, Texas A&M University, College Station. Many scientific and engineering problems solved by computer require solution of the Laplace, Poission or Fourier equation. Textbooks are available and many methods are suggested for numerical solutions of these equations. The purpose of this paper is to propose that the student be given detailed instruction in the use of 4 methods. These are: Liebmann, alternating direction implicit procedure, matrix inversion, and banded matrix techniques. These methods have been found to constitute a very powerful portfolio for hand¬ ling these types of problems. Although many other methods may be tried in the process, it is not unexpected to find a student returning to one of the above methods to achieve satisfactory answers to one of his problems. SOME PROPERTIES OF LEFT IDEALS IN REGULAR AND BIREGULAR RINGS — John Bailey, Angelo State University, San Angelo. The discussion will consist of properties of left ideals in regular and biregular rings which are analogues to certain known properties of 2-sided ideals in these rings. INDEPENDENCE OF QUADRATIC FORMS IN NORMAL VARIABLES— T. A. Watkins and T. L. Boullion, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Let Y be an n X 1 vector of normal random variables with mean g and covariance matrix V, of rank r < n. Let A and B be symmetric n X n matrices and let C be an m X matrix. Theorem 1: If A is positive semi-definite then Y'AY and Y'BY are stochastically independent if AVBV == 0 and AVBjU — 0. Theorem 2: Y'AY and CY are independent if Y'AY and Y'C'CY are independent if CVAV = 0 and CVA/i = 0. Theorem 3: Y'AY and Y'BY are independent if VAVBV = 0, VAVB/i = 0, /x'AVBV =: 0, and /x'AVB/x = 0. BASE TWO, ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE AND MAGIC POEMS— Ali R. Amir-Moez, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. A natural number can be written uniquely as a sum of powers of 2. This is the way a number is expressed in base 2. This mathematical fact allows us to choose a quatrain, i.e., a 4 line poem and make a magic poem out of it. This is done by establishing a correspondence between the set (n:l 0) is taken. Direct classical calculations confirm this assumption and also produce the result obtained from the quantum results by setting h = 0. For example, in the recollision processes (12)(13)(12) in 2 dimensions and (12)(13)(14)(12) in 3 dimensions, the weak-coupling limit has physical meaning provided that each interaction (Ik), k = 2,3,4, is taken in the Bom approximation, i.e. to order This implies a Xs calculation in two dimensions instead of the X^ calculation done by S. Fuiita(l) and a Xs calculation in three dimensions instead of the Xs calculation done by R. H. Williams and J. Weinstock (2). On the other hand comparison shows complete agreement between our results in the quantum case and earlier results proposed in the classical case by other authors (3). Agreement also exists with an earlier result in the quantum case proposed by J. Weinstock (4). (1) S. Fugita (a) Phys. Letters, 22: 425, 1965; (b) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.), 56: 16, 196. (2) R. H. Williams and J. Weinstock, Phys. Rev., 169: 196, 1968. (3) See e.g. K. Kawasaki and I. Oppenheim, (a) Phys. Rev., 159: 1763, 1965; (b) Statistical Mechanics, T. A. Bak ed., W. A. Benjamin, Inc., N.Y. 1967, p, 321. (4) J. Weinstock, Phys. Rev. Letters, 17: 130, 1966. * Research supported in part by Comisaria General de Proteccion Escolar (Spain) and in part by NSF-USDP Grant GU-1598. HOLOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES FOR VARIABLE SENSITIVITY OPTICAL INTERFEROMETRY — Otto M. Friedrich, Jr., Frederic Weigl,* and Arvin A. Dougal, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Variable sensitiivty optical interferometry is achieved with recently developed holographic techniques. Multipass or fringe multiplication techniques are utilized in 2-beam optical interferometry to provide increased sensitivity. A multiple-pass, double-exposure, non-diffuse, holographic interferometric technique has been devel¬ oped with improved spatial resolution and with less critical optical alignment. (1,2) To achieve multipasses of the “test” beam through the experimental medium, a lossy, coupled resonant cavity is formed around the experimental medium by 2 274 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE parallel, partially reflecting miri'ors which are perpendicular to the test beam. The original single “test” beam is transformed into a set of component test beams, each having passed through the experimental medium a different number of times. If the spacing between the 2 parallel, resonant cavity mirrors is greater than half the coherence length of the laser employed and the length of the “reference” beam is matched to the path length of the particular component of the test beam desired, a holographic interferogram is formed with that component test beam only. The resulting reconstructed image will show an interference pattern with increased sensitivity. Two (or more) reference beams can be used to record 2 (or more) holographic interferograms having different fringe multiplications simultaneously on the same film plate. Finite-fringe as well as the infinite-fringe interference patterns can be produced in conjunction with this technique. Fringe multiplications up to 6 have thus far been demonstrated in our laboratory using a pulsed argon laser source. In other investigations a single, 2- wavelength laser pulse is employed in the holographic recording process to produce up to twice the sensitivity or to produce extremely insensitive (decreased sensitivity) results when compared with previous interferometric techniques. In our research laboratory, plasma diagnostic applica¬ tions are being emphasized at this time. REFERENCES 1. F. Wiegl, O. M. Friedrich, Jr., and A. A. Dougal, “Fringe Multiplication in Dark-Field Holographic Interferometry,” paper 16.8, 1969 IEEE Conference on Laser Engineering and Applications, Washington, D.C., May 25-28, 1969. 2. F. Weigl, O. M. Friedrich, Jr., and A. A. Dougal, “Multiple-Pass, Non-Diffuse Holographic Interferometry,” Journal of Quantum Electronics (accepted for publication, January, 1970). * Present address: Collins Radio Co., Dallas, Texas. K X-RAY ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF Ni IN SOME Ni COMPOUNDS— D. Chopra and H. Keith, East Texas State University, Commerce. MESIC ATOMS AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS— Y. N. Kim, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Throughout this paper the terms “mesons” and “mesic atoms” are loosely used to include any negative particles such as muons, mesons, hypsrons, etc. and the atoms obtained by replacing electrons in ordinary atoms by one of these negative particles. The large mass of mesons compared to electrons allows mesic atoms to exhibit different characteristics. For example, the meson orbits are closer to the nucleus so that the effects of the finite extension of the nuclear charge and of vacuum polariza¬ tion will produce significant energy level shifts. The usefulness of negative mesons in mesic atoms as nuclear probes has been recognized from the early days of research on mesic atoms. Of all mesic atoms, muonic atoms are most extensively investigated and the results obtained have reached a high degree of sophistication. A muon, which is a Dirac particle, and a nucleus as a charge distribution interact through the well-understood electromagnetic interaction and accurate calculations can be done of the properties of muonic atoms. Pionic and kaonic atoms are different from muonic atoms in several ways. First we have to use the Klein-Gordon equation instead of the Dirac equation. The most ABSTRACTS 275 important difference, however, is the existence of a strong interaction between the orbital particles and the nucleus in pionic and kanoic atoms. The strong interaction results in energy level shifts and a broadening of line width in addition to the changes in the cascade scheme. The study of pionic and kaonic atoms, however, enables us to probe the nuclear mass distribution while in muonic atoms only nuclear charge distribution is determined. Saturday Morning, March 7. Division B. DEFORMATION POTENTIAL SCATTERING OF HOT ELECTRONS IN NON¬ PARABOLIC BANDS — D. K. Ferry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. The interaction of the light hole band with the conduction band in narrow gap semiconductors leads to a non-parabolic conduction band. The use of the usual formulations of the average scattering time for momentum relaxation leads to an overestimate of the increase of carrier energy with electric fields. For long wave¬ length acoustic phonons, the matrix element for deformation potential scattering remains approximately valid, and scattering rates for this mechanism can be calcu¬ lated. Calculations are presented which yield the dependence of the carrier temper¬ ature for a Maxwellian distribution and the electron drift mobility as a function of the applied electric field. The dependence of the momentum relaxation rate varies from the T^Vz variation found in parabolic bands. The carrier energy is found to increase less rapidly with the electric field, but the mobility decreases more rapidly^ with electric field than for the case of parabolic bands. THE RELATIONSHIP OF METRIC COEFFICIENTS TO PERMEABILITY AND PERMITTIVITY — Michael R. Puryear, University of Houston, Houston^ THE PRESSURE DERIVATIVES OF THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF LiCl AND RbCl* — W. N. Potter, R. W. Watson, and R. A. Bartels, Trinity Uni¬ versity, San Antonio. The pressure derivatives of the elastic stiffness constants of LiCl and RbCl have- been measured using the ultrasonic pulse-echo technique. The values at room tem¬ perature and zero pressure are: dB/dP dC/dP dC'/dP LiCl 4.99 1.60 3.63 RbCl 5.24 — .61 5.53 where the notation B = (C,, + 2C,2)/3, C = C44, C = - — C^2)/2 has used. These results in combination with previous results for NaCl and KCl allow for a systematic study of the elastic properties of all of the alkali chlorides having the NaCl structure. Such a study has been made using a Bom-May er model with the cohesive energy consisting of two parts: Coulomb interactions between all ions and short-range repulsive interactions between nearest-neighbors only. In using the- above model to account for the elastic constants and their pressure derivatives the main difficulty is in the shear constant C. Miller and Smith (1) encountered a similar situation in studying LiF and NaF. REFERENCES 1. R. A. Miller and C. S. Smith, /. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25: 1279 (1961). * Work supported by the Robert A. Welch Foimdation, Houston, Texas. 276 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A RUBI¬ DIUM-AMMONIA SOLUTION BY AN ELECTRODELESS METHOD— Robert L. Davis, Del Mar College, Corpus Christi. LUNAR EXPLORER 35: MEASUREMENT OF DUST PARTICLES IN SELENOCENTRIC SPACE DURING NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER OF 1967-1968 — W. M. Alexander and Charlene Arthur, Baylor University, Waco. DYNAMICS OF LUNAR EJECTA IN CISLUNAR SPACE RELATED TO THE 1967-1968 GEMINID METEOR STREAM— Charlene Arthur and W. M. Alexander, Baylor University, Waco. GASEOUS DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS AT TEXAS WOMAN’S UNI¬ VERSITY — J. T. Matthews, Texas Woman's University, Denton. DEATH PERCEPTION IN PLANTS— Ronald Miller, Trinity University, San Antonio. SOME STUDENT COMPUTER EXERCISES IN SOPHOMORE THERMO¬ DYNAMICS — John H. Harper, North Texas State University, Denton. Two exercises using an IBM 1620 computer are described. They are directed at the student’s appreciation of certain aspects of introductory kinetic theory and thermodynamics. Students punch their own data, but no programming ability is required. Besides analyzing the results, they are asked specific questions related to the theory and program. The path of a molecule in an ideal gas is plotted in the first exercise. Studetns supply data describing the system and a pair of random numbers for each segment of the path, which determine the direction and length of the segment. This provides a visual appreciation of the various paths, concept of mean free path, and statistics of free paths. In the second exercise, the work done, heat absorbed, internal energy change and entropy change for an ideal gas is computed along several parabolic paths con¬ necting the same initial and final values of volume and temperature supplied by the student. Approximating the curves by a succession of isothermal and adiabatic curves, the student sees directly that some values are independent of the path and checks the results by theoretical calculations. A MILLISECOND TIMING SYSTEM FOR A PHYSICS LABORATORY— H. E. Hall, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. APPLICATION OF THE MILLISECOND TIMING SYSTEM TO EXPERI¬ MENTS WITH THE AIR TRACK— C. K. Manka, Sam Houston State Uni¬ versity, Huntsville. USE OF THE AIR TRACK TO DETERMINE POTENTIAL ENERGY AND FORCE FUNCTIONS — Roy H. Biser, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont. Section III — Earth Science Friday Morning, March 6. ABSTRACTS 277 NAGT NEW DEVELOPMENTS SEMINAR— T. H. Foss, Geology Branch, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston. Geology training for project Apollo astronauts has consisted of 2 distinct phases. The first phase included general training in a wide spectrum of geological topics and contained approximately 130 hours of classroom instruction and 30 days of field trips over a period of about one year. The second phase begins when astronauts are assigned to a flight crew for a specific mission, and consists of approximately 25 hours of classroom instruction and 10 days of field trips. This 2nd phase includes some refresher material, but concen¬ trates mainly on the geology of the lunar landing site that the crew expects to visit, and instruction in sampling procedures and the use of lunar hand tools and instru¬ ments. Simulations of lunar surface activities on training field trips involve the use of large scale aerial photographs (1:5000) and complete radio and tape recorder systems to transmit and record the astronauts’ observations. The tapes are transcribed and critiqued by geology instructors for a post-trip debriefing. An increasingly important facet of flight crew training is a detailed presentation of data and interpretations from previous lunar landing missions. NEW GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES IN THE SEARCH FOR THE EARTH’S RESOURCES — D. L. Amsbury, Earth Resources Division, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston. During the past 5 years, several new techniques have become available for reconnaissance mapping of resources. Small-scale color and color infrared photo¬ graphs taken from spacecraft and high-altitude aircraft provide new insight into regional structures, geomorphology, and soil distribution. Side-looking radar imagery provides a similar regional view of the terrain, with the added advantages of a pre¬ selected shadow direction and a capability to view the terrain at night and through fog or clouds. Infrared imagery from airborne-optical-mechanical scanners has proven useful for monitoring volcanic activity, geothermal fields, and water mass movements. NASA is sponsoring research by the U.S. Geological Survey and several universities in the geological applications of these new techniques, in data handling and data processing methods, and in potential future techniques for studying earth materials in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and microwave portions of the electro¬ magnetic spectrum, ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY FOR THE UNDERGRADUATE— R. E. Boyer, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES ON SEA-FLOOR SPREADING— Robert E. Boyer, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Some similar problems plague college and university introductory geology courses and earth science programs in secondary schools. Prime among them are: 1 ) failure to place earth processes and resources in the perspective of their interplay with man, 2) inadequate incorporation of up-to-date scientific discoveries in class¬ room materials, and 3) lack of sufficient student involvement and inquiry orienta¬ tion in subject matter coverage. A sequence of activities on the sea-floor spreading hypothesis is designed to allevi¬ ate these shortcomings. Students are first given data on sounding times for a traverse across the mid-Atlantic ridge and asked to compute ocean depths and draw a sea- 278 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE floor profile. Examination of the profile reveals topographic symmetry about a rift in the ridge center. Radiometric ages of the rocks and findings on paleomagnetic pole reversals are then supplied; these fortify the pattern of symmetry. Students are then asked to summarize possible methods of ridge development from these data. Ridge growth by a spreading mechanism — with new rock added in the central zone — emerges as a favored alternative. Reversing this process (and closing the ocean) results in juxtaposition of Africa and Europe with South America and North America. Students cut out the 5 continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean and piece them together as a megacontinent. The close fit is noted as more than fortuity. Attention is then focused on North America to seek evidence of westward drift. Comparison of the east- and west-coast shorelines is made from highway road maps. A relatively straight west coast (leading continental edge) contrasts with the highly irregular east coast (trailing edge). Concentration of seismic activity along the Pacific coastline of North America further testifies to westvv^ard drift. The sequence concludes by plotting recent mountain chains (including volcanic peaks) of North America and noting their occurrence in a belt along the west coast. URBAN GEOLOGY— A VEHICLE FOR RELEVANCE IN GEOLOGICAL EDU¬ CATION — O. T. Hayward, Baylor University, Waco. Friday Afternoon, March 6. UNDERGROUND FLUID DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCIES— Gerald N. Pitts and Paul B. Crawford, Texas A&M University, College Station. A study has been made to determine the area swept by the injection of water into various underground well patterns. For example, it is widely accepted that the areal sweep efficiency for the 5-spot well pattern is near 72% for uniform homogeneous rock and a fluid viscosity ratio of one. This present study was made using a hetero¬ geneous rock system, and it was found that for heterogeneous rock the sweep ef¬ ficiency might be reduced by as much as 50%. It depends to a great extent on the variation in permeability ratios. A number of patterns have been studied. SIMULATING FLOW THROUGH PERMEABLE STRATA*— Gerald N. Pitts and Paul B. Crawford, Texas Petroleum Besearch Committee, Texas A&M University, College Station. A description is given of a new' model for simulating flow through permeable, heterogeneous strata. In the new model a stratum is composed of contiguous blocks having an overall permeability distribution similar to that given by conventional coring and laboratory analysis of the cores. The permeable blocks are then distributed randomly and the resulting flow is studied. The pressure distribution is not uniform, and the flow is shown to meander through the stratum. The model is believed to correspond more closely to actual conditions than the normally used layered-concept. * Note — This abstract of a paper given at the 1969 Annual Meeting was inad¬ vertently omitted from the published abstracts of that meeting (Texas Journal of Science, Vol. 21, No. 3, Feb. 5, 1970). SIMULATING GEOLOGIC STRATA FOR FLUID FLOW— B. L. Bateman, D. D. Drew, and P. B, Crawford, Texas A&M University, College Station. The purpose of this paper is to propose a method for mathematical simulation of ABSTRACTS 279 permeable geologic strata for the study of fluid flow problems. Commencing with a permeability distribution curve obtained by core analysis, the associated rock porosi¬ ties and capillary pressure curves, one proceeds to combine these with fluid properties and physical laws to represent heterogeneous porous media. The model has been applied to several problems and emphasizes the wide ranges to be expected in maxi¬ mum, minimum and average rock properties and fluid saturations in various wells drilled into the same reservoir. leran glacial complex. Resulting glacial landforms are as varied as the pre-Pleisto- cene topography. The highest mountains in the region are in the Okanogan Range, a north-south trending spur of the main Northern Cascade Range. The Pleistocene story of the Okanogan Range largely is one of glacial lakes and ice marginal streams. The high¬ est summit areas as far south as Buck Mountain were nunataks at times of maximum ice advance. The southernmost cirque, cut into the north face of Granite Mountain, has a floor at approximately 6400 feet. Present snowline is above the highest peaks in the range which reach 8700 feet. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HYPERSALINITY IN BAFFIN BAY, TEXAS— E. William Behrens, University of Texas Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas. The northwest Gulf of Mexico is characterized by terrigenous sediments except in the hypersaline bays of south Texas where calcium carbonate is precipitated as marls and oolitic sands. The transition from a normal estuary to a hypersaline bay was accompanied by a drastic restriction of the fauna. Radiocarbon dates place this event at about 4,000 years B.P. The elevation and nature of the material dated sug¬ gest that this portion of the Texas coast is very stable or has undergone very slight uplift during the Holocene. MONTHLY SEDIMENT VARIATIONS IN TWO TEXAS ESTUARIES— R. H. Parker, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth. TRANSIENT POTENTIALS ABOUT WELLS IN COMPOSITE CIRCULAR SYSTEMS — Barry L. Bateman and Paul B. Crawford, Texas Petroleum Re¬ search Committee, Texas A&M University, College Station. A study has been made of the transient potential about a well located in a com¬ posite circular system. The permeable diffusivity in one circular zone differs from that in another. It is required that the potential and flux be the same at the interface. The system is initially at a uniform potential and suddenly the potential is lowered at the well. The resulting transients are desired. Example solutions and methods are presented. * Note — This abstract of a paper given at the 1969 Annual Meeting was in¬ advertently omitted from the published abstracts of that meeting (Texas Journal of Science, Vol. 21, No. 3, Feb. 5, 1970). EVALUATION OF A LOCAL EFFORT TO LOCATE AND COLLECT METE¬ ORITES — R. L. Harris and J. R. Craig, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. PiADIUS OF THE EARTH’S CORE — D. H. Shurbet, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. ANOMALIES OF BASEMENT STRUCTURES BENEATH LLANO ESTACADO — G. R. Keller, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 280 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DETECTING ACTIVE FAULTS ON THE TEXAS COASTAL PLAIN— L. J. Turk and R. O. Kehle, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY IN NORTH-CENTRAL WASHINGTON.— Fred J. J. Menzer, Jr., Southern Methodist University, Dallas. The highly varied physiography of north-central Washington includes rolling highlands, mountain ranges, broad valleys and narrow gorges, and the northern part of the Columbia Plateau. Most of this region was covered by ice of the Cordil- VARIATION IN GRAIN-SIZE PARAMETERS AMONG THREE COMPUTA¬ TIONAL PROCEDURES — R. Steinmetz, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth. Two modem sand samples, approximately 60 grams each, were sieved on a Ro-Tap. One sample was from a sand bar in the Arkansas River below Tulsa, Oklahoma; the other, from the Monahans dunes in west Texas. Screen sizes used represented a interval from 4000 p. to 63 p. Grain size parameters — mean (X), standard deviation (s), skewness (Sk), and kurtosis (K) — were calculated by 13 students taking an advanced sedimentation course at T.C.U. Each of the parameters was calculated by three different methods — moments, Inman (1952) percentiles, and Folk and Ward (1957) percentiles. Seven students independently performed the necessary calculations and graphical plots with the data from the river sand. Six other students did the same with the dune sand data. This led ot 21 estimates (3 methods X 7 students) for each of the grain size parameters for the river sand. Similarly 18 estimates of size parameters were generated for the dune sand. Overall results are as follows: X RIVER SAND coarse (N = 21) (0.484 0) DUNE SAND fine (N = 18) (2.146 0) s Sk K moderate toward coarse normal to (0.937 0) ( — 0.061) slightly flatter well toward fines slightly flatter (0.39 0) (+0.066) to slightly peaked When the results of grain size parameters calculated by the three different methods are compared there is a wide range of answers. The relative spread of answers is summarized in the following table. METHOD ^ , SAMPLE X s Sk K Moments River V. narrow Wide V. narrow Wide Dune All coincide Narrow Wide V. wide Inman River Wide Wide Narrow V. narrow Dune Wide Wide V. wide V. narrow FoIk& River V. wide Wide V. wide Narrow Ward Dune Narrow Wide Narrow V. narrow * Department of Geology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 76129. Within any parameter column above, for either sample, there are no statistically significant differences among the three methods. However, the range of individual answers, particularly for Sk, is large enough to place the sample in various incorrect fields when using Friedman’s method (1961, 1962) for distinguishing depositional environments. ABSTRACTS 281 The present study shows that results are influenced by the statistical method used. Therefore grain size parameters calculated by one method can only be compared with other results obtained by the same method. The moment method is preferred because it yields the most reproducible results, avoids graphical errors, and uses all the raw data. A PHYLLODONT TOOTH PLATE FROM THE LOWER CRETACEOUS OF TEXAS — G. D. Johnson, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. CURIOUS INTERNAL MOLDS ASSOCIATED WITH UPPER CRETACEOUS FISHES — D. Gillette, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. AN ENCHODID FISH FROM THE AUSTIN CHALK OF TEXAS— E. Willimon, Bishop College, Dallas. Section IV— Biological Sciences Friday Morning, March 6. Division A. SINGLE CELL SUSPENSION POPULATIONS OF HORDEUM DISTICHUM CALLUS FORMATIONS — A. W. Cockerline, C. H. Granatek, and A. Knight, Texas Woman's University, Denton. The in vivo, in situ development of early differentiating embryos of Hordeum distichum (a 2-rowed barley) over a period of 10 days was compared to the corre¬ sponding formation of callus by these embryos in 3 different culture media. Single cell suspensions prepared from both in vivo and in vitro material on successive days were analyzed with a Coulter Counter Model B and Model H Particle Size Distri¬ bution Plotter. The cellular data was also correlated to the overall growth pattern of the embryos as in part determined by daily size measurements. The technique developed for the cell separations is presented in this report. This approach to the cellular analysis of callus formation is characterized as to counting efficiency, sensitivity, and its limitations. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON MITOCHONDRIA WITH UNUSUAL CRISTAE — Ricardo Morales, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Gal¬ veston. EXERCISE EKG’s IN YOUNG WOMEN USING BIOTELEMETRIC METHODS — James R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. MORTALITY OF PENAEID SHRIMP CAUSED BY MALATHION— Fred S. Conte, Howard G. Applegate, and James C. McNeill, IV, Texas A&M Uni¬ versity, College Station. In the summer of 1969, 3 tests were conducted on the effects of aerial application of malathion, in concentrations used in mosquito control, on the commercial shrimp Penaeus setiferus (Linn.) and Penaeus aztecus (Ives). The areas chosen for the test were established nursery areas, for both species of shrimp, located in shallow bay sloughs in a high salinity marsh, west of West Bay, Texas. Two test plots and 2 control plots were used, each separated by approximately 0.5 to 1 mile of marsh and water. Juvenal shrimp ranging in size from 75 to 120 mm were obtained from local bait barges and enclosed in boxes constructed from 2" by 2" wood framing, covered 282 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE with mesh hardware cloth. Two boxes containing shrimp were submerged in each test and control plot and allowed to acclimate for 48 hours. Water samples and shrimp samples were taken from the capture site ; from the test and control plots before application of malathion; and, from each plot of test #1 and #3 after the application of malathion. These samples were immediately placed on ice, then transported to the laboratory where they were analyzed for pesticide content. Pesti¬ cide concentrations were determined by gas-liquid chromatography. Temperature and salinity were taken during each sample period. The test plots were sprayed with Technical Grade Malathino, 3 oz/acre from a 235 horsepower Piper Pawnee, PA 25 at a height of 30 ft. at 90 miles per hour. In all 3 tests it was demonstrated that aerial application of malathion, in concen¬ trations used in mosquito control, can be detrimental to the commercial shrimp Penaeus setiferus and Penaeus aztecus in nursery areas. Mortalities ranged from 14% to 80% depending on tidal activity and the physical conformation of the body of water sprayed. In the 3 tests only 2 shrimp died in the control plots. Neither death was attributed to malathion. Water analysis demonstrated the highest concen¬ tration of malathion present in the test plots to be 4 ppm. No' attempt was made to compare the susceptibility of either species to malathion, as the effect of the pesticide is altered with the changes in the physical parameters of each test. THE REACTION OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, TO PHENOL IN RIO-ASSAY AND BEHAVIORAL TESTS— Geoffrey A. Matthews, University of Houston, Houston. STUDIES ON BLOOD CELL TYPES AND CLOTTING REACTIONS IN A SELECTED CRUSTACEAN {CAMBARUS SP.)— Willie M. Clark, Bishop College, Dallas. Cell types, phagocytosis, and clotting of the coelomic fluid of this fresh water cray¬ fish were studied. Microscopic observations revealed the existence of 3 distinct kinds of cells in coelomic fluid of this organism. One-half hour after injections of India ink into the coelomic cavity, small amounts of ink particles appeared in the refractile granular amoebocytes. Vital staining with safranin gave a negative result. Fuchsin stained the thig- mocytes. Methylene blue stained all cell types. Neutral red stained the thigmocytes, but gave a negative result to the leucocytes and amoebocytes. Salts of the same concentration were used. Potassium and calcium chloride noticeably decreased the time required for clotting and formalin retarded clotting indefinitely. Clotting apparently involved both the cellular elements and the plasma. The origin of fibrin seems to have been a function of the thigmocytes and amoebocytes, however, all cell types were involved in the process of coagulation. Ail cell types underwent cytolysis, and the end-point of clotting was reached at an average time of 120 seconds after the fluid was removed from the body cavity. DEVELOPMENT OF SIPHONARIA PECTIN AT A (GASTROPODA)— Edward P. Burke, Texas A&M University, College Station. HYDROIDS OF GALVESTON BAY— Richard Defenbaugh, Texas A&M Uni¬ versity, College Station. A study of apprxoimately 190 collections of hydroids from the Galveston Bay, ABSTRACTS 283 Texas, area resulted in the tentative identification of 32 species of hy droids, repre¬ senting 18 genera in 10 families. At least 4 of the species present may be undescribed. Several range extensions and new locality records are included. The hy droid fauna was artificially divided into 3 categories; a “sargassum fauna,” an “invertebrate epifauna,” and a “general hydroid fauna.” Species lists were pre¬ sented and briefly discussed. It was suggested that the paucity of hydroids in this area, when compared to the faunas of other areas, is due to a scarcity of suitable substrata and the occasional occurrence of rapid, large-scale temperature and/or salinity changes in the bay and inshore areas. SYSTEMATICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE MORMON CRICKET GENUS ANABRUS (ORTHOPTERA, TETTIGONIIDAE)— Johy R. Hilliard, Jr., Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. GERM CELLS OF THE MALE COLORADO POTATO BEETLE— William J. Dobson, Texas A&M University, Everett E. Simmons, University of Texas at Austin, Jerry W. Shay, University of Kansas. The morphology and the development of the spermatids and spermatozoa in the male Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata were studied by correlative microscopy' (electron, light, and phase microscopy). Electron microscope material was fixed in glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide, and post stained in uranyl ace¬ tate and lead citrate. The light microscope material was fixed in Bauer’s Fixative, embedded in paraffin, and stained with safranin-fast green. The phase contrast ma¬ terial was examined in Belar’s insect saline, and moderately squashed to facilitate spreading. Germ cell sources were the testes in the male and the spermatheca of the female. Upon opening the abdominal cavity in male Colorado potato beetles, the entire reproductive tract can be seen. The prominent, individually bilobed bodies located in the anterior portion of the abdomen are the testes. Each testicular lobe is connected to a minute vas efferens which joins the vas deferens. Anterior to the testes, the vas deferens unites with an accessory gland before joining with the other vas deferens and forming the ejaculatory duct. Posteriorly the ejaculatory duct passes into the aedeagus. The spermatheca is a diverticulum of the female reproduc¬ tive tract connected to the posterior portion of the common ovidutc, and it is the storage organ for the spermatozoa which are received during copulation with the male. The spermatheca is a good source of mature spermatozoa which cannot always be found in testicular tissue. In light microscopy of the testis has two groups of follicles surrounded by ensheathing epithelial cells which cause them to appear non- divided and kidney shaped. The follicle groups are made up of many sperm tubes which radiate from a central hub. Sperm cells develop in sperm cysts within each follicle and mature in successive stages from the periphery to the region which is connected to the vas efferens. The germ cells in each cyst are all at approximately the same stage of development. Phase contrast microscopy has the advantage of allowing the investigator to observe the living spermatoza and is especially useful for observations of flagellar motility as well as the different means by which round spermatids transform into long, slender spermatozoa. The mitochondrial nebenkern split into the two spherical mitochondrial derivatives which will elongate on each side of the axial filament. Electron microscopy offers certain resolution advantages in investigating many aspects of spermiogenesis in Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Elongating spermatozoa which show acrosome, nucleus, mitochondrial derivatives 284 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE and axial filaments are easily observed. The developing spermatids clearly show two centrioles in Leptinotarsa. Studies of developing and mature insect spermatozoa by correlative microscopy (electron, light, and phase contrast) can yield tremendous amounts of information relative to the derivation and function of the various parts. Friday Morning, March 6. Division B. BURROWING ACTIVITIES OF POCKET GOPHERS (GEOMYS BURSARIUS) IN EAST TEXAS — D. L. Wilkinson and E. D. Michael, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. HYBRIDIZATION IN THE FOX GENUS VULPES IN WEST TEXAS— W. A. Thornton, G. C. Creel, and R. E. Trimble, Angelo State University, San Angelo. Additional distribution records are given for foxes in the genus Vulpes in western Texas. Kit fox populations in Texas are shown to differ significantly in cranial char¬ acteristics. The 2 populations are taxonomically distinct. Probable interspecific hybridization is described between the red fox Vulpes fulva, and the desert kit fox V. macrotis. Descriptions of probable first generation hybrids are given and 2 possible isolating mechanisms are considered. BRAIN ACTIVITY DURING ANIMAL HYPNOSIS— W. R. Klemm, Texas A<&M University, College Station. CORRELATION OF TRANSIENT BEHAVIORAL CHANGES WITH ELECTRO¬ LYTIC BRAIN LESIONS, AS DETERMINED BY INFRARED PHOTOG¬ RAPHY — E, W. Oxley and W. R. Klemm, Texas A&M University, College Station. ECONOMICS OF USING STILBESTROL FOR FEEDER STEERS— V. M. Harris, The M. G. and Johnny e D. Perry Foundation, Robstown. The Perry Foundation has completed 5 years of study on the value of using diethylstilbestrol for cattle finishing. Good feeder steers were used. Thirty head of steers were randomly selected for each of 2 identical (60x90 feet) concrete paved pens used each year. Each pen (all animals) received the same ration of 75% ground milo, 10% guar meal (35% protein), and 15% cottonseed hulls. Salt, bone meal, vitamin “A” palmitate and aureomycin were included. The steers in one of these pens received 2 15 mg. pellets of stilbestrol ear implants at start of each test. The steers in the other pen got no stilbestrol. All feed was weighed and recorded daily for each pen. Average cattle weights (for each pen) were determined at 28- day intervals. The average period of the test for the 5 yr was 123 days. Every weigh period for all years, the cattle that had stilbestrol showed better average daily gain and less feed per lb. of gain. Stilbestrol implants was the only known variable. Steers getting stilbestrol averaged eating 130.4 lbs. more feed per 123 day period but gained 40.43 lbs. more weight. Using the average on-foot sale price of 26.4 cents per lb., the extra gain returned $10.67 more per animal. The extra feed at S2.28 per cwt. cost $2.97. The average cost of the stilbestrol was 20 cents plus 13 cents per head. The total extra cost for implanting equaled $3.30 per head. This indicates a net gain of $7.37 in favor of stilbestrol. SOME EFFECTS OF THYROXINE ON THE CARBON DIOXIDE AND OSYGEN REQUIREMENTS FOR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHICKS— Bettye Austins and Willie M. Clark, Bishop College, Dallas. ABSTRACTS 285 FISH OTOLITH ASSEMBLAGE OF A GASTROLITHIC BEACH GRAVEL— Mark A. Dixon, Mobil Research and Development Corporation, Field Research Laboratory, Dallas. The richest recorded sample of fish otoliths, most of which are pelican gastroliths, was collected at the shoreline of a “mudlump” island in the lower Mississippi delta. This gravel is dominated by slightly worn ear-stones of sea catfish, common croakers, and sea trout, with abundant sand-sized ear-stones of a tropical gadoid which was previously almost unrecorded in Louisiana. The remainder of the 6400+ otoliths make up a rich, poly-environmental assemblage ranging from freshwater catfishes and killifishes to conger eels and deep-sea brotulids of anomalous origin. A complex food chain which includes Homo sapiens as an intermediate host is deduced from the character of this unique vertebrate assemblage. FOOD HABITS OF SNAKES IN A TEXAS STATE FISH HATCHERY— John L. Malloy and Fred L. Rainwater, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacog¬ doches. OLIGODENDROGLIA A MISNAMED ENTITY— Donald Cuncan, Murray Mathews and Gary B. Dunkerley, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. SITES OF ACTION OF PINEAL REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS*— J. Ted Norris, Bryant Benson, and Mary Vaughan, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Melatonin, which in mammals has been isolated almost exclusively in the pineal gland, has been shown to decrease the compensatory growth of the remaining ovary following unilateral ovariectomy. The knowledge of this blocking action could be a valuable tool in postulating possible action sites of pineal secretions if the relationship of melatonin to compensatory hypertrophy could be quantitated. Therefore, a dose- response curve was derived using young adult Charles River Rats. On day one single intraperitoneal injections of diluent (3% ethanol and 97% saline) or log doses of melatonin were given to different groups of animals and the left ovary was removed and w^eighed. Ten to 12 days later (varying with separate experiments) the rats were sacrificed, autopsied, and the remaining ovary was weighed in order to com¬ pute its percentage hypertrophy. A linear dose-response curve was obtained with similar experiments indicating that the slope of that line was dependent upon the phase of