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C/) 2» z :h . ,•/ ^ z .skW> 3 /O': Z -J Z - «j "Z IBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SaidV^SI ~ ~ 'Z. r- z w = C/) sioiiniiisNi NViNosHims saiHvaan libraries Smithsonian institutic i^i "" > 2 > X^fTiu^ s J B RAR 1 ES^^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHilWS^SB I B Vd 8 in 5 _ _ _ _ := in ui It, Lu ir ci UJ < py - ~ 2 JOliflillSNl'^NVINOSHimS^Sa I dVd a Ill'Ll B RAR I es^smithsonian;;;;Jinstitutic r* , Z r- Z CD ^ fc ^ ' 2 ^ rn ^ m xi;vosviiJ>' 1 B R AR I ES^SMITHSONIAN~INSTITUTION‘^NOIinilXSNI~NVINOSHill^S S3 I dVd 9 c/> _ _ 2 V CO 2 CO ^ E ^ E z H Z ^ fMrfWT o ^ ^ 'JouniiisNi NviN0SHiiws“s3 1 a vu a n^Li b rar i es“’smithsonian institutic .005), and annual minimum survival rates (the probability of an animal surviving at least one month, cf., Chitty, 1952) were very different, (that is; 1958, 0.72; 1959, 0.44). Capture rates for adult females and both adult and sub-adult males did not change significantly between years (Table 4 and Fig. 3) . At the Hunter’s Bend Area capture rates in 1959 decreased much below those in 1958 (Table 4). As was true at the Blair Area, sub¬ adult females had the greatest increase in mortality (Fig. 2 and Table 4); the 1959 capture rate was 2.1 months less than the 1958 rate (P<.001). In 1958 minimum survival rate was 0.54 while the 1959 rate was 0.19. The capture rates of adult females did not change significantly during the 2 years. Both age groups of males at the Hunter’s Bend Area showed decreased capture rates during 1959 (Table 4 and Fig. 3). For the adult males the 1959 capture rate was 0.8 months less than the 1958 rate (P<.025>.012) . The 1959 sub-adult capture rate was 1.1 month less than the 1958 rate (P<.0125>.005) . The sub-adult minimum survival rate was 0.35 in 1958 and 0.18 in 1959. The data show 3 changes in annual capture rates: (1 ) Capture rates 12 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 4 Capture records. Data are given as the number of animals captured a particular number of times (captmres). Captures were made at monthly intervals. Capture rates are on the bottom margin of the table. H.B. Area indicates Hunter’s Bend Area. Subadults Adults Blair Area H.B. Area Blair Area H.B. Area Captures 1958 1959 1958 1959 1958 1959 1958 1959 Females 1 24 33 33 39 9 10 15 17 2 10 8 12 8 4 ' 3 2 2 3 4 9 12 1 3 1 3 1 4 4 6 9 1 1 0 1 1 5 5 3 5 0 0 0 4 1 6 5 2 3 0 0 0 1 0 7 5 2 4 0 1 0 1 0 8 4 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 9 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 10 5 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Captures/rat 3.9 2.5* 3.4 1.3 2.4 1.4 2.4 1.5 Males 1 31 23 60 28 10 15 28 21 2 13 9 15 4 8 4 4 10 3 9 8 10 3 1 4 3 0 4 7 4 5 0 0 1 1 2 5 2 5 5 0 1 1 0 1 6 3 1 3 0 0 1 1 0 7 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 8 1 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 9 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 10 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 11 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Captures/rat 2.4 2.5* 2.4 1.3i 1.7 1.9t 2.4 1.6f * Includes January, February, 1960: 3 subadult females, 3 captures; 2 subadult males, 2 captures. -{- Includes January 1960: 1 subadult male, 1 capture; 1 adult male, 1 capture. t Includes January, February, and March 1960: 5 adult males, 9 captures. were generally higher during 1958 than in 1959. (2) The decrease in capture rates during 1959-60 occurred primarily in the sub-adults (i.e., those rats initially trapped as sub-adults). (3) The relative change in capture rates was greatest for sub-adult females than for any other age or sex group. The essential difference between the 2 localities was that sub-adult capture rates were higher at the Blair Area than at the Hunter’s Bend CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 13 Area (compare subsets of Figs. 2 and 3). In 1958 the Blair sub-adult females lived 0.5 months longer than their counterparts at Hunter’s Bend, but during 1959 there was 2.2 months difference in the 2 capture rates (Table 6, P<.005>.001). The same situation existed in the sub¬ adult males; there were no significant differences in the capture rates during 1958, but drastic differences in 1959 (Table 4, P<.025>.01). In both populations there was a noticeable decrease in longevity in some sex or age group during 1959. This decrease was most sharply Fig. 2. Capture rates for subadult females. The ordinate is the capture rate in months. The abcissa shows the month of initial capture. — — — - — = 1958| - , — =z 1959; - = January and February 1960. 14 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OP SCIENCE defined at the Hunter's Bend Area. At both areas the sub-adult females had the greatest reduction in longevity; at the Blair Area this was the only group affected, and at Hunter's Bend the sub-adult females dis¬ appeared sooner than any of the other age or sex groups. In the analysis of age structure the following age groups were designated: Sub-adults, about one month old; adults of approximately 1-3 months age; and adults of 3 or more months age. In both areas the frequency of animals older than one month in¬ creased noticeably from 1958 to 1959. During 1958, the age structures Fig. 3. Capture rates for subadulf males. The ordinate is the capture rate In months. The abeissa shows the month of initial capture. ■■ . . — '= 1958; — — — — — — — 1959; _ _ _ _ _ _ = January and February 1960. CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 15 Table 5 Relative frequencies of cotton rat age groups. Data are percentages of the total. The age groups are subadults (SA), and adults of approximately one to three months of age (1-3) and three or more months of age (3-|“). Sexes are combined. H.B. repre¬ sents Hunter’s Bend. Age Blair Area H.B. Aiea 1958 SA 34.0 34.2 1-3 23.4 21.1 3+ 41.6 44.7 = 1.23; df 2; P < 1.00 > 0.90 1959 SA 25.6 25.4 1-3 59.5 72.5 3+ 14.9 2.1 = 39.24; df = 2; P < 0.001 were similar with a slight preponderance of rats 3 months of age or less at the Blair Area (Table 5). In 1959, the percentage of sub-adults decreased about 10% in both areas, whereas the other 2 classes changed disproportionately; the 3 plus month age group became small and the 1-3 month age group became large. These changes in the 2 older age groups caused significant differences in age structure be¬ tween the 2 areas (Table 5 ) . The greater proportion of young animals found at the Blair Area in 1958 was possibly related to the lower mortality and slightly lower natality found in that population. The change in the age structure at the Hunter’s Bend Area would be expected on the basis of the shortened longevity and reduced reproduction observed there. Repro¬ duction did not decrease at the Blair Area; however, the percentage of sub-adults declined about 10%. This means that mortality at the Blair Area occurred at some time during development or during a pre-active stage in 1959. The implication is that the proportion of animals entering the breeding population was similar at both areas even though differences in natality existed. ADRENAL GLAND SIZE Nonadaptive physiological change, caused by increased population density, is believed by Christian (1950, 1959) to control mammalian populations. This hypothesis proposes that increases in population 16 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE density result in an increase of intraspecific competition which causes certain nonadaptive changes to occur in individuals. The nonadaptive changes affect birth and death rates in such a way as to control popu¬ lation size. In the present study, the most convincing evidence obtain¬ able for this hypothesis would be the observation of enlarged adrenals during periods of high population density. Methods Probably there are few processes in the body that do not somehow involve the adrenal glands; this complexity of function makes study of adrenal function difficult in uncontrolled situations. The purpose here was to study the effects of population processes on adrenal gland size. Some variables were obvious; adrenal gland size would definitely change in relation to sex, reproductive condition, and season. The following procedures were taken to minimize these variables. Sample Grouping. Monthly samples of animals were taken for dissection purposes. Since samples of sufficient size for regression analysis were required and the early monthly samples usually did not suffice, a grouping procedure was devised. Each sample was divided into male and female subgroups and juveniles were discarded. Vari¬ ances of body weight and adrenal gland weight were then computed. F ratios were computed, starting with the variances of the first and 2nd samples, for each locality and sex group. If the first and 2nd samples had equal variances, ratios were then found for the lst/3rd and 2nd/3rd samples. The process was continued to yield groups having equal variances. When an unequal variance appeared a new group was started. This series of F ratios provided sequential groups of samples having equal variances. The next task was to divide the groups with equal variances into smaller groups having equal means. For sim¬ plicity, groups of samples having equal variances are called “variance- groups” and groups having equal means are called “mean-groups.” Rank sum tests and Wilcoxon T tests (Tate and Clelland, 1959) were used to test for equal means. Variance-groups usually became several mean-groups. This procedure of sequential grouping took into account some of the changes in adrenal and body weights due to season and reproduction. The mean-groups were then treated to mini¬ mize the effects of body size. Regression Analysis. Rank-difference correlation coefficients (Tate and Clelland, 1959) were used to determine which mean-groups had body-adrenal size relationships. This coefficient can be used to show any relationship, linear or otherwise, as long as the relationship is a CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 17 continual progression. When the probability of the coefficient equal¬ ling zero exceeded O.OS, it was concluded that body weight had little influence on adrenal size and in those cases basic statistics were com¬ puted for the absolute adrenal weights. Most mean-groups, however, showed body-adrenal weight relation¬ ships. In these mean-groups, body weights (g) and the paired adrenal gland weights (mg) were converted to logarithms of the base 10. Subsequently, least-square regressions were fitted to the logarithms (Dixon and Massey, 1957; Li, 1957). The hypotheses that the slopes and the correlation coefficients were equal to zero were tested. The null hypotheses were rejected in all cases. Tests of linearity were done on 4 mean-groups. In all 4 instances, the probability was greater than 0.50 that linearity existed. The regression analysis allowed the computation of the predicted or regressed adrenal gland weight at any observed body weight. One hundred grams was chosen as the common body weight of all mean- groups, partially for ease (i.e., log 100 '= 2) and partially for biological reasons (i.e., most body weights were close to 100 g; the average body weight was 87.4 g). Using 100 g as a constant body weight, adrenal gland weights were computed for each mean-group. The antilogs of these computations were then plotted. Results Blair Area — -Females. At the Blair Area the first female sample of usable size was then taken in June 1958. Included in the June-July- August mean-group were one animal collected in February and 2 collected in May. The measurements from these individuals were well within one standard deviation of the body and adrenal weight means for the June- July- August mean group, and were therefore included with that mean-group. Beginning with June 1958-59, differences in gland weights were immediately observed (Fig. 4). A decline in adrenal size (which was found characteristic for both sexes at this general time of year) came in September 1958 and October 1959. The major difference at this point was that in 1958 the glands quickly hypertrophied from 21.9 mg in September to 42.2 mg in October, whereas in 1959 the glands remained significantly smaller in size. Males. Adrenal sizes of males at the Blair Area were similar during May and June 1958-59 (Fig. 4) . During July, August, and September the gland weights during 1958 were about 9 mg heavier than the 1959 weights. The characteristic fall decline in gland size came one month 18 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MONTHS MONTHS CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 19 earlier in 1959 (September) than in 1958. After October the 2 yearly records again showed large divergences in gland size. In the fall and winter of both years, a hypertrophy in adrenal size was present; how¬ ever, it was not as great in 1959-“60 as it was in 1958“59. Hunter's Bend Area — Females. The females at, the Hunter’s Bend Area had similar gland sizes during March, April, and May of 1958- 59 (Fig. 5). From September to November 1959, the glands were larger than those during the same period in 1958. Gland size then de¬ clined to a point well below the size of the 1958 glands. Males. The adrenals of the Hunter’s Bend males showed 2 major changes in size during 1958 (Fig. 5). Adrenals were small (21.2 mg) in May, June, and July, and became larger (32.3 mg) during August, September, and October 1958. The characteristic fall decline in gland size came in November 1958, and was followed by hypertrophy (40.8 mg) in February 1959. Gland size then became almost constant (about 27.3 mg) from April 1959 to February 1960. The gland sizes recorded during January and February 1960 were well below the gland size a year before, but were similar to those of February, March, and April 1958. Discussion Seasonal Changes. Seasonal changes in adrenal size could best be explained through reproductive physiology. No experimental endocri¬ nology has been done on the cotton rat, but the effects of testosterone and estrogen on the adrenal gland is known for several laboratory an- mals. With the exception of the hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) an increased testosterone titre is associated with an atrophy in adrenal gland size. Increased estrogen sometimes, but not always, causes an hypertrophy (Jones, 1957). If these hormone relationships are pres¬ ent in the cotton rat it would be expected that during the reproductive season the adrenals of females would become large and those of males would become small. In this regard, the adrenals of females changed in a predictable manner as there was an increased adrenal size during both reproduc¬ tive seasons, but peculiarities were encountered in seasonal fluctua- F!g. 4 Regressed adrenal weights fmg paired adrenals at 100 gm body weight) against time (months) for cotton rats of the Blair Area. Circled points are samples that had no adrenal-body weight relation. Sample sizes are shown below the appropriate mean- group. 95 % confidence limits are plotted on either side of the regressed weights. - = 1958; = 1959; _ _ = January, February, and March, 1960. 20 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MOUTHS CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 21 tions of adrenal size in males. During 1959, the adrenals of the Hunt¬ er’s Bend males remained small through the fall and winter instead of becoming larger after reproduction stopped. Adrenals of males at both areas in 1958 were comparatively small during late spring and early summer and then rather simultaneously increased in size. Fe- cudity of males was gradually declining during these months in both areas, but if decreased fecundity explains this increase in adrenal size in 1958. it is inexplicable why the same increase failed to occur in 1959. The decline in adrenal size which occurred in the fall of both years was probably connected to the changing reproductive status of the rats. The adrenals of the Hunter’s Bend males did not show this at¬ rophy in the fall of 1959. This atrophy was usually followed rather quickly by enlargement of the gland, but the adrenals of the Hunter’s Bend females did not become larger after October 1959. Although not as well recorded, a similar adrenal atrophy occurred in the spring (cf., the adrenal sizes for March and April of both sexes and both localities. Figs. 4-5) . Local Differences. At both areas, adrenals of males became large during the first months of 1959 — January and February at the Blair Area; January, February, and March at the Hunter’s Bend Area. Pop¬ ulation density at the Hunter’s Bend Area was the highest at the time, but this was not true at the Blair Area, suggesting that this hypertro¬ phy was caused by some common environmental factor rather than population density. Rainfall in Austin during January, February, and March was less in 1959 than in 1958: 12.03 inches in 1958; 2.95 inches in 1959; 7.73 inches normally. Daily maximum temperatures during February and March 1959 were higher than in 1958, Temper¬ atures for February and March respectively were 61,7° and 72.7° F in 1959, and 57.0° and 64.4° F in 1958. Normal temperatures for these months are 64.3° and 71.3° F (U.S.D.C., 1958-59). Extreme weather conditions could certainly be “stressing agents” (Touch, 1958), and the common association of rather extreme weather condi¬ tions and the hypertrophy of the male adrenals strongly suggests that some relationship existed between the 2 phenomena. The factor which 1 Fig. 5, Regressed adrenal weights (mg paried adrenals at 100 gm body weight) against I time (months) for cotton rats of the Hunter’s Bend Area. Circled points are samples that had no adrenal-body weight relation. Sample sizes are shown below the appropriate mean-group. 95 % confidence limits are plotted on either side of the regressed weights, i - = 1958; - - - = 1959; _ _ _ = January, February, and March, 22 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE caused the adrenal hypertrophy of male cotton rats apparently had less effect on the adrenals of females. However, the adrenals of fe¬ males during late 1958 and early 1959 were larger than the adrenals a year later. It is possible that this size difference may also have been caused by weather. Population Density. A comparison of the adrenal sizes during the winter of 1959-60 with those in the winter of 1958-59 reveals an in¬ stance where the effects of population density may be reflected in ad¬ renal size (Figs. 4-5) . Population density was lower in 1959 and early 1960 than at the same time a year previously. This was true in both areas. Adrenal size was smaller in both areas and sexes during late 1959 and early 1960 than one year earlier. These observations may be related to the Christian hypothesis when it is assumed that increased population density results in adrenal enlargement. | CONCLUSIONS I j Role of Intraspecific Strife ; It has been shown experimentally that mammals are physiologically i capable of reflecting overpopulation effects through intraspecific strife i — strife caused by increased density (Christian, 1955, 1956) or fight¬ ing (Clarke, 1953). It is also known that some of these effects can be [ transmitted to progeny (Christian and LeMunyan, 1958). Natural populations apparently suffering similar effects have been found in ; some investigations (Christian and Davis, 1956; Louch, 1958; God- i frey, 1955). Other reports suggest that population control through in¬ traspecific strife is not common to all situations (Barbehenn. 1958; j Southwick, 1958; Pearson, 1960; Negus, et ah, 1961). Chitty (1960) proposed a hypothesis for the control of population i size based on the presumption of change in the population itself. This j hypothesis envisions the population as changing rather than its en¬ vironment. Particular controlling factors are no longer sought. Em- : phasis is placed on the changing “quality” of the population — “qual¬ ity” depending on the previous history of the population more than j the conditions existing at a particular time. Population density is not ' considered a direct controlling factor, but one that acts indirectly by j; affecting, along with the rest of the environment, some change in the parent generation that is reflected in future generations as decreased j: viability and fertility. I No definite suspicion of intraspecific strife was indicated by adrenal sizes. The only instance of a decline in adrenal size with decreased ii population size could be explained as well by other means — a response j CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 23 to drier conditions in early 1959. Such circumstances have been de¬ scribed before in voles (Louch, 1958). Otherwise, adrenal sizes ap¬ peared related only to seasonal and local conditions. The absence of changes in adrenal size that were correlated with population density does not exclude the presence of intraspecific strife. Southwick and Bland (1959) found experimentally, “that adrenal hypertrophy due to crowding is not a consistent and predictable phenomenon.” Aside from the lack of evidence provided by adrenal sizes, there were other ob¬ servations that could be interpreted as suggesting density-dependent control. With the exception of adrenal size, the history of the Hunter’s Bend population was consistent with density dependent hypotheses. Con¬ versely, the history of the Blair population had only 2 indications of a density-dependent effect: A decline in ovulation rate in 1959, and the increased mortality of sub-adult females in 1959. A major differ¬ ence between the 2 populations was age. The Hunter’s Bend popula¬ tion was fully developed at the beginning of the study; it took 5 months for the Blair populations to attain the same size as the Hunter’s Bend population. Chitty’s hypothesis would predict that a younger population would last longer than one in which the “quality” of the animals had had longer to decline. Once having started, the Blair population declined at a faster rate than the Hunter’s Bend popula¬ tion, resulting in an almost simultaneous disappearance of the 2 pop¬ ulations. This might be explained by assuming that populations may be decimated quickly once a lack of resistance to numerous chronic mortality factors had been reached. Environmental peculiarities of the study areas can also explain the different histories of the 2 populations. The 2 areas were noticably different, and may have influenced the cotton rat populations in dif¬ ferent manners. Negus, et al. (1961) investigated an island popula¬ tion of rice rats {Oryzomys palustris) . They conclude that environ¬ ment acts directly on mammalian populations rather than acting through social relationships. Role of the Environment A severe drought of 10 years duration ended in Texas in 1957. There was excessive precipitation during 1957 and 1958, and this pre¬ sumably increased the favorableness of the environment in respect to food and cover. This major change in the environment may partially explain: 1 ) The simultaneous growth of 4 species populations of mammals on the study areas. The interval between the cessation of 24 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE drought conditions and populations growth could not be deter¬ mined because the study did not begin until 1958. Some lag would be expected. 2) The great amplitude of the cotton rat cycle. It could not be con¬ cluded that more moisture was the cause of the cotton rat fluc¬ tuation because these cycles have been reported elsewhere with¬ out reference to observed environmental changes. Although moist conditions may have stimulated population growth at the beginning of the cycle, no obvious “cause and effect” relation¬ ship seems available to explain the decline of the populations. Aver¬ age monthly extremes of temperatures during 1958-59 were not great¬ ly different. Rainfall during 1959 was approximately 6 inches less than in 1958 but was only 0.22 inches less than normal. Rainfall and temperature were similar during periods when weather could have affected reproduction. It was clear that the 2 years, 1958 and 1959, were different; population growth was favored during 1958, but the distinct features of 1959 which caused populations to decline and dis¬ appear were not evident. It was observed that cotton rats over the entire state decreased syn¬ chronously (Haines, 1963) , and that other species populations roughly paralleled the changes of the 2 study populations of cotton rats. An explanation of the simultaneous decline of geographically widespread cotton rat populations through intraspecific processes would require a great degi ee of constancy in local environmental conditions. It seems unlikely that the required constancy would exist in an area as large as Texas. A great similarity of intraspecific relationships would be re¬ quisite if 4 species populations had similar histories explained entirely through intraspecific processes. It is concluded that the observed coordination of these diverse pop¬ ulations can best be explained through environmental factors that changed in common to all populations. The control hypotheses sug¬ gested by Chitty (1960) and Christian (1950, 1959) do not seem to explain the primary control of the cycle. However, the data suggest that such control mechanisms existed in local populations. It is likely that intraspecific relations influenced the control of local populations but that the pattern of the cycle was outlined by environmental changes. There is no concrete indication of the precise changes in¬ volved. However, the cessation of drought conditions was a major en¬ vironmental change which may have caused an increase in the magni¬ tude of the cotton rat cycle and made the environment favorable for other species. i I : j CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 25 ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author expresses gratitude to Prof. W. F. Blair for his gener¬ ous advice and direction during the study. Further appreciation is due Prof. Blair and Mr. Sam Glass for permitting the study to be con¬ ducted on their properties. SUMMARY Cotton rat populations fluctuate in cycles of abundance much like some northern mammal populations. An investigation of one cycle of abundance was initiated in February 1958 and continued 3 years. Two populations were studied (near Austin, Texas), one situated in a lowland habitat, Hunter’s Bend Area, and the other in an upland habitat, Blair Area. The Hunter’s Bend population was large at the beginning of the study (Feb, 1958) while the Blair population was small. The 2 pop¬ ulations were comparable in size by the fall of 1958. The Hunter’s Bend population began to decline in February 1959, and disappeared one year later. The Blair population began declining in September 1959, and disappeared in May 1960. House mice, pygmy mice, and wood mice were abundant during 1958, decreased greatly in 1959, and were virtually absent in 1960. Reproduction was quantitatively greater at the Hunter’s Bend pop¬ ulation in 1958 tfian at the Blair population. During 1959 reproduc¬ tion decreased 40% at Hunter’s Bend population. This decrease was due to an increased frequency of non-fecund females, a slightly de¬ creased rate of ovulation, and a greater loss of ova. Reproduction at the Blair population did not effectively change between the 2 sessions. Ovulation rates showed a similarity in the 2 populations, suggesting some factors acting on both groups of rats; during periods of preg¬ nancy in 1958, ovulation rates were higher at both areas than during 1959. Longevity declined greatly during 1959 at the Hunter’s Bend pop¬ ulation; ail age groups were affected except adult females. Similar changes in longevity did not occur in the Blair population; the only age group having a shortened life span in 1959 was the sub-adult fe¬ male group. In 1958, age structure was almost identical for the 2 pop¬ ulations. Sub-adults decreased 10% in 1959 and the percentages of older animals increased disproportionately. Change in adrenal gland size appeared related to reproductive and local conditions. One instance could have reflected a population den- 26 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE sity effect, but could also be explained as a possible response to dry conditions. Possible roles of intraspecific strife and of environment are dis¬ cussed. It is considered probable that environmental changes guided the progress of the cycle. It is doubted that mechanisms involving in¬ traspecific strife were of primary importance in the control of the cycle itself but rather influenced the size and dynamics of local pop¬ ulations. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, N. T. J., 1952— Improvements in the interpretation of recapture data, J. An EcoL, 21: 120^127. Berbehenn, K. R., 1958 — Spatial and population relationships between Microtus and Blarina. Ecology, 39: 293-304. Blair, W. F., 1941 — A simple and effective life trap for small mammals. /. Wild. Mgt., 5: 191-193. - , 1960 — The Rusty Lizard. University of Texas Press, Austin. Blair, W. F., A. P. Blair, P. Brodkorb, F. R. Cagle, and G. A. Moore. 1957 — Vertebrates of the United States. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, Toronto, London. Chitty, D., 1952 — Mortality among voles (Microtus agrestis) at Lake Vymwy, Montgomeryshire in 1936-39. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Series B, 236: 505-552. - , 1960 — Population processes in the vole and their relevance to general theory. Can. J. ZooL, 38: 99-113. Christian, J. J., 1950 — The adreno-pituitary system and population cycles in mammals. /. Mamm., 31: 247-259. - , 1955 — Effect of population size on the adrenal glands and reproductive organs of mice in populations of fixed size. Amer. J. Physiol., 182: 292-300. - , 1956 — Adrenal and reproductive responses to jxipulation size in mice from freely growing populations. Ecology, 37: 258-273. - , 1959 — The roles of endocrine and behavioral factors in the growth of mammalian populations. Symp. Comp. Endocrin., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Christian, J. J., and D. E. Davis, 1956 — Reduction of adrenal gland weight in rodents by reducing population size. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf., 20: 177-189. Christian, J. J., and C. D. LeMunyan, 1958 — Adverse effects of crowding on lactation and reproduction of mice and two generations of their progeny, Endocrin., 63: 517-529. Clarke, J. R., 1953 — The effect of fighting on the adrenals, thymus, and spleen of of the vole (Microtus agrestis). J. Endocrin., 9: 114-126. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, 1957 — Introduction to Statistical Analysis. McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, Toronto, London. CHARACTERISTICS OF A COTTON RAT 27 Godfrey, G. K,. 1955 — Observations on the nature of the decline in numbers of two populations. /. Mamm,, 36: 209-214. Haines, H. B., 1959 — The reproduction cycle of the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus. MA Thesis. Univ. of Texas, Austin. - , 1961 — Seasonal changes in the reproductive organs of the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus. Tex. J. Sci., 13: 219-230. - , 1963 — Geographical extent and duration of the cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus, 1958-60 fluctuation in Texas. Ecology, 44: 771-772. Hall. E. R., and K. R. Kelson, 1959' — The Mammals of North America. Vol. 1. Ronald Press Co., New York. Jones, I. C., 1957 — The Adrenal Cortex. Cambridge at the University Press. Kom.arek, E. V., 1937 — Mammal relationships to upland game and other wildlife. Trans. 2nd N. Amer. Wildl. Conf., 561-569. Li, J. C. R., 1957 — Introduction to Statistical Inference. Edwards Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan. Lough, C. D., 1958 — ^Adrenocortical activity in two meadow vole populations. J. Mamm., 39: 109-116. Meyer. B. J., and R. K. Meyer, 194J — Growth and reproduction of the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus hispidus, under laboratory conditions. 7. Mamm., 25: 107-129. Negus, N. C., and E. Gould, and R. K. Chipman, 1961 — Ecology of the rice rat, Oryzomys palustris (Harlan), on Breton Island, Gulf of Mexico, with a critique of the social stress theory. Tulane Stud. ZooL, 8: 95-123. Odum, E. P., 1955 — An eleven year history of a Sigmodon population. 7. Mamm., 36: 368-378. Prarson, O. P., 1960 — Habits of Microtus californicus revealed by automatic photographic recorders. Ecol. Monogr., 30: 231-249. SouTHWiCK, C. H., 1958 — Population characteristics of house mice living in English corn ricks: Density relationships. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 131: 163-175. SouTHwicK, C. H., and V. P. Bland, 1959 — Effect of population density on adrenal glands and reproductive organs of CFW mice. Amer. J. Physiol., 197: 111-114. Stoddard, H. L., 1931 — The Bohwhite Quail. C, Scribner’s Sons, New York. Strecker, j. K., 1929^ — Notes on the Texas cotton rat and Attwater wood rats in Texas. 7. Mamm., 10: 216-220. Tate, M. W., and R. C. Clelland, 1959 — N onparametric and Shortcut Statistics. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois. U.S. Depart. Commerce, 1958-60 — Local Climatological Data for Austin, Texas. 1 1 Contributions to the Cranial Morphology of Eleutherodactylus mgulosus (Cope) (Anura: Leptodactylidae) By ERNEST C. TANZER^ and RICHARD J. BALDAUF Department of Wildlife Science, Texas A&M University, College Station INTRODUCTION The relative position of the family Leptodactylidae in the phylo- geny of anurans has been questioned from time to time. Early classi¬ fications of anurans have been based primarily on external morpho¬ logical characters, but many of these are inadequate for establishing phylogeny within this complex order. It is therefore felt that studies such as the following on the cranial morphology of anurans would help to clarify the phylogeny of this group. Previous works like those of du Toit (1930, 1934) , Reinbach (1939) and van der Westhuizen (1961) have dealt with Old World leptodac- tylids. The first such study of a New World leptodactylid was made by Baldauf and Tanzer (1965). The following report is one in this series of studies on New World Leptodactylidae. Two adult specimens of Eleutherodactylus rugulosus fixed in for¬ malin were used for this study. The heads were severed from the bodies and embedded in Tissuemat. Serial sections at 20 micra were stained and mounted according to the techniques of Baldauf (1958). Cleared specimens, direct dissections, dried skeletal material, and wax plate models of the chondrocranium were used to augment the serial sections. Morphological descriptions given in this study are based on studies of serial sections of the head, beginning at the anterior end and proceeding posteriorly. Drawings are of the left side of the head and the terminology is that of Baldauf (1955). One of the sectioned specimens was a female with a snout-vent length of 55 mm and was collected on June 30, 1953 from Colotlipa, Guerrero, Mexico. It is assigned the number 10089 in the Texas Co¬ operative Wildlife Collection at Texas A&M University. The second specimen (TCWC 10964), a male with a snout-vent length of 57.8 1 Deceased. Please address all correspondence tO' the junior author. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 30 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE mm, was collected on June 16, 1954, 4 miles north of Ocotito, Guer¬ rero, Mexico. All figures and all references to Eleutherodactylus rugulosus in the text apply to the sectioned specimens. All references to Syrrhophus are to Baldauf and Tanzer ( 1 965 ) . Special thanks go to Drs. William B. Davis and Sewell H. Hopkins for reading and criticizing the manuscript. Thanks are also due Dr. William B. Davis, Texas A & M University, for providing specimens of Eleutherodactylus rugulosus, from the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection. ; This study was supported by National Science Foundation grants | G-12244 and G-15777. j DESCRIPTION OF THE CRANIAL ANATOMY | OF Eleutherodactylus rugulosus I Olfactory Capsule | The superior prenasal cartilage {c. p. sup.) is the first skeletal structure encountered in sectioned material. At first the cartilage of each side lies wedged within the dorsal portion of the premaxillary bone (pmx.) in much the same way as it does in Bufo w. woodhousei (Baldauf, 1955). A portion of the intermaxillary gland ( gl. imx.) lies between the superior cartilage and the premaxilla (Fig. 1). An an¬ terior process of the tectum nasi ( tect. nas.) is located in a small, round mass of connective tissue in the dorsal part of the section. In sections to the rear, the dorsal portion of the premaxilla disappears and the | superior prenasal cartilage extends dorsally and possesses a laterally directed hook on the dorsal tip. Slight ossification of this cartilage oc- curs at this level. The cartilage prenasalis superior articulates with the alary cartilage after the septum nasi ( sept, nas.) comes into view, and then it disappears from the sections. The cartilage prenasalis inferior (c. p. inf.) can first be seen as a vertical rod of cartilage lying within the nasal processes of the pre- [ maxilla (Fig. 1). The inferior prenasal cartilage {c. p. inf.) remains in a position laterad to the dorsal style of the premaxilla until the an- ■ terior level of the cavum principale ( cav. p.) is reached. At this point the cartilage separates from the median dorsal style of the premaxilla, but it remains associated with the main body of the bone. At the an¬ terior level of the crista intermedia ( cr. int.), the inferior prenasal cartilage disassociates itself from the premaxilla and proceeds dorsally : to the ventral side of the solum nasi ( sol. nas.) (Fig, 2) . The inferior ■ CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 31 cartilage ( c. p. inf.) is in synchondrotic union with the solum at the level of the planum terminale. The alary cartilage ( c. al.) makes its appearance ventrolaterally to the tectum ( tect. nas.) (Fig. 1) just as the superior prenasal cartilage disappears from sections. Posteriorly, the alary cartilage effects weak attachments dorsally with the tectum and medially with the crista intermedia. The cavum principale at this level lies surrounded by these cartilages. The dorsal attachment of the alary cartilage to the tectum lasts for only a few sections whereas its medial attachment to the crista persists back to the anterior level of the lamina inferior. The alary cartilage at this point serves as a lateral and partial ventral wall of the cavum principale and as a support for the lateral wall of the external naris. The tectum enlarges toward the rear and at the anterior level of I. MM. Fig. 1. Transverse section through the region of the transverse septum nasi. 32 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 2. Transverse section through the olfactory capsule in the region of the plica oblique. the alary cartilage it joins the mass of cartilage destined to be identi¬ fied later as the septum nasi. A lateral projection of the tectum briefly unites with the alary cartilage at the anterior level of the cavum prin- cipale, a condition similar to that found in Syrrhophus. The tectum nasi remains cartilaginous throughout its length. The septum nasi in E. rugulosus can first be recognized as a trans¬ verse bar of cartilage at the anterior level of the alary cartilage (Fig. 1). It persists as such until a small ventral projection of the septum appears at the anterior level of the crista intermedia. This transferse bar then becomes transitional between the crista intermedia, the sep¬ tum nasi and the tectum nasi. The septum nasi is cartilaginous for its entire length. The crista intermedia, seen anteriorly in sections with the alary car¬ tilage, exists as a ventrolateral projection from the junction of the septum and the tectum nasi. Forming the oblique, medial wall of the cavum principale, the crista extends ventrolaterally to give rise to the inferior and superior laminae (L sup.). At this level the solum nasi extends from the septum nasi to the crista intermedia. CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 33 An anterior projection of the lamina superior can be seen before the cartilage proper appears. The distal end of the lamina superior is in¬ vested by the septomaxillary bone which, in turn, is joined to the up¬ turned portion of the inferior lamina by connective tissue. The lamina inferior at this level is fused with the solum nasi, a condition similar to that found in Syrrhophus. After losing its connection with tectum, the crista intermedia appears as a knob attached to the inferior and superior laminae (Fig. 2) . The lamina superior and the lamina inferior separate from each other at the same level in which the latter loses its connection with the solum nasi. The superior lamina disappears from sections in which the anterior portion of the prevomer ( prev.) is seen. The lamina in¬ ferior is upturned distally (Fig. 2) to support the lateral part of the cavum medium (cav. med.) . Just before the lamina inferior and the solum nasi separate, the lateral part of the cavum medium is isolated as the ductus nasolacrimalis {d. nas.'). Posteriorly the nasolacrimal duct ( d. nas.) is cradled by the U-shaped lamina inferior before the latter separates into distal and medial portions. The distal portion soon disappears from sections, while the medial portion joins the cartilage oblique (c. obi.) to form the planum terminale, A lateral evagination of the cavum principale, first noticed at the posterior level of the septomaxillary, is set within the planum ter¬ minale. This evagination is lined with olfactory epithelium; it later opens into the cavum proper. The ramus externus ( r. ext. n.) and the ramus medialis narium (r. med. n.) pass through a groove between the crista intermedia and septum nasi which represents the fenestra nasobasalis. Anterior to this the solum is in synchondrotic union with the lamina inferior, as it is in Syrrhophus, but it differs from that genus by also fusing with the inferior prenasal cartilage. At this level the solum is narrow, but lat¬ erally the distal end broadens and turns dorsally in anticipation of the olfactory eminence (Fig. 3). The eminence is supported by this large distal end of the solum. A cartilaginous support for the eminentia (c. em. olf.) has not been described for either Crinia or Heleophryne (Leptodactylidae) (du Toit, 1930, 1934). The cartilaginous support of the eminentia continues posteriorly, but it is reduced to a knob at the level of fusion of the solum and the processus lingularis (proc. ling.). The crista subnasalis {cr. sub.) of E. rugulosus lies above the pars palatina (p. pal.) of the maxilla. Throughout its entire length the crista is penetrated by 4 branchlets of the ramus lateralis narium. Anterior portions of the crista subnasalis, though short, lie above the premaxilla and, in posterior regions, support the recessus lateralis of 34 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the cavum inferior ( rec. lat. cav. inf.) . Posteriorly the crista separates from the solum and soon disappears from sections. NASAL CAVITIES The cavum principale is normally disposed, surrounded by the alary cartilage laterally and ventrally, the tectum nasi dorsally, and the crista intermedia medially and ventrally. The external nares open into the cavum principale as the cavum medium (cav. med.) first ap¬ pears in section. The two cavites are connected by the infundibulum ( inf.) which lies between medial and lateral limbs of the septomaxilla (lat. 1. spmx.) (Fig. 2). Proceeding posteriorly, the nasolacrimal duct comes to lie in a notch of the lamina inferior and then continues to¬ ward the surface at the anterior level of the eye where the duct bi¬ furcates. A small branch proceeds dorsad and opens to the outside on the edge of the lower eyelid. The other branch continues posteriorly also opening to the outside on the edge of the lower eyelid. The cavum medium becomes smaller posteriorly and, at the level of the lateral evagination of the cavum principale mentioned above, it Fig. 3. Transverse section through the olfoctory copsule at the leva! of the cartilaginous support of the eminentia olfactoria. CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 35 opens into the cavum inferior. The cavum medium cannot be recog¬ nized beyond the connection of the principal and inferior cavities. The cavum inferior is divided anteriorly into a recessus lateralis and a recessus medialis (rec. med. cav. inf.) (Fig. 2). The medial re¬ cess is encountered first in sections. This recess and the medial nasal gland ( gl. nas. med.) are surrounded by the solum nasi and the crista intermedia. The lateral recess of the cavum inferior is surrounded by the fused lamina inferior and solum nasi. The joining of the 2 recesses into the cavum inferior occurs just after the lamina inferior and the solum nasi separate. A medial evagination of the recessus medialis persists in only a few sections. The cavum inferior is then divided into lateral and medial parts by connective tissue. The resulting medial portion quickly disappears from section, but the lateral part remains in communication with the cavum principale via the infundibulum and lies next to the facial portion of the maxillary bonef max.) It is at this level that the distal end of the solum enlarges and turns dor- sally to support the eminentia olfactoria. The recessus sacciformis reported in Crinia georgiana (du Toit, 1934) is absent in E. rugulosus. The recessus alaris is present. Both the plica terminalis and the plica oblique are present. The plica oblique extends ventrad from the cartilage oblique (Fig. 2) . A similar condition has been reported from Rana grayi (Ranidae) (du Toit, 1933), Kaloula (Microhylidae) and Phrynella (Microhylidae) (Ramaswami, 1936a), Elachistocleis (Microhylidae) (Penzt, 1942), and Hyperolius (Rhacophoridae) (du Toit and de Villiers, 1932). A large, but short prechoanal sac is present as is in Heleophryne (du Toit, 1930) . The anterior tip of the tongue projects into the cavity in the sectioned specimen. Ducts of the intermaxillary gland are not associated with the sac as they are in Group I bufonids (Baldauf, 1959). The ramus externus and the ramus medialis narium can be seen in anterior sections. The external ramus lies dorsomedially to the pre¬ maxilla and the medial ramus lies mediad to the premaxilla. Posteri¬ orly the 2 rami lie within a groove between the septum nasi and the crista intermedia. Shortly thereafter, the extension of the solum nasi from the septum nasi connects to the lamina inferior to inclose the 2 rami in a cavity. The bifurcation of the ramus ophthalmicus (r. ophth.)