the rat’s estrous cycle (blockage being greatest durnig diestrus, and least during proestrus). The ovary is the 2nd most common site that is discussed relative to some possible action site of the pineal gland and/or melatonin, the hypothalamic-hypophyseal system being a site commonly accepted. Both Wurtman’s 1964 radioisotope- labelled melatonin study and the ovarian hypertrophy that Pazo (1968) described following pinealectomy (even in hypophysectomized animals) have lent speculation to a direct action of the pineal upon the ovary. With this in mind, attention was turned to the ovary and melatonin injected directly into the ovarian capsule of unilaterally ovariectomized rats. Ten days later the compensatory hypertrophy of the remaining ovary corresponded almost perfectly with values obtained for the intraperitonael dose-resposne curve. This seems to indi¬ cate that there was no special effect directly upon the ovary but, rather, probably the same effect at some distant site or sites was produced after the melatonin was 286 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE taken up systematicaly. It may further imply that if melatonin has a direct relation¬ ship to the ovary it is not an anti reproductive one; and if the pineal has a direct anti-reproductive effect upon the ovary it is likely with another of its secretory products than melatonin. The common acceptance of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal complex as a pineal site has been obscured by Reiter’s suggestion (1969) that the medium of the pineal secretion might be via their common adjacency to the 3rd ventricle and cerebrospinal fluid rather than the blood vascular system. Results in thes eexperiments showed that significantly greater blockage was obtained (relative to linear intraperitoneal response) when melatonin was placed stereotaxically into the 3rd ventricle. The greatest blockage, however, came due to its injection into the common carotid artery which leads to the hypophyseal-portal system. It is impossible now to say whether the effects due to injection into the CSF might be due to uptake by the vascular system leading into the pituitary. * Supported by DHEW 5T01 GM 00459-10. Friday Afternoon, March 6. Division A. PLACENTAL FUNCTION IN THE HAMSTER*— H. Bellew and H. C. Brown- Intraocular ovarian isografts in male Strong A mice, after priming with luteiniz¬ ing hormone (LH), respond to luteotropin (LTH) by forming functional corpora lutea. This function is indicated by hyperemia whose duration is dose-responsive. Placentae were collected from golden hamsters {Cricetus auratus) on the 13th day of gestation. The tissue was homogenized, extracted with water, and centrifuged. This procedure was repeated 3 times and the supernatents pooled and lyophilized. The equivalent of 8 placentae (wet weight 290.8 mg/placenta) was administered daily for 3 days to each of 7 Strong A mice, primed with LH, and containing bi¬ lateral intraocular ovarian isografts. Four additional groups of mice served as con¬ trols; they received 5, 10, 20, and 40 /xg of prolactin (NIH-PS-8-ovine)f, respectively, for 3 days, from which a dose response curve was drawn. Presence of luteotropic activity in the 13-day placenta extracts was observed. The mean duration of hyperemia was 2.33 ±0.16 days. The control values for the 5, 10, 20, and 40 /xg of prolactin were 1.85 ± 0.14, 2.63 ± 0.15, 3.57 ± 0.18, and 4.18 ± 0.22 days, respectively. The 8-placenta dose was significantly higher than the 5 |tig dose of prolactin (p < 0.05), but was not significantly lower than the 10 /xg dose of prolactin (p < 0.2). From this preliminary investigation, it appears that there is luteotropic activity in the hamster placenta at late gestation. * Supported by NIH Contract 69-2195. f Generously supplied by the Endocrinology Study Section, National Institutes of Health. LUTEOTROPIC FUNCTION OF HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN*— D. K. Belsare and H. C. Browning, The University of Texas Dental Branch, Houston. Intraocular ovarian isografts in intact male mice develop mature follicles which, upon administration of 5 /xg LH (n i3 successive dosages) form corpora lutea which show functional hyperemia in the presence of LTH. The duration of such hyperemia is used to demonstrate luteotropic activity of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) ABSTRACTS 287 in the present report. The dosages of hormones used were 5 {xg of LH (NIH-B4- bo¥ine),f 10 /ig of prolactin (NIH-P-8=-ovine),t and 20 lU of HCG (APL, Ayerst). Groups of 10 intact male mice received bilateral intraocular grafts of % an ovary. Some of them received % of an anterior pituitary in the right anterior chamber (OP/0). Treatment with 3 daily dosages of HCG, starting on the 2nd day after luteinizing dose of LH, produces a DHR (duration of hyperemia) of 3.7 ± 0.12 days in ovarian isografts (0/0), and 6.5 ± 0.2 days in OP/0 isografts. It does not significantly differ from a DHR produced by prolactin in similar type of treatment (3.2 ± 0.17 and 6.2 ± 0.2). When a combination of HCG and prolactin is given, a DHR of 4 5 ± 0.17 and 7.0 ± 0.47 days is obtained in 0/0 and OP/0 isografts. Combined dosages of HCG and prolactin, given indefinitely, produce a DHR of 9.6 ± 0.35 and 12 ± 0.53 days in 0/0 and OP/0 isografts, respectively. Apparently no syner¬ gistic luteotropic activity between HCG and prolactin is observed with 3 dosages, but it is obvious with indefinite dosages. * Supported by NSF grant GB-6466 and NIH Contract 69-2195. f Generously supplied by the Endocrinology Study Section, National Institutes of Health. PRECOCIOUS VAGINAL OPENING IN THE MOUSE— L. E. Artman, B. C. Robison, and H. C. Browning, The University of Texas Dental Branch, Houston, Nine groups of female mice (C3H X Str A) were injected at age 5 days of post¬ natal life with Estradiol (1 and 10 fig), testosterone propionate (10 and 100 fig)^ and progesterone (1000 fig), singly and in various combinations. These were in¬ spected daily for the date of vaginal and eye openings. Three stages of vaginal opening are described: (1) a primitive temporary open¬ ing, consisting of a perforation in the epithelial plate over the vaginal orifice and an accumulation of exudate at the site (age in controls: 30 days; duration: 1 day); (2) an intermediate temporary opening, similar to the permanent opening which closes shortly after onset (age in controls: 37 days; duration: 1-2 days); (3) a final opening at age 39 days. This is persistent and is associated with the onset of puberty. Daily inspection revealed no change in the date of eye opening with treatment, opening occurring in all cases at age 13 days. Marked acceleration of the dates of vaginal opening were witnessed. The greatest effects were noted with administration of 10 /ig of Estradiol, either alone or in combination. Estradiol alone accelerated all 3 types of vaginal opening by 25-50%. Estradiol (1 and 10 fig) simultaneously in¬ jected with testosterone propionate (10 and 100 fig) and progesterone (100 tig) produced similar effects with the exception that the date of final vaginal opening- approached the control value with increases in the concentrations of the additional steroids. PLACENTAL LUTEOTROPIN IN THE MOUSE*— Jon T. Watsonf and H. C.. Browning, The University of Texas Dental Branch, Houston. Preliminary measurements of luteotropic activity in the mouse placenta were made. Methods involved a bioassay qualitative and quantitative for luteotropins (LTH). LTH produces hyperemia in developing corpora lutea in luteinizing hor¬ mone (LH) primed ovarian tissue transplanted to the anterior chamber of the eyes of intact male mice. Results are observed directly and duration of the hyperemia is dose-responsive. 288 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Placentae were collected from Strong A mice on the 12th and 13th day of gesta¬ tion. The tissue was homogenized, extracted with water, and centrifuged. The ex¬ traction and centrifugation were repeated 4 times and the supernatents pooled and lyophilized. Four or 8 placentae of day 12 (placental wet weight 42.8 mg) and 5 or 10 placentae of day 13 (placental wet weight 59.7 mg) were administered daily for 3 days to different groups of 8 test mice containing bilateral ovarian ocular trans¬ plants. Four additional groups of mice received doses of 5, 10, 20, or 40 /ig of NIH prolactin (NIH-PS-8-ovine) J serving as controls from which the standard curve was drawn. Condition of the grafts was recorded twice daily, beginning 3 days prior to administration of the extracts and continued until all hyperemia had disappeared. The presence of luteotropic activity was found in all 4 doses assayed, but more activity was present in the 12-day placentae. Mean duration of hyperemia was 1.39 ± 0.309 and 2.67 ± 0.363 days for the 4 and 8 placenta doses (day 12), and control values for prolactin were 1.44 ± 0.269, 2.65 ± 0.366, 3.72 ± 0.265, and 4.75 ± 0.340 days for 5, 10, 20, and 40 p,g daily doses, respectively. The 2 placental valuos differed significantly (p < 0.025) from each other, while the 4-placenta dose response did not differ from that of 5 fig prolactin (p > 0.5), and the 8-placenta dose did not differ significantly from the 10 /xg prolactin dose (p > 0.5). In the 13-day samples, mean duration of hyperemia was 1.33 ± 0.166 and 1.56 ± 0.100 days for the 5 and 10 placental equivalent doses, respectively, and control values for prolactin were 1.41 ± 0.176, 2.56 ± 0.327, 3.15 ± 0.380, and 4.39 ± 0.477 days, respectively. The 2 placental values did not differ significantly (p < 0.3), and neither differed sig¬ nificantly from the 5 jUg prolactin dose (p > 0.5 in each case). It appears, after preliminary investigation, that there is a luteotropic substance in the mouse placenta and that the levels of this substance may vary during gesta¬ tion. * Supported by NIH Contract 69-2195. f PHS Trainee, 5TL DE-00149-03. $ Generously supplied by the Endocrinology Study Section, National Institutes of Health. STUDIES ON LABYRINTHULA SPP. ASSOCIATED WITH DIPLANTHERA WRIGHTII — J. G. Makin, Texas A & M University^ College Station. Several species of Labyrinthula, including probably L. chattonii Dangeard have been studied by cultural methods. The beef serum-agar method of Watson (1957) was used. Labyrinthula was also induced to develop in the host plant Diplanthera wrightii by splitting the internodes of the rhizomes and culturing the slices on blood serum-agar plates. Labyrinthula spp cultured in this manner begins the develop¬ mental cycle from either cysts, biflagellate zoospores, or vegetative cells. Develop¬ ment includes stages identical to the genus Schizochytrium Goldstein and Belsky (1946,), and T hraustochytrium Sparrow (1936). Sporangial, plasmodial, and vege¬ tative stages are included in the developmental cycle, as well as the biflagellate zoo¬ spores, “spindle” cells, “net plasmodium,” and cysts. The group of the Labyrin- thulales is placed in the Fungi proper on the basis of the type of sporangia, zoospores, and cysts, and is joined directly to the Plasmodiophorales. COWBIRD PARASITISM AND NESTING SUCCESS OF LARK SPARROWS IN SOUTHERN OKLAHOMA — George A. Newman, Hardin-Simmons Univer- stiy, Abilene. ABSTRACTS 289 STUDIES ON A NEW SPECIES OF LABYRINTHULA ISOLATED FROM THAIS HAEMOSTOMA—^yucq A. Cox and John G. Mackin, Texas A&M University, College Station. Labyrinthula thaisi sp. n. was isolated from pieces of gill tissue of the marine gastropod Thais haemastoma Linne which were cultured on a 10% beef serum-agar medium (Watson’s medium). The developmental cycle was characterized by cysts which released excentrically nucleate spherical vegetative cells (average 7.1/^ in diameter). These vegetative cells underwent a series of nuclear divisions to form plasmodia or sporangia with thin or thick walls. Mature thick- walled sporangia sometimes contained up to 87 nuclei and were from 15 to 30/i in diameter. Uninucleate cleavage products of sporangia divided into diad, triad and tetrad cell formations. Thin walled sporangia normally became plastic and formed plasmodia. Thin walled sporangia and plasmodia contained less than 20 nuclei. Plasmodia were amoeboid-like in movement and cleaved off cells by either pinching off cells or vacuolating to isolate bits of cytoplasm each containing a nucleus. Spherical vegetative cells (average 6jj, in diameter) with a central nucleus glided over slime ways (^ .5fi thick) in a radial pattern away from the plasmodial- sporangial complex. A tetrad of cells was the normal division product of a centrally nucleated vegetative cell. Studies of sections of cultured gill tissue and of the visceral area of Thais haemas¬ toma did not reveal tissue invasion by L. thaisi. Two Labyrinthula-Vik.Q colonies were found growing on the mantle of Thais haemastoma and it is suggested that L. thaisi could live as a commensal on the mantle of the snail. HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES OF MONILIFORMIS DUBIUS (ACANTHOCEPH- ALA) — Kalman Horvath, Texas A&M University, College Station. STUDIES ON THE MECHANISM OF DNA REPLICATION IN BACILLUS SUBTILIS — Rosemarie W. Synek and Barry J. Erlick, Texas Christian Uni¬ versity, Fort Worth. SOME ULTRASTRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR DIVISIONS IN THE MYXOMYCETES ARCYRIA CINEREA AND STEMORITIS HERBATICA— Charles W. Mims, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON A NEW SOIL ALGAL GENUS, PSEUDOTET- RACYSTIS — Ronald D. Ameson, Texas A&M University, College Station. Pseudotetracystis, the tenative name given to a new soil algal genus, was isolated from soil samples collected near Texon, Texas. This alga has been maintained in a unialgal condition in Bolds Basal Medium with 3 X nitrogen for 6 months. It has most of the attributes of the genus Tetracystis, i.e., it is a coccoid green alga and has a single parietal chloroplast with a pyrenoid. It also possesses vegetative cell division (Fritsch, 1935) and forms tetrahedral tetrads (Brown and Bold, 1964) as a result of this division. The major difference between the proposed genus Pseudotetracystis and the genus Tetracystis is noted when the zoospores of the 2 genera are examined. The zoospore of Tetracystis is walled and the flagella are of equal length. Because this zoospore has a wall, the young cell remains ellipsoidal for a period of time upon quiescence of the zoospore. The zoospore of Pseudotetracystis is wall-less and consequently the 290 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE zoospore becomes spherical immediately upon quiescence. Pseudotetracystis zoospores also have 2 flagella of equal length. To supplement the information on zoospore characteristics obtained by phase microscopy, work is curerntly being undertaken to observe Pseudotetracysts zoo¬ spores under the Electron Microscope. Research to date indicates that Pseudotetracystis is a new soil algal genus. REFERENCES Brown, R. Malcolm, Jr. and Harold C. Bold, 1964 — Comparative studies of the algal genera Tetracystis and Chlorococcum. Phycological Studies V. Uni. Tex. Publ. No. 6417. Fritsch, F. E., 1935 — The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. 1. 791 pp. Cambridge. INFLUENCE OF LAS ON THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS— Thomas P. Dooley, Prairie View A & M College, Prairie View. EFFECTS OF VARIOUS OSMOTIC AGENTS ON ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS— Gerald G. Farr and W. E. Norris, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. DEVELOPMENTAL CYCLE FOR A NEW MARINE CHYTRID, PHLYCTO- CHYTRIUM MACKINI N. SP., (CHYTRIDIALES: PHLYCTIDIACEAE) FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO— James Ray, Texas A&M Universtiy, Col¬ lege Station. A new species of marine chytrid from the Gulf of Mexico, Phlyctochytrium mackini (Chy tridiales: Phlyctidiaceae), was grown from 2 samples of plankton col¬ lected at Galveston and Freeport, Texas. One series of cultures was grown from mixed plankton samples and the other from hand sorted zooplankton samples. Chy¬ trid colonies were grown on Watson’s beef serum agar and all stages of the life cycle were studies and photographed using a Leitz Orthomat camera. Descriptions of morphology and behavior of the new species are given, as observed on the artificial medium. Zoospores could be placed in age groups depending on their shape and activity. Mature zoospores enlarged and produced penetration pegs which are presumed to be used for penetrating host cells. An interesting pre-zoosopre formation activity was observed. Phlyctochytrium mackini is compared to Phlyctochytrium bryopsidis and Phlyctochytrium cladophorae Kabayashi and Ookubo. It is hypothesized that the chytrid studied is parasitic on marine diatoms and possibly on marine zooplank¬ ton. The zoospores of Phlyctochytrium mackini averaged 3 microns in diameter and the mature sporangia ranged from 13 to 40 microns in diameter with the average being 30 microns. A prosporangial stage was also observed and ranged in size from 1 5 to 25 microns. SEPARATION OF BASES, NUCLEOSIDES, AND NUCLEOTIDES OF DNA BY CATION EXCHANGE RESIN — Shirley Bryant, Paul Bailey, A1 Burrs, and V. M. Doctor, Prairie View A&M College, Prairie View. Friday Afternoon, March 6. Division B. ABSTRACTS 291 DIETARY PROTECTION AGAINST IONIZING RADIATION— David P. Shep¬ herd, Sidney O. Brown, M. G. Krise, and H. R. Crookshank, Texas A & M University, College Station. Four groups of male white rats were fed 4 different diets: Low Sodium, Low Potassium, Control, and Lab Blox. These groups were given acute doses of whole- body gamma radiation. At the 1000 R dose level, the low Sodium diet (0.019% Na and 0.73% K) had 49.6% survivors at 30 days. The Control diet (0.21% Na and 0.52% K) had 5.8% survivors and the Low Potassium diet (0.47% Na and 0.05% K) had no survivors at 30 days. The Lab Blox group had 20% survival. At the 400 R dose level, both the Low Sodium and Control diets had 95% survival, while the Low Potassium diet had 55%. At both dose levels there were no deaths between days 30 and 60, at which time the rats were sacrificed. A total of 200 rats were used in this study. From this experiment it would appear that there is a relation between dietary sodium and potassium levels and the sensitivity of rats to gamma radiation. RADIATION INDUCTION OF ISOZYME VARIATION IN MUS MUSCULUS— James E. Womack, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. There exists a need for an effective and efficient assay of point mutation rates in mammals subjected to suspected mutagens. This need is at least partially met in a vertical starch gel electrophoretic analysis of blood proteins from descendants of treated mice. Two serum esterase variants have been observed in 2,950 genetic loci subjected to X-irradiation doses from 0 to 900 r. Though the data is insufficient to make a mutations/gene/r estimate at this time, it is sufficient to illustrate the sensi¬ tivity and workability of the technique and has provided valuable biochemical mark¬ ers to mammalian genetics. STEROTYPED SELF-MIMICRY AND ERRATIC BEHAVIOR IN CORAL SNAKES (GENUS MICRURUS) : RESOLUTION OF THE MIMICRY DIS¬ RUPTIVE COLORATION CONTROVERSY AND THE DANGEROUS MODEL HYPOTHESIS — Frederick R. Gehlbach, Raylor University, Waco. EYE ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE BLIND SNAKE LEPTOTYPH- LOPS DULCIS (REPTILIA: LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE)— Morris K. Jackson, Baylor U niversity , Waco. DEMOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY OF THE FERN BANK SALAMANDER, EURYCE.A PTEROPHILA — Lucinda Conrads and William K. Davis, South¬ west Texas State University, San Marcos. THE LATERAL-LINE MORPHOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY OF SIREN INTER¬ MEDIA NETTINGI GOIN (AMPHIBIA: SIRENIDAE)— Huson Middleton, Baylor University, Waco. The lateral line system is examined both morphologically and histologically. The morphology is correlated with habitat. Observations are compared with analagous piscine structures. STUDIES ON ORIENTATION MECHANISMS IN FISH BY MEANS OF COMPUTER TECHNIQUES — H. Kleerekoper, Texas A & M University, Col¬ lege Station. The direction, velocity, patterns, and other parameters of the locomotion of fish 292 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE are studied by means of a monitor tank, measuring 5 X 5 m, in the bottom of which a matrix of 1936 photo-conductive cells is embedded. The matrix is part of an electronic interface with a computer on line and periph¬ eral data-processing equipment (teletype writer, incremental magnetic tape unit, plotter, and oscilloscope). All the parameters of locomotion (angles and direction of turns, length of steps between turns, velocity) are computed and used in a variety of computer programs to describe and analyse locomotor behavior. The analyses are used to clarify the mechanisms by which fish are able to use environmental cues such as sound, odors, and temperature, in their orientation. EFFECTS OF SOUND ON ORIENTATION IN GOLDFISH— Theodore Malar and H. Kleerekoper, Texas A & M University, College Station. THE EFFECTS OF VISION ON SOME ASPECTS OF LOCOMOTOR BEHAVIOR IN NAIVE GOLDFISH— A. M. Timms and H. Kleerekoper, Texas A & M University, College Station. The role of vision in the general locomotor pattern of naive goldfish, particularly with respect to the effects of restraining walls and the phenomenon of angle com¬ pensation, was studied by the methods described by Kleerekoper, et ah {Nature, 223: 501, 1969). It was demonstrated in that paper that the walls of the monitor tank have no effect on angle compensation. They do affect angle distributing, fre¬ quency of turning, and average velocity (Kleerekoper, et al, MS, 1969). This effect is already present when the fish is from 30 to 70 centimeters from a wall. Uni¬ laterally blinded fish turn predominantly towards the blinded, not towards the normal side, as reported by others in the literature. Totally blinded fish usually turned equally in each direction. Furthermore, unilaterally blinded fish made larger turns in the direction of bias, and totally blinded fish made larger turns in both directions. This behavior was affected by the walls. Angle compensation, present in normal fish, disappeared in unilaterally blinded fish, but returned in most of those totally blinded. RADIATION EFFECTS ON THE GONADS OF DEVELOPING GOLDEN HAM¬ STERS — Ella C. Curvey and Eugene W. Hupp, Texas Woman^s University, Denton. Random-bred golden hamsters irradiated with a single dose of 220 R of X-rays at a dose rate of 55 R per minute on 11, 13, and 15 days prenatal and 1, 3, 6, 8, 1 1, 15 and 22 days postnatal were killed at 50 da5^s of age, or tested for fertility and killed at 100 days of age. At 50 and 100 days of age all testes weights were decreased by irradiation. Sup¬ pression was greatest in animals irradiated on daj'^s 1 and 3 of postnatal life and was nearly as great in animals irradiated on days 6 and 8 of postnatal life while animals irradiated on days 13 and 15 of prenatal life exhibited intermediate effects. The number of seminiferous tubules per testis cross section was reduced in all irradiated animals and in general was correlated with reduction in testes weights. No animals with testes weights below 0.41 g and with less than 5% active semi¬ niferous tubules were fertile. In the males irradiated on days 1 and 3 postnatal only 11% were fertile; the number of fertile males was also reduced by irradiation on days 13 prenatal and 6 postnatal. Hamsters irradiated on days 6, 8, 11 and 15 of ABSTRACTS 293 postnatal life showed variability in testis weights, tubule activity, and fertility re¬ sults. Female hamsters exhibited reduced ovarian weights that averaged approximately 55% of controls. The peak sensitivity occurred approximately 10 days later in the females than in the males. Females irradiated on days 11 and 15 postnatally ex¬ hibited the most deleterious effects with only 10% of the females irradiated on these days littering; those irradiated on days 6 and 8 of postnatal life had 50 and 70% fertility, respectively. STUDIES ON COMPENSATORY OVARIAN HYPERTROPHY IN THE GOLDEN HAMSTER* — John C. Little and Bryant Benson, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Compensatory ovarian hypertrophy (COH) is a phenomenon that is currently being investigated relative to pineal and gonadotropic control of female reproduc¬ tive cycles. The literature contains conflicting information regarding COH in the hamster. For the current study a group of 63 hamsters was divided into 4 groups. Three of the groups were unilaterally ovariectomized, with the rigth ovary removed, on day 4 of the estrous cycle (using Orsini’s method for determination of the day of the cycle). The 4th group was left as unoperated controls. The operated animals were sacrificed 5, 9, and 13 days postoperative and the remaining left ovary re¬ moved and weighed. Histological sections were made of all ovaries and analyzed for number of follicles and corporal lutea, and for cycle stage. The serum from the animals was pooled and used for an FSH bioassay in weanling rats. It was found that the left ovaries of the operated animals had hypertrophied when compared to the left ovaries of the control animals. Results: control left ovaries, 12.0 mg ± 0.42; 5 day group, 15.0 mg ± 0.68 (p < 0.001); 9 day group, 13.6 ± 0.46 (p < 0.02); 13 day group, 14.2 ± 0.90 (p < 0.05). Expressed as percentage hypertrophy (left op¬ erated / left control) results were: 5 day group, 25.2% ± 5.2; 9 day group, 13.6% ± 3.6; 13 day group, 18.6% ± 7.5. Bioassay results were inconclusive, prob¬ ably due to the lack sensitivity of rat weanings for hamster serum PSH levels. It is concluded that ovarian hypertrophy does occur in the golden hamster, and is very highly significant in animals sacrificed 5 days after unilateral ovariectomy. Ovarian hypertrophy can also be demonstrated, with less significance, in animals sacrificed after 9 to 13 days. This conclusion is based on a comparison of mean left ovarian weights of the operated animals, with those from the intact control animals; with the results expressed in terms of percentage hypertrophy (left operated / left control). * Supported by DHEW 5T01 GM 00459-10. STUDIES ON HIBERNATION IN MAMMALS— Henry Underwood, III and Willie M. Clark, Bishop College, Dallas. STUDIES ON THE WIDTH OF THE PTERYGOID LAMINA IN A SERIES OF JUVENILE SKULLS— Heyl G. Tebo, The University of Texas Dental Branch, Houston. This study was undertaken to determine the rate of change in the width of the pterygoid processes through the juvenile years. Two hundred ninety-seven skulls, ranging in age from one to 15 years, were used for the study. The ages of these skulls (imported from India) were estimated from the degree of dental development. 294 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The width of both the medial and lateral pterygoid laminae of each side were measured and growth curves for each determined from the mean values obtained. These figures were compared with like measurements taken from 188 adult skulls and 51 senile skulls, also imported from India. The medial pterygoid laminae were found to have a smooth, steady growth rate with little change after 15 years of age and only slight further change in old age. The lateral laminae, however, were found to have a very irregular pattern of growth. This difference is thought to be due to the fact that the lateral pterygoid lamina is subject to more variation in width as it is often extended by the calcification of the pterygospinous ligament. This calcification is observed in skulls as young as 4 years, suggesting that it may well be on a genetic basis. A REVIEW OF THE HISTOLOGY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE OF BATS— C. Stanley Rouk and William L. Lane, Baylor University, Waco. Saturday Morning, March 7 . Division A. MATERIAL FOR INFORMATION AND PROTHESIS— James R. Howes, Texas A&M University, College Station. A SURVEY OF FISH MARKING METHODS— Carl W. Lahser, Jr., Texas A&M University, College Station. SENSITIVITY OF ISOLATED SNAKE HEARTS TO CATECHOLAMINES— Ella N. Tatum and Harry S. McDonald, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. Heterodon platyrhinos, the eastern hognose snake, has been reported to be physio¬ logically resistant to norephinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (EPI), and this in¬ sensitivity to catecholamines has been correlated with toad-eating by this species. In the present study, the sensitivity to NE and EPI of the isolated perfused Heterodon heart was compared with that of Matrix rhombifera, an occasional toad-eater, and Coluber constrictor, which rarely (if ever) eats toads. The response to 1 ng/ml NE and EPI is negligible in Heterodon and Matrix hearts, whereas a similar concentration in the perfusate causes a 20% increase in rate of beating of Coluber hearts. The catecholamines sometimes produce arrhythmias, though NE is less likely to do so than EPI. In the hearts of Coluber, but not in those of the other species studied, a 2: 1 A-V block sometimes resulted from application of NE or EPI. The results indicate similar responses to NE and EPI by hearts of Heterodon and Nitrix in contrast to those of Coluber, and seem to suggest that at least part of HeterodoMs insensitivity to catecholamines resides in the heart tissue itself. A RE-EXAMINATION OF THE “CLOACAE GLANDS” OF LEPTOTYPHLOPS DULCIS (REPTILIA: LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE)— James C. Kroll and Harley W. Reno, Baylor University, Waco. THE EFFECT OF ANHYDROUS AMMONIA ON A CENTRAL TEXAS POND — M. A. Champ, Jr,, J, T, Lock, C. D. Bjork, J. D. McCullough, Jr., and W. G. Klussman, Texas A&M University, College Station. A pond located on the Texas A&M University Range Area, College Station (4.4 surface acres, 32.74 acre feet), was treated with anhydrous ammonia in November, ABSTRACTS 295 1968. Treatment with anhydrous ammonia has been recommended as a possible method for fish eradication, pond fertilization, and aquatic vegetation control. This study investigates the effects of anhydrous ammonia treatment on pond ecology. Chemical, physical, and biological data were taken a week prior to, the day of, and at selected intervals for 12 months following the treatment. The most profound chemical changes occurred in ammonia nitrogen, pH, carbon dioxide, and alkalinity. Ammonia nitrogen levels before treatment were 0.2 to 0.4 ppm. The day after treat¬ ment the ammonia nitrogen level stabilized to 37.7 ppm and gradually declined to 5.0 ppm after 3 months. The pH before treatment was 6.9. A maximum pH of 10.3 was recorded during treatment and stayed above 9.0 for 2 weeks following treat¬ ment, Carbon dioxide decreased as the pH and carbonates increased. Phytoplankton counts were reduced 96 percent and zooplankton counts were re¬ duced 99% following treatment. Rooted aquatic vegetation was decimated. The most adversely affected macro-invertebrates were crayfish and fresh-water shrimp. Dead tadpoles were also observed. A total fish kill was indicated since no live fish were taken by trawl, seine, or observed after treatment. GROWTH OF WHITE CRAPPIE IN A NEW RESERVOIR— H. H. Chen and 0. T. Lind, Baylor University, Waco. CORRELATION OF ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY WITH HETEROSIS AND HOMEOSTASIS IN MITOCHONDRIA OF WHEAT— H, K. Srivastava and 1. V. Sarkissian, Texas A <& M University, College Station. Heterosis was expressed with regard to ATPase activity in mitochondria of the hybrid and the parents possessed relatively low ATPase activity. Homeostasis in mitochondria of the hybrid and the parental mixture was evident in the sense that their ATPase was: 1) relatively insensitive to the antibiotic oligomycin, 2) least susceptible to incubation at 37°, 3) comparatively stable at a wide range (50° to 70°) of temperature, and 4) was not markedly cold labile. These experiments provided a direct correlation of mitochondrial ATPase activity to the phenomena of heterosis and homeostasis. The findings were discussed with the point of view that the hybrid maintains both a higher rate of energy (ATP) production and higher rate of release of energy (ATPase) from ATP in order to cope with its greater energy requirement for rapid growth and development. The results further provided evidence to support the view that heterosis and homeostasis are indeed biochemically related phenomena. PURIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF PLANT CITRATE SYNTHASE— L. L. Poulsen and I. V. Sarkissian, Texas A & M University, College Station. a-KETOGLUTARATE DEHYDROGENASE AND AUXIN. 1. HORMONAL REGULATION OF MITOCHONDRIAL OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLA¬ TION — G. R. Djavadi and 1. V. Sarkissian, Texas A & M University, College Station. Mitochondria were isolated from 2^/2 day old wheat shoot tissue and their activity was measured polarographically with a-ketoglutarate (a-KG) as substrate. Neither indole-3-acetic acid (lAA) nor coenzyme A (CoA) had any significant effect on oxidative phosphorylation. However, in presence of 0.0025 mg CoA the ADP:0 ratios were affected by lAA. The range of lAA concentrations used was 33.3 X 10“^4 M to 3.3 X 10“^ M. The effect of lAA on ADP:0 ratios ranged from a decrease of 30% to an increase of 45%. 296 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE It was shown that the observed lAA effect was mainly on a-KG to succinyl-S-CoA conversion without significantly affecting succinyl-S-CoA to succinate conversion. The findings suggest that lAA could regulate growth through regulation of pro¬ duction of energy, ATP. PROPERTIES OF RAPIDLY ISOLATED MITOCHONDRIA OF WHEAT— J. A. Mulliken and 1. V. Sarkissian, Texas A & M University, College Station. COMPARATIVE MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION FROM A POLYPLOID SE¬ RIES OF TRITICUM AND AEGILOPS — H. K. Srivastava and I. V. Sarkissian, Texas A & M University, College Station. Significant differences were found among mitochondria of diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species of T riticum and Aegilops with regard to oxidative phosphorylation, adenosine-triphosphatase and cytochrome c oxidase activities. The hexaploid wheat species possessed relatively efficient a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, adenosine- triphosphatase, and cytochrome c oxidase systems. The results suggest that the widely adapted hexaploid wheats possess more efficient mechanisms for ATP syn¬ thesis as well as for the release of energy from ATP than do the diploid and tetra¬ ploid species of T riticum and Aegilops. The findings were discussed with the point of view that mitochondri aare important in providing a portion of the overall bio¬ chemical, adaptive advantage to the hexaploid wheat species. MITOTIC ABERRATIONS IN BEAN CHROMOSOMES INDUCED BY SODIUM FLUORIDE — Samir P. Mouftah and James D. Smith, Texas College, Tyler. Mitotic cells from the leaf tips of Vida faba L. seedlings treated with sodium fluoride at the concentration levels of 1 X IO-2, 1 x 10-^, and 1 X 10-® M were examined. Cytological analyses showed the occurrence of chromosomal gaps and fragments and micronuclei. The rate of cellular multiplication was also reduced. The highest frequencies of these aberrations were induced by the 1 X 10“^ M con¬ centration. Various hypotheses related to the mechanism by which fluorides induce chromosomal aberrations were also presented. CIGARETTE EXTRACTS ON THE GROWTH OF PARAMECIUM CAUDA- TUM — -Sekender A. Khan, Texas College, Tyler. The water extracts from Winston, Camel and Kent Cigarettes were tested on the growth of Paramecium caudatum. The extracts in each case were prepared by soak¬ ing the tobacco content of one cigarette into 250 ml. of distilled water for 24 hours. This was then filtered and kept at room temperature as stock solution. The various dilutions used for the experiments were: 1:1, 1:10, 1:100 and 1:1000. The dilutions were made by the addition of Chalkley’s solution. For each treatment there were 10 replications. The paramecia were grown in cotton plugged test tubes containing 10 ml. of the solution and a grain of rice. For the control treatment Chalkley’s me¬ dium was used. The experiments were conducted at room temperature having a range of 24-34° C. The growth reading was taken 6 days after inoculation. The best growth for Winston was obtained at 1:1 dilution. In 1:100 and 1:1000 the growth was less than the control. The maximum growth for non-sterilized Camel extract was ob¬ tained at 1:10 and in other dilution the growth was also better than the control. The maximum growth for sterilized Camel was obtained at 1:1 dilution and the mini- ABSTRACTS 297 mum at 1:1000 dilution. Both the sterilized and non-sterilized Kent extracts ex¬ hibited the maximum growth at 1:10 dilutions. The length and width of the paramecium were measured. The length of the paramecium growth in presence of Camel extracts was increased at every dilution and the average maximum size was obtained at 1:1000 dilution of both sterilized and non-sterilized extracts. The non-sterilized extract of Kent resulted a growth of paramecium with lesser length and greater width at 1:1 and 1:10 dilution. In other 2 dilutions the paramecium were found to be of larger size. SOME STUDIES ON SPECIES OF YUCCA IN JONES AND NOLAN COUN¬ TIES, TEXAS — F. M. Churchill, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. Saturday Morning, March 7. Division B. THE TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE PLANKTONIC COPEPODA FROM BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS— Thomas H. Rennie, Texas A&M Uni¬ versity, College Station. From August, 1966 to May, 1967, monthly qualitative plankton samples were collected from 25 permanent aquatic habitats (20 lentic, mainly stock tanks; 5 lotic) within Brazos County, Texas. Twenty-two free-living copepod species com¬ prising 13 cyclopoids, 5 calanoids, 3 harpacticoids and 1 ergasilid were identified from 255 samples. Those found were; Eurytemora affinis (Poppe, 1880); Diaptomus dorsalis Marsh, 1907*; Diaptomus pallidus Herrick, 1879; Diaptomus siciloides Lilljeborg, 1889; Diaptomus clavipes Schacht, 1897; Cyclops vernalis Fischer, 1853; Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi S. A. Forbes, 1882; Cyclops varicans rubellus Lillje- borg, 1901; Orthocyclops modestus (Herrick, 1883)*; Eucyclops agilis (Koch, 1838); Eucyclops speratus (Lilljeborg, 1901)*; Tropocyclops prasinus mexicanus Kiefer, 1938*; Tropocyclops prasinus prasinus (Fisher, I860)*; Mesocyclops edax (S. A. Forbes, 1891)*; Mesocyclops inversus (Kiefer, 1936)*i*; Macrocyclops albidus (Jurine, 1820); Ectocyclops phaleratus (Koch, 1833)*; Paracyclops fimbriatus poppei (Rehberg, 1880); Ergasilus chautauquaensis Fellows, 1887*; Canthocamptus sinuus Coker, 1934*; Onychocamptus {Laophonte) mohammed (Blanchard and Richard, 1891)*; Cletocamptus deitersi (Richard, 1891 )f. The ranges of 12 species were extended to Texas*, including 2 not previously recorded in the literature from the United Statesf. Only 1 limnetic sample contained no copepods. All others had 1 to 7 species, in¬ cluding from 0 to 6 cyclopoids and 0 to 3 calanoid species. Forty-seven percent of all samples had 4 species. A typical plankton sample contained 3 to 4 copepod species, including 2 to 3 cyclopoids, usually only 1 calanoid and a chance occurrence of an ergasilid. The occurrence of a harpacticoid was very rare. The 4 most frequently occurring copepods were Diaptomus pallidus, Cyclops vernalis, T ropocyclops prasinus mexicanus and Mesosyclops edax. They were found every month of the study in all habitat types. Most times, one of those species was the numerically dominant copepod. In the lentic habitats, it was usually the calanoid Diaptomus pallidus or Diaptomus clavipes, in the lotic habitats, usually the cyclopoid Cyclops vernalis or T ropocyclops prasinus mexicanus. Generally, the most abundant copepod found was Diaptomus pallidus, followed by Cyclops vernalis. Stock tanks and “pooling” creeks were the greatest supporters of the copepoda. Fast currents in the lotic habitats were adverse to the development of large plankton populations. No species seemed peculiar to sloughs or ponds. Diaptomus clavipes. 