^ which forms the 2 rami, occurs at the level of the septomax- illary bone. The ramus ophthalmicus lies below the tectum nasi for most of its length. The fenestra nasobasalis exists as a groove and is similar to that described by McLachlan (1943) for Brachycephalus (Dendrobatidae) . 36 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The anterior part of the processus lingularis forms a vertical bar which broadens medially to fuse with the solum nasi. This connection forms the planum antorbitale which is similar to that found in Bufo (Baldauf, 1955) doadiRana (Gaupp, 1904). GLANDS OF THE NASAL REGION The glandula intermaxillaris is surrounded by skin in anterior sec¬ tions. In Syrrhophus this glandular mass is divided into dorsal and ventral portions by the transverse bar of cartilage which precedes the septum nasi. Such a division does not occur in the E. rugulosus studied here. The intermaxillary gland ( gl. imx.), however, is at first divided into lateral and medial portions by the dorsolateral style of the pre¬ maxilla. The intermaxillary gland later appears as one large mass, after the premaxillary styles disappear from sections. The intermax¬ illary ducts open into the mouth cavity at the level of the olfactory eminence and conform most closely to Type III of Muller (1932). The glandula nasalis lateralis is first seen below the cartilage ob¬ lique, later at the level of the septomaxillary, and then it disappears just before the planum terminale comes into view. The anterior portion of the glandula nasalis medialis lies above the recessus medialis. Posteriorly the gland caps the recessus medialis and, in the region of the eminentia olfactoria, occupies the entire area vacated by the recessus. The gland disappears at the level of the ol¬ factory eminence. BONES OF THE NASAL REGION The nasal process of the premaxillary bone is triangular and en¬ closes a mass of the intermaxillary gland when first seen in sections After the dorsomedial side of the bone disappears from sections, the premaxilla is V-shaped (Fig. 1). The main body of the premaxilla appears in sections shortly thereafter. A dorsolateral style of the pre¬ maxilla on each side of the sectioned head extends dorsally to the su¬ perior prenasal cartilage ( c. p. sup.) and separates the intermaxillary glands, as described above (Fig. 1 ) . The dorsomedial style lies next to and lends support to the inferior prenasal cartilage (c. p. inf.). Pos¬ teriorly the premaxilla bifurcates to form two posteriorly directed styles (Fig. 2) , like that of bufonids. The maxillary ( max.) articulates with the premaxilla for a short distance, but this is not as extensive as that described for Crinia (du Toit, 1934), and it does not involve the palatal process of the premax¬ illa. The palatal process of the maxilla differs from that of other an- CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 37 urans in that it turns ventrad in the region of the eye (Fig. 4B) . Both the maxilla and the premaxilla bear teeth. The prevomer invests the solum nasi distally (Fig. 3). A dorsal squame of the prevomer offers a lateral support to the cartilaginous support of the olfactory eminence (c. em. olf.). A lateral squame of the prevomer extends ventrolaterally to a point above the infundibul¬ um. Both prevomers extend medially and almost meet on the midline. At the level of the choana the prevomer bifurcates into lateral and medial styles between which is a small mass of glandular tissue. The lateral style divides at the anterior level of the planum antorbitale while the medial style develops a bony knob on its lateral side. On the right side of the sectioned specimen the prevomer gets smaller and finally disappears, but on the other side the knob enlarges and bears teeth. Inspection of dried skeletal material shows that both pre¬ vomers normally possess teeth and that the right prevomer of the sectioned specimen is atypical. The palatine bone (pal.) appears just as the prevomer of the same side disappears from sections. The palatine is thin and extends from beneath the solum nasi to the palatine process of the maxilla, where it supports the planum antorbitale. Separation of the planum antor¬ bitale from the solum nasi occurs at the level of the eye. Here the pal¬ atine bone divides into a medial portion, which lies beneath the solum, and a lateral portion, which is ventromedially disposed in relation to the processus maxillaris posterior ( proc. max. post.). The medial por¬ tion of the palatine disappears from sections when the anterior tip of the parasphenoid ( prsph.) is seen, while the lateral portion persists for a longer distance and lies mediad to the processus pterygoideus (proc. pter.). The palatine disappears from sections in the spheneth- moid region. The nasal bone (nas.) can be seen anteriorly in sections with the septum nasi. The bone is similar to that described for Syrrhophus, al¬ though it subtends a greater angle where it turns ventrally than oc¬ curs in that genus. The ventrally directed portion of the nasal bone behind the planum terminale is attached to the nasolacrimal duct by a band of connective tissue. The nasal bone is thin in the region of the planum antorbitale and eventually divides, along with the planum and palatine bone, into ventrolateral and dorsal processes. The ventro¬ lateral process terminates very quickly whereas the dorsal process persists to the level of the eye where it overlies the frontoparietal for a short distance. The above description is considered to depict the typical condition of the nasal bone for E. rugulosus. Several anomalies occur on the 38 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 4B. Transverse section of the maxilla in the region of the eye. i CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 39 right side of the sectioned specimen. At the posteriormost level of the planum terminale, it appears that a small isolated sliver of the nasal bone occurs beneath the ventrally directed portion of the bone proper and corresponds at least in position to the ventrally directed portion of the nasal on the other side. This small bone disappears at the level of the processus lingularis. At the same level, the ventrally directed portion of the nasal bone turns mediad and passes posteromediad as an isolated piece of bone across the cavum principale to meet the eminentia olfactoria. These anomalous features were not found in dried skeletal material or in additional sectioned material. SEPTOMAXILLARY BONE The septomaxillary bone of E. rugulosus is U-shaped and not tri- radiate as has been recorded for many anurans. The bone is first seen in connective tissue between the upturned portion of the lamina superior and the lamina superior. The bone remains in this position, enlarges, and invests the lateral tip of the lamina superior. In the pos¬ terior region of the external nares the septomaxillary bifurcates to allow for the infundibulum (Fig. 2) . The medial limb {med. 1. spmx.) remains small and invests the lamina superior while the lateral limb lies above the lamina inferior. A similar condition of the septomaxillary bone occurs in Syrrhophus and Crinia (du Toit, 1934) . SPHENETHMOID REGION The posterior portion of the cavum principale is completely enclosed by cartilage. This cartilage is supported ventrally by the palatine and parasphenoid bones and dorsally by the nasal bone. At the anterior region of the olfactory lobes, the ramus ophthalmicus (r. ophth.) passes through the orbitonasal foramen in the cartilaginous sphenethmoid region. Slight perichondral ossification also occurs at this level. En- chondral ossification of the sphenethmoid region occurs at the anterior level of the frontoparietal bones (front.). At this level the spheneth¬ moid is similar to that of Syrrhophus in that the cranial cavity is flank¬ ed on both sides by the posterior recesses of the cava principalia. Ex¬ tensive enchondral and perichondral ossification of the sphenethmoid region occurs posterior to the cavum principale. Complete ossification of either the roof or the floor of the neuro¬ cranium is never accomplished so that, rather than there being a single sphenethmoid bone as in Syrrhophus, there is a pair of ossifications, the orbitosphenoids {orbito.) (Fig. 4A). This paired condition of the R GL. 40 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig, 5A,B,C. Transverse sections through the bursa anguloris oris. F1G.5 CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 41 orbitosphenoids has also been noted for Crinia (du Toit, 1934) and Ascaphus (Ascaphidae) (de Villiers, 1934a). The taenia tecti marginalis {t. t. mar,) is typical of the condition found in most anurans. Posteriorly all traces of ossification in the sphenethmoid region disappear, leaving, in section, a completely cartilaginous neurocranium covered dorsally by the frontoparietals, dorsolaterally by the lamina perpendicularis {lam. perp.).^ and ven- trally by the parasphenoid. The frontoparietals can first be seen in sections with the orbitonasal foramen. At this level they are thin and partially covered by the nasal bones. The frontoparietals meet medially and cover the entire top of the head (Fig. 4A). Cranial crests are absent. The lamina perpen¬ dicularis is well developed, ORBITAL, OTIC, AND OCCIPITAL REGIONS Most of the sclera is supported by cartilage (c. scL) (Fig. 4A). In sections showing the anterior extension of the roof cartilage, the cartilaginous ventrolateral wall of the neurocranium is replaced by connective tissue (Fig. 6) . However the connective tissue is not nearly as extensive as that described for Crinia (du Toit, 1934) and Heleo- phryne (Leptodactylidae) (van der Westhuizen, 1961). The position of the foramen for the trochlear nerve (IV) differs from that described for Crinia. Rather than being located in connective tissue anterior to the foramen opticum, the foramen in E. rugulosus is situated in the cartilage above the optic foramen. An anterior extension of the cartilaginous roof is first noticed as a small rod of cartilage ventrad to the median edges of the fronto¬ parietals. A complete cartilaginous roof is present from a level at the posterior region of the eye back to the synotic tectum {tect. syn.) (Figs. 6-10). As a result, the taenia tecti transversalis and taenia tecti medialis cannot be distinguished (Figs. 7, 8). Thus, the fenestra parietalis is absent. The neurocranial roof remains completely car¬ tilaginous until the level of the foramen endolymphaticum is reached whereupon perichondral and enchondral ossification takes place^ except in the median region. The tectum synoticum remains as a narrow piece of cartilage ossified laterally throughout the remaining part of the skull. A large bursa angularis oris {b. ang. o.) is present. The processus pterygoideus {proc. pter.) is at first enclosed medially by the pterygoid bone {pter.) and ventrolaterally by the maxilla {max.)., but separation of the maxilla and the pterygoid process {proc. pter.) occurs to accom¬ modate the bursa at the angle of the jaw. The processus pterygoideus. 42 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE invested by the pterygoid bone, proceeds dorsally to fuse with the processus oticus. Posterior to the angle of the jaw, the quadra tojugal lies above the maxilla. The annulus tympanicus {an. t.) first appears in section as an inverted “J” and, as in Syrrhophus, Crinia, and Heleophryne^ is incomplete dorsally. The annulus is thus sickle-shaped as is so often the case in anurans. The floor of the neurocranium is primarily cartilaginous throughout the extent of the otic region. Perichondral and enchondral ossification of the floor in the prootic region is not great until the level of the i endolymphatic foramen is reached where extensive perichondral j ossification of the neurocranial floor occurs. Medial enchondral ossifi- | cation occurs in posterior sections, but complete ossification is never , accomplished. The arteria carotis cerebralis {a. car. crb.) and the j oculomotor nerve penetrate the cranial floor through separate fora- i mina at the anterior level of the annulus tympanicus. The foramen j oculomotorium and the foramen arteria carotis cerebralis appear in j the same section, the former located above the latter (Fig. 7). This | condition is unlike that described for Bufo (Baldauf, 1955) and Heleo- \ phryne (van der Westhuizen, 1961), but it is similar to the condition j found in Crinia (du Toit, 1934) and Syrrhophus. Immediately posterior to the foramina oculomotorium and arteria carotis cerebralis, the neurocranial floor separates from the prootic (pro.), the space being occupied with connective tissue in which is embedded the vena capitis lateralis. The space represents the foramen prooticum in which is located the ganglion prooticum commune. The ramus maxillaris-mandibularis (V), the ramus temporalis superficial- is (V) , the ramus ophthalmicus (V) (r. ophth.)., the ramus hyomandi- bularis (VII) (r. /?y.), and the ramus palatinus (VII) arise from this ganglion. The vena capitis lateralis {v. c. 1.) and the ramus hyomandi- bularis lie side by side and pass laterally beneath the crista parotica {cr. par.) and then posteriorly in a groove, the cranio-quadrate passage (Fig. 9) . At the posterior level of the Eustachian tube {e.t.)^ the ramus hyomandibularis sends a ventral branch, the ramus hyoideus, to a point mediad to the annulus where it divides into several branchlets. At the anterior level of the prootic, the pterygoid bone elongates and encloses the cartilaginous pterygoid process dorsally, medially, and ventrally. Just anterior to the closure of the Eustachian tube, the pterygoid process meets and fuses with a posterior projection of the processus oticus and then continues posteriorly as the processus quad¬ ra tus {proc. quad.). This is entirely unlike the situation found in Crinia (du Toit, 1934), Heleophryne (van der Westhuizen, 1961), CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 43 FRONT TT MAR. I MM. F1G.6 Fig. 6. Transverse section through the region of the lamina perpendicularis. FRONT FIG.7 R. OPHTH I MM Fig. 7. Transverse section through the region of the anterior prootic. 44 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Bufo (Baldauf, 1955; Ramaswami, 1936b), and many other anurans in which the definitive processus quadratus appears anterior to the Eustachian tube. Rana grayi (du Toit, 1933) and Anhydrophryne (de Villiers, 1931) show relationships of the pterygoid, otic, and quadrate processes (anterior to the Eustachian tube) similar to that of E. rugulosus. The processus quadratus continues posteriorly as a tri¬ angular piece invested dorsally by the ventral style of the squamosal and medially by the pterygoid bone. Subsequent enchondral ossifica- FRONT, U. i. Fig. 8. Transverse section at the level of the unidentified bone. Fig. 9. Transverse section through the otic capsule in the region of the Eustachian tube. CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 45 tion of the quadrate process and its synostotic union with the squa¬ mosal occur at the point of articulation with Meckel’s cartilage. An anterior projection of the crista parotica is embedded in the squamosal bone (sgua.). A transitional cartilage extends between the crista and the processus oticus. The processus oticus is invested by the ventral style of the squamosal at this level. Shortly thereafter, the ossified median edge of the crista (cr. par.) joins the prootic bone (pro.). At this point the anterior horn of the processus pseudobasalis (proc. psdbas.) can be seen within the pterygoid bone. Enlargement of the pseudobasal process (proc. psdbas.) and subsequent fusion to the transitional cartilage and otic process ensue. The pseudobasal-tran- sitional cartilage complex soon separates from the otic process, thus allowing space for the Eustachian tube. The pseudobasal process- transitional cartilage remains small and distinct for a time, and then as the dorsomedial style of the pterygoid bone proceeds dorsally, it extends upward and medially to articulate with the otic capsule. The lateral projection of the pseudobasal process effects synchondrotic union with the otic capsule for a short distance (Fig. 9). The cornu principalis (corn, princ.) articulates with the otic capsule and with the pseudobasal process (Fig. 10). The crista parotica enlarges as the ventral style of the squamosal separates from the main body of the bone. Slight perichondral ossifi¬ cation of the crista occurs medially. Shortly thereafter, separation of the transitional cartilage and the crista takes place and the crista assumes the normal anuran position above the middle ear. Fusion of the crista and the pars ascendens plectri occurs. Posteriorly the crista is synchondrotically united with the dorsal portion of the annulus tympanicus (Fig. 9). In the region of the pars interna plectri (p. int. pi.) the lateral end of the crista, as it appears in sections, separates from the main body to extend posteriorly (Fig. 11). Both the crista and its posterior extension serve for muscle attachments. The crista resembles that of Crinia in giving off a posteriorly directed process, but it differs in that the process extends past the end of the squamosal. The crista parotica serves as a partial origin for the depressor mandi¬ bular muscle. SOUND CONDUCTING APPARATUS The sound conducting apparatus of E. rugulosus is similar in struc¬ ture to that of the Group II bufonids (Baldauf, 1959), in that the thin pars ascendens plectri is attached, though weakly, to the crista parotica. The hyomandibular (r. hy.) branch of the facial nerve and the vena 46 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE capitis lateralis pass above the pars media plectri {p. med. pL). The pars media at this level is represented completely by bone (Fig. 9). The pars media is weakly attached to the lateral extension of the otic capsule and a few sections later fusion occurs between the pars interna plectri and pars media (Fig. 10). An anterior portion of the fossa fenestra ovalis is first noticed shortly after fusion of the pars media and the pars interna. Maximum enlarge¬ ment of the fossa occurs just after the pars interna disappears from section. The operculum (op.) is lodged between the pars interna plectri and a ledge of the otic capsule with which it fuses for a short distance (Fig. 11). Toward the rear the lateral tip of the operculum turns ventrally. At this level the fenestra ovalis is occluded and the operculum separ¬ ates from the otic capsule to articulate with the capsule. The pars opercularis of the levator scapulae superior inserts on the posterior part of the operculum before the latter terminates at the level of the jugular foramen. The middle ear (m.e.) of E. rugulosus is similar in most respects to that described for other anurans. An unusual condition obtains after the Eustachian tube closes in that a median portion of the middle ear cavity is separated off as a posteriorly directed diverticulum. A 2nd posteriorly directed diverticulum is encountered farther toward the rear. This second diverticulum is formed as a result of the partitioning of the middle ear by the annulus tympanicus. Three separate parts of the middle ear are seen at this level; the tympanic cavity, a latero- posterior diverticulum, and a medioposterior diverticulum (p.d.m.e.) (Fig. 10). Hyperolius (du Toit and de Villiers, 1932) possesses a posteriorly directed diverticulum just mediad to the annulus, as in E. rugulosus, but it does not possess the additional medioposterior diverticulum described here. The Eustachian tube is large in E. rugulosus. The labyrinth of the inner ear (l.i.e.) attains maximum size at the level of the fossa fenestra ovalis. The disposition of the cartilage pro- otico-occipitalis (c. pro. occ.) is typical with that of other anurans described. It is perforated by 3 openings, the endolymphatic foramen and 2 acustic foramina. The anterior Eustachian tube and the posterior acustic foramen (/. acus. post.) opens at the anterior levels of the operculum. In E. rugulosus the endolymphatic foramen opens in front of the foramen acusticum posterior and thus is unlike Syrrhophus, in which the 2 foramina open at the same level. Both the superior and the inferior perilymphatic foramina open simultaneously through the jugular foramen into the spatium menin- CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 47 geale within the subdural space. The lamina separating the 2 foramina extend from the prootic bone to the exoccipital bone so that the inferior foramen is the last to communicate with the spatium meningeale. The cornu principalis {corn, princ.) of the hyale articulates with both the pseudobasal process and the otic capsule, as in Syrrhophus. BONES OF THE ORBITAL, OTIC, AND OCCIPITAL REGION The parasphenoid {prsph.) first seen anteriorly in sections with the palatine bones, lies in a midventral groove of the chondrocranium. The parasphenoid is typically dagger-shaped. The lateral pieces of the parasphenoid are not long enough to support the entire width of the otic capsule. The paired frontoparietals (front.) are thin and flat and meet medially throughout their length. A lamina perpendicularis (lam. perp.) is present, but at the anterior level of the prootic it is directed horizontally. The frontoparietals are at all times independent of the prootic bone. In the region of the endolymphatic and acustic foramina, the frontoparietals become narrow and lie above the median portion of the synotic tectum (tect. syn.). A fairly wide fenestra frontale (fen. front.) is located anterior to the cartilaginous roof (Fig. 4A). The squamosal bone (para quadrate) appears in section in the ventral portion of the lower eyelid. The squamosal later occupies a position dorsomediad to the annulus tympanicus and remains in this position until it invests the anterior projection of the crista parotica and the otic process. At this point the squamosal bifurcates into a dorsal portion and a ventral style (v. st. squa.) . The dorsal part continues for its length to invest the crista parotica. The crista, how¬ ever, extends back beyond the squamosal. The depressor mandibular muscle originates from the crista parotica and the squamosal bone. Before it terminates, the dorsal portion of the squamosal lies in a horizontal plane. The ventral squamosal style invests the processus oticus and the quadrate process before it ends at the level of the jugular foramen. General disposition of the pterygoid (pter.) is like that described for other anurans. At the niveau of the sphenethmoid, the pterygoid invests the processus pterygoideus both dorsally and medially. Follow¬ ing bifurcation of the pterygoid into dorsomedial and ventrolateral styles, the former invests the anterior horn of the pseudobasal process (proc. psdbas.) (Fig. 9). Articulation of the anterior horn of the pseudobasal process with the otic capsule accompanies the division of the dorsomedial style of the pterygoid into dorsal and ventral processes 48 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 10. Transverse secHon through the otic capsule at the level of the pars interna plectri. CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 49 (Fig. 9) . The ventral portion is longer and supports the entire pseudo- basal process. The ventrolateral style of the pterygoid invests the pterygoid process and (after fusion of the pterygoid and the otic processes) the processus quadra tus {proc. quad.) . Anterior extensions of the prootic bone (Fig. 7) first appear at the niveau of the annulus tympanicus. The prootic reaches its maximum size in the region of the acustic foramina (Figs. 9-11). A strongly pronounced epiotic eminence {epi. em.) is present at the level of the superior perilymphatic foramen. The exoccipital is synostotically fused to the prootic in a fashion similar to that found in Syrrhophus and Heleophryne (van der Westhuizen, 1961). The synotic tectum is replaced by the exoccipital as the occipital condyles are approached in section. A long, thin, unidentified bone {u.b.) (Fig. 8) lies along the midline beneath the cartilaginous roof of the neurocranium. It extends pos¬ teriorly from the anterior level of the prootic and terminates at the level of the pars externa plectri. This bone is completely separated by connective tissue from the cartilage above and the dura mater below. The presence of this bone is regarded as an abnormality, since such an ossification has never been recorded for other anurans or, indeed, for other vertebrates. ARTICULAR REGION At the level of the sphenethmoid bone, Meckel’s cartilage {mc.c.) is small and invested dorsally, medially, and ventrally by the angulo- splenial {ang. spL). The angulsoplenial becomes rounded with a lateral groove in which the Meckelian cartilage lies. The angulo- splenial later assumes a more ventral position with respect to Meckel’s cartilage. The processus quadratus follows the squamosal and ptery¬ goid bones ventrally. As the quadrate process nears the jaw articula¬ tion, it lies above Meckel’s cartilage. Slight perichondral and enchon- dral ossification in the lateral portion of the quadrate process occurs in anticipation of its synostotic union with the quadra to jugal, which takes place at the level of the endolymphatic foramen. The solid bony process thus formed is known as the quadra tomaxillare {quadmax.) (du Toit and de Villiers, 1932) (Fig. 11). Beyond this point Meckel’s cartilage is ovoid and supported ventrally by the angulosplenial. Articulation occurs at the level of the operculum (Fig. 11), anterior to the jugular foramen, similar to that in Bufo punctatus (Baldauf, 1956). 50 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LOWER JAW The mentomeckelian bone is fused to the dentary as in Bufo (Baldauf, 1955). MeckeFs cartilage bifurcates anteriorly and the medial portion, along with the mentomeckelian bone, soon disappears. The main body of Meckel’s cartilage is vertical in section and is invested by the dentary. The angulosplenial bone appears as a sliver of bone investing Meckel’s cartilage medially. At the level of the planum antorbitale the dentary disappears from sections and the angulo¬ splenial assumes full support of the Meckelian cartilage. BURSA ANGULARIS ORIS The bursa angularis oris (b. ang. o.) (Mundwinkeldriise) is com¬ posed primarily of lymphoid tissue and was first described in anurans by de Villiers (1931) in his study of the microhylid genus Anhydro- phryne. The bursa has since been described for the following families of anurans: Ranidae (du Toit, 1933), Polypedatidae (Rhacophoridae) (du Toit and de Villiers, 1932), Rhinophrynidae (Muller, 1932), Microhylidae (de Villiers, 1933, 1934b) and Leptodactylidae (du Toit, 1934; Baldauf and Tanzer, 1965). The function of the bursa is unknown, although du Toit (1934) suggests it is homologous to the tonsils of mammals. The bursa of E. rugulosus is normally disposed between the palatal and facial portions of the maxilla and the processus pterygoideus. The gland, as described for other anurans, is a simple structure composed of a round mass of lymphoid tissue with a single lumen which opens into the buccal cavity (Fig. 5A) , The opening is located just inside the upper lip and immediately in front of the juncture of the upper and lower lips. The bursa of E. rugulosus is complex posteriorly and here differs from Crinia^ Syrrhophus, and other anurans in which the structure has been reported. Enlargement of the bursa is allowed by the separation of the maxilla and the pterygoid process. A single lumen appears shortly thereafter which opens into the oral cavity. Almost immediately, epithelial tissue can be seen in the lumen and two finger¬ like projections of connective tissue covered with epithelium project into the lumen from the medial side. Two diverticula of the lumen are thus formed (Fig. 5B). The diverticula disappear and a small lateral portion of the gland remains for a short distance (Fig. 5C). Another gland can be seen at the corner of the mouth at the level showing the optic nerve leaving the eye (Fig. 5C). This gland is in all respects similar to the bursa, but it is posterior to and separate from the bursa. This posterior gland contains columnar epithelium as well CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 51 as lymphoid tissue and might best be referred to as the bursa angularis oris posterior. The posterior gland possesses 2 anteriorly directed diverticula, separated by connective tissue, which communicate with each other as the gland opens to the outside of the animal. SUMMARY OF Eleutherodactylus rugulosus 1 . A transverse bar of cartilage is present anterior to the septum nasi. 2. The crista intermedia extends ventrally from the point of union of the tectum and the septum nasi. 3. The lamina inferior and the solum nasi are fused. 4. The distal portion of the solum turns dorsally to support the olfactory eminence. 5. The nasolacrimal duct opens to the outside by 2 ductlets at the anterior level of the eye. 6. The recessus alaris is present. 7. The plica oblique depends from the cartilage oblique. 8. A large, unpaired prechoanal sac is present. 9. The fenestra nasobasalis exists as a groove. 10. The nasal bones overlap the frontoparietals. 1 1 . The septomaxillary is a simple U-shaped bone. 12. The septum nasi is cartilaginous throughout its length. 13. The sphenethmoid bone is paired. 14. A cartilaginous sclera is present. 15. The trochlear nerve passes through a separate foramen. 16. The cartilaginous roof of the cranial cavity is complete and extends from a level at the posterior region of the eye to the tectum synotioum. 17. The taenia tecti medialis and the taenia tecti transversalis, if present, are incorporated with the roof cartilage and cannot be identified. 18. The annulus tympanicus is incomplete dorsally and is fused to the crista parotica. 19. The oculomotor nerve and the arteria carotis cerebralis pass througli separate foramina. 20. The ramus hyomandibularis passes above the pars media plectri. 21. The processus quadratus is formed at the posterior level of the Eustachian tube. 22. The pseudobasal process is fused for a short distance to the otic capsule. 23. The cornu principalis articulates with the processus pseudobasalis and the otic capsule. 52 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 24. The depressor mandibular muscle originates from the squamosal bone and from a posterior projection of the crista parotica. 25. Two posteriorly directed diverticula are present in the middle ear. 26. The endolymphatic foramen opens between the 2 acustic fora¬ mina. 27. Anterior portions of the parasphenoid lie in a groove of the chondrocranium. 28. The dorsal portion of the squamosal terminates at a level anterior to the ventral style. 29. Fusion of the quadra to jugulare to perichondrial ossifications of the processus quadratus occurs at the level of the endolymphatic foramen. 30. The bursa angularis oris is present and possesses 2 diverticula, 31. A gland, referred to here as the bursa angularis oris posterior, is present at the angle of the mouth. 32. The jaws articulate at the level of the operculum. 33. The frontoparietals are independent of the prootics. 34. An unidentified bone lies beneath the cartilaginous roof of the neurocranium. EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS WITH NUMBER OF FIGURE IN WHICH EACH FIRST APPEARS A. CAR. CRB. arteria carotis cerebralis (7) AN. T. annulus tympanicus (9) ANG. SPL. angulosplenial (5A) ANT. PRO. anterior part of prootic (7) B. ANG. 0. bursa angularis oris (5A) BR. brain (4A) C. AL. cartilago alaris (1) C. EM. OLF. cartilaginous support of eminentia olfactoiia (.^) C. OBL. cartilagO' oblique (2) C. P. INF. cartilago prenasalis inferior (1) C. P. SUP. cartilago prenasalis superior ( 1 ) C. PRO. OCC. cartilago prootico-occipitalis (10) C. SCL. cartilaginous sclera (4A) C. T. F. OP. connective tissue in foramen opticum { 6 ) CAV. MED. cavum medium (2) CAV. 0. cavum oris (9) CAV. P. cavum principale (2) CORN. PRINC. cornu principalis (of hyale) (9) CR. INT. crista intermedia (1) CR. PAR. critsa parotica (10) CR. SUB. crista subnasalis (2) D. NAS. ductus nasolacrimalis (3) E. T. Eustachian tube (9) CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 53 EPL EM. F. ACUS. ANT. F. ACUS. POST. F. PRO. FEN. FRONT. FL. NEURO. FRONT. GL. IMX. GL. NAS. MED. INF. L. I. E. L. SUP. LAM. PERP. LAT. L. SPMX. M. E. M. T. MAX. MC. C. MED. L. SPMX. N. GLOSS. N. OCUL. N. P. PMX. NAS. OP. ORBITO. P. D. M. E. P. FAC. P. GL. P. L. CR. PAR. P. MED. PL. P. INT. PL. P. PAL. PAL. PL. OBL. PMX. PREY. PRO. PROC. LING. PROC. MAX. POST. PROC. PSDBAS. PROC. PTER. PROC. QUAD. PRSPH. PTER. QUAD MAX. R. ACUS. ANT. R. ACUS. POST. R. COM. R. EXT. N. R. HY. epiotic eminence (11) foramen acusticum anterior (10) foramen acusticum posterior (11) foramen prooticum (8) fenestra frontale (4A) floor of neurocranium (6) frontoparietal (4A) glandula intermaxillaris (1) glandula nasalis medialis (3) infundibulum (2) labyrinth of inner ear (8) lamina superior (2) lamina perpendicularis (4A) lateral limb of septomaxilla (2) middle ear (9) musculus temporalis (9) maxilla (2) Meckel’s cartilage (5A) medial limb of septomaxilla (2) nervus glossopharyngeus (11) nervus oculomotorius (7) nasal process of premaxilla ( 1 ) nasal (2) operculum (11) orbitosphenoid (4A) posterior diverticula of middle ear (10) pars facialis (4B) posterior gland (5C) posterolateral projection of crista parotica (11) pars media plectri (9) pars interna plectri (10) pars palatina (4B) palatine (4B) plica oblique (2) premaxilla (1) prevomer (3) prootic (9) processus lingularis (3) processus maxillaris posterius (4B) processus pseudobasalis (9) processus pterygoideus (5 A) processus quadratus (9) parasphenoid (4A) pterygoid (5 A) quadratomaxillare (11) ramus acusticus anterior (9) ramus acusticus posterior (11) ramus communicans of IX (10) ramus externus narium ( 1 ) ramus hyomandibularis of VII (9) 54 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE R. MED. N. R. OPHTH. REG. LAT. REG. LAI’. GAV. INF. REG. MED. GAV. INF. SEPT. NAS. SOL. NAS. SQUA. T. T. T. MAR. TEGT. NAS. TEGT. SYN. TR. SEPT. NAS. TR. Z. AN. T. GR. PAR. TR. Z. L. INF. SOL. NAS. U. B. U. L. INF. V. G. L. V. L. L. OT. G. V. ST. SQUA. ramus medialis narium (1) ramus ophthalmicus of V (7) recessus lateralis (3) recessus lateralis of cavum inferior (2) recessus medius of cavum inferior (2) septum nasi (2) solum nasi (2) squamosal (9) tooth (4B) taenia tecti marginalis (4A) tectum nasi ( 1 ) tectum synoticum (9) transverse septum nasi ( 1 ) transition zone of annulus tympanicus and crista parotica (9) transition zone of lamina inferior and solum nasi (2) unidentified bone (8) upturned portion of lamina inferior (2) vena capitis lateralis (9) ventrolateral ledge of otic capsule (10) ventral stylus of squamosal (9) LITERATURE CITED Baldauf, R. J., 1955 — Gontributions to the cranial morphology of Bufo u'. u'ood- housei Girard. Tex. 7. Sci., 7(3): 275-311. - , 1956 — Gontributions to the cranial morphology of American Bufonidae (Anura). Disser., Agricultural and Mechanical Gollege of Texas, pp. 1-203. - , 1958 — A procedure for the staining and sectioning of the heads of adult anurans. Tex. J. Sci., 10(4): 448-451. - , 1959 — Morphological criteria and their use in showing bufonid phylogeny. 7. Morph., 104(3): 527-560. Baldauf, R. J., and E. G. Tanzer, 1965 — Gontributions to the cranial morphology of the leptodactylid frog, Syrrhophus marnocki Gope. T ex. J. Sci., 17(1): 71-100. DE ViLLiERS, G. G. S., 1931 — Uber den Schadelbau der Brevicipitidengattung Anhydrophryne (Hewitt). Anat. Anz., 71: 331-342. - , 1933 — Breviceps and Probreviceps: comparison of the cranial osteology of two closely related anuran genera. Anat. Anz., 75: 257-276. - , 1934a — Studies on the cranial anatomy of Ascaphus truei Stejneger, the American “Liopelmid.” Bull. Mus. Comp. ZooL, Harvard, 77: 1-38. - , 1934b — Die Schadelanatomie der Rhombophryne testudo Boettger in bezug auf ihre Verwandtschaft mit den malagassischen Brevicipitiden. Anat. Anz., 78: 295-310. DU Toit, G. a., 1930 — Die Skedelmorphologie van Heleophryne regis. S. Afr. J. Sci., 27: 426-438. CRANIAL MORPHOLOGY OF ELEUTHERODACTYLUS RUGULOSUS 55 - , 1933 — Some aspects of the cranial morphology of Rana grayi Smith. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, (parts 3-4): 715-734. - , 1934 — The cranial morphology of Crinia georgiana Tschudi (Cystig- nathidae, Amphibia). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, (parts 1-2): 119-141. DU Toit, C., and C. G. S. de Villiers, 1932 — Die Skedelmorphologie van Hyperolius horstockii as voorbeeld van die Polypedatidae. S. Afr. J. Sci., 29 : 449-465. Gaupp, E.. 1896-190+ — A. Ecker’s and R. Wiedersheim’s Anatomic des Frosches. Erste Abtheilung: 1896. Zweite Abtheilung: 1899. Dritte Abtheilung: 1904. Aheweg und Sohn, Braunschweig. McLachlan, P., 1943 — The cranial and visceral osteology of the neotropical anuran Brachycephalus ephippium Spix. S. Afr. J. Sci., 40: 164-195. Muller, E., 1932 — Untersuchungen iiber die Mundhohlendriisen der anuren Amphibien. Morph. Jahrb., 70: 131-172. Pentz, K., 1942 — The cranial morphology of the neotropical microhylid (Anura) Elachistocleis ovalis (Schneider). S. Afr. J. Sci., 39: 182-226. Ramaswami, L. S., 1936a — The cranial morphology of the genera Kaloula Gray and Phrynella Boulenger (Anura). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 1137-1155. - , 1936b — The morphology of the bufonid head. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 1157-1169. Reinbach, W., 1939 — Untersuchimgen iiber die Entwicklung des Kopfskeletts von Calyptocephalus gayi. Jena Z. Naturw., 72: 211-362. v.\N der Westhuizen, C. M., 1961 — The development of the chondrocranium of Heleophryne purcelli Sclater with special reference to the palatoquadrate and sound-conducting apparatus. Acta Zoo., 42: 1-72. Field Notes on the Dry Season Birds of Nayarit by THOMAS H, LEWIS U. S, Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland 20014 INTRODUCTION The natural history of the Mexican state of Nayarit is as yet poorly developed. Isolated by the great mountain chains of Durango, Zacate¬ cas, and Jalisco, Nayarit remained relatively apart while the bioliogi- cal exploration of the rest of Mexico went on apace. This isolation has not always obtained. In colonial times Tepic and San Bias were important cities on the Camino Real connecting Mexico City with the ocean traffic to California and the Philippines. Known as the Province of Nueva Galicia, later as the Territory of Tepic, the present state was recognized in 1914. In 1940-1950 the increase in exploita¬ tion of forest products and changes in agricultural methods again brought the country into commercial importance. New roads were built and the formidable mountain and barrance barriers were breached by railroad and highway. The western branch of the Pan- American highway was pushed south across Sonora and Sinaloa to the lowlands of Nayarit and up through Tepic to connect with the moun¬ tain road to Guadalajara. A small group of biologists visited this newly opened area in March 1954, sampling the vertebrate fauna for the Museum of Natural History, College of Puget Sound. The following notes by 3 observers but principally by the author were recorded on the birds of the Arid Lower Tropical Zone between Acaponeta and San Bias. Less extensive observations were made in the Arid Upper Tropical zone toward Tepic. Observation time was intensive and day¬ long from 14 to 21 March. Observations were made in part from camouflaged stands using binocular and a tripod mounted SOX tele¬ scope. Survey studies were made in 1953, and intensive sampling similar to that reported here was done in Sinaloa in 1954. Since 1954 the massive exploitation of forested and arid lands of Nayarit has gone apace. The gross alterations in habitat and popula¬ tions now make the publication of this record desirable. No specimens were taken. Identifications were based on characters given b}' Blake (1953). Data on reptiles and amphibians have been published elsewhere (Lewis, 1956; Lewis and Johnson, 1955). Sub¬ species names are given as probabilities, and following Blake’s nomen¬ clature. Tho Texas Joiu-nal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 58 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS The country between Acaponeta on the northern (Sinaloan) border of the state and Navarrete (at the junction of highways Mexico 46 and Mexico 15) is composed of abrupt hills and rolling grazing land at altitudes of 200 to 800 feet. To the east are the escarpments of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Westward broad mangrove swamps stretch to the coast about 20 miles away. The vegetation is a continuation of the thorn scrub of Sinaloa, composed most importantly of members {Acacia, Mimosa, Cassia) of the sub-family Mimosoideae (‘‘huis- aches”). The conspicuous emergent is a short palmetto {Sabal rosei) replacing the great cacti of Sinaloa. During the dry season this thorn forest is a dusty, gray, leafless expanse of brush perhaps 25 feet in height. Periodic burnings thin it enough to allow grazing. West from Navarrete the road winds downward into a heavy coastal forest of palms, figs, and hardwoods. Near Singaita the palm-fig (“cohune- amate”) association exists in almost pure stands, with a high canopy and a densely shaded floor free of undergrowth. At lower altitudes mixed hardwoods are more common. These 2 climax forest types have been widely stripped away to allow banana planting. At altitudes below 150 feet the high forest merges into mangrove swamps [Rhizo- spora mangle) and mud flats surrounding the town of San Bias. Above tide levels are extensive coconut palm groves, which, along with banana cultivation, provide the nuclear income of the town. Further west is a wide belt of sand dunes sloping to the ocean beaches. The route south and east from Navarette leads through mountains of metamorphic igneous rocks to high cultivated valleys and grazing lands around Tepic (3,000 feet) and the Volcan Sanganguey (Arid Upper Tropical-Lower Austral). The barrancas are heavily wooded with broad-leaf species, the mountain slopes mostly covered with short grass and oak scrub. Some steep slopes were planted with bananas, and other areas were being burned off for that purpose. Our observations were not extended beyond the 3,000 foot level. ANNOTATED LIST Pelecanus occidentalis calif ornicus Brown Pelican Present in hundreds on the beaches of San Bias, the estuaries and rivers of the coast, and on several small rocky off-shore islands. Phalacrocorax olivaceus Olivaceus cormorant Pelicans seemed to have pre-empted the rocky headlands and islands of the coast, leaving the sand spits of the rivers for the flocks of cormor¬ ants. FIELD XOTES ON THE DRY SEASON BIRDS OF NAYARIT 59 Anhinga anhinga leucogaster Anhinga One record from an estuary east of San Bias. Fregata magnificens rothchildi Frigate bird Great flocks (in thousands) were observed flying inland over San Bias on the morning of March 21. This was the first clear hot day after several days of hazy overcast. At other times frigate birds were visible only with a strong glass, far out to sea and at high altitudes. Ardea herodias treganzai Great blue heron Rosa Morada, Matanchen, San Bias. At least one specimen was seen on every sizable body of water investigated. Florida caerulea caerulea Little blue heron Recorded from San Bias and Matanchen daily. Casmerdius albus egretta American egret Common at San Bias in the muddy estuaries, and in roadside pools throughout the state. Seen on the Rio Acoponeta also. Leucophoyx thula Snowy egret San Bias and Matanchen, records appearing daily in field notebooks. Birds usually solitary. Nyctanassa violacea Yellow-crowned night heron Found in mangrove swamps at San Bias whenever looked for. Cochlearius cochlearius zeldoni Boat-billed heron Seen every day on the river near San Bias, this solitary bird avoided the mixed groups of shore birds on the wide mud flats, and was usually found on narrow strips of land along mangrove swamps. Specimens were slow moving, and easily approached. Plegadis falcinellus mexicana Glossy ibis A single individual was noted on a small pool south of Resbalon, in northern Nayarit on March 21. Eudocimus albus White ibis Common on the mud flats at Matanchen and San Bias. Great flocks of these sedate birds could be seen each dusk, in high steady flight toward their colonial roosting areas north of the town. Ajaia ajaja Roseate spoonbill (espatula, garza rosa) San Bias and environs. Flocks of these beautiful pink birds, spread out on the mud banks of a tropical river, or overhead at dawn and dusk, are an esthetic experience of magnitude. Anas cyanoptera septentrionalium Cinnamon teal One record from the Rio Acaponeta, March 21 . 