298 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Diaptomus siciloides and Ergasilus chautauquaensis occurred mainly in stock tanks. Orthocyclops modestus, Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi and Diaptomus dorsalis were found only in creeks, while the usually henthic harpacticoids, Cleotocamptus deitersi and Onychocamptus mohammed, as well as the euryhaline coastal calanoid, Eury- temora affinis, occurred only in rivers. A comparison of littoral and limnetic zones of 5 habitats showed that calanoids were only infrequent visitors to the littoral zone. The cyclopoids, Cyclops vernalis, Mesocyclops edax, Mesocyclops inversus and T ropocyclops prasinus mexicanus were limnetic, while Eucyclops agilis. Eucyclops speratus, Cyclops varicans rubellus and Macrocyclops albidus were found mainly in littoral areas having vegetation. LAND PLANARIA OF THE UPPER TEXAS GULF COAST— James L. Conner, University of Houston, Houston. INTERTIDAL COLLECTION OF CUMACEA FROM BAFFIN BAY, TEXAS— Jeffrey H. Giles, University of Houston, Houston. A COMPARISON OF SELECTED SPECIES OF NORTH AND SOUTH POLAR MITES — R. W. Strandtmann, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. A COMPARISON OF A MINUSCULE PART OF THE FAUNA OF NORTHERN ALASKA WITH A SIMILAR FAUNA OF ANTARCTICA— Don Pittard and R. W. Strandtmann, Tahoka High School and Texas Tech College, Lubbock. This paper compares certain small, free-living, terrestrial mites of Antarctica with phylogenetically similar ones in Alaska. Since Antarctica has an extremely sparse flora, it is to be expected that the mite fauna is also sparse. Northern Alaska, with its relatively rich flora has a much more varied and vastly richer mite fauna, hut interestingly enough, the same genera that appear in Antarctica, appear also in Alaska, onlj^ the species are different. It is with this latter fauna that this paper is concerned. Of particular interest are mites of the family Rhagidiidae. The family consists of 2 genera, they are predaceous on other mites, relatively large, and red in color. In Antarctica, one genus occurs in Victoria Land (about 180° Long.); the other in the Palmer Peninsula (about 60° W. L.), only 2 species are known for each genus. In Alaska, on the other hand, the genera are sympatric and each has from 6-10 species. Slides of illustrations of the mites, and color slides of typical habitats will be shown. INTERSPECIFIC DISPLAYS AMONG GRAPSOID CRABS— Rodney Griffin and Howard Wright, University of Houston, Houston. SUMMER ACTIVITIES OF THE ADELIE PENGUIN IN ANTARCTICA— R. W. Strandtmann, T exas T ech U niversity, Lubbock. A silent color film of the Adelie Penguin made in Antarctica in 1966-67 and 1967-68, during the months of November-January. It depicts nest building, choosing of mates, mating, incubation, and feeding of young. Harrassment by two of its natural enemies, the skua and the leopard seal, are shown. Travel on land, on snow, and in the water are also part of the film. THE ADELIE PENGUIN IN VICTORIA LAND ANTARCTICA— R. W. Strandt¬ mann, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. ABSTRACTS 299 THE STRUCTURE OF THE DENDRITIC SPINE APPARATUS IN THE MOTOR CORTEX OF THE CAT*— Vick Williams, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas. The ultrastriicture of the dendritic spine apparatus was studied in the anterior sigmoid gyrus of adult cats. Tissue was prepared for electron microscopy by excision and fixation in collidine-buffered osmic acid or by vascular perfusion with phosphate- buffered glutaraldehy de-formaldehyde. The dendritic spine apparatus, as described by Gray in 1959, was found to consist of a series of cisternae separated by dense material. The cisternae are relatively clear spaces measuring 200-500A wide and up to 600 m/i long and limited by a double membrane about 100 A thick; their disposi¬ tion is usually parallel, although occasionally more complicated, curving patterns appear. In some sections the cisternae are clearly interconnected. The intercisternal density appears to be an aggregation of granular material arrayed in a sheet about lOOA thick and somewhat shorter than the cisternae. The distance between cisternae is a rather constant 400A. The smallest recognizable unit of the spine apparatus consists of 2 cisternae separated by a single dense band. Aggregations of more than 7 cisternae have not been found; usually the apparatus contains 3 to 5. The spine apparatus is most often located in small, round or oblong profiles in cortical neuro¬ pile. Many such profiles are identifiable as dendritic by their postsynaptic relation¬ ship to an axonal ending. In occasional cases the apparatus is found within a struc¬ ture readily recognizable as a spine by its connection with a dendritic shaft, by means of a short stem; the membranous cisternae are not connected to elements of dendritic endoplasmic reticulum, although the structure of the membrane suggests a relationship with the reticulum. The spine apparatus is not found in recognizable dendritic shafts, axons, neuronal or glial perikarya, or glial processes. However, it is not clear that in the motor cortex the spine apparatus is limited only to dendritic spines. * Supported by USPH Grant NS 081 54-02. SIMILARITIES IN THE BRAIN STRUCTURE OF CANOIDEA AND PIN¬ NIPEDIA — L. S. Dillon and Daniel England, Texas A & M University, Col¬ lege Station. The cerebrum, pyriform area, and brainstem of pinnipeds representing the 3 ex¬ tant families are compared with those of ilie 4 families of the superfamily Canoidea. Emphasis is placed upon similarities and differences in the structure of the cerebral gyri and sulci between the 2 groups, as well as the presence or absence of various components of the brain. Evolutionary trends in the cerebral structure of the groups are discussed. Due to basic similarities in the brain structure between the pinnipeds and the family Ursidae, it is suggested that the pinnipeds are more closely related to the bears than to the other families of Canoidea. THE INFLUENCE OF THERMOVARIATIONS ON CARDIAC CONTRACTIL¬ ITY OF CHRYSEMYS PICTA—Sue E. Alexander and L. C. Collins, Prairie View A <& M College, Prairie View. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF THE ODOUR OF PREDATORY FISHES ON THE LOCOMOTOR BEHAVIOR OF A PREY {CARASSIUS AURATUS) — F. Brian Davy and H. Kleerekoper, Texas A &M University,. College Station. Locomotor, behavior, of 8 goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) in response to the odor of 300 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE a bullhead {Ictalurus melas)^ was monitored in a tank previously described (Klee- rekoper, et al., 1969). Our data suggest that addition of bullhead odor to water flow¬ ing across this monitor tank led to an avoidance response of the odor area by 5 of the goldfish. Two of the goldfish showed an attraction to the area of odor introduc¬ tion while one goldfish showed no detectable change in behavior. Also 3 of 7 goldfish showed a general increase in average velocity throughout the tank while 3 different goldfish showed a general decrease in average velocity. Again one goldfish showed no significant change in average velocity. THE EFFECT OF THYROXINE ON LOCOMOTOR BEHAVIOR OF GOLD¬ FISH — G. F. Westlake and H. Kleerekoper, Texas A & M University, College Station. There are indications in the literature that thyroxine may have an influence on the locomotion of fish. Hoar, Keenleyside and Goodall (1955, Canad. J. ZooL, 33: 428) found that activity of goldfish increased after immersion in a solution of thyroxine. Baggerman, 1962, Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., suppl. 1: 188) noted an in¬ crease in swimming movements of castrated male sticklebacks after injections of TSH. Sage (1968, Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 10: 304) has demonstrated similar re¬ sults in Poecilia. In the light of these findings the effects of thyroxine on the various parameters of locomotion were studied using the methods of Kleerekoper, et al. (1969, Nature, 22^-. 501). INFLUENCE OF SIZE ON THE ELECTROCARDIAGRAM OF ELAPHE OBSO- LETA — Harry S. McDonald and James S. Jacob, Stephen F. Austin State Uni¬ versity, Nacogdoches. In this study the largest, smallest, and one intermediate specimen were selected from a dozen Elaphe obsoleta to look for size effects on heart rate and electrocardio¬ graphic characteristics. The largest specimen was over three times as long and fifty times as massive as the smallest specimen. Records were obtained from restrained and unrestrained specimens at ambient temperatures of 23 to 25 C, by means of Ag-AgCl surface electrodes. Heart rate did not seem to be affected by size; the overall range found in this study was 7.5 to 62.5 beats per minute. The P and QRS wave durations and the P-R and Q-T interval durations were also measured and did not seem to vary with size. The ranges of T wave durations for the smallest, intermediate, and largest specimens were, respectively: 0.06 to 0.16 sec, 0.08 to 0.20 sec, and 0.10 to 0.56 sec. The P-R/P-R ratio was computed for all specimens, and most of the values fell be¬ tween 0.10 and 0.30. The Q-T/R-R ratio was also computed, with the values falling mainly between 0.20 and 0.60. When Q-T intervals were plotted against correspond¬ ing R-R intervals, the scatter graph seemed to indicate an exponential relationship. In conclusion, with the possible exception of T-wave duration, size does not appear to affect heart rate or EGG characteristics of Elaphe obsoleta. Section V— Social Sciences Friday Morning, March 6. The Social Scientist’s Role in the Manned Spaceflight Program THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST LOOKS AT WORK CAPABILITIES IN SPACE— John Jackson, N.A.S.A., Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston. ABSTRACTS 301 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST IN THE DESIGN OF MOBILITY AIDS FOR MOON EXPLORATION— Robert L. Bond, N.A.S.A,, Manned Spaceflight Center, Houston, CONTRIBUTIONS BY THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST TO THE DESIGN OF A SPACE STATION MISSION— E. V. LaFevers, Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston. THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST IN ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF PROLONGED SPACEFLIGHTS ON HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND BE¬ HAVIOR — Jerry Homick, N.A.S.A., Manned Spaceflight Center, Houston. CONTRIBUTIONS BY THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST TO SPACE SUIT DESIGN, TEST AND EVALUATION — Robert L. Jones, Stephen F. Austin State Col¬ lege, Nacogdoches. Friday Afternoon, March 6. The Impact of the Social Scientist on the Criminal Justice System. BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE: A NEW DYNAMIC LOOK — Charles M. Friel, Sam Houston State College, Huntsville. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY FOR LAW INFORCEMENT OFFICERS— Robert L. Jones, Stephen F. Austin State College, Nacogdoches. INSANITY, CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE LAW— John Watkins, Sam Houston State College, Huntsville. STATUS OF CURRENT REHABILITATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANTI¬ SOCIAL — Don Weisenhorn, Sam Houston State College, Huntsville. The Sociology of Values and Aspirations. THE RELATIONSHIP OF VALUES TO ASPIRATIONS AND EXPECTATIONS — Evelyn Dunsavage and Michael Kleibrink, Texas A & M University, College Station. ADOLESCENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF MILITARY SERVICE AS A VEHICLE FOR SOCIAL MOBILITY: A RACIAL COMPARISON OF RURAL YOUTH FROM ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED AREAS— William P. Kuv- A commonly accepted belief held by social scientists is that disadvantaged youtK are more willing than others to enter military service because they perceive par¬ ticipation in the military as one of the few readily available opportunities for verti¬ cal social mobility — either directly in terms of advancement in the military rank structure, or indirectly through the training and socialization involved. However,, very little empirical research exists on the nature of the goals and expectations youth hold for military service, particularly rural youth, let alone on the proposition that lower class youth are disproportionately motivated toward participation in the mili¬ tary as a means of improving their chances for social mobility, A broad objective of this paper is to explore the nature of rural adolescent’s orientations toward mili¬ tary service by such important status attributes as sex, social class, and race anJ furthermore, to test the hypothesis that disadvantaged youth with high aspirations 302 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE for mobility are more inclined to participate in military service than others. Data are available for this investigation from a study of approximately 500 youth inter¬ viewed in 1 966 as sophomore in high schools located in economically depressed rural areas. RESIDENTIAL ORIENTATIONS OF RELOCATED MEXICAN-AMERICANS— David C. Ruesink, E. Leonard Copeland, and Michael C. Kleibrink, Texas A & M University, College Station. Regional Economics FORM AND FUNCTION IN REGIONAL ECONOMIC STUDIES— D. Gray Car¬ man and William C. Adams, East Texas State University, Commerce. THE TEXAS INTERINDUSTRY STUDY: AN APPLICATION OF REGIONAL ANALYSIS TO PUBLIC DECISIONS AND PROGRAMS— Herbert W. Grubb, Division of Planning and Coordination, Office of the Governor, Austin. THE DALLAS ECONOMIC POTENTIALS STUDY: AN EXPERIMENT IN REGIONAL INCOME AND PRODUCT ACCOUNTING— David R. Seymour, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. Some Relationships Between the Biological Sciences and the Social Sciences. MEDICINE AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE— Robert L. Hickey, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston. THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST IN NEW MEDICAL PROGRAMS— Robert L. Jones, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. THE ROLE OF THE AUTOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES — James R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. Section VI — ^Environmental Sciences Friday' Morning, March 6. Symposium on Texas Caves KARST REGIONS OF TEXAS — A. Richard Smith, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. CAVE SEDIMENTS — Bud Frank, The University of West Indies. TEXAS SPELEOLOGY — Pete Lindsley and Carl E. Kunath, National Speleological Society. FAUNAL HISTORY OF TEXAS AS EVIDENCED BY CAVE FOSSIL REMAINS — Ernest Lundelius and Bob H. Slaughter, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin and Southern Methodist University, Dallas. TEXAS CAVE INVERTEBRATES— Robert Mitchell, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. ABSTRACTS 303 Friday Afternoon. March 6. Symposium on Texas Caves FISHES FOUND IN TEXAS CAVES— Clark Hubbs, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. HERPTILES OF TEXAS CAVES — Gerald G. Raun, North Texas State University, Denton. USE OF TEXAS CAVES BY TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS— Arthur Harris, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso. BATS OF TEXAS CAVES — Robert Packard and Tonny R. Mollhagen, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. BIRDS FREQUENTING TEXAS CAVES— Alan Feduccia, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. ARCHEOLOGY OF TEXAS CAVES— David Dibble, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. POTENTIAL HAZARDS TO INVESTIGATORS OF BAT INHABITED CAVES — S. E. Sulkin and Rae Allen, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas. CONSERVATION OF TEXAS’ CAVERN HERITAGE— Fred Gehlbach, Baylor University Waco. Saturday Morning, March 7 . DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CHAOBORUS (DIPTERA) IN A SOUTHEAST TEXAS LAKE— Elizabeth A. Harrison and Richard C. Harrell, Lamar Tech State College, Beaumont. A DISCUSSION OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION OF VASCULAR PLANTS IN AN ACID BOG POND — William C. Runnels and C. C. Sharp, III, Lamar Tech State College, Beaumont. FOOD HABITS OF FINGERLING CATFISH— Carl W. Lahser, Jr, Texas A&M University, College Station. ECOLOGY OF THE BRACKISH- WATER CLAM, RANGIA CUVEATA- Sewell H. Hopkins, Texas A&M University, College Station. SOME PARASITES AND EPIZOOITES OF BRAZOS COUNTY CRAYFISH— Carl W. Lahser, Jr, Texas A&M University, College Station. BRAZOS COUNTY FARM PONDS— William J. Clark, Texas A&M University, College Station. COMPOSTING AS A MEANS OF WASTE UTILIZATION IN TEXAS— J. R. Howes, Texas A&M University, College Station. 304 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Section VII — Chemical Sciences F riday Morning, March 6. STRESS PRODUCED FREE RADICALS IN NYLON 6— Mike Davis and Joe S. Ham, Texas A&M University, College Station. In order to obtain quantitative data on the fracture process in stressed nylons, an attempt has been made to stabilize the free radicals that are formed in the stressed material by incorporating an additive into the fiber which will react with the pri¬ mary radicals and form stable secondary radicals. The kinetics of fracture of the stressed nylon can be observed by detecting the buildup of free radicals with EPR techniques. THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE HILDEBRAND SOLUBILITY PARAMETER OF VARIOUS OILS TO THE PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM SOAP GREASES MADE THEREFROM — Gordon S. Bright, Texaco, Inc., Nederland. Work reported by U.S. Naval Research at the I50th meeting of the American Chemical Society indicated a relationship between solubility parameters of oils and the dropping points of lithium greases. Hildebrand solubility parameters were determined for several solvents and a number of lubricating oils by the measurement of critical solution temperatures of lead and zinc stearates by means of a hot stage microscope. Correlations were then made between the parameters of the oils and the dropping points of lithium greases. Hildebrand solubility parameters were determined for several solvents and a number of lubricating oils by the measurement of critical solution temperatures of lead and zinc stearates by means of a hot stage microscope. Correlations were then made between the parameters of the oils and the properties of lithium 12-hydroxy- stearate greases made (using the same procedure) from these oils. Relationships were found between solubility parameter and dropping points, oil separation, and the effect of water on consistency. ORGANIC QUENCHED GEIGER COUNTERS CONTAINING METHYL ACETATE — Sherman Frederickson and D. W. Rathbum, Midwestern Uni¬ versity, Wichita Falls. The results obtained from various mixtures of methyl acetate in argon and helium have been studied. All counters possessed coaxial cylindrical symmetry. The results will be discussed using the Diethom equation. ALKYL SUBSTITUTED OXAZOI.E SYNTHESES WITH AMINO ACIDS— Ed Wiegand and D. W. Rathbum, Midwestern University, Wichita Falls. The preparation of oxazoles was explored using amino acids as the initial pre¬ cursor. The characterization and identification of the alkyl oxazoles was accom¬ plished by preparing suitable derivatives. Primarily, the synthesis of various 2,5- disubstituted alkyl oxazoles was explored. However, further information has been obtained from NMR and mass spectrometry. DETERMINATION OF pK^’s OF 4- AND 5- SUBSTITUTED 2-NITROPHENOLS AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES— T. L. Gore, M. S. Horany, E. H. Sund, and R. L. Wallace, Midwestern University, Wichita Falls. ABSTRACTS 305 ELECTROCHEMICAL STUDY OF THE CADMIUM II TARTRATE SYSTEM — E. N, Drake, Angelo State University, San Angelo. GUANINE POTENTIATION OF AAP INHIBITION IN ASPERGILLUS NIGER -—■Sister Isabel Ball, Our Lady of the Lake College, San Antonio. The phenomenon of guanine potentiation of 4-aminopyrazolo- (3, 4-d) -pyrimidine in Aspergillus niger 6275 is described and preliminary data regarding the mechanism is given. The inhibition produced be 2 /imoles/ml of APP can be obtained by 0.5 /fmole/ml of APP and 2 /imoles/ml of guanine. The potentiation does not appear to be associated with any period of development in the mold and reversal by adenine and adenine precursors is successful depending on the concentration of the reversing, compound. Experiments with homogenates using adenine and adenine precursors as substrates suggest, as do the reversal experiments, involvement of guanine-APP after adenine formation. The phenomenno may have therapeutic use in the treatment of tumors and as a tool for the study of triglyceride release by the liver. THEORETICAL YIELD OF 3' OR 5' URIDYLIC ACID FROM 5'-KILOURIDY- LIG ACID BY SUCCESSIVE ACTIONS OF PANCREATIC FIBONUCLEASE (CONDITIONED TO MAKE OLIGOMERS), ESCHERICHIA COLI ALKA- SNAKE VENOM, RESPECTIVELY— Willis W. Floyd, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. 52Polyuridylic acid, (pU)n, from uridine diphosphate, ppU, is assumed converti¬ ble, under imposable conditions, by pancreatic ribonuclease, to g-mer 3'-oligouridylic acids, (Up)g, with the loss of an end 5'-phosphate and an opposite end uridine, U. Oligouridylic acids, both ends having been dephosphorylated by E. coli alkaline phosphatase, are hydrolyzed (a) by spleen phosphodiesterase to 3'-uridylic acid, Up^ or (b) by snake venom phosphodiesterase to 5'-uridylic acid, pU. Polyolysis, end dephosphorylation, and oligolysis are outlined in 3 steps: (pancreatic RNase, conditioned to oligomers) (--l)(Up)g+ (Up)^g_,) +U + H3PO, s (2). g (E. coli alkaline phosphatase) (A-i) (Dp),g„,,u+ (Up),,_,y + AH3P0, g g (n — — 1) HgO .(3) g ( phosphodiesterase ) n n (of spleen): (n - l)Up + — U g g 306 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (of snake venom) ; — U-f" (n — - 1) pU g g Summation of the 3 steps capsules the degradation of biosynthetic poly U to mono¬ nucleotide Up or pU: (n+— ) H^O g - : - (oligoconditioned RNase, E. coli, spleen or snake venom) (n- — -l)UporpU+ (— +1)U+ (-^+1)H3P0, g g g Mols of uridylic acid and uridine obtainable from 5'-kilouridylic acid, (pU)^^^^, are tabulated below as calculated for g-mer oligouridylic acids produced by pan¬ creatic RNase from a poly U for which n = 1000. OligoU Moles of Mer Number Up or pU Moles of n n , (g) (n - D* (-+1) g g 2 499 501 5 799 201 10 899 101 20 949 51 25 959 41 50 979 21 * n = 1000 Larger oligointermediates produce more product nucleotide. Varying RNase-to- substrate ratio, ion species, ionic strength, digestion time and temperature, and buffer type, so as to increase the mean g of the RNase produced oligoU from 5 to 25 may increase the amount of Up or pU by 20%. Friday Afternoon, March 6. THE EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON THE PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE - AND MODEL COMPOUNDS — Raymond B. Seymour and Hing-Shya Tsang, j University of Houston, Houston. i Benzene solutions of polystyrene and its model compounds (toluene, ethylbenzene, diphenylmethane and cumene) were exposed to ultraviolet radiation in the presence of oxygen at room temperature. The rate of degradation as measured by the mano- metric oxygen uptake showed the order to be in accord with the ease of hydrogen abstraction, i.e., cumene > diphenylmethane > ethylbenzene > toluene. Acetophenone produced by the photolytic oxidation of ethylbenzene was isolated and identified b ygas chromatography, nuclear resonance spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. Neither the acetophenone nor 4-hydroxy acetophenone had significant , effect on the oxidation rate of ethylbenzene. i However, benzophenone which was produced by the oxidation of diphenylmethane increased the rate of oxidation of ethylbenzene. The rate was decreased substantially ' in the presence of 2-hydroxybenzophenone and other aryl ketones which could i chelate by intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The effect was not noted when inter- ABSTRACTS 307 molecular bonding took place between phenol and benzophenone nor when bulky groups decreased the ease of chelation. The efficiency of these substituted benzophenones as stabilizers was in accord with the strength of the intramolecular hydrogen bonds as demonstrated by nuclear mag¬ netic resonance shifts and with absorption of photons in the 280-340 m/i range. The effectiveness of these substituted benzophenones as stabilizers was also deter¬ mined by noting the rate of discoloration of solutions and films of polystyrene. This effect was also correlated with the rate of embrittlement of films and the rate of increase of the ratio of the infrared absorbance bands for carbonyl (5.81 /u) and carbon-hydrogen (5.20/^). ROLE OF SOLVENT AND CATALYST IN 1,3-DIOXANE FORMATION— James C. Fox, Jr., Wayland Baptist College, Plainview. THE EFFECT OF ETHANOL-WATER AND DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE-WATER SOLVENT SYSTEMS ON THE CONDUCTIVITY OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SODIUM HYDROXIDE AND POTASSIUM CHLORIDE— Billy J. Yager and Terry W. Cowley, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. The equivalent conductance at infinite dilution of hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and potassium chloride were measured in dimethyl sulfoxide-water and ethanol-water mixtures in which the organic phase was varied from 0 to 50% by volume. The addition of dimethyl sulfoxide caused a greater decrease in the limiting conductance than did the addition of ethanol. The proposed explanation is the inability of the sulfoxide to transfer H+ of OH- of an acid or base by the Grotthaus mechanism. The effect of KCl is attributed to differences in the degree of solvation in the 2 types of solvent systems. THE OSMOTIC AND ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF SOME ORGANIC COM¬ POUNDS IN BUFFERED AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AT 25°C.— Michael J. Carlo and Randolph C. Wilhoit, Texas A&M University, College Station. A vapor pressure osmometer was used to determine the osmotic and activity coefficients of some biochemically important compounds in buffered aqueous solution over the concentration range of 0.1 to 1.0 molal. This method gave good results even at the lowest concentration. All calculations performed were based on multi- com¬ ponent systems and the resulting relationships between the osmotic coefficient, and the molality, m, and the activity coefficient, y.,, and the molality of the buffer THAM • — HCl at 25°C were given as = t — 0.3471m + 0.2758m2, In 72 = —0.6942m + 0.41 3 7m2. The activities of malic, citric, succinic, glycine, and a-ketoglutaric acids in aqueous 1 THAM • — HCl buffered solution were then briefly discussed. HEATS OF COMBUSTION AND FORMATION OF ETHYL ACETATE AND ISOPROPYL ACETATE — 'Mary H. Butwill, Texas A&M University, College Station. For many years, oxygen bomb calorimetry has yielded reliable thermochemical data. Measurements were made of the heats of combustion of ethyl acetate and 308 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE isopropyl acetate. From these values, the heats of formation for ethyl acetate and isopropyl acetate were found to be — 115.2 ± 0,95 kcal mole“^ and — 125.9 ± 0.9 kcal mole~i, respectively. Using the equation CH3COOR,,, ^ CH3COOH,,, + ROH,„ the heats of hydrolysis were calculated and compared with those found in the litera¬ ture. These values were 1.5 kcal mole-^ for ethyl acetate and 2.6 kcal mole~i for isopropyl acetate. Discrepancies between the literature values and derived values are believed to be due either to water in the sample or loss of sample by evaporation. MEASUREMENT OF THE HALL MOBILITY IN MOLTEN KCl, AgBr, and Cul— Mitty C. Plummer and Joe S. Ham, Texas A&M University, College Station. Hall effect measurements are reported for the 3 molten salts listed in the title. These measurements are the first measurements of a Hall effect thought to be the result of ionic motions in a liquid. The mobilities are about 0.3 cm^/volt sec and are positive in sign. INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX ECONOMICS OF THE TEXAS CHEMICAL IN¬ DUSTRY — David R. Seymour and Raymond B. Seymour, Southern Methodist Uni¬ versity, Dallas and University of Houston, Houston. Industrial complex analysis, a component of location theory, considers symbiotic relationships and linkages among neighboring industries as an environment for external economies of scale. The chemical industry is a likely choice for industrial complex analysis because of its role as a producer of intermediate products and it is its best customer. Regional and national economic planners throughout the world are becoming increasingly interested in the chemical industry as a propulsive industry {industrie motrice) for redistributing economic activity. The chemical industry has become the basis of planned growth poles {poles de croissance) in a few countries and the basis of natural growth poles in a large number of countries. The authors discuss the concept of industrial complex economics within the con¬ text of polarized economic growth and relate theory and practice to examples of chemical based industrial complexes in the state of Texas. Section Vlll—Science Education Friday Morning, March 6. CRITERIA TO USE TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INSTITUTES — Marilyn K. Partin, San Jacinto College, San Jacinto. APPLICATION OF VERBAL CRITERIA TO THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY IN THE SCIENCE CLASSROOM*— Stephanie J. Kubicek, University of Houston, Houston. This paper is concerned with the impact of verbal interaction upon the creative atmosphere in the classroom, using an extensively modified Flander’s Interaction Scale, specifically oriented toward the identification of '‘creativity indicators” select¬ ed from the literature. While a study of verbal activity cannot encompass all aspects of creativity, verbal interaction in the classroom is of unquestionably great im- ABSTRACTS 309 portance in the establishment of the attitudes and atmosphere of the learning situa¬ tion. either encouraging or detering the occurrence of creative behavior. Discover¬ ing iust what kinds of classroom interaction best stimulates and elicits creative be- ha%’ior in the classroom is the obiect of the study herein described. The criteria, or “creativity indicators,” and the interaction analysis instrument are included in the paper as Appendix A and Appendix B, and will be shown on an overhead projector during the presentation. * The research described herein is being performed pursuant to a grant with the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to ex¬ press freely their professional judgment in the conduct of the project. Points of view or opinions stated do not, therefore, necessarily represent official Office of Education position or policy. EFFECTIVENESS OF INSTRUCTION IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES AS PERCEIVED BY JUNIOR COLLEGE STUDENTS— David C. Willingham, Lee College, Baytown. *This paper was presented at the Texas Academy of Science meeting in San An¬ gelo, Texas, March 6, 1970 by Kathleen K. Graham, graduate assistant. PITFALLS OF DOING SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH*— Lloyd Bennett, Texas Woman's University^, Denton. Dealing with the highe.st animal, man, (especially those in teaching) in doing Science Education research is more than complex or perplexing; it is down right frustrating at times. The actions of the teachers often add variables which negate empiricism or cause one to lose the standardization and randomness needed for good research results. Teachers, all to often, do not follow the procedures set up by the researcher. A marine science research project was completed at the Texas Woman’s Univer¬ sity during the 1968-1969 school year. The project concerned the teaching of a marine science unit in the sixth grade for six weeks in which pre and post testing was done. The sample included eighteen hundred boys and girls in a four state area (Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma). The statistical analysis of the results are currently being evaluated. Several extrinsic problems were found in doing this type of research. One, there is an definite lack of standardization in or comparability of the methods used to group students according to ability. Two, it was difficult to get teachers to follow the prescribed format of the research program and to accurately and adequately relay information to the researcher. Three, there is a kind of apathy on the part of the teacher to go beyond the basic unit even when told they could do so. Four, several teachers felt more facts were needed in the unit. The strategy was to develop concept understanding in which facts were used to build concepts. This indicates an unyielding position to accept new ideas and methods. Five, the unit broke up the salt water into four main oceans rather than the tradi¬ tional five. One teacher in the project taught the material this way and another teacher tried to “unteach it” in a subsequent class. There had to be five oceans! Six. the teachers undergraduate training seemed totally inadequate for them to be able to handle this type of material. 310 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Seven, many teachers failed to read and follow the directions of the research program. Eight, the attitudes of the teachers towards utilization of marine science directly influenced student performance. Negative teacher attitudes produced poor student test results and positive teacher attitudes produced good test results. Individual desire and willingness to participate free from any outside pressures are needed for best research results. Nine, some school systems appeared to have internal dissension and pressures in the system itself which were passed on and reflected through the way the research was handled. THE TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY SEA GRANT PROGRAM— John C. Calhoun, Jr., Texas A&M University, College Station. Texas A&M University looks upon the Sea Grant Program as (a) a challenge to serve its region by focusing academic strength upon problems and educational ac¬ tivities related to the understanding and use of the sea; (b) a device to establish formal channels of communication between the university community and indus¬ trial or governmental communities for achieving a better understanding of the needs of society and the manner in which Texas A&M University can serve those needs; and (c) an opportunity to coalesce its own academic efforts into a more highly integrated program with respect to marine resources and to develop the pro¬ gram into new dimensions. The activities of the Sea Grant Program which is administered by the National Science Foundation may be subdivided into three categories: 1. Education and Training 2. Research 3. Advisory Services As one of eight universities in the nation to receive Sea Grant institutional support for the 1969-70 academic year, Texas A&M’s program involves each of these three areas. NSF funding for the year amounts to $750,000 and is matched by $350,000 from state appropriations and other sources. Under its educational projects, the Texas A&M University Sea Grant Program is concerned with curriculum development, development of new course materials, development of textbooks, and other programs which will enhance the university’s capability in science education. A TEAM— TAUGHT INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY COURSE AT TEXAS A&M — Johannes van Overbeek, Texas A&M University, College Station. CLOCK ARITHMETIC AND STRING FIGURES— Ali R. Amir-Moez, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. The arithmetic of the set of numbers on the dial of a clock is a very good example as a starting point for teaching residue classes. Having discussed this arithmetic, one can talk about residue classes with fewer elements. Then there is a set of string figures which corresponds to the set of natural numbers. [See: Classes Residues et Figures avec ficelle, Lafayette Printing Company, Lafayette, Indiana]. This cor¬ respondence is demonstrated through the use of residue classes. FROGS— FROM FIRST GRADERS TO COLLEGE SENIORS— Richard J. Baldauf, Texas A&M University, College Station. ABSTRACTS 311 Friday Afternoon, March 6. STUDENT OUTCOMES NOT USUALLY MEASURED IN SCIENCE EDUCA¬ TION — James L. Connor, University of Houston, Houston. NOVEL USE OF ORGANIC SOLVENTS— James C. Cox, Jr., Wayland Baptist College, Plainview. WHAT’S DIFFERENT ABOUT THE ELEMENTARY SCIENCE PROGRAM IN SAN ANGELO? — Claude Wooley, San Angelo Public Schools, San Angelo. A PROGRAM FOR THE PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS — Eva Lee Craik, Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene. It seems highly possible that the key to more scientific literacy lies in better prepa¬ ration of elementary science teachers. Under present state requirements the ele¬ mentary science teacher can obtain a certificate with no college science courses and one methods course in how to teach elementary science. Two factors, lack of back¬ ground and poor experience with science, have combined to make most elementary teachers feel inadequate and fearful of teaching science. Since college science classes tend to be content oriented, a greater science require¬ ment may not be the complete answer for preparing teachers who believe and practice that content and process are inseparable. Accordingly at Hardin-Simmons University we have planned a two semester laboratory course designed to expose prospective elementary teachers to a methodology consistent with the dynamic nature of science. To he prepared to use the new programs and the new materials being made available, the prospective teacher needs the experience of working with those materials, and of thinking and acting as investigator in order to be able to involve children in the doing of science. Our premise was that the spirit of teaching by inquiry is better caught than taught. The course is listed as science education and is taught by a science teacher in the science laboratory for five hours each week. Other members of the science division are called upon to help out in the area of their special interest. The course begins with an investigation of the nature of science and the determination of the objectives toward which we will work. Some time is spent in trying to improve the students skills in the processes of science as they learn to observe, classify, measure, use math as a tool of science, become familiar with special and time relations and the metric system. We formulate models, formulate and test hypothesis through experimenta¬ tion, develop skill in communication of data, and use data in making predictions and making inferences. Later these processes become our tools as we investigate problems for the purpose of developing our understanding of principles and concepts in the areas of elementary science — earth and universe, energy and matter, and living things. At present we have no reliable measure of what difference, if any, the program has made in the classroom, but we are seeing evidence of changed attitudes. We are sending out teachers aware of their own deficiencies but confident in their ability to involve students in finding answers. They have learned that science is a way of solving problems and that they can learn with their students. Consequently it is no longer the subject they dread, and therefore neglect, but the one they are actually looking forward to teaching. PLANETARIUM CURRICULUM IN THE BIG SPRING PUBLIC SCHOOLS— Gary A. Carlson, Big Spring Public Schools, Big Spring. 312 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A NEW HORIZON IN SCIENCE EDUCATION— H. Rich Calvird, El Paso Inde¬ pendent School District, El Paso. The rapid advances made in the Space Sciences in the last decade have forced the educational community to demand innovation in the contents, methods, and tools of science programs from kindergarten through the twelfth grade. One such innovation is the planetarium. The fundamental goal of a planetarium should not be the reiteration of statistical data relative to our universe, but how man has determined this data by the develop¬ ment and use of the scientific method. If this goal is to be accomplished, the plane¬ tarium program must be correlated with the school curriculum. In the El Paso Public Schools the planetarium experience is a cooperative venture carried out by curriculum planners, classroom teachers, media specialists and the planetarium director. Tools have been developed to assist the teacher in achieving a maximum educational growth of the pupils as a result of the planetarium visit. THE PLANETARIUM AND ITS USE IN THE ABILENE PUBLIC SCHOOLS— Eli Dieckman, Abilene Public Schools, Abilene. THE PLANETARIUM AND PROJECT PHYSICS— John M. Hicks, Midland Independent School District, Midland. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: bob h, slaughter, Southern Methodist University President-Elect: james d. long, Sam Houston State University Secretary-Treasurer: a. w. roach. North Texas State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. o. hartley, Texas A&M University II — Physics: Bernard t. young, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences: william d. miller, Texas Tech University IV — Biological Sciences: Robert d. yates, Univ. of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston V — Social Sciences: william c. adams. East Texas State University VI — Environmental Sciences: Robert l. Packard, Texas Tech University VII — Chemistry: archie o. parks. Southwest Texas State University VIII — Science Education: jacob w. Blankenship, Univ. of Houston Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: w. e, norris, jr.. Southwest Texas State University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer, Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS bob h. slaughter, Southern Methodist University JAMES D. long, Sam Houston State University w. E. NORRIS, JR., Southwest Texas State University A. w. ROACH, North Texas State University GERALD g. raun, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, The University of Texas at Austin eb carl girvin. Southwestern University PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E. EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology Cover Photo Structural characteristics of monogenetic trematodes. For further information on this subject see: “A Report on Freshwater Monogenetic Trematodes of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Texas”, by N. J. Clayton and E. A. Schleuter, pp. 159-167. LIBRARY ; SMITHSONIAN INST t WASHINGTON t.,. . . . DC 20560 THE rEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ANDESITE FLOWS ISNIMBRITE ANDESITE PORPHYRY BASALT FLOWS GREEN CONGLOMERATE VITRIC TUFF VITRIC-LITHIC TUFF a LAHARIC BRECCIA PANEL DIAGRAM BASED ON MEASURED SECTIONS OF TERTIARY VOLCANIC ROCKS, CERROS PRIETOS, CHIH. ^/8RAR!^ SECTION 1 MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research SECTION VIII SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION II PHYSICS SECTION VII CHEMISTRY SECTION III EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology SECTION IV BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Agriculture Botany Medical Science SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES Anthropology Zoology Education Economics History Psychology Sociology AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS Texas Section, American Association of Physics Teachers Texas Section, Mathematical Association of America Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers GENERAL INFORMATION Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro¬ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00. Dues should be sent to the Secretary- Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P.O. Box 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 7690L Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. (Second Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Please send 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P.O. Box 9285, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Volume XXII, No. 4 September 20, 1971 CONTENTS Chemical Mobility During Metamorphism of the Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist, Little Llano River Area, Central Texas. By Michael Murray and John /. W. Rogers . 315 Tertiary Stratigraphy of Cerros Prietos, Municipio de Ojinaga, Chihuahua, Mexico. By Grant H. Heiken . . 327 Vertebrate Tracks from the Permian of Castle Peak, Texas. By William A. S. Sarjeant . 343 Additional Data on the Burial Practices of the Brownsville Complex, Southern Texas. Thomas Roy Hester and R. W. Rodgers . 367 Numerical Approximation of Experimental Values. By T. A. Atchison and Jack E. Randorff . . 373 Fortran Solution of the General Quartic Equation. By Ethel W. McLemore and Ira L. Wright . 377 The Effects of Various Combinations of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Evaporative Water Loss of Bufo valliceps. By Phillip M. Campbell and W. K. Davis, . 389 Incidence and Geographic Distribution of Some Nematodes in Texas Bob¬ cats. By John W. Little, J. P. Smith, F. F. Knowlton, and R. R. Bell 403 SCIENCE EDUCATION An Analysis of Achievement and Level of Critical Thinking in Two Ap¬ proaches to High School Chemistry. By C. A, Hardy . 409 Photon as the Quantum of Light and Photoelectric Effect. By M. A. K. Lodhi 417 Radiation Energy and an Atom. By M. A. K. Lodhi ...... 419 NOTES SECTION A Summary of the Cladoceran Fauna of Texas. By Paul R. Becker and Stanley L. Sissom . 423 Parasites of the Evening Bat, Nycticeius humeralis, in Iowa. By John E. Uhelaker and Thomas H. Kunz . . . 425 Fight Between Rock Squirrel and Bullsnake. By Charles A, Haywood and Rodney W. Harris . . . 427 Rates of Hemoglobin Denaturation in Two Fishes. By J. Alan Feduccia . . 427 Experimental Lizard Hosts of Pentastomids. By Kalman Horvath . . . 429 Chemical Mobility During Metamorphism of the Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist, Little Llano River Area, Central Texas by Michael Murray and John J. W. Rogers Department of Geology, Rice University, Houston, 77001 ABSTRACT The Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist of the Little Llano River area, Llano Uplift, of Central Texas were developed by Late Precambrian metamor¬ phism. The Valley Spring Gneiss is characterized by fine grain size and lack of mineral aggregation, and neither formation exhibits consistent variation in mineral abundances near contacts with other rocks, including younger graites. Metamor¬ phism temperatures are estimated in the lower 500 °’s C from mineralogical data, and local intrusions apparently crystallized above 600° C. The temperature gradi¬ ent of approximately 100° C near intrusions is partly supported by variation in the Mn, Ti, and Cr contents of hornblendes in the Packsaddle Schist. The absence of mineralogical trends even where mobility of trace elements is indicated near contacts demonstrates that actual movement of major constituents was considerably less than their apparent potential mobility. INTRODUCTION This Study represents an investigation of the mobility and move- ment of chemical components during low-amphibolite facies meta¬ morphism of the Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist of Central Texas. The specific area studied was in the neighborhood of the Little Llano River in the northeastern portion of the Llano uplift. The investigative technique employed detailed studies across contacts between 2 metamorphic rocks or between metamorphic and igneous rocks. The Llano uplift of central Texas exposes a Precambrian complex of schists, gneisses, and granites. The complex was mapped in small scale by Paige (1912) ; later the Little Llano River area was mapped in greater detail by Lidiak, et al. (1961) and Almy (1960), and geo¬ physical work was reported by Almy, et al. (1961). The location of the area studied and a generalized geologic map are given in Figure 1 . The area from which samples were taken lies on the northeastern flank of a large anticline, called the Babyhead anticline, whose axial trace trends about N30W and lies 4 to 8 miles west of the area studied. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 316 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The major structure in the Packsaddle Schist of the study area is a syncline trending roughly parallel to the Babyhead anticline and plunging about N45W. The Valley Spring Gneiss, where studied, is a complexly folded series with fold axes trending normal to that of the Babyhead anticline and the Packsaddle syncline. The Lone Grove batholith (Buchanan massif) to the east of the sampled area is one of the late discordant intrusions generally referred to as Town Mountain Granite; the Buchanan massif has been studied recently by Cook (1967) and Cook and Rogers (1968). Most workers agree that the pre-metamorphic Valley Spring Gneiss was stratigraphically lower than the pre-metamorphic Packsaddle Schist. However, there is disagreement on whether the Valley Spring Gneiss is a paragneiss (Paige, 1912) or an orthogneiss (Stenzel, 1934). CHEMICAL MOBILITY DURING METAMORPHISM 317 Likewise, the Packsaddle Schist has been interpreted as both a para- schist (Paige, 1912) and, along the Little Llano River, an orthoschist with intercalated calcareous material (Billings, 1962; Billings, et al.^ 1966). Lithologies in the Packsaddle Schist are summarized by Cla- baugh and McGehee (1962). All rocks in the study area underwent 2 cycles of deformation, the 2nd being less severe than the first. The first cycle accounted for the formation of the Babyhead anticline and the syncline studied in the present work and was accompanied by metamorphism and the intru¬ sion, perhaps late in the cycle, of granitic dikes, pegmatites, and quartz veins. The 2nd cycle consisted of intrusion of the Lone Grove batholith followed by uplift, deformation of earlier structures, and epizonal development of fine-grained granite and llanite dikes. The epizonal character of the 2nd cycle of deformation is demonstrated by such fea¬ tures as miarolites in the granites, transition from intrusive to fault contacts between the granites and wall rocks, and the experimental evidence of Burmester (1966) to the effect that the llanite was formed at a pressure of about 500 bars. Events during the 2nd cycle of defor¬ mation did not affect any of the phenomena studied in the present work. PETROGRAPHY The average modal compositions of the Packsaddle Schist, Valley Spring Gneiss, and granites of this study are given in Table 1. A total of 85 thin sections was examined. Packsaddle Schist The Packsaddle Schist is largely a homogeneous, fine grained, dark green amphibolite with distinct foliation and lineation of the horn¬ blende. Minor felsic layers, felsic lenses, or restricted concentrations of epidote create local variation. The Packsaddle Schist consists pri¬ marily of hornblende, plagioclase (averaging Ango) , and quartz. Horn¬ blende grains are prismatic, have irregular terminations, are com¬ monly 3 to 5 times as long in the c direction as across the prism, and are pleochroic blue-green to light brownish-green. Foliation is caused by oriented hornblende, but about 2% of the grains are oriented at an angle to the major direction owing to the 2nd period of deformation. Plagioclase and quartz are xenoblastic, with about 2% of the plagio¬ clase showing compositional variation (simple zoning) concentric with its edges. Magnetite is xenoblastic and commonly surrounded by 318 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Modal compositions of rocks investigated. Rock Types Quartz Microcline Plagioclase Biotite Hornblende Magnetite Epidote Muscovite Sphene FF 32 33 25 4 3 2 1 MF 3 16 28 14 36 1 1 1 BAS 42 32 18 7 1 FQAP 22 17 11 18 1 29 2 GR 32 34 30 3 1 PS 17 13 65 4 1 The rock types are abbreviated: FF, felsic phase; MF, mafic phase; BAS, biotite- amphibole schist; FQAP, feldspar-quartz-amphibole-pyroxene phase; GR, granite and pegmatite bodies; PS, Packsaddle Schist. sphene. Sphene also occurs in layers of subidioblastic grains. The aver¬ age grain size of the Packsaddle Schist is 0.1 mm. Valley Spring Gneiss Almy (1960) divided the pale pink, poorly foliated, Valley Spring Gneiss in the study area into several distinct units which he named, in order of abundance in the area studied: felsic phase, mafic phase, biotite-amphibole schist, and feldspar-quartz-amphibole-p3rroxene phase. Felsic phase. The felsic phase of the Valley Spring Gneiss is a fine¬ grained (0.1 mm) homogeneous rock consisting primarily of quartz, microcline, and plagioclase. Quartz and the feldspars are xenoblastic, equigranular, and equidimensional. Plagioclase (about Augo) com¬ monly has a cloudy core of sericite flakes growing along crystallo¬ graphic planes or distributed randomly. A very small percentage of the plagioclase exhibits such features as irregular zoning and vermi¬ cular or rim myrmekite. Biotite is pleochroic light brown to dark brown or light greenish-brown to dark brown, and poorly aligned bio¬ tite defines the weak foliation. Minor minerals (magnetite, muscovite, and sphene) are xenoblastic and form poorly developed streaks parallel to foliation. CHEMICAL MOBILITY DURING METAMORPHISM 319 Mafic phase. The mafic phase of the Valley Spring Gneiss is tex- turally similar to the felsic phase. Hornblende, plagioclase, microcline, and biotite are the dominant minerals. Feldspars are xenoblastic with very rare myrmekitic or graphic intergrowths. Hornblende is xeno¬ blastic with edges commonly ragged. Pleochroism of hornblende is blue-green to yellowish-green. Biotite is free of inclusions, has only 001 faces developed, and is pleochroic pale brownish-green to dark greenish-brown. The average grain size is 0.3 mm, and all minerals are unoriented and randomly distributed, Biotite-amphibole schist. The biotite-amphibole schist is very similar to the felsic phase. Grain size and mineral content of the biotite- amphibole schist is the same as in the felsic phase, although mineral proportions are different. No amphibole was found in the biotite- amphibole schist studied by the present writers, although Almy (1960) reports its presence. A strong alignment and relatively greater con¬ centration of brown to brown-green biotite in the biotite-amphibole schist defines the foliation and imparts weak schistose cleavage. Feldspar -quartz-amphihole-pyroxene phase. This phase is complete¬ ly granoblastic, with epidote, quartz, hornblende, microcline, and plagioclase as the important minerals. No pyroxene was found in samples of this study, although Almy (1960) reported finding some in other samples. Hornblende grains are not oriented and do not display crystal faces, and some hornblende seems to have undergone resorp¬ tion. As in all other phases, hornblende is pleochroic blue-green to brownish-green or yellowish-green. Epidote has complex grain boun¬ daries and is partially poikiloblastic. Most quartz grains are strained and exhibit undulatory extinction. Some microcline grains are clouded. Sphene does not surround magnetite as it does in the Packsaddle Schist and is xenoblastic. Magnetite is subidioblastic to xenoblastic and is gen¬ erally surrounded by epidote. Minerals tend to separate slightly into irregular segregations of quartz, or microcline, or epidote and horn¬ blende, with a cross sectional area of from 15 to 50 sq mm. These seg¬ regations are not pure but have a predominance of one mineral or group of minerals over all of the other minerals. There is no preferred elongation or orientation of the segregations or their contained miner¬ als, and the segregations are randomly placed in the rock. Where quartz is the major mineral in a segregation, the grain size of quartz is 1.5 times the size of quartz in the rest of the rock. Average grain size of the whole rock is about 0.4 mm. Two aspects of the texture of the Valley Spring Gneiss must be emphasized. One is the fine grain size of most rocks, which implies little movement of components during metamorphism. The other 320 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE aspect is that the compositional differences between rock types are not caused by aggregation of similar grains. For example, biotite is ran¬ domly scattered through almost all rocks in which it occurs, and a high biotite content in the mafic phase is not caused by metamorphic segre¬ gation resulting from epitaxial growth or other aggregational processes. Only in the feldspar-quartz-amphibole-pyroxene phase is there evi¬ dence of segregation of any minerals. The compositional variations probably represent variations in the parent rocks. Granites and Micropegmatites The granites and micropegmatites studied contain microcline, quartz, and plagioclase as the dominant minerals. In the granites quartz is unstrained and interstitial; microcline is perthitic and anhe- dral; plagioclase is subhedral to anhedral, has a composition of about Anas, and shows some myrmekite and zoning; and minor mafic min¬ erals (biotite, magnetite, and hornblende) are subhedral. The granites have a grain size in the range of 0.3 mm, and increase in grain size causes granites to grade into the rocks designated as micropegmatites. The micropegmatites have an average grain size of about 2 mm and consist of quartz, microcline, and albitic plagioclase. All granites and pegmatites studied are part of the first cycle of deformation in the area. TECHNIQUE Three sets of samples were collected. One set consisted of suites of samples along traverses across contracts between 2 metamorphic rock types or between metamorphic and igneous rocks. Traverses, in dupli¬ cate in some places, were perpendicular to contacts, and samples were spaced a few inches or feet apart. The 2nd set of samples consisted of traverses across axes of small folds. The 3rd set was a control series collected at least 100 feet from any contacts or fold axes. Control samples were taken either along or perpendicular to strike of foliation, which nearly parallels original bedding. One or more oriented thin sections were made from each sample, and the distance from a contact or fold was noted. It was assumed that variation in mineralogical composition might be observed within an oriented thin section as well as between thin sections of a suite; thus compositions were determined within each thin section along 4 parallel bands, each with an area of 80 to 1 00 sq mm and about one centimeter farther from a contact or fold axis than the previous band of the same thin section. The composition of each band was determined by count¬ ing more than 300 points on a mechanical stage. CHEMICAL MOBILITY DURING METAMORPHISM 321 Concentrations of chromium, titanium, and manganese in horn¬ blende separates from the Packsaddle Schist were determined by atomic absorption methods using a Perkin-Elmer model 214 spectro¬ meter. RESULTS Approach to Equilibrium The major mineral phases present in the Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist include quartz, plagioclase, microcline, hornblende, magnetite, biotite, epidote, muscovite, and sphene. No combinations of minerals violating the mineralogical phase rule are present in any rock, and this observation suggests close approach to thermodynamic equilibrium. A supporting argument for equilibrium is the fact that crystal face development follows the ordinary crystalloblastic series except in the case of sphene. Minor, irregular zoning of plagioclase, however, indicates some disequilibrium. The fact that all mafic min¬ erals are hydrated attests to the ubiquitous presence of water. Variations near Contacts A total of 58 samples near contacts was investigated in the present study, and it is unnecessary to tabulate all of the modal data. Examples of the mineralogical variability across contracts, however, are dia¬ grammed in Figures 2 to 4, and complete data can be obtained from the writers. The main conclusion drawn from the figures and other data is that mineralogical variation in the neighborhood of contacts is no different from the kinds of variation found within and between control samples not affected by contacts. No consistent mineralogical or textural change can be found in any metamorphic rock, even on a scale of centimeters, as one approaches a contact with a granite dike or another metamorphic rock. Wherever apparent short-range trends have been found, they are either indistinguishable from similar trends in control samples or are not substantiated by duplicate traverses across the same contact. Mineralogy and texture of the metamorphic rocks are unaffected by contacts. Variations near Fold Axes The abundance of epidote increases at the expense of hornblende along the axes of small folds. This variation is apparently accounted for by the reaction. plagioclase + hornblende (Fe) ^ epidote + hornblende (Na, Al) + quartz 322 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 60 O - QUARTZ A - MICROCLINE o • - PLAGIOCLASE FF 150 PS x»biotite 50 • ~ □ - HORNBLENDE • o- EPIDOTE + » MAGNETITE o MUSCOVITE 40 • • o O • ^ E X • • ■:e 30 o o o X • o X . • 8 o 600 °C, and many of the dikes have compositions different from those of the eutectic. Table 2 gives the results of trace element analyses of hornblende separates from the Packsaddle Schist adjacent to and away from Table 2 Trace element content of hornblendes in Packsaddle Schist. Cr Mn Ti within 3 feet of igneous contact (6 samples) 0.037% 0.15% 1.18% more than 100 feet from igneous rock (4 samples) 0.017 0.42 0,44 Adirondack samples from 625®C isograd^*^ 0.073 0.17 2.4 Adirondack samples from 525°C isograd* 0.025 0.31 1.4 * Read from Figure 2, page 1504, in Engel and Engel (1962) . igneous bodies. The range of compositions is similar to that found by Engel and Engel (1962) for hornblendes in the Grenville series sub¬ jected to a metamorphic temperature range from 525 °C to 625 °C. Based on trace element data for the hornblende and on general con¬ siderations discussed above, it seems likely that granitic and pegmatitic dikes were intruded at temperatures somewhat above 600 °C into meta¬ morphic rocks at temperatures in the range of lower to middle 500 °C. CHEMICAL MOBILITY DURING METAMORPHISM 325 It may also be assumed that pressures were in the range of 4-5 kb and that all rocks were saturated with water. CONCLUSIONS The principal observations that have been made concerning the metamorphic process in the Packsaddle Schist and Valley Spring Gneiss of the Little Llano River area: 1. The grain sizes of the rocks studied are very small, with most minerals in the range of a few tenths of one millimeter. 2. Compositional variations exist between adjacent rock types with¬ out any evidence, such as the aggregation of similar minerals, that the variations are caused by metamorphic segregation; consequently, mineralogical variations are presumed to repre¬ sent primary compositional differences in parent rocks. 3. Mineralogical variations across lithologic contacts are abrupt, without any gradients or trends of variation as contacts are ap¬ proached. 4. Where thermal gradients are shown to exist between granitic dikes and wall rocks, no mineralogical gradients are found in the wall rocks as the contact is approached, although there is limited evidence for changes in trace element content of hornblendes in response to temperature variation. The lack of mineralogical gradients adjacent to contacts, and the absence of aggregation of similar minerals within lithologic units, indi¬ cates that large-scale movement of materials did not take place during metamorphism of the rocks studied. This conclusion seems remarkable in view of the fact that all rocks are completely recrystallized from parent materials consisting, at least partly, of sedimentary minerals. It is also remarkable in the light of evidence that trace elements nor¬ mally contained in hornblende migrated over at least several feet in order to adjust hornblende chemistry to a thermal gradient. The con¬ clusion is that mobility of ions was possible during metamorphism but actual movement did not occur over distances much greater than the average grain size, a few tenths of a millimeter. It would be interesting to know whether this discrepancy between potential mobility and actual movement is related to the fine grain size of the rocks, possibly as a joint indication of lack of water mobility. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by Grant C-009 from the Robert A. Welch Foundation to John A. S. Adams and John J. W. Rogers. It 326 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE was done during the tenure of a National Science Foundation Pre- doctoral Fellowship for the first writer. The writers are indebted to the ranchers of northern Llano County for permission to work in the study area. LITERATURE CITED Almy, C. C., 1960 — Geological and geophysical studies of a portion of the Little Llano River Valley, Llano and San Saha Counties, Texas. M.A. Thesis, Dept, of Geology, Rice Univ., Houston. - , E. G. Lidiak, and J. J. W. Rogers, 1961 — Geophysical studies of the Little Llano River Valley, Llano and San Saba Counties, Texas. Tex. J. Sci.., 13: 460-77. Billings, G. K., 1962 — A geochemical investigation of the Valley Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist, Llano uplift, Texas. Tex J. Sci. 14: 328-51. - , P. C. Ragland, and R. C. Harriss, 1966 — -The pre-metamorphic origin of the Packsaddle Schist amphibolites: geochemical evidence. Tex. J. Sci., 18: 277-90. Binns, R. a., 1964 — Zones of progressive regional metamorphism in The Willyama complex, Broken Hill district, New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Australia, 11: 283-330. - , 1965 — The mineralogy of metamorphosed basic rocks from the Willy¬ ama complex, Broken Hill district, New South Wales. Mineral. Mag., 35: 306-26. Burmester, R. F., 1966 — Llanite, a hypabyssal rhyolite porphyry from Llano County, Texas. M.A., Thesis, Dept, of Geology, Univ. of Texas, Austin. Carpenter, J. R., 1968 — Apparent retrograde metamorphism: another example of the influence of structural deformation on metamorphic differentiation. Contr. Mineral. Petrology, 17: 173-86. Clabaugh, S. E., and R. V. McGehee, 1962 — Precambrian rocks of Llano region. In E. H. Rainwater and R. P. Zingula (Editors) Geology of The Gulf Coast and Central Texas, and Guidebook of Excursions, Houston Geol. Soc., 62-78. Cook, B. G., 1967 — Detailed petrology of the Buchanan massif, Llano and Burnet Counties, Texas. M.A. Thesis, Dept, of Geology, Rice Univ., Houston. - , and J. J. W. Rogers, 1968 — Radiometry and crystallization history of the Buchanan granite massif, Texas, U.S.A. Lithos, 1:398-407. Engel, A. E. J., and C. G. Engel, 1962 — Hornblendes formed during progressive metamorphism of amphibolites, Northwest Adirondack Mountains, New York. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 73: 1499-1514. Lidiak, E. G., C. C. Almy, and J. J. W. Rogers, 1961 — Precambrian geology of part of the Little Llano River area, Llano and San Saba Counties, Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 13: 255-289. Paige, S., 1912 — Llano-Burnet Folio. Geologic Atlas of the United States, no. 183, U.S. Geol. Surv., Washington, D.C. Stenzel, H. B., 1934 — Precambrian structural conditions in the Llano region. The Geology of Texas, II: Structural and Economic Geology, Univ. of Texas Publ. 3401: 74-49. Turner, F. J., 1968 — Metamorphic Petrology: Miner alogical and Field Aspects. McGraw-Hill Book C., New York. Tertiary Stratigraphy of Cerros Prietos, Municipio De Ojinaga, Chihuahua, Mexico by Grant H, Heiken N AS A-Manned Spacecraft Center^ Houston ABSTRACT Volcanic rocks correlative with some of the Tertiary rocks of Trans-Pecos Texas crop out along the Rio Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) 35 miles northwest of Ojinaga, Chihuahua, Mexico. Two small diorite intrusions penetrate the upper Cretaceous Ojinaga Formation. These intrusions and the Cretaceous rocks are unconformably overlain by Tertiary rocks. Boulders of the diorite are included in the basal Tertiary conglomerate. Tertiary volcanism began with the deposition of lithic-vitric tuff with inter- bedded laharic breccia. The lithic-vitric tuff has an upper gradatonal contact with a massive vitric tuff. On the basis of lithology and stratigraphic position, the tuff and associated sediments are probably correlative with the Capote Mountain Tuff of Trans-Pecos Texas. Vertebrate fossils from the vitric tuff indicate an early Oligocene age. Local basalt flows overlie alluvial fans which had formed on the tuff sequence along the perimeters of the Sierra de la Parra. Several ignimbrites similar to the Brite Formation of adjacent Texas covered both the basalts and air-fall tuff section, filling topographic lows between the flows. Andesite flows and some associated air-fall tuff were erupted onto the surface of the ignimbrite. Tributaries of the Rio Bravo are now removing Tertiary rocks, exhuming the pre-volcanic topography. REGIONAL SETTING The Cerros Prietos, located between the Presidio Bolson and the Sierra de la Parra, consist of an area of Tertiary volcanic rocks ap¬ proximately 8 miles east-west by 9 miles north-south (Fig. 1). The boundaries of the area mapped in this study approximately coincide with the outcrop of the volcanic rocks. The area is near the eastern edge of the Basin-Range Province. The Tertiary outcrops parallel the northwest-southeast regional trend of the Presidio Bolson and prominent mountain ranges composed chiefly of folded and faulted Cretaceous rocks (Fig. 2) . The dominant topographic features developed on the volcanic rocks are cliffs, cuestas, and mesas. In contrast to this are the more rounded hills developed on Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 328 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS “As far as the eruptive material is concerned we have evidently to deal with the same material in Old and New Mexico {and Texas) ^ thrown up partly at the same time, under the same or similar con¬ ditions . . (von Streeruwitz, 1892, p. 383) . Exploration in northern Mexico and adjacent Trans-Pecos Texas dates from Cabeza de Vaca in 1531. This exploration has been re¬ viewed by DeFord (1958) who has supervised field studies by many M.A. and Ph.D. candidates at The University of Texas. Students of J. H. Mackin, J. A. Wilson, S. E. Clabaugh, and W. R. Muehlberger have also completed field studies in this area. W. T. Haenggi has completed a study of the geology of a large part of northeastern Chihuahua. The southern boundary of his area is a few miles north of the Cerros Prietos. The thesis area was suggested by J. H. Mackin and J. A. Wilson to extend knowledge of the Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Trans-Pecos Texas into northern Mexico. The writer and Ismael Ferrusquia, a student of J. A. Wilson, studying vertebrate paleontology, did the field work during the summer of 1965. PETROGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE The rock term “tuff” is used as defined in Wentworth and Williams (1932, p. 50): “Indurated pyroclastic rocks of grain size generally finer than 4 mm; i.e., the indurated equivalent of volcanic ash or dust.” ‘Ignimbrite’ is used as a rock-unit term, for units deposited by nuees ardentes (Cook, 1962, p. 13). ‘Welded tuff’ and ‘sillar’ are rock names used to describe the end-member rock types found in an ignimbrite; sillar is a nonwelded tuff. Cook’s (1961) compositional classification of ignimbrites is used. Criteria for recognizing laharic breccias are from descriptions of modern lahars by van Bemmelen (1949, p. 188) and by Scrivenor (1929) . The clearest definition is by Curtis (1954, p. 458) who defines a lahar as: “Any volcanic breccia with a matrix of tuffaceous aspect which came to rest as a single unit and was originally mobilized by the motivating force.” Terminology for the flow rocks and intrusive rocks is that of Wil¬ liams, et al. (1954) . TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF GERROS PRIETOS 329 Fig. 1. index map of pari of norfhern Chihuahua and Trons-Pecos Texas. Cerros Priefos located in stippled area. Sandstones and tuffaceous sandstones are described using the 5 -fold scheme of Folk (1954), with the modifications imposed by McBride (1963). 330 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ROCKS OF TERTIARY AGE In ascending order, the formations of the Cerros Prietos are: Prietos Formation, unnamed local basalt flows, Brite Formation, and the Valle- cito Formation. All except the Brite are new names proposed in this paper. All of these units are exposed in the type section on the south¬ west slope of the Cerros Prieto (measured section 3 — Fig. 2) . Prietos Formation Definition and boundaries — The lowest unit in the Tertiary section is a dominantly pyroclastic unit, with a maximum thickness of 820 feet (Figs. 2 and 4) which rests unconformably on deformed Creta¬ ceous rocks and a diorite intrusion. Erosional relief of the underlying surface is approximately 1,000 feet. The pyroclastic rocks and associ¬ ated sediments were deposited in canyons and valleys and covered some of the smaller hills. In some places this unit is divided into 4 members: 1) a basal con¬ glomerate; 2) lower tuff-lahar member; 3) upper tuff member; and 4) a conglomerate which marks the end of this episode of volcanic activity (Fig. 3). Because the contacts between these units are grada¬ tional, the 4 members are not mapped separately. On the basis of lithology and stratigraphic position this unit is prob¬ ably correlative with the Capote Mountain Tuff of Trans-Pecos Texas. Because this is not well established, Prietos formation is proposed. It is named for the Cerros Prietos, a northwest-southeast trending series of hills along the eastern boundary of the mapped area. Prietos rocks are typically exposed in cliffs on the western side of these hills (Fig. 2) . Basal conglomerate member — The basal conglomerate consists of alluvial deposits occupying valleys of the pre-volcanic topography and talus and colluvial deposits on the valley sides. The basal conglomerate has a maximum thickness of 60 feet; the relief was only slightly de¬ creased by deposition of the conglomerate. The conglomerate crops out in the northern part of the mapped area, near Rancho Gaitan, but the exposures are generally poor. In some places it is difficult to distinguish between conglomerate consisting of large limestone boulders and the underlying Cretaceous limestone. The talus facies is best seen one-half mile northeast of Rancho Gaitan on the flank of a pre-volcanic hill consisting of Cretaceous limestone and dioritic intrusive rock. Tlie talus, resting on a 15 to 20° slope, is from 10 to 50 feet thick. The rock is a boulder breccia, with 35% boulder-sized fragments as large as 8 feet in diameter, 20% cobbles and pebbles, and 45% sand and silt-sized material. Most of the frag- TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF CERROS PRIETOS 331 AMVMMiivnQ luai ao Aaviiaii snoaaviaao ivno Fig. 2. Gsologic map of the Cerros Prietos. merits larger than pebble size are limestone; 2 to 3% are diorite. The lithology corresponds to that of the hills from which the talus was pre¬ sumably derived. Fossil locality. 332 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AGE FORMATION COLUMN DESCRIPTION AND REMARKS iiiinn.niniii]) Vallecito Formation i 11 Andesite flows; dark red in outcrop. Base and top of each of five flows is marked by scoriaceous zones. Interbedded with the flows is a lithic tuff unit near top of the unit. to 350 Brite (?) Formation Two or three cooling units. White to grey welded vitiic- crystal tuff and sillar. Andesite flows interbedded with the cooling units. 140 to 400 Local basalt flows (unnamed) Massive dark to light grey flow rock; separated on the basis of scoriaceous zones. No jointing in most of the flows . 0 to 330 Upper Cg. mmbr. Cross -bdd., fluvial cgs. Upper tuff member • 4..^ • Ay*. V -A -V- A A* • • 6.; i? • A- . • V ^ tr'-’ i V**r‘ Massive pink, grey and white vitric tuff with a few interbedded conglonefates . Vertebrate fossils and fresh¬ water gastropods. Lower tuff member Basal eg. iranbr. Ojinaga Rn. Alternating dark red and purple massive lithic-vitric tuffs and laharic breccias. Much of it has been reworked. Ls. conglomerate . Grey-green shale with minor amounts of interbdd. ss. and Is 0-120 120 to 240 0 to 400 IhM 2500 Fig. 3. Generalized columnar section, Tertiary rocks. The fluviatile facies is best exposed in several canyons trending east and northeast from Rancho Gaitan, where it ranges from pebble to cobble conglomerate. The matrix is a very poorly sorted sandy pebble conglomerate; immature calcite-cemented litharenite. Trough and TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF CERROS PRIETOS 333 Fig. 4. Diagrammatic section showing relations of the Prietos Formation to the underlying Cretaceous rocks. Structure ©f the Cretaceous rocks under the Prietos cover is inferred. Note intebedded conglomerates in the upper and lower tuff members. Mountains on left are the Sierra da la Parra. planar types of cross-bedding indicate current directions which trend east. This conglomerate is probably analogous to the Jeff conglomerate of Trans-Pecos Texas, where it occurs at the base of the volcanic sequence. The Jeff Conglomerate was named by Eifler (1951) from the Jeff Ranch, Barilla Mountains, Texas. Summarizing his descriptions, the Jeff pebble to boulder conglomerate is composed of quartzite and lime¬ stone fragments resting on a slight angular unconformity between Cretaceous limestone and Tertiary rocks. The age could only be placed at post-Cretaceous-pre-Eocene or Oligocene, A similar basal conglomerate is described in the Texas Rim Rock country by DeFord (1958, p. 14). Lower tuff member — The lower part of the Prietos formation con¬ sists of andesitic lithic-vitric tuff interbedded with laharic brcecia. Like the basal conglomerate, it was deposited in topographic lows. Maxi¬ mum thickness is about 400 feet. Purple, resistant, laharic breccia forms about 20% of the lower part of the Prietos. The lahars are composed of a variety of angular, ran- 334 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE domly oriented volcanic rock fragments with compositions ranging from rhyolite to basalt in a tuffaceous matrix. The lahars decrease in number and thickness upward from a bed 30 to 40 feet thick to the uppermost laharic unit 2 feet thick. The upward decrease in the size and frequency of the lahars is probably associated with diminishing activity at a nearby vent or vents. The tuff facies varies from lithic-vitric upward to vitric-lithic (Fig, 5 ). It is in purple, red, and grey beds 2 to 6 feet thick. These beds are easily eroded, in contrast to the more resistant breccias. The most extensive outcrops are in the southeastern part of the area. The tuff facies probably blanketed the area and was concentrated in topographic lows by running water. Thin conglomerate beds forming less than 5% of the tuff and occasional limestone fragments are evi¬ dence for partial reworking. Upper tuff member — The lithic-vitric tuff of the Prietos grades upward (Fig. 5) into a massive vitric tuff, as much as 250 feet thick, which rests on everything from the lithic-vitric tuff to the Cretaceous rocks exposed as pre-volcanic hills. The tuff buried some of these hills. Massive beds of pink, white, or tan vitric tuff range from 16 to 75 feet thick. The tuff consists chiefly of glass shards with 3 to 10% plagioclase and opaque minerals. Some of the beds have 5 to 10% pumice fragments. Near the Sierra de la Parra and around several buried hills, inter- bedded conglomerates divide the upper Prietos into separate units. Each of the tuff beds may represent an eruption with conglomerate accumulating during dormant periods. Beyond the range of about one- half mile from the Sierra de la Parra the few remaining conglomerate beds occupy channels cut into the tuff. A purple conglomerate in a channel consists of 40 to 50% volcanic rock fragments in a matrix of tuffaceous sand. The limestone frag¬ ments correspond to the limestones of the Sierra de la Parra. Nearly all of the vertebrate fossils collected in the mapped area are from this tuff member. These are described by Ferrusquia (1967, 1969) . Associated with the vertebrates are large fresh water gastropods. Upper conglomerate member — The upper Prietos tuff member is covered by a green, cross-bedded conglomerate representing alluvial fans deposited along the edges of the Sierra de la Parra after a cessation of the Prietos eruptive activity. The conglomerate, 20 to 100 feet thick, is best seen where the Prietos is covered by basalt flows. In several places where the overlying basalt is absent, the resistant conglomerate forms mesa tops. Volcanic rock fragments, 50 to 75% of which are larger than pebble TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF CERROS PRIETOS 335 Fig. 5. VerHcal variation in the upper and lower tuff members, Prietos Formation. From measured section number 1, samples 3 through 9. Dotted line indicates arbitrary boundary between the upper and lower tuff members. size, are angular to subrounded. A sample of the matrix from strati¬ graphic section 3 is a very poorly sorted sandstone: immature calcite- cemented limestone-bearing volcanic litharenite. The green hue of the rock is due to the greenish volcanic rock fragments. 