60 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Coragyps atratus Black vulture Cathartes aura Turkey vulture Zopilotes were common throughout the state. Buteo magnirostris Roadside hawk In mangrove swamps at Matanchen. Common. Buteo nitidus Grey hawk One individual was seen at dawn in the highest trees of the forest at San Bias on March 1 7. Buteogallus anthracinus Common black hawk One of these handsome hawks flew into a nearby tree in a dense portion of palm-fig jungle as I was observing a pair of Aratinga canicularis March 20. I imitated a rodent squeak and the hawk immediately began to search for the source of the sound. The parrots departed precipitately as he flew from tree to tree, searching the ground 10 or 15 minutes before each move. He had no interest in me, even when I began to throw chunks of palm frond up at him. Finally he began to cry noisily and drove me at last to move elsewhere to escape his disturbing presence. Circus cyaneus hudsonius Marsh hawk Noted at Tepic, Navarette, and several times between Rosa IMorada and Acaponeta, always in open country. Pandion haliaetus Osprey At Matanchen, above the beaches, on March 19. Caracara cheriway Caracara Noted daily at various elevations, from the seacoast to the moun¬ tains. Falco sparverius Sparrow hawk In open sv\^ales in the palm-fig jungle, at Tepic, in the mountains, and repeatedly noted along the road from Tepic to San Bias. It appears to be the commonest of the raptores. Ortalis wagleri wagleri Chachalaca A pair of “hocos,” located by their yells high in a group of trees in the forest above San Bias, required several hours of waiting before a glimpse of them was secured. During our stay the reverberating choruses of “faisanes” were heard throughout the mornings, the call¬ ing birds being answered in succession from the near and middle distance, and the far hills. Callipepla squamata Scaled quail Dry country above Navarrete, in small flocks along the bushy arroyo bottoms. FIELD NOTES ON THE DRY SEASON BIRDS OF NAYARIT 61 Fulica americana americana Coot Noted daily at Puente El Conchal, near San Bias. Jacana spinosa spinosa American jacana About a dozen birds were noted daily in a marshy pasture near San Bias. Haematopus ostralegus Oystercatcher Not infrequent at San Bias, on the ocean beach. Charadrius alexandrinus Snowy plover San Bias. Charadrius collaris Collared plover San Bias. Numenius phaeopus hudsonicus Hudsonian curlew Ocean beach at San Bias. Common Numenius americanus Long-billed curlew Several pairs were noted on the ocean beach at San Bias. Actitus macularia Spotted sandpiper San Bias. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Willet Noted daily at Matanchen on the beaches. Heterocelus incanus Wandering tattler Ocean beaches at San Bias. Uncommon. Arenaria inter pres Ruddy turnstone Matanchen. Himantopus mexicanus Black-necked stilt Common in muddy cattle tanks and roadside pools away from the coast. Recurvirostra americana Avocet Common, often in company with black-necked stilts, but not seen below the thorn scrub elevations. Hydroprogne caspia Caspian tern Pacific Ocean at San Bias and Matanchen, several single birds daily. Columba flavirostris Red-billed pigeon Seen in small groups as they watered in pools in a dry watercourse in deep forest above San Bias. Zenaida asiatica White-winged dove Noted daily in heavily forested areas above San Bias and Singaita. Scardafella inca Inca dove In the coco palm groves, and in the streets of San Bias. Very common. 62 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Ara militaris Military macaw (guacamayo) Many pairs of macaws were seen flying west at sundown in the dry hill country south of Acaponeta on March 14. We did not encounter them elsewhere. Aratinga canicularis Orange-fronted parakeet (perico) In habit and local distribution much like Amazona albifrons and often associated with that species. The flocks had not broken up yet for breeding, but most of the morning of March 21 was spent watching one pair through a telescope. They were quietly working on a large arboreal termite nest about 30 feet above the ground in a very dense palm forest. One bird sat muttering on a nearby vine, taking turns with the other in creeping cautiously into holes, barely large enough to admit them, in the nest. They used the spread tail feathers as a prop much as do woodpeckers. Sometimes one of the pair would be out of sight for many minutes, to come backing out carefully, eventually, and, sitting on the rim of the cavity, would pick termites from the plumage, eating them or throwing the small bodies to the side with a jerk of the head. Sometimes they picked up the insects from the walls or rim of the hole. No attempt to enlarge the cavity was noted. Forpus cyanopygius Mexican parrotlet (periquillo) Flocks of 25 or so “cartagenas” tended to fly above rather than through the forest like the larger parrots often did. Descending into the fig trees they seemed to disappear, since each was the size and brilliant green color of a fig leaf. Birds of this genus were as noisy proportionately as the larger birds, and had the same appetite for wild figs. The trees with ripening fruits were actually audible for some distance because of the visiting parrots, caciques, magpie-jays, fly¬ catchers, and squirrels. Amazona albifrons White-fronted parrot (perico, loro frente bianco) Common in the dry country near Rosa Morada, in the thorn brush around Navarrete, and in the dense cohune-amate forest. In the fig trees they collected in large numbers, biting into the fruits on the ripening surface and dropping the remainder in a spattering rain through the palm fronds to the ground. Aratinga canicularis, with similar feeding and habitat preferences, was often associated with this species. The flight of Amazona is strong, direct, with steady, rapid, wing strokes. The course may be high above the forest top, or an expert zigzag throughout the trees, much like a hawk. The shrieking of parrots possibly serves a protective-adaptive func¬ tion. In flights they are conspicuous, circling and complaining noisily. FIELD NOTES ON THE DRY SEASON BIRDS OF NAYARIT 63 Once in a treetop they are abruptly silent and observant for a while. The ear-splitting racket recommences with the beginning of feeding, and the larger the flock the sooner screaming starts. A departing group brings noise to a crescendo, and it is sometimes many minutes before an observer is aware that another group, perhaps even larger, has been left behind, silently feeding. These in their turn, depart noisily, leaving another silent decrement. The mixing and separation of flocks obscure the possibility that groups may have some degree of perma¬ nency of constitution. Amazona finschi Lilac-crowned parrot One questionable record, in the hills immediately behind San Bias, March 19. Crotophaga sulcirostris Groove-billed ani Small flocks of 10 to 20 hung around the edge of the jungle in the open savannahs and along roads. Their feathers, loose, dull black, and unkempt, were often spotted with droppings. The birds were seldom more than a few feet from the ground. Glaucidium brasilianum Ferruginous pygmy owl In an open glade in the cohune-amate jungle above San Bias, March 15. Chordeiles sp. Nighthawk Navarrete. Trochilidae Unidentified “chupamirtos” were noted in the banana plantings. Trogon citreolus Citreoline trogon One specimen was noted along a burro trail in second-growth woods near Singaita on March 18. Ceryle alcyon Belted kingfisher At Puente El Conchal, San Bias. Dryocopus lineatus Lineated woodpecker (carpintero) Common in the forests above San Bias. Centurus hypopolinus Gila woodpecker Found whenever looked for in the open woods near Navarrete. Lepidocolaptes leucogaster White-striped woodcreeper In a great fig tree at San Bias, and in heavily forested regions else¬ where. It appeared in the notebooks daily. T ityra semifasciata Masked tityra A quiet, slow-moving bird, usually confining itself to the upper levels of the heavy forest. A seemingly mated pair was seen March 1 7. 64 the TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE T yr annus (melancholicus?) Tropical kingbird (papa mosca) Beach dunes at San Bias. Pitangus sulphuratus Great kiskadee Common, noisy, and officiously interested in the human observer. A kiskadee’s loud braying squawk repeated from a branch overhead about every 3rd second, made many otherwise comfortable observa¬ tion stations untenable, and frightened away birds of greater imme¬ diate interest, San Bias, Matanchen, Navarrete, Myiarchus sp. Palm forests above San Bias. Empidonax sp. Palm forests and open country away from the coast. Fly-catchers were common but identification beyond genus was seldom accurate. Megarhynchus pitangua Boat-billed flycatcher Open brush country at Navarrete, 20 March. Corvus ossifragus imparatus Fish crow These small, sleek, glossily irridescent crows were common on the beaches at San Bias and Matanchen daily, in flocks of up to several dozen individuals, Calocitta formosa Magpie- jay A common resident of the heavy ■ forest, these spectular and noisy birds travelled in small flocks of 4 to 6, driving even the parrots before them. Seen many times daily. Cissilopha san-blasiana Black-and-blue jay One record, in the oak brush in the mountains near Tepic on March 20, Psaltriparus minimus Bushtit San Bias, in small flocks in wooded areas. Mimus polyglotto-s leucopterus Mockingbird Common along fence rows in San Bias. Regulus calendula Ruby-crowned kinglet (Reyezulo) Several were seen in the forest above San Bias. Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike Thorn scrub country between Navarette and Rosa Morada, where it is a common roadside bird. Not seen at lower altitudes. Vireo olivaceus Red-eyed vireo Observed in the dense palm-fig forest, feeding on insects around the ripe fig fruits. Uncommon, I FIELD NOTES ON THE DRY SEASON BIRDS OF NAYARIT 65 j Parulidae Wood warblers ■ The coconut plantings at San Bias extend into the beach dunes, losing both vigor and size by reason of water hunger. These fringe groves are choked with wild vines, bushes, and small trees. In this j tangle we had previously noted mockingbirds, blue grosbeaks, several 1 sparrows, orchard and hooded orioles, and at least 2 genera of tyrant flycatchers. On March 18, migrant warblers appeared in numbers, including the following species: Dendroica nigrescens Black-throated gray warbler Dendroica petechia Yellow warbler Icteria virens Yellow-breasted chat Warblers were also found in the most interesting microcosm of the amate-cohune jungle, the emergent fig tree. The huge sunlit tops pro¬ vided a gathering point for groups of parrots, caciques and magpie- jays. After prolonged observation by telescope one eventually became aware of a silent and inconspicuous bird population composed of warblers, vireos, bushtits, woodcreepers and the small flycatchers. Unlike the large bird groups, these fed on the fruitflies and associated insects rather than on the ripening figs themselves. The identified warblers included these forms: Dendroica nigrescens Black-throated gray warbler Dendroica graciae Grace warbler Mniotilta varia Black-and-white warbler W ilsonia pusilla Pileolated (Wilson) warbler Setophaga ruticilla American redstart One specimen was seen in the forest near Singaita. Euthlypis lachrymosa tephra Fan-tailed warbler A group of eight of these fan-tail birds, hard to think of as warblers, were observed through the morning and early afternoon of 1 7 March, following a foraging body of army ants. The insects sounded like rain on the dry leaf floor of the “monte,” and covered an area of several square yards. The birds were feeding on insects flushed by the advanc¬ ing edge of the army. Although they sometimes dashed into the occu¬ pied area they appeared to avoid the ants themselves. They had a characteristic alert posture and an uneasy, almost anxious, attentive¬ ness. The tail was widely expanded and folded, in rapid succession, and flicked in an exaggerated manner from side to side. The birds seemed actually to suffer formication, and it would be interesting to 66 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE observe if they are more serene when apart from such formidable company. In habit they much resemble the Louisiana water thrush. Passer dornesticus domesticus House sparrow A few were seen in the streets and parks of Tepic. Cassiculus melanicterus Yellow-winged cacique A nesting colony was noted near Rosa Morada. The birds were common in the palm-fig forests and in the higher dry country above Navarrete, either in singles, pairs, or groups of 4 or 5. They converse constantly while feeding, using a variety of calls which are answered by companions and by birds at a distance. The feeding note is a questioning, nasal, meowing. At dawn a 2-note whistle is used, followed by a low grinding noise. Later a guerulous 2-syllable “oink” is heard, followed by a prolonged, vibrant “goo-inggg.” Cassadix mexicanus Boat-tailed grackle Found on the streets and plazas of San Bias, in very great numbers. Icterus spurius Orchard oriole One male was noted in the underbrush of a coco palm plantation at San Bias on March 18, along with many migratory warblers. Icterus cucullatus Hooded oriole Commonly seen along the beach dunes and in the underbrush be¬ hind the beaches. Also in the open forests at somewhat higher alti¬ tudes, but not in the palm jungles or in the high arid country. Euphagus cyanocephalus Thousands of these birds occupied the trees of the plaza at San Bias, and fed in the streets during the day. Guiraca caerulea Blue grosbeak Brushy fence rows at San Bias in small flocks. LITERATURE CITED Blake, E. R., 1953 — Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identification. The Uni¬ versity of Chicago Press. Lewis, T. H., 1956 — A new lizard of the genus Cnemidophorus from Nayarit. Chicago Acad. Sci., Nat. Hist. Misc., 156; 1-5. Lewis, T. H., and M. L. Johnson, 1955 — Observations on the herpetofauna of the Mexican State of Nayarit. Herpetologia, 2: 177-181. A Vegeta tional Analysis of an area in Nacogdoches County, Texas^ by J. R. SULLIVAN^ and E. S. NIXON Department of Biology, Stephen F. Austin State University N acogdoches, 75961 ABSTRACT The vegetation of a forested area near Nacogdoches, Texas, was analyzed by the plot method to determine relative frequency, relative density, and relative dom¬ inance of trees, shrubs and vines present. Environmental data including soil texture, pH, soil nutrient content, soil moisture trends, and light intensity were recorded for upland and lowland sites. Based upon importance values, American hornbeam {Carpinus caroliniana Walter), white oak {Quercus alba L.) and sweetgum {Liquid- ambar styracifLua L.) were dominant in a lowland area whereas shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.), post oak {Quercus stellata Wang.), and sweetgum were upland dominants. Dominant lowland shrubs and vines, as based on relative den¬ sity and frequency, were cat greenbriar {Smilax glauca Walt.) and Virginia creeper {Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch,). Prevalent upland shrubs and vines were Carolina jessamine {Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait.) and laurel green- briar (Smilax laurifolia L.). Herbaceous species from upland and lowland areas were also listed. INTRODUCTION The rolling forested area of east Texas has been variously described in regard to vegetation. It was divided into Long-leaf pine (southeast) and Pine-oak Forest (central and northeast) regions by Tharp (1939) and has been grouped into the Pineywoods vegetational area by Gould (1962). The area in the vicinity of Nacogdoches, Texas, where this study was carried out, has been placed in a Pine-oak Forest region by Tharp (1926, 1939) and in an Oak-pine Forest region by Braun (1950). Be¬ cause of the large number of tree species present, Tharp (1939) de¬ scribed the Pine-oak Forest region as a vegetational mosaic rather than containing an even mixture of several dominants. He earlier (1926) 1 This stud^'' was partially supported by Stephen F. Austin Faculty Research Grant 1650. 2 Present address: Department of Biology, Texas Southmost College, Brownsville 78520. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 68 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE had described this region as a broad ecotone, again indicating a lack of uniformity generally associated with regional vegetational types. In addition, logging effects have modified this forest type (Bray, 1906) producing a variety of serai conditions which in turn have supple¬ mented diversification. On the other hand, Tharp (1926, 1939) listed several species which i were dominant in the Pine-oak Forest region including loblolly I pine {Pinus taeda L.), shortleaf pine {Pinus echinata Mill.), post oak {Quercus stellata Wang.), blackjack oak {Quercus marilandica Muenchh.), southern red oak {Quercus falcata Michx.), sweetgum {Liquidamhar styraciflua L.) and hickory {Carya spp.). Braun (1950) listed these same species as being dominant with emphasis on shortleaf pine, post oak, blackjack oak, southern red oak, and sweet- gum. Most vegetational studies of east Texas have been on a regional basis. A general description of bottomland and upland forests was pre¬ sented by Bray (1906) including lists of some of the species which typify these areas. Tharp (1926, 1939) also listed dominant and sub¬ dominant species of the Pine-oak Forest region and in addition pre¬ sented a distribution list of the principal ferns and seed plants of Texas (Tharp, 1939). Additional information may be obtained from lists of plants produced by Parks and Cory (1936), Cory and Parks (1937) and Gould (1962). The nature of these studies, however, in¬ dicates the need for more detailed descriptive work. Schuster (1967) recently acquired composition and frequency data for plant species growing under various degrees of canopy cover. Studies such as this are essential in other localities in east Texas if we are to gain a greater understanding of the structure and composition of these for¬ ested areas. Krai (1966) indicated that one of the most critical areas for descriptive or floristic ecology remains literally untouched in east¬ ern Texas. Description and History of the Study Area The forested study area was situated in the southwestern part of the city of Nacogdoches, Texas. The topography was of gently rolling hills transected by a stream. The streamside area (lowland) was gen¬ erally flat, with the exception of the eroded stream course, and was sloping slightly toward the southeast. The lowland area was com¬ posed of about 1^/2 acres. To the west and southwest of the lowland area was a gentle slope which rose 40-60 feet to an upland area. At one locality on this slope was a small ravine which terminated at the origin of a small spring. The eastern part of the upland area was gen- A VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 69 erally flat, sloping somewhat to the east while the western part ap¬ peared relatively flat with no obvious slope exposure. The upland area contained about 9 acres. Historical information indicated that the study area had not been domestically grazed to any extent since the beginning of this century. In 1941, however, the area was subjected to a selective cutting which undoubtedly influenced environmental and vegetational changes. Since that time, little disturbance has occurred. Soils and Climate The Nacogdoches area is situated within the Norfolk soil series group of the East Texas Timber Country region (Carter, 1931; Fraps and Fudge, 1937) . The soils are mostly fine sandy loams of light color and underlain by subsoils of sandy clay and clay texture. Mean total precipitation, as presented by the Nacogdoches forestry weather sta¬ tion, was 48.04 inches from 1931-1960. Rainfall is generally evenly distributed throughout the year with May and December receiving slightly more than the other months. The last killing frost in the spring is usually around March 22 whereas the first in the fall is around November 13. The growing season is approximately 236 days (U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1941 ) . METHODS AND PROCEDURES The lowland area was grided into 250 4-meter-square quadrats which approximate one acre. The upland area was sampled in 2 parts. One hundred fifty- two contiguous 4-meter-square plots (32 X 76 m) were measured in the east part (upland 2) and again in the west part (upland 1) giving a total of 304 quadrats. Density, frequency and dominance data were obtained for trees and density and frequency data for shrubs and vines growing in these plots. Counts involving rhizomatous species such as Carolina jessamine {Gelsemium semper- virens (L.) ait.), Japanese honeysuckle {Lonicera japonica Thunb.) and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.) were based upon the number of above ground shoots or plants. Den¬ sity and frequency data were not recorded for the herbaceous species. Instead lists of species present were recorded for the upland and low¬ land areas. Voucher specimens for all species cited were deposited in the Stephen F. Austin State University Herbarium. Nomenclature generally followed that of Gould (1962) . Precipita don measurements were obtained from the forestry weather station located on the campus of Stephen F. Austin State University. 70 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE I It is about 4 miles from the study site. Soil moisture trends within the study area were recorded from Bouyouco-s blocks placed at 4 locations and at depths of 6 and 24 inches. Soil analyses included pH, particle size by the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1962), Mg, Ca, K and Na by extraction with ammonium acetate and analysis by atomic ab- sorption spectrophotometry. Canopy cover was determined by the line-intercept method using a devised optical magnifying system for determining intercepts. RESULTS Soil Soil samples were taken at depths of 6 and 24 inches from the low¬ land, upland and connecting slope areas. Soil texture was a sand or sandy-loam with the more sandy soil located on the slope (Table 1). Present at depths usually below 24 inches was a red, sandy-clay sub¬ soil as indicated in the upland 2 analysis. Lowland soils were slightly more acid than upland soils with a range of 4.6 to 5.8 over both areas. Nutrient content was low in regard to the elements analyzed (Ta¬ ble 1). Table 1 Soil analysis data Soil Particle size Texture class P.P.M. Sand % silt % clay % pH Ca Mg K Na Lowland 6" 73.7 23.0 3.3 Sandy-loam 4.6 7.5 3.7 5.3 0.1 24” 74.2 17.5 8.3 Sandy-loam 4.7 14.5 1.0 2.9 T* Slope 6” 90.5 7.7 1.8 Sand 5.7 16.5 5.0 3.2 0.6 24” 90,7 7.3 2.0 Sand 5.3 9.0 5.0 2,0 T Upland 1 6” 71.7 22.8 5.5 Sandy-loam 5.3 37.5 10.0 11.0 0.6 24” 70.7 22.5 6.8 Sandy-loam 5.8 18.0 5.0 3.3 0.1 Upland 2 6'' 76.5 18.2 5.3 Loamy-sand 5.3 18.5 7.8 4.6 T 24” 51.0 7.8 41.2 Sandy-cl ay 5.1 47.0 41.3 7.8 0.7 * Trace (less than .OSppm) . A VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 71 The total rainfall for Nacogdoches, Texas, was 68.05 inches in 1968. This was 41.6% above average. The precipitation-evaporation ratio for 1968 was 68/48 inches respectively. Because of the great amount of precipitation, soil moisture content remained high during most of the year. However, the top 6 inches of the lowland and upland areas and the top 24 inches of one upland area were at or near the wilting point during the latter part of August and the first part of September. The lowland and slope soils were generally more moist than the up¬ land soils. Woody vegetation Lowland trees, shrubs and vines Stratification was evident in the lowland area with trees of white oak {Quercus alba L.) , shortleaf pine, sweetgum, and southern red oak composing the upper level. A middle layer was characterized by American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana Walter), red maple (Acer rubrum L.), and dogwood {Cornus floridana L.) whereas the shrub layer contained pawpaw {Asimina parviflora (Michx.) Dunal), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana L.), brook euony- mus {JEuonymus americanus L.), farkleberry {V accinium arboreum Marsh.), and Piedmont azalea {Rhododendron canescens (Michx.) Sweet) . The shrub layer was generally scattered, however, resulting in an open forest floor. There were 27 tree species in the lowland area with approximately 2 trees per 4-meter-square plot as compared to 28 species of shrubs and vines with an average of 44 per 4-meter- square plot. Trees present in the lowland area formed a dense canopy cover. Data using the line-intercept method indicated 98% cover. Mid-day light meter readings generally showed from 200-600 foot candles near the forest floor. In some areas, however, meter readings increased be¬ yond 600 foot candles as a result of penetration of the sun’s rays. Certain lowland tree species such as red maple, American horn¬ beam and sweetbay {Magnolia virginiana L.) were closely associated with the small creek which meandered through the study area al¬ though some plants of these species were scattered throughout. Based upon importance values, American hornbeam was the dominant spe¬ cies (Table 2). Red maple and sweetbay were also prevalent. White oak, consisting mostly of large trees (Table 3) and often associated with the sloping area adjacent to the creek, was also dominant. Sweet- gum, which often displayed a columnar-like growth form, was com¬ mon (Table 2) as were smaller trees of blackgum {Nyssa sylvatica 72 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 Relative density, frequency, dominance and importance values of tree* species. Species Relative Density Low- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Relative Frequency Low- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Relative Dominance Low- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Importance Value** Low- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Acer rub rum 7.8 1.4 1.2 9.5 .3 1.0 4.6 .2 .7 21.9 1.9 2.9 Carpinus caroliniana 38.6 .0 .0 30.0 .0 ,0 14.7 .0 .0 83.3 .0 .0 Carya spp. 2.6 9.5 8.3 2.9 9.6 9.0 .6 5.0 4.7 6.1 24.1 22.0 Cornus floridana 4.6 7.4 11.4 4.1 5.5 12.0 .6 .7 .6 9.3 13.6 24.0 Liquidambar styraciflua 13.8 17.4 6.5 15,7 15.1 7.6 13.2 10.7 7.4 42.7 43.2 21.5 Nyssa sylvatica 9.2 4.9 .4 9.8 4.8 . 7 6.5 .8 .2 25.5 10.5 1.3 Pinus echinata 1.8 20.4 13.6 2.7 18.8 16.3 6.7 46.1 49.5 11.2 85.3 79.4 Quercus alba 7.0 .0 2.0 9.8 .0 2.7 38.4 ,0 3.8 55.2 .0 8.5 Quercus falcata 1.2 7.9 3.7 1.8 11.0 6.0 4.6 23.3 9.7 7.6 42.2 19.4 Quercus stellata .4 10.2 21.7 .6 13.0 21.9 2.3 7.1 15.6 3.3 30.3 59.2 Sassafras albidum 2.0 4.2 20.1 1.8 5.1 9.3 .1 .2 .6 3.9 9,5 30.0 Others*** 11.0 16.7 11.1 11.3 16.8 13.5 7.7 5.9 7.2 30.0 39.4 31.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 ___ _ _ * Plants with a dbh greater than one cm. ** Sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance. *** Other trees present listed in order of decreasing importance values: Lowland — Magnolia virgin- iana, Chionanthus virginica. Moms mbra. Viburnum rufidulum, Prunus serotina, Celtis laevigata, Cercis canadensis, Crataegus viridis. Ilex opaca, Castanea pumila, Tilia caroliniana, Quercus nigra, Juniperus virginiana, Rhus copalina, Alnus serrulata, Salix nigra; Upland 1 — Viburnum rufidulum, Quercus marilandica, Morus rubra, Chionanthus virginica, Castanea pumila, Crataegus viridis, Prunus serotina, Juniperus virginiana, TJlmus alata, Celtis laevigata, Platanus occidentalis. Ilex opaca, Zanthox- yhim clava-hemlis, Rhus glabra, Prunus gracilis; Upland 2— -Quercus marilandica. Viburnum rufidulum. Moms rubra, Rhus copalina, Crataegus viridis. Ilex opaca, Celtis laevigata, Castanea pumila, Prunus serotina, Ulmus alata, Zanthoxylum clava-herculis, Populus deltoides. Marsh) . Some scattered shortleaf pines were also present. All of these species seemed to be potentially capable of perpetuating themselves as evidenced by the number of seedlings produced (Table 3). Dominant shrubs and vines, as based on relative density and fre¬ quency were cat greenbriar {Smilax glauca Walt.), Japanese honey¬ suckle, Virginia creeper, and farkleberry (Table 4). Piedmont azalea was quite abundant in and around the spring with some scattered plants along the creek. Other species that were somewhat prevalent include Carolina jessamine, laurel greenbriar {Smilax laurifoUa L.), common greenbriar {Smilax rotundifolia L.), and muscadine grape {Vitis rotundifolia Michx.) (Table 4) . Upland trees, shrubs and vines The upland forested area consisting of 27 species of trees contained a relatively uniform occurrence of trees with some small openings present. Line-intercept data indicated 85% canopy cover in the up¬ land 2 area and 93% in the upland 1 area. Stratification was somewhat A VEGETATION AL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 73 evident with shortleaf pine and southern red oak comprising the up¬ per level, post oak, dogwood, black jack oak, hickory and sassafras (Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees.) usually making up the mid-layer and the shrub layer generally consisting of American beautyberry, farkleberry, and pawpaw. Shrubs were scattered throughout the up¬ land area resulting in a relatively open shrub layer. There were 27 species of shrubs and vines in the upland area with an average of 40 per 4 meter square plot. Sweetgum, which was commonplace in the bottomland, was also prevalent throughout the upland areas (Table 2). Other species va¬ ried with shortleaf pine, post oak, southern red oak, hickory, flower¬ ing dogwood, sassafras, and blackjack oak becoming dominant. Size classes based on diameter at breast height (dbh) were generally small with the exception of shortleaf pine and southern red oak (Table 3). The greatest number of seedlings were produced by white fringetree (Chionanthus virginica L.) and rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum Raf.). Vines greatly outnumbered shrubs in the upland areas (Table 4), The dominant species were Carolina jessamine, Virginia creeper, cat Table 3 Size classes of lowland and upland tree species Species Seedlings* Low- Up¬ land land 1-10 Low¬ land Up¬ land Size Classes (cm) 11-20 21-30 Low- Up- Low- Up¬ land land land land 31-40 Low¬ land Up¬ land 40 Low¬ land Up¬ land Acer rubrum 90 24 0 12 0 0 1 0 0 - g - Carpinus caroliniana 997 0 131 0 53 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 Carya spp. 65 300 10 66 3 12 0 3 0 1 0 0 Chionanthus virqinica 205 1035 12 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Cornus floridana 235 504 23 87 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Liquidambar styraciflua 498 143 43 62 14 37 8 7 2 1 2 0 Magnolia virqiniana 37 0 3 0 2 0 3 0 5 0 0 0 Morus rubra 30 27 0 19 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nyssa sylvatioa 287 38 35 21 5 2 3 0 2 0 1 0 Pinus echinata 169 63 0 46 4 38 2 40 1 23 2 8 Quercus alba 1282 99 2 8 2 0 8 1 13 1 10 0 Quercus falcata 202 183 0 21 1 10 2 10 2 4 1 6 Quercus marilandica 0 58 0 13 0 11 0 6 0 1 0 0 Quercus s tel lata 9 586 0 108 0 34 0 8 0 1 0 0 Sassafras albidum 201 390 0 117 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Viburnum rufidulum 137 1518 0 32 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Others 477 311 15 38 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 5327 5345 298 638 98 149 37 75 27 32 16 14 * Seedlings are those plants with a dbh less than one cm. 74 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE greenbriar, and laurel greenbriar. Little difference occurred between upland 1 and upland 2 in kinds of species present. There were varia¬ tions, however, in numbers of individuals of each species. Alabama supplejack {Berchemia scandens (Hill) K. Koch), laurel greenbriar, cat greenbriar, and Virginia creeper were more abundant in upland 1. Frequency was fairly high for most shruh and vine species, indicating a widespread occurrence throughout the areas. Herbaceous V egetation In addition to the low number of herbaceous species present in the lowland area (Table 5), there were also few individuals of most spe¬ cies. These individuals were generally widely scattered with the ex¬ ception of several clump-forming species such as common lousewort Table 4 Density and frequency of shrubs and vines Spec its Densi ty per Plot Low- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Relative Densi ty LOW- Up¬ land land 1 Up¬ land 2 Frequency Low- Up¬ land land Up¬ land 2 Relative Frequency Low- Up¬ land land 1 up¬ land 2 Berchemia scandens •3 6,5 P* .8 11.5 .2 9.2 76.3 5.9 1.2 10.7 .6 Gel semi urn sempervirens 2.5 12.5 5.8 5.8 22.6 2h.2 55.2 86.8 69.1 6.8 12.2 10.8 Lon i cere japonica 6.2 i.h .2 ih.3 2.6 .7 33.6 11.2 5.9 k.3 1.6 .9 Parthenocissus quinquefolia h.h 6.8 1,8 10.0 12.3 7.3 60.0 69.1 3h.9 7.7 9.7 5.5 Rhododendron canescens 3.U .0 .0 7.7 .0 .0 bh.o .0 .0 5.6 .0 .0 Rhus toxicodendron .6 .2 1,9 1.3 .5 8.0 17.6 12.5 1+0.8 2.3 1.8 6.1+ Smilax bona>nox .3 1.5 2.2 .6 2.8 9.0 m.o 52.6 69.1 1.8 7.h 10.8 Smilax glauca 9.5 6.6 1,7 2S.7 12. § 6.9 91.2 87.5 1+2.1 11.7 12.3 6.6 Smi lax laur i fol ia 2.5 15.2 .9 5.U 27.6 U.o 57.2 96.7 1+0.1 7.5 • 3.6 6.3 Smi lax rotundi fol ia 2.7 p P 6.1 P .1 62.0 .7 >.3 8.0 .1 .2 Vaccinium arboreum 3.9 .1 .2 9.0 .1 1.0 52.8 3.3 13.2 6.8 .5 2.1 Vitis lincecumil .h .6 1.9 .9 l.l 7.9 15.6 ho.l 58.6 1.8 5.6 9.2 Vi tis rotundi folia 1.8 !.? 2.7 h.o 3.0 II. 1 hh.h 38.2 51+.6 5.7 5.h 0.6 Others** 5.5 3.2 h.7 I2,k h.i 19.6 — ... ... 29.0 19. • 32.0 Total h3.8 56,1 2h.O 100.0 100.0 100.0 — ... ... 100.0 IDO.O 100.0 * Present (less than .05). ** Other shrubs and vines listed in order of decreasing relative densities: Lowland — Anisosticus, capriolatus, Dioscorea villosa, Euonymus americanus, Asimina parviflora, Callicarpa americana, Coc- culus carolinus, Ascyrum hypericoides, Ipomea pandurata, Rubus trivialis. Clematis drummondii, Myrica cerifera, Ligustrum sp., Sambucus canadensis, Amorpha paniculata, Mikania scandens; Upland 1 — Callicarpa americana, Asimina parviflora, Coccuhis carolinus, Ipomea pandurata, Ascyrum hyper¬ icoides, Rubus trivialis, demands drummondii, Aesculus discolor, Matelea decipiens, Myrica cerifera; Upland 2 — Ipomea pandurata, Asimina parviflora, Rubus trivialis, Cocculus carolinus. Clematis drurri- mondii, Ascyrum hypericoides, Callicarpa americana. Ilex vomitoria, Matelea decipiens, Schrankia ucinata, Myrica cerifera, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Ligustrum sp. Baccharis halimifolia. A VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 75 {Pedicularis canadensis L.), partridgeberry {Mitchella repens L.), and craneflyorchid (Tipulaira discolor (Pursh) Nutt.). Most of the ferns were also localized being generally associated with the small spring. Chainfern (Lorinseria areolata (L.) PresL) was most abund¬ ant intermixed with many large plants of cinnamonfern {Osmunda cinnamonea L.). Species and number of individuals were more abundant in the up¬ land area (Table 5). This was especially noticeable in the small open areas or in areas of disturbance such as an old logging road. Some of the more conspicuous species were grasses such as eastern little blue- stem {Andropogon scoparius Michx. var. diver gens Hack.), splitbeard bluestream {A. ternarius Michx.), and various Panicum species. Other common species were Nuttal wildindigo {Baptism nuttalliana Small), tickclover {Desmondium spp.), and infrequent clumps of finger lions- heart {Physostegia digitalis Small) and celtisleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa Ait, var. celtidifolia (Small) Fern.). Under a more dense up¬ land canopy individuals were less frequent. However, scattered plants of hairy elephant-foot {Elephantopus tomentosus L.) and the grass longleaf uniola ( Uniola sessiliflora Poir. ) were common throughout. Comparison of Upland and Lowland Vegetation A total of 34 tree species were present in the study area with the upland and lowland each containing 27 species (Table 2). Many of these species were present in both areas whereas some such as Ameri¬ can hornbeam, sweetbay, Carolina basswood {Tilia caroliniana Milk), hazel alder {Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd.) and black willow {Salix nigra Marsh.) were situated in the lowland and others, including blackjack oak were found only in the upland. Results were more contrasting in regard to dominant species. Shortleaf pine, post oak, sweetgum, southern red oak and hickory were dominant in the upland and with the exception of sweetgum were relatively scarce in the low¬ land. American hornbeam, white oak, blackgum, and red maple along with sweetgum were dominant in the lowland and these, with the exception of sweetgum, were generally few in number in the upland. Differences also existed among the shrub and vine species (Table 4) . There were 7 of 34 species, of which Piedmont azalea was most abundant, found only in the lowland and 5, none of which were abun¬ dant, located only in the upland, Virginia creeper, cat greenbriar, and laurel greenbriar were relatively abundant in both areas. Carolina jessamine was more prevalent in the upland whereas farkleberry. Piedmont azalea, and common greenbriar were more profuse in the 76 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 5 Herbaceous species present in the upland and lowland areas Agrimonia microcarpaMVaHv. (U)* Digitaria villosa (Walt.) Pers. (U) Agrostis perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm. (\J) Echinacea pallida Nutt. (U) Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern. (U) Andropogon scoparius Michx. var. diver gens Hack. (U) Andropogon ternarius Michx. (U) Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott, (L) Aristida lanosa Muhl. ex Ell. (U) Asclepias sp. (U) Asclepias tuberosa L. (U) Aster patens Ait, (U) Aster lateri floras (L.) Britt. (L) Aster phyllolepis Torr, & Gray (U) Athryium filix-femina (L.) Roth ex Mertens (L) Axonopus affinis Chase (L.) Baptism nuttalliana Small (U) Berlandiera betonicifolia (Hook) Small (U) Bidens polylepis Blake (U) Botrychium dissectum Spreng, var. tenuifolium (Underw.) Farwell (U) Carex albolutescens Schwein. (L) Car ex crebri flora Wieg. (L) Carex debilis Michx. (L) Carex digitalis Willd. (L) Carex howei Mack. (L) Carex muhlenbergii Schk. (U) Cassia fasciculata Michx. var. fasciculata (U) Cassia nictitans L. (U) Cenchrus pauciflorus Benth. (U) Cnidoscolus texanus (Muell. Arg.) Small (U) Commelina erecta L, (U) Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist (U) Crotalaria sagiitalis L. (U) Croton glandulosus L. (U) Cuscuta compacta Juss. (L) Cyprus retrofractus (L.) Torr, (U) Desmodium ciliare (Muhl.) DC. (U) Desmodium laevigatum (Nutt.) DC. (U) Desmodium nudiflorum (L.) DC. (L) Desmodium paniculatum (L.) DC. (U) Desmodium sessilifolium (Torr.) Torr. & Gray (U) Desmodium viridiflorum (L.) DC. (U) Eleocharis obtusa (Willd.) Schultes (L) Elephantopus carolinianus Raeuschel (L) Elephantopus tomentosus L. (UL) Eragrostis hirsuta (Michx.) Nees. (L) Erigeron strigosus Muhl. (U) Erythrina herhacea L. (U) Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small (U) Eupatorium coelestinum L. (U) Euphorbia cordifolia Ell. (L) Froelichia floridana (Nutt.) Moq. (U) Galactia volubilis (L.) Britt. (U) Galium pilosum Ait. (U) Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. (U) Gymnopogon ambiguus (Michx.) B.S.P. (U) Habernaria clavellata (Michx.) Spreng. (L) Haplopappus divaricatus (Nutt.) Gray (U) _ Hedyotis nigricans (Lam.) Fosberg (U) Helenium amarum (Raf.) H. Rock (U) Helianthus hirsutus Raf. (U) Heterotheca lati folia Buck. (U) Heterotheca pilosa (Nutt.) Shinners (U) Hieracium gronovii L. (U) Hymenopappus artemisiaefolium DC. (U) Lactuca serriola L. (U) Lespedeza hirta (L.) Hornem. (U) Lespedeza stuevei Nutt. (U) Liatris elegans (Walt.) Michx. (U) Lithospermum caroliniense (Walt.) MacMillan (L) Lobelia puberula Michx. (UL) Lorninseria areolata (L.) Presl. (L) Luzula echinata (Small) F. J. Herm. var, echinata (L) Ly copus rubellus Moench. (L) Malaxis sp, (L) Melica mutica Walt. (L) Mitchella repens L. (UL) Monarda punctata L. (U) Monotropa uniflora L. (U) Nemastylis purpurea Herb, (U) Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britt. (U) A VEGETATIONAL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 77 Table 5 — Continued Oplismensus setarius (L.) Roem. & Schult. (L) Osmunda cinnamonea L. (L) Osmunda regalis L. var. spectabilis (Willd.) A. Gray (L) Oxallis dillenii Jacq. (L) Panicum anceps Michx. (U) Panicum angustifolium Ell, (U) Panicum boscii Poir, (U) Panicum helleri Nash (U) Panicum oligosanthes Schult. (U) Panicum polyanthes Schult. (L) Panicum xalapense H.B.K. (L) Paspalum setaceum Michx. (U) Pedicularis canadensis L. (L) Penstemon laxiflorus Pennell. (U) Physostegia digitalis Small (U) Poa autumnalis Ell. (L) Podophyllum peltatum L. (L) Poly gala polygama L. (L) Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (U) Pyrrhopappus carolinianus (Walt.) DC. (U) Rhynchosia latifolia Nutt, ex Torr. & Gray (U) Rudbeckia serotina^olt, (U) Ruellia humilis Nutt. (U) Sabatia campestris Nutt. (U) Salvia azurea Lam. (U) Salvia lyrata L. (L) * U = upland, L = lowland. Sanicula canadensis L. (L) Scleria triglomerata Michx. (U) Scutellaria cardiophylla Engelm. & Gray (U) _ Scutellaria integri folia L. (U) Senecio obovatus Muhl. (L) Spiranthes gracilis (Bigel.) Beck (UL) Sporobolus buckleyi Vasey (L) Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth var. canovirens (Nash) Shinners (U) Solidago rugosa Ait. var, celtidifolia (Small) Fern. (U) Sorghastrum elliottii (Mohr.) Nash (U) Stenanthium gramineum (Ker.) Morong (U) Strophostyles helvola (L.) Ell. (U) Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B.S.P. (U) Tipulaira discolor (Pursh.) Nutt. (L) Tradescantia hirsutiflora Bush (U) Tradescantia reverchoni Bush (U) Tragia urticifolia Michx. (U) Tridens flavus (L.) Hitchc. (U) Triphora trianthophora (Sw.) Rydb. (L) Uniola latifolia Michx. (L) Uniola sessiliflora Poir. (UL) Verbena canadensis (L.) Britt. (U) Vernonia texana (Gray) Small (U) Viola primulifolia L. (L) Viola triloba Schwin. (U) Viola villosa Walt. (U) lowland. Japanese honeysuckle was more abundant in the lowland as a result of a dense local population. Herbaceous species totaled 133 with 88 being collected from the upland and 40 from the lowland (Table 5) . Only 5 species were com¬ mon in both areas. It should be noted, however, that some of the spe¬ cies collected from the lowland and upland areas of this study have been observed on upland and lowland sites, respectively, in other areas. DISCUSSION Tharp (1926) and Schuster (1967) listed loblolly pine, post oak, southern red oak, and sweetgum as dominants in the Pine-oak Forest 78 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE region. These same species were dominant in this study in the upland area with the exception of loblolly pine. Our lowland, however, was dominated by American hornbeam, white oak, and sweetgum respec¬ tively. Tharp (1926, 1939) and Bray (1906) listed these and other species as being prevalent in east Texas bottomland forests but gave little information concerning relative abundance. The upland and lowland areas were quite contrasting in dominant species and in the kinds of species present. This difference must, in part, be due to variation in moisture content of the soil. The lowland is transected by a small creek and there was ample soil moisture, par¬ ticularly at lower depths, throughout the growing season. Moisture I content of upland soils was less than that of lowland, but differences I were not excessive. Contrast may have been greater if it were not for the extremely wet year encountered by the Nacogdoches area. Under average conditions, upland areas in east Texas become dry during the summers mainly because of the sandy texture of the soil. Bray (1906) indicated the soils of east Texas were more favorable to upland pine and oaks. Pine, sweetgum, and hickory were reported by Tharp (1939) to be more common on sandy upland soils whereas oaks were dominant on the tighter upland soils. Soil analyses in this study showed little variation in soil texture and nutrient content be¬ tween upland and lowland soils at 6 and 24 inch levels. There is, how¬ ever, a relatively impermeable sandy-clay layer which is usually closer to the surface in upland areas. Soil pH was also variable with lowland soils being more acid. These factors could influence the growth and distribution of some species. The lowland area, as a result of superimposed canopies, was densely shaded. This condition undoubtedly has determined the presence or absence of many woody and herbaceous plant species. Dense tree growth reduced understory yields in a nearby area examined by Schuster (1967). The reduced number of individuals and species of herbaceous plants in our lowland area must, in part, be due to the shading effect. LITERATURE CITED Bouyoucos, G. J., 1962 — Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses of soil. Agron. /., 54: 464-465. Braun, E. L., 1950 — Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia. Bray, W. L., 1906 — Distribution and adaptation of the vegetation of Texas. Univ. Texas Bull., 82. Carter, W. T., 1931 — The soils of Texas. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull,, 431. A VEGETATION AL ANALYSIS OF AN AREA 79 Cory, V. L., and H. B. Parks, 1937 — Catalogue of the flora of the State of Texas. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., 550. Fraps, G. S., and J. F, Fudge, 1937 — Chemical composition of soils of Texas. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., 549, Gould, F. W., 1 962-— Texas plants — A checklist and ecological summary. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., MP-585. Kral, R., 1966 — Observations on the flora of the southeastern United States with special reference to northern Louisiana. Sida, 2(6) : 395-408. Parks, H. B., and V. L. Cory, 1936 — Biological survey of the east Texas big thicket area. Sam Houston State Teachers College, Huntsville, Texas. Schuster, J. L., 1967 — The relation of understory vegetation to cutting treatments and habitat factors in an east Texas pine-hardwood type. Southw. Nat., 12(4): 339-364, Tharp, B. C., 1926 — Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th meridian. Univ. Tex. Bull., 2606. - , 1939 — The Vegetation of Texas. The Anson Jones Press, Houston. United States Department of Agriculture, 1941 — Climate and Man. Yearbook of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Effects of Pulp Mill Water on Plankton and Productivity^ by E. D. MICHAEL^ and J. W. CHAMBLESS^ Department of Biology, Stephen F. Austin State University N acogdoches, 75961 INTRODUCTION Industrial pulp and paper mill effluents are commonly discharged into natural waterways after being routed through a sedimentation and biotic breakdown process. In the aquatic environment the waste materials are further broken down and diluted to the extent that even¬ tually they may have no ill effects on living organisms. The waste effluents, which are quite different from natural waters in regard to color, temperature, smell, and appearance, initially create unnatural situations in the natural waterways. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of pulp mill effluents on phytoplankton, crus¬ tacean, and rotifer populations. METHODS AND MATERIALS To test the effects of pulp mill effluent, water was maintained in 10 plastic wading pools, 2 m wide and 38 cm deep in Nacogdoches, Texas. These pools were kept in a field laboratory situation from Sep¬ tember 1968 through April 1969, and were thus exposed to daily and seasonal changes of environmental factors. Initially, 7 of the pools contained concentrations varying from 50 to 75% of effluent taken from the discharge stream below a pulp mill and the other 3 pools contained pond water taken from a natural pond. Productivity was measured by oxygen production as determined by the light and dark bottle method (Cox, 1967). Water samples were collected in 640 ml widemouth bottles with screw cap, and aluminum foil and freezer tape were used to prepare the dark bottles. The water 1 This research was conducted as part of a water pollution study supported by the School of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University. 2 Present Address: Department of Wildlife Management, West Virginia Uni¬ versity, Morgantown 26506. 3 Present Address: Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State College, Stephen ville, Texas. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 82 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE was tested for dissolved oxygen by an azide modification of the Wink¬ ler method with the Hach model DR-EL laboratory kit. Quantitative studies of zooplankton (crustaceans and rotifers, only) were made with a number 20 plankton net. The volume of water sampled was 84.4 liters, which was condensed to 1 8 ml in a test tube attached to the plankton net. This 18 ml water sample was returned to the laboratory for examination. Temperature was measured with a standard Fahrenheit thermom¬ eter at a distance of 45 cm from the edge of the pools and a depth of 10 cm. Turbidity, nitrate, phosphate, silica, and tannin concentrations were measured with a Hach model DR-EL laboratory kit and pH was determined with a Beckman Pocket pH meter. Twenty fingerling channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus ) were added to each pool in October. A commercial food was fed daily at the rate of 20 g (dry weight) per pool during October, November and March. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical aspects of the pools changed during the study, with tem¬ peratures being slightly higher in the effluent, probably because its dark color absorbed more radiant energy. In October, pulp mill water was 4°F higher than pond water but by March temperatures did not differ. At the beginning of the study turbidity and tannin concentra¬ tions were higher in the effluent than in the pond water. However, as the study progressed both values decreased in all ponds (Fig. 1). The pH value was slightly higher in effluent than in pond water throughout the study. In October pond water had an average pH of 6.7 (range, 6.4-7. 0) as compared to the effluent with an average of 7.7 (range, 7.2-8. 0). In December the pond water had increased to 8.7 (8. 7-8.8) compared to effluent with 8.8 (8. 7-9.0) . In March it was 8.5 (8.4-8. 7) in pond water and 8.9 (8. 7-9.2) in effluent. Nitrate (as nitrate nitrogen) averaged 1.32 ppm in the effluent as compared to 2.64 in the pond water. Phosphate (as orthophosphate) averaged 1.85 ppm in the effluent as compared to 0.93 in the pond water. Silica averaged 1 1 .4 ppm in the effluent as compared to 4.08 in the pond water. These concentrations were measured only at the be¬ ginning of the study. Occasional blooms of phytoplankton appeared in both water types during the study but no obvious differences between the 2 were noted. Phytoplankters were very similar in all pools, but pulp water appeared to have a wider variety of species ( an average of 1 0 as compared to 8 in pond water). The list given in Table 1 is probably not complete EFFECTS OF PULP MILL WATER ON PLANKTON AND PRODUCTIVITY 83 Fig. L Seasonal variations (October— March) of turbidity and tannin concentrations in pond water and water containing pulp mill effluent. since many of the very small algal cells passed through the plankton net. Each water-type contained a wide variety of algae but in general, green algae appeared to be more abundant in pond water whereas blue- green algae and diatoms were more abundant in pulp mill water. No quantitative data were taken on filamentous algae but they seemed to be more dense in pulp mill water. There were obvious differences in the crustacean and rotifer pop¬ ulations supported by the 2 water types (Fig. 2) .Crustaceans were most numerous in pond water throughout the study but differences were smallest during December and January when water tempera¬ tures and crustacean populations were lowest. They rose to their high¬ est densities in the spring in both water types but were considerably more abundant in the pond water. No explanation for this difference is available since water quality in all pools was similar in the spring. The crustaceans observed were almost entirely Diaptomus or Cyclops^ although Ostracods did appear toward the end of the study. Rotifer populations presented an interesting contrast to that of crus- 84 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE taceans. In the fall, rotifer populations were highest in pulp mill water, but again became higher in this water type in the spring (Fig. 2). Large numbers of rotifers in the pulp mill water when tempera¬ tures were higher and a population decrease when temperatures de¬ clined indicates that temperature was acting in association with some other factor, possibly solid matter. Particulate matter not only serves as a place for rotifer attachment but also as a place for bacteria and algae to accumulate (Edmonson, 1946). In the spring, rotifer popula¬ tions never reached previously high densities, due possibly to the de¬ cline in tannin and turbidity and the associated decrease of suspended particles. Community metabolism, as measured by oxygen production, in¬ dicated that pulp mill water was somewhat more active than pond water (Fig. 3). Gross production, net production, and community res¬ piration were quite similar for all pools. Gross productivity was slightly higher for pond water during October but throughout the rest Table 1 Phytoplankton populations present in test pools, October 1968 through March 1969. Three pools contained pond water and seven pools contained pulp mill water. Organism Percent of Pools Pond Water in which Organisms OccuiTed Pulp Mill Effluent Green Algae Pediastrum 67 0 Scenedesmus 67 43 colonial green 67 43 unicellular green 100 100 green flagellate 33 86 brown-green filament 0 71 Mougeota 33 14 Selenastrum 33 100 A nkistrodesmus 67 86 Desmids Cosmarium 100 14 Staurastrum 100 57 Unknown green filament 33 57 Blue green algae Anahaena 0 100 Diatoms Synedra 33 100 Navicula 0 100 Pinnularia 33 86 EFFECTS OF PULP MILL WATER ON PLANKTON AND PRODUCTIVITY 85 of the study pulp mill water was higher. In the beginning, pond water had a greater gross production and also a much greater respiration which resulted in less net production. Toward the end of the study when tannins had declined considerably gross and net production of the pulp mill water increased, and exceeded that of pond water. Since pond water was becoming less productive at this time, tannin content does not seem to be the primary causative agent. The channel catfish kept in the effluent did not differ significantly in weight from those kept in pond water. Fish in both types averaged 13.4 g each in October, whereas in March those in effluent averaged 15.5 gas compared to 15.8 g for those in pond water. CONCLUSIONS Pulp mill and pond water in plastic pools exposed to natural me- terological factors supported different densities of rotifers and crus- X — X ro+ifers - mill water Fig. 2. Seasonal populations (October— April) of rotifers and Crustacea in pond water and water containing pulp mill effluent. 86 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE O N D J F M Fig. 3. Seasonal changes (October— March) in gross and net oxygen production of pond water and water containing pulp mill effluent. taceans. Pond water appeared to be better suited to growth of crus¬ taceans while the pulp mill water supported larger numbers of roti¬ fers. At present, a suitable explanation for this difference is not avail¬ able. A qualitative examination of the phytoplankton indicated some similarity in algal species present. In general, green algae were more abundant in pond water and blue-green algae and diatoms predom¬ inated in pulp mill water. Productivity studies indicated some differ¬ ences in metabolic activity of the 2 water types. At the start of the study pond water appeared more stable with greater production and greater utilization. As the study progressed conditions became more WATER TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF PULP MILL WATER ON PLANKTON AND PRODUCTIVITY 87 favorable in pulp mill water and its production increased. This may have been partially associated with the decline in turbidity and tannin concentration or with nutrient depletion or nutrient release due to bacterial action. LITERATURE CITED CoXj G. W., 1967 — Laboratory Manual of General Ecology, Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa. Edmonson, W. T., 1946 — Factors in the dynamics of rotifer populations. Ecol. Monog., 16(4): 357-372. The Effects of Ethanol- Water and Dimethyl Sulfoxide- Water Solvent Systems on the Conductivity of Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, and Potassium Chloride by BILLY J. YAGER and TERRY W, COWLEY Department of Chemistry Southwest Texas State University^ San Marcos 78666 ABSTRACT The equivalent conductance at infinite dilution (Aq) hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and potassium chloride were measured in dimethyl sulfoxide-water and ethanol- water mixtures in which the organic phase was varied from 0 to 50% by volume. The added ethanol decreased the conductance of each electrolyte by equivalent amounts. The dimethyl sulfoxide decreased the conductance of the sodium hydroxide to a greater extent than that of the other 2 electrolytes. This is contrary to the theory of selective solvation of cations by aprotic solvents. INTRODUCTION Considerable attention has been directed recently toward the effect of solvents on reaction rates. Such parameters as dielectric constant, nucleophilicity, and ionizing power have been used in attempts to cor¬ relate solvent properties with their effect on reaction rates. (For a dis¬ cussion, see Amis, 1966.) While no generally successful method of correlation has been found, certain general trends have been observed. One of these is the effect of widely different types of solvents — namely protic and aprotic — on rates of nucleophilic substitution reactions. Protic solvents such as water and alcohols have slightly acidic protons due to their attachment to the electronegative oxygen. The aprotic sol¬ vents considered, such as dimethylsulfoxide and dimethylformamide, are polar enough to be quite soluble in water but do not have acidic protons. Rates of nucleophilic substitution reactions generally increase markedly as the solvent becomes more aprotic. (For example, Kings¬ bury, 1964; Tommila, 1964; Yager, et al. 1969). The increase is gen¬ erally attributed to an increase in the activity of the nucleophile caused by selective solvation of cations over anions by the protic sol¬ vent (Parker, 1965). The aprotic solvent with no acidic hydrogens but with a rather definite negative center should solvate cations very The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 90 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE well but not be significantly attracted to anions. The anions, thus largely free of a solvation shell, should be more able to fulfill the role of a nucleophile. This theory is consistent with observed reaction rates but as yet there has been no concrete evidence that the activity of the anion is actually increased by aprotic solvents. A. J. Parker has done considerable work in attempting to validate the theory by determining the activity of hydroxide and other anions by emf measurement (Parker and Alexander, 1967; 1968). This approach is complicated by the fact that the activities obtained are average values for the ca¬ tion and anion. Thus changes caused by selective solvation tend to ' “average out,” | It was felt that the proposed solvation effects could be tested by de- ' termining the conductance of various solutions (acid, base, and salt) 1 in protic and aprotic solvent sysetems. Since conductance in a solution , depends on the ability of the ions present to carry the current, it | seemed that this study would offer unique insights into the effect of the solvent on the mobility and transport number of the ions. This information would reflect changes in activity of ions caused by the solvents. While both cations and anions carry current and hence affect conductance, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are particularly effec¬ tive in transporting current. Thus it was felt that if the effects of protic or aprotic solvents were non-symmetric on cations and anions, this should be particularly evident on acids and bases. Protic solvents such as ethanol should affect the conductance of acids and bases by parallel amounts because of the acidic hydrogen and basic oxygen this can coordinate with anions and cations respectively. However, the con¬ ductance of an acid should be decreased to a greater extent by an' aprotic solvent than that of a base whose hydroxide ions should be less solvated than hydrogen ions. The mobility of the hydroxide ion theo¬ retically should be affected less than that of a hydrogen ion by aprotic solvents. EXPERIMENTAL Equivalent conductances (A) and equivalent conductances at in¬ finite dilution (Ao) were determined for sodium hydroxide, hydro¬ chloric acid, and potassium chloride solutions in solvent systems of ethanol-water (EtOH-HgO) and dimethylsulfoxide-water (DMSO- H2O). The solvent systems were varied from pure water to 50% or¬ ganic solvent (by volume) and the electrolyte concentrations were varied from 0.02 N to 0.0001 5 N. Stock solutions of the electrolytes were prepared by standard meth- 91 i EFFECTS OF ETHANOL- AND DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE-WATER ods in each solvent system used and the desired concentrations were prepared by dilution of these stock solutions. Deionized water was used for all solutions. Commercial anhydrous ethanol (U. S. Industrial chemicals') was used without further purification. Likewise, the prop¬ erties of commerical DMSO (Baker’s Reagent Grade) were found to agree with literature values without further purification. Conductance readings were taken with a Model RC-18 Industrial Instruments conductivity bridge in conjunction with a Jones and Bol¬ linger type cell with a cell constant of approximately 0.75 cm.“^. The solutions and cell were equilibrated in a constant temperature bath (35.00°C ± 0.02°C) before the readings were taken. The conductance was taken of 6 concentrations of each electrolyte (from 0.02 to 0.0015 A^) in each solvent system to establish the con¬ centration-conductance relationship necessary to obtain Ao by extra¬ polation. Considerable care was necessary in the preparation and trans¬ fer of the sodium hydroxide solutions to prevent absorption of atmos¬ pheric CO2. These operations were carried out in a nitrogen-filled plas¬ tic bag. All determinations were done in duplicate and agreement be¬ tween these was generally within 2%. When disagreement occurred, sufficient trials were run to establish a confident value. Since rather dilute solutions were used, the measured conductance was corrected for the conductance of the solvent system by equation (1), where K is the specific conductance for the noted solutions. K is product of the cell constant and the measured conductance. K = K — K (1) solute solution solvent Equivalent conductances, A, were calculated from the specific con¬ ductance by equation (2) , where C is the solute concentration A = 1000 K solute "C (2) in equivalents per liter. Values of A were plotted versus V C to give a linear plot which was extrapolated to V C ~ O to give the value of Ao. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The values of Ao obtained in the various solvent systems are given in Table 1 and shown graphically in Figures 1 and 2. In direct com¬ parison it can be seen that in almost every case, the conductance of the electrolyte is greater in the ethanol- water solutions than in the 92 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DMSO-water solutions. However, direct comparisons are of limited value in considering the ion-solvating effect of the organic solvents because such factors as viscosity and dielectric constants also influence conductance of the ions (Robinson and Stokes, 1965). To compare the effect of the different types of solvents on the acid and base, a relation similar to the Grunwald- Weinstein equation (1948) was used. The effects of changes in solvent on a standard compound are compared to the effects of the same solvent change on other compounds. (^) = <"> H2O KCl H2O HClorNaOH KCl was chosen as the standard electrolyte because the 2 ions have equal mobility (in water). Water was chosen as the standard solvent and the Ao of each electrolyte in the various solvent systems was di¬ vided by the Ao of that compound in water. Plots of these values are EFFECTS OF ETHANOL- AND DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE- WATER 93 shown in Figure 3 for Et0H-H20 and in Figure 4 for DMSO-H2O mixtures. K in the equations is a proportionality constant reflecting the difference in solvent effects on the electrolytes. The line drawn in both graphs is for K = 1 which means the effect of the solvent on the electrolytes is equal. This line is followed almost exactly by both the HCl and NaOH in the EtOH- water solutions. This is surprising only in the comparison to KCL Both H+ and OH” have high mobility due to the Grotthaus conductance mechanism and it might be expected that addition of ethanol would disrupt this mechanism. However, if such disruption did occur it was directly proportional to the ethanol concentration and affected acid and base equally. 94 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE In the DMSO solutions, it was expected that increased amounts of DMSO would lower the conductance of the acid more than that of the base due to the postulated selective solvation of the H+ by the aprotic solvent. However, the change in conductance of both acid and base is generally proportional to that of KCl until rather high concentrations of DMSO are reached (Fig. 3). Then the NaOH conductance is lowered more than that of the HCL This is in conflict with the current theory of selective solvation and no simple explanation is offered. The possibility of trace amounts of acidic impurities in the DMSO was considered. These would affect the conductance of a base, es¬ pecially at high concentrations of DMSO. However, attempts to further purify the DMSO by either distillation or fractional crystalli¬ zation had no effect on the physical properties or the conductance of the solutions. Passing the DMSO through a column of activated EFFECTS OF ETHANOL- AND DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE-WATER 95 alumina likewise had no effect. Thus the presence of acidic impurities seemed unlikely. Another possibility is that the hydroxide ions may be involved in a base catalyzed keto-enol equilibrium to an extent so as to significantly reduce conductance when low concentrations of base are used in high concentrations of DMSO. No information could be found in the literature concerning the extent of enolization of DMSO or the effect of base concentration on such enolization. In conclusion, evidence has been obtained which contradicts the current theory of selective solvation of cations by aprotic solvents. No explanation other than possible base-catalyzed enolization is offered for the unexpected decrease of conductance of NaOH in DMSO solutions. 96 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Equivalent conductances at infinite dilution in ethanol (ETOH) -water and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) -water systems Ao (cm2 equiv. ohm-1) solvent systems KCl HCl NaOH Kd HCl NaOH Ha© 182*6 479,5 287,5 18-2.6 479.5 287,5 10% ETOH 143.1 406.3 236.3 10% -DMSO 15§.2 39-7.5 236,5 20% ETOH 117 .-0 335.2 198.9 20% DMSO 117,8 326,2 189,9 301 ETOH 100*S 272.2 165.6 30% DMSO 56,0 258,0 144,9 40% ETOH 85,6 224.6 140.0 401 DMSO 73.1 204,0 109,4 50% ETOH 75.0 186.3 117.0 50% DMSO iO.O 151.5- 76.5 60%. DIffiO 4-7.9 loa-, 0 LITERATURE CITED Amis, E, S., 1966 — Solvent Effects on Reaction Rates and Mechanisms. Academic Press, New York, Chapter 2. Grunwalu, E., and S. Weinstein, 1948 — -The co'ixelation of solvolysis rates. /. Amer, Chem. Soc.^ 70': 846. Kingsbury, C. A., 1964 — The mechanism of dimethyl sulfoxide catalysis in nucleo¬ philic displacement. L Org. Ckem., 29: 3262. Parker, A. J., 1965 — Advances in Chemistry; Methods and Results. VoL 5, Inter¬ science Publisher, New York, pp. 1-46. Parker, A. J., and R. Alexander, 1967 — Solvation of ions, XII, changes in standard chemical potential of anions or transference from protic to^ dipolar aprotic^ solvents. /, Amer. Chem. Soc., 89: 5549. - , 1968 — Solvation of ions XIII, Solvent activity coefficients of ions in protic and aprotic solvents. A comparison of extrathermodynamic assumptions. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 90: 3313. Robinson, R. A., and R. H, Stokes, 1965 — Electrolyte Solutions^ 2nd ed. Plenum Press, New York, p. 308. Tommila, E., 1964 — The influence of the solvent on reaction velocity XXVII, the alkaline hydrolysis of carboxylic esters in aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide, acetone, and dioxane. Suomen Kem, 37B; 117; Chem. Abst., 63: 11280C (1965). Yager, B. J., C. B. Kay, J. D. Mastrovigh, and L. E. Whittington, 1969' — The variation of saponification rate constants of three aliphatic esters in several aqueous-organic solvent systems. Tex. L Sci.^ 21 (1 ) : 3-11. Fluid-Phase Behavior of Binary Mixtures of Some Aliphatic and Polycyclic Hydrocarbons by J. G. ROOF* Exploration and Production Research Center Shell Development Company, Houston 77025 ABSTRACT Obsen'ations have been made on the phase behavior, at elevated pressures and at temperatures around 100°C, of binary hydrocarbon systems of propane with acenaphthene, fluorene, fluoranthene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene, and of phenanthrene with i-butane and n-butane. Coexistent liquid phases were observed in the propane-fluoranthene, propane-phenanthrene, and i-butane-phenanthrene mixtures. The width of the miscibility gap decreased to zero with increase in pressure. The results are discussed qualitatively. INTRODUCTION Often the addition of light hydrocarbons to a crude oil under pres¬ sure causes a separation into multiple fluid phases. The formation of more than one liquid phase can be of practical concern in refining and in certain types of secondary recovery, such as propane flooding or enriched-gas injection. Our interest in the occurrence of 2 (or more) liquid phases in complex natural systems led us to make studies on simpler mixtures of hydrocarbons. For example, observations were made at elevated pressure and temperature on 4-component mixtures: methane, propane, hexane, and either octadecane or phenanthrene or squalane. Under our experimental conditions we found in these systems neither 2 coexistent liquid phases nor an unusual type of dew¬ point behavior noted by Rutherford (1962) on a natural system with added light components. Our first observations on the coexistence of 2 liquid phases in mix¬ tures of 2 hydrocarbons were reported (Roof and Crawford, 1958) at a time when we were aware of no other observations on the occurrence of this phenomenon in such systems. It now appears that by 1954 a few cases were known (Francis, 1954). Subsequent reports show that hydrocarbons as similar as the 2 paraffins methane and heptane (Kohn, 1961 ) form 2 liquid phases over a small range of pressure and * Present address: Galveston College, Galveston 77550'. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 98 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE temperature near the critical region of methane, whereas methane and hexane (Shim and Kohn, 1962) do not form 2 liquid phases. This report presents the results of our observations on the fluid-phase behavior of some binary hydrocarbon mixtures near the melting point of the polycyclic constituent and the critical temperature of the ali¬ phatic constituent. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE The following chemicals were used as received, without further purification: propane, Matheson, extra pure; n-butane and i-butane, Phillips Petroleum, instrument grade; acenaphthene, fluorene, and phenanthrene, Eastman, white label; fluoranthene, Matheson, Cole¬ man and Bell, pure; naphthalene, Baker, C.P. Visual observations of phase behavior were made in our new in¬ ternal-window cell. Although there are several differences in design and instrumentation, this cell is roughly equivalent to the one des¬ cribed earlier by Wells and Roof (1955). After a weighed quantity of the solid had been introduced, the cell was closed and evacuated at room temperature. Successive measured additions of the aliphatic hydrocarbons were then made. From the known volumetric behavior (Sage and Lacey, 1950) of these lighter hydrocarbons near room temperature and at 2000 psia pressure, the number of moles added was calculated. The volumetric range of the cell was not sufficiently great to permit observations on the lower dew point of these systems. No consistent attempt was made to determine the relatively high pressure at which a solid phase appeared at low mole fractions of the aliphatic com¬ ponent. Only the bubble-point pressure, the upper dew-point pressure, and the 3-phase (Li + La + V) pressure are reported. RESULTS The observations on each system are summarized in Figures 1 through 7 as isothermal plots of pressure versus composition. Within FLUID-PHASE BEHAVIOR OF BINARY MIXTURES 99 the range of variables employed, 2 coexistent liquid phases were not observed in the propane-naphthalene (Figure 1), propane-acenaph- thene (Figure 2), or propane-fluorene (Figure 3) mixtures or in the n-butane-phenanthrene (Figure 7) system. Two liquids were formed under certain conditions in the propane-fluoranthene (Figure 4) and propane-phenanthrene (Figure 5) systems and in the i-butane- phen- anthrene (Figure 6) system. TYPES OF SYSTEMS Figures 1 through 7 can be identified with certain “typical” phase diagrams sketched in Figure 8. For present purposes only, the several diagrams will be classified by Roman numerals. Type I is normally encountered in a system of component A and a more volatile com¬ ponent B when A and B are not greatly unlike in their molecular properties and when the temperature is below the critical temperature of each component. (With one possible exception. Type I was not met in these systems.) If A and B are more unlike, the bubble-point locus may tend toward a flat region, as in Type II at temperatures below the critical temperature of B or as in Type Ilia at temperatures above Fig. 1. Naphthalene-propane at 81 °C. 100 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 2. Aenaphthene-propone at 96° and 101 °C. the critical temperature of B. If A and B are still more unlike in properties, instead of Type II we may find Type IV. Here a region occurs in which 2 liquid phases* Li and Lg coexist, and there is a pressure, shown by the dashed horizontal line, at which these 2 liquids can be in equilibrium with a vapor. If the temperature is above the critical temperature of B, the Li + V wing no longer extends to the right edge of the diagram (Type V). As the temperature is raised further, this wing decreases in size and finally disappears to give Type mb. Types Illb and Ilia are roughly similar in shape, and the areas are labeled similarly. However, Type Illb evolved from a system' exhibiting 2 liquid phases, whereas Type Ilia came about without passing through such a state. Most of the experimental results can be readily identified wdth the types just described. The naphthalene-propane system at 81 °C (Figure 1) is Type II. The vapor pressure of pure propane (Sage and Lacey, 1950) is indi¬ cated by the cross at the upper right edge of the plot. Similarly, acenaphthene-propane at 96 °C (lower curve, Figure 2) is Type II, However, since 101°C is above the critical temperature of propane, as given in Table 1, the upper curve must be of Type Ilia, Experimental data. are not available above 97 mole percent propane to locate the critical point and to demonstrate the downward plunge of the two-phase envelope. * Lj and Lg are liquid phases, V is the vapor (or gas) phase, and F is the super¬ critical fluid phase that cannot unequivocally be designated as either liquid or gas. FLUID-PHASE BEHAVIOR OF BINARY MIXTURES 101 Fig. 3. Fluorene-propane at 131'^C. Fluorene -propane at 131 °C (Figure 3) is not readily identifiable as Type Ilia or Illb, or possibly even as Type I (above the critical tem¬ perature of B) . Observations at a lower temperature ('^115°C) should be useful for this purpose. Fluoranthene-propane at 1 1 1 °C (Figure 4) is Type IV. The temper¬ ature is above the critical temperature of propane, and the horizontal line (L2 + Li + V) was observed over a wide range of composition. The Li + F wing must be quite small, since the experimental obser¬ vations to 98 mole percent propane had not yet closed the L2+ Li envelope. The maximum pressure of that envelope was almost 5500 psia, far higher than that of any other system studied. Table 1 Selected properties of hydrocarbons Component Critical temperature,* Component Melting point, °C Propane 96.7 Naphthalene 80 i-Butane 135.0 Acenaphthene 95 n-Butane 152.0 Phenanthrene 100 Fluoranthene no Fluorene 115 * Kudcliadker, et al. (1968). PRESSURE, psia 102 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MOLE PERCENT PROPANE Fig. 5, Pfienaiithrene-propaiii.e. FLUID-PHASE BEHAVIOR OF BINARY MIXTURES 103 Phenanthrene-propane (Figure 5) was studied in 8 runs at 4 tem¬ peratures. Individual experimental observations are not plotted with the averaged curves. At 90°C the system is Type IV, at 101° and 111°C it is Type V, and at 131 °C it is Type Illb. The curve for 90° is incomplete because of the presence of solid at high phenanthrene content at this temperature, which is about 11°C below the melting point of that substance. Phenanthrene-i-butane (Figure 6) was of Type IV at 101 °C and 111 °C. By contrast, phenanthrene-n-butane (Figure 7) was of Type II at 96 °C. These 2 butanes are quite different in their phase behavior with phenanthrene. DISCUSSION Two liquid phases can occur in hydrocarbon systems only under rather special conditions. Examples were unknown 20 years ago, and prediction of the conditions is not yet quantitative. Statements that like dissolves like or that flat molecules intermix with other flat mole¬ cules more readily than with spherical molecules are of little use here. Hildebrand’s solubility parameters (Hildebrand and Scott, 1950) can be of qualitative value in making estimates of some types of misci¬ bility. Information is not always available for determination for sub¬ stances at elevated temperature and pressure; even at room temper¬ ature the use of these parameters is not always an adequate guide for the prediction of miscibility. A more promising approach to the prediction of miscibility in hydrocarbon systems is the group-interaction approach (Redlich, et al.^ 1959) which has proved useful in predicting solution behavior of certain binary hydrocarbon mixtures. However, it appears not yet to be sufficiently developed to permit prediction of miscibility of mole¬ cules of such dissimilar substances as we are considering here. For example, more must be known concerning the entropy of mixing of molecules which have such different molecular volumes as phen¬ anthrene and propane have. Perhaps the data recorded in this report can be of aid in furthering the development of the group-interaction approach to properties of solutions. At one time it was thought (Francis, 1954) that for 2 hydrocarbons to be incompletely miscible much below the critical temperature, one had to be an aromatic molecule of at least 3 condensed rings. Our data would appear to agree rather well with this: acenaphthene, fluorene, and naphthalene were not observed to form 2 liquid phases with propane, whereas phenanthrene and fluoranthene did. However, 104 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 6. Phenanthrene-i-butane at 101° and 111-C. MOLE PERCENT Q-BUTANE Fig. 7. Phenanthr@ne-n-butane at 96 °C. observations on methane-heptane mixtures (Kohn, 1961) show that this is not the whole story. There is increasing evidence that a separa¬ tion into 2 liquid phases is most likely at temperatures near the critical temperature of the more volatile component. Evidence now available suggests the desirability of further observations on selected binary and more complex hydrocarbon systems. FLUID-PHASE BEHAVIOR OF BINARY MIXTURES 105 Fig. 8. “Typical” phase diagrams. ACKNOWLEDGMENT J. D. Baron of this laboratory performed most of the experimental work reported above. LITERATURE CITED Francis, A. W., 1954 — In The Chemistry of Petroleum Hydrocarbons. B. T. Brooks, et al. (Eds.) Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, Chap. 9. Hildebrand, J. H., and R. Scott, 1950 — The Solubility of Nonelectrolytes, 3rd ed. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. Kohn, j, P., 1961 — Heterogeneous phase and volumetric behavior of the methane- n-heptane system at low temperatures. /. Amer. Inst. Chem. Engr., 7: 514. Kudchadker, a, P., G. H. Alani, and B. J, Zwolinski, 1968 — The critical con¬ stants of organic substances. Chem. Revs., 68: 659. Redlich, O., E. L. Derr, and G. J. Pierotti, 1959 — Group Interaction, I-A model for interaction in solutions. /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 81: 2283. 106 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Roof, J. G., and N, W. Crawford, Jr., 1958 — Phenanthrene-isobutane: binary ’ hydrocarbon system having two liquid phases. J. Phys. Chem., 62: 1138. Rutherford, W. M., 1962 — Miscibility relationships in the displacement of oil by j light hydrocarbons. Soc. Petroleum Engrs. 2: 340. [j Sage, B. H., and W. N. Lacey, 1950 — Thermodynamic Properties of the Lighter ' Hydrocarbons and Nitrogen, Amer. Petroleum Inst., New York. Shim, J., and J. P. Kohn, 1962 — Multiphase and volumetric equilibrium of methane- j n-hexane binary system at temperatures between — 110°C and 150°C. 7. Chem. i Eng. Data, 7: 3. ; Wells, F. W., and J. G. Roof, 1955 — Pressure vessel with internal window. Res. Sci. Instr., 26: 403. Determination of Acid-Base Mechanisms of Boron- Containing Compounds— Applications of “B NMR by RALPH. LOGAN, JR.^ Department of Chemistry, Laredo Jr. College, Laredo, 78040 ABSTRACT nmr has been used in a successful attempt to differentiate between 2 possible acid-base mechanisms for boron-nitrogen compounds. In general, a protic acid-base exchange involves a small chemical shift and drastic line broadening of the boron signal. However, a Lewis acid-base mechanism involves a rather large upheld chemical shift and considerable line narrowing of the boron signal. In addition, two other applications for nmr are projected for future research. INTRODUCTION Since 1946 nmr instrumentation particularly proton nmr has been increasingly useful in analyzing the structure of compounds. How¬ ever, structure analysis is only a part of what nmr has accomplished in the past and may accomplish in the future. As an example, mechanistic studies have flourished due to nmr technology. Thermodynamic and kinetic rate studies have particularly benefited in this respect (Roberts, 1959) as have tracer studies (Lauterber, 1962). Indeed, inorganic chemists have begun to realize the utility of nmr in the study of bridge compounds like the boranes as well as the boron hydrides (People et aL, 1959). Furthermore, in¬ organic chemistry has a considerable future for nmr. Isotopes of lithium (^Li), sodium (^^Na), aluminum (^^Al), silicon (^^Si), phos¬ phorus (^^P), sulfur (®®S), cobalt (®°Co), selenium (^^Se), tin (^^®Sn), mercury, (^®®Hg), thalium (^^^Tl), lead (^°^Pb), and boron (“B) are all considered to give a nuclear magnetic resonance signal since they have nuclear magnetic moments (Varian Associates). The major drawback with many of the above elements is their low inherent sensitivity which requires the samples to be rather large and concen¬ trated. This in turn decreases the resolution by broadening the reson¬ ance peaks. 1 Present address: P.O. Box 12, Southern Baptist College, Walnut Ridge, Arkansas 72476. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 108 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Until recently, organic chemists have applied nmr primarily to chemical structure analysis by comparing spectra, but new fields of interest to the organic chemist have involved different uses of nmr. Organic chemists working on mechanistic studies have been able to utilize nmr in kinetic and thermodynamic factors, intermediate analysis, transition state chemistry, and structural analysis of product formation. Acid-base mechanistic study has always been extremely important. This is particularly true when one considers that many feel that chemical reactions may be classified as acid-base, or oxidation-reduc¬ tion chemistry (Gregg, 1968). In addition, boron chemistry has been considered in the past as clear domain for the inorganic chemist. Recently, however, great progress has been made incorporating boron into organic molecules and studying the chemistry of such species (Dewar, 1964) . Particularly important are the boron-nitrogen, boron- oxygen, and boron-sulfur containing compounds of cyclic organic species (Dewar and Jones, 1967) . Since boron chemistry has been tremendously important from the standpoint of its acid-base chemistry (Lewis, 1923; Luder and Zuf- fanti, 1946; Bell, 1952), it would seem only reasonable and quite re¬ warding to combine organo-boron chemistry and acid-base studies while utilizing what we know about nmr. In essence, this is the topic of this article. The following ideas may be used to stimulate re¬ search performed as part of the course work at the senior and graduate levels. GENERAL THEORY OF NMR Both isotopes of boron, ^°B and ^^B, have nuclear magnetic moments with a nuclear spin quantum number of 3 and 3/2 respectively. This requires a resonance frequency of 6.405 Me sec"^ for ^®B nuclei and 19.124 Me sec“^ for ^^B nuclei at an external magnetic field intensity of 14,000 Gauss {11). Since the natural abundance of the ^^B nuclei is over 80%, the resonance is due to the ^^B nuclei, and the ^®B signal is a negligible factor. Of course, this resonance frequency of boron is considerably lower than the proton nmr frequency. Furthermore, the external magnetic field intensity will vary from the 14,000 Gauss cited above due to different electronic environments. Shielding caused by bonding and nonbonding electrons creating counter magnetic fields will make it necessary to increase the external field intensity correspondingly in order that the effective magnetic field intensity in which the boron nuclei experience will reach the re- DETERMINATION OF ACID-BASE MECHANISMS 109 quired 14,000 Gauss. Likewise, deshielding will allow a lower external magnetic field intensity necessary to cause the precessional frequency of the nuclei to be in resonance with the external fixed frequency. This produces the necessary resonance absorption signal. A standard must be used to observe relative chemical shifts measured in parts per million (ppm) . For nmr an ether-BFg complex solution may be used as a standard. It may be placed as an internal standard directly into the solution to be examined, or as an external standard, a sealed capsule of the reference standard may be dipped into the solution to be examined. Boron nuclei have comparatively low precessional frequencies and hence small magnetic field signal strengths. This results in a consider¬ ably lower inherent sensitivity than proton nmr, and consequently rather large and concentrated samples must be used. In addition, such samples are not spun as proton nmr samples are. The necessity for large samples and non-spinning technique results in rather large in¬ homogeneous irradiation and broad absorption peaks. Subsequently, small coupling constants due to spin-spin splitting of absorption signals are not observed. Fortunately, chemical shifts due to variation of electronic environments are large enough so that broad peaks do not present a problem in ^^B nmr. Any nucleus with a nuclear spin quantum number greater than one-half will have an electric quadrupole moment as a result of non- spherical charge distribution (Emsley, et al., 1966). The width of the boron signal varies greatly depending on the variation in quadrupole relaxation of the boron nucleus. Two opposing factors are responsible for the variation of relaxation (Dewar and Jones, 1967) . More symmetrical arrangement of bonding orbitals will tend to increase relaxation time (i.e., decrease rate of quadrupole relaxation), and therefore the signal half-height width should be narrower. In particular, the arrangement of bonding orbitals about the tetrahedrally bonded boron anion is more symmetrical than that about the planar trivalent boron atom. Therefore, the tetrahedral arrangement will have a smaller half -height peak width than a planar trivalent arrangement. The arrangement of the bonding orbitals creates a certain electric field gradient which interacts with the electric quadrupole moment of the boron nucleus. This interaction affects the relaxation time. A second source of relaxation is the fluctuation of electric potentials due to surrounding molecules. This has a small effect on quadrupole relaxation and is negligible for neutral molecules. If the compound has unsymmetrical charge distribution or full charges, this will decrease no THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE relaxation time (i.e., increase rate of quadrupole relaxation), and therefore increase half -height width of the signal. These 2 sources of quadrupole relaxation variation as well as the broadening due to field inhomogeneities of large, concentrated, non¬ spinning samples decides the amount of absorption peak broadening in nmr. APPLICATION OF NMR IN ACID-BASE STUDY OF BORON SPECIES^ It is commonly known that boron compounds, particularly B- hydroxy derivatives, may behave as protic acids (Dewar, 1964) or as Lewis acids (Edwards, et al.^ 1955). If such compounds behaved as protic acids, this should have little effect on the lower case hybridiza¬ tion of the boron nucleus (I). On the other hand, the resulting anion should increase the fluctuation of electric potentials between the mole¬ cules. Since the protic acid mechanism would not result in an increase in the electron density about the boron nucleus, little or no chemical shift should be observed in the ’^^B nmr spectrum after excessive basifi- cation. \-OH + X- ^B-0- + XH L / / \ \ B-OH + X- X-B-OH IL / / Furthermore, as has been previously noted, line width (half-height) should broaden since no symmetry variation of field gradients caused by the hybridized SP^ orbitals of boron is noted. This should result in no change in quadrupole relaxation due to field gradients. However, since you have an anionic species after basification, this will tend to increase the fluctuation of electric potentials and should result in an increase in line width unopposed by the above field gradient factor. This is exactly the case when one examines the ^^B nmr of species which act as protic acids. The chemical shift is small and the line width broadens drastically (Dewar and Jones, 1967) (Table 1 ) . On the other hand if such B-hydroxy derivatives behave as Lewis acids in which there is a nucleophilic addition to the empty boron orbital resulting in a tetrahedrally oriented anion (II), the results should be quite different. First, this addition should substantially in¬ crease the electron density about the boron nucleus. Therefore, the 1 Portions of this section were made possible while under a research assistantship for Prof. M. J, S. Dewar at The University of Texas at Austin, 1966-1968. DETERMINATION OF ACID-BASE MECHANISMS 111 Table 1 Chemical shifts for boron compounds in neutral and basic solutions (15) Compound Solvent 5* EBT AS! Line width at half height, Hz Boric Acid 10% NaOH-HgO —5.7 13.5 139 0-Toylboronic Acid 20% KOH-EtOH —5.6 23.5 291 Trimethyl Borate 20% NaOMe-MeOH —2.5 15.6 32 Phenylboronic Acid 10% NaOH-H20 —3.15 25.3 74 4-Hy droxy-4,3 - Boroxaro-Isoquinoline 20% KOH-EtOH —5.0 25.0 210 * Chemical shifts (ppm) relative to diethyl ether-boron trifloride complex, f Change in chemical shift upon passing from neutral to basic mediiun. Table 2 chemical shifts of boron-nitrogen compounds under neutral and alkaline conditions Compound Solvent Base a Chemical Shift (f) Line V.'idth at Half Height (Hz) Dimethyl None -36,9 1250 sulfoxide OH- -12.5 24.4 780 V4 - 8.7 28.2 565 1 fo _ och; "oli 3 U Tetrahydro- None -38.2 443 f uran -x' OH- -20.0 18.2 394 -H OCH- -11.3 26.9 283 6^^ Tetrahydro- None furan -41,0 -21.5 19.5 -11.4 29.6 (a) Chemical shift in ppm relative to dimethyl ether-boron trifluoride. (b) Change in chemical shift in passing from neutral to alkaline solution. 380 310 207 112 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE boron nucleus should be shielded more, and a large upheld shift should be observed. In addition, line width of the nmr signal should be affected. The drastic change from the sp^ hybridized orbital orientation to the more symmetrical sp^ orientation should cause a decrease in quadrupole relaxation due to a more symmetrical field gradient. This should result in a drastic narrowing of the nmr absorption peak. However, the resulting anionic species after basification should cause increased fluctuation of electric potentials about the charged molecules and should result in an increase of quadrupole relaxation, and there¬ fore an increase in line width. Fortunately, this is a small effect when compared to the field gradient effect. Therefore, a net decrease in line width should be noted. This is exactly the case with species that behave as Lewis acids. The chemical shift is upheld (shielding) and the line width is substantially decreased (Dewar, et al.^ 1968) (Table 2) . OTHER APPLICATIONS In addition to determining acid-base mechanistic behavior, ^^B nmr also may be used as a way of determining relative aromatic character of boron containing species. Considerable research has recently been carried out on boron containing hetero-aromatic and non-hetero¬ aromatic compounds (Dewar, 1964). ^^B nmr could be an excellent tool to gauge the relative aromaticity of these compounds. The more aromatic a species is the more it should resist any change in the sp- hybridization of the boron orbitals. This would be true if the boron nucleus was inserted as a heteroatom in an aromatic species. There¬ fore, strong boro-heteroaromatic compounds should tend to behave as protic acids if possible. If it were not capable of losing a proton, it would either have no effect or behave as a Lewis acid thereby destroy¬ ing the aromaticity. It is important in a situation such as this to choose a basic species with as nearly equal basic and nucleophilic character as possible so as not to bias your results. On the other hand, weaker heteroaromatic or non-heteroaromatic compounds would not resist the change in hybridization as much. Hence, these compounds should tend to behave as Lewis acids even though it is also capable of losing a proton. As far as the future is concerned, ^^B nmr may be used to construct a list of nucleophiles with relative nucleophilic character based on relative number of moles of the nucleophile to produce maximum chemical shift. The standard boron containing heteroaromatic com- DETERMINATION OF ACID-BASE MECHANISMS 113 pound would necessarily be a species that could behave as a protic or Lewis acid. LITERATURE CITED Roberts, 1959 — ‘^Nuclear Magnetic Resonance’' 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. Lauterbur, Paul C., 1962 — “Determination of Organic Structures by Physical Methods,” Vol. II, F. C. Nachod and W. D. Phillips, 1st ed.. Academic Press, Inc., New York, N.Y. p. 469. PoPLE, J. A., W. G. Schneider, and H. J. Bernstein, 1959 — High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. p. 298. Table, N. M. R. — ^Varian Associates. Gregg, Donald C., 1968 — Principles of Chemistry, 3rd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, Mass. p. 201. Dewar, M. J. S., 1964 — Progress Boron Chemistry, 1: 235, 241. Dewar, M. J. S,, and Richard Jones, 1967 — /. Am. Chem. Soc., 89: 2408, 2409, 2410. Lewis, G. N., 1923 — Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules, Chemical Catalog Co., New York. Luder, W. F., and S. Zuffanti, 1946 — The Electronic Theory of Acids and Bases, Wiley, New York. Bell, R. P., 1952 — Acids and Bases-Their Quantitative Behavior, Methuen, London. Emsley, j. W., j. Feeney, and L. H. Sutcliffe, 1966 — High Resolution nmr Spectroscopy, Vol. II, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, p. 971. Edwards, J. O., Morrison, V. F. Ross, and J. W. Schultz, 1955 — 7. Am. Chem. Soc., 77: 266. Dewar, M. J. S., Richard Jones, and Ralph H. Logan, Jr., 1968 — J. Org. Chem., 33: 1353. Industrial Complex Economies of the Texas Chemical Industry^ by DAVID R. SEYMOUR School of Business, Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222 and RAYMOND B. SEYMOUR Department of Chemistry, University of Houston, Houston ABSTRACT Industrial complex analysis, a component of location theory, considers symbiotic relationships and linkages among neighboring industries as an environment for external economies of scale. The chemical industry is a likely choice for industrial complex analysis, because of its role as a producer of intermediate products, and because it “is its own best customer.” Industrial complex is defined, related to classical location theory, demonstrated with a worked example from Puerto Rico, and illustrated with examples from the chemical industry in Texas. The authors relate both theory and practice through an example of an acrylonitrile fiber, plastic, and rubber complex. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this report is to explore some of the locational factors which affect the chemical industry in Texas, and to relate them to a component of location theory known as industrial complex analysis. The concept of industrial complex analysis is defined, related to classical location theory, and illustrated with examples from the chemical industry in Texas. DEFINITION OP INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX An industrial complex is “a set of activities occurring at a given location and belonging to a group (subsystem) of activities which are subject to important production, marketing, or other interrelations” 1 Presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Texas Academy of Science at Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas, March 6, 1970'. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 116 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (Isard, 1960). These important interrelationships produce agglomera¬ tion economies which give comparative advantages to regions. Industrial complexes can be based on (1) “successive stages in the manufacture of an end product or end product class,” (2) multiple commodities jointly manufactured from a single class of raw material, (3) “a single but fairly broad industrial process”, (4) activities arising from a single end product or service, and (5) “two or more basic raw materials and processes, two or more intermediate products which may or may not enter into the production of intermediates, all of which may combine to form two or more end products.” It is obvious that none of these is mutually exclusive and that there must be signifi¬ cant industrial linkages before locational economics will become meaningful. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS AND CLASSICAL LOCATION THEORY An industrial complex is an intellectual construct used for grouping related industrial activities into a functional location unit. Usually industrial complexes are approached by regional development authori¬ ties rather than by individual firms. Thus, an industrial complex is more likely to be planned and implemented by a region in search of industrial development, than by a manufacturing firm in search of a plant site. Industrial complex analysis consists of selecting an optimal combi¬ nation of industrial activities which can be developed from a region’s resources. Site location, on the other hand, consists of selecting optimal sites for given production processes. In spite of the difference in view points of developers of industrial complexes and site location analysts, both use comparable costs for their selection. Normally, supply factors such as raw materials, labor, utilities, and transportation are evaluated for availability and cost. Then, demand factors of size and location of markets are evaluated to determine scale of production. Comparative cost analysis in classic Weberian form is relatively simple for an industry producing a single product from a few raw materials and destined for a single market location, but becomes more difficult for multiple products, substitute inputs, and multiple markets (Friedrich, 1929) . LOCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Definitions of the chemical industry range from any industry whose product differs chemically from its raw material inputs, to the more INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 117 narrow Bureau of the Budget Standard Industrial Classification. For purposes of this report, 3 major groups — SIC 28 Chemicals and Allied Products, SIC 29 Petroleum Refining and Related Industries, and SIC 30 Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products — are treated in combi¬ nation, The Business and Defense Services Administration considers these three as a group, “because of the growing dependence on petro¬ leum as a raw material for chemicals and the extensive use of chemi¬ cals for rubber and plastics products.'’ As a group, the chemical industry defies classical locational analysis, because it encompasses such a wide range of activities that almost every possible form of locational condition applies. A partial list of products classified as chemicals and allied products (SIC 28) includes: industrial chemicals, synthetic resins, man-made fibers, drugs, deter¬ gents, cosmetics, paints, and fertilizers. At one extreme of the locational conditions there are the socalled heavy chemicals, such as sulfuric acid, which have a low value per unit of weight and are extremely sensitive to shipment costs. At the other extreme one finds “fine chemicals” such as pharmaceuticals which have a high value per unit of weight and which are less sensi¬ tive to shipment costs. Some chemicals can be manufactured more cheaply near sources of raw materials, especially if a large weight loss occurs. An example of this is the production of bromine or magnesium from the sea. Other chemicals can be produced more cheaply close to their market. Such is the case when the final product is composed largely of a ubiquitous input such as water or air. The above cases are illustrative of extreme locational conditions which exist within the chemical industry. Locational analysis is further complicated because of symbiotic relationships with other industrial sectors. Sectors such as paper pro¬ duction, agriculture, and mining serve as both suppliers to, and custo¬ mers of, the chemical industry. Although it should be noted “that the chemical industry is its own best customer.” (Shreve, 1956). An additional complication stems from the ability of some firms to substitute inputs. This ability to substitute inputs when combined with use of intermediates as inputs can offer a wider range of choice for plant site than would be found if production was directly linked with natural resources. This is one reason why, in spite of its limited natural resources, New Jersey is the nation’s number one chemical producing state in terms of employment, payrolls, and value added. In spite of its complexity, the chemical industry is an excellent choice for industrial complex analysis because it provides more oppor¬ tunities to develop agglomeration economies. Furthermore, it may be 118 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE more convenient for economic analysis to classify industries by com¬ plexes than by product classes. IDENTIFYING INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES It is customary to identify an industrial complex for a specific pur¬ pose, such as development of natural resources, redistribution of economic activities, substitution for imports, or national defense. In any case, it is necessary to evaluate resources. Production materials which are either on hand or readily imported should be catalogued and evaluated. When types of raw materials and intermediates avail¬ able are known, the choice of commodities which can be produced becomes more obvious. The choice of industrial processes can be further narrowed by an analysis of the labor market. The labor supply will dictate the degree of substitution of capital for labor. Industry may be labor intensive if there is a sufficient labor force. In the event of a labor shortage, it might be necessary to establish capital intensive operations. Skill levels of the labor force and prevailing wages will also help to limit product choices. A final criterion for reducing choice of industries is the market for products. For a given range of products based on available raw materials and labor, it should be determined which products can be justified on the basis of local markets and which can be justified on the basis of export markets or a combination of the two. Market sizes, as well as strategies of competitive enterprises can be used to forecast production volumes. If sufficient volumes can be justified then important internal economies of scale may be realized. In some cases a location will be feasible only if scale economies can be realized. A WORKED EXAMPLE An industrial complex analysis for Puerto Rico prepared by Isard, et al. (1959) is used as a worked sample. They narrowed the source of available raw materials to crude petroleum from Venezuela which could be imported by Puerto Rico, refined, and shipped to the U. S. mainland without duty. Puerto Rico’s labor force was found to be unskilled and in abundant supply. Of the numerous products which could be produced from a petroleum base, some, such as ethylene glycol (permanent antifreeze), are automatically excluded on the basis of market location. Given the resources of Puerto Rico and the marketing possibilities of Puerto Rico and the combined marketing INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 119 possibilities of Puerto Rico and the U. S. mainland, “industrial com¬ plexes involving petroleum refining, petrochemical, synthetic fiber and fertilizer processes appear to be promising.” After arriving at a group of industrial complexes which show promise, a matrix containing technological coefficients of the physical inputs and outputs for 73 activities was prepared. This table was used to prepare production complexes which link a number of processes. Production complexes were then analyzed for input requirements and yields. Comparative cost analyses were performed and complexes having an advantage were noted. In the Puerto Rico refinery, petrochemical, synthetic fiber case, individual complexes were compared with the same type of complex having a Gulf Coast location, and a complex split between the Gulf Coast and the textile South, with refining and chemical processing done at the Gulf Coast location and the textile operations performed in the Southeast. The Gulf Coast labor costs dictated against any of the complexes being located entirely in the Gulf Coast region. Split complexes were economically feasible for some of the complexes while Puerto Rico was better suited for others. Complexes advantageous to Puerto Rico were found for the produc¬ tion of Dacron, Orion, and Nylon. Of the Dacron complexes examined, the most feasible uses imported crude oil and para-xylene as inputs and produces Dacron staple fiber, fertilizer and a feasible combination of refinery products as outputs. THE TEXAS CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AS A CANDIDATE FOR INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS The chemical industry in Texas is primarily based on petroleum and Texas is the leading petroleum refining state in terms of employ¬ ment, payrolls, and value added. Because petroleum products can be transported cheaply through pipe lines, it is also economically feasible to use them as inputs for industries outside of Texas. However, a large percentage of the petroleum refinery output remains in the state and is used as tlie basis of chemical manufacturing for which the state is ranked 6th in employment, 3rd in payrolls, and 2nd in value added. These figures suggest that wages and salaries are high for both the petroleum refining and chemical workers and that both are extremely productive. The 1968 average hourly wage in Texas for workers in petroleum refining and chemical production was $3,90 per hour and $3,68 per hour respectively; these values were considerably higher than the $2.98 per hour for manufacturing as a whole. Productivity 120 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE in petroleum refining is shown by value added per production worker and by value added per dollar of wages which in 1965 were $45,411 and $6.00 respectively. The corresponding values for United States Petroleum refining were $40,768 and $5.69. The chemical industry in Texas was even more productive with a value added per production worker of $66,889 and value added per dollar of wages of $9.26, com¬ pared to U.S. chemical industry figures of $41,711 and $6,749. In spite of the abundance of input materials, the plastics industry is not well developed in Texas. The Texas plastics industry is ranked 16th in employment, 15th in payrolls, and 14th in value added. Since Texas produces more polymers for plastics, synthetic fibers and syn¬ thetic rubber products than any other state, some types of plastics manufacture should be economically feasible in Texas. A first step would be to evaluate the availability of input materials. Both raw materials and intermediates should be considered, since it may be necessary to produce input chemicals. Second, the labor com¬ ponent must be evaluated. Labor is apparently in short supply and wages are high, making capital intensive processes likely. Finally, the market must be surveyed to determine what product or products could be produced more economically for a local market and to determine what products could be produced more economically for consumption outside of the region. The problem of identifying new industrial complexes for Texas is exceedingly more difficult than identifying them for Puerto Rico. Industrial complexes already exist where symbiotic relationships re¬ sult in reduced production costs. One example is the “spaghetti bowl” in the Houston-Gulf Coast where chemical plants, refineries and salt domes are connected by pipe lines, thereby reducing shipping costs. An acrylonitrile fiber, plastic, and rubber complex is used as an example of a feasible industrial complex for Texas. AN ACRYLONITRILE FIBER, PLASTIC, AND RUBBER COMPLEX H Acrylonitrile (H2C:CCN, b.p. 78--79°C), a liquid petrochemical which is consumed at an annual rate in excess of one bill’on pounds, will be used as the basis of an industrial complex suitable for a Texas Gulf Coast location. Prior to 1965, the major source of this liquid monomer was Japan. However, 675 million pounds of acrylonitrile was produced in the USA in 1967. U.S. production exceeded one billion pounds in 1968 and capacity for domestic production of 1.65 billion pounds is now available. INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 121 Prior to 1966, Union Carbide at its South Charleston, West Virginia plant produced 90 million pounds of acrylonitrile annually by the reaction of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ethylene oxide (H2C-CH2). \ / O However, this process is no longer competitive in the USA. Acrylonitrile has also been produced by the catalytic addition of hydrogen cyanide to acetylene (HC=CH) . An American Cyanamide plant which produced 110 million pounds at Fortier, Louisiana by this procedure was abandoned in 1967. Monsanto continues to produce 130 million pounds annually from acetylene at Texas City. However, all other plants including Monsanto’s Alvin, Texas plant use a more modern process. As shown in Table 1, over a billion pounds of acry¬ lonitrile was produced in 1969 by ammoxidation of propylene (H2C= CHCH3). Accordingly, this more economically feasible process will be emphasized in this report. Production at the Fortier plant will be expanded to 200 million pounds and a DuPont plant with similar capacity at Beaumont, Texas will be on stream this year. If one includes Monsanto’s Texas City Plant, the 1970 Texas production of acrylonitrile will be over 700 million pounds. As shown in Figure 1, ammonia (NH3) is produced from nitrogen (Ns) and synthesis gas (carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (Hs) ), obtained from natural gas. Each pound of propylene yields 1.73 pounds acrylonitrile along with the following by-products 0,1 1 pounds of acetonitrile (HgC-CN, b.p. 82 C) and 0.13 pounds of hydrogen cyanide (HCN). This by-product hydrogen cyanide from the Alvin plant is sufficient to meet 60% of the requirements for the acetylene Table 1 Production of Acrylonitrile in 1969 Company Location Annual Production 10~^ lbs Monsanto Company Alvin, Texas 370 Vistron Division of Sohio Lima, Ohio 300 DuPont Memphis, Tennessee 180 American Cyan amid Fortier, Louisiana 175 Goodrich Calvert City, Kentucky 50 122 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE process plant at nearby Texas City. It should be noted that bismuth phosphomolybdate which has been used as a catalyst in the production of acrylonitrile has been replaced to some extent by depleted uranium compounds. The efficiency of this process is reflected in the price of acrylonitrile which was 43 cents per pound in 1951 and has been reduced to 14.5 cents per pound in 1970, Over 50% of the acrylonitrile produced is used for the manufacture of acrylic fibers. Over 600 million pounds of acrylic and modacrylic fibers were produced in 1969 and it is anticipated that this production will exceed one billion pounds in 1975. Most acrylic fibers are copoly¬ mers containing less than 15% of methyl acrylate, methyl methacry¬ late, or vinyl acetate comonomers, all 3 of which are produced in Texas. Modacrylic fibers contain less than 85% and more than 35% acrylonitrile. The copolymers used for fiber production may be obtained by copolymerization of acrylonitrile and other monomers in an aqueous solution using a combination of iron (II) sulfate (FeS04) and hydro¬ gen peroxide (H2O2) as the initiator system. As shown in t^ Figure 2, the copolymer is dissolved in dimethyl formamide (H3C-C-NfCH02 and this solution is forced through fine orifaces (spinnerets) in order to obtain continuous filaments in a dry spinning process. None of the copolymer or fiber is produced in Texas. Acrylic fibers under the trade name of Creslan are produced at an annual rate of 12 million pounds a year by American Cyanamid Corporation at Pensacola, Florida. Approximately 250 million pounds of this fiber is produced annually by DuPont under the trade name Orion at Camden, South Carolina and Waynesboro, Virginia. A com¬ parable quantity is produced by Monsanto under the trade name Acrilan at Decatur, Alabama. Approximately 40 million pounds of acrylic fibers under the trade names Zefran and Zefkrone are pro¬ duced annually at Williamsburg, Virginia, by Dow-Badische Corpora¬ tion. Approximately 25 million pounds of modacrylic fiber are also pro¬ duced annually at Kingsport, Tennessee, by Eastman Kodak under the trade name Verel. A comparable quantity is produced by Union Carbide under the trade name Dynel at South Charleston, West Virginia. Apparently, plants with one half this capacity can be oper¬ ated economically. Over 300 million pounds of acrylic fibers are used annually for apparel. Slightly smaller quantities are used for home furnishings including carpeting. Other end-uses are for blankets, draperies, up- INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 123 holstery, tarpaulens, and tents. The versatility of these fibers has been demonstrated by use of modacrylic fibers for production of furs and wigs. Many routine textile operations could not be operated economi¬ cally in Texas because of high labor costs. However, skilled or semi¬ skilled labor is required for every phase of the billion dollar acrylic textile industry from natural gas and petroleum to the finished article. The value added in manufacture is many times greater than the $100 million obtained from the sale of Texas acrylonitrile. CH^ + .50 4 2 1400° c BOOps'i* CO + 2^2' 500^600^ 2NH3 H H3C-C^CH2 + 30^ + 2NH3 catalyst . 450°C # 30-"40psi H 2H2C^C-CN+6H20 Fig. 1. 124 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Approximately 200 million pounds of acrylonitrile was exported to the other nations in 1969. However, it is anticipated that the export market v/ill decline to less than 100 million pounds when European plants are completed in 1971. Plastics based on acrylonitrile are now being produced at an annual rate of 750 milion pounds. The annual growth of acrylonitrile-buta¬ diene-styrene copolymer (ABS) and styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN) exceeded 20% during the past decade but is expected to de¬ crease to about 15% in the 1970’s. Approximately 0.24 pounds and 0.28 pounds acrylonitrile are required for each pound of ABS and SAN copolymer, respectively. Thus, almost 200 million pounds aery- | lonitrile was consumed in the production of these plastics in 1969. The ! comonomers (butadiene H2C=CH-CH2=CH2) and styrene j H . . I ( C=CH2)) are produced in Texas but none of the copolymer is made in this state. Because of its successful use as a structure material, ABS copolymer is called an engineering plastic. As shown in the Figure 3, this polymer may be produced by grafting acrylonitrile and styrene on poly¬ butadiene. These polymers are sold at premium prices under trade names such as Marbon and Uscolite. ABS copolymers are produced in Baton Bouge, Louisiana by Uniroyal, in Parkersburg and Washington, West Virginia by Borg Warner, by Monsanto in Addyston, Ohio by Goodyear and Firestone in Akron, and also by the latter in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. ABS plants with an annual capacity of as little as 10 million pounds can be operated economically. This versatile copolymer may be molded, extruded as sheet or pipe and used as plastic foam. The moldings are used for automotive and appliance parts. The sheet is thermoformed to produce refrigerator liners, luggage, campers, and mobile homes. The pipe has been ap¬ proved for drain, vent and waste pipe (DVW) . Foamed ABS is used for furniture. Because of its wide acceptance in these many applica¬ tions, it is anticipated that over 1.5 billion pounds of ABS copolymer will be produced annually in 1975. Skilled and semi-skilled labor is used in all phases of ABS copolymer production from monomer to finished product for a billion dollar market. Approximately 15 million pounds of acrylonitrile synthetic rubber (NBR) is produced annually and use of this specialty rubber should increase at an annual rate of 4%. The final product is used both as a solid rubber and a water dispersion (latex). About 1.35 pounds of acrylonitrile is used to produce each pound of solid. The comonomer butadiene is produced in Texas but little of this synthetic rubber is INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 125 made in the state that produces all the required raw materials. Plants with an annual capacity of as little as 10 million pounds of NBR elastomer may be operated economically. NBR rubber is produced by the method shown in Figure 4 at an annual rate of 1 0 million pounds by Copolymer Corporation at Baton Rouge, Louisiana under the trade name Nysyn. Plants with similar capacities are operated by Firestone for the production of FRN at Akron, Ohio and Lake Charles, Louisiana. Goodrich operates plants with a combined annual capacity of 90 million pounds of Hycar at Akron and Louisville, Kentucky. Uniroyal operates plants at Paines- ville, Ohio and Baton Rouge, Louisiana with capacities of 50 million pounds of Paracril. Another plant with a capacity of 30 million pounds is operated in Houston, Texas by Goodyear for production of Chemi- gum. The major product in the plants cited above is solid synthetic rubber. Standard Brands operates plants in Kensington, Georgia and Ches- Fig. 4. 126 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE wold, Delaware with a combined capacity of 44 million pounds for production of Tylar NBR latex. The latter is used as a pigment binder I for leather, as a binder for fibers in carpets and for production of jl specialty paper. The solid NBR is used for production of mechanical . goods, o-rings, gaskets, and cable coatings. | Approximately 30 million pounds of acrylonitrile was hydrolyzed for production of polyacrylamide ( (-CHsCHC-NHs) n) in 1969. Dow operates a plant with an annual capacity of 10 million pounds of polyacrylamide at Freeport, Texas. However, the other plants are at • Midland, Michigan (Dow), Warners, New Jersey (American Cyana- j mid) and Lima, Ohio (Vistron). Some of this product is reformulated l and sold under proprietary trade names by Hercules, Nalco, and Calgon. Polyacrylamide has been used as a retention agent in the production of paper and as a drilling mud additive. However, the most ' promising end use is for flocculation of industrial and domestic liquid wastes. Since addition of as little as 0.5 parts per million of this poly- Fig. 5. H 2H2C=C-CN + ^ NC(CH2)4CN Acrylonitrile Hydrogen Adiponitrile NC(CH.5) CN ^ 4 Adiponitrile NC(CH~) CN ^ 4 Adiponitrile cat- + 4H2 — ?H2N(CH2) Hydrogen Hexamethylenediamine H SO + 2H2O H9C-(CH2)4» Adipic Acid Fig. 6. INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 127 mer can double the flocculation rate, this product has considerable potential use in pollution control. The flow sheet for polyacrylamide is shown in Figure 5. Monsanto used approximately 40 million pounds of acrylonitrile to produce adiponitrile at Decatur, Alabama. As shown in Figure 6, the adiponitrile may be hydrogenated to hexamethylenediamine (HoN (SC2)6NH2) or hydrolyzed to adipic acid (HOC--(CH2)4- COH) . _ O These products are used to produce over a billion pounds of nylon 6,6 salt at Victoria and Orange, Texas, Decatur, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. The exclusive use of this process to produce nylon salt would double the present demand for acrylonitrile. Of course, the same potential value added by manufacture discussed for polymers of acrylonitrile exists for adiponitrile and most petro¬ chemicals. At present, none of the nylon 6,6 salt is converted to fibers in Texas. These fibers are produced at an annual rate of 1.5 billion pounds by heating nylon 6,6, salt and extruding the molten polymer. DuPont operates nylon 6,6 fiber production facilities at Chattanooga, Tennessee, Martinsville, Virginia, Richmond, Virginia, and Seaford, Delaware. Monsanto operates similar facilities at Pensacola, Florida and Greenwood, South Carolina. Access to supplies of natural gas and petroleum, temperate climate and good transportation were primary factors in locating production facilities for acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene in Texas. These are also important factors for locating production facilities for fibers, elastomers, and plastics in Texas. In addition, present and anticipated markets, ease of attracting good management and engineering person¬ nel, and markets in metropolitan areas in the Southwest are also pri¬ mary factors for locating plants in Texas for the production of finished goods based on acrylonitrile. The factors which impede the expansion of the production of acrylonitrile’s higher intermediates and end-products in Texas in¬ clude: (1) the existence of other complexes which produce a wide range of high order intermediates and end-products within the large Northeast markets, (2) the freight differentials between low order intermediate and end products, (3) insufficient size of the local market to permit the operation of plants of large enough scale to justify opera¬ tion, and (4) the high cost of labor. CONCLUSION Currently, Texas imports acrylic fibers, ABS, and SAN plastics, as well as nitrile rubber (NBR) . At the same time, it produces all of the 128 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE required intermediate inputs. In reviewing some of the possibilities of acrylonitrile, it appears logical to consider producing higher order intermediates such as acrylic fibers and acrylonitrile copolymers. In addition, final goods such as NBR rubber, ABS plastics, acrylic textiles, and polyacrylamide are likely candidates for production in Texas.. The manufacturing conditions for the intermediates would not differ sig¬ nificantly from those of their input materials, and some external economies may be realized. An acrylonitrile complex is one of several likely industrial com¬ plexes which would realize economies from developing additional stages in the “successive stages in the manufacture of an end product or end product class.’’ At the present time, there seem to be numerous opportunities to apply industrial complex analysis to develop many other industrial program packages which could significantly increase value added in Texas. It will be only through such program packages that sufficient economies may be obtained to offset the present loca¬ tional disadvantages. LITERATURE CITED Friedrich, C. J., 1929 — Alfred Weber's Theory of the Location of Industries, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. IsARD, W., 1960 — Methods of Regional Analysis, The Technology Press of M.I.T, and Wiley, Cambridge, Massachusetts and New York, New York. - , et aL, 1959^ — Industrial Complex Analysis and Regional Development, The Technology Press of M.I.T. and Wiley, Cambridge, Massachusetts and New York, New York. Shreve, R. N., 1956 — The Chemical Process Industries, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, New York, U.S. Bureau of Budget, 1967 — Standard Industrial Classification Manual, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services Administration, 1969 — Chemicals, Petroleum, Rubber & Plastics Products Manufacturing, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1968 — Employment and Earnings Statistics for States and Areas, 1939-68, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Recent Migration Patterns of the Arkansas Population by T. WAYNE ROGERS Department of Sociology Georgia Southern College ^ Statesboro 30458 INTRODUCTION It is possible to define a population as a collection of similar items enclosed by a picket fence of definition. The items can get inside by being born there; they can escape by death; and they can jump over the fence in either direction by migration. Migration, with the excep¬ tion of births and deaths, is the only source of population change in an area. The history of the American people is one of constant restlessness and movement (Machlachan and Floyd, 1956). A large part of each generation of Americans since the first colonists have seen fit to move. Indeed, migration is part of the American way of life, and has been of tremendous significance in the social, economic, and political devel¬ opment of the nation. The redistribution of population that has taken place through migration^ in the United States can be very generally described as consisting of 3 broad movements. The first major migration stream in American history was the great migration from east to west which consolidated the country and dispelled threats to American security. From the original colonies and states on the Atlantic seacoast men and women pushed westward: Across the Appalachians into the Old Southwest; across the River into Arkansas and Texas; finally across the great plains, deserts, and the Rockies into Oregon and California. Even today this westward trek of the population continues (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1 965 ) . This great migration peopled Arkansas and swept on, drawing people from Arkansas after it. Most Arkansas immigrants in the decades prior to and immediately following the War Between the States were farm families seeking fresh soil and new opportunity. The 1 By convention, internal migrants are referred to as in-migrants and out-migrants to distinguish them from immigrants and emigrants, the external migrants. The balance between in-migrants and out-migrants is net internal migration. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 130 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE majority were from slaveholding states, with large numbers coming from Tennessee, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama (Dale, 1953; Walz, 1958; Nolle, 1959; Swint, 1965). Only 13% of the holders of 20 or more slaves in Arkansas according to census of 1850 were native born Arkansans (Walz, 1953). The importance of the in-migrant population in the early history of the state is illustrated by the fact that of the 1 00 members of the Thirteenth General Assem¬ bly of the Arkansas Legislature (1860) only 6 were native Arkansans (Wooster, 1958). Even as the West was being populated, the 2nd movement, that to the cities, set in and transformed the rural United States of Jefferson and Lee into an industrial power dominated by great spreading cities. The census of 1920 found the United States peopled by an urban majority for the first time. Traditionally a rural dominated region, the forces of urbanization and industrialization are of recent historical experience for the South (Scott, 1966) . In 1920 the South was still over 70% rural, a proportion which was equivalent to the United States as a whole of 1880. Only 17% of Arkansas’ population lived in urban areas in 1920, equivalent to the percentage of urban population for the United States as a whole of the 1850’s. During recent years, however, the urbanization process has been taking place at an above average rate in the South. During the 1950’s the South added over 2.7 million net migrants to its metro¬ politan areas, but lost over 4 million net migrants from its nonmetro¬ politan areas (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1962) . The 3rd great movement has been the movement from North to South. Prime goals for Southern out-migrants, especially nonwhites since the first World War, have been the urban centers of the North¬ east and the North Central states. The heavy out-migration losses of the South during the 20th century have been rooted in the complex of the region’s social and economic history. Long an area of high fer¬ tility and low industrialization, industrial development has not been sufficiently rapid to absorb the increase. The result has been that over the decades of the 20th century large continents of native Southerners have moved to other regions. The counter movement of migrants from other parts of the nation to the South has typically been comparatively small (Machlachan, 1956; Hitt, 1957; Nichols, 1964). The migration patterns of the Arkansas population, in terms of a heavy out-migration coupled with an urban oriented migration move¬ ment within the state, have reflected the general trends found through¬ out the South and the nation as a whole. The purpose of this paper is to survey the magnitude and direction of the recent migration patterns of the Arkansas population. RECENT MIGRATION PATTERNS OF THE ARItANSAS POPULATION 131 MIGRATION PATTERNS IN THE 20TH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century there were 1,073,631 native born Arkansans living in the United States. Most of this number, 849,763 or 79%, were still living in the state, while 223,868 or 21% had moved to other states. The total (native born population) of Arkansas, 1,297,275, included 447,512 persons who were bom in other states and had moved into Arkansas. Over one-third (34.5%) of the native bom population of Arkansas in 1900 were in-migrants from other states. Arkansas gained a net total of 223,644 through the ex¬ change of migrants with other states. By 1960 this net gain of population through net migration had reversed to a loss of nearly a million persons. From 1900 through 1920 Arkansas gained population through interstate migration. In 1930, for the first time, there were more persons of Arkansas birth living in other states than there were persons born in other states living in Arkansas. The net loss of white persons through the exchange of migrants with other states first occurred in the decade 1910-1920, while the first loss of nonwhites first occurred in the 1930-1940 period. Whereas only 21% of the native born Arkansans living in the United States in 1900 had moved out of the state, almost half (49.9% ) of the Arkansas born population living in the United States in 1900 had migrated to another state. ^ This percentage of out-migration, among the highest in the nation, was exceeded only by the District of Columbia (58.8%) and Wyoming (50.5%) . The ratio of in -migrants to out-migrants changed from 1 .6 in-migrants from other states living in Arkansas in 1900 for every out-migrant from Arkansas to other states to 2.8 out-migrants for every in-migrant in 1960. Destination of Out-Migrants and Origin of In-Migrants At the turn of the century, Texas, which seems to have been a haven for many white and nonwhite refugees during the War Between the States (Walz, 1958), contained 75,633 or 34% of all out-migrants from Arkansas. Texas still contained a large number of native Arkan¬ sans (176,693) in 1960. California, however, which contained only 3,971 or 1.8% of all Arkansas out-migrants in 1900, was the primary area of destination for out-migrants from Arkansas in 1960. The num- 2 It should be noted that this figure does not include all out-migrants from the state since some undoubtedly died and others moved away but returned before the census. Furthermore, this out-migration could have taken place at any time during the lifetime of the out-migrant, and could have occurred as early as 1879, for example, or as recently as 1959. 132 o to o CT) rO 3 & W .2 § s H THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE fs- VO ON v\ o v\ VN ® ON rH CO rH tv 1 ejD rN %rs VO o VO O VO K c * SrS'^^ H s; SC3 o §• H bQ ca VN CO o X VO •H tH rH rH rH rH o CM O rH X o X 3~ 3.2 rN O CM X X VN X ® rH rH ON W^ tv VO X „ S'a 1 c IV VO X VO tv X K CCS oa rH o CM X W Si rH CM X VN tv ft o + + i I 1 1 1 ■S 0\ r w C\J tv VN CM X O UN X tj 5a r pi S S o CJ ® p X CM VO CM o -p 1 c tv VO O CM tv X •» i ~ cj ■.§ ev •H iS P 3 p VO CM CM rH VN & *3 j-> ^ tS S a. a *?» O 6j0 0^ O CTN VO VN tv •k •H rH CA CN VN VO X rH (B a .2 rt VN rH VN o CM ^1^11 W Oi ON, O VN X tv tv i P rH X rH VO X VO VO 1^11 assa® c ON tv ■> » • •> <■ 1 cC » VN VN tv \D c L. O ON fv VN CM X CM H fisD C\J C^ X X X X- o ^ •H s: rN ^ ^ Ci> o g 00 X VN oc § g-Scj) is WN VO X X \c VN 1 « C VO (r\ r\ CM CM C3N CM C»N X \o X o tv a,^ g ft o g o5 4' §■ & §• . ofti K (8 CM VN X X tv tv (0 ■ <5^1 o a .y^^Q.,00 pa O CM + rH + + rH 1 X 1 VO 1 X 1 m X tv O rH VN X §4 OX OO rH OX ® rH ® N O +3 N m 1 43 d 43 43 ® O ® ® •as +3 O ® 1 & 1 1 ^ ® o ® O H C\J ® J= H H -P o a +3 1 -p 4J rH a H O H & H O p a ® ^ ® MS TO O ® H +3 o +3 O +3 ® •H « m. m a W TO Q a Hi Oil ml J-l 1 2-Methyl-4,5fl'-pyrido [2,3-F] [1,5] oxazepine-4-one. 2 2-(o-Amsoyi)-4,5/i'-pyri(lo [2,3-F] [1,5] oxazepiiie-4-on8. 