336 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 0 10 20 3 0 •/• GLASSY % CRYSTALS 6R0 UN DM ASS Fig, 6. Vertical variation in ignimbrite virhich may correlate with the Brite Formation, Samples collected from the middle cooling unit of the Brite (?) Formation. Cross-bedding is common with a general trend of N, 30 °E. Near Canon Colorado channel fills of the conglomerate form elongate ridges of boulders. Cropping out in several places in the central and southeastern Cerros TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF CERROS PRIETOS 337 Prietos is a thin-bedded, green sandstone, 20 feet thick. It is an im¬ mature, coarse sandstone: tuffaceous lithic arkose. The thin-bedded unit is laterally equivalent to the green conglomerate, possibly repre¬ senting sand sheets on the alluvial fans. Age and correlation — Vertebrate fossils collected from the upper Prietos tuff member by Ferrusquia (1967) indicate an early Chad- ronian age. This Oligocene age is the same as that of the Chambers and Capote tuffs of Trans-Pecos Texas. A tentative correlation of the Prietos formation with the Capote Mountain Tuff was based on compositional similarities and strati¬ graphic position relative to the Brite Ignimbrite. According to McKinney (1957, p. 64-66) the Capote Tuff, 75 feet thick, in the Porvenir area, Texas, is a white to pink vitric tuff, the lower part containing lithic fragments of andesite and andesine-bear- ing vitrophyre. The Chambers Tuff is a crystal tuff, cropping out in yellowish- brown to reddish brown beds one to 1 0 feet thick. It does not resemble any of the tuffs mapped in the Cerros Prietos. Ferrusquia (1967; 1969) has designated the vertebrae assemblage from the Prietos formation as the Rancho Gaitan local fauna. This is the first Oligocene fauna described in Mexico. He correlates this fauna with the Little Egypt local fauna from the upper part of the Chambers Tuff formation of Trans-Pecos Texas. The author accepts the correlation made by Ferrusquia (1967, 1969) on the basis of abundant vertebrate assemblage, but finds it very difficult to explain the great lithologic differences between the Cham¬ bers Tuff Formation and Prietos Formation. Basalt Flows (Unnamed ) The green conglomerate of the Prietos formation is overlain by black to grey-green basalt flows mapped in 3 different parts of the Cerros Prietos. While feeders were not seen, the distribution of flows suggest that they were aligned along fault zones. The most widespread succession of flows crops out along the entire length (6.5 miles) of the Cerros Prietos proper. In the central Cerros Prietos, where the basalt is about 300 feet thick, 3 flows are separated on the basis of scoriaceous zones and jointing. The lowest of these flows extends 2.5 miles north, where it is 10 feet thick; the upper flows terminate south of this point (Fig. 7) . At the base of the 2nd flow in the stack some flow structure is visible in the form of trains of small phenocrysts of a ferromagnesian mineral, oriented parallel to the base of the flow. 338 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 7. Panel diagram of Tertiary volcanic rocks, Cerros Prietos, Chihuahua. A small flow at Cerro Pinto, in the central part of the area, covers approximately 2.25 square miles. Maximum thickness is 200 feet near the center of Cerro Pinto. The northernmost edge is all flow breccia, 7 feet thick. The southernmost outcrop of this basalt, 80 feet thick, consists of 3 flows and interbedded tuff. Some flow breccia is associated with these flows. Brite (? ) Formation Several ignimbrites cover most of the mapped area, including the basalt flows and topographic lows between them. Andesite porphyries interbedded within the formation represent spreading of flows between nuees ardentes. On the basis of texture and mineralogy 2 cooling units are recog¬ nized. A 3rd may exist at the base below interbedded andesite flows, but this part of the formation is always covered with talus from promi¬ nent cliffs formed wherever the middle unit crops out. A cooling unit, as defined by Smith (1960, p. 149), consists of one or several nuees ardentes forming a layer that may cool as one unit. The middle cooling is 150 to 300 feet thick in the central and nor¬ thern parts of the mapped area. The upper cooling unit is 60 feet thick at Cerro Pinto. The upper and middle units are both orange-tan to white; they are TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF CERROS PRIETOS 339 composed of 75 to 90% glass shards and dust and 10 to 25% crystals. Volcanic rock fragments other than pumice are rare. The crystals are mostly euhedral sanidine with small amounts of andesine or oligoclase, quartz, and opaque minerals; iridescent blue sanidine is a distinctive feature of the rock. Most of the glass is devitrified, often so much as to obscure the original texture of the rock. Vertical variation in the mineralogy and texture of the middle unit is described in Figure 6. The crystal content increases and the degree of welding decreases upward in the middle unit. Vertical variation in the degree of welding has been described in many places (e.g., Gilbert, 1938, Smith, 1960, Ross and Smith, 1961, and Cook, 1962) . An upward increase in crystal content is described in several different ignimbrite units from New Zealand by Ewart ( 1 965 ) . The andesite flows are all local, each being less than one-half mile long. The first, cropping out at measured section 3, is 260 feet thick. It is uniform in composition, with variations only in color (reddish- orange to grey-green) and in phenocryst size (7 mm to 2 cm). At section 3, the flow rests directly on the underlying basalt flows. One-half mile north of section 3, a small strip of welded tuff crops out under a segment of this flow. This is partial evidence of andesite flows pouring out onto the surface between nuees ardentes. At the same location, 3 flows were distinguished on the basis of vertical variation in color and phenocryst size and scoriaceous zones. Two similar andesite flows north and south of section 6 are also interlayered with the Brite. Both of these flows cover less than one square mile. The 3 flows issued from vents along a northwest-southeast trend parallel to areas of post-volcanic faulting. The Brite (?) Formation is similar in composition to the Brite and Mitchell Mesa ignimbrites described by McKnight (oral communica¬ tion, 1965) and by Dietrich (1965) in Trans-Pecos Texas. W. T. Haenggi (oral communication, 1965) mapped a similar ignimbrite continuing west into Chihuahua. V allecito Formation The Vallecito Formation is named for Vallecito, a flat area in the Central Cerros Prietos (section 3, fig. 2) . Vallecito rocks are abundant only on the eastern slope of the Cerros Prietos. Two small erosional remnants remain on Cerro Pinto. The maximum thickness is approxi¬ mately 350 feet thick on the highest ridges. The Vallecito formation consists of andesite flows and interbedded tuff which cover the Brite surface. 340 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The flows are massive, with some vertical contraction joints. The base and top of each of the 5 flows are marked by scoriaceous zones. The andesite varies from red (most common) to grey-brown. The uppermost flow is a grey, scoriaceous rock with quartz and chalcedony filled amygdules. The rock contains phenocrysts of an desine in a hematite-stained merocrystalline groundmass. A tuff bed, 80 feet thick, is interlayered between the 4th and 5th flows. The rock is a massive, friable, white lithic-vitric tuff. Parts of the unit have been reworked and contain layers of the cross-bedded pebbly sandstone. SUMMARY OF TERTIARY GEOLOGIC HISTORY An erosion surface with approximately 1 ,000 feet of relief, cut into folded and faulted Cretaceous marine sedimentary rocks, and intruded by 2 diorite plutons, was the depositional base for Tertiary rocks (Fig. 8-A). Prior to deposition of any pyroclasitc materials, a basal conglomerate was deposited by streams and as talus along hillsides (Fig. 8-A) . The first evidence of volcanic activity was in the form of ash falls and lahars which make up the bulk of the Prietos formation (Fig. 8-B) . The lahars appear to have been restricted to topogrpahic lows, but did not fill the pre-existing valleys. Much of the ash which blanketed the area was reworked by water and concentrated in low areas. Vertebrate fossils indicate that the Prietos is early Oligocene. Cessation of the Prietos episode of volcanic activity was marked by deposition of alluvial fans around the perimeters of the Sierra de la Parra (Fig. 8-B). Basalt poured out onto the surface of the alluvial fans (Fig. 8-C), forming several depositional highs near the vents. Several ignimbrites, probably correlative with the Brite Ignimbrite of West Texas, covered topography formed by the basalt flows (Fig. 8-D). The highest of the ignimbrites covered some of the hills of Cre¬ taceous rock, and partially filled the breached anticline in the center of the Sierra de la Parra. Andesitic lavas are in some places interbedded with the ignimbrites, and a thick sequence of flows poured out onto the nearly flat surface formed by deposition of the ignimbrites (Fig. 8-D and E) . Subsequent to the deposition of the volcanic rocks, there was normal faulting along a northwest-southeast trend; the main fault forms the boundary between the volcanic rocks and adjacent bolson. Erosion during late Tertiary and Pleistocene time has stripped away much of the Tertiary rocks, exhuming topography which existed dur¬ ing Oligocene time (Fig. 8-F) . Fig. 8. Series ©f cross-secfions illlustrating sequence ©f events in the Cerras Prietos, See text for explanation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks are due to my field partner, Ismael Ferrusquia for his help and patience. Sr. Lorenzo Molinar provided help, a roof, water and friendship. His knowledge of the area provided valuable informa¬ tion concerning geography and roads. The Institute de Geologia de 342 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico provided a vehicle and expenses. Dr. J. H. Mackin, Dr. D. S. Barker, and Dr. J. A. Wilson supervised the field work. Messrs. W. T. Haenggi, John Gries, and John Harris provided valuable comments and criticisms. REFERENCES CITED Cook, E. F., 1961 — Geologic atlas of Utah, Washington County, Utah Geol. Mining Survey^ Bull, 70. - 1962 — Ignimbrite bibliography and review. Idaho Bur. Mines GeoL, Info. Circular No. 13. Curtis, G., 1954 — Mode of origin of pyroclastic debris in the Mehrten formation of the Sierra Nevada. Univ. Calif. Pubs. Geol. Sci., 29: 453-502. Deford, R. K., 1958 — ^Tertiary formation of Rim Rock Country, Presidio County, County, Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 10: 1-37, Dietrich, J, W., 1965, Geology of Presidio area: Unpubl. Ph.D,, dissert., Univ. of Tex. at Austin. Eifler, G. K., J8., 1951 — Geology of the Barilla Mountains, Texas. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 62: 339-353. Ewart, A., 1965 — Ignimbrite mineralogy and petrogenesis: New Zealand J. Geol. Geophys., 8: 973-982. Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael, 1967 — Rancho Gaitan Local Fauna, Early Char- dronian, Northeastern Chihuahua, Mexico: Unpubl. M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Tex. at Austin. - - , 1969 — Rancho Gaitan local fauna, early Chadronian, northeastern Chihuahua; Bob Soc. Geologica Mexicana, t.XXX,n.2. Folk, R. L., 1954 — The distinction between grain size and mineral composition in sedimentary rock nomenclature. Jour. Geol., 62: 344-359. Gilbert, C. M., 1938, Welded tuff in eastern California. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 49: 1829-1869. McBride, E. F., 1963 — Classification of sandstones. Jour. Sed. Pet., 33: 664-669. McKinney, R. G., 1957 — Petrology of eruptive rocks of Porvenir area. Presidio Co., Texas. Unpubli. M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Texas, at Austin. Ross, C. S., and Smith, R. L., 1961 — Ash-flow tuffs: their origin, geologic relations and identification: U .S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 366, ScRivENOR, J. B., 1929 — The mudstreams (“Lahars”) of Gunong Keloet in Java. Geol. Mag. {Great Brit.) , 66: 433-434. Smith, R. L., 1960 — Zones and zonal variations in welded ash flows: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 354-F. VAN Bemmelen, R. C., 1949, Geology of Indonesia, Vol. lA. VON Streeruwitz, W. H., 1892 — Trans-Pecos Texas, In Dumble, 1892, 5rd An. Rpi. Geol. Surv. of Texas, 1891. Wentworth, C. K., and Williams, 1932 — The classification and terminology of the pyroclastic rocks: Natl. Res. Council Bull. 89, Rpt. Comm. Sedimentation, 1930-32, p. 19-53. Williams, H. Turner, F., and C. M. Gilbert, 1954 — Petrography. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. Vertebrate Tracks from the Permian of Castle Peak, Texas by William A. S. Sarjeant Department of Geology The University, Nottingham, England ABSTRACT A series of specimens of fossil vertebrate tracks from the Texas Permian, con¬ tained in the collections of the State University of Iowa, are described. The methods of description of vertebrate tracks are critically discussed. Six ichnospecies are recognised. A new ichnogenus, Moodieichnus, consisting of 2-toed imprints, is pro¬ posed and an emended diagnosis is formulated for its type species, M. didactylus (Moodie). Emended diagnoses are also proposed for the ichnogenera Erpetopus and V aranopus and for the species Microsauropus acutipes, Erpetopus willistoni, and Varanopus curvidactylus; in addition, a new species, Varanopus langstoni, is described. The footprint assemblage is shown to be one of small bipedal and quadru¬ pedal reptiles and small, salamander-like amphibians. INTRODUCTION The occurrence of fossil vertebrate tracks in the Red Beds of Texas was first recorded by Williston ( 1908) , who noted the presence of foot¬ prints of “salamander-like creatures of small size”: the locality was not cited in this paper, but Gould (1927) subsequently determined that the specimens had been collected from Castle Peak, 1 0 miles south of Merkel, Taylor County, Texas. Footprints from this locality were figured by Abel (1926), in an account of this German naturalist’s travels in North America. A brief general account of the locality and the footprints was given by Moodie (1928), who later undertook their description in 2 longer papers (1929, 1930a). He distinguished, in all, 15 different types of vertebrate tracks, 12 of which were placed into new ichnospecies and one into an ichnospecies earlier described by Gilmore (1927), from the Grand Canyon. [Of the new species proposed by Moodie, one {V aranopus impressus) was described in 1929 but not illustrated till 1930 and another {Varanopus elrodi), described in 1929, has never been illustrated and thus remains unusable 40 years later.] Moodie later published a popular account of the footprint occurrence (1930b) and the locality was mentioned in the first volume of “The Geology of Texas” (Sellards, et ah, 1932) . The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 344 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE In the present paper, an account is given of footprint specimens from the M. A. Stainbrook collection, lodged in the Geology Department of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City. They were loaned to the author for description through the courtesy of Dr. Holmes A. Semken. The collection consists of 20 specimens, whose registration numbers are 32990 to 33009; the locality, consistently given as “Capitol Peak, 8 miles south of Merkel, Texas”, is certainly an error and should read “Castle Peak.” The footprint horizon is in the Clear F'ork Group, in the upper part of a shale unit separating lenticular Bullwagon dolomite beds below from the overlying Merkel dolomite unit. The general time-strati¬ graphic situation in this region is confusing, but the track-bearing rocks clearly lie near the top of the Leonardian Series, as defined by the marine fauna of the adjacent strata. DIFFICULTIES OF FOOTPRINT STUDY The study of fossil footprints is of special interest since these foot¬ prints provide a dynamic record of the animal in action, permitting an interpretation of its activities. In most cases, it is not possible to link tracks to skeletal remains with any confidence, since quite fre¬ quently the animals making the tracks are not yet known from fossil remains. The fascination of endeavouring to reconstruct an unknown animal from its tracks is very great, the classic instance being that of the famous Chirotherium^ not yet positively known from skeletal re¬ mains (see Ley, 1951 : Haubold, 1967) . However, their study also pre¬ sents many special problems. Footprints are extremely difficult to illustrate adequately. It is necessary to examine each specimen in a succession of different positions under oblique illumination, in order to ascertain its characters. No single photograph can give an adequate representation of a print; many papers describing fossil footprints are illustrated by photographs of inadequate quality. Footprints are preserved as they were formed, as moulds (inden¬ tations in the sediment surface, over wLich the animal walked) ; also they form casts on the lower surface of the overlying stratum. To obtain an adequate idea of their morphology, both mould and cast should be examined; otherwise the result can be quite misleading. An instance of this is presented in Plates 1 and 2, which illustrate moulds and casts from the same set of prints: their interpretation is presented in Text-figs 1 and 2. The footprint shown in Plate 1 fig. 3 was in¬ terpreted correctly from its cast (see Text-fig lb), but interpretation from the mould produced serious distortion in shape (Plate 2 fig. 4) . An even more extreme case is that of the footprint illustrated in Plate VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 345 PLATE 1. Fig. 1. Specimen No. 33006, showing casts attributable to Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930a) emend., and Mkrosauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929 emend. XVa. Fig. 2. M/cfosauropus acutipes Moodie 1929, emend. Closeup of cast of right pes. X2.5. Fig. 3. Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930a) emend. Closeup of cast of right pes X2.5. 1 fig. 2: 5 digits can be recognised readily from the cast (see Text-fig. la), but in the mould, digit V is not recognisable at all, and this would be mistaken for an animal with only 4 functional digits! Drawings of footprints are almost inevitably subjective, since the boundary of the 346 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE print is frequently hard to determine. Interpretations, especially when based on a single print, may thus be subject to major inaccuracies. No standard method of description has yet been developed. Pub¬ lished “diagnoses” vary from over-brief, insufficiently informative treatments to meticulous and detailed accounts. The citation of inter¬ digital angles is helpful in obtaining an idea of the form of a print, but this must be used with caution as a means of distinguishing species, since the spread of the toes often varies according to the hardness of the surface. The toes spread out to gain better purchase on softer sedi¬ ments, so that small differences in angle are not to be regarded as im¬ portant and larger differences should be interpreted with caution. Where the digits curve (as is most often the case), it is not easy to de¬ cide which lines to take in measuring the interdigital angle. A diagram, showing the angles measured, should always be provided (cf. Text- fig. 3). Text-figure 1. Specimen no. 33006, showing casts attributable to Moodieichnus didacfylus (Moodie, 1930a), emend, and Microsouropus a€utlpes Moodie, 1929 emend. XVa a. Mkrosauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929, emend. Right pes, redrawn as a cast (compare with Text-fig. 2) Xc. 1.25. b. Moodiekhnus didacfylus (Moodie, 1930a), emend. Right pes, redrawn as a cast (com¬ pare with text-fig. 2b). Xc. 1 .37. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 347 It is therefore recommended that: — ■ a) Descriptions should be as full as possible and should incorporate detailed measurements, including interdigital angles (the latter should be indicated in an accompanying text-figure) and meas¬ urements of length and breadth of trackway. b) Illustration should consist of large-scale photographs supple¬ mented by detailed, interpretative drawings. c) Both cast and mould should be studied in preparing the interpre¬ tative drawings and the description. d) New ichnotaxa should be based, wherever possible, on a series of specimens rather than on single specimens. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS In the section which follows, specimens from the Stainbrook Collec¬ tion in the Department of Geology, University of Iowa, are given specimen numbers prefixed by ^^UI” and specimens formerly lodged in the Walker Museum, University of Chicago, and now lodged in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, are given specimen num¬ bers prefixed by “UC.” Other places of lodgement are cited in full. Ichnogenus Moodieichnus ichnogen. nov. Diagnosis. Bipedal or generally bipedal, with only 2 functional digits in the pes. Digitigrade: digits straight or slightly curving, subparallel to divergent. Cursorial; trackway moderately broad, stride proportion¬ ately long. Derivation of Name. Named after Roy L, Moodie, author of major studies on Texas vertebrate footprints. Type Species. Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930) Sarjeant, new comb., emend. {^Varanopus didactylus Moodie, 1930). Permian (Clear Fork Group), Texas. Remarks. Moodie (1930a) was especially surprised and intrigued by the occurrence of 2-toed tracks in his Texas material: he comments that they are “as far as I know% without parallel in the field of ichnology” (p. 560). Over 40 years later, this remains true. It is thus surprising that the new species he proposed was placed into a genus characteris¬ tically exhibiting 4-footed, crawling tracks and having 4 digits in the manus and 5 in the pes ! Erection of a new ichnogenus to accommodate this distinctive species is thus here proposed. It is known that partially or habitually bipedal reptiles existed in the Permian (e.g. Youngina) but functionally 2-toed bipedal diapsids 348 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PLATE 2. Fig. 1. Specimen No. 32990 (counterpart of specimen 33006), showing moulds attributable to Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie 1930a), emend., and Mkronauropus acufipes Moodie 1929, emend. X’A. Fig. 2 & 4. Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930a), emend. Close-up of mould of right pes. X2.5, Fig. 3. Microsauropus acufipes Moodie 1929, emend. Close-up of mould of right pes (counter part of PL 1, fig. 3). X2.5. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 349 have not hitherto been reported. These tracks are therefore of especial interest. Mocdieichnus didactylus (Moodie 1930) new comb., emend, Plate 1 figs, 1, 3: plate 2 figs. 1-2, 4: plate 4 figs, 1-2, 3d-e V aranopus didactylus Moodie, 1930a, J. GeoL, v. 38, p. 558-60, fig. 12; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 47. Emended diagnosis. Digitigrade, bipedal tracks: form of manus not known. Imprints of 2 digits, considered to be III and IV. Digit IV more than twice as long as digit III, almost straight or with a distinct out¬ ward curve towards the terminal phalange, which has the form of a broad and rather blunt claw. Digit III diverges from it at a low angle and becomes subparallel, then curves inward towards the terminal phalange which has the form of a broad claw. Most of the weight was clearly taken on the front part of digit IV, which is deeply impressed anterior to the position of divergence of digit III. Overall size small. Length of stride about 4 times the length of an imprint; breadth of trackway about 2-2.5 times the length of an imprint. Type Specimens. Holotype (UC2316), paratype (UC2310) and Text-figure 2. Specimen no. 32990 (counterpart of specimen 33006), showing moulds attributed to Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930a), emend., and Microsauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929a, emend. X’A. a.— b. Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930a) emend. Two imprints of right pes (Compare interpretation in 2b with the interpretation of the cast, lb). Xc. 1.37. c, Microsauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929, emend. Imprint of right pes (compore with inter¬ pretation from cast. Text-fig. la) Xc. 1.25. 350 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE third specimen (UC2309). Dimensions. Holotype, overall length c. 50 mm, overall breadth c. 22 mm (measurements taken from Moodie's photograph.) Para type: length of digit IV c. 60 mm, thickness near the base 10 mm; length of digit III “scarcely 20 mm” (Moodie, 1930a, p. 559). Third specimen: length “only 40 mm” {ibid.^ p. 560). Topotypes. Specimens UI 33006 (Plate 1), UI 32997 (Plate 2: counterpart of last), UI 33001 (Plate 4 fig. 3)' and UI 33004 (not illustrated) . Dimensions. The imprint illustrated in Plate 1 fig, 3 and Text- fig. lb; overall length 26 mm, maximum breadth 7 mm, length of digit IV (from point of divergence) 19 mm, length of digit III ca. 8 mm. Divarication of digits III and IV: 9.5°. The imprint illustrated in Plate 2 fig. 2 and Text-fig. 2a: overall length 25 mm, maximum breadth 9 mm, length of digit IV 19 mm, length of digit III 8.5 mm. Divarication of digits III and IV: 12.5°. [Note: These imprints are present on the same slab, but are parts of trackways running in oppo¬ site directions; these do not seem to have been made by the same animal, since one (Plate 1 fig. 3 and Text-fig. lb) has a split claw, the other does not.] Length of stride (from tip of left pes to tip of right pes) estimated at 90 mm, breadth of trackway estimated at 52 mm. Dimensions of track (from tip of left pes to tip of right pes) on speci¬ men UI 33001 similar. Dimensions of tracks on UI 33004 (not illus¬ trated): overall length ca. 27 mm, maximum breadth ca. 10 mm, length of digit IV ca. 21 mm, length of digit III ca. 9 mm. The tracks on this specimen are confused and the length of stride and breadth of trackway could not be determined. The substrate appears to have been moderately soft, the angle of divarication of the digits approximating to 15°. Remarks. The specimens in the Iowa collections are considerably smaller than Moodie’s type material, but correspond with his descrip¬ tion in all particulars. The total known range in dimensions is thus 25 to ca. 80 mm overall length, with digit IV ranging in length from about 19-60 mm, digit III from 8-ca. 20 mm. The digits diverge at between 9.5° to ca. 15° according to surface conditions. No marks of tail drag were seen associated with these tracks; the tail appears to have been carried well clear of the ground. The evidence strongly suggests a cursorial biped, rather than a saltatorial form as visualized by Moodie, since the depth of impress of the long toe is less than one would expect in a jumping form and the offset of the imprints strongly suggests a running form, most probably a bipedal eosuchian, perhaps resembling Youngina. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 351 Ichnogenus Microsauropus Moodie, 1929 Microsauropus Moodie, 1929, Amer. J. Sci., v. 97, p. 361; Moodie, 1930a, J. GeoL, v. 38, p. 557; Lessertisseur 1955, Mem. Soc. Geol. Fr. no. 34, p. 101; Kuhn, 1958 Die Fahrten, p. 15; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 37; Sarjeant, 1967, Mercian Geologist, p. 329. Diagnosis, “Quadrupedal, with 4 digits in the manus and 5 in the pes. Digitigrade; no impression of palm or sole. Digits thick and sharply acuminate, or slender and clawed; lateral digits short. Feet rectigrade, hindfoot placed in front of forefoot impressions. Tail short in all species recorded to date: hind limb apparently longer than fore¬ limb.” Type Species. Microsauropus clarki Moodie, 1929, Permian (upper Clear Fork Group), Texas. Remarks, As it stands, the diagnosis of this ichnogenus is too broadly drawn and overlaps with that of Erpetopus Moodie (both in its original sense and as here emended.) In absence of clear knowledge of the characters of the type species (which is poorly described and figured) , I am at present unprepared to formulate any emendation. Microsauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929, emend. Plate 1 figs. 1, 2, plate 2 figs. 1, 3, Text- figs. 1, 2, 3g Microsauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929. Amer. J. Sci., v. 97, p. 362-3, figs. 6-7; Moodie, 1930a, J. Geol. v. 38, p. 551, figs, 2, 11 (p«r5); Kuhn, 1958, Die Fahrten, p. 15, pi. 6 fig. 19; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 37. Emended Diagnosis. A small species of Microsauropus with manus very slightly smaller than pes, typically around 10-15 mm in length. Pes with 5 digits: first digit short, faintly impressed and apparently not clawed: digits II and IV with claws directed at about 80° to the axis of the digit. Manus with 4 digits all curved and clawed, with the claws directed obliquely to the digit axis. Imprints of palm and sole of pes faintly suggested or lacking. A walking track, broad and with a comparatively short stride, with or without a tail drag impression. Type Specimens. Holotype; specimen no. 1102, Peabody Museum, Yale: para type showing tail drag, unnumbered specimen lodged in the Los Angeles Museum. Dimensions, Holotype (as quoted by Moodie, 1929, p. 363) Manus; length 11 mm, width 6 mm. Pes: length 12 mm, width 8 mm. Length 352 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 353 of digits: I, 2 mm, II, 6 mm. III, 5 mm, IV, 3 mm. V, 2 mm. Length of stride (measured from tip of toe of one foot to heel of foot ahead) 38-47 mm, width of trackway 50 mm. Para type: length of stride 52 mm, other measurements not quoted (Moodie, 1930a, p. 551). Topotypes. UI 33006 (Plate 1), UI 32997 (Plate 2: counterpart of last), UI 32996 (Plate 4 fig. 2, at lower left) and UI 33003 (not illus¬ trated). Dimensions. The imprint illustrated in Plate 1 fig. 2 and Text-fig. la (right pes) : overall length 15 mm, maximum breadth 13.5 mm, length of digit I 2 mm, digit II, 4 mm, digit III, 6 mm, digit IV 8 mm, digit V, ca. 3 mm; interdigital angles I-II, 6°, II-III, 24°, II-IV, 18.5°, IV-V, 50°. Imprint of left pes on specimen 32996 (Plate 4 fig. 2, at lower left): overall length 12 mm, maximum breadth ca. 1 1 mm, length of digit I ca. 2 mm, digit II ca. 4 mm, digit III ca. 7 mm, digit IV 8 mm, digit V ca. 3 mm. The imprints on specimen 33003 are inadequate for accurate measurement. Remarks. The specific diagnosis is revised to incorporate Moodie’s later record (1930a) of a specimen with tail drag (a feature explicitly excluded in the earlier diagnosis); to eliminate the precise measure¬ ments applicable only to the holotype; and to incorporate details regarding the claws. The measurements of digit lengths quoted for the holotype by Moodie do not accord with his figure (1929, fig. 6), which suggests that digit IV is proportionately longer than digit III and that he measured only the tip of digit V. Remeasurement of the holotype appears necessary. Moodie believed these footprints to have been made by microsaurs, a group of small amphibians ranging in age from Carboniferous to Permian. Similar prints are known in the Trias of England, later than the known range of this group (Sarjeant 1967) . It seems more probable that these are diapsid footprints, the Permian ones made by advanced lizardlike eosuchians, such as Prolacerta (though it should be noted that fossil remains of lizard-like eosuchians are as yet unknown in North America) and the Triassic prints made by ancestral lizards. Text-figure 3. Interdigital angles. a.— b. Varanopus iangstoni sp. nov. (a. Manus b. Pes). c. j. Erpetopus willhtonl Moodie 1929, emend (c. Pes, j. Manus). d. e. Moodiekhnus dsdactylus (Moodie, 1929) emend. (Two examples of right pes). f. Microsauropus parvus Moodie, 1930a (right manus). g. Microsauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929 emend, (right pes). h. -i. Varanopus curvidactylus (Moodie, 1929), emend, (h. Manus i. Pes). Xc. .2. 354 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PLATE 3. Fig. 1 . Specimen No. 33005, showing casfs of footprints attributable to Mkrosauropus parvus Moodie, 1930a, and Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929, emend. XVa. Fig. 2. Mkrosauropus parvus Moodie, 1 930a. Close-up of right manus. X2.5. Fig. 3. Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929 emend. Close-up of casts of right manus and right pes. X2.5. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 355 Microsauropus parvus Moodie, 1930a Plate 3 figs. 1-2, Text-figs. 3f, 4a Microsauropus parvus Moodie, 1930a, J. Geol. v. 38, p. 554-7, fig. 4a; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodomm, p, 38. Diagnosis. “The smallest species of the Castle Peak vertebrate fauna . . . related rather closely with the common species M. acutipes Moodie [but] differs in its small size, greater proportional width, clear imprint of sole, and straighter digits. The digits of M. parvus show a sharp angulation in each digit, more acute than in M. acutipes.'' (Moodie, 1930a, p. 554). Type Specimens. Holotype (UC 2301 ) and paratypes (UC 2306 and UC 2313). Dimensions. Length of step: holotype, 20 mm, paratype 35-39 mm, length of stride, measuring from tip of one hind foot (left or right) to the heel of the next (right or left) : holotype 42 mm, paratype, 62 mm. Measurements of feet: right manus, maximum length 5.25 mm, maxi¬ mum width 5 mm, length of digit II, 3 mm, digit III 3.5 mm, digit IV, 4.5 mm, digit V, 1.75 mm; left pes, maximum length 6 mm, maximum breadth 5 mm, length of digit I, 0.75 mm, digit II 3 mm, digit III, 3.75 Text-figure 4 Specimen no. 33005, showing casts of footprints attributable to Microsauro¬ pus parvus Moodie, 1930a, and Erpetopus williston! Moodie, 1929, emend. XVa. a. Microsauropus parvus Moodie, 1930a. Right pes, redrawn as a mould. Xc. 1.25. b. — c. Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929, emend. Right pes (b) and right manus (c) re¬ drawn as moulds, Xc. 1.25. 356 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE mm, digit IV, 2.5 mm, digit V, 1.75 mm. (Moodie does not make it clear whether these measurements are taken from the holotype or from the paratype UC 2306; paratype UC 2313 consists of claw-marks only) . Topotype. Specimen UI 33005 (plate 3). Dimensions. Imprint illustrated in Plate 3 fig. 2 and Text-fig. 4a (right manus): overall length 4.25 mm, maximum width (from tip of digit II to tip of digit V) 4 mm, length of digit II, 2 mm, digit III, 3 mm, digit IV, 3 mm, digit V, 1.5 mm. Divarication of digits (Text-fig. 3f) : II-III, 31°: III-IV, 53°: IV-V21°. Remarks. This ichnospecies is represented by only a single imprint in the Iowa collections. Moodie numbered the digits of the manus as I-IV but, in view of the proportionate lengths of the surviving digits and their direction of curvature, I believe that digit I is lost and I have accordingly renumbered the digits as II-V. Ichnogenus Erpetopus Moodie, 1929, emend. Erpetopus Moodie, 1929, Amer. J. Sci., v. 97, p. 359; Kuhn, 1958, Die Fahrten, p. 14; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum p. 23. Emended Diagnosis Small footprints, typically 5-10 mm in length. Quadrupedal, with 4 toes on manus (probably II-V) and 5 on pes. Digits acuminate, but without distinct claws: toes moderately thick, mostly curving. Impressions of broad, rounded palms and soles clear or indistinct. No median groove (taildrag) evident. Trackway pro¬ portionately broad, step short: impression of pes nearly, or exactly, superposed on impression of manus. Type Species. Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929, emend. Sarjeant nov. Permian (Clear Fork Group), Texas. Remarks the original diagnosis states: “Impression of broad, rounded palms clear”; but Moodie later himself notes that the palm of the manus is “imperfectly impressed” and his figure (Fig. 4) endorses this. The generic diagnosis is thus here modified, to eliminate this contra¬ diction and to incorporate further details to distinguish this ichnogenus from others. Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929, emend. Plate 3 figs 1, 3. Text fiigs 3c,j 4b,c. Erpetopus willistoni Moodie, 1929, Amer. J. Sci., v. 97, p. 359-361, fig. 4; 1958, Die Fahrten, p. 14, pi. 6, fig. 18; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 23. Emended Diagnosis. Small footprints (length typically between 5-12 mm) of a digitigrade quadruped, with imprints of pes typically VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 357 set on top, or slightly in front, of manus impressions. Four digits in the manus (probably II-V) , 3 of which are of approximately equal length, the 4th (V) shorter and separate: 5 digits in the pes, digits I and V being shorter and digit V distinctly separate. Impressions of palm and sole present or absent. Digists acuminate, but claws not distinct. Stride fairly short, trackway proportionately broad. Type Specimens. Holotype (UC 443A) and paratype (UC 443). Dimensions, (These presumably are for the holotype, though Moodie does not make this clear) . Stride ca. 30 mm, width of trackway 15 mm. Manus: length 6 mm, width 3.5 mm. Pes: length ca. 6 mm, width 5 mm. Topotypes, UI 33005 (Plate 3 fig. 3, text-figs 4b, c), UI 32995 (Plate 4 fig. 1 : counterpart of last) , UI 32996 (Plate 4 fig. 2) , UI 33009 (not illustrated) and probably UI 32998 (prints not clear: not illus¬ trated.) Dimensions Imprint illustrated in Plate 3 fig. 3, plate 4 fig. 1, and text-fig 4c (right manus) : overall length ca. 7 mm, maximum breadth (from tip of digit II to tip of digit V) 1 1 mm, length of digit II 3.5 mm, digit III 5 mm, digit IV 4.5 mm, digit V 3 mm. Imprint illustrated in Plate 3 fig. 3, Plate 4 fig. 1 and Text-fig. 4b (right pes) : overall length 10 mm, maximum breadth (from tip of digit I to tip of digit V) 12.5 mm, length of digit I c. 2 mm, digit II 3 mm, digit III 5 mm, digit IV 7 mm. digit V 4.5 mm. Divarication of digits: manus II-III 27°; III-IV 34°; IV-V 26°; pes I-II 18°; II-III 19.5°; III-IV 22°; IV-V 16.5°. Imprints in specimen UI 32996: right manus, overall length 6 mm, breadth c, 10 mm, right pes, overall length 9 mm, breadth c. 11 mm. Prints in specimens UI 33009 and UI 32998 not suitable for measurement. Remarks The Iowa specimens are larger than Moodie’s type mate¬ rial but correspond to it in all other respects. A separate species diag¬ nosis is presented for the first time. I consider that the digits in the manus are II-V, not I-IV as stated by Moodie, and have altered the diagnosis accordingly. Moodie’s view, that these are prints of a salamander-like amphibian, is endorsed. The superimposition of the footprints suggests a crawling walk, like that of a toad, with the body consistently supported by 3 legs forming a tripod, with movement in the sequence left manus, right pes, right manus, left pes, the pes being placed on top, or slightly in front, of the impression of the manus, giving a broad stride but short step. 358 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LIGHT PLATE 4. Fig. 1. Erpetopus willisfoni Moodie, 1929, emend. Close-up of moulds of right manus and right pes. Specimen 32995 (counterpart of 33005) X2.5. Fig. 2. Specimen No, 32996, showing a print of Mkrosauropus acutipes Moodie, 1929, emend., at lower left and a partial trackway of Erpetopus willisfoni Moodie, 1929, emend., at right (Moulds). X’/j. Fig. 3. Specimen No. 33000, Moodieichnus didactylus (Moodie, 1930al, emend. Moulds of Trackways. XVa. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 359 Ichnogenus V aranopus Moodie, 1929 emend. V aranopus Moodie, 1929, Amer, J. Sci., v. 97, p. 364; Lessertisseur, 1955, Mem. Soc. GeoL Fr. no. 34, p. 101 Kuhn, 1958, Die Fahrten, p. 16; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 46; Sarjeant, 1967, Mercian Geologist p. 30. Emended Diagnosis. Quadrupedal, digitigrade footprints. Manus smaller than pes; 4 or 5 digits on the manus, 5 on the pes, typically curved and consistently with sharp claws, usually directed obliquely to the digit axis. Impression f pes placed inside impression of manus. Impressions of palm and sole present or absent, but weight consistently taken by digits, which are more deeply impressed: heels of palm and sole not generally indicated. A median groove, representing tail-drag, may be present. Type Species. V aranopus curvidactylus Moodie, 1929, emend, Sar¬ jeant nov. Permian (Clear Fork Group) , Texas. Remarks. The diagnosis is emended to incorporate more detail and to facilitate distinction from other ichnogenera. V aranopus differs from Microsauropus Moodie primarily in the relative placement of the footprints: the pes is placed in front of the manus in the latter genus. Moodie’s conclusion, that these are reptilian footprints, was endorsed by Kuhn (1958, p. 16) and accords with my own conclusions. These are again most probably diapsid footprints; they may have been formed by advanced eosuchians resembling Prolacerta, though it should be stressed that skeletal remains of such reptiles have not been recorded from North America. V aranopus curvidactylus Moodie, 1929 emend. Plate 5, Text-figs. 3h-i, 5. V aranopus curvidactylus Moodie, 1929, Amer. J. Sci. v. 97, p, 365, fig. 8; Kuhn, 1958, Die Fahrten, p. 16, pi. 6 fig. 7; Kuhn, 1963, Ichnia Tetrapodorum, p. 47. V. cf. curvidactylus. Sarjeant, 1967, Mercian Geologist p. 330, 332, pi. 13, Text-figs. lA, 2D. Emended Diagnosis. Quadrupedal, digitigrade, with front part only of palm and sole faintly impressed. Manus slightly smaller than pes; both manus and pes bear 5 digits, with digits I-IV curving inwards, digit V curving outwards. Digits I and II of the manus and digit I of the pes are somewhat shortened, but all digits are well developed. Claws present on all digits, but poorly marked. No indication of tail drag. Type Material. Holotype: specimen no. 1106, Yale Peabody Mu- 360 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PLATE 5. Specimen No. 32999, showing casts of a trackway of Varanopus curvidactylus Moodie, 1929, emend. X’/a. a. Left manus, redrawn as a mould. B. Left pes, redrawn as a mould. Xc. 1 .25. seum. Paratype; specimen no. 8402, collections of the University of Michigan. Dimensions. Holotype: manus: length 14 mm, width 12 mm, length of digit I not stated, digit II, 12 mm, digit III, 10 mm, digit IV, 8 mm, VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 361 digit V, 5 mm. Pes: length 18 mm, width 11 mm, length of digit I, 8 mm, digit II, 12 mm, digit III, 1 1 mm, digit IV, 7 mm, digit V, 5 mm. Dimensions of paratype not stated. Topotype. Specimen UI 32999. Dimensions. The imprint illustrated in Plate 5 and text-fig 5a (left manus) : overall length of 19 mm. breadth (from tip of digit I to tip of digit V) 21 mm, length of digit I 7 mm, digit II 8 mm, digit III 13 mm. Text-figure 5 Specimen no. 32999, showing casts of a trackway of Varanopus curvidactylus Moodie, 1929, emend. X’/a. a. Left manus, redrawn as a mould. B. Left pes, redrawn as a mould. Xc. 1.25. 362 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE digit IV 12 mm, digit V 8.5 mm. The imprint illustrated in Plate 5 and Text-fig 5b (left pes): length 24 mm, breadth 25 mm, length of digit I 8.5 mm, digit II 9 mm, digit III 11 mm, digit IV 15 mm, digit V 6 mm. Divarication of digits: manus I-II 24°; ITIII, 29°; III- IV 51°; IV-V, 60°. Remarks, Although Moodie’s figure (1929, fig. 8) clearly shows that both manus and pes have 5 digits, only 4 are cited for the manus in the diagnosis of both genus and species. The Iowa specimen agrees with the figure, but not with the text! The diagnosis is emended accordingly. A comparable ichnospecies, Gampsodactylum kabar cense (Pabst, 1908) Nopcsa, 1923, has been recorded from the Permian of Germany: it differs, however, in the proportionately much greater length of digit III. (The ichnogenus Gampsodactylum has been characterized as ''Unclear” by Kuhn. (1963, p. 25): thus, although it may be tech¬ nically a senior synonym of Varanopus, its use is avoided in the present work) . V aranopus langstoni sp. nov. Plate 6 figs. 1-3. Text-figs. 3 a-b, 6. Diagnosis. Small footprints (length typically between 20 and 40 mm) of a digitigrade quadruped. Five digits in the manus, with digit I extremely reduced and weakly impressed (not always distinguish¬ able) and with digit III slightly longer than the other principal digits (II and IV) . Only the tips of digits III and IV are normally impressed. Five digits in the pes, with digit I extremely reduced and poorly marked and with digit IV markedly longer than the other principal digits. Digits II~IV of both manus and pes are curved inward, but digit V is curved outward. All digits are clawed; digits II-IV of the manus and II-V of the pes bear claws set almost at right-angles to the axis of the digit, though the claws were apparently flexible and their posi¬ tional angle varies to some degree between prints. Palm and sole im¬ pressions absent: impressions of tail-drag typically absent. Trackway proportionately broad; stride short, with impression of pes placed in¬ side impression of manus. Derivation of Name. Named after Dr. Wann Langston, Jr., verte¬ brate palaeontologist, Texas Memorial Museum, Austin, in grateful acknowledgement of his help in the early stages of this study. Holotype. UI 32997 (Plate 6 figs. 1-3) Paratype: UI 32993 (not figured) . Type locality and Horizon. Permian (Upper Clear Fork Group), Castle Peak, 8 miles south of Merkel, Texas. Dimensions. Holotype: Manus: length 20 mm, maximum breadth VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 363 PLATE 6. Fig. 1. Specimen No. 32997, showing casts of a trackway of Vatanopus langstoni sp. nov. XVa. Fig. 2. Close-up of left pes. X2.5. Fig. 3. Close-up of left manus. X2.5. 364 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ca. 20 mm, length of digit I ca. 3 mm, digit II 8 mm, digit III 13 mm, digit IV 4,5 mm (outer part only impressed) and digit V 5.5 mm (outer part only impressed) . Pes: length ca, 23 mm, maximum breadth ca. 16 mm, length of digit I c, 1.5 mm, digit II 6 mm, digit III 9 mm, digit IV 10.5 mm, digit V 10 mm. Breadth of trackway estimated at 130 mm. length of step at 85 mm (from back of one impression of pes to back of next), stride not capable of accurate estimation. Paratype (consisting of an impression of a left pes only) : length 26 mm, breadth 24 mm, length of digits I 5 mm, digit II c, 12 mm, (unusually fully impressed) , digit III 9 mm, digit IV 12 mm, digit V 8 mm. Divarication of Digits. (Text-fig. 3a-b) Manus: I-II, 51°; II-III, 12,5°; III-IV, 17°; IV-V, 86°. Pes: I-II, 14°; II-III, 13°; III-IV, 27°; IV-V, 78°, Remarks. Of the species described by Moodie, only 2 (Varanopus impressus and V. palmatus) show any similarity with the long-toed, sharply-clawed prints here recorded. V. impressus was originally pub¬ lished in 1929 (pp. 366-7) without illustration; Moodie later pub¬ lished 3 illustrations and a further description (1930a, pp, 551-2, figs, 3,5), though he still regarded it as “Imperfectly known” (ibid.^ p. 551). The figures indicate 3 functional digits with recurved claws, somewhat comparable with the manus of V. langstoni sp. nov.; but in- Text-figure 6 Specimen no 32997, showing casts of a trackway of Varanopus langstoni sp. nov. XVa. a. Left pes, redrawn as a mould, b. Left manus, redrawn as a mould. Xc. 1.25. VERTEBRATE TRACKS FROM THE TEXAS PERMIAN 365 dications of the 1st and 5th digit are lacking (the latter, at least, should be clear) and the size is markedly greater (length 50 mm). Moodie considers these to be imprints of the pes, not of the manus, of which he cites no indication: the prints may therefore be those of a func¬ tionally 3-toed biped. V. palmatus also has long, slender digits with re¬ curved claws, with 4 digits on the manus and 5 on the pes. Only the latter has been illustrated (Moodie 1929, fig. 9) ; it differs in the regu¬ lar presence of palm and sole imprints and in its larger size (manus length about 75 mm, breadth 50 mm, longest digit 35 mm; pes length ca. 60 mm, breadth 66 mm, longest digit 40 mm) . CONCLUSIONS Moodie originally recorded 13 named ichnospecies, together with 2 unnamed types, from Castle Peak. Five of his species, together with one new species, are represented in the Stainbrook Collection: they are here figured and new diagnoses are proposed, a new genus being form¬ ulated to include one of them. Recognition of Moodie’s species has pre¬ sented many problems, in view of the inadequacy of the original illus¬ trations and of some errors in the descriptions. The author hopes ulti¬ mately to undertake a restudy of the type specimens and of further topotype material as a supplement to this work. The footprints represent a fauna of small reptiles, including quad¬ rupedal, lizard-like forms probably akin to Prolacerta and bipedal, cursorial forms, probably eosuchians comparable to Youngina^ to¬ gether with small, quadrupedal, salamander-like amphibians, perhaps microsaurs. ACKNOV7LEDGMENTS The author’s thanks are offered to Dr. Holmes A Semken. Univer¬ sity of Iowa, for arranging loan of the specimens; to Dr. Wann Lang¬ ston, Jr., of Texas Memorial Museum, Austin, for advice on literature and Texas stratigraphy; to Mr. J. Eyett and Mr. B. M. Logan, Uni¬ versity of Nottingham, for their careful work in photographing these difficult subjects and to Dr. Rainer Zangerl (Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago) for providing information respecting Moodie’s type specimens, formerly lodged in the Walker Museum. LITERATURE CITED Abel, 0. 1926 — Amerikafahrt. Eindrilcke, Beobachtungen und Studien eines Natur- forschers auf Reise nach Nord-Amerika und Westindien. Jena. (Figs. 8-9, 123-8 relevant). 366 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Gilmore, C. W., 1927— Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon: second contri¬ bution. Smithson. Misc. Coll., 80: 1-7, 8. Gould, C. N., 1927 — Fossil footprints near Abilene, Texas. Bull. Amer. Petrol. Geol. for 1927: 633. ■ . Haubold, H., 1967- — Fine Pseudosuchier — Fahrtenfauna aus dem Buntsandstein Siidthuringens. Hall. Jb. Mitteldt. Erdg. 8: 12-48. Kuhn, 0., 1958 — Die Fdhrten der vorzeitlichen Amphibien und Reptilien. Ver- lagsshaus Meisenbach. Bamberg. - , 1963 — Ichnia Tetrapodorum. Pt. 101 of Fossilium Catalogus, I. Ani- malia. s’Gravenhage, Junk. Lessertisseur, J., 1955 — Traces fossiles d’activite animale et leur signification paleo- biologique. Mem. Soc. Geol. France, n.s., 34: 1-150. Ley, W., 1951 — Dragons in Amber. Sidgwick & Jackson, London. Moodie, R. L., 1928 — -The ichnology of Texas. Science, n.s., 1928: 215. - , 1929 — Vertebrate footprints from the Red Beds of Texas. Amer. J. Sci., 97: 352-368. - , 1930a — ^Vertebrate footprints from the Red Beds of Texas II. /. Geol., 38: 548-565. - , 1930b — Ancient trails in the valley of the Clear Fork, Texas. Scien¬ tific Monthly, 30: 50-58. Nopcsa, F. von, 1923 — Die fossilen Reptilien. Fortschr. Geol. Paldont., 2: 1-210. Pabst, W., 1908 — Die Tierfahrten in dem Rothliegenden Deutschlands. Nova Acta Leopoldina, 89: 1-166. Sarjeant, W. a, S., 1967 — Fossil footprints from the Middle Triassic of Notting¬ hamshire and Derbyshire. Mercian Geologist, 2: 327-341. Sellards, E. H., W. S. Adkins & F. B. Plummer, 1932. — The Geology of Texas, I. Stratigraphy. U niv. T exas Bull. 3232. WiLLisTON, S. W., 1908 — Salamander-like footprints from the Texas Red Beds. Biol. Bull, 15: 237-239. Additional Data on the Burial Practices of The Brownsville Complex, Southern Texas by Thomas Roy Hester and R. W. Rodgers Department of Anthropology^ University of California^ Berkeley 94720 and Department of Geology^ Pan American College^ Edinburgh Tex. 78539 ABSTRACT An isolated burial was recently found on the Arroyo Colorado in Hidalgo County, Texas. This burial, and the shell and bone artifacts associated with it, add to our growing knowledge of the mortuary practices of the prehistoric Brownsville Complex. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this brief paper is to put on record the discovery of a burial and associated burial goods near McAllen in Hidalgo County, Texas (Fig. l,a). The burial was uncovered by workmen excavating a septic tank pit for a new house in the southwestern part of the city. The find was called to the attention of the Department of Geology at Pan American college, and was investigated by the junior author and other members of the department. Unfortunately, the burial had been badly disturbed by the time they arrived at the site. They were able to recover the artifacts associated with the burial and to make a num¬ ber of important observations. The skeletal remains were badly dam¬ aged, and only a few skeletal parts were collected. THE SITE AND THE BURIAL The burial site (designated 41 HG 27 by The University of Texas Archeological Research Laboratory) is situated north of the Arroyo Colorado, on the banks of an oxbow of that stream known locally as Concepcion Resaca. This is at a point about 4 miles north of the Rio Grande, at 26° 11' N. Lat, 98° 16' W. Long. For a general description of this area, see Campbell and Frizzell (1949: 65-66) . The burial was found at a depth of ca. 6 feet below the present surface, and was possibly associated with a buried soil profile. Flecks The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 368 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 1. Locations of Brownsville Complex Burials and Cemetery Sites along the Arroyo Colorado, a, 41 HG 27; b, AyoEa; e, site on Cameron-Hidalgo Counties boundary; d, Floyd Morris; e, site near Rio Hondo. of what appeared to be charcoal were noted in the walls of the exca¬ vation pit. No midden debris was present in the area. Though the skeleton was disarticulated when examined, the workman stated that it had been found in an “upright sitting position” (it seems most likely that it was tightly flexed). The remains were those of a single indi¬ vidual, probably an adult male (this is suggested by a very rugged complete mandible recovered from the burial) . There were 95 shell and bone artifacts associated with the burial, though the relative positions of the artifacts are unknown. Fourteen bone beads were present, 13 of which are small, tubular specimens (Fig. 2, g) without decoration except for one example with 2 incised concentric circles (Fig. 2, h). The beads are made from sections of small mammal and/or bird long bones. Another bone bead (Fig. 2, f) is much larger and is made from a section of human long bone (see Hes¬ ter, 1969a; Collins, et al.^ 1969 for a discussion of human bone beads). Several of the beads were slightly stained with a purple pigment. Also found were 5 tinklers made of the shells of Oliva sayana (Fig. 2, b) . The lower (spire end) of each shell has been cut off, and there is a single perforation at the posterior end. Other artifacts of Oliva sayana shell include 36 beads (Fig. 2, a,c) characterized by no modifi¬ cation other than the removal of the spire tip, and 2 miscellaneous arti¬ facts. Miscellaneous #1 is an Oliva shell with a portion of the spire BURIAL PRACTICES OF BROWNSVILLE COMPLEX 369 end removed (as on a tinkler) ; miscellaneous #2 also has part of the spire end removed, and there is a single perforation near the cut (rather than at the posterior end, as on the tinklers) . Conch shell {Busy con sp.) artifacts are represented by 38 plain, disC“Shaped beads (Fig. 2, d,e) made from columella sections and bi- conically perforated, and a large triangular conch whorl pendant. This specimen (Fig. 2, i) has a single perforation at the corner of the wide end; the other corner may have also been perforated but it is damaged. The interior surface is lightly polished. DISCUSSION Site 41 HG 27 is located about % mile upstream from the Ayala site (41 HG 1) reported by Campbell and Frizzell (1949) and Hester Fig. 2. Bone and Shell Artifacts from 41 HG 27. a, c. Oliva shall beads; b, Oliva shell tinkler; d, e, disc-shaped conch shell beads; f, large tubular bone heads; g, small tubular bone bead; h, bone bead with incised concentric circles. 370 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE and Ruecking (1969). It is possible that this burial might represent a western extension of the large cemetery at Ayala. The artifacts as¬ sociated with the burial at 41 HG 27 are very similar to specimens reported from Ayala (see Campbell and Frizzell, 1949: PL 12, and Hester and Ruecking, 1969: Figs. 2, 3, 4) and are characteristic of the late prehistoric Rrownsville Complex defined by MacNeish (1947; 1958). Recent papers by Collins, et al. (1969) , Hester and Ruecking (1969) and Hester (1969b) have recorded the occurrence of specialized ceme¬ tery sites within the Rrownsville Complex. In the instances reported by these papers, camp site debris attributable to that complex does not occur at or around the cemeteries. The northern boundary of the Rrownsville Complex has been placed at the Arroyo Colorado (Mac¬ Neish, 1947; Campbell, 1960), though Brownsville sites may be pres¬ ent in northern and northwestern Hidalgo County (Armando Vela, personal communication; notes on file, Texas Archeological Research Laboratory) . It is very interesting to note that thus far, most of the reported cemetery sites of the Brownsville Complex have been found on or near the north side of the Arroyo Colorado (see Fig. 1). These sites include Ayala, Floyd Morris (Collins, et aL, 1969), a site on the Cameron-Hidalgo Counties boundary, and a site near Rio Hondo (Hester, 1969b). In addition to the isolated burial reported in the pa¬ per, Campbell and Frizzell (1949: 69) have referred to 2 other poorly- known burial sites in the McAllen area (north of the Arroyo Colo¬ rado). With the data we now have, it would appear that the northern side of the Arroyo Colorado had some sort of importance in the mor¬ tuary customs of the peoples of the Brownsville Complex. This possi- Table 1 Dimensions of Artifacts from Burial at 41 HG 27. All measurements are in millimeters. Class No. of Specimens Length Max. Width Maix. Diameter Thickness Disc-shaped beads 38 - - 13-18 2-5 Tubular bone beads, small 13- 7-17 - 5-8 Tubular bone beads, large 1 18.5 - 18 - Oliva sayana tinklers 5 42-50 „ 22-24 - Oliva sayana beads 36 30-54 - 12-23.5 - Conch whorl pendant 1 185 128 - 2. .7 Miscellaneous Ollya sayana obiect (#1) 1 37 19 Miscellaneous Oliva sayana obiect TWT~ 1 48.5 - 23 BURIAL PRACTICES OF BROWNSVILLE COMPLEX 371 bility should certainly be considered, for although A. E. Anderson and others found numerous Brownsville Complex sites in the Rio Grande delta further to the south (see Hester, 1969b), very few burials and only one possible cemetery area were discovered. However, there has been little reconnaissance along the Arroyo Colorado and it is impos¬ sible to make any definite statements at the present time. For example, there are no known Brownsville Complex camp sites along that stream; they are probably there, but have yet to be reported. REFERENCES CITED Campbell, T. N., 1960 — ^Archeology of the central and southern sections of the Texas Coast. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 29: 145-176. - , and J. Q. Frizzell, 1949 — Notes on the Ayala Site, Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 20: 63-72. Collins, M. B., T. R. Hester, and F. A. Weir, 1969 — The Floyd Morris Site (41 CF 2), A prehistoric cemetery site in Cameron County, Texas. Part I, Two prehistoric cemetery sites in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 40: 119-146. Hester, T. R., 1969a — Human bone artifacts from southern Texas. Amer. Antiquity, 34(3): 326-328. - , 1969h — The Floyd Morris and Ayala Sites: A discussion of burial practices in the Rio Grande Valley and the Lower Texas Coast. Part III, Two prehistoric cemetery sites in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 40: 157-166. - , and F. Ruecking, Jr., 1969 — Additional materials from the Ayala Site, A prehistoric cemetery site in Hidalgo- County, Texas. Part H, Two prehistoric cemetery sites in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 40: 147-157. MacNeish, R. S., 1947 — ^A preliminary report on coastal Tamaulipas, Mexico. Amer. Antiquity, 13(1): 1-15. - , 1958 — Preliminary archaeological investigations in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, Mexico. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 48, Pt. 6. Numerical Approximation of Experimental Values by T. A. Atchison and Jack E. Randorff Department of Mathematics Texas Tech University^ Lubbock 79409 INTRODUCTION In several recent papers, (Atchison and Gray, 1968; Gray and Atchison, 1967, 1968) some new techniques for the numerical approximation of certain improper integrals of the first kind have been introduced. Some of these techniques are of sufficient simplicity that an experimentalist in the sciences may find them useful for hand calculations to determine approximate experimental values. This paper will discuss an example of such an application with an algorithm for computation. THE PHYSICAL PROBLEM In a seminar by Professor Karlheinz Seeger of the University of Vienna in 1968, a discussion of measurements of high frequency con¬ ductivity ensued. The mathematical formulation involves an expo¬ nential integral whose approximate value can be used to determine experimental feasibility. Beginning with the Boltzmann transport equation for electrons and assuming that the electric field amplitudes are small, that no magnetic fields are present, and that the electron distribution is independent of position, one obtains ov m 1 + iwT T (2.1) where the electric field E is of the form exp(ia)t), w is angular fre¬ quency, f is the electron distribution function, fo the equilibrium electron distribution function, v electron velocity, e electron charge, m effective electron mass, r the mean free time between collisions, and t is time. The current density is given by . _ O’ 1 + wV- E-i cocrr TT~^ E. (2.2) The problem is now to determine how the real part of the current density affects the imaginary part as the frequency changes. That is, when shoul dthe high frequency conductivity be corrected to include the effects of the real part and when may the real part be taken as an approximation of the dx. conductivity. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, -, 1971. 374 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Averaging over the electron distribution, ne^ O- = — , (2.3) m where or denotes dx. conductivity^ n is the electron density, and denotes a weighted average. Consequently, the expression for ax. conductivity is ax. < 1 + > (2.4) In the study of acoustic phonon scattering, an expression for the mean free time between collisions is cr = cro[kTA]V2 ■ (2.5) where k is the Boltzmann constant, T absolute temperature, e electron energy and tq is a constant. Using the Boltzmann distribution as the weighting in the averaging process, = 1 — o)^To^ + co^To^ exp (.w^To^) exp (-- x) dx (2.6) cr (si^To The approximation of ^ax./o- for various values of will deter¬ mine which frequency range should be chosen to allow the real part of the current density (2.2) to be approximated by the dx. conductivity. This is of importance in experimentally evaluating tq, discussing changes in the dielectric constant, or determining the effective mass of an electron. COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHM Gray, et aL (1970) introduced the following definition of an nth order nonlinear transformation: Definition 3.1 . Let Then Hn[F(t)] F(t) = f (x) dx S as t F(t) f(t) f'(t) . . . f^"-^)(t) f(t) f'(t) f^“)(t) f (A) (I-) f(^“-i)(t) f'(t) . . . £<■')(!) . . . (3.1) NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION OF EXPERIMENTAL VALUES 375 provided the denominator is not zero. If both numerator and de¬ nominator are identically zero, then Hn[F(t)] =Hn-i[F(t)] where Ho[F(t)]^^F(t). They discovered that Hn would yield the exact value S for any t provided f satisfied some differential equation of order n with constant coefficients. When this is the case, the obvious choice for t is the lower limit of integration. If this choice of t is made for the exponential integral, the approximation becomes a function of lower limit and the following algorithm results. Algorithm 3.1 . Let q = (oVo^. Then ^a.c. ^ ^ 4_ 2 i ^ ‘ ^ — — - 1 ~ q + q2 — - - , 1 < 1, ] < n (3.2) where an = 0 aii= ‘X"' + j >3, k=o uq and All is the cofactor of an in the numerator. In the following discussion, 3 line tables of results are included. Line 1 lists several values of q, line 2 gives the approximation of equa¬ tion 3.2, and line 3 gives values from the notes of Professor Seeger’s seminar for comparison. For n = 2, O’a.e. (7 ~ 1 - q + 10 1 1 - (q+1) 1 -(q + 1) 1+q (3.3) The results are contained in Table 1 . 1. q: 10-2 2. 0.990 3. 0.990 For n = 3, 10-^ 0.5 1 0.909 0.667 0.500 0.920 0.731 0.596 Table 1. 2 5 10 0.333 0.167 0.091 0.445 0.261 0.156 ‘^a.c. cr l-q+q" 0 1 -(q+1) 1 -(q-1) q=^+2q+2 -(q+1) q2+2q+2 -(q’+Sq^’+eq+G) -(q+1) q=+2q+2 q^+2q+2 — (q®+3q^+6q+6 (3.4) 376 Table 2 is a tabulation of results. THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 1. q: 10-2 10-^ 0.5 1 2 5 10 2. 0.990 0.913 0.706 0.571 0.429 0.255 0.155 3. 0.990 0.920 0.731 0.596 0.445 0.261 0.156 Table 2. For larger values of n the approximation will improve, however, it will be necessary to evaluate correspondingly larger determinants. REFERENCE Atchison, T. A., and H. L. Gray, 1968 — Non-linear transformations related to the evaluation of improper integrals. II. SIAM /. Numer. Anal., 5: 451-459. Gray, H. L., and T. A. Atchison, 1967 — Non-linear transformations related to The evaluation of improper integrals. I. SIAM J. Numer. Anal., 4: 363-371. - , 1968 — The generalized G-transform. Math. Comp., 22: 595-608. - , and G. V. Willams, 1970 — Higher order G- transformations. SIAM J. Numer. Anal., in press. Fortran Solution of the General Quartic Equation by Ethel Ward McLemore* and Ira L. WRiGHT^f 11625 Wander Lane, Dallas 75230 and IBM, Dallas ABSTRACT We have written a Fortran program for finding the real and complex roots of a general quartic equation with real coefficients. Most computer manufacturers and computer software companies can supply subroutine library programs for finding the roots of a polynomial of degree-n. These solutions are based mainly on the iterative methods of Newton, and though cumbersome, are, for the present, the best we can do for polynomials of degree greater than 4. This program is based on Lodovico Ferrarfs (1522-1560) solution of the quartic and Nicolo Tartaglia’s (1506- 1557) solution of the cubic, published by Cardano (1501-1576) in 1545. The method involves reducing the quartic to 2 quadratic equations. We have used Dickson’s (1922) interpretation of these solutions. They are algebraically precise and entail no iteration. In 1540, Zuanne de Tonini da Coi (see Smith, 1958), a teacher in Brescia, Italy, gave the following problem to Cardan, challenging him to find a solution: “Divide 10 into three parts such that they shall be in continued proportion and that the product of the first two shall be 6.” Cardan failed, and he in turn gave the problem to his eighteen-year old pupil, Ferrari. Ferrari solved it and gave us a solution to the quartic. The three conditions of the problem are (1) Xl+X2 + X3 = 10, (2) X1/X2-X2/X3, and (3) X1X2 = 6. From (2) and (3) we get XI = (X2) 7X3 6/X2, and X3= (X2)76. Substituting in ( 1 ) , (4) X2^ + 6X22 __ goX2 + 36 = 0, a quartic equation of the form (5) AX^ + BX^ + CX2 + DX + E = 0, where B = 0 and A must equal to one. After transposition of terms, equation (5) becomes X" + BX3 = --CX2 - DX - E. * Geophysicist f Consulting Systems Piepresentative The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 378 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The left member contains 2 of the terms of the square of the binomial (X^ + %BX) . By completing the square we get (X^ + y2BX)2 = (l^B2 - C)X2 - DX - E. Adding (X^ + %BX) Y + to each side, the equation becomes (6) (X2+ y2BX + i/2Y)2= (%B2-C + Y)X2+ (y2BY-D)X + y4Y^-E, which is identical with equation (5). The second member is a perfect square of a linear function in X if and only if its discriminant is zero: (7) Y^ - CY^ + (BD - 4E) Y - B^E + 4CE - =: 0. We solve this resolvent cubic by Tartaglia’s method. Setting Y = Z — ( — C) /3, we obtain the reduced cubic equation, (8) + PZ + Q = 0, where P = (BD-4E) - (-C)V3, and Q = (“B^E + 4CE ~ D2) - (-C) (BD - 4E)/3 + 2(-C) V27. We set (9) R= (P/3) 3+ (Q/2)^ If R is equal to or greater than zero, there are one real root and 2 conjugate imaginary roots of equation (8) . In this case we get ((-Q/2) + (R)^/y^^= ((-Q/2) - (R)^/y^ and get for the roots of (8) (10) Z1 = a + jd, Z2 = wa + 0)^/1, Z3 = o)^a + co/3, where co - -1/2 + 1/2 (3) 7^ i, and co^ = -1/2 -1/2 (3) 72 i, the imaginary cube roots of unity. Z1 is the real root of (8) . The values of equations (10) are known as Cardan’s formulas for the roots of a reduced cubic equation. If R of equation (9) is less than zero, the 3 roots of (8) are real and we use De Moivre’s Theorem (see Dickson, 1922) to solve for them trigonometrically. We write the identity Cos3^ = 4Cos^^ — 3Cosd, in the form (11) U'"^ — 3U/4 — I/4COS30 = 0, where U = Cos6. In equation (8), take Z = NU; then (8) becomes (12) 4- (P/N2)U + Q/N^ = 0. Equations (11) and (12) are identical if N- (-4P/3)72, andCos30 = (-Q/2)/(-PV27)72. Since R is negative, P must be negative, N is real, and Cos3^ is real and numerically less than unity. Hence, the 3 roots of equation (12) are U1 =Cose, U2-=Cos(^ + 120°), U3 = Cos(^ +240°); and the 3 roots of the reduced cubic (8) are (10-b) Z1 '= NCos0, Z2 = NCos(0 + 120«), Z3 = NCos(0 + 240«). Using the values of (10) or (10-b) , we get for the roots of the resolvent cubic equation (7) (13) Y1 =Z1- (-C)/3,Y2-Z2- (-C)/3, Y3 = Z3 - (-C)/3. FORTRAN SOLUTION OF THE GENERAL QUARTIC EQUATION 379 We can substitute any one of the 3 values of Y in (13) in the equa¬ tion (6) form of the general quartic. The right hand member of (6) then becomes the square of some linear function aX + b, where a = (%B2 - C + Y) and b = (^Y^ -■ E) Taking the square root of each side we geet the 2 quadratics. (14) X2+ 1/2BX + i/2Y= ±(aX + b). The roots of these quadratics are the 4 roots of the general quartic equa¬ tion (5). To make our program as general as possible, we have solved 3 differ¬ ent equations. CASE I — An equation with 2 real roots and 2 conjugate imaginary roots, with B = 0. This was Ferrari’ s problem: (4) X2^ 4- 6X2^ -60X2 + 36 = 0. Substituting the 2 real roots in (2) and (3), we get 2 sets of values: XI = 1.9355, X2 = 3.0999, X3 = 4.9647, and XI == 9.31 10, X2 = 0.6444, X3 = 0.0446. Both sets satisfy the 3 conditions of Ferrari’s problem. CASE II — An equation with 2 equal real roots with opposite signs and 2 equal conjugate imaginary roots with the real part equal to zero: (15) X^-2X3 + X2 + 2X-2 = 0. CASE III — An equation with 4 real roots: (16) X^ - 1200X^ - 449,047.6X2 + 173,714.3x10^ + 157,607.7X10^^0, which is the result of rationalization of the expression (X2 + Y2 + dy/^ + a( (X - xi)2 + Y2 + ziyy^ = k; representing a close approximation to a family of eccentric ellipses, symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis, which define the loci on the plane Z = 0, of the intersection of a family of confocal prolate spheroids with the plane, contorted by the parameter a. d, Zl, XI, and k, are con¬ stants. This equation is a part of a physical problem in seismology for which this program was written as a subroutine. C THIS IS A FORTRAN IV PROGRAM FOR FINDING THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC 10 READ(1,15,END=100) B,C,D,E 15 FORMAT(E14.0,6X,E14.0,6X,E14.0,6X,E14.0) COMPLEX ROOTl,ROOT2, ROOTS, ROOT4 C WE DECLARE COMPLEX THOUGH ALL OR TWO OF THE ROOTS MAY C BE REAL, C IN WHICH CASE THE IMAGINARY PART WILL BE WRITTEN C AS ZERO COMPLEX Y2,Y3 COMPLEX Z2,Z3 380 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE C FX = A*X**4+B*X**3+C*X**2+D*X+E C FX IS THE QUARTIC FUNCTION— A MUST ALWAYS BE EQUAL C TO 1.0 BY = — C CY = B*D-4.0*E DY = — B**2*E+4.0*C*E— D**2 C FY = Y**3+BY*Y**2+CY*Y+DY C FY IS THE RESOLVENT CUBIC FUNCTION P=:=CY— (BY* *2/3.0) Q = DY - (BY*CY/3.0) + 2.0*BY* *3/27.0 C FZ = Z**3+P*Z+Q C FZ IS THE REDUCED CUBIC FUNCTION R= (P/3.0) **3+ (Q/2.0)**2 C IF R IS NEGATIVE, THE THREE ROOTS OF FZ ARE REAL. IF R C IS POSITIVE, C TWO ROOTS OF FZ ARE IMAGINARY, ONE ROOT IS REAL IF (R) 35,20,20 20 RDRQ= ((— Q/2.0)+SQRT(R)) FLRl = ALOG ( ABS (RDRG) ) /3.0 FRl r=EXP(FLRl) IF(RDRQ) 200,200,210 200 FRl = —FRl 210 RDRQ= ((-Q/2.0)— SQRT(R)) FLR2 = ALOG ( ABS (RDRQ) ) /3.0 FR2 =: EXP(FLR2) IF(RDRQ)25,25,30 25 FR2 = — FR2 30 FZRl = FRl + FR2 FZR2 = FRl— FR2 Z2 = CMPLX(— 0.500*FZR1,0.866*FZR2) Z3 = CMPLX(— 0.500*FZR1,— 0.866*FZR2) Z = FZRl C Z IS THE REAL ROOT OF FZ GO TO 40 35 RN = SQRT(— 4.0*P/3.0) AR== (—Q/2.0)/SQRT((— P/3.0) **3) AN3 = ARCOS(AR) AN =AN3/3.0 Z = RN*COS(AN) Z2 = RN*COS(AN+2.095238) Z3 = RN*COS(AN+4.190476) 40 Y = Z — BY/3.0 381 FORTRAN SOLUTION OF THE GENERAL QUARTIC EQUATION C Y IS A REAL ROOT OF FY Y2 = Z2 — BY/3.0 Y3 = Z3 — BY/3.0 RADI = (B* *2/4.0) — C + Y RAD2 (Y* *2/4.0) — E IF (RADI) 90,45,45 45 IF (RAD2) 90,50,50 50 BD=:SQRT(RAD1) CD = SQRT(RAD2) B1 = (B/2.0) ~ BD B2 = (B/2.0) + BD FMT = (B*Y/2.0) — D IF(FMT) 300,300,310 300 Cl = (Y/2.0) + CD C2 = (Y/2.0) — CD GO TO 315 310 Cl = (Y/2.0) — CD C2 = (Y/2.0) + CD C FXl = X**2 + B1*X + Cl C FX2 ~ X* *2 4- B2*X + C2 C FXl AND FX2 ARE QUADRATICS OF THE QUARTIC FUNCTION, FX 315 DETl =BU*2 — 4.0*C1 ADETl = SQRT(ABS(DET1)) IF (DETl) 60,65,65 60 ROOTl =CMPLX(— Bl/2.0,ADETl/2.0) ROOT2 = CMPLX(— BI/2.0,— ADETl/2.0) GO TO 70 65 ROOTl = (— B1 + ADETl)/2.0 ROOT2 = (-B1 — ADETl )/2.0 70 DET2 .= B2**2 — 4.0*C2 ADET2 = SQRT(ABS(DET2)) IF (DET2) 80,85,85 80 ROOT3 = CMPLX(— B2/2.0,ADET2/2.0) ROOT4 = CMPLX(— B2/2.0,— ADET2/2.0) GO TO 90 85 ROOTS = (— B2 + ADET2)/2.0 ROOT4 = (-B2 — ADET2)/2.0 90 CONTINUE WRITE (3,55) 55 FORMAT ( 1 HI ,5X,06HANS WER//1 5X, ‘ROOTl /39X,‘ROOT2’ ) WRITE (3,95) ROOTl, ROOT2 WRITE (3,75) 382 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 75 FORMAT ( 1 5X, ‘ROOTS’, 39X/ROOT4’ ) WRITE(3,95) ROOT3,ROOT4 95 FORMAT(lX,(E16.7,E16.7),12X,(E16.7,E16.7)) WRITE(3,101) B,C,D,E 101 FORMAT (//5X,22HCOEFFICIENTS OF FX ARE //5X,02HB=::::,E15.7, 15X,02HC=,E15.7,5X,02HD=,E15.7,5X,02HE=,E15.7) WRITE(3,105) BY,CY,DY 105 FORMAT(//5X,22HCOEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE// 15X,03HBY=:,E15.7,5X,03HCY=,E15.7,5X,03HDY=,E15.7) WRITE(3,110) 1 10 FORMAT(//10X,‘Y’,28X,‘Y2’,36X,‘Y3’) WRITE(3,115) Y,Y2,Y3 115 F0RMAT(1X, E16.7,6X,(E16.7,E16.7),6X,(E16J,E16.7)) WRITE (3,120) P,Q 120 FORMAT (//5X,22HCOEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE// 15X,02HP=,E15.7,5X,02HQ=,E15.7) WRITE (3,125) 125 FORMAT (//1 0X,‘Z’,28X,‘Z2’,36X,‘Z3’) WRITE(3,115)Z,Z2,Z3 WRITE(3,130)B1,C1 130 FORMAT (//5X,23HCOEFFICIENTS OF FXl ARE// 15X,03HB1=,15.7,5X,03HC1=,E15.7) WRITE (3,1 35 )B2,C2 135 FORMAT (//5X,23HCOEFFICIENTS OF FX2 ARE// 15X,03HB2=,E15.7,5X,03HC2=,E15.7) GO TO 10 100 STOP END CASE I ANSWER ROOTl ' 0.3099873E 01 —0.0 ROOTS ROOT2 0.6443996E 00 —0.0 ROOT4 — 0.1872136E 01 +0.3810134E Oli — 0.1872136E 01 — 0.3810134E Oli COEFFICIENTS OF FX ARE B=0.0 C=0.6000000E 01 D=— 0.6000000E 02 E=0.3600000E 02 COEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE BY=— 0.6000000E 01 CY=— 0.1440000E 03 DY=— 0.2736000E 04 Y Y2 0.2001958E 02 — 0.7009789E 01 +0.9355412E Oli Y3 — 0.7009789E 01 — 0.9355412E Oli 383 FORTRAN SOLUTION OF THE GENERAL QUARTIC EQUATION COEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE 0.1560000E 03 Q=:— 0.3040000E 04 Z Z2 0.1801958E 02 — 0.9009789E 01 +0.9355412E Oli Z3 — 0.9009789E 01 — 0.9355412E Oli COEFFICIENTS OF FXl ARE Bl=— 0.3744272E 01 C1=0.1997557E 01 COEFFICIENTS OF FX2 ARE B2=0.3744272E 01 C2=0.1802202E 02 CASE II ANSWER ROOTl ROOT2 O.IOOOOOOE 01 +0.1000000E Oli O.IOOOOOOE 01 — lOOOOOOE Oli ROOT3 ROOT4 O.IOOOOOOE 01 —0.0 —O.IOOOOOOE 01 —0.0 COEFFICIENTS OF FX ARE B=— 0.2000000E 01 C=0.1000000E 01 D=0.2000000E 01 E=— 0.2000000 01 COEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE BY=— O.IOOOOOOE 01 CY=0.4000000E 01 DYr=— 0.4000000E 01 Y Y2 O.IOOOOOOE 01 — 0.1788139E— 06 +0.1999940E Oli Y3 — 0.1788139E— 06 — 0.1999940E Oli COEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE P=0.3666666E 01 Q=— 0.2740741E 01 Z Z2 0.6666670E 00 — 0.3333335E 00 +0.1999940E Oli Z3 — 0.3333335E 00 — 0.1999940E Oli COEFFICIENTS OF FXl ARE Bl=— 0.2000000E 01 C1=:0.2000000E 01 COEFFICIENTS OF FX2 ARE B2=0.0 C2=— O.IOOOOOOE 01 CASE III ANSWER ROOTl 0.1424198E 04 —0.0 ROOT3 ROOT2 0.3098333E 03 —0.0 ROOT4 384 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE — 0.7838904E 02 —0=0 — 0.4556428E 03 —0.0 COEFFICIENTS OF FX ARE B=— 0.120000E 04 C=— 0.4490476E 06 D:=0.1737143E 09 E=0.1576077E 11 COEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE BY=0.4490476E 06 CY=:— 0.2715002E 12 DY=— 0.8118148E 17 Y Y2 0.4769814E 06 — 0.6735689E 06 —0.0 Y3 — 0.2516957E 06 —0.0 COEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE P=— 0.3387147E 12 Q=-0.3383544E 17 Z Z2 Z3 0.6266639E 06 — 0.5238864E 06 0.0 — 0.1020132E 06 0.0 COEFFICIENTS OF FXI ARE Bl=— 0.1734032E 04 C1=0.4412640E 06 COEFFICIENTS OF FX2 ARE B2=0.5340320E 03 C2=0.3571737E 05 The punched deck for the general quartic program can be used as a subroutine program by substituting for the ‘READ’ card the statement ‘SUBROUTINE QUART (B,C,D,E,ROOTl ,ROOT2,ROOT3, ROOT4) and for the ‘90 CONTINE’ card the statement ‘90 RETURN’, All ‘WRITE’ and ‘FORMAT’ statements must be taken out. Following is a printed compilation of the program used as a subroutine: SUBROUTINE QUART (B,C,D,E300Tl,ROOT2,ROOT3,ROOT4) COMPLEX ROOTl,ROOT2,ROOT3,ROOT4 BY=: — C CY =3 B*D— 4.0*E DY = — B**2*E+4.0*C*E— D**2 P= CY — (BY* *2/3.0) Q= DY — (BY*CY/3.0) + 2.0*BY* *3/27.0 R = (P/3.0) **3 + (Q/2.0)**2 IF (R) 35,20,20 20 RDRQ= ((— Q/2.0)+SQRT(R)) FLRl ALOG(ABS(RDRQ))/3.0 FRl ==EXP(FLR1) IF(RDRQ)200,200,210 200 FRl = — FRl 210 RDRQ= ((— Q/2.0)— SQRT(R)) FLR2 = ALOG(ABS (RDRQ) )/3.0 FR2 = EXP(FLR2) IF (RDRQ) 25,25,30 FORTRAN SOLUTION OF THE GENERAL QUARTIC EQUATION 385 25 FR2 = ~FR2 30 FZRl == FRl + FR2 Z = FZRl GO TO 40 35 RN.= SQRT(— 4R*P/3.0) AR= (— Q/2.0)/SQRT((— P/3.0)**3) AN3 = ARGOS (AR) AN = AN3/3.0 Z = RN*COS(AN) 40 Y = Z — BY/3.0 RADI = (B**2/4.0) — C + Y RAD2 = (Y* ’^2/4.0) — E IF(RADl) 90,45,45 45 IF (RAD2) 90,50,50 50 BD = SQRT(RAD1) CD = SQRT(RAD2) B1 = (B/2.0) — BD B2 = (B/2.0) + BD FMT = (B*Y/2.0) — D IF(FMT)300,300,310 300 Cl = (Y/2.0) + CD C2 = (Y/2.0) — CD GO TO 315 310 Cl == (Y/2.0) — CD C2 = (Y/2.0) -h CD 315 DETl =B1**2 — 4.0*C1 ADETl = SQRT(ABS(DET1)) IF (DETl) 60,65,65 60 ROOTl =CMPLX(— Bl/2.0,ADETl/2.0) ROOT2 = CMPLX(— BI/2.0,— ADETl/2.0) GO TO 70 65 ROOTl = (— B1 + ADETl )/2.0 ROOT2= (— B1 — ADETl)/2.0 70 DET2 = B2**2 — 4.0*C2 ADET2 = SQRT(ABS (DET2) ) IF (DET2) 80,85,85 80 ROOTS = CMPLX(— B2/2.0,ADET2/2.0) ROOT4 = CMPLX(— B2/2.0,— ADET2/2.0) GO TO 90 85 ROOT3 =: (— B2 + ADET2)/2.0 ROOT4 = (— B2 — ADET2)/2.0 90 RETURN END We can use the same deck of the general program for the solution of a cubic only^ by eliminating all cards pertaining to the quartic. As an example, we have solved the resolvent cubic of equation (4) , equa= tion (7): C THIS IS A FORTRAN IV PROGRAM FOR FINDING THE ROOTS OF A CUBIC 386 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE C FY = Y**3+BY*Y**2+CY*Y+DY C FY IS THE RESOLVENT CUBIC FUNCTION 10 READ(1,15,END==100)BY,CY,DY 15 FORMAT (E1L0,6X,E14.0,6X,E14.0) COMPLEX Y2,Y3 COMPLEX Z2,Z3 P = CY— (BY**2/3.0) Q = DY — (BY*CY/3.0) + 2.0*BY* *3/27.0 R=: (P/3.0)* *3+ (Q/2.0)**2 IF(R)35,20,20 20 PDRQ= ((— Q/2.0)+SQRT(R)) FLRl = ALOG(ABS(RDRQ))/3.0 FRl = EXP (FLRl) IF(RDRQ)200,200,210 200 FRl r= —FRl 210 RDRQ= ((— Q/2.0)— SQRT(R)) FLR2 = ALOG(ABS(RDRQ))/3.0 FR2 = EXP(FLR2) IF(RDRQ)25,25,30 25 FR2 = — FR2 30 FZRl = FRl + FR2 FZR2 = FR1— FR2 Z2 = CMPLX(— 0.500*FZR1,0.866*FZR2) Z3 = CMPLX(— 0.500*FZR1,— 0.866*FZR2) Z = FZRl GO TO 40 35 RN=:SQRT(— 4.0*P/3.0) AR = (—Q/2.0)/SQRT((— P/3.0) **3) AN3 = ARCOS(AR) AN = AN3/3.0 Z = RN*COS(AN) Z2 = RN*COS(AN+2.095238) Z3 = RN*COS(AN+4.190476) 40 Y = Z — BY/3.0 Y2 = Z2 — BY/3.0 Y3 .= Z3 — BY/3.0 90 CONTINUE WRITE (3,1 05 ) B Y,CY,DY 105 FORMAT (//5X,22HCOEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE// 15X,03HBY:r=,E15.7,5X,03HCY==,E15.7,5X,03HDY=,E15.7) WRITE(3,110) 110 FORMAT(//10X,‘Y’,28X,T2;36X,‘Y3’) WRITE(3,115)Y,Y2,Y3 115 FORMAT(lX,E16.7,6X,(E16.7,E16.7),6X,(16.7,E16.7)) WRITE (3,120) P,Q 120 FORMAT (//5X,22HCOEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE// 15X,02HP=,E15.7,5X,02HQ=,E15.7) WRITE(3,125) 125 FORMAT(//10X,‘Z’,28X,‘Z2\36X,‘Z3’) FORTRAN SOLUTION OF THE GENERAL QUARTIC EQUATION 387 WRITE(3,115)Z,Z2,Z3 GO TO 10 100 STOP END COEFFICIENTS OF FY ARE BY=— 0.6000000E 01 CY=— OT440000E 03 DY=— 0.2736000E 04 Y Y2 0.2001958E 02 — 0.7009789E 01 +0.9355412E Oli Y3 ~0.7009789E 01 — 0.9355412E Oli COEFFICIENTS OF FZ ARE P=~0.1560000E 03 Q=— 0.3040000E 04 Z Z2 0.1801958E 02 ~0.9009789E 01 +0.9355412E Oli Z3 — 0.9009789E 01 — 0.9355412E Oli This program was written in FORTRAN IV language. For the computer, the degrees of equation (10-b) were translated to radians. Since the printer cannot print the symbol h’’ for the square root of nega¬ tive one, we have inserted it and the symbol ‘+’ to make the answers conform to the 'a + hi^ form of a complex number. For clarification we have written comments and asked for printing of coefficients and roots of all equations involved. These comments and print-outs are un¬ necessary for anyone seeking only the roots to the quartic equation. The ‘READ (a, b)’ and ‘WRITE (c,d)’ cards should be punched to con¬ form to the computer being used — along with the necessary control cards. We have used the E-FORMAT throughout to take care of any digit overflow. REFERENCES Cardano, G., 1945 — Artis Magnae (Nurmberg). Dickson, L, E,, 1922 — First Course in Theory of Equations^ John Wiley & Sons (New York), pp. 5, 45-50. Smith, D, E., 1958 — History of Mathematics. Dover Publications (New York), Vol. I, pp. 297-300; Vol. II, pp. 467-468. i Yh • v, ' ' ■< -V." ■ •• • V ' ■ ’' '’X ■■' ■;’ •.'■>,■.<’ ■,-. ■j;-*sic ;/’>'• y ; ' /;■ ’ ■*! ; . . ■ ■'.. VV- ■■' -'•'■■ \ 5 '■ '' ’'•'iftlU.-.t'ffS ; ."