3 2-Methyl-3-benzyl-4,5//-pyrido [2,3-F] [1,5] oxazepme-4-one. 4 2-(4-Nitrophenyl)-4,5/il'-pyrido [2,3-F] [1,5] oxazepine-4-one. 5 2,3,4,5/f-pyrido [2,JF] [1,5] oxazepme-2,4-dione. NOTES 141 142 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE flask was heated in a thermostatically controlled oil bath at 150’°C for 4 hours. Shorter periods of heating were used if the mixture solidified. The crude compound was cooled, flaked out of the reaction vessel, and weighed. Purification of compounds 1~3 was effected by recrystallizing a portion of the substance 3 times from boiling heptane. Compounds 4 and 5 were purified by taking the substances up in boiling tetra- hydrofuran and then precipitating out the product with a large volume of heptane. The process was repeated for a 2nd recrystailization. Table 1 contains the essential data on the compounds of the series, A nmr spectrum on compound 1 in CDClg gave peaks at 2.47, 6.33, 7.00, 7.03, 7.14, and 8.59 ppm. Preparation of l3-(2-aminopy’ridyl-3~oxy) crotonic acid (la). Twenty ml. of 6N hydrochloric acid and 2,3 g. of compound 1 were vigorously refluxed together for 2 hours. The mixture was then diluted with 20 ml. of water and frozen. The icy solid was broken up and placed on a filter. Standing at room temperature allowed the removal of all liquid and the residue was dried in air to 2 g. of a colorless solid. The residue was extracted with boiling heptane, then with boiling ethanol, m.p. 237°C. The pure compound gave no precipitate with an alcohol-water solution of silver nitrate and scarcely any perceptible turbidity. Anal: Calcd. for N, 9.27. Found N, 9.31. The authors acknowledge the financial support of this project by the Robert A. Welch Foundation. The NMR spectra were ran by the Sadtler Research Laborato-ry, Philadelphia, Pa. and analyses were run by the Robertson Laboratory, 73 West End Avenue, Florham Park, New Jersey. L. L. Woods and S. M. Shamma, Department of Chemistry, Texas Southern University, Houston 77004. RED AND FAR-RED EFFECT ON OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION BY BEEF HEART MITOCHONDRIA. The antagonistic actions- of red and far-red light on plant growth and development have been well documented (Butler, 1964, Quart. Rev. BioL, 39: 1-5; Hillman, 1967, Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol., 18: 301-324). Studies have shown the red, far-red system to affect biochemical activities such as protein synthesis (Landgraf, 1961, Planta, 67: 543-556; Mego and Jagendorf, 1961, Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 53: 237-254), enzyme activity (Keister, et al., 1962, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 62: 332-337), carbohydrate changes in etiolated leaves (Price, et ah. Quart. Rev. BioL, 39: 11-18), and mitochondrial activity and phosphate metabolism (Gordon, 1964, Quart. Rev. BioL, 39: 19-34; Gordon and Surrey, 1960, Radiation Res., 12: 325-339; Surrey and Gordon, 1962, Plant Physiol., 37: 327-332). Because of the similarities in the descriptive aspects of photoperiodism in plants and animals, the hypothesis that a common reaction may be the basis of endogenous rhythms and periodic responses in both plants and animals has been extended (Borthwick and Hendricks, 1960, Science, 132; 1223-1228). Although there is little data to substantiate such a general hypothesis, some evidence is available to indicate that oxidative phosphorylation is a reaction common to plants and animals that may be controlled by the red, far-red system. Gordon and Surrey (op. cit.) found that, compared to mitochondria maintained in darkness, red light increased ATP syn¬ thesis by both rat liver and oat mitochondria, while far-red light decreased ATP formatio-n. It was therefore of interest to determine whether the phosphorylative activity of animal mitochondria might in general respond to red and far-red light. The present paper reports the results of such a study using beef-heart mitochondria. Fresh beef heart was obtained from a local slaughter house and the warm muscle was cooled in crushed ice. A portion of muscle was removed from the heart, rapidly NOTES 143 weighed, diced, and placed in a chilled Waring blender. The heart was blended for about 2 minutes in 8 times its weight of ice cold 0.25 M sucrose solution, pH 7.2, that contained 3 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, tetrasodium salt. Part of the blended preparation was then placed in a chilled Teflon tissue homogenizer and homogenized 3 to 5 minutes in an ice bath. The homogenate was then filtered through cheese cloth and fractionated by differential centrifugation in a refrigerated centrifuge. The fractionation procedure was essentially that of Hogeboom, et al. (1948, 7. Biol. Chem., 172: 619-636), and the mitochondrial suspensions contained 0.2 to 0.5 mg protein per milliliter as determined by the biuret method. Mitochondrial suspensions were irradiated directly from above through red and far-red filters (Carolina Biological Supply Company) placed between the suspension and an incandescent lamp. The lamps were adjusted with respect to the filters in order that the material would be irradiated with an incident energy of about 4 ergs/mm2/sec at both wavelengths. In order to irradiate mitochondria prior to incubation in the phosphorylating medium, 3 to 5 ml of mitochondrial suspension was placed in a 5-cm Petri dish and the suspensions were maintained at 3 to 7 °C in a cold room during the irradiation. Samples were taken at 2-hour intervals for a total of 8 hours. The irradiation of mitochondria that were actively phosphorylating was performed similarly, except that these mitochondria were irradiated at room temperature of 27 to 30° C. Samples were obtained at the end of 30 and 60 minutes. Phosphorylative activity (ATP formation) of the mitochondria was determined by incubating the mitochondria in a phosphorylating medium that contained glucose and hexokinase. The ATP synthesized during the incubation was trapped by esterification to glucose by the hexokinase. Thus the amount of glucose-6-phosphate formed served as a measure of ATP synthesis. The phosphorylating medium em¬ ployed 0.25 M sucrose containing 3 mM EDTA buffered to pH 7.2 with tris- (hydroxymethyl)aminomethane as a dispersion medium, and contained the follow¬ ing in a total volume of 3 ml: 18 mmoles of MgCl.,, 0.06 ^umoles cytochrome c (Nutritional Biochemicals Company), 39 /xmoles of KgHPO^, 18 //moles ADP (Sigma Chemical Company), 30 umoles of a-keloglutaric acid (Sigma Chemical Company), 100 wmoles glucose, and 50 units of yeast hexokinase (Nutritional Bio¬ chemicals Company). When preirradiated mitochondria were assayed, 1 ml of mitochondrial suspension was mixed with 3 ml of the phosphorylating medium and incubated in darkness for 30 minutes at 30°C. One milliliter of the incubation mixture was then boiled for one minute, centrifuged to remove precipitated protein, and assayed for glucose-6-phos- phate. When mitochondria were irradiated while actively phosphorylating, 1.5 to 2.0 ml of the mitochondrial suspension was mixed with the phosphorylating medium and 3 ml of the mixture was incubated and irradiated simultaneously at 27 to 30°C. One-milliliter aliquots were removed after 30 minutes and 60 minutes of irradiation, and were boiled and assayed for glucose-6-phosphate as before, Glucose-6-phosphate was determined spectrophotometrically by the reduction of NADP+ in the presence of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Sigma Chemical Company). The assay method of DeMoss (1955, Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 1, Academic Press, Inc., N. Y., 328-334) was followed, and absorbance was determined after a reaction time of 5 minutes. The amount of glucose-6-phosphate was deter¬ mined from a standard curve. The data in Table 1 indicate that beef-heart mitochondria display no significantly different phosphorylative activity when irradiated with red or far-red light at room 144 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Phosphorylative Activity of Beef Heart Mitochondria at 27 to 30°C While Under Continuous Irradiation. Treatment ATP Formation^ After Irradiation Time of 30 min. 60 min. Red Light 12.6±2.4 15.5+1.7 Far-Red Light 12.9 ± 2.1 14.3 ± 2.6 Dark 11.7±2.2 15.2±1.6 1 Values shown are the average /imoles phosphate esterified per mg protein. Standard deviations are shown. Data is the average of 4 replications. Table 2 Phosphorylative Activity of Beef Heart Mitochondria Preirradiated at 3 to 7° C. ATP Formation^ After Irradiation Time of Treatment 2 hr. 4 hr. 6 hr. 8 hr. Red Light 15.0 ±1.7 17.7+3.7 12.3 ±3.1 7.0 ±0.6 Far-Red Light 15.5 ± 0.0 15.9 ± 0.8 10.2 ± 1.7 6.8 ± 0.7 Dark 16.7 ±2.7 19.8 ±0.9 15.3 ±1.4 9.0 ±1.1 ^ Values shown are the average /imoles of phosphate esterified per mg protein after incubation at 30°C for 30 minutes. Standard deviations are shown. Data is the average of 3 replications. temperature. In contrast, Gordon and Surrey (op. a7.), using rat liver mitochondria, found no effect of red light as compared to nonirradiated controls at room temper¬ ature, but did find that far-red radiation lowered the rate of phosphorylation by 25%. ^ ^ To evaluate the radiation effect on nonphosphorylating suspensions, Gordon and Surrey (op. cit.) irradiated rat liver mitochondria at 3°C for periods up to 4 hours and determined phosphorylative activity in the dark at 30° C. They found that the activity of the mitochondria decreased with time, but that the rate of decrease was more pronounced for mitochondria exposed to far-red light, and less pronounced for mitochondria exposed to red light, than for mitochondria maintained in darkness. Consequently, beef heart mitochondria were preirradiated by red or far-red light at 3 to 7°C and assayed for phosphorylative activity at 2-hour intervals. No signifi¬ cant decrease in activity was observed after 4 hours of irradiation; therefore. NOTES 145 irradiation was continued for an additional 4 hours. The data in Table 2 show that the mitochondria in all treatments declined in phosphorylative activity to approximately the same extent. Thus it is apparent that the phosphorylative activity of beef heart mitochondria is not affected by red and far-red radiation under the experimental conditions employed. The results of this study indicate, therefore, that a red, far-red effect on phos¬ phorylative activity is not ubiquitous among animal mitochondria. This work was supported by state appropriated funds for organized research to Southwest Texas State University, Joyce M. Miller and D. C. Whitenherg. Depart¬ ment of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843, and Department of Biology, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos 78666. A NEW SIZE RECORD FOR THE LOUISIANA PINE SNAKE, PITUOPHIS MELANOLEUCUS RUTHVENI. The maximum recorded length of the Louisiana Pine Snake is 6OY2 inches (Conant, 1958, A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphib¬ ians). However, in an earlier publication Conant (1956, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1781: 19) lists a female of this taxon with a length of 1587 mm (621/4 inches). On 17 March 1969 a female specimen (LPI #5211) was found dead on the road 1.5 miles west of Bienville, Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Total length of the specimen was 1785 mm (70.3 inches). Until now the Louisiana Pine Snake has been considered to be much shorter than other Pituophis. The present record brings the maximum length recorded for the Louisiana Pine Snake near the lengths recorded for the Black Pine Snake, Pituophis Melanoleucus lodgingi, and the Northern Pine Snake, P. m. melanoleucus, of 74 and 83 inches respectively (Conant, 1958, op. cit.). Billy J. Davis, Department of Zoology, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston 71270. TRIODOPSIS (NEOHELIX) DIVESTA (GOULD), A PULMONATE LAND SNAIL NEW TO TEXAS. On March 12, 1966, I collected 15 specimens of the polygyrid snail Triodopsis divesta under logs in Bald Cypress forest on the floodplain of Little Cypress Creek, Caddo Lake State Park, Harrison County, Texas. The species has not previously been identified in Texas, but Singley (1892, 4th Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. Tex., p. 305), reported a small form of T. albolabris (Say) from Daingerfield, Morris County, Texas. Daingerfield is within the gross geographic range of T. divesta, as here extended, but is south of any other record of T. albolabris. Furthermore, T. albolabris is largely restricted to the Oak-Hickory forest in Okla¬ homa and Arkansas; whereas T. divesta enters the Pine-Oak forest region in Louisiana (Vagvolgyi, 1968, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 136(7): 145-254) and Texas (present record). For the above reasons I believe that Singley’s record of T. albolabris probably refers to T. divesta. The closest previous records of T. divesta to Harrison County are from McCurtain County, Oklahoma, 90 miles NNW (Branson, 1962, Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., 42: 60-80), and from Grand Cane, DeSoto Parish, Louisiana, 50 miles SE (Pilsbry, ANSP Monogr. 3, VoL 1 (2) : 852). The Harrison County population and the Morris County record, if correctly assigned, help to fill a gap of approximately 130 miles between Grand Cane, Louisiana, and the nearest previous record, in McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Since the intervening habitat is relatively uniform, it seems probable that the range is continuous. The specimens have been deposited in the collection of the Fort Worth Museum 146 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE of Science and History (FWMSH 1516). W. L. Pratt, Natural Science Department, Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, Fort Worth. ALGAE (CHLOROPHYTA AND CHRYSOPHYTA) IN THE LATERAL-LINE CANALS OF A GIZZARD SHAD, DOROSOMA CEPEDIANUM (PISCES: CLUPEIDAE). Many of the early papers on fish lateral-line systems dealt with the gross appearance and patterning of the cephalic canals (Stensio, 1947, K. Svenska Vetcnsk. Handle 24: 1-195; Lekander, 1949, Acta ZooL 30: 308-411; Illick, 1956, Amer. Midi. Natur. 56: 204-223); however, recent papers have been more concerned with lateral-line anatomy and function (Jakubowski, 1965, Acta Biol. Cracov. 8: 87-99; Jakubowski, 1966, Acta Biol. Cracov. 9: 137-149; Branson and Moore, 1962, Copeia 1962; 1-108). Originally investigators considered the cephalic lateral-line canals to be filled with mucus (hence the term “Schleimk- anales”), but modern researchers have shown that in certain teleost taxa {e.g., centrarchids, cyprinids) mucus is partially or totally replaced by environmental water (Branson and Moore, 1962, Copeia 1962: 1-108; Reno, 1966, Copeia 1966: 403-413; Reno, 1969, Copeia 1969: 736-773). Further, in some cyprinid genera {Hybopsis, Nocomis, and Notropis) water-filled canals create natural havens for microorganisms, such as motile algae (desmids and diatoms) and protozoa (primarily ciliates) (Reno, 1969, Copeia 1969: 736-773). To our knowledge, microfloras and Fig, 1. Lateral view of Dorosoma cepedianum, illustrating the algae-filled cephalic lateral-line canals. lO, infraorbital canal; POM, preoperculomandibular canal; A, branch of accessory temporal canal; B, branches of POM canal; C, branch of 10 canal. NOTES 147 faunas have not been recorded from fish groups other than cyprinids, although organic and inorganic debris has been observed in some percoid fishes (Moore, 1956, /. Comp. Neurol., 104: 49-56). On 17 November 1969, we collected a gizzard shad [^Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur)] from Stubblefield Lake, Walker Co., Texas, whose cephalic lateral-line canals were partially filled with algae (Fig. 1), The specimen (160 mm SL) was fixed in 10% formalin, stored in 50% isopropanol, and deposited in the Baylor Uni¬ versity Ichthyology Museum (B.U.LM. 12). A micropipette was inserted into the right infraorbital canal (10) and a small sample of canal contents withdrawn. The contents were subsequently transferred to a microscope slide and examined with a compound, trinocular microscope. The genera of green algae (Chlorophyta) and diatoms (Chrysophyta) collected are independently listed in descending order of abundance: (1) Protococcus, Scenedesmus, Actinastrum, Oocystis; (2) Navicula, Stauroneis, Biddulphia. When the specimen was collected, much of the lateral-line complex on the right side of the head was filled with algae (Fig. 1), and, as a result the filled canals and canaliculi appeared bright green. The canal complex on the left side was some¬ what less conspicuous and colorful. How and when the algae invaded the canals, and what, if any, their effects were upon sense reception is problematical. It is obvious, however, that in life the canals were filled with environmental water or a thin, watery mucus instead of mucus only. Indeed, the presence of a large and diverse microflora within the cephalic lateral-line canals of a clupeid is novel. Harley W. Reno and Floyd F. Davidson, Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco 76703. A RAPID METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF AVIAN SKELETAL MATERIAL. One of the greatest deterrents to massing large avian skeletal collec¬ tions has been the great difficulty in the preparation of skeletons posed by classically used methods, namely maceration or use of dermestid beetles. Although many vertebrates and especially mammals, may be prepared by faster and less tedious methods (for example, extensive boiling), avian material must be handled much more carefully owing to the fragility of the bones. This difficulty in preparation has led to the present situation of there being only a few extensive avian skeletal collections in universities in the entire United States. For this reason it seems desirable to find new techniques which will facilitate the preparation of bird skeletons. Jakway, et al. (1970, Turtox News, 48: 65-66), reviewed the presently known techniques, and presented a new method for skeletal preparation in which they utilize boiling with sodium perborate. Although they had experimented primarily with mammals, it seems reasonable that the technique could also be used for other vertebrates including birds. I have been experimenting with various techniques which facilitate the preparation of avian skeletal material and would like here to place on record the one which I find superior in terms of time and quality of material produced. The process is as follows: 1) Skin the animal. 2) Eviscerate the animal. 3) Remove the large pectoral muscles, and in the case of large birds, the larger somatic muscles. 4) If retention of the vertebral sequence is desired, a wire should be inserted through the neural canals of the vertebrae. 148 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 5) Boil the carcass in water containing a small amount of calgon (never use clorox or other bleach as the bones will eventually deteriorate) for approximately 3-5 minutes. 6) Place the carcass in jar of water (with lid loosely placed) for 4-7 days. Small birds may require less than a week, large ones perhaps a few days more. Strain the jar at the end of this period and wash any loose flesh from the skeleton. 7) Boil the then almost cleaned skeleton in water containing a small amount of calgon or similar detergent for approximately 3-5 minutes. This removes any remaining flesh, and also removes most of the odor from the skeleton. With extra care a partially articulated skeleton (similar to those prepared with dermestids) may be obtained. I have now prepared approximately 200 skeletons using the above technique. The main advantages of this technique are that: 1) it is very rapid; 2) the prepared bones are very clean; and 3) boiling, and the time the carcass remains in water, are kept to a minimum (extensive boiling or time in water may result in warping of fragile bones, particularly the sternum, palate bones, fibula, and jugal). /. Alan Feduccia, Department of Biology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222. Present address: Department of Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514. ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF BAIOMYS T AY LORI (RODENTIA: CRICETI- DAE) FOR NORTHERN TEXAS. Recent studies on the ecology and zoogeography of vertebrates in northern Texas have provided a number of records of Baiomys taylori which help to clarify the distribution of this species. Specimens reported here are in the collections of North Texas State University, Denton (NTSU) or Fort Worth Museum of Science and History (FWMSH). Over the past 10 years the Texas distribution of the pygmy mouse has shown a considerable change from that mapped by Hall and Kelson (1959, The Mammals of North America, Vol. II, The Ronald Press). Recently published records for Baylor (Baccus, 1968, SW. Nat., 13: 362), Dallas (Hunsaker, et ah, 1959, Jour. Mamm., 40: 447-448), Mason (Packard and Garner, 196% Tex. Jour. Sci., 16: 387-390), Montague (Packard, 1960, Univ. Kans. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9: 579-670), and McCulloch and Shackleford (Packard and Judd, 1968, Jour. Mamm., 49: 535-538) counties indicate disjunct populations on the Edwards Plateau and in north-central Texas. A clarification of range and evidence of widespread distribution in north-central Texas is shown by the following records: Comanche Co., 2.7 mi. WSW Comanche (FWMSH); Denton Co., 3 mi. S. Denton (NTSU); Hood Co., 7.4 mi. NW Tolar (FWMSH) ) ; Jack Co., 8 mi. SW Post Oak (NTSU) ; Palo Pinto Co., 4 mi. E. Santo (NTSU); 6 mi. SE Possum Kingdom Dam (FWMSH); Tarrant Co., Benbrook Reservoir (FWMSH); and Wise Co., 1 mi. S Black Creek Lake and 8 mi. N Decatur (NTSU). Hunsaker, et al. (op. cit.) postulated that Baiomys taylori was expanding its range northward. Such an expansion has been noted by numerous authors for other sub¬ tropical species (Dasypus novemcinctus, Didelphis marsupialis, and Sigmodon hispidus). Hunsaker, et al. (op. cit.) also speculated that this movement was taking place along grassland corridors, opened by agriculture, through post oak-hickory forests in central Texas. To our knowledge there are no published records which would connect the populations in north central Texas with the main species range to the south which is primarily in the Tamaulipan and southern Texan biotic NOTES 149 provinces (Blair, 1950, Tex. Jour. Sci., 2: 93-117). However, F. R, Gehlbach (pers. comm.) and his students have found Baiomys taylori to be locally abundant near Waco. This lends additional support to the thesis that the pygmy mouse has moved northward along the Blackland Prairie and across the East Cross Timbers. Once across the presumed barrier of the East Cross Timbers, pygmy mice invaded the Grand Prairie and penetrated the West Cross Timbers region of north central Texas. Specimens from the northwestern portion of The Texan Biotic Province have been trapped in areas of dense grass, Sorghum^ Andropogon, and Bouteloua, in association with Sigmodon hispidus. This association of pygmy mice and cotton rats has been noted previously (Baccus, 1968, op. cit.; Hunsaker, et al., op. cit.; and Raun and Wilks, 1964, Tex. Jour. Sci., 16: 28-49). Pygmy mice have not been reported in eastern Texas (Austroriparian Biotic Province) except along the coastal prairie in Hardin and Jefferson counties and in mixed hardwood-grassland in Walker County (Davis, 1966, Tex. Parks and Wildl. Dept., Bull., 41: p. 183). A specimen from Lotta, Harrison County (NTSU) is some 150 mi. N. of the Hardin county record and 125 mi. E. of Dallas county. On the basis of this specimen it would appear that Baiomys taylori has invaded typical Austroriparian habitat. We are grateful to W. L. Pratt for permission to examine specimens in The Fort Worth Museum of Science and History. This research was supported in part by a North Texas State University Faculty Research Grant awarded to Gerald G. Raun. John T. Baccus and Roy E. Greer, North Texas State University, Denton, 76201, and Gerald G. Raun, Angelo State University, San Angelo 76901. I' Dialectic: Gene Mediation and Penicillin Anaphylaxis: The Affirmative Case by H. GILL KING Department of Anthropology Southern Methodist University ^ Dallas 75222 and JAMES V. CORNISH Department of Sociology University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington ABSTRACT Through widespread use of chemotherapeutic agents man has forstayed the effects of much disease and suffering. However, the authors do not share the optimistic outlook of many medical scientists. In considering the possible genetic transmission of penicillin allergy, the authors attempt to show that antibiotic advances necessitate consideration of possible genetic components in allergic drug reactions. INTRODUCTION Therapeutic chemical substances are introduced into man’s environ¬ ment so rapidly that control of the possible harmful effects seems almost impossible. In the decade 1955 to 1964 the production of vita¬ mins for public consumption increased over 200%, while the produc¬ tion of penicillin compounds increased over 500% {Stat. Abstr. of U.S., 1967). This figure includes all commercially available forms of penicillin (see Table 1 below). The import of drugs as a selective pressure in the environment is beyond assessment. However, one may come to appreciate that even the most superficially benign products of human culture may be damaging in their effects. We will consider the case of adverse reactions to penicillin. Moreover, we will suggest that due to possible genetic components in penicillin “allergy”, the potential effects of this drug in a large population will be hard to measure. What will be said may be considered as an example of the kind of questions which might well be asked of other widely used therapeutic agents. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, October, 1971. 152 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE THE PENICILLIN GROUP OF ANTIBIOTICS All drugs in this group are derivatives of 6-amino-penicillianic or 7-amino-cephalosporanic acids (Meyler and Herxheimer, 1968, p. 264) . Table 1 lists these penicillin compounds and their most common metal ionic salts. Because of its selectivity, (acts only on actively dividing cell walls), penicillin has a low general toxicity compared to most other anti¬ biotics (Robbins, 1968, p. 1278; Harrison, et al. 1962, pp, 1269-1273). Nevertheless, consideration of toxicity alone does not exhaust the list of possible ill-effects of this drug. A long list of “drug allergies” is documented for antibiotic compounds (Sheldon, et at, 1967, p. 484). Fortunately, concern about possible genetic factors in penicillin reac¬ tions meets with a large amount of information accumulated through research in biochemical polymorphisms (Williams, 1956, Intro.). Individuals may possess inherited abnormalities of a biochemical nature which, under ordinary circumstances will not be apparent. Such persons are subject to mild or severe discomfort, or even death, when they are exposed to particular substances some of which may be products of the cultural environment. Examples are common : G6PD deficiency (Livingstone, 1967, pp. 17-22), pseudocholinesterase de¬ ficiency Harrison et al., 1962, p. 427, and Roberts, 1967, p, 186), the porphyrias (Dean, 1963, Intro.), and many others. Ten years ago it was estimated that 10% of the American popula¬ tion would react unfavorably to treatment with various antibiotics (Welch, 1959, p. 2093). More current hospital surveys indicate that 10 to 18% of hospitalized patients who receive antibiotics develop reactions to them (Ford, 1970, p. 259) . Table 1 6-aminocephalosporanic gr. 7 -aminopenicillianic gr. CEPHALOTHIN (as Na salt) BENZYLPENICILLIN (pen. G, available CEPHALOTHORIDINE (as Na salt) as Na or K salt) PHENOXYMETHYL (pen. V as free acid, or as Na or K salt) PHENOXYETHYL (fenethicillin, as K salt) PHENOXYPROPYL (propicillin, K salt) METHICILLIN (Na salt) OXACILLIN (Na salt) CLOXACILLIN, DICLOXACILLIN, and AMPICILLIN (as Na salts and free acids) DIALECTIC 153 PENICILLIN REACTION AS A GENE-MEDIATED ALLERGY There is no question that many of the reactions to penicillin fall under the broad heading of ‘"allergy”. The low likelihood of toxicity has already been mentioned, and even many of the toxic reactions are due to metallic ions rather than the penicillin itself (see Table 1) . Allergenic responses fall into one of 2 categories according to etiology. The first of these is a Serum-sickness response. This reaction appears after a period of about 8 to 12 days irrespective of the penicillin com¬ pound used (Kern, 1953, p. 226). In this interval antibodies are form¬ ing and uniting with circulating antigen. When the antibody titer is sufficiently high, symptoms will be seen. Fever, muscle pains, arth¬ ralgia, local and generalized lymphadenopathy, leukopenia, and various skin rashes are the most frequent signs (Harkavy, 1963, p. 14) . The second category of responses, atopic, or, anaphylactic response, is seen as immediate hypersensitivity. This reaction is the result of introducing an antigen which can combine with tissue proteins. In either type of response, it is likely that the main offending agent is not penicillin itself, but its degradation products (Schwartz and Wu, 1966, p. 550) . There are few models of penicillin metabolism with which to speculate on this point, but 2 models which seen representative are given here. In the above scheme the chief offending agent is pencilloyl-protein which may be directly formed by reaction of benzylpenicillin with protein, or through penicillianic acid at a lower pH. In the 2nd model (Fig. 2) the majority of penicillin is metabolized to penicillenic acid, the pro-antigen. A smaller amount of penicillin is degraded directly to penicilloic acid (penicilloic acid is also the hy¬ drolytic product of penicillenic acid) . These 2 models are not intended to cover all cases. These reactions represent the sequence of events in atopic responses only. There are 2 reasons why the study is confined to atopic reactions. First, one is unable to proceed in the present genetic line-of-reasoning without an adequate biochemical model of the response under consideration. In short, there seems to be wider agreement about models concerned with anaphylaxis. Secondly, a study of anaphylactic reactions is preferable from the standpoint of control. The fact of low average toxicity in penicillin therapy and the fact that most atopic penicillin reactions are well characterized should be borne in mind. The decision to use atopic responses now follows easily. Most of the data for the present study were exacted by means of a questionnaire which was given to students and others who had experienced an atopic response, or what 154 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE -FIG.l- ^Benzylpenicillin Penillin acid Penicillenid acid (pH 9.0) / \ Penaldin acid Penicillamine Penicilloyl- protein (pH 7.0) Penicillinate This scheme applies in vitro and in vivo — After Stewart, 1965 seemed to be an atopic response, following penicillin injection. Since serum-sickness responses require a long period of antibody buildup, it is possible that intervening allergens or other factors might be responsible for what seems to be a result of penicillin therapy. The chance that subjects might attribute some symptom to penicillin reaction erroneously is therefore higher if serum sickness responses are included in the study. Moreover, there is no wide agreement about the biochemical process in penicillin-induced serum sickness. Most persons who exhibit symptoms of atopy will be bale to find more individuals in their families who are also penicillin-reactive. However, no one, to our knowledge, has studied the relationship between inci¬ dence of atopy and serum-sickness in a single pedigree where one or both reaction types result from penicillin administration. DATA COLLECTION Procedure consisted of finding individuals who had experienced some sort of reaction shortly after (within one day) receiving peni- DIALECTIC 155 cillin in injection form. Oral dosages of penicillin do not follow the same metabolic course as intramuscular or intravenous administra¬ tions. Furthermore, the effective concentration of an oral dose must be 4 to 8 times as great as an IM or IV dose of equivalent effect (Goth, 1968, p. 610). Each individual was questioned about his symptoms to determine atopic status. In most cases individuals were given a ques¬ tionnaire which listed symptoms of atopy and were asked which symptoms they had experienced. The list of atopic signs was modified after Harrison, et al. (1962), and these reactions were put in terms understandable to the subject. In cases when it was possible for the author to elicit the pedigree personally, care was taken through extended questioning to insure atopic status of the subject’s reactive relatives. All subjects were briefed on the use of the diagnostic schedule and asked to take considerable care to construct all pedigrees accurately. Information concerning other reactives in each pedigree included age, sex, nature of symptoms, and relationship to the pro¬ positus. Age was sought for all individuals in the pedigrees since some individuals included were old enough to have lived through periods of low penicillin use. Extremely young persons (i.e. infants) might have bypassed penicillin therapy. In cases where no information was avail¬ able for persons in the pedigrees, the respondents were asked to so specify. Below appears the questionnaire format and a sample of pedigrees obtained. The pedigrees shown were selected for consideration in this discussion because of their inconsistency with respect to possible modes of inheritance operative in each. “The type of response with which we are concerned is known as an anaphylactic response. It will be recognized by one or more of the following symptoms which will occur shortly following the admini¬ stration of penicillin. . . . (1) urticaria ... a vascular reaction characterized by transient appearance or smooth, elevated patches often accompanied by severe itching. (2) angioneurotic edema— “the sudden appearance of edematous areas of the skin, mucous membranes, or viscera. (3) asthma (4) emphysema ( 5 ) labored breathing (6) circulatory insufficiency or shock (7) tachycardia (8) decreased blood pressure (9) cyanosis 156 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (10) unconsciousness (11) death These symptoms will occur rather quickly following the dose of penicillin, usually within minutes. If a response occurs much later, say in a day or two, it is not an anaphylactice response. It is important that we have information concerning anaphylactic reactions in your family. Therefore, you should discuss this matter with everyone whom you can contact. We are interested in . . . ( 1 ) who has experienced an anaphylactic response, (2) who has not, (3) who has never been exposed to penicillin, (4) persons in your family, living or deceased, for whom you are unable to obtain any data. Please prepare a pedigree according to the instructions given you in class [this statement did not apply to persons from whom pedigree data were elicited by the investigators]. You will be the Fi genera¬ tion along with any brothers or sisters. Your parents will be the Pi generation along with aunts and uncles. Your grandparents will be the Ps generation, etc. If you have children, they will be the Fs generation, etc.” Subjects were told how to indicate all the necessary information in shorthand on the pedigrees. It was re-emphasized that subjects were to include even those persons for whom no data were available. The data in pedigree form is discussed below (see appendix for pedigrees). All 23 pedigrees are not shown. The sample shown was selected to illustrate that the data do not show modes of inheritance consistent with any one particular Mendelian scheme. Subject 1. Subject 1, an adult male, first experienced an atopic reaction to penicillin at age 9. His reaction was a vascular one, with swelling in the axillae and around the neck. Shock apparently never occurred, but the subject found breathing very difficult. The seizure was treated by a physician, and the subject was told never again to submit to peni¬ cillin therapy. The subject was unable to recall whether he had received earlier doses of penicillin. However, the subject’s father, (II-l), had received oral penicillin on a number of occasions in the military and maintained hyposensitive status up to a point. There seem to be 2 possible modes of inheritance in this case. Autosomal dominance may be operative here if it is assumed that 1-2 is hetero¬ zygous. If this were the case, 50% of the offspring would likely be affected. Allowing that there are 5 offspring, the 2 affected progeny qualify the autosomal dominant mode. Autosomal recessiveness could DIALECTIC 157 be argued if it were assumed that I-l was heterozygous for the dis¬ order. This explanation seems less tenable since the normal number of affected persons (homozygotes) in generation II should be 25%. In either scheme, the shortage of one progeny in generation II (who would presumably be affected) makes more certain assessment of inheritance impossible. The fortunate aspect of this pedigree is that the propositus is of reproductive age. Hypotheses regarding the aller¬ genic status of any future offspring could be tested. Subject 2. Although her pedigree does not conform to the general rule of “more than one affected person per family”, subject 2’s case is in¬ cluded to illustrate the unlikelihood of X-linkage. Based upon present knowledge of X-linkage, one would expect that at least one of the generation III males would be affected if the x chromosomes were involved. The same would probably be true even if the mother (pro¬ positus) had one normal x. Other explanations of this pedigree are (1) that the subject has inherited an autosomal mutation affecting her ability to assimilate penicillin, or (2) that there is some peculiarity in the Y-homologous portion of the mother’s affected X chromosome rendering male off¬ spring unaffected. If the first possibility had occurred, one would still expect at least one of the male offspring to be affected. The 2nd possi¬ bility seems remote since it has never been shown that X-linked traits occur on the Y-homologous portion of the X chromosome (Strick- berger, 1968, p. 222). Finally, under regular autosomal dominance or recessiveness one would still expect some affected offspring. Subject 3. In the case of this subject, autosomal dominance may be ruled out due to the absence of affected individuals in the left-hand side of the pedigree. Although there are 3 “questionable” individuals, (ITl, IT3, II- 8), in the left side of the pedigree, the father of III-3 possesses no hypothetical dominant gene for the trait (i.e. he is unaffected) . The recessive hypothesis is also unreasonable since it would demand that individuals 1-3, II-ll, and 11-14 all possess heterozygous genotypes with one lecessive allele each. X-linkage may also be ruled out in either dominant or recessive forms. If the mode were X-recessive, one would be hard put to find the source of one of the X chromosomes in individual III-3 and III-5 would be unaffected. If X-linked dominance were operative, one would expect that at least one of the parents of III- 3 would be affected. This pedigree thus provides a case which 158 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE cannot be reconciled with a Mendelian model without some license of assumption. Subject 4. Subject 4 is a female who could easily have inherited her sensitivity via autosomal dominance except for the fact that there is no hyper¬ sensitivity in either her maternal uncle (III-3) or maternal grand¬ father (11-15). If the affected X chromosome had come from the sub¬ ject’s maternal grandmother (11-16) one would expect the grand¬ mother to be affected assuming dominance. In this pedigree sex linkage demands too many assumptions. This pedigree provides a further example of the complexity of inheritance operative in penicillin atopy. One possibility which has not been discussed could provide some reasons for the complexity of the inheritance seen thusfar. Fetal sensi¬ tization could, for example, explain individuals who are sensitive, but who do not have reactive parents, (barring cases where “skip-genera¬ tion” traits are evident) . The antibody titer of a mother may be low enough during pregnancy to allow her maintenance of hyposensitive status. Hov/ever, the fetus may develop enough antibodies to render it hypersensitive to penicillin. No evidence of fetal sensitization to peni¬ cillin is evident in the literature on medical genetics, but this possi¬ bility seems promising since other cases of in utero sensitization are known. Moreover, this alternative provides an explanation which is preferable to newly arisen mutations in light of the number of persons affected per pedigree (McKusick, 1966a, p. 2072 and Simmons, 1968, p. 257-290. Another explanation of isolated affected cases in pedigrees (sub¬ jective factors, shortcomings in data gathering, etc. notwithstanding) could be mutation of genetic material in crucial cells due to direct effects of penicillin. This possibility comes to mind as a result of information, now widely known, concerning the mutagenicity of some antibiotic compounds, namely actinomycin and a few other cytostatic compounds (Meyler and Herxheimer, 1968, pp. 444-451). Subject 5. The foregoing comments apply to this subject. This young woman is the only individual out of all persons surveyed for whom a case of newly arisen mutation could be waged given the pedigree data shown. Subject 6. This subject, like subject 5, is a single reactive in an otherwise unaffected pedigree. Pedigrees such as this one, in which an individual is successfully treated with penicillin for a time and suddenly develops DIALECTIC 159 sensitivity, suggests an accumulation of antibodies or tissue antigens. The antibodies or antigens become abundant enough to induce hyper¬ sensitivity after an unspecified time. If the reserve of antibodies remains high enough in such an individual, a single dose of penicillin may stimulate production of enough antibodies to cause an immediate reaction (i.e. within a day). If the reserve of antibodies is low, a slow buildup of antibodies may take place (this would amount to a serum- sickness response). It is possible that hormonal balance in the body, itself genetically conditioned, could operate to produce higher degrees of tissue response in the case of sensitive individuals. If this were the case the number of ‘‘extragene tic” influences which affect endocrine function could complicate the understanding of sensitivity inheritance (Nyhan, 1967, pp. 121-125) . We are not prepared to speculate further about this type of pedigree. DISCUSSION OF THE PEDIGREES What inferences may be drawn from the above pedigrees and their seemingly inconsistent modes of inheritance? We have been concerned with the genetic component of anaphylactic penicillin allergy, and it would be desirable to show some evidence consistent with the idea that these responses are^ in fact, gene-mediated. The question, then, is whether the above pedigrees are consistent with the hypothesized genetic component. On the assumption that any gene-controlled char¬ acter will behave consistently, one would find the present data con¬ fusing and might conclude that the absence of a predictable Mendelian mode negated the idea of gene regulation. On the other hand, given polygenicity or pleiotropy to work with, one could account for incon¬ sistency in the above pedigrees. That is, inconsistency would be a kind of “consistency” with pleitropy or polygenicity operative. On the 2nd line of reasoning may be waged the case for penicillin allergy as “gene-mediated”. Returning to the schema for metabolism of penicillin in vitro and in vivo^ one notes six reactions to the end product in each. These reac¬ tions are mediated individually by enzymes, penicillinases and others, to final protein products (see Fig, 1 ) . Assuming, on the best biochemi¬ cal data, at least one gene per enzyme, it is seen that a comparatively large number of genes may be involved in producing hypersensitivity to penicillin (Mahler and Cordes, 1966, pp. 767, 813). Since these metabolic pathways for penicillin are speculative, it remains to be seen just how many enzymes are involved in the complete degradation of penicillin compounds. To this extent, it remains to be seen just how 160 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE APPENDIX KEY FIG.l Affected Unable to Obtain Information Never Exposed to Penicillin Experienced Something Other than Anaphylaxis 0 ® 0 ® 0 © Subject 3 I III Subject 4 I II III IV Subject 5 I O O II O □ □ I Q Q o □ III- contd , many genes are involved in acquisition of sensitivity. Polygenicity, then, seems to be the cause of inconsistency in the pedigree data. On the other hand, it is possible that only a few enzymes moderate all of the steps in the reduction of penicillin. If this proves to be the case, we are dealing with a pleio tropic effect of a comparatively few genes. Pleiotropy as a possible factor accounts equally well for the lack of a single Mendelian mode of inheritance in the data. More than likely DIALECTIC 161 both pleiotropy and polygenicity account for the observed results. Our tentative conclusion is that a genetic component is operative in atopic penicillin response. PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETATION No attempt to promulgate a “gene-controlled” process of penicillin allergy would be complete without a review of problems encountered in the research. Fairness demands mention of the small number of subjects surveyed, the subjective factors involved (subjects’ comple¬ tion of the pedigree in some cases), and the scarcity of biochemical models for penicillin metabolism. It would be well to mention a few other factors which could also have contributed to the results observed. Aside from toxicity and atopy penicillin may produce undesirable reactions. These are (1) disturbance of microbial ecology, (2) im- balancing of essential chemical materials, (3) chemical carcinogenesis, and (4) direct cell injury. It was pointed out that some antibiotics affect individuals by inducing mutations (see above), but this expla¬ nation seems fruitless in the case of penicillin which does not act on the nucleus of cells at all. Neel (1962, p. 18) has pointed out that there are multiple points at which genetic control may be exercised regarding the susceptibility to development of an atopic disease. When a given antigen is introduced, it may encounter individual differences in rates of antibody production. There may, according to Neel, be other genetically controlled processes at work, such as the ability of certain antibodies to enter into reactions with “target organs and tissues.” Further progress will depend upon focusing attention on biochemical models of atopic responses and upon models of potential allergens. More complete information on subjects and their families would have been desirable, but lack of adequate medical records and the wide variety of penicillin compounds and dosage modalities under consider¬ ation seem insurmountable. If the possibility of fetal sensitization is to be considered seriously, extremely accurate records of penicillin administration and age at first reaction will be a must. CONCLUSION We have discussed only one of numerous possibly gene-mediated responses to man’s artificial chemical environment. The clinical and eugenic conclusion to be drawn from this discussion is clear. One cannot assert, in the name of natural selection, that man is destroying himself unwittingly through the widespread use of proprietary com¬ pounds. However, we will conclude that until deeper knowledge is 162 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE obtained concerning the interaction between gene pool and “anti- i biotic environment”, it may not be tacitly assumed that advances in production and dissemination of antibiotics implies a higher average level of population fitness. Subject 6 I II D-pO III Q O - T - IV O O □ LITERATURE CITED Dean, G., 1963- — The Porphyrias. British Medical Soc., London. Ford, A. B., 1970 — The casualties of our time. Science, 167: 259. Goth, A., 1968 — Medical Pharmacology — Principles and Concepts. C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis. Harkavy, J., 1963 — Vascular Allergy and Its Systematic Manifestations. Butter- worth’s, Washington, D.C. Harrison, T. R., R. D. Adams, I. L, Bennett, and W. H. Resnick, 1962 — Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y. Kern, R. A., 1953 — Penicillin reactions — ^Their nature, growth, importance, recog¬ nition, and prevention. Amer. J. Med. Sci., Oct.: 226. Livingstone, F. B., 1967 — Abnormal Hemoglobins in Human Populations. Aldine Publ. Co., Chicago. McKusick, V., 1966a — Medical Genetics. C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis. - , 1966b — Mendelian Inheritance in Man — Catalogue of Autosomal Dominant, Autosomal Recessive, and Sex-Linked Phenotypes. 2nd. Ed. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Mahler, H. R., and E. H. Cordes, 1966 — Biological Chemistry. Harper and Row Pub. Co. Meyler, L., and A. Herxheimer (Eds.), 1968 — Side Effects of Drugs. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore and Excerpta Medica Fdtn., Amsterdam. Neel, J. V., 1962 — Genetic criteria in health research. In Witkop, C. J. (Ed.), Genetics and Health. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y. Nyhan, W. L. (Ed.), 1962 — Amino Acid Metabolism and Genetic Variation. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y. Robbins, S. L., 1968 — Pathology, 3rd Ed., W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Roberts, J. A. F., 1967 — Introduction to Medical Genetics. Oxford Univ. Press, London. Schwartz, A. J., and R. V. Wu, 1966 — Current status of penicillin allergy. Military Med., 131: 7, 550. a tZGO DIALECTIC 1 63 Sheldon, J. M., R. G. Lovell, and K. P. Matthews, 1967 — Manual of Clinical Allergy, 2nd Ed., W. B, Saunders Co,, Philadelphia. Simmons, A., 1968^ — Technical Hematology. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. Stewart, G. T., 1965 — The Penicillin Group of Drugs. Elsevier Press, N.Y. Strickbergek, M. W., 196^-~Genetics. The Macmillan Co., N.Y. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1967 — Statistical abstracts of the U.S. 1967. Ed. 88. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Welch, H. L, 1959— Antibiotic allergy — A rising problem, /. Amer. Med. As^soc., 170: 2093. Wiener, A. S., I. Zieve, and J. H. Fries, 1936 — The inheritance of allergenic disease. Ann. Eugenics, 7: 141. Williams, R. J., 1956 — Biochemical Individuality — The Basis for the Genotrophic Concept. Univ. Texas Press, Austin. ■ ■ '"‘'■•■•A''. jSfo X‘x:y:v- -^yV. |8i-;‘4SSfif j '. <• m ' V. \-.-r:m\ . . I i' :bt5 _^L’. /■; . - V -• ' i J«#r'.‘V h /rii:i<{'-i i .M I' pC? - :‘ ' • ‘. ' : ;y'; 1 Vf'y . ■<>■'.; . 