■' . . . . ' „ ^ f; '>rt ■ ■•V, ,■ rt'AvV:. The Effects of Various Combinations of Temperature And Relative Humidity on the Evaporative Water Loss of Bufo Valliceps By Phillip M. Campbell’ and W. K. Davis Biology Department^ Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos 78666 ABSTRACT Experimental conditions which do not approach stress limits appear to he more suitable for investigating evaporative water loss in order to ascertain adaptations which terrestrial amphibians may make in the natural habitat. Several combina¬ tions of humidities and temperatures were attained in order to duplicate possible field conditions. The rate of water loss of Bufo valliceps shows no marked difference from that of other amphibian forms; i.e. it is inversely proportional to the relative humidity at a given temperature. The relationship of body size to per cent weight loss follows the surface area-mass concept. Per cent weight loss decreases as size increases within a given set of conditions. “Humidity index” is suggested as the physiological cause of the now existing genetic dine in body size seen in the extremes of the geographic range of Bufo valliceps in Texas. Behavioral adaptations appear to be important in the water economy of this toad and have thus allowed its extensive and varied terrestrial range. INTRODUCTION In their evolutionary quest for terrestrialism, amphibians have long faced the paramount problem of avoiding excessive water loss from body tissues. Some amphibian forms have been able to adjust to am¬ bient terrestrial conditions more successfully than others, but none has mastered the problem. Even in the most terrestrial species water is lost freely through the integment by evaporation (Thorson, 1955). This constant threat of desiccation requires that a predominantly ter¬ restrial form such as the toad have extensive and varied behavioral, physiological, and genetic adaptations in order to maintain proper homeostatis (Jameson, 1966). The Gulf Coast Toad, Bufo valliceps, in occupying its semi-fossorial and terrestrial niches has apparently ^ This paper concerns a portion of the research presented to the Department of Biology at Southwest Texas State University in partial fulfullment of the require¬ ments for the Degree of Master of Arts. Present address: Baylor University College of Dentistry, Dallas 75206 The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 390 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE accomplished these adaptations rather well. The purpose of this study was to investigate these adaptations with respect to temperature and relative humidity, which tend to restrict the activity of this primarily nocturnal form. It is postulated that Bufo valliceps is able to distinguish between various relative humidity and temperature combinations and as a re¬ sult retsricts its microhabitat selection to suit the conditions, thus pre¬ venting excessive water loss. Some ecologists have observed that on certain nights this form is not active even during the peak of the mating season. The reason for such a pause in activity is unknown but has been assumed to be related to the existing conditions which affect evaporative water loss, i.e. temperature and relative humidity. Perusal of the literature reveals a considerable amount of informa¬ tion on the rate and intensity of evaporative water loss of amphibians under conditions of stress. Thorson (1956) studied various species of amphibians as terrestrial animals by measurement of water lost through the skin by induced evaporation. The method of desiccation used was a chamber which caused stress conditions of water loss by lowering the humidity practically to zero. Hall (1922), Littleford, et al. (1947), Cohen (1952), and Schmid (1965) used similar methods of desiccation to use stress conditions of humidity to achieve evapora¬ tive water loss. These studies showed the rates, intensities, and critical limits of evaporative water loss for several species of amphibians and provided valuable information as to their transitional state between aquatic and terrestrial environs. However, the basic problem of the ability of the toad to withstand water loss at less than stress situations which are present under natural conditions has been overlooked. Moore (1964) states: “It has been stressed repeatedly that survival of a given species may be determined critically by the events of, and capacity to tolerate, milder degrees of dehydration, rather than the extreme de¬ grees produced under the laboratory conditions typically used.” There¬ fore, the purpose of this study was to utilize less rigorous degrees of dehydration which may actually exist in the microhabitat occupied by a toad rather than the stress conditions which have been conven¬ tionally used. Jameson (1966) did a similar study on the tree frog, Hyla regilla, in which the various habitats of the animal were compared. This intro¬ duced the additional problem of acclimation. He concluded that there was no relation between rate of weight loss and available environ¬ mental moisture between different localities. He suggested that rate of weight loss in different localities may show some relation to the EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 391 “ecogeographical rules.” This study was concerned with one popula¬ tion from one locality in order to alleviate problems of acclimation. METHODS The instrument utilized in the following experiments was the Blue M Vapor Temp controlled relative humidity chamber (Model No. VP 100 AT-1 ) . The chamber was equipped with the Blue M constant flow portable cooling unit in order to attain lower humidities. Nine major combinations of temperature (28, 30, and 34° C) and relative humidity (47-53, 63-67, and 85-87%) were reproducibly attained. During an experiment the temperature did not fluctuate more than ±1°C or the relative humidity more than ±5% as determined by a hygrometer placed on the shelf near the specimens. The main limitation of the in¬ strument was its inability to attain temperatures below ambient con¬ ditions. The conditions thus attained were all above room temperature which was thermostatically controlled at 23 °C with a fluctuation of not more than ±2°. One asset of this instrument, which is lacking in other humidity chambers, is the ability to control the “turbulence ef¬ fect” mentioned by Ray (1958). This instrument is large enough so that several specimens may be run at one time, thus obtaining more constant results. This was a problem in the experimentation of Jame¬ son ( 1 966) in which a plant growth chamber was used. Samples of Bufo valliceps were collected at the Southwest Texas State University Aquatic Station, San Marcos, Hays County, Texas. Random samples of toads were taken at night in the spring of 1967 and summer of 1968. Approximately 20 toads were collected at a time and placed in concrete vats, without access to food, and retained for not less than 48 nor more than 72 hours. Each sample consisted of 6 specimens. Prior to an experiment the toads were placed in a small aquarium of water and covered with a wire cover so that only the snouts were out of water. Toads were hy¬ drated for 30 minutes in order to allow each toad to take on water which would passively diffuse through the skin. The specimens were sponge dried with paper towels and then catheterized with the use of polyethylene cannulae and gentle suprapubic pressure. Body size was determined by the use of a vernier caliper to measure snout-vent length in millimeters. Toads were then weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram on a triple beam balance. The time required for this procedure was not more than 2 minutes per specimen and was included in the calcu¬ lation of the length of the desiccation period. After each toad was weighed and measured, it was then placed in a numbered compart- 392 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ment of a wire backet. The basket with the 6 toads was then placed on the shelf of the pre-set Blue M chamber. Time of equilibration for the chamber was negligible. After a 2-hour run the toads were re¬ weighed in the same order as before and weight difference was in¬ terpreted as evaporative water loss. Each individual toad was used only one time under one set of conditions. RESULTS The preliminary results obtained prior to designing the experiment are shown in Figure 1. The 4 toads were subjected to a temperature of 28 °C and a relative humidity of 53% in order to obtain a standard curve that shows the rate of water loss. Toads were processed in the usual manner and weighed at intervals of 15 minutes, 30 minutes, one hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours. Specimen (A), which weighed 32.7 grams initially, lost water at a faster rate than any of the other toads and was dead after 2 hours and 50 minutes. Death was defined as loss of the “righting reaction’’ as defined by Ray (1958) and came after the toad had lost 36.39% of its initial body weight. This per cent weight lost was not calculated until 3 hours had elapsed, assuming that the additional 10 minutes after death would not appreciably affect water loss. This is supported by investigations of Mellanby (1942) who stated that post mortem water loss was roughly at the same rate. This fact lends support to the lack of control of water loss by the living TIME (hrs.) Fig. 1. Rate of Evaporative Water Loss at 28°C and Relative Humidity of 53%. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 393 toad when behavioral adaptations or methods of escape are thwarted as under experimental conditions » The other toads involved in this rate- loss calibration exhibited proportional rates of water loss in line with their surface mass ratio (Spight, 1968; Schmid, 1965). Toad (B) ex¬ hibited an unusual initial rate of water loss shown on the graph by a traversion at approximately 20 minutes, but then continued a rate loss that would be expected in relation to size. This phenomenon could have been caused by a detectable difference in surface capillary water (Thorson, 1955). Toad (C) lost water at the expected rate but was dead after 3 hours after having lost 25.88% of its initial body weight. No particular reason is given for this other than individual critical humidity index. The per cent weight lost after 3 hours then was: (A) 36.39, (B) 29.39, (C) 25.88, and (D) 18.75. After examination of these data, the length of the experiments was established at 2 hours in order to stay within nonstress conditions where no loss of specimens would occur. Compared to other work, this study was not designed to measure the rate of water loss over a long period of time which results in eventual death, but rather to determine the per cent of original weight lost in a given time under constant conditions of temperature and relative humidity. Two hundred fifty-one toads were measured at a variety of tetmpera- tures and humidities. Controls were run periodically under the exist¬ ing conditions at the collecting station. Table 1 shows the results of these determinations. The 3 basic temperatures chosen were 28, 30, and 34°C. Other measurements were made at 8, 21, 25, 27, and 38°C. The 3 major temperatures were chosen because of the degree of ease with which they could be attained, and the limitations of the instru¬ ment previously described. A low (48-55%), medium (65-69%), and high (86-87%) humidity was selected at each of the basic tempera¬ tures. Figure 2 is a graphic representation of the results obtained at 28°C and relative humidities of 53, 65, and 85%, Figure 3 represents toads run at 30°C and relative humidities of 55, 67, and 86%. The trend in this sample is the same as the previous one with the greatest per cent of weight lost being at a relative humidity of 55% and least at 86%. The range of variation of the 55% sample is greater than the others but has no effect on the overall significance. In Figure 4 a clear separation is shown between the different humidities (48, 69, and 87%) and the per cent weight lost at 34° C. At this temperature, there was a marked reduction in movement of specimens within the chamber which may be attributed to a behavioral attempt at water conservation (Ray, 1958). 394 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Editor’s Note: Figures 2, 3, 4 read from top to bottom. 5 18 15 20 . 25 30 PER CENT WEIGHT LOST Fig. 2. Per Cent Original Body Weight Lost at 28°C. The base line signfiies the known range, the vertical triangle the mean. The solid and hollow rectangles equal two standard errors and one standard deviation on either side of the mean. (See Hubbs and Hubbs, 1 953, for a discussion of significance of data graphed in this manner.) PER CENT WEIGHT LOST Fig. 3. Per Cent Original Body Weight Lost at 30°C. See Fig. 2 for explanation of graphi¬ cal symbols. Results of some combinations of control conditions are also shown in Table 1 in order that they might be compared to actual laboratory re¬ sults. It is significant to note that the per cent weight lost in a control done in the natural habitat at 27°C and 80% relative humidity is less than one done in the laboratory at 28°C and 85% relative humidity. This points up the importance of the possibility of error in humidities EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 395 recorded in air with a sling psychrometer as compared to the actual humidity of the microhabitat on the ground. Therefore, a small error in the comparison of natural microhabitat conditions to those of the laboratory humidity chamber may be expected. Results of field observations appear to support the previous assump¬ tion that Bufo valliceps is able to distinguish between various relative humidity and temperature combinations. On several occasions in June, 1968, it was observed that activity of toads on a given night increased with a decrease in temperature and a commensurate increase in rela¬ tive humidity. Toads were seen only partially emerged from burrows in the early evening but as humidity increased and temperature de¬ creased the toads emerged and went about theii nocturnal habits. The relationship of body size to amount of water lost by evaporation is generally accepted as the surface area to volume ratio concept (Spight, 1968; Schmidt, 1965; Ruibal, 1962). This relationship is shown in Figure 5. Snout- vent length is used as one index of size and surface area. The toads from the basic test samples were grouped ac¬ cording to small (50-75 mm), medium (75-85 mm), or large (85-120 mm) at low, medium, or high relative humidities and plotted against per weight lost. The curve shows clearly the decrease in per cent weight lost as snout- vent length increases. Another index of size, original body weight, and its relation to evaporative water loss is shown in Figure 6. The toads from the basic test samples were arbitrarily divided into 5 groups of body weight in grams (20-35, 35-50, 50-65, 65-80, and 80+) at low, medium, or a> m > < m I C I o -< S7% 69% t 1 41% EZJtZdH l . 1 1. „ I . L. ■■■_+ I 10 IS 20 2S 30 PER CENT WEIGHT LOST Fig. 4. Per CenJ Original Body Weight Lost at 34°C. See Fig. 2 for explanation of graphical symbols. 396 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Editor’s Note: Figures 5 and 6 read from top to bottom. SNOUT-VENT LENGTH (mm.) Fig. 5. Effects of Body Size (Snout-Vent Length) on Evaporative Water Loss at All Ex¬ perimental Combinations. BODY WEIGHT IN GRAMS Fig. 6. Effects of Body Size (Weight in Grams) on Evaporative Water Loss at All Ex¬ perimental Combinations. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 397 high relative humidities and plotted against per cent weight lost. These results concur with those of snout- vent length in showing a decrease in rate of evaporative water loss with an increase in body size. DISCUSSION In considering the gross effect of mild degrees of dehydration on Bufo ualliceps an overall difference in the basic concepts of evaporative water loss of this toad as compared to that of other amphibians was not found. The fact that the integument of amphibians, although modified in some forms, shows no physiological or mechanical restriction to water loss is generally accepted. The amphibian integument in fact loses water at practically the same rate as an open container of water (Adolph, 1932). The results of the present study support the conclu¬ sion that the rate of evaporative water loss of amphibians is inversely proportional to the relative humidity at a given temperature (Ray, 1958) . This relationship is clearly indicated in Figures 2, 3, and 4. Previous studies determined rates of water loss under stress condi¬ tions to allow the forms under investigation to lose body water to the lethal point. Such studies elucidated critical limits of water loss but it appears that the determination of survival of a given species rests more on that species’ ability to tolerate milder degrees of dehydration. The latter situations are the ones which may actually confront a given specimen under natural conditions and the present investigation has provided some insight into necessary selective adaptations which may be evident. One selective adaptation which has been supported by this study is that of the relationship of body size and evaporative water loss. The fact that toads of a smaller body size lose a larger percentage of their total body weight by evaporative water loss than do toads of a larger body size is clearly indicated in Figures 1, 5, and 6. These graphic representations use both snout- vent length and body weight as indices for body size. Benedict (1932) provided a method for the determina¬ tion of the relationship of surface area to evaporative water loss. In modifications of this method, Spight (1968) was able to show that equal areas of surface on salamanders which differ in body weight lose water at different rates, and small salamanders lose water far more rapidly, per unit of surface, than do large salamanders of the same species. Spight further states that the different evaporative stresses faced by small and large salamanders should be reflected in the ecolo¬ gies of the terrestrial species. This size or surface area to volume re¬ lationship is also supported by Thorson (1955) in evaporative water 398 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE loss studies on Bufo boreas and Scaphiopus hammondi as well as 3 species of frogs. Schmid (1965) suggests that this obvious surface-mass phenomenon in relation to evaporative water loss of amphibians would mean that species of small size would be at a distinct disadvantage in dry habitats because of an increased rate of water loss. He further speculates that we might expect to find that species from dry habitats would tend to be larger than those from aquatic habitats. This statement then sug¬ gests a selective advantage for amphibian size in relation to their given habitat conditions of available environmental moisture. In observations and measurements of specimens of Bufo valliceps prior to this investigation, an obvious sexual dimorphism in body size of the species was statistically proven. In addition to this dimorphism within a locality, an evident difference in body size between 2 portions of the range of Bufo valliceps was shown (Figure 7). Statistical analysis of snout-vent length of the East Texas (Jefferson County) samples show a significant difference in body size from that of the Central Texas (Travis County) population. Sexual dimorphism and a genetic dine in body size from east to west in these populations was reported by Campbell (1967). From the map in Figure 8, a gradation of temperature and relative humidity is clearly shown as one moves from the eastern to the western portion of the range of Bufo valliceps. This combination of factors leads the authors to advocate a reason for the obvious size difference found in the 2 portions of the range. Schmid's (1965) suggestion of the pos¬ sibility of a size difference of amphibians from aquatic and dry habi¬ tats may be partially applied here. Instead of referring to the eastern and western portions of the range as aquatic and dry areas, it might be preferable to consider the 2 areas as having a high or low “humidity index" which is defined as the matrix of weather conditions which affect evaporative water loss. The most important factor is considered to be relative humidity which is affected by temperature, wind velocity, vapor pressure, and rainfall. From the data presented, it is evident that evaporative water loss of Bufo valliceps varies inversely with the relative humidity at a given temperature. Also, it has been shown that toads of large body size lose water at a slower rate at a given humidity than do smaller toads. Since a statistical difference in body size from the 2 geographic areas does exist, it is suggested that the “humidity index” is the causative factor, A further suggestion is that toads with large body size have a selective advantage in surviving in an area with a low “humidity index” and vice versa. The sexual dimorphism which exists in any locality is not EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 399 Editor’s Note: Figures 7 and 8 read from top to bottom. Fig. 7. Range and Sexuol Dimorphism in Body Size as Shown by Snout-Vent Length. See Fig. 2 for Explanation of Graphical Symbols . Fig. 8. Geographic Relative Humidity. (A) Range of Bufo Valliceps in Texas Showing Gradation in Average Travis County (B) Jefferson County. 400 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE to be confused with the overall size difference-between the 2 areas although it cannot be overlooked. The males which are smaller within a given locality apparently adjust by more frequent hydration or less activity. The latter is supported by field observations in which collec¬ tions are predominantly female on an inactive night with a low “hu¬ midity index.” “Humidity index,” therefore, appears to be a justifiable explanation for the difference in body size between the 2 areas on the basis of selective adaptation. This trend in body size, although apparently physiological at its inception, could now represent a definite genetic dine which might eventually produce an isolating effect within the species (Blair, 1955). The present investigation supports previous findings on the inability of amphibians to control their water economy as related to loss of water through the skin. A controllable form of water economy of toads which has been demonstrated is the adaptive ability of toads such as Bufo cognatus to store as much as 30% of its gross body weight as water in the urinary bladder. Under conditions of dehydration the bladder water is resorbed. Toads dehydrated after the bladder has been emptied of water demonstrate no water reserve (Ruibal, 1962) . In the present investigation, this adaptive factor was alleviated by catheteri¬ zation to remove the bladder contents. When the above form of control of water economy is removed, the toad must resort to behavioral adaptations. Observations during this investigation have revealed several such adaptations. During the course of the dehydration experiments, Bufo valliceps demonstrated a “water conservation response” by pulling the extremities close to and under the body. This response was begun almost immediately after the toads were placed in the chamber followed with only occasional movement. When following dehydration, the toads were placed in a wet glass aquarium, they demonstrated the “water absorption response” as described by Stille (1958). Another behavioral adaptation noted in field observations was that of burrowing. This adaptation is well known as a behavioral response in order to control moisture. In the present observations, several toads were shown to have only their snouts emerged from the burrow at 81 °F and 68% relative humidity but were completely emerged at 76 °F and 86% relative humidity on the same night. Also, as previously mentioned, collection of a predominance of females on nights with a low “humidity index” may indicate that the smaller males remained in burrows to control moisture. The effect of temperature on evaporative water loss in Bufo valli- EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON WATER LOSS 401 Table 1 Number Specimens Temp. OC Relative Humidity Average Initial Wt. (g) Average Final Wt.(g) Average Loss(g) Average Total 7, Wt. Females Lost Males 16 28 537, 45.75 39.13 6.62 15.33 12.66 16.23 16 28 657, 53.71 47.04 6.67 12.93 11.63 13.36 16 28 857, 51.57 48.62 2.95 6.24 5.52 6.24 24 30 557, 59.41 52.13 7.28 13.61 9.77 15.91 24 30 677, 64.92 57.80 7.12 10.91 8.50 13.31 24 30 867, 56.89 53.53 3.36 5.90 4.51 7.96 24 34 487, 44.77 37.08 7.69 17.40 16.64 19.68 24 34 697, 52.99 47.46 5.53 11.15 10.24 12.06 24 34 877, 44.08 42.22 1.86 5.12 4.96 5.34 12 8 947, 48.67 47.59 1.08 2.43 1.61 2.85 *12 21 857, 75.22 74.23 0.99 1.27 1.16 1.38 6 25 637, 47.51 42.49 5.02 10.67 7.28 11.34 *12 27 807, 61.78 59.35 2.43 4.09 3.34 4.86 17 38 427, 68.36 53.55 14.81 23.50 20.14 30.22 * Indicates controls at the collection station ceps is mentioned as part of the “humidity index.” Within a limited humidity range the rate of weight loss varies logarithmically with temperature. The effect on rate of w^eight loss of an increase in tem¬ perature at low humidities is greater than the effect of the same in¬ crease in temperature at high humidities (Jameson, 1966). Evapora¬ tive water loss thus is directly proportional to an increase in tempera¬ ture. “Humidity index” appears to be the total controlling factor in evaporative water loss of Bufo valliceps and in so doing dictates the activity and microhabitat selection of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. W. E. Norris, Jr., Dean of the School of Science, and to Dr. C. R. Willms, Professor of Chemistry and Chair¬ man of the Department of Chemistry for their valuable assistance during the study. The senior author was partially supported by a grant for organized research from state appropriated funds. LITERATURE CITED Adolph, E. F., 1932 — The vapor tension relations of frogs. Biol. Bull., 62: 112-125. Benedict, F. G., 1932— The Physiology of large reptiles. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub., 325: 1-539. 402 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Blair, W. F., 1955 — Size difference as a possible isolation mechanism in Microhyla. Amer. Nat., 89: 297-301 . Campbell, P. M., 1967 — The effects of food availability on body size in Bufo valliceps. Tex. Jour. Sci., 19: 445. Cohen, N. W., 1952 — Comparative rates of dehydration and hydration in some California salamanders. Ecology, 33: 462-479. Hall, F. G., 1922 — The vital limit of exsiccation of certain animals. Biol. Bull. 47: 31-51. Hubbs, C. L. and C. Hubbs, 1953 — An improved graphical analysis and comparison of series of samples. Syst. Zool. 2: 49-57. Jameson, D. L., 1966 — Rate of weight loss of tree frogs at various temperatures and humidities. Ecology, 47: 605-613. Littleford, R. a., W. F. Feller, and N. E. Phillips, 1947 — Studies of the vital limits of water loss in the plethodont salamanders. Ecology, 28: 440-447. Mellanby, K., 1942 — The body temperature of the frog. J. Exper. Biol., 18: 55-61. Moore, J. A., 1964 — Physiology of the Amphibia. Academic Press, New York. Ray, C., 1958 — ^Vital limits and rates of desiccation in salamanders. Ecology, 39: 75-83. Ruibal, R., 1962 — The adaptive value of bladder water in the toad Bufo cognatus. Physiol. Zool., 35: 218-223. Schmid, W. D., 1965 — Some aspects of the water economies of nine species of amphibians. Ecology, 46: 261-269. Spight, T. M., 1968 — The water economy of salamanders: Evaporative water loss. Physiol. Zoo/., 41: 195-203. St.ille, W. T., 1958 — The water absorption response of an anuran. Copeia, (3): 217-218. Incidence and Geographic Distribution of Some Nematodes in Texas Bobcats^ by JOHN W. LITTLE^ J. P. SMITH, F. F. KNOWLTON,^ and R. R. BELL Department of V eterinary Parasitology T exas A&M University^ College Station 77843 ABSTRACT Nine adult bobcats, Lynx rufus (Schreber, 1777), from Brewster County in West Texas and Nueces and Duval Counties in South Texas were examined for nematodes. All were parasitized, but the Brewster County bobcats harbored fewer helminths than hosts trapped in Nueces and Duval counties. It is suggested that this may be due to ecological factors. Ancylostoma caninum (Ercolani, 1859) and Toxascaris leonina (von Linstow, 1902) were the most prevalent species in both individual num¬ bers and the number of bobcats they infected. The incidence of these helminths was compared to surveys of bobcat nematodes from other areas of the United States. INTRODUCTION Although the occurrence of helminths in bobcats has been reported from some areas of the United States, studies from Texas are limited. Read (1948) reported Snirometra mansonoides Mueller, 1935 from a bobcat, and Little and Hopkins (1969) identified 3 species of Taenia from Lynx rufus (Schreber 1777) taken from Brazos County, As far as is known these reports represent the only information on helminths from this host in Texas. There is a need to know the parasites in this host to determine if the bobcat serves as a reservoir for nematodes important to man and domestic animals. The purpose of this study was to ascertain which nematodes were present and if variations existed in the parasites from hosts inhabiting different ecological zones. 1 This study was supported in part under Contract No. 14-16-0008-912 by the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife. 2 Deceased. 3 Present address: U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, P. O. Box 9037, Guilbeau Station, San Antonio, Texas 78204 The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 404 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MATERIALS AND METHODS Nine adult bobcats, 2 of which came from Brewster County and 7 from Nueces and Duval Counties, were live trapped. All animals were anesthetized and sacrificed. The heart, trachea, esophagus and gastro- intestine from each animal were examined. The lungs and sections of the diaphragm from each host were also examined for helminths. Fresh blood smears from the hosts collected from Nueces and Duval Counties were examined for microfilariae and the musculature of 2 of the positive hosts were examined for adult filariids. The nematodes were removed, fixed and preserved in 70% alcohol. Each worm was cleared in lacto-phenol and studied individually ex¬ cept when large numbers of helminths were recovered. In these cases every 10th worm was selected for identification. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ancylostonum caninum (Ercolani, 1859) was the most prevalent species (Table 1), in both individual numbers and in the number of bobcats infected. Two of these hosts were heavily infected and con¬ tained at least 250 and 420 respectively, but clinical signs of parasitism were not observed in the living host. Hookworm burdens for the other hosts ranged from 5 to 20 worms. It is interesting that the bobcats from West Texas did not contain A. caninum. Although only 2 bobcats were examined from Brewster County the lack of hookworm infection probably reflected a climatic condition. Nueces and Duval Counties have approximately twice the amount of average rainfall as Brewster County (14.29 inches). The fact that Brewster County has a much higher altitude could also be a contributing factor to the lack of A. caninum. Since Burrows (1962) has pointed out that there has been much Table 1 Incidence of nematodes in 9 Texas bobcats Species No. of hosts infected Range of nematodes Ancylostoma caninum (Ercolani 1859) 7 5-420 Toxascaris leonina (Von Linstow, 1902) 6 4-110 Microfilariae 6 (Adult filariids) 2* f^23 Physaloptera sp. 2 3-7 Cylicospirura suhaequalis (Molin, 1860) 1 2 TroglostrongyLus wilsoni (Stough, 1953) 2 3-6 * Only two hosts were examined. NEMATODES IN TEXAS BOBCATS 405 confusion for nearly a century on the identification of A. caninum and Ancyclostoma tuhaeforme (Zeder, 1800), careful attention was given to these helminths. The length of the spicules, size of the bursa, shape of the esophageal teeth, and the thickness of the cuticle all indi¬ cated that the hookworms examined were A. caninum. However, the total lengths of both sexes were about the size of A. tubae forme. Regardless of the intensity of the infection, this worm was consistently smaller from all hosts. The A. caninum that were measured were all under the average length given by Burrows (1962) which suggests that the bobcat is not the most suitable host. The statement by Miller and Harkema (1968), “that the dog hookworm is not a common parasite of the bobcat” is probably more apparent than real. It is more likely that the bobcat is a less suitable natural host for A. caninum than the canine, but under certain conditions it may be a common host. Toxascaris leonina (von Linstow, 1902) was recovered from the small intestines of 6 hosts, one of which came from Brewster County. This nematode occurs in carnivores in most parts of the world and has been reported from many areas of the United States (Rubin, 1952; Mann, 1955; Ehrenford, 1953; Sprent and Barrett, 1964). However, it was not recorded from 16 bobcats from North Carolina and South Carolina (Miller and Harkema, 1968). The infected Texas bobcats contained from 4 to 1 10 T. leonina. Microfilariae were found in the blood of all of 6 bobcats examined by Knott’s technique, and adult worms were removed from the 2 hosts that were examined. Twenty females and 3 males were removed from one bobcat. The adult filariids were located subcutaneously in the back and lodged between the musculature of the hind legs. Work is in progress on the identification of these worms. Unfortunately, the Brewster County bobcats were not examined for microfilariae or adults. The genus Physaloptera was limited to the 2 West Texas bobcats. They were found in the stomach and small intestine^ but due to the small number present identification beyond genus was not attempted. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) a male and female, both damaged, were recovered from one of the Brewster County hosts, and deposited in the USDA Parasite Collection No. 66678. Troglostrongylus wilsoni (Stough, 1953) was found in the lung tissue of 2 South Texas bobcats. Sarmiento and Stough (1956) re¬ ported that 25% of 64 bobcats from Virginia and North Carolina were heavily infected with this parasite. Klewer (1958) found this worm in 22 of the 24 of the Virginia bobcats he examined. Although T . wilsoni appears to be fairly common from Eastern United States bob- 406 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE cats, it appears that this is the first report of this worm from South¬ western United States. A marked difference can be seen in the incidence of some parasites by comparing the nematodes from Texas bobcats from different eco¬ logical zones. When the nematodes are compared to bobcat nematodes from Other areas of the United States, several identical species were noted. On the other hand, a number of worms that have been found in other areas are either rare or missing altogether in Texas. It would be a mistake to assume that all nematodes peculiar to the bobcat have the same geographic distribution as the host. In general, the Brewster County bobcats contained fewer parasites in number than the hosts from South Texas. This study indicates that Texas bobcats contain some helminths, i.e. Ancylostoma caninum and Toxascaris leonina which frequently infect other wild animals and domestic pets. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to Miss MayBelle Chitwood, Animal Disease and Parasite Research Division, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, for identifying Cylicospirura subaequalis and for obtaining its accession number in the USD A Collection. We also thank Dr. Thomas J. Galvin, Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, who examined the hosts for filarids and identified Troglostrongylus wilsoni. LITERATURE CITED Burrows, R. B., 1962 — Comparative morphology of Ancylostoma tubaeforme (Zeder, 1800) and Ancylostoma caninum (Ercolani, 1859). /. ParasitoL, 48: 715-718. Ehrenford, F. a., 1953 — The incidence of some common canine intestinal parasites. /. ParasitoL, 39 (suppL): 34-35. Klewer, H. L., 1958 — The incidence of helminth lung parasites of Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber) and the life cycle of Anafilaroides rostratus Gerichter, 1949. J. ParasitoL, 44 (suppl.): 29. Little, J. W., and S. H. Hopkins, 1969 — New locality records for Taenia rileyi Loewen, 1929 and Taenia macrocystis Diesing, 1850, and a comparison of some hook measurements. Proc. HelminthoL Soc. Wash., 36: 269-270. Mann, P. H., 1955 — Additional information pertaining tO’ the incidence of heart- worms and intestinal helminths in stray cats and dogs in Bergen County, Northern New Jersey. /. ParasitoL, 41: 637. Miller, G. C., and R. Harkema, 1968 — Helminths of some wild mammals in the Southeastern United States. Proc. HelminthoL Soc. Wash., 35: 118-125. Read, C. P., 1948 — Spirometra from Texas cats. /. ParasitoL, 34: 71-72. Rubin, R., 1952 — A survey of internal parasites of 100 dogs in Oklahoma County, Oklahoma. /. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc., 121: 30-33. NEMATODES IN TEXAS BOBCATS 407 Sarmiento, L., and B. D. Stough, 1956 — Troglostrongylus wilsoni (Stough, 1953) n. comb. (Nematoda: Metastrongylidae) from the lungs of the bobcat, Lynx rufus rufus. J. ParasitoL, 42: 45-48. Sprent, J. F. a., and M. G. Barrett, 1964 — Large roundworms of dogs and cats: differentiation of Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina. Austral. Vet. /., 40: 166-171. Science Education An Analysis of Achievement and Level of Critical Thinking in Two Approaches to High School Chemistry by C, A. HARDY Secondary Education Dept. North Texas State University^ Denton 76203 INTRODUCTION The period of curriculum reform in secondary science, including the development of the CHEM Study project, has been accompanied by widespread interest in improving evaluation techniques. This interest has resulted from the fact that educators have shown a tra¬ ditional concern with achievement in chemistry as an outcome of the CHEM Study approach. At the same time educators have become increasingly concerned with critical thinking as an educational objec¬ tive. Historically, the evaluation problem was brought into focus in a study reported by Hipsher (1961). The study revealed that students taught traditional physics achieved at a significantly higher level than did students using the PSSC curriculum. Publication of the study re¬ sulted in widespread recognition of the fact that tests designed to measure achievement in terms of traditional objectives could not be used to meaningfully evaluate the new programs. As a result of this recognition, Rainey (1963) studied achievement in chemistry utilizing both a conventional achievement test and the final test of the CHEM Study materials. Pye and Anderson (1967) designed a 3-hour achievement examination formulated to evaluate students of CHEM Study, the Chemical Bond Approach, and the con¬ ventional approach. Herron (1966) has provided an interesting com¬ parison of student performance in Chem Study and conventional chemistry in terms of certain cognitive abilities as classified by Bloom (1956). The problem arising from the testing of different approaches to chemistry with the same instrument has been alleviated to a consider- The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 410 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE able extent. Recent revisions of some of the standardized achievement tests have resulted in an increasing emphasis upon concepts and appli¬ cations at the expense of recall items (Hendrickson, 1968), While the standardized achievement tests have gradually become concept oriented, there has been a corresponding interest in the development of critical thinking as a behavioral outcome. Yager and Wick (1966) studied whether it is possible to affect a student’s understanding of science and his level of critical thinking by altering the emphasis of the teacher in the classroom. Rickert (1967), as well as Yager, et al. (1969) have studied the effect of science course organization upon the development of critical thinking abilities. On the basis of these studies, one may conclude that it is possible to develop critical thinking ability through science course organization and the use of special materials. THE PROBLEM The problem of the study was to compare students of CHEM Study chemistry and traditional chemistry in terms of achievement in chem¬ istry and level of critical thinking. In addition, the problem included determining whether there is any interaction between program, mental ability, and the variables of achievement in chemistry and level of critical thinking. Specifically, the following null hypotheses were tested: 1. There is no significant difference in achievement between stu¬ dents in CHEM Study chemistry and students in traditional chemistry as measured by the American Chemical Society-National Science Teachers Association Cooperative Examination High School Form 1967. 2. There is no significant difference in level of general critical thinking between students in CHEM Study chemistry and students in traditional chemistry as measured by the W atson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. 3. There is no significant interaction between program, mental ability, and the dependent variable of achievement in chemistry as measured by the American Chemical Society -N ational Science Teachers Association Cooperative Examination High School Form 1967C 4. There is no significant interaction between program, mental ability, and the dependent variable of level of critical thinking as measured by the W atson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. SCIENCE EDUCATION 411 RESEARCH DESIGN The population of the study consisted of 208 students of high school chemistry in selected high schools in West Texas. The experimental group consisted of 104 students in 5 classes of CHEM Study chemistry. The control group consisted of 104 students in 5 classes of traditional chemistry. The experimental design of the study was patterned after the Post¬ test Only Control Group Design as described by Campbell and Stanley (1963) . Concerning the post-test design, Campbell and Stanley (1963) have stated that proper application of analysis of covariance and block¬ ing on subject variable such as previous grades, LQ., and parental occupation can provide an increase in the power of significance test similar to that provided by a pre-test. Accordingly, preliminary data were obtained for each student with¬ in each participating class. The preliminary data were used for estab¬ lishing group equivalence and as a concomitant observation in the analysis of covariance. The preliminary data were obtained from the permanent records of each participating school and involved the stu¬ dent’s age, LQ., natural science achievement level, composite achieve¬ ment level, and socioeconomic background. Measurement of the dependent variables of level of critical thinking and achievement in chemistry was accomplished by the administration of the selected instruments. The subjects were administered the W atson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal in March of 1969. Achievement in chemistry was measured by the American Chemical Society -N ational Science Teachers Association Cooperative Examina¬ tion Form 1967 administered in May of 1969. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Preliminary data for each student were obtained from the perma¬ nent records of the various schools. The preliminary data included the student’s age, LQ., natural science achievement level, composite achievement level, composite achievement level, and socioeconomic category. In order to establish the fact that the control and experimental groups represented the same basic population, a series of t-tests were run utilizing the preliminary data. The t-test calculations indicated that there were no significant differences between the control and experimental groups in terms of age, LQ., background in natural science, composite achievement level, and socioeconomic classification. 412 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Accordingly, the 2nd step in the analysis of the data involved the use of the analysis of covariance in order to test for significant differences between the control and experimental groups in terms of the dependent variables, achievement in chemistry and level of critical thinking. Since analysis of covariance provides a test of significance for the adjusted means, the obtained results provided a test of the first null hypotheses. The results are presented in Table 1. The results of the analysis of covariance for the achievement cri- terion as presented in Table 1 indicate that not only did the experi= mental group mean exceed the control group mean, but that the differ¬ ence was significant at the .05 level. Accordingly, it is apparent that there is a significant difference in achievement in chemistry between students of CHEM Study chemistry and traditional chemistry. The results of the test of the second null hypothesis by analysis of covariance are presented in Table 2, The results of the analysis of covariance for the critical thinking criterion as presented in Table 2 indicate that although the experi¬ mental group mean exceeded the control group mean, the difference in the adjusted means was not significant at the .05 level. Accordingly, it appears that there is no significant difference in level of critical thinking between students of CHEM Study chemistry and students of traditional chemistry. In order to study whether or not any interaction between program and ability level existed, the data were subjected to a 2- way classifi¬ cation analysis of variance. Table 1 Analysis of covariance for achievement in chemistry Treatment Adjustment of Means Treatment Mean Adjusted Mean Experimental Control lOJOOO 13.4712 19.2393 13.5154 F = 5.866* * In order to be significant at the .05 level, F must exceed 3.940'. Table 2 Analysis of covariance level or critical thinking Treatment Adjustment of Means Treatment Mean Adjusted Mean Control Experimental 68.3558 73.2000 68.3802 72.9451 F'= 2.628* * In order to be significant at the .05 level, F must exceed 3.940. SCIENCE EDUCATION 413 Table 3 Analysis of variance for achievement criterion Source of variation Degrees of freedom Mean squares F Significance level Program 1 271.3846 4.8397 .05 Ability Level 1 1680.0384 29.9607 .01 Interaction 1 8.6538 0.1534 NS* Within 100 56.0746 0.0000 * In order to be significant at the .05 and the .01 level, F must exceed 3.94 and 6.90 respectively. Table 4 Analysis of variance for critical thinking criterion Source of Degrees of Mean Significance variation freedom squares F level Program 1 277.8846 5.2085 .05 Ability Level 1 2741.8846 51.3927 .01 Interaction 1 12.4615 0 2335 NS* Within 100 53.3515 0.0000 * In order to be significant at the .05 and the .01 level, F must exceed 3.94 and 6.90 respectively. The procedure utilized involved breaking the subjects in the control and experimental groups into sub-groups representing mental ability levels. This subgrouping was accomplished by selecting subjects in the top 25 % and the bottom 25 % in terms of mental ability for both the control and experimental groups. This procedure resulted in 4 sub¬ groups designated as follows: control-high ability, control-low ability, experimental-high ability, experimental-low ability. The multiple classification analysis of variance was designed to answer the question, is there any interaction between program and mental ability and the dependent variable of achievement in chem¬ istry? The results for the achievement criterion are presented in Table 3. Since the calculated F-Ration for interaction, as presented in Table 3 equals .1543, the interaction effect between program and mental ability and the dependent variable of achievement in chemistry was not significant at the .05 level. In addition to the analysis of variance calculation for the achieve¬ ment data, a multiple classification analysis of variance was also designed to nswer the question, is there any interaction between pro- " gram and mental ability and the dependent variable of level of critical thinking? The results for the critical thinking criterion are presented in Table 4. 414 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Since the calculated F-Ratio for interaction, as presented in Table 4 equals .2335, the interaction effect between porgram and mental ability and the dependent variable of critical thinking was not significant at the .05 level. CONCLUSIONS Based on the findings of this study which limited itself to high school chemistry students in 10 West Texas high schools, the following con¬ clusions seem valid. 1 . Chemistry students taught by the CHEM Study approach achieve at a significantly higher level, as measured by a standard achievement test in chemistry, than do students taught by the traditional method. 2. Chemistry students taught by the CHEM Study approach do not differ significantly from the students of traditional chemistry in level of general critical thinking. 3. There is no significant interaction between program and mental ability as far as achievement in chemistry and as far as level of critical thinking are concerned. Therefore it can not be concluded that the CHEM Study approach is superior for high ability students but not superior for low ability students. If the conclusion that the CHEM Study approach is superior is valid, then it appears tO' be valid for all levels of mental ability usually found in secondary school chemistry classes. The results of this particular study suggest that the problem of com¬ parative testing of CHEM Study and traditional chemisrty may have been alleviated somewhat by recent revisions in some of the widely accepted standardized achievement tests. If this is accepted, then the often expressed view that it is impossible to fairly evaluate the 2 differ¬ ent approaches with the same instrument must be re-examined. LITERATURE CITED Bloom, B. S., (Ed.), 1956 — Taxonomy of Education Objectives, Handbook 1. Long¬ mans, Green and Co., New York. Campbell, D. T., and J. C. Stanley, 1963 — Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research in teaching. In: Gage, N. L. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching. Rand McNally, Chicago. Hendrickson, C. W., 1968 — ACS-NSTA Cooperative Examination. /. Chem. Educat., 45: 204-205. Herron, J. D., 1966 — Evaluation and the new curricula. /. Res. Sci. Teach., 4: 159, Hipsher, W. L., 1961 — Study of high school physics achievement. Sci. Teacher, 28: 36. SCIENCE EDUCATION 415 Pye, E. L., and K. H. Anderson, 1967 — Test achievements of chemistry students. Sci. Teacher, 34: 30. Rainey, R. G., 1963 — A comparison of the CHEM study curriculum and a conven¬ tional approach in teaching high school chemistry. School Sci. & Math., 63: 539. Rickert, R. K., 1967 — Developing critical thinking. Sci. Educat., 51: 24. Yager, R. E., H. B. Engen, and B. C. F. Snider, 1969 — Effects of the laboratory and demonstration methods upon the outcomes of instruction in secondary biology. /. Res. Sci. Teach., 6: 76. - , and J. W. Wick, 1966 — Three emphases in teaching biology — A statisti¬ cal comparison of results. /. Res. Sci. Teach., 4: 16. Photon As the Quantum of Light and Photoelectric Effect by M. A. K. Lodhi Department of Physics, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 '‘All modern theories in physics these days are some enigmas to a simple minded person who is keen to learn and to appreciate laws of nature but is not sophisticated enough in quantum mechanics,” re¬ marked an experimental physicist for whose “keenness” I have a great respect. As an example, he mentioned photocells, photoelectric effect, and the “paradox” of wave and particle nature of light. The following note is dedicated to the “keenness” of such “simple minded” observers. Newton’s idea that light consists of particles has yielded to the wave theory in the nineteenth century. However, in 1900 Max Planck re¬ revolutionized the whole concept of the propagation of light perhaps once and for all. He introduced a quantity h known as universal Planck’s constant. This quantity is not prescribed by theory; its value must be determined experimentally. It has been measured since then in several ways, and all of the measurements agree without any ex¬ ception. He postulated that the light is emitted or absorbed in units of small quantities. Each quantum of radiation contains an amount of energy equal to the frequency (v) of the radiation times h. The most natural way of ascertaining this hypothesis in layman’s language is that light travels in units or chunks or particles of energy hv. It took about four years to restore the corpuscular concept of Newton since Planck proclaimed the fundamental role of his universal constant h. In 1904 the discovery of “photoelectric effect” turned the hypothesis of Planck into an experimental reality. This effect demonstrates the emission of electrons from metals when activated by light. Albert Einstein theorised that light acts in the photoelectric effect as though it were corpuscular. He used the great quantum idea of Planck. Ein¬ stein imagined that a beam of light consists of corpuscles of energy hv, now called “photons,” and presented the whole idea of photon — the quantum of light^ — with confidence. The entire development now can be understood in a simple way. Consider a beam of light falling on a piece of metal. Some of the photons are reflected from the surface of the metal and some enter the metal. One of these may be absorbed in such a way that it is annihi- The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 418 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE lated completely, giving up its entire energy hv to a single electron in the metal. The electron thereby gains enough energy to spring out of the metal and is called a “photoelectron.” A number of such photo¬ electrons forms an appreciable amount of electric current. Once the electron is out, its kinetic energy can be measured. This energy of course is something less than hv. The electron had to spend a certain amount of energy in order to leave the metal. The energy thus spent is donated by W. The kinetic energy of the electron E is, therefore, given by E = hv-W, (1) called “Photoelectric Equation of Einstein.” The corpuscular behavior is not confined to light alone, such a be¬ havior is exhibited by all electromagnetic radiations. The quantum of electromagnetic radiation — the photon — of energy hv moving with the velocity c (the speed of light) must have a momentum given by a simple equation. Pphoton hv/ C, (2) where p is the linear momentum. In this discussion the frequency of radiations v has been playing a significant role. However, it is not a directly measurable quantity but is computed from measurements of the wavelength A of the radiation using the relationship V = c/A. (3) The wavelength A can be measured only by some experiment which involves interference or diffraction, phenomena characteristic of wave motion. In order to explain the results of some of the experiments in¬ volving the interaction between radiant energy and matter, such as the photoelectric effect, it is necessary to assign to radiant energy some properties characteristic of particles rather than waves. Re-establish¬ ing the corpuscular theory did not necessarily mean to preclude the existence of the wave theory of electromagnetic radiations. On the contrary, it enhanced the role of the wave theory. These theories rather established a “dual character” of radiations, and the two characetrs complement each other. It is appropriate to make a remark here that in spite of the fact that radiation possesses this dual character, it never exhibits both characteristics in any one experiment. In a given experi¬ ment, it behaves either as a wave or as a corpuscle. Radiaton Energy and An Atom by M. A. K. LODHI Department of Physics^ Texas Tech University^ Lubbock 79409 In 1911 Ernest Rutherford established that an atom consists of a positively charged and massive nucleus around which negatively charged electrons revolve in orbits as the planets revolve around the sun. Rutherford did not prescribe the particular orbits in which these electrons should revolve. In the simplest case of the hydrogen atom, there is only one electron. Niels Bohr presented a revolutionary new idea in 1913 by prescribing the orbit in which the electron in hydrogen atom should revolve. Bohr made 2 postulates: 1. The angular momentum of an atom is quantized and out of all electron orbits, only those orbits are permissible for which the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of ^ Ztt (and where h is the planck constant). No energy is radiated or absorbed while the electron remains in any one of these per¬ missible orbits. These orbits are called ‘‘stationary states.” 2. Whenever radiant energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom, this energy is in a whole quantum of amount hv, where v is the fre¬ quency of radiation, and consequently, the energy of the atom is changed by this amount. If £i and Cf are the initial and final energies of the atom, then Si — Cf = hv . (1) However, according to de Broglie's hypothesis, the wavelength A asso¬ ciated with an electron given by A = h/p, (2) where p is the momentum of the electron, suggests that a series of waves should be moving in the electron’s orbit. This seems to be con¬ trary to Bohr’s assumption of an eelctron moving in a stationary state. This apparent contradiction can be resolved easily. In order that electron waves should not cancel one another by interference, they must move in such a way that a stationary or standing wave in the orbit be produced. Therefore, the length of the path must be a whole The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 420 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE multiple of wavelength. Considering a particular case of a circular orbit of radius r, we have the relation Ettt = nA , (3) where n is an integer. Using (2) and (3), we soon obtain mvr — n ^ . (4) ZjIT That is, orbital angular momentum of the electron is an integer mul¬ tiple of h/27r. This is identical with Bohr’s quantization hypothesis. It seems appropriate to make an observation here. We observe in everyday life that electromagnetic waves are produced by an accele¬ rated electric charge. The frequency of the waves is precisely the frequency of oscillation of this charge. The electron in a bound system, an atom, is accelerated as it moves in its orbit. Therefore, the atom must radiate continuously. (This is contrary to Bohr’s assumption.) The frequency of this radiation, moreover, must also be equal to the frequency of the electron’s orbital motion. However, if the atom does emit radiant energy, the total energy of the atom must decrease. Fur¬ thermore, if the total energy decreases, the radius r of the orbit must decrease. As r decreases, the orbital frequency of the electron should increase. Hence, starting from some initial orbit, the electron will spiral inward toward the nucleus. The atom will continue radiating a continuous spectrum with increasing frequency until the electron reaches the nucleus. The atom then will collapse. All this will happen in less than sec. Of course, this is completely in disagreement with what we observe. The experimental facts have established that atoms are stable and radiate a discrete spectrum conforming to the Bohr hypothesis. Nevertheless, the big question is still unanswered: why does the electron in a statisonary state in a bound system not emit electro¬ magnetic radiation while it is accelerated? Perhaps the charged elec¬ tron even in a stationary state in a bound system when accelerated does produce electromagnetic waves. The frequency of the waves is also precisely the frequency of oscillation of the electron. Like electron waves these electromagnetic waves (produced due to the accelerated motion of the electron) also form the standing or stationary waves following the same electron’s path (if there is a path) . As long as they form the stationary waves, no radiant energy is emitted by the system. However, during the transition of electron from one energy state to another, the radiant energy is released or absorbed according to Eq. ( 1 ) . This explanation is based on the acceleration of the electron alone in the bound system. However, the electron is not bound by itself in SCIENCE EDUCATION 421 a system. There has got to be other particles oppositely charged. In the bound system of an atom, the nucleus also has some acceleration for the same reason electrons do. Accordingly, electromagnetic waves are produced, due to the motion of the positively charged nucleus, which are also confined to the system. All these radiations are annihi¬ lated within the system, and no net radiant energy is emitted from the bound system in a stationary state, thus forming a self-consistency within itself. If, however, one can devise a tiny probe capable of detect¬ ing those momentary radiaitons and place it within the region of any pair of two particles exchanging radiative energy within the bound system, one should be able to see the whole region filled with electro¬ magnetic radiations like those in the macroscopic world. H ■H >; ) Notes Section A SUMMARY OF THE CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF TEXAS— The Cladocera constitute an order of branchiopod crustaceans which, along with copepods and rotifers, are an important link in the food chain of any body of fresh water. Plank¬ tonic Cladocera occur in all kinds of fresh-water habitats including rivers, lakes, and temporary ponds. While some species reproduce sexually, many have remarkable parthenogenetic capabilities and are able t0‘ produce large populations very quickly in order to take advantage of the most favorable environmental conditions. Many species are cosmopolitan while other seem to be restricted tO' a particular region. Temperature appears to be one of the important factors dictating their specific distribution. Although much work has been done on the ecology and systematics of this group in other parts of the United States, work in Texas and the southwest has been very limited. Birge (1910, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., 16: 1018-1066) listed several warm- stenothermal species occurring in Texas. Harris and Silvey (1940, Ecol. Monogr., 10: 111-143) and Cheatum (1942, Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc., 52: 336-348) noted several genera found during their linmological mvestigations, Sublette, (1955, Tex. J. Sci., 7: 164-181) recorded 8 species from Lake Texoma. In Brooks’ monograph on the Daphnia (1957, Mem. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci., 12: 1-180) and Goulden’s mono¬ graph on the Moinidae (1968, Tran. Amer. Philos. Soc., 58: 1-101), several Texas localities are given for those species treated. Extensive faunal lists have been limited to a few unpublished Master’s describing species from isolated regions of Texas, i.e. Brooks (1928, M.A. Thesis, T.C.U., Ft. Worth), North Texas; Farrell, (1965, M.A. Thesis, Tex. A&M Univ., College Station), Brazos County; and Becker (1969, M.A. Thesis, Sw. Tex, St. Univ., San Marcos), Hays County. The following is a listing by family of those species of Cladocera and the localities in which they have been reported to occur in Texas. Several modifications have been made in the original lists to take into account recent family revisions made by Brooks (1957, op. cit.) and Coulden (1968, op. cit.). Sididae Sida crystallina — Brazos and Hays Counties. Diaphanosoma brachyurum — Lake Texoma; Brazos and Hays Counties. D. leuchtenhergianum — Lake Texoma; Brazos County. Latonopsis occidentalis — Hays County. L. fasciculata — Exact locality not given by Birge (1918, In: Ward & Whipple (Eds.), Fresh Water Biology, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., pp. 676-740). Daphnidae Daphnia amhigua — Walker, Brazos, and Hays Counties. D. laevis — Lake Texoma; Jeff Davis and Hays Counties. Reported as D. longispina elongata by Sublette (1955, op. cit). D. parvula — North Texas; Lake Texoma; Brazos and Hays, {op cit.) Counties. Reported as D. obtusa by Brooks (1928 and as D. pulex var. ohtusa by Sublette (1955, op. cit.). The Te-xas Journal of Science, Vol. XXII, No. 4, September 20, 1971. 424 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE D. pulex — North Texas; Walker, Brazos and Hays Counties. D. schodleri — North Texas; Kleberg and Hays Counties. Reported as D. arcuata by Brooks (1928, op. cit.). Simocephalus exspinosus — North Texas. S. serrulatus — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. S. vetulus — North Texas. Scapholeberis kingi — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. Ceriodaphnia rigaudi — Brazos and Hays Counties; exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.). C. laticaudata — North Texas. This species has previously been reported west of the Rocky Mountains. C. lacustris — Lake Texoma; Brazos and Hays Counties. C. reticulata — Lake Texoma and Brazos County. C. pulchella — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. C. quadrangula — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. Moinidae Moinodaphnia macleayii — Exact location not reported by Birge (1910). Moina micrura — North Texas; Brazos, Hays, and Lubbock Counties. Reported as M. rectirostris by Brooks (1928) and as M. brachiata by Farrell (1965, op. cit.). M. macrocopa — North Texas and Brazos County. M. wierzejskii — Lubbock County. Bosminidae Bosmina longirostris — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Co^unties. B. croegoni — Lake Texoma and Hays County. Reported as B. obtusirostris by Sub¬ lette (1955, op. cit.). Macrothnicidae Ilyocryptus spinifer — Brazos and Hays Counties. I. sordidus — Hays County. Macrothrix laticornis — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. M. rosea — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. M. borysthenica — North Texas. Dadaya macrops — Bastrop County; exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op cit.), Chydoridae Camptocercus rectirostris — Brazos and Hays Counties. Euryalona occidentalis — Exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.)-, Brazos and Hays Counties. Acroperus harpae — Hays County. Kurzia latissima — Hays County. Leydigia quadrangularis — Brazos and Hays Counties. L. acanthocercoides — Brazos and Hays Counties, Alona guttata — Brazos County. A. karau — Hays County; exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op cit.). A. affinis — North Texas and Brazos County. NOTES SECTION 425 A. costata — North Texas and Hays County. A. rectangula — Brazos and Hays Counties. A. quadrangularis — Brazos County. A. monacantha — ^Brazos County. Pleuroxus denticulatus — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. P. hamulatus — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. P, aduncus — North Texas. Dunhevedia crassa — Hays County. D. serrata — Hays County; exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.). Oxyurella tenuicaudis — Brazos County. Chydorus sphaericus — North Texas; Brazos and Hays Counties. C. hybridus—KxdLCt locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.). C. globosus — North Texas. C. poppei — Hays County. Alonella diaphana — North Texas: exact locality not given by Birge (1910). A. dadayi — Exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.). A. dentifera — Exact locality not given by Birge (1910, op. cit.). Of the 130 species of freshwater Cladocera reported from North America, 58 have been reported from Texas. Of these 58 species Daphnia laevis, Ceriodaphnia regaudi, Dadaya macrops, Euryalona occidentalism Alona kauau, Alona monacantha, Dunheve¬ dia serrata, Chydorus hybridus, Chydorus poppei, Alonella diaphana, Alonella dadayi, and Alonella dentifera represent the southern warm water species. As other investigations are made in the Cladoceran fauna of Texas additional species will undoubtedly be added to this list. Paul R. Becker and Stanley L. Sissom, Department of Biology, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. PARASITES OF THE EVENING BAT, NYCTICEIUS HUMERALIS, IN IOWA — The evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis humeralis (Rafinesque), occurs throughout the southeastern United States and is a resident in southern Iowa at least from May through August (Kunz and Schlitter, 1968, Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., 71: 166-175). This paper reports the parasites taken from 9 adult female and 6 juvenile evening bats. The latter were distinguished from adults by their unfused phalangeal ephi- physes and darker, plumbeous pelage. Three species of nematodes, and one species each of a cestode, a trematode, a mite, and a bat bug were recovered from bats col¬ lected in Polk, Dallas, Warren, and Marion counties in central Iowa. All bats taken in this study were shot and placed immediately in separate plastic bags until examined. Ectoparasites were immobilized with chloroform and preserved in 70% ethanol. Nematodes were killed in hot glycerin-alcohol and stored therein until examined. Cestodes and trematodes were relaxed, flattened, and killed in warm water, fixed in corrosive-sublimate or A.F.A. and stored in 70% ethanol until stained in Harris' hematoxylin. Arthropoda Steatonyssus ceratognathus (Ewing). — Numerous adults and nymphs of this mite (Macronyssidae) were taken from the membranes and pelage of each of the 15 bats. S. ceratognathus was described from N. humeralis from South Carolina (Ewing, 1922, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 62: 1-26) and subsequently recorded from Alabama, Oklahoma, and Texas from the following hosts: Myotis lucifugus, Lasiurus borealis, and Tadarida brasiliensis cynocephala. 426 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Cimex adjunctus Barber. — Three specimens of this bat bug (Cimicidae) were taken from the forearms of juvenile evening bats collected in Polk and Warren counties. Although C. adjunctus has been previously reported from Iowa (Muscatine Co.), the host was not recorded (Usinger, 1966, Entomol. Soc. Amer.^ 7: 1-585). Cestoda Vampirolepis roudabushi (Macy and Rausch). — Six of 9 adults and one of 6 juveniles harbored this cestode in the small intestine. The incidence of occurrence in adults ranged from one to 8, whereas a single juvenile contained 3. V. roudabushi was originally described from Eptesicus fuscus, Lasionycteris noctivagans, and N. humeralis, from Iowa and Ohio (Macy and Rausch, 1946, Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 65: 173-175) Nickel and Hansen (1967, Amer. Midi. Nat., 78: 481-486) have reported it from Myotis keenii taken in Kansas, and Blankespoor (1968, M.S. thesis, Iowa St. Univ., Ames) recorded it from M. lucifugus and E. fuscus from Iowa. Nematoda Allintoshius nycticeius Chitwood. — This nematode was found in the intestine in 7 of 9 adults and one of 6 juveniles examined. The incidence of infection ranged from one to 3 individuals. This species was described from N. humeralis taken at Washington, D.C. (Chitwood, 1937, Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash., 4: 19-20) and recently has been reported by Nickel and Hansen (1967, op, cit.) from Myotis velifer in Kansas. Allintoshius travossosi Chandler. — This nematode was found in the intestine of 4 juvenile bats, but infected only one of 9 adults. It was the only nematode encountered in the intestine of one juvenile. The incidence of infection ranged from one to 5 indi¬ viduals. This species was described from N. humeralis and Myotis velifer from Texas (Chandler, 1938, In Livro Jubilas do Professor Lauro Travassos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 107-114), and also is known from M. grisescens, M. velifer, and E. fuscus from Kansas (Ubelaker, 1966, Amer. Midi. Nat., 75: 109-204; Nickel and Hansen, 1967, op cit.) and E. fuscus from Iowa (Blankespoor, 1968, op cit.) Capillari palmata Chandler. — This nematode occurred in the stomach of three adults and one juvenile. The incidence of infection ranged from 2 to 3 individuals. The species was first described from TV. humeralis from Texas (Chandler, 1938, op cit.) and has been reported parasitizing Eptesicus fuscus from the same state (Jameson, 1959, Sw. Nat., 4: 61-65). Nickel and Hansen (1967, op cit.) reported C. palmata from Kansas Myotis grisescens and Blankespoor (1968, op cit.) reported it from M. lucifugus, E. fuscus, and Lasionycteris noctivagans from Iowa. Trematoda Prostrodendrium diminutum Chandler. — A single individual was recovered from the intestine of one adult bat. This species was described from TV. humeralis from Texas (Chandler, 1938, op. cit.). It is of interest to note that cestodes occurred in both juvenile and adult bats. In one of the few other papers in which both juvenile and adult bats were considered, Cain (1966, /. Parasit., 52: 351-357) reported that juvenile Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana harbored only a nematode, whereas adult bats harbored 4 kinds of trema- todes and one cestode. Cestodes and trematodes are known to have indirect life cycles. IN OTES SECTION 427 whereas nematodes probably have direct cycles. The occurrence of cestodes in juvenile bats suggests that the entire life cycle of V. roudabushi occurs in N. humeralis in Iowa. Also of interest is the occurrence of the 2 species of nematodes of the genus ^Allintoshius in a single bat. However, from our data, it seems that A. travassosi occurs primarily in juveniles and A, nycticeius is generally restricted to adults. Although both species have been reported previously from N . humeralis, the ages of the hosts were not mentioned. It would be of interest to examine juvenile and adult N. humeralis from throughout the geographic range with reference to the distribution of A. nycticeius and A. travassosi. Thanhs are extended to Dr. Nixon Wilson, Northern Iowa University, Cedar Falls, Iowa, for identifying some of the ectoparasites reported in this study, to Robert M. Wessleman, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa, for assistance in collecting the bats, and to Dr. J. Knox Jones, Jr. for reading the manuscript. John E. Ubelaker, Department of Biology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222 and Thomas H. Kunz, Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas, Lawrence 66044. FIGHT BETWEEN ROCK SQUIRREL AND BULLSNAKE. Each evening during the summer months the Carlsbad Caverns National Park presents a naturalist program at the Cavern entrance, during which visitors may watch the exit flight of the thousands of Mexican freetail bats which are summer Cavern residents. During the program on August 5, 1969 we were on duty as Park Guides and our attention was drawn by a visitor to a battle ensuing between an adult rock squirrel (Spermo- philus variegatus grammurus) and a 28 inch bullsnake {Pituophis melanoleucus sayi). When we first saw them the animals were 7 feet from the entrance to the squirrePs burrow. The 2 were rolling over and over with the snake striking at the squirrel’s hindquarters. Most of the strikes seemed to be missing but there was some blood on the squirrel’s fur. The squirrel was rapidly biting the snake, having been at the middle when we first saw them, and then working back toward the tail. Their thrashing about brought them to the edge of the embankment above one of the Cavern trail switchbacks, and they fell 5 feet to the trail below. At this time the snake stopped striking and straightened out. The squirrel immediately jumped to the snake’s head and continued biting, again working toward the tail. The snake then coiled around the squirrel for the first time, getting at least 3 loops around his abdomen. The squirrel made 2 vertical leaps and shook off the coils while still retaining its hold about 4 inches behind the snake’s head. The latter then went limp and apparently died. The squirrel dropped the snake, climbed the wall, and entered its burrow. Throughout the battle we gained a distinct impression of great aggressiveness on the part of the squirrel, while the snake seemed merely to be protecting itself and trying to get free. Since we had previously seen young squirrels of this summer’s litter using this burrow entrance, we think there is a possibility that the snake had been after the young and was driven from the burrow by the adult squirrel. Charles A. Haywood and Rodney W. Harris, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, Carlsbad, New Mexico 88220. RATES OF HEMOGLOBIN DENATURATION IN TWO FISHES.— During a series of experiments designed to determine the rates of hemoglobin denaturation in vertebrates as an index of molecular stability, 2 fishes, the goldfish (Carrassius 428 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 1. Acrylamide gel electrophoresis patterns of hemoglobins of A, Carassius auratus, and B, PlecQstamus sp. Gels 1-5 were run at 12-hour intervals, and 6-10 at 24-hour intervlas. auratus), and the South American armored catfish (Plecostomus sp.), were examined. Blood was extracted into a culture tube containing a tablet of potassium oxalate dissolved in 2 ml. of a one per cent saline solution. The red cells were precipitated by centrifugation, washed 3 times with saline solution, and lysed by adding distilled water. One drop of the approximately 5% hemoglobin solution was submitted to acrylamide gel electrophoresis similar to that described by Davis (1964, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 121: 407-427) and Omstein (1964, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 121: 321-329). A Tris-glycine buffer at pH 8.5 with Brom-phenol blue added as a marker was used. The tubes, each conducting 5 ma., were run simultaneously in a cold chamber and the current was terminated when the Brom-phenol blue front had migrated 32 mm. Hemoglobin bands were resolved by staining the gels with an amido black solution, and then destaining the gels in 8% acetic acid. The gels were then stored in a solution of the same composition. The samples were kept at room temperature throughout the experiment, and run electrophoretically every 12 hours for 5 runs and then every 24 horus until no bands were resolved. The results are shown in Fig. 1. In Carassius (Fig. 1, part A) one band of hemoglobin was resolved; in Plecostomus (Fig. 1, part B) 2 bands were resolved. It is of great interest that hemo¬ globin of both Carassius and Plecostomus begins to show signs of denaturation at the 4th to 5th gel, indicating a somewhat similar stability. From the standpoint of investigations of electrophoretic patterns of fish hemoglobins, it would seem advisable to run the electrophoresis within a day, or have the material stored in the frozen state within a day in order to assure accurate results. I wish to thank P. L. Berry and K. L. Smith for their assistance in this project. J. Alan Feduccia, Department of Biology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222. Present address: Department of Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514. NOTES SECTION 429 EXPERIMENTAL LIZARD HOSTS OF PENTASTOMIDS— The study of penta- fTomids of the genus Porocephalus in the laboratory is hampered by difficulty in maintaining snakes, the normal definitive hosts of many porocephalids, under arti¬ ficial conditions. It would be helpful if some other suitable experimental animal could be used, especially for short term studies of host-parasite relationships. Hey- mons (1935, Bronn’s Klassen and Ordnungen des Tierreichs 5(4): 1-268) found juvenile pentastomids in some teiid lizards. Penn (1942, 7. Parasit. 28: 277-283) was able to infect Rana clamitans and Pseudemys scripta troosti with P. crotali. He did not succeed in establishing the parasite in Hyla sp. and Alligator sp. Penn examined the experimental hosts 12 days after infecting them; he did not say if growth or development occurrred. In the experiments reported here, P. clavatus and P. stilesi, found normally as adults in snakes of the genera Boa (= Constrictor), Lachesis, and Bothrops, were fed as larvae to lizards, Uma notata notata, Uma scoperia, and Dipsosaurus dorsalis. The experimental hosts were collected in southern California and had been main¬ tained for 6 months in the laboratory. The intermediate hosts used in these studies were rats. The infective larval stages (nymphs) were recovered from rats by dissec¬ tion. The infection of lizards was accomplished by offering them the nymphs on the end of a pair of forceps. All lizards took and swallowed the parasites readily. The necropsy of U. scoperia (2 specimens) and D. dorsalis (1 specimen), both infected with P. clavatus, after 5 and 7 days respectively resulted in the recovery of 8 of 13 nymphs used in the infections. These parasites appeared normal; the examination of their intestinal contents showed that they had consumed lizard blood, indicating active feeding while in the experimental hosts. The necropsy of U. notata notata, infected with P. stilesi, at 2, 3, 5, 7, 21 and 35 days past infection revealed that the infection was also successful in this experimental host. Those juvenile pentastomids recovered 21 and 35 days post infection were already double the size of the infective stage nymphs and appeared to be feeding quite actively. These findings indicate that at least some of the requirements for development and maturation of pentastomids (normally provided by the snake hosts) can be supplied by substituting easily available and readily maintained lizards for the natural snake hosts. Information concerning host-parasite relationships of this group is very scant. I hope that the above findings will result in an increased effort of pentastomid research by making it easier to study host to host transfer and growth requirements, and will contribute ultimately to a better undersatnding of their host-parasite relationships. This research was supported by USPHS Training Grant NIAID 2E-70, while the author was a graduate student at the University of California, Los Angeles. The guidance and help in the performance of this work and the preparation of this manu¬ script by Professor Gordon H. Ball is gratefully acknowledged. Kalman Horvath, Biology Department, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843. ’■ 'xS EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: bob h. slaughter, Southern Methodist University President-Elect: james d. long, Sam Houston State University Secretary-Treasurer: a. w, roach. North Texas State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. o. hartley, Texas A&M University II — Physics: Bernard t. young, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences: william d. miller, Texas Tech University IV — Biological Sciences: Robert d. yates, Univ. of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston V — Social Sciences: william c, adams, East Texas State University VI — Environmental Sciences: Robert l. Packard, Texas Tech University VII — Chemistry: archie o. parks, Southwest Texas State University VIII — Science Education: Jacob w. Blankenship, Univ. of Houston Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: w. e. norris, jr.. Southwest Texas State University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen. East Texas State Uni versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer. Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS BOB H. SLAUGHTER, Southem Methodist University JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University w. E. NORRIS, JR., Southwest Texas State University A. w. ROACH, North Texas State University GERALD G. RAUN, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, The University of Texas at Austin EB CARL GiRviN, Southwestern University PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E. EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology Cover Photo Panel diagram of tertiary volcanic rocks, Cerros Prietos, Chihuahua, Mexico. For further information on this subject see: “Tertiary Stratigraphy of Cerros Prietos, Municipio De Ojinaga, Chihuahua, Mexico,” by G. G. 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