7 ', ,W-' A /v' ,;;i:,i /U'r' ■■'■ ’ // ^ 'i' .•i., WV-' V^- y'X" '- ... * "fry •''■■^*xSE '] .VtV.V.Xv>' -••'< :v-,; ' ■ ■ r - 1 . ^ , I i>';V\ ,:.,A ^ ;, • kj'. ■ ''-"■i>jiyi')'--i'f'J;V?/' ’Q;'". bi. '.^V •■•.-♦ ', I '■•■•’ '"i V ■■? v'M':«?iy.yi 1 -i:. ' " i';*.:; i ■i:'^..;t'i!r'f‘< f > if''- . j. ■:■.{ ’ -••til vX:- . . A*:. \-'i* -i H’. ' ■_ ' , 'y^'- .■'"’> '/ - . .. ’. '' ‘ hSu^f' ^,, ■>' ■M*'' , i/ ... ' '7: r •■ H vj.'' f' .j A- i’i' , ’L , i {--'.v'- (f -iwy ' • i.H‘'>/'j> ' 1', 'k y ; '•[■,^"lsi.T-'? ■' V.' -'-■'j ''-'f ' ' :{i /'. ^•..rv,,. -i,. ,',v' ./ . .<.'.->l.. .-v •> f.-' • :'.-A .';■ " "" -. • ! * >• . ■ ■ • >'. y' - n. • . EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: james d. long, Sam Houston State University President-Elect: clark hubbs, University of Texas at Austin Secretary-Treasurer: e. n. drake, Angelo State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. a. luther, Texas A&M University II — Physical and Space Sciences: l. a. youngman, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences, Meteorology and Oceanography: e. l. lundelius, jr., University of Texas at Austin IV — Biological Sciences: r. c. faulkner, jr., S, F. Austin State University V — Social Sciences: c. m. tolbert, Baylor University VI — Environmental Sciences: j. r. dixon, Texas A&M University VII — Chemistry: h. g. burman, University of Texas at Arlington VIII — Science Education: p. j. cowan. North Texas State University Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: bob h. slaughter, Southern Methodist University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer. Incarnate Word Academy . Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University CLARK HUBBS, University of Texas at Austin BOB H. SLAUGHTER, Southem Methodist University E. N. DRAKE, Angelo State University GERALD G. RAUN, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, University of Texas at Austin PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E. EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology THOMAS p. DOOLEY, Prairie View A&M University 2nd PAID CLASS POSTAGE at SAN ANGELOi 4 Cover Photo Transverse section through the otic capsule of Eleutherodactylus rugulosus. For further information see: “Contributions to the Cranial Morphology of E. rugulosus (Cope)”, by E. C. Tanzer and R. J. Bauldauf, pp. 29-56. LIBRARY SiMITHSONI AN INST ■ WASHINGTON DC 20560 Volume XXIII, No. 2 ^ November 1, 1971 THE EXfS JOURNAL ^ 13 13/ 3¥ SECTION ! MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION VII! SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION VII CHEMISTRY SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION 11 PHYSICS SECTION IV ’ BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES' Agriculture Botany Medical Science h SECTION 111 EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology Anthropology Zoology Education Economics History- Psychology Sociology ,( AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS ^ Texas Section^ American Association of Physics Teachers '1 Texas Section, Mathematical ,(%sociation of America j Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers ■ j GENERAL INFORMA'HON Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro- ‘ \ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. f Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, ® $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00. Dues should be sent to the Secretary- ; Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal , for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901. 'j Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, Texas, ;| U.S.A. (Second Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Please send 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State Uni¬ versity, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Volume XXIII, No. 2 November 1, 1971 CONTENTS Phylogenetic Reclassification of Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifera. By P. Lewis Steineck .............. Fish Otolith Assemblage of a Gastrolithic Beach Gravel. By Mark A. Dixon The Effect of Additives on the Photolysis of Polystyrene and Model Com¬ pounds. By Raymond B. Seymour and Hing Shy a Tsang .... Carbon- 14 Containing Compounds Produced by the Pile Neutron Irradiation of Tetramethylammonium Chloride. By D. W. Rathburn .... Relative Activity Coefficients of Sodium Hydroxide in Dioxane-Water Sol¬ vent Mixtures, By Billy J. Yager and Lawrence F. Kuntschik . The Big Thicket Forest of East Texas. By Claude A. McLeod .... Properties of Solubilized and Matrix-Supported Erythrocyte Membrane ATPhase. By Harry D. Brown and Swaraj K. Chattopadhyay . Chemical Limnology of a Developing Reservoir (Lake Meredith) in the Texas Panhandle. By W. A. Cooper^ R. S. Hestand III and C. E. Newton Effects of Various Osmotic Agents on Elongation of Avena Coleoptile Seg¬ ments. By Gerald G. Farr and W. E. Norris, Jr . . Alterations in In Vitro Adrenal Corticosteroidogenesis Following Goitrogen Administration to Rats. By John L. McCarthy and Linda W. Laury Bionomics of Stictia Carolina at Lake Texoma, with Notes on Some Neo¬ tropical Species (Hymenoptera:Sphecidae) . By C. S. Lin . . . . A Note on Consistent Density Estimation From Stationary Observation Data. By H. F. Martz, Jr. and A. G. Walvekar . SCIENCE EDUCATION Mathematical Induction in Geometry. By Ali R. Amir-Moez .... NOTES SECTION Morphological Variation in Eulimnadia Texana, Texas’ Most Common Eulimnadian Conchostraca. By Stanley L. Sissom ...... Platyarthrus Schoebli Budde-Lund New to Texas and the New World with Notes on P. Hoffmannseggi Brandt (Crustacea, Oniscoidea, Squami- feridae). By George A. Schultz . . Albino Geomys Bursarius in Texas. By Edwin D. Michael, Reese /. Taylor and Danny L. Wilkinson ..... 167 179 187 201 211 221 235 241 253 265 275 287 291 295 297 299 Combat Behavior in Male Great Plains Ground Snakes {Sonora Episcopa Episcopa). By James C. Kroll .......... 300 Coprophagy in the Texas Tortoise, Gopherus Berlandieri. By Michael A. Mares . . . . 300 Descriptive Notes on the Tadpoles of Pseudacris Ornata and Bufo Alvarius. By Ronald Altig . 301 DIALECTIC Dietary Simple Sugars and Coronary Thrombosis: A Critique of Yudkin’s Inferred Relationship. By John T. Thurmond ... ... 305 Reply to John T. Thurmond. By John Yudkin . . 307 Phylogenetic Reclassification of Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifera by P. LEWIS STEINECK Department of Geology Louisiana State University^ Baton Rouge 70803 ABSTRACT Rigid morphologic classifications of Paleogene planktonic Foraminifera are rejected in favor of those utilizing evolutionary lineages. The generic and family- level classification proposed here presumes that wall texture is a constant and characterizing feature within lineages. Three major wall textures are recognized including 1) hispid, 2) smooth, finely perforate, and 3) reticulate, coarsely perforate. INTRODUCTION Increasing emphasis in recent decades on planktonic foraminiferal species for solving biostratigraphic problems creates a need for a mean¬ ingful classification of these forms. Ideally, a classification reflects the phylogeny of species and genera (Mayr, 1964, 1968; Simpson, 1961), but instead modern classifications of the planktonic Foramini¬ fera depend upon rigid hierarchy of a priori weighted morphologic features (Bolli, et al., 1957, p. 20; Lipps, 1966; Loeblich and Tappan, 1964, C153) . Genera are viewed as narrow morphologic entities, often with long and discontinuous ranges and are grossly polyphyletic. At present, most specialists advocate a practical but phyletically unsound classification (for example. Figure 1). Recognition of imperfections inherent in available classifications led some specialists (Wade, 1964, p. 275; Bandy, Frerichs and Vincent, 1967), beginning with the seminal ideas of McGowran (1962, 1968), to include phylogeny in the delineation of taxa. The classification presented here in an outgrowth of the writer’s study of California Paleogene Foraminifera (Steineck, Gibson, and Morin, MS.; Steineck and Gibson, MS.; Steineck, Gibson, and Jervey, MS.) and he is indebted to these pioneering efforts. At the onset, the provisional nature of this study is emphasized as many critical transitions and lines of descent are poorly known, and interpretation of phyletic descent is hindered by insufficient understanding of the biology of living planktonic species. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 168 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OBJECTIONS TO MORPHOLOGIC CLASSIFICATION | Some Paleogene species (especially the truncorotaloidids, see below) i transgress, in the placement of the aperture, generic boundaries im- ! posed by Neogene genotypes, making it difficult to categorize these ! species. Additionally, the significance of many structural features is j not fully understood and characteristics previously thought to be of generic rank are, in fact, only ecophenotypic (bathyal growth forms, ‘’'Sphaeroidinellopsis'' and ''Sphaeroidinella'^) or reproductive (orbu- line chambers) features (Bandy, et al.^ 1967, p. 485; Be, 1965; j Adshead, 1967). Most importantly, evolution in Cenozoic lineages is governed by rigid orthoselection (Rensch, 1959, p. 204); that is, appearance of highly convergent end-members in temporally and phyletically distinct lineages. This is evidenced by the iterative development of biocharacters such as clavate or elongate chambers, planispirality, umbilical bulla, angulo-truncate test shape and dorsal accessory aper¬ tures. Rigid application of morphologic classifications results in phy¬ letically unnatural and unnecessarily long-ranging taxa. In summary, morphologically defined genera satisfy neither the criteria of practicality nor monophyly and are difficult to apply to Paleogene species. BASES FOR EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH Two principles are basic in the evolutionary approach to classifica¬ tion. First, preconceived values of morphologic characters are not , utilized but rather, lineages are evaluated and features common to all or most of the contained species are abstracted for use in an a posteriori definition. Inspection of Paleocene-Eocene lineages as pres¬ ently understood (McGowran, 1968, p. 181; Berggren, 1966, Fig. 1 and 2; Hillebrandt, 1964) reveals that (surficial) wall texture rather than apertural or peripheral characteristics has greater diagnostic value. Three major wall textures are recognized: 1 ) hispid, 2) smooth, : finely perforate, and 3) reticulate, coarsely perforate. These serve as the basis for the classification given below. Although not defined on morphologic grounds, nevertheless, lineage-genera contain a plexus of Fig. 1. Generic assignments applied to the Paleogene planktonic foraminiferal radiation using the rigid morphologic criteria of Blow (1969) (pattern same as figure 2 of this work). Note the impossibility of organizing a natural suprageneric classification. Compare with generic-level classification adopted here (Figure 2). RECLASSIFICATION OF PALEOGENE PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA 169 170 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE characteristics sufficiently distinct from one another to allow recog¬ nition. Secondly, to avoid a plethora of monospecific genera, distinction between structural innovation and novelty is made. Generic rank is afforded only to innovations or those traits that are critical for later phylogeny. Alternatively, novelties are those traits that are phyletic dead-ends and are not afforded generic recognition. Inasmuch as diversity of a lineage is considered as important as its structural diver¬ gence, many evolutionary taxa are polythetic. It is also important to note that features deemed phyletically (and hence taxonomically) important in one lineage may not possess similar diagnostic value in other lines of descent. ORIGIN OF GENOZOIC GLOBIGERINACEA Latest Cretaceous and earliest Cenozoic faunas are separated by a thin interval containing very small, generalized globigerinid species, currently referred to as the ''Globigerina eugubind' zone (Luterbacher and Premoli-Silva, 1964, p. 102) . Regrettably, as yet, this fauna is not adequately described or illustrated but its position at the threshold of subsequent Cenozoic evolution seems well-founded. Most likely, I species in the eugubina zone evolved from Hedbergella monmouthen- \ sis (Olsson) a generalized late Maestrichtian species (Berggren, 1966) . In turn, one of the species in the zone (possibly ''Globigerind' sabinica Luterbacher and Premoli-Silva) gave rise to ''Globorotalid' pseudo- bulloides (Plummer) in earliest Danian time. Because all other known Danian species, except Globoconusa daubjergemis (Bronnimann) which is a chiloguembelinid (Olsson, 1969, p. 737) , are derivable from “G.” pseudobulloides this transition is sufficient to account for the subsequent evolution of Cenozoic Glohigerinacea. Most properly, as no major morphologic innovation is evident in the monmouthensis- eugubina-pseudobulloides lineage, from both a morphologic and phy¬ letic viewpoint, both end-members are congeneric. In the ensuing discussions only critical problems of transition are discussed for each lineage-genus (Figure 2) ; fuller accounts of the lineages are easily obtained elsewhere (McGowran, 1968; Berggren, 1966; Hillebrandt, 1964). Subbotina and related genera Subbotina, Brotzen and Pozaryska (type species Globigerina trilo- culinoides Plummer) includes globigerinid and triloculine species with an umbilical aperture bordered by a distinct lip. 'The wall texture is RECLASSIFICATION OF PALEOGENE PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA 171 Fig. 2. Generic and family-group classification of Paleogene planktonic Foraminifera. Species shown are either ancestral to lineages or are of uncertain generic assignment. Subfamilies given are placed into the family Globigerinidae. Compare with classification based on morphology (i.e. Blow, 1969; Figure 1 of this paper). 172 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 3. Subbotina friloculinoides (Plummer), coarsely perforate and reticulate wall texture. Upper Paleocene, New Jersey. X200. often referred to as “cancellate” and reflects deep, funnel-shaped pores surrounded by raised rims (Figure 3). Subbotina triloculinoides evolved directly from “G.” pseudobulloides and is the earliest species referrable here. This lineage became extinct in the Oligocene. Paleogene species assigned to Catapsydrax and Globigerapsis devel¬ oped from subbotinid stock in the Middle Eocene. Apart from the development of bulla (a feature of sporadic occurrence in all sub- hotinid species) these species greatly resemble Subbotina. It is likely that both Catapsydrax and Globigerapsis as presently defined are polyphyletic and unsatisfactory genera with bullate species developed repeatedly from different subbotinid species. Globorotaloides arose from subbotinid stock in the later Middle Eocene and constitutes a well-defined lineage leading to the Neogene-Holocene species G. hexagonus (Natland). The development of a pitted wall from a subbotinid wall in ''Globi- RECLASSIFICATION OF PALEOGENE PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA 173 gerind^ holivariana Fetters and in the very similar species ''Globoro- talia” pseudomayeri Bolli is an innovation critical for phylogeny. Direct phyletic descendants of these species include the centralis- cerroazulensis group in the Upper Eocene and the opima-siakensis group in the Oligocene-Lower Miocene. The former group includes Turhorotalia Cushman and Bermudez, the types species of Turborotalia Cushman and Bermudez and the latter group is the phyletic base for Neogene Globorotalia s.s. (the lineage including the genotype Globorotalia Brady) . These relationships suggest exclusion of the generic concept Globoro¬ talia from the Paleogene and use of Turborotalia for pitted-walled globorotallid species of the Upper Paleogene [including the carinate species T , -cerroazulensis (Cole)] and to their Neogene derivatives,, the acostaensis-globorotaloidea-pachyderma-dutertrei group. Round- edged fo^rms gave rise to carinate species in at least 5 Cenozoic lineages and use of T urborotalia as a catch-all for noncarinate species as some workers propose (Banner and Blow, 1967; Blow and Banner, 1966; Blow, 1969, p. 306) is manifestly unsatisfactory. As redefined above Turborotalia is a morphologically and phyletically cohesive group, linking Paleogene Subbotina to Neogene Globorotalia. Globanomalina and related genera The ancestral species of Globanomalina Haque (type species Glo¬ borotalia chapmani Parr), G. compressa (White), developed from, “G.” pseudobulloides by increasing the compression of the test. All- species in this lineage have a smooth, finely-perforate wall texture' (Figure 4). A finely perforate inflational rim (keel) develops inde¬ pendently in 2 species assigned here, G. pseudomenardii (Bolli) and, G. pseudoscitula (Glaessner). This lineage persists into the Middle- Eocene. In latest Paleocene time fo-rms traditional to the Eocene planispiral genus Pseudohastigerina Banner and Blow occur. These forms are- here included in the reaction range of G. chapmani as they differ from typical trochospiral populations of that species only in showing a few' more chambers on the ventral or involute side. Following Berggren,. et al.^ (1967 p. 279) Pseudohastigerina is restricted to fully planispiral, species. During basal Middle Eocene time Hantkenina developed from, pseudohastigerine stock by the development of tubulospines. Develop¬ ment of areal supplementary apertures in Hantkenina in flat a Howe, type species of Cribro hantkenina Thalman, is a morphologic novelty^ and should not be given generic recognition. 174 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 4. Globanomalina pseudomenardii (Bolll), smooth finely perfor0fe wail texture. Upper Paleocene, New Jersey, X200. Truncorotaloides and related genera Transition of “G.” pseudobulloides to ^'Acarinina'' praecursoria Morozova includes development of hispid ornamentation in neanic chambers of the descendant species. Intensification and persistence into adult chambers of this feature accompanies the praecursoria- ''Globigerina' inconstans Subbotina transition. Development of hispid wall texture is a significant morphologic innovation as Truncorota¬ loides inconstans is the phyletic base for 2 distinct lineages character¬ ized by this feature. Truncorotaloides Bronnimann and Bermudez (type species Globi- gerinoides pseudodubious Bandy) ^ includes Danian-Middle Eocene 1 Truncorotaloides Bronnimann and Bermudez 1953 is a senior subjective synonym of Acarinina Subbotina, 1953 by “little more than a week.” (letter, R. R. Schmidt, April, 1969) RECLASSIFICATION OF PALEOGENE PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA 175 Fig. 5. Truncorofaloides wl/coxensis (Cushman and Ponton), hispid wall texture, Lower Eocene, California, X200. hispid species with rounded or cuneate chambers, umbilical to extra- umbilical primary apertures and lacking a well-defined keel (Figure 5 ) . Rare specimens with dorsal sutural apertures occur in most trun- corotaloidid species but in 2 Middle Eocene forms \T. topilensis (Cush¬ man) and T. pseudodubius (Bandy)] this feature occurs in the great majority of specimens. These 2 species are not directly related phyleti- cally (Steineck, 1969) and from the standpoints of both diversity and divergence, separation of T runcorotaloides into 2 genera based on the presence or absence of secondary apertures is inappropriate. Most reconstructions of Paleogene phylogeny record a minor lineage developing from '"'Globigerina'^ spiralis Bolli to species with an acute periphery, planoconvex text and a constricted umbilicus (including' "'Globorotalia'^ pusilla Bolli and ''Globorotalia'' broedermanni Cush¬ man and Bermudez). This lineage contains in the spiralis-pusilla transition, an independent derivation of a hispid wall texture from a 176 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 6. Morozovella caucaska (Glaessner), hispid wall texture. Lower Eocene, France. XI 00. smooth wall. As presently understood this lineage is morphologically similar (by parallel evolution) to T runcorotaloides but is phyletically distinct. To the writer, taxonomic clarity is best served by erection of a new genus but inasmuch as alternate transitions may exist, caution is exercised and a new generic name is not designated at present. Morozovella McGowran in Luterbacher (type species Pulviniilina velascoensis Cushman) includes hispid species with conicotruncate chambers and peripheral bands of rugosities (keels) (Figure 6). This lineage is similar to T runcorotaloides in wall texture but differs in test shape and in the presence of a keel. Morozovella becomes extinct in the uppermost Middle Eocene. FAMILY-GROUP CLASSIFICATIONS Previous family-group classifications employ modes of coiling and apertural characteristics (Loeblich and Tappan, 1964, Cl 53) and, RECLASSIFICATION OF PALEOGENE PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA 177 more recently, wall ultrastmcture (Lipps, 1966, p. 1263). Neither approach is fully satisfactory and the classification adopted here (Figure 2) emphasizes phylogeny. The following details warrant comment: 1) Globanomalina is removed from the Globorotaliinae and placed into the Hantkeninidae on morphologic (similar wall texture) and phyletic grounds. The Globorotaliinae, as redefined, includes one Paleogene genus, Turborotalia, and is monophyletic. 2) Genera and unnamed lineages characterized by hispid walls are placed into the Truncorotaloidinae. 3) Following McGowran, (1968) the Truncorotaloidinae, Catap- sydracinae, and Globorotaliinae are united in the Globigerinidae pending resolution of problems of polyphyly and iterative evolu¬ tion. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Research leading to ideas presented in this paper was carried out in the Allan Hancock Foundation of the University of Southern Cali¬ fornia under the supervision of Professor O. L. Bandy. Dr. Bandy and Professors H. V. Andersen and W. A. van den Bold of the Department of Geology, Louisiana State University reviewed the manuscript; Dr. R. C. Wright (Beloit College) prepared the scanning electron micro¬ scope photographs. The writer gratefully thanks his former colleagues. R. W. Morin, Edith Vincent, Fritz Theyer, R. L. Fleisher and Louie Marincovich for their patient counsel and clever devil’s advocacy. LITERATURE CITED Adshead, P., 1967 — Collection and laboratory maintenance of living planktonic Foraminifera. Micropal., 17: 32. Bandy, O. L., W. E. Frerichs, and E. Vincent, 1967 — Origin, development and geologic significance of N eoglohoquadrina gen. nov.; Cont. Cush. Found. Foram. Res., 18: 152. Bandy, O. L., J. C. Ingle, and W. E. Frerichs, 1967 — Isomorphism in “Sphaeroidi- nella” and “Sphaeroidinellopsis”; Micropal., 13: 483. Banner, F. T. and W. H. Blow, 1967 — The origin, evolution and taxonomy of the foraminiferal genus Pulleniatina Cushman, 1927. Micropal., 13: 133. Be, a. W. H., 1965 — The influence of depth on shell growth in Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady). Micropal., 11: 161. Berggren, W. a., 1966 — Phylogenetic and taxonomic problems in some Tertiary planktonic foraminiferal lineages. Voproszi Mickro. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R., 10: 309. 178 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE I - , R. K. Olsson, and R. A. Reyment, 1967 — Origin and development of j the foraminiferal genus Pseudohastigerina Banner and Blow, 1959. MicropaL, \ 13: 265. Blow, W. H., 1969 — Late Middle Eocene to Recent planktonic foraminiferal bio¬ stratigraphy. Proc. 1st Internat. Conf. Planktonic Microfossils, (Geneva, 1967). - , and F. T. Banner, 1966 — The morphology, taxonomy and biostratig- i raphy of Globorotalia harisanensis Le Roy, Globorotalia foshi Cushman and j Ellisor and related taxa. MicropaL, 12: 286. Bolli, H. M., a. R. Loebligh, and H. Tappan, 1957 — Planktonic foraminiferal families Hantkeninidae, Orbulinidae, Globorotaliidae and Globotruncanidae; U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull, 215: 3. j Hillebrandt, a., 1961 — Zur entwichlung der planktonachen Foraminiferen in j Altelertiar und ihre stratigraphische bedeutung; Paleont. Zs., 39: 189. 1 Lipps, J. H., 1966 — Wall structure, systematics and phylogeny of Cenozoic plank- j tonic Foraminifera; /. Paleo., 40: 1257. Loebligh, A. R. and H. Tappan, 1964 — Part C, Protista 2, Sarcodina, chiefly “The j camoebiana” and Foraminiferida. In Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, I R. C. Moore, editor: Geol. Soc. Amer. i Luterbagher, H. P., and Premoli-Silva, 1964 — Biostratigraphica del limite Cre- i taceo — Terziaro nell’ Appennion centrale. Riv. Ital. Paleont., 7: 67. j Mayr, E., 1964 — Systematics and The Origin of Species. Dover Publications, New i York. i - , 1968 — Theory of biological classifications; Nature, 220: 1848. j MgGowran, B., 1962 — Foraminifera and biostratigraphy of the Australian Mae- ! strichtian and Paleocene. Unpublished thesis, Adelaide Univ. j - , 1968 — Reclassification of early Tertiary Globorotalia. MicropaL, 14: 61. Olsson, R. K., 1969 — Planktonic foraminifera from base of Tertiary Millers Ferry Alabama: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol, 53: 734. Rensgh, B., 1959 — Evolution Above The Species Level. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Simpson, G. G., 1961 — Principles of Animal Taxonomy. Columbia University Press, New York. Steinegk, P. L., 1969 — Lineage-Genus classification of lower Paleogene planktonic Foraminifera. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol, 53: 465. - , and J. M. Gibson, ms., — Age and correlation of the Eocene Ulati- sian and Narizian stages, California; Cal. Acad. Sci. Bull, under review. - , - , and M. T. Jervey, ms. — Paleoecologic and biostratigraphic implications of Eocene planktonic foraminiferal assemblages, California; Bull. graphic implications of Eocene planktonic foraminiferal assemblages, California; Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., under review. - , - , - , and R. W. Morin, ms. — Planktonic Foramini¬ fera from the Middle Eocene Rose Canyon and Poway Formations, San Diego, California; Contr. Cush. Found. Foram, Res., under review. Wade, M., 1964 — Application of the lineage concept to biostratigraphic zoning based on planktonic foraminifera. MicropaL, 10: 273. Fish Otolith Assemblage of a Gastrolithic Beach Gravel by MARK A. DIXON Mobil Research & Development Corp. P.O. Box 900, Dallas 75221 ABSTRACT The richest recorded sample of fish otolichs, most of which are pelican gastroliths, was collected at the shoreline of a “mudlump” island in the lower Mississippi delta. It is dominated by gravel-sized earstones of sea catfish, common croakers, and sea trout, with abundant sand-sized earstones of a tropical gadoid. The remainder of the 6400 ± otoliths make up a rich, poly-environmental assemblage ranging from fresh¬ water catfishes and killifishes to conger eels and deep-sea brotulids of anomalous origin. INTRODUCTION This note is a tentative listing of the pelican gastroliths found in a pint jar of biogenetic beach gravel. The sample was collected near the Pass-a-Loutre mouths of the Mississippi River by Drs. H. V. Andersen and James P. Morgan, during investigations of the ephemeral “mud- lump” islands. The sample was loaned to this writer for description and analysis in 1965, by Mr. Lewis G. Nichols, of the LSU Geology Museum. The bulk of the sample was returned. Identification presents many interesting problems. Many forms seen in this sample have never been properly described in the liter¬ ature. There are over 30,000 species of Recent fish with distinguishable otoliths and only about 1 ,000 precise descriptions or illustrations avail¬ able. Extensive consultations and comparisons by other authorities will be needed to finish identifying even half of the 70-odd species present. SAMPLE ORIGIN The biogenetic gravel represented by this sample was the coarsest debris present on an ephemeral clay diapir which thrust itself above sealevel near the outer fringes of the Mississippi River delta. Muddy islands of this type are a persistent local phenomenon within this muddy region. They are cut off from normal beach and windblown sands by their seaward position, and there are no siliceous gravels at The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 180 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the surface within a hundred miles. They are generally terraced by moderate waves and eventually buried by the advancing river-mouth bars (Morgan 1961, pp. 76-79 and figs. 47-49). Composition of the ordinary mudlump “beaches” is dominated by reworked microfossils and clay pellets derived from the mudlump itself {ibid., p. 89 and fig. 59). Brief exposure to wave action apparently concentrated these otoliths as beach gravel after occupation of the mudlump by several thousand pelicans (Andersen, personal communications) . The washed, clay-free residue consists of about 5 ounces of calcareous material. Roughly one-half ounce of this was silt, reworked microfossil debris (see Andersen, 1961, Part II), catfish spines, small fish teeth, and scales, which are now lost. The remainder of the sample consists of approxi¬ mately 6,400 fish otoliths and otolith fragments, most of which are gravel sized (over 4 mm.) . Almost all of these otoliths are pelican gastroliths, produced by in¬ complete digestion and regurgitation of prey by the common brown pelican {Pelecanus Occident alis?) during its nesting period. Few oto¬ liths show any sign of prolonged abrasion, corrosion, or weathering. Most are glossy, polished, and undiscolored; less than a hundred have been corroded beyond hope of identification of the family and/or genus of fish. As far as evidenced by their preservation, less than 1% of these otoliths are reworked from the mudlump clays. This estimate is sup¬ ported by the observation that otolith beaches are found on only a few of the available mudlumps. Possible exceptions to this rule are the anomalous conger eel and brotulid otoliths. CONCENTRATION AND COMPOSITION OF THE ASSEMBLAGE This sample is undoubtedly the most concentrated single sample of fish otoliths (or any other vertebrate assemblage) ever recorded. It is approached in both density and variety only by certain beds in Jurassic salt deposits of northern Germany — the Malmian “Otolithen-pflaster”, or earstone pavement (Martin & Weiler, 1957) . These samples do not agree in mode of origin, as Jurassic bird life did not include pelicans or anything remotely resembling them. Recent salt-concentrates com¬ parable to the Jurassic records may be forming around the Gulf of Kara Bogaz (Garbell, 1963, p. 100), which is a hypersaline death trap. Such environmental conditions offer a striking contrast with the mud¬ lump islands. In the Gulf of Kara Bogaz, there is slow clastic & chemi¬ cal accumulation from a seaward barrier source, no erosion, no struc- FISH OTOLITH ASSEMBLAGE OF A GASTROLITHIC BEACH GRAVEL 181 tural movement, and a vast surrounding desert. At the mudlumps, there is rapid clastic deposition from a fluviatile source, phenomenal diapiric uplift and rapid wave trimcation, and a surrounding sea and lake complex with salinities much less than marine, supported by high local rainfall. The only factors which these environments have in common are low wave and tidal energies, a shoreline of low relief, oxidation above the water table, abundant fish life offshore, and a seasonal population of fishing birds. Gastrolithic otoliths have been dissected from sea-birds by Adams (1940) and by Martini (1964), but the diets of these birds seem to be very restricted by comparison. There is no fisherman quite the equal of a pelican with young. It is ironic that of all the vertebrates recorded in this sample, there is not a single direct trace or fragment of the bird which created it. There is not a single bone, claw, or feather-shaft to indicate the true source of this unique sediment. The pelican gastrolithic assemblage is dominated (85% by count and over 90% by volume) by about 4 species: sea catfish, common croakers, sea trout, and a small tropical gadoid (Table 1). These are all small, common fish, found either at the surface or in water so shallow that they cannot escape by diving. The remaining 15% of the assemblage is a bewildering composite assemblage which is seldom equalled by any fauna, vertebrate or invertebrate, from any geologic age or environment. At least 25 families of fish, with over 70 distin¬ guishable species, are presently recognized. Less than half of these species are properly described and figured in the literature. About 300 specimens are on loan to Dr. D. L. Frizzell, who has published a major article (Frizzell and Dante, 1965) on the Tertiary otoliths of this region, for his identification. The results are unexpected and disconcerting. Some of these fish are not listed by Breder (1948) as occurring on the Atlantic or Gulf Coasts of North America, and others are living representatives of genera which Frizzell had considered extinct (personal communication, 6 Jan. 1966). The ecologic range of this composite assemblage reaches from that of freshwater killifish and catfishes to the cold bottom waters of deep- sea brotulids and conger eels. This is neither a bioceoenose (living population of adults) nor a thanatocoenose (death or catastrophic assemblage), as these terms are ordinarily used. It is a special type of predator-determined assemblage from which all fish above a certain size are excluded, but no major group is completely excluded. The only comparable fossil assemblage is one described by Stinton (1958) from Australia. The pelican’s diet, as indicated by these otoliths, is indiscriminate 182 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Tentative identifications of fish otoliths from pass-a-loutre gastrolithic beach gravel Per cent Actual total Max. LSUGM Sea catfish (mostly Galeichthys felis) Common croakers {Micropogon undulatus) Tropical gadoid (Bregmaceros sp.)J Sea trouts (Cynoscion spp.) Other percoids including: Lafayette (Leiostomus xanthurus) Redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus) Sea mink {Menticirrhus spp.) Pigfish (Orthopristis spp.) Caesar {Bathystoma rimator) Sheepshead {Archosargus sp.) Pinfish {Lagodon rhomhoides) Unidentified form “A” (Gruntf) “B” (Gruntf) “D” (Sciaenid) “E” (Trichiuridaef ) “F” (Carangidaef ) “G” {Bair della sp.) “H” {Bairdellad^ sp.) “J” (near Lepomis\) Freshwater Ostariophysi (mostly abraded lapilli) Brotulids and Ophidioids including Shortbearded Cusk Eel {Lepophidium sp.)% unidentified “A” {near Praeophidion\)X “B” {near Praeophidion\)X “C” {near Praeophidion\)X “E” {near N eobythitesX)X “F” {near Ophidion)X “G” {naav Ophidion)X “H” (near /ImofoDJ Other Acanthopterygians Striped mullet {Mugil cephalus) Toadfish {Opsanus sp.) Threadfin {P olynemus sp.) Menhaden {Brevoortia spp.f ) Gobies (gen. & sp. indet.) 2,889f* 44.5% 9 mm 8132-33 l,043t 16.4% 11 mm 8134-35 930 14.6% 2 mm 8136-39 514 8.1% 14 mm 8140-41 15 6 mm 8142 14 8 mm 8143 4 8 mm 8144 . 22f 4 mm 8146, 8161-63 2 3 mm 8147 3t 21/2 mm 8156 7f 7^ mm 8145 84 8 mm 8148-50 102 8 mm 8151-53 2 4 mm 8157 3 10 mm 8158 1 11/4 mm 8159 27 4 mm 8154 9 5 mm 8155 10 5 mm 8160 77 1.2% 4 mm 816L-65 45 ± 0.7% 10 6 mm 8171 1 2 mm 8172 1 2 mm 8173 1 2 mm 8174 30 ± 21/4 mm 8175-76 1 2 mm 8177 1 2 mm 8178 1 2 mm 8179 23f 0.4% 71/4 mm 8166 12f 0.2% 81/4 mm 8167 3f trace 2 mm 8168 4f trace 1 ^2 mm 8169 2 trace 2^2 mm 8170 FISH OTOLITH ASSEMBLAGE OF A GASTROLITHIC BEACH GRAVEL 183 Actual total Max. LSUGM Name count count size slide! 105 L7% Flatfishes including Southern flounder (Paralichthys sp.) unidentified “A” (near Solea kleinii) “D” (possibly killifishf) “E” (Achiridae)t “F” (AcMridae)t Eels, and others formerly grouped as “Malacopteri” including American eel {Anguilla mstrata) American eelf (possibly young males) unidentified “A” {Uroconger sp.)% “B” (Killifish) “C” (Killifish) “D” (Lantemfish) “E” (near Lantemfish) “F” (nearKillifisht) “G” (Congridae; A rfosomaDt “H” (Congridae; AriosO'mfff)J “I” (C/rocowg^rf sp.-j-) “J” (near ) Incertae sedis including unidentified “A” “B” (near eelsf ) “C” (spiraled) t “D” (poecilidsf) “E” (near Albulidae)t “F” (needlefish! ; near S^Zow) “G” (reworked percoidsf) “H” (Scomberesocidaef ) “J” (needlefish! or flying fish! — near Belone) “K” (garfish!) Unidentified residue- including miscellaneous lapilli (many abraded) unidentifiable (!) fragments 4 4 mm 8180 59 2 mm 8181 17! 3 mm 8182 12 3 mm 8183 11! 21/2 MllA 8184 1 11/2 mm 8185 1 11% 8186 231 3.6% 66 4 mm 8187 39! 3 mm 8188 35 11 mm 8189-90 66 5 mm 8191 12 4 mm 8192 4 £1% mm 8193 1 1 ^2 8194 1 1 ^2 Kl™- 8195 1 4 mm 8196 1 2 mm 8197 1 2 mm 8198 4 3^ mm 8199 50 0.8% 1 8 mm 8200 1 8 mm 8201 1 1% mm 8202 2 2 mm 8203 8 21% mm 8204 8 £1/2 mm 8205 8 £1% mm 8206 9 2^2 m™- 8207 3 31/2 mm 8208 1 2^ mm 8209 122 L9% 34| 3 mm 8210 96! 5 mm 8211-12 TOTALS 6,355 ± 98.9% * One small container of these otoliths may haTe been lost in storage-— not counted, f Count includes small, broken, worn, or doubtful specimens, j Specimens on loan to D. L. Frizzell; slide numbers reserved but not put on slide. 184 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE with regard to major groups but heavily biased in favor of those which live within 2 feet of the surface and fairly close inshore. Almost half of the otoliths are of saltwater catfish, mostly the common sixwhisker or hardhead. Otoliths of various bottom swimmers and oyster-reef inhabitants, including the poisonous toadfish, are easily explained by the extreme shallowness of inshore water in the Mississippi delta region. The brotulids and conger eels are another matter entirely. If only one or 2 were present, they could be attributed to reworking from the Mudlump clays, which were deposited in 300-400 feet of water (Morgan, 1961, p. 20-29), and which are a remarkable medium for fossil preservation. However, as indicated earlier, these otoliths neither look reworked nor occur frequently on other mudlumps. The brotulids may be the first of their kind ever reported from Louisiana waters. ; Some are Recent representatives of the fossil genus Bauzaia (Frizzell and Dante, 1965, p. 710-71 1 ; plate 86, figs. 27-28, 30-31 ). This genus must eventually be synomymized with a Recent fish. | Unfortunately, there are no adequate keys to all the fish of this region. The 3rd most abundant genus among the gastroliths, Breg~ maceros^ is not listed by Breder (1948) as occurring in eastern North America. Hoese (1958, p. 326) notes 2 specimens caught off the Texas ! coast, but only Frizzell’s fossil form was previously reported from | Louisiana. The sheer abundance of it among the gastroliths led to ! gross misidentification in preliminary work on this assemblage. | Breder’s key similarly lists only one species of conger eel, while this assemblage contains at least 4 — all of which are probably listed by Hoese, but without description of either the fish or its otoliths, j This assemblage almost certainly contains more than the ordinary j prey of wdld pelicans. Since reworking of any substantial part of the ^ assemblage is doubtful, we may assume there is an intermediate preda- | tor or host at work. Personal observations suggest that this inter¬ mediate predator is man himself. Commercial shrimping vessels, ' trawling Chandeleur Sound for shrimp and much deeper waters for | red snapper, must pass through the mouths of the river on their return ; to trucking and freezing facilities between Venice and New Orleans. Their primary concern on this long return trip is in cleaning and icing | their catch. Trash fish of all sizes are thrown overboard, along with i stomach contents and other parts of the snapper. The pelicans could | hardly ask for a more bountiful and varied source of food than to follow the trail of a shrimp boat on its way from the snapper banks to , the unloading docks. The stomach contents of snappers probably ex- ; plain the anomalous brotulids and other small deepwater fish found in FISH OTOLITH ASSEMBLAGE OF A GASTROLITHIC BEACH GRAVEL 185 this assemblage. The larger bottom fish were probably netted, killed, and discarded where pelicans were among the first scavengers to appear. It is a matter of firsthand observation that pelicans will pick up trash fish left on a dock for several hours. Comparison of the largest otoliths present with those of similar species caught by hand indicates that any fish up to the equivalent of a 12-inch catfish can be caught, carried to the nest, and consumed. This testifies a great deal to the distensible throat and phlegmatic temperament of the pelican. A disturbed catfish immediately erects strong, barbed dorsal and pectoral spines, which lock in place behind the skull to form a rigid triangle. The point of the snout forms the 4th point of a tetrahedron at least equal in circumference to the length of the fish. It would seem that only a formidable predator could ever swallow one whole; yet to the ordinary brown pelican, this fish constitutes almost every other meal (Table 1 ) , LITERATURE CITED Adams, L. A., 1940 — Some characteristic otoliths of American Ostariophysi. Jour. Morph., 65: 497-519, plates 1-4. Andersen, H. V., 1961 — Foraminifera of the mudlumps. Lower Mississippi Delta. La. Geol. Surv. Bull., 35, part II. Breder, C. M., 1948 — Field Book of Marine Fishes of the Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Texas, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. Frizzell, D. L., and J. H. Dante, 1965 — Otoliths of some early Cenozoic fishes of the Gulf Coast. Jour. Paleon., 39(4) : 687-718 and plates. Garbell, M. a., 1963 — The sea that spills into a desert. Sci. Amer., 208(8): 94-100. Hoese, H. D., 1958 — A partially annotated checklist of the marine fishes of Texas. Mar. Sci. Publ., 5: 312-352. Martin, G. P. R., and W. Weiler, 1957 — Das Aldorfer Otolithen-Pflaster und sein Fauna. Senck. Leth., 38: 211-249 and plates. M.4RTINI, E., 1964 — Otolithen in Gewollen der Raubseeschwalbe {Hydroprogne caspia) . Bonner Zool. Beitrage, Bonn, Germany. Morgan, J. P., 1961 — Mudlumps at the mouth of the Mississippi River. La. Geol. Surv. Bull., 35, Part I. Stinton, F. C., 1958 — Fish otoliths from the Tertiary strata of Victoria, Australia. Roy. Soc. Victoria Proc., 70(pt. 1): 81-93, plate 13. -'..1 ; /, ' •v^; . • ■ ■ ■■ ,; '.sv. •i •'“ •Ti'V; *-V>' j,.,, i .■- “jJ. <‘')‘c,^-j'iv ‘ '.wyyy'^i vy*^^;.'.,’ ■ yhjv' ’. ' . ' t‘ ;-f -.. ';v -;':'.ii^»’/ '\-J'‘' ^'i y< '.-y-i 'i^ ' 7‘v •'? , . ’■/■ ■• . ‘v- •»''^‘*^i ^ -*■ '^1' ^’’.f ' ■' j ■v',! -/J '■’•■.:.i •■ i'!' ■' ^ • ■ ■ •>»>■' . . ‘•*'''^'' i;‘.i- ' sj-'v, ?fe‘^U’ n I ' ' ^ • it'--' ' j •'^^t ^ *■■* ■"*:- i^‘ ' t ' ' -■ yr; -< • 'll '^-'’.t' ,• •, V - -' I \h' i'i,y.--. \. J vr'- - 'yy y •t'v'vi ■' W ?->•.;■ ' ., / ' ;,i-j ■; . ■ ■ Y . , ■- "’sGI^-‘>’tV‘^Y*'' ' '•■ ■ •^*-^' ,.'.Vo‘' ''' I ''^S ''' '"■ •■ ', y y'' y'y. ' ■' ' ■•’ :’ ‘ • '., , Y . ,- '.■'.r _ ' . ^ -: ', '• ' '/ ■'•, ■^’ v'" '“’ ■' " ■. ' ' '' W: " Y‘ ' ' '■ ’ ' " >'■ yf\^yi0 r.yh^> yyry -^'>' ■^'- ..JlY*' ■'?•' * (^, ‘ts'Viw IJIl '<. A ';t k r.'i< ' ' '■ " 'I* ' ’ v’ ‘ ■'''» J&’^ ,/'■ ' !4;/.'V;'^;V:^V^ .. .' - . ■• .v.&<. ■'(.. i-J. ./-A. The Effect of Additives on the Photolysis of Polystyrene and Model Compounds’^ by RAYMOND B. SEYMOUR and RING SHYA TSANG^ Department of Chemistry, University of Houston, Houston ABSTRACT Benzene solutions of polystyrene and its model compounds (toluene, ethylbenzene, diphenylme thane and cumene) were exposed to ultraviolet radiation in the presence of oxygen at room temperature. The rate of degradation as measured by the mano- metric oxygen uptake showed the order to be in accord with the ease of hydrogen abstration, i.e., cumene > diphenylmethane > ethylbenzene > toluene. Acetophenone produced by the photolytic oxidation of ethylbenzene was isolated and identified by gas chromatography, nuclear resonance spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy. Neither the acetophenone nor 4-hydroxyacetophenone had significant effect on the oxidation rate of ethylbenzene. However, benzophenone which was produced by the oxidation of diphenyl¬ methane increased the rate of oxidation of ethylbenzene. The rate was decreased substantially in the presence of 2-hydroxybenzophenone and other aryl ketones which could chelate by intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The effect was not noted when intermolecular bonding took place between phenol and benzophenone nor when bulky groups decreased the ease of chelation. The efficiency of these substituted benzophenones as stabilizers was in accord with the strength of the intramolecular hydrogen bonds as demonstrated by nuclear magnetic resonance shifts and with absorption of photons in the 280-340 mu range. The effectiveness of these substituted benzophenones as stabilizers was also deter¬ mined by noting the rate of discoloration of solutions and films of polystyrene. This effect was also correlated with the rate of embrittlement of films and the rate of increase of the ratio of the infrared absorbance bands for carbonyl (S.Sl.tt) and carbon-hydrogen ( 5.20(i ) . INTRODUCTION Some transparent products, such as glass and poly (methyl metha¬ crylate) are unusually resistant to weathering during exposure to air and sunlight. In contrast, unless they are protected by surface coatings, many traditional materials of construction, such as iron, steel, con¬ crete, and wood deteriorate appreciably during long term exposure in 1 Presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Texas Academy of Science at Angelo State University, March 5, 1970. 2 Present address: Aerospace Division, Bendix Corporation, Ann Arbor, Michigan. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 188 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE outdoor environment. That iron rusts, concrete cracks and erodes, and wood rots are generally accepted as inherent characteristics of these materials. However, presumably because of their versatility and new¬ ness, plastics are often expected to outperform the classical materials of construction. Opaque polymeric composites, such as polyethylene or polypropy¬ lene filled with carbon black, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, or alumi¬ num powder have performed satisfactorily in outdoor service but transparent products are often preferred. Both glass and poly (methyl methacrylate) meet many of the specifications for an ideal outdoor material of construction. However, the former is characteristically brittle and the latter is more expensive than some of the less resistant transparent plastics. Thus, less expensive products such as polystyrene can not be used in outdoor service unless they are stabilized. Since it is difficult to study the effect of these additives on macromolecules, low molecular weight arene model compounds were used in this investigation. The general subject of photochemistry has been reviewed by Roller (1952), Noyes et al. (1963, 1964), Kan (1966) and Calvert and Pitts (1966) and this information will not be duplicated in this discussion. The emphasis is on the absorption of oxygen by arene model com¬ pounds in the presence of ultraviolet radiation. Ciamician and Silber (1900, 1901) showed that benzopinacol was produced when an ethanolic solution of benzophenone was exposed to sunlight. More recently, Cohen and Cohen (1967) and Cohen and Siddiqui (1967) have obtained substituted benzopenacols by the photoreduction of aminobenzophenones. However, Yang and Rivas (1961) showed that the production of benzopinacols by ultraviolet irradiation was hindered when a hydroxyl group was present in the ortho position of benzophenone. Hill (1965) attributes the effect to transfer of the absorbed energy to the 6 mem- bered chelate ring formed by intramolecular hydrogen bonding as shown below: Chelate of 2-hydroxybenzophenone Reiney et al. (1953) has shown that the absorption of radiation by polystyrene is greatest at wavelengths less than 3000A but that the formation of a thin yellow surface layer screens out ultraviolet radi¬ ation and thus the interior of the exposed polymer is protected. Van Loo (1956) has shown that pigments also serve as sunscreens in pro- EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 189 tective coatings. However, as shown by Penn (1962), additives similar to those used in suntan preparations are essential when clear polymers are exposed to ultraviolet light. Hill (1964) has also demonstrated that 4-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzo- phenone which absorbs in the 3000-4000A range, is an effective screen¬ ing agent in that region. Maltise (1962) has shifted the range of absorption to shorter wavelengths by the introduction of fluorine atoms. Thus, 2-hydroxy“4-methoxytrifluoromethylbenzophenone ab¬ sorbs in the MUV range. Miller et al. (1969) has explained the effectiveness of aryl salicy¬ lates and resorcinol monobenzoate by assuming conversion to hydroxy- ben zophenones by the ultraviolet radiation. A complete list of com¬ mercial ultraviolet absorbers may be found in the 1969-70 Modern Plastics Encyclopedia. The primary reactions leading to bond dissociation when photons are absorbed have been reviewed by Gardner and Epstein (1961 ) and Fox (1965). It is now generally accepted that the absorption of a photon raises the polymer molecules from the ground state to an excited state. The excited molecule may return to the ground state by emission of the absorbed energy as heat or by transferring the energy to another molecule. Through the use of a wave length of 25 73 A in vacuo, Grassie and Weir (1965) showed that the elimination of hydrogen was the most favorable primary photolytic reaction for polystyrene as shown by the following equation: H* H • • » + t -► H H : H + C* ; ; C In contrast, under similar conditions of exposure, in the presence of oxygen, Grassie (1965a) showed that the quantum yield for oxygen absorption was independent of the molecular weight of polystyrene. Achhammer et al. (1951) used infrared spectroscopy to identify the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups resulting from the chain scission shown in the following equation ABSORPTION CC/MOLE 190 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ! ! EXPERIMENTAL ! In this investigation, benzene solutions of polystyrene, model com- [ pounds (toluene, ethylbenzene, diphenylmethane, and cumene) in quartz tubes were irradiated by a Nester-Faust Model UV 300 low pressure mercury arc lamp using 0.02 amperes and 1000 volts at room i temperature in an oxygen atmosphere. These tubes were connected to : a manometer and the pressure drop during irradiation was observed, i These data were converted to cc/mole oxygen absorption. | A 10% solution of polystyrene^ in benzene was also irradiated by the Nester-Faust lamp enclosed in a quartz sheath. Oxygen was passed j 3 Cosden 550, Cosden Oil and Chemical Co., Big Spring, Texas. | r Fig. 1. The relative rate of photoyltic oxidation of arenes as measured by the rate of ; oxygen absorption. Legend: A = Cumene; B = Diphenylmethane; C = Ethylbenzene; D = Toluene. AlSORPTIOl CC/MLE EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 191 Figure 2. THE RELATIVE BATE OF PHOTOLYTIC OXIDATION OF ETHYLBENZENE IN THE PRESENCE OF 1.0 MOLE PER CENT OF ADDITIVES AS MEASURED BY THE PAT?. OF OXYGEN ABSORPTION. Legends A - Benzophenone (BP); B - 4”-hydroxy BP; C ® Ethylbenzene; D ” Benzoylacetophenone ; E « Z-hydrossy BP; F - 5-chloro~2”hydroxy BP; G ~ 2“hydroicy”4--n"Octoxy BP; H « 2“hydroxy“4-methoxy BP. 192 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE into this solution continuously. The extent of degradation was deter- ; mined by the examination of samples at different time intervals. These photolytic studies were also conducted in the presence of ' stabilizers. The rate of discoloration and embrittlement of polystyrene films exposed to ultraviolet radiation was also noted. The rate of oxi- ; dation of films was followed by using a technique described previously by Seymour et al, (1967) in which the absorbance ratios of the i carbonyl (5.81/i) and carbon-hydrogen bands (5.20ju,) were monitored. > The infrared spectroscopic data were obtained on a Beckman IB 10 spectrophotometer. Ultraviolet spectroscopic data were obtained on a | Bausch and Tomb Model 505 spectrophotometer. Gas chromatographic |, data were obtained on an Aerograph Hy-F, Model 600D. Nuclear magnetic resonance data were obtained on a Varian H-A (100fi.Hz) |, spectrometer. { ! I DISCUSSION I As shown in Figure 1, the rate of photolytic oxidation of benzene 1 solutions of arenes was in accord with the relative ease of hydrogen ! abstraction, i.e., cumene > diphenylmethane > ethylbenzene > i toluene. Thus, the tertiary hydrogen atom in cumene was more |i readily oxidized than the secondary hydrogen atom in diphenyl- j methane or ethylbenzene and the latter were more readily oxidized I than the primary hydrogen atom in toluene. j The increase in the rate of photolytic oxidation of diphenylmethane ! with time may be attributed to the formation of benzophenone which ; is a good photosensitizer. Photosensitized oxidations have been re¬ viewed by Gollnick and Schenck (1965) , The formation of benzophenone as an oxidative product of diphenyl¬ methane was verified by gas chromatography. In addition to retention | time data, the benzophenone was identified by melting point (47° C) | and by infrared spectroscopy. Because of its resemblance to units in the polystyrene molecule, i ethylbenzene was selected as an appropriate model compound for the study of the oxidative photolysis of polystyrene. The principal product of the photolytic oxidation of ethylbenzene was characterized as aceto¬ phenone by gas chromatography, infrared spectroscopy, and NMR spectroscopy. As shown in Figure 2, both benzophenone and 4-hydroxybenzo- phenone accelerated the photolytic oxidation of ethylbenzene. How¬ ever, when a 6 membered chelate formation by intramolecular hydro¬ gen bonding was possible, as with derivatives of 2-hydroxybenzo- phenone, the rate of oxidation was reduced. The chelate in benzoyl- ABSORPTION CC/MOLE EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 193 acetophenone may result from intramolecular bonding in the enol form. Simple hydrogen bonding without chelate formation was ineffective in retarding the photolytic oxidation of ethylbenzene. As shown in IN THE PRESENCE OF BENZOPHENONE , PHENOL AND A MIXTURE OF THESE COMPOUNDS. Legend: A = 1 mole per cent benzophenone ; B = 2 mole per cent phenol; C - 1 mole per cent benzophenone + 2 mole per cent phenol; D - ethylbenzene 194 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Figure 3, a mixture of 2 mole % phenol and 1 mole % benzophenone actually accelerated the oxidation of ethylbenzene. The relation of the strength of the intramolecular hydrogen bonds to oxidative stabilization is shown by the NMR chemical shifts listed Figure 4. THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE STABILITY OF THE CHELATE TO THE STABILIZERS' EFFICIENCY AS MEASURED BY THE SATE OF OXYGEN ABSORPTION. Legends A = ethylbenzene; B = 2-hydroxycyclohexylphenone ; C ~ 2“hydroxy“4 , 6-dl-tert . butylbenzophenone ; D = cyclohexyl- 2”hydroxypheiione ; E = 2~hydroxybenzophenone . EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 195 in Table 1 . The chemical shift of the hydroxyl (12.948 ) for 4-methoxy- 2-hydroxybenzophenone was the highest of the compounds tested and in the same order as shown previously in Figure 2. The effect of chelate stability on stabilizer efficiency is also shown by the oxygen absorption data in Figure 4. Hydrogenation of one of the benzene rings in 2-hydroxybenzophenone reduces the stabilizer efficiency and the greater reduction in efficiency is noted when the hydroxyl is on the cyclohexyl ring. Bulky groups in the 4 and 6 positions cause the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups to be distorted so that chelation is hindered. Thus, 4,6-ditert. butyl-2-hydroxybenzo- phenone was not an effective stabilizer. As shown in Figure 5, the rate of photolytic oxidation of a benzene solution of p-hydroxyethylbenzene is slower than that of ethylbenzene. Since chelation is possible with o-hydroxyethylbenzene, its oxidation rate is slower than that of the para derivative. As discussed previously, the benzophenone produced by the oxi¬ dation of diphenylmethane is a good photosensitizer. Thus, as shown in Figure 6, the rate of oxidation of this arene is faster than that of ethylbenzene. However, since the oxidation product of 2-hydroxy- diphenylmethane is an effective stabilizer (2-hydroxybenzophenone), the rate of oxidation of the hydroxy arene is slower. As shown in Figure 7, the absorptivity of benzophenones in the ultraviolet region is in accord with their effectiveness as stabilizers. Since, phenyl salicylate (salol) has some stabilizing effect, its absorp¬ tivity is also shown. As indicated by the following formula, phenyl salicylate can form a chelate. However, this ester may also undergo a photo Fries rearrangement to produce 2,2'dihydroxybenzophenone which may form a twin chelate as shown by the following equation: 0 0 I II phenyl salicylate 2 , 2 *“dihydroxybenzophenone As suggested by Miller et aL (1969), the formation of the benzo¬ phenone derivative may account for the improved stabilization effect of phenyl salicylate after exposure to radiation. As shown in Figure 7, the benzophenone derivatives that were effective stabilizers in retarding the photolytic oxidation of ethyl- ABSORPTION CC/MOLE I 196 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE | ! !' TIME (HRS) - — ^ t Figure 5. RELATIVE RATE OF PHOTOLYTIC OXIDATION OF 5 MOLE PER I CENT BENZENE SOLUTIONS OF ETHYLBENZENE AND ITS PARA ! AND ORTHO-HYDROXY DERIVATIVES AS MEASURED BY OXYGEN ABSORPTION. E Legend: A - Ethylbenzene; B - p-hydroxyethylbenzene ; C = 0- ^ hydroxyethylbenzene . EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 197 Table 1 NMR chemical shifts of the intramolecular hydrogen bonding or some aromatic ketones Ketone 5ms (ppm) 2-hydroxybenzophenone 12.94 4-methoxy-2=hydroxybenzophenone 12.94 4-n-octoxy-2-hydrobenzophenone 12.90 5-chloro-2-hydroxybenzophenone 12.08 benzoylacetophenone 6.70 TIME (HRS) - Figure 6. RELATIVE RATE OF PHOTOLYTIC OXIDATION OF 5 MOLE PER CENT BENZENE SOLUTIONS OF DIPHENYLMETHANE AND 2-HYDROXY-DIPHENYL- METHANE-. Legend: A - Diphenylme thane; B = 2-hydroxydiphenylme thane 198 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE i benzene also retarded the photolytic oxidation of a benzene solution | of polystyrene. The rate of oxidation of polystyrene was monitored by observing the change in the absorbance ratios for the carbonyl (5.81/x) and the carbon-hydrogen bands (5.20/x). These data were also in accord with the rate of yellowing and embrittlement of poly- | styrene films. | Figure 7. ULTRAVIOLET SPECTRA OF SOME BENZOPHENONES . Legend J A = 2“hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone ; B - Z-hydroxy-A-n- octoxybenzophenone ; C ~ phenyl salicylate; D = phenyl salicylate after 45 hours exposure to ultraviolet radiation. EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON PHOTOLYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE 199 LITERATURE CITED Achhammer, B. G., M. J. Reiney, and F. W. Reinhart, 1951 — Study of degra¬ dation of polystyrene by using infrared spectroscopy. J. Research Nafl. Bureau Standards^ 47: 116-25. Calvert, J, G., and J. N, Pitts, 1966 — Photochemistry. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. Ciamician, G., and P. Silber, 1900— Photochemical reductions of aromatic ketones. Berichte, 33: 2911, 1901 — Berichte, 34: 1530. Cohen, S. G., and J. I. Cohen, 1967 — Photoreduction of p-aminobenzophenone. /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 89: 164. Cohen, S. G., and N. N. Siddiqui, 1967 — Photoreduction of p-dimethylaminobenzo- phenones. /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 89: 5409. Fox, R. B., and T. R. Price, 1965 — Energy transfer in the inhibition of the photo¬ degradation of poly (methyl methacrylate). Preprints, Organic Coatings and Plastics Chemistry Division, American Chemical Society, 25(2) : 138-148. Gardner, D. G., and L. M. Epstein, 1961 — Protection against radiation damage in poly (methyl methacrylate) by high energy elections and by ultraviolet light. 7. Chem. Phys., 34: 1653-60. Figure 8. RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STABILIZERS ON THE OXIDATIVE PHOTOLYSIS OF A 5 PER CENT SOLUTION OF POLYSTYRENE IN BENZENE AS MEASURED BY THE ABSORBANCE RATIOS (5.81m/5.20p) . Legend: A = Polystyrene (PS); B = PS + 1% 2-hydroxyacetophenone ; C = PS + 1% Z-hydroxy-A-methoxybenzophenone ; D PS + 1% 2~hydroxy-4-n-octoxybenzophenone . 200 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Gollnick, K. and G. O. Scheck, 1965 — Organic Photochemistry. Buttersworth, London. Grassie, N., and N. A. Weir, 1965 — Photoxidation of polymers. IL Photolysis of polystyrene. /. Appl. Polymer Sci., 9: 975-986. - , 1965a — Photoxidation of Polymers. III. Photolysis of Polystyrene. /. Appl. Polymer Sci., 9: 987-997. Hill, H. E., 1964 — Measurement of additive effectiveness in urethane coating degradation studies. Offic. Dig. Federation Paint and Varnish Production Clubs, 36: 64-83. Kan, R. O., 1966 — Organic Photochemistry. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. Roller, L. R., 1952 — Ultraviolet Radiation. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. Maltise, J. J., 1962 — Interaction of the space environment with organic coatings. Offic. Dig. Federation Paint and Varnish Production Clubs, 34: 603-621 . Miller, S. B., G. R. Lappin, and C. E. Tholstrup, 1969 — Ultraviolet absorbers. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, 46 (10a): 300-314. Noyes, W. A., G. S. Hammond, and J. N. Pitts, 1963, 1964 — Advances in Photo¬ chemistry, Vol. I and II. Interscience, New York, N.Y. Penn, W. S., 1962 — Protective coatings for ultraviolet radiation. Paint Manu¬ facturing, 32: 85-88. Reiney, M. j., M. Tryon, and B. G. Achhammer, 1953 — Study of degradation of polystyrene with ultraviolet spectroscopy. J. Research Nat’l. Bureau Standards, 51: 155-165. Seymour, R. B., H. S. Tsang, and D. Warren, 1967 — -An infrared spectroscopic investigation of photodegraded styrene copolymer film. Polymer Eng. Sci., 7: 55-57. Van Loo, M., 1956 — Physical chemistry of point coatings. Offic. Dig. Federation Paint and Varnish Production Clubs, 20: 1126-1156. Yang, N. C., and C. Rivas, 1961 — Photochemistry: Primary process, The photo- enolization of o-substituted benzophenones. /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 83: 2213. Carbon- 14 Containing Compounds Produced by the Pile Neutron Irradiation of Tetramethylammonium Chloride hy D. W. RATHBURN Department of Chemistry Midwestern University ^ Wichita Falls 76308 ABSTRACT An investigation has been made into the nature and quantity of the radiocarbon labelled products obtained from the dissolution in water of pile-neutron irradiated tetramethylammonium chloride. The isolated radio-carbon products showed little activity in the form of gaseous products and simple molecules. Formaldehyde and tetramethylammonium chloride were found to contain 10.8 and 13.8 per cent, respectively, of the total induced activity. The total isolated activity represented approximately 50 per cent of the induced activity. Possible paths leading to the crystal-stabilized precursors of the final products are suggested. INTRODUCTION In a neutron flux, nitrogen- 14 is transmuted into carbon- 14 by the nuclear reaction N^^(n,p)C^^. The C-14 atom recoils from the trans¬ formation site with approximately 40,000 e.v. This energy is dissipated to the crystal lattice in a period of about 10“^^ seconds. During this thermalizing process, free radicals and ions are formed within a region near the recoil path of the C-14 atom. As the recoiling atom diminishes in energy to about 100 e.v. or less, it may recombine with the free radicals and/or ions formed during the slowing down process. Various investigators (Yankwich and Vaughn, 1955; Yankwich and Gorman, 1955, 1956; Lapp and Kiser, 1962) have reported that this recombination process leads to a variety of C-14 labelled compounds. Although various labelled compounds have been identified for a num¬ ber of nitrogen-containing compounds, a clear understanding of the actual processes occurring during the recombination period has not yet been achieved. In order to further elucidate these processes, a sample of tetramethylammonium chloride was irradiated and then efforts were made to identify the various C-14 compounds present after the compound was dissolved in water. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 202 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OP SCIENCE EXPERIMENTAL | Sample Preparation and Irradiation. Tetramethylammonium chlor¬ ide (Eastman Red Label) was recrystallized 3 times from an ethanol- water mixture and dried for 12 hours at 130°C. 4.940 grams of the purified sample was placed in a 8 cm X 2 cm diameter quartz ampoule. The ampoule was connected to a vacuum line and flushed thoroughly with argon and evacuated to 10~^ torr in an effort to exclude oxygen from the sample. The quartz ampoule was sealed off and irradiated at Oak Ridge National Laboratories in the graphite reactor; pertinent data are as follows: neutron flux, approximately 5 X 10^^ cm“^ sec“^; irradiation time, 670 hrs.; gamma-ray flux, 4.9 X 10® rhr^^; maximum sample temperature, 80°. The sample was stored for 30 days following [ irradiation to allow for the decay of Cl-38. Following bombardment approximately 9,500 microcuries of the S-35 was present in the sample, j The ampoule was opened under vacuum and the gaseous products ! separated. The solid contents were transferred to a storage bottle under | an argon atmosphere. The solid sample was maintained under an | argon atmosphere during the entire course of the experimental study. ' Radioactivity Determinations. The gases formed during bombard- ; ment were counted using both a proportional counter system and an , ionization chamber. However, the gases formed upon dissolution of | the solid were analyzed only with the ionization chamber. The activity of carrier samples isolated from the irradiated solid sample was meas¬ ured using liquid scintillation techniques. All measurements were made using a Packard Tri-Carb Liquid Scintillation Spectrometer. A j counting efficiency of 50.0 ± 1.4% was obtained using standard i samples of C-14 labelled benzoic acid. Chemical Separations. The analyses of liquid and solid products , initially required a trial group of carriers in order to discern other carriers which may have been suitable. The mode of attack was to add a carrier to a small amount of the irradiated sample and then purify it or its derivative to constant specific activity in an attempt to achieve radiochemical purity. The presence of S-35 made it necessary to ; recrystallize samples 5 to 15 times. Analyses usually were made for one carrier in each solution of the target sample. | Preliminary Experiments. The quartz ampoule was opened under [ vacuum in order to collect the gases formed during bombardment and [ to determine the pressure inside the ampoule. The breaking apparatus shown in Figure 1 was constructed for this purpose. The ampoule was placed in the breaking apparatus and evacuated. The ampoule was broken by shaking the unit vigorously. The unit was then reattached , IRRADIATION OF TETRAMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE 203 to the vacuum system where the gas was expanded and measured using a mercury manometer. Assuming ideal conditions, the pressure inside the ampoule following bombardment was calculated to be approximately 1.3 atmospheres. Aliquots of the gas were removed and counted for radioactivity. Approximately 0.9 microcuries of activity was found to be in the gases formed during bombardment. This activity was measured using an internal gas-filled proportional counter. However, after determina¬ tion of the activity, the counter was found to be contaminated. Since hydrogen sulfide, methyl sulfide, or dimethyl sulfide were probably formed during irradiation, the contaminating activity most likely arose from the formation of silver sulfides on the cathode. However, the contaminating activity was small. The remaining activity was non- condenseable with liquid air and assumed to be methane. A separate determination of this gaseous activity was made by counting an aliquot with a vibrating reed electrometer. The solution apparatus consisted of an inverted Y-tube in which a small sample (50-100 mg.) of the irradiated compound was placed in one arm and distilled water was placed in the other arm. A diagram of the Y-tube is shown in Figure 2. The Y-tube was placed on the vacuum line and the water degassed by alternately freezing with liquid air and warming while under vacuum. After degassing was complete, the Y-tube was closed off from the main system and the ice melted and the water and sample mixed. During the dissolving process copious foaming and bubbling was observed. Upon completion of the solution process, the pressure was measured and a sample of the gas removed for analysis. The total C-14 activity of the irradiated solid was determined by dissolution of known portions in water. Aliquots were removed and the total activity determined by liquid scintillation techniques. The amount of C-14 produced in the sample was 6.0 ± 0.6 microcuries. In order to determine the distribution of the C-14 activity among compounds likely to result upon dissolution of the irradiated sample in water, solutions of irradiated tetramethylammonium chloride were subjected to analyses for the substances listed in Table 1. Dimethylamine does not appear in Table 1 since no direct attempts were made to isolate this activity. However, the absence of this species appears reasonable because of the techniques used in the methylamine and trimethylamine studies. Both of these techniques would have probably carried any activity due to dimethylamine. Chemical Separations. It was necessary to start with a trial group of carriers in an effort to discover other carriers suitable for the 204 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 1 . Breaking Apparatus. IRBADIATION OF TETRAMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE 205 separation of the activities found as the study progressed. The principal problem encountered in this type of procedure was the quantitative separation of the various activities free from contamination. The presence of S-35 was especially difficult to circumvent. Thus, all com¬ pounds and derivatives prepared were purified to constant specific activity in an attempt to achieve radio-chemical purity. The gaseous samples possibly evolved upon solid dissolution were CO, CH4, HCN, CO2 and CH3CL Liquid air was used to “cold-trap” the HCN, CO2 and CH3CI and effect separation. The total activity was likewise measured, thus yielding the quantity of activity in the 2 fractions. Fig. 2. Y-Tube Assembly. 206 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Carbon- 14 distribution among various compounds Per cent of total activity Fraction Average Values obtained CO and CH^ ( evolved gases 0.5 0.6, 0.4 HCN, CO2 and CH3CI | evolved gases 0.8 0.7, 0.8 Urea 0.0 0.0, 0.0 Formic Acid 0.2 0.3, 0.1 Methylamine 0.0 0.0, 0.0 T rime thy lamine 0.0 0.0, 0.0 F ormaldehy de 10.8 7.5,21.2,3.9 Methanol 2.3 3.0, 1.6 Ethanol 3.0 5.9, 0.0 Isopropanol 0.1 0.2, 0.0 T etramethylammonium chloride 13.8 15.8,11.9 '‘Gases formed during bombardment -15.0 -15.0 * Assumed to be predominantly methane. The non-gaseous products were analyzed as follows: : Urea: determined by oxidation with jack bean urease (Yankwich and i Vaughn, 1954) and the CO2 trapped in a sodium hydroxide trap. Formic Acid: determined by oxidation with mercuric acetate (Yank¬ wich and Vaughn, 1954) and the evolved CO2 trapped in a sodium hydroxide trap (Reid and Weihe, 1938; Weihe and Jacobs, 1936). Methylamine: (1) preparation of a phenylisothiocyanate derivative (Shriner, et al.^ 1960) . (2) addition of carrier methylamine hydro¬ chloride which evolved methylamine upon addition of base. The gaseous methylamine was recollected in CHCI3 and HCl added I (Yankwich and Vaughn, 1954). The resulting salt was oxidized ' with potassium permanganate and the CO2 trapped in sodium hydroxide. Trimethylamine: Carrier trimethylamine was evolved upon addition 1 of 16% sodium hydroxide to a solution of the irradiated sample. . The gas was collected in a hydrochloric acid trap. The acid solution i was counted directly using liquid scintillation technique. ; Formaldehyde: This compound was separated from an aqueous solu- :i tion of the irradiated sample as the methone (Dimedon) derivative (Horning and Horning, 1946; Weinberger, 1936) . Ethanol, methanol and isopropanol; carrier amounts of each alcohol were added to a dissolved sample. The samples were distilled and purity checked by gas chromatography. A benzoate derivative of was prepared (Shriner, et al.^ 1960) and activity measured by liquid scintillation counting techniques. IRRADIATION OF TETRAMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE 207 Tetramethylammonium chloride: the tetramethylammonium ion was precipitated by using sodium tetraphenylborate (Crane, 1956) to form (CH3)4NB(C6H5)4^ DISCUSSION The failure to isolate a higher percentage of the carbon- 14 products places a limitation upon any proposed mechanism and postulated species formed as a result of the recoiling process. However, the results obtained tend to indicate that the recoiling process can be understood in terms of the formation of methyl, methylene, and methyne radicals. The concentration of these radicals is expected to decrease in the order given. As the recoiling atom becomes thermalized the possibilities for combination increase. Thus, the abstraction of hydrogen atoms by collision processes should increase. In order to explain the results obtained in this study the following reactions are postulated: recoil Cl" + (CH3)4N+ ^ -Ci^H + (HHa) (CH3)3N+ (1) recoil Cl" + 2(CH3)4N+ Ci^H^ + 2(CH2) (CH3)3N+ (2) recoil Cl" + 3(CH3)4N+ + 3(-CH2) (CH3)3N+ (3) The formation of a methyl radical by reaction (3) can be viewed as forming an energetic radical. If the radical possessed sufficient energy a substitution of the for a bonded methyl group should be possible in a '‘hot” process: recoil ^""Ha + (CH3)4N+ ^ -CHa + (Ci"H3) (CH3)3N+ (4) This process is plausible not only on the basis of arguments presented above, but also on the basis of the large number of methyl groups in the parent molecule. The presence of methanol in the final products can be interpreted as a reaction involving the methyl radical. Methanol can be viewed as arising from the “hot” reaction of a matrix-stabilized methyl radical with water: Hi"H3 + HOH Ci"H30H 4- H- (5) In this case it is necessary to distinguish between a methyl radical that is stabilized and a methyl radical that has already undergone a combi¬ nation reaction. That is, the methyl radical formed by the recoiling carbon atom can undergo at least two reactions: (1) it can combine-- with the tetramethylammonium ion by a substitution process, or (2) it can become stabilized within the matrix and react with the solvent upon dissolution. The formation of a methylene radical can be viewed as undergoing a competitive process similar to the methyl radical. For example, if 208 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the methylene were to substitute for a methyl group similar to reaction (4), the resulting species would possess a structure similar to the parent. Thus, by abstracting a hydrogen from the solvent the parent molecule would be reformed. A process similar to this, but yielding a different product also seems possible. The production of an ethyl radical may be postulated by the following process: recoil HCH + (CH3) 4N+ + (CH3) 3N+ (6) If ethyl radicals became stabilized in the matrix they could react with the solvent to yield ethanol in a manner analogous to reaction (5) : C^^H2CH3 + HOH -> CH3Ci^H20H + H (7) The formation of a matrix-stabilized methylene radical could yield formaldehyde by reacting with the solvent. HC^^H + HOH HC^^HO + 2H (or H^) (8) I Thus it is possible to view the methylene radical as undergoing com¬ petitive reactions in the same manner as the methyl radical. I The methyne radical can be used to explain the occurrences of iso- I propanol. | ■C^^H + (CH3)4N+ HCi"CH3 + (CH3)3N+ (9) 1 + (CH3)4N+ CH3Ci^HCH3 + (CH3)3N+ (10) I The small amount of isopropanol lends some support to this mechan- ; ism. Further, reaction (10) is competitive with | H0^CH3 + (CH3)4N+ HsC^^CHs + (-CHs) (CH3)3N+ (11) 1 to form an ethyl radical. j The mechanisms suggested for the recoiling carbon- 14 atom in tetramethylammonium chloride are in agreement with the require- j ments of the Seitz-Koehler (1956) model. This model predicts a short- i lived, low temperature hot spot, only partial fragmentation of the | molecule or molecular ion, and no chemical consequences due to a i variation of the recoil energy. In contrast, the Libby (1940, 1947) | model predicts long-lived, high temperature hot-spots which probably | result in the complete dissociation of the molecule or molecular ion in the vicinity of the hot atom. In addition, in the Libby model the final chemical state is dependent upon the recoil energy of the atom. | Yankwich and Vaughan (1954) have reported their results of the | irradiation of ammonium bromide. This molecule is similar to tetra- f methylammonium chloride, differing only in methyl groups and I halide ion. On this basis it would appear possible that a correlation f could be obtained by comparing the results of these studies. However, i in the ammonium bromide study 79% of the activity was found to be ' present in methylamine. However, no activity was found as methyl- IRRADIATION OF TETRAMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE 209 amine in the present investigation of tetramethylammonium chloride. On the basis of the mechanisms outlined above, one might well con¬ clude that only small amounts of radioactivity, if any, should be found as methylamine in the present study, for N-H bonds requisite for an amine group do not exist in the (CH3)4N+C1“ case, and to form such bonds would require the stripping of methyl groups from the (CH3)4N+ ion, followed by the formation of NH or NHg from the N atom (or ion). This same argument would apply as well to the dimethylamine case. Lapp and Kiser (1962) have suggested the formation of polymers. However no evidence for polymers was observed during this study. LITERATURE CITED Crane, F. E., Jr., 1956 — Anal. Chem., 28: 1794. Horning, E. C., and M. C. Horning, 1946 — /. Org. Chem., 11: 95. Lapp, T. W., and R. W. Kiser, 1962 — /. Phy. Chem., 66: 152. Libby, W. F., 1940 — /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 62: 1930. - , 1947 — J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 69: 2523. Reid, J. D., and H. D. Weihe, 1938 — Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed., 10: 271. Seitz, F., and J. S. Koehler, 1956 — Displacement of atoms during irradiation. In Seitz and Tumball (Eds.), Solid State Physics, Vol. II, Academic Press, New York, pp. 305-448. Shriner, R. L., R. C. Fuson, and D. Y. Curtin, 19. . — The Systematic Identifica¬ tion of Organic Compounds. 4th Ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 202, 207. Weihe, H. D., and P. B. Jacobs, 1936 — Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 8: 44. Weinberger, W., 1936 — Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 8: 44. Yankwich, P. E., and W. R. Corman, Jr., 1955 — J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 77: 2096. - , 1956 — /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 78: 1560. Yankwich, P. E. and J. D. Vaughan, 1954 — J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 76: 5851. Relative Activity Coefficients of Sodium Hydroxide in Dioxane-Water Solvent Mixtures by BILLY J. YAGER and LAWRENCE F. KUNTSCHIK Department of Chemistry Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos 78666 ABSTRACT The effect of a mixed dioxane-water solvent system on the activity coefficients of sodium hydroxide has been investigated. Relative activity coefficients were deter¬ mined for sodium hydroxide solutions varying from 0.001 M to 0.1 M in solvent mixtures varied from 0-80% dioxane (v/v). Determinations were made by emf measurements of a concentration cell which used hydrogen electrodes. A valid determination oi E° could not be made so relative activity coefficients are reported. These coefficients increased with increasing concentrations of dioxane in the solvent and decreased at higher concentration of sodium hydroxide. INTRODUCTION Investigations in this laboratory (Yager, et al.) with 3 different esters have generally confirmed the work of others (Nair and Ananta- krishnam, 1950) on the effect of the dioxane-water solvent systems on the rates of ester saponification. Maximum reaction rates were ob¬ served in 10% dioxane and the reaction rates decreased slowly at higher dioxane concentrations. It was felt that a knowledge of the solvent system on the activity of the sodium hydroxide would be of benefit in explaining the solvent effect on the reaction rates. Activity coefficient ratios were determined for varying sodium hydroxide concentrations in solutions of dioxane-water which varied from 0-80% dioxane (v/v). The emf method was used by Harned ( 1 925 ) to determine activity coefficients of aqueous NaOH solutions. He used a concentration cell with hydrogen electrodes in each half cell and a sodium-amalgum electrode between the half cells as the electrode reversible to the sodium ion. Such amalgum electrodes are increasingly inaccurate in solutions whose concentrations are below 0.01 M because of the reaction with water. For this reason, a more reliable and convenient electrode was sought. It was felt that a cation-exchange membrane The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 212 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE could be used as a stable electrode reversible to the sodium ion. Mem¬ branes have been used for measurement of transport numbers by the emf method (Lakshminarayanaish, 1965). The proposed electrode reaction at the membrane is simply the addition of Na+ on one side of the membrane and the removal of Na^ from the other at such a rate that the number of Na+ on the membrane is constant. At the hydrogen electrodes the reaction is ^ H2 + OH“ H2O + 1 e“. Since water is a product (or reactant) at the hydrogen electrodes, the activity of the water in the solutions has an effect on the emf of the cell and the equation for the emf of the cell is (Glasstone, 1942) -2RT ‘^(NaOH)2 , RT ^(H20)2 F ^“(NaOH)i F ^ ^(H20)i ’ (1) ^ where p is the vapor pressure of water in the 2 solutions designated i by subscripts 1 and 2. Since the same solvent was used in both sides of | the concentration cell, it was felt that any change in the activity of j water caused by the different NaOH concentrations could be ignored | safely and the measured emf could be used to calculate activity | coefficient ratios for the NaOH from the equation (Glasstone, 1942) | 2RT ^ (NaOH) 2 _ ~2RT ^ (NaOH) 2 ~F~ ^^(NaOH)i F~ "" "^aOH)! ' Activity coefficients (/) are reported as ratios (/2//1), where /i is the activity coefficient of the 0.01 M NaOH solution of each solvent system, and then recalculated as ratios relative to the activity coeffi- | cient of 0.01 M NaOH in water. Absolute values for the activity | coefficients can be calculated by use of the equation (Glasstone, 1942) . : E + 2RT F In C - ~2RT ~~F~ In/ (3) if E° is known. can theoretically be evaluated by extrapolation to 1 infinite dilution or by other techniques but these met with little suc¬ cess. To avoid introducing any error inherent in assuming a value of i E°, the activity coefficients are simply reported as ratios. EXPERIMENTAL i Apparatus and Solutions. An all plastic apparatus was used because j of the alkaline solutions. Hydrogen electrodes were made with poly- | ethylene tubing rather than glass. The membrane electrode was pre¬ pared as suggested by Hani (1961 ) by treatment of commercial-grade, 0.15 mm. polyethylene film with chlorosulfonic acid for 4 hours. The sulfonated film was converted to the sodium form by equilibration in i 5% sodium hydroxide for 12 hours. The 2 half-cells were made from RELATIVE ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE 213 commercial polyethylene pipe Tees connected to threaded, one-inch- thick, polyethylene plates. The opposite ends of the Tees were plugged with polyethylene stoppers and the vertical sections of the Tees were used for adding solutions and inserting the hydrogen electrodes. The 2 half-cells were bolted together with the membrane electrode between the polyethylene plates (Fig. 1 ) . The entire cell was immersed in a constant-temperature water bath held at 35.00 ± 0.02°C. A student potentiometer, standardized with a Weston Cell, was used to measure the emf of the cell and checks were made using the millivolt scale of a Sargent DR pH meter. Solutions were prepared with deionized water and purified dioxane (Weissberger, 1955). Standard sodium hydroxide solutions were pre¬ pared by dilution of saturated, carbonate-free solutions of sodium hydroxide. The concentrations of these solutions was checked before and after emf measurements were made by titration with standard acid. Procedure. The potential measured with identical 0.01 M solutions of NaOH in the solvent system being tested in both half-cells was regarded as the membrane potential (Lakshminarayanaish, 1965). One of the cell compartments was emptied, rinsed several times with the next concentration of NaOH solution and then filled with that solution. The cell was replaced in the constant temperature bath, allowed to equilibrate, and then the emf was measured. The mem¬ brane potential was subtracted from the observed emf to give the emf FIGURE 1 APPARATUS 214 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE i due to the concentration difference. Determinations were made in triplicate and agreement was within 5% for all determinations. Emf measurements were made on NaOH solutions whose concen- I trations varied from 0.001 M to 0.1 M in solvent systems of aqueous I dioxane varied from 0-80% dioxane by volume. The 0.01 M NaOH solution was used as the reference solution for each solvent system and the activity coefficient ratios, calculated from Equation 2, are relative to the activity coefficient of the 0.01 M NaOH in that solvent 1 system. (Table 1, Column 4). Proper evaluation of E° proved im- ' possible for these data as well as those reported by Harned (1925) on i aqueous solutions of NaOH. For this reason, the activity coefficients . are reported as ratios. Figure 2 shows graphically the variation of the relative activity coefficients with changes in solvent composition for | each concentration of NaOH. i The membrane electrode does not appear to be completely reversible | to the sodium ion because the (/2//1) values for the 0.001 M NaOH i solutions are unreasonably high. However, the reproducibility of these | data and the close agreement of the values for higher concentrations | with those obtained by Harned (1925) indicate that the results were meaningful reflections of solvent effects even if not absolutely correct. The regular decrease in (/2//1) values with increased NaOH con¬ centration is the expected pattern. The greater decrease in values of (/2//1) at higher concentrations of dioxane suggest an anamolous effect of the organic solvent on the activity of sodium hydroxide. However, since these values are all relative to the 0.01 M NaOH solution in each solvent system, nothing can be assumed about the effect of the change in solvent on the activity of NaOH. (The value of /i changed with each solvent and thus no valid comparison among solvent systems could be made.) In order to have a common base for comparisons, the emf for 0.01 M NaOH in the various solvent systems opposite 0.01 M NaOH in water was measured. The values were used in equation (1) along with literature values for the vapor pressure of water in water-dioxane mixtures (Vierk, 1950) to calculate activity coefficient ratios, (/2//i)h20- (The vapor pressure data were measured at 25° but it was felt that the ratio P2/P1 at 25° would closely approximate that at 35°) . The data and results are shown in Table 2. The (f2/fi)K^o values for the 0.01 M solutions were used to calculate (/2//i)h20 values for all solutions so that all activity coefficients are compared to that of water RELATIVE ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE 215 (/i)h20- These values are given in the 5th column of Table 1 and representative curves are shown in Figure 3. This graph shows the expected increase in relative activity coefficients as the concentration of dioxane increases. The NaOH is probably less solvated in the higher concentrations of organic solvents than in water and thus has a higher “escape tendency” as indicated by increased relative activity coeffi¬ cients. The curve for the 70% dioxane solution is contrary to the trend as it goes below the 50% diaxane curve at 0.05 M NaOH; this can be rationalized as an anomaly caused by incorrect water vapor pressures used in equation ( 1 ) . The use of vapor pressures from dioxane-water mixtures, uncorrected for the effect of the NaOH, is based on the assumption that the low concentration of the added base will have a much smaller effect on the vapor pressure of water than the rather large amount of organic solvent. This was shown to be a valid assump¬ tion by a high precision osmometer (Advanced Instruments) which registered no change in the freezing point of 20% dioxane-water Fig. 2 Activity coefficients for NaOH solutions (fa) relative to the activity coefficients for 0.01 M NaOH in the same dioxane-water solvent system (fi)g plotted vs. concentration of NaOH. 216 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 (a) (b) Dioxane Cone . NaOH emf (Avg) (fa/f i) (f2/fl)„ „ (v/v) (moles/l . ) (volts) s H2O 0 0.00094 0.1076 1.456 1.456 0 0.00484 0.0348 1.125 1.125 0 0.01045 0.0000 1.000 1.000 1 0 0.05059 -0.0797 0.922 0.922 ! 0 0.1094 -0.1100 0.811 0.811 10 0.00094 0.1053 1.477 1.588 10 0.00554 0.0271 1,110 1.175 ' 10 0.01006 0.0000 1.000 1.059 10 0.04954 -0.0800 0.916 0.970 , 10 0.09855 -0.1099 0.810 0.857 i 20 0.00094 0.1026 1.548 1.650 20 0.00491 0.0330 1.094 1.166 20 0.01001 0.000 1.000 1,066 1 20 0.05111 -0.0725 0.908 0.968 i 20 0.09907 -0.1098 0.800 0.853 ; 30 0.00062 0.1272 1.495 2.383 ' 30 0.00468 0.0334 1.145 1,826 30 0.01006 0.0000 1.000 1.594 30 0.05006 “0.0805 0.907 1.446 ; 30 0.1017 “0,1096 0. 781 1.245 i 40 0. 00094 0.1080 1.493 3. 869 i 40 0.00499 0.0336 1.136 2.945 40 0.01069 0.0000 1.000 2.592 40 0.05060 ”0.0746 0.862 2.234 40 0.1159 -0.1102 0. 753 1.952 i 50 0.00070 0.1186 1.580 5.627 50 0.00488 0.0342 1.114 3.967 50 0.01037 0.0000 1.000 3.562 50 0.05770 -0.0768 0. 736 2.622 50 0.1010 -0.0945 0.609 2.171 60 0.00062 0.1261 1.485 5.877 60 0.00468 0,0302 1.111 4.394 60 0.00996 0.0000 1.000 3.955 60 0.05007 -0.0606 0.622 2.463 60 0.1044 -0.0889 0.510 2.016 70 0.00062 0.1284 1.402 6.107 70 0.00476 0.0348 1.072 4.667 70 0.00983 0.000 1.000 4.354 70 0.04980 -0.0560 0.567 2.469 70 0.1033 -0.0755 0.416 1.812 80 0.00070 0.1154 1.517 7.627 80 0.00468 0.0306 1.221 6.137 80 0.00936 0.000 1.000 5.026 ^ /j is for the 0.01 M NaOH in each solvent system. ** /j is for the 0.01 M NaOH in water RELATIVE ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE 217 Table 2 Per cent Dioxane (v/v) emf (avg) (volts) CO O 1 (b) {fJh) HjO 0 0.000 23.7 1.000 10 0.0012 23.5 1.019 20 0.0021 23.8 1.021 30 0.0249 21.8 1.534 40 0.0550 20.9 2.649 50 0.0714 20.1 3.534 60 0.0758 19.3 3.769 70 0.0819 18.1 4.093 80 0.0882 17.3 4.498 “ Partial pressures obtained from smooth curves drawn of data of A. Vierk. is for the 0.01 M NaOH in water. mixtures when NaOH was added in amounts equivalent to those used in this study. However, the electrolyte must have some effect, particu¬ larly at high concentrations of dioxane, because phase separation occurs in 80% dioxane when the NaOH concentration goes above 0.01 M. This indicates a significant effect on the water activity in this region. It should be noticed that the relative activity for 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% dioxane solutions are essentially identical and are repre¬ sented by a single curve. Thus it appears the increase in reaction rate for the saponification of aliphatic esters, caused by the addition of 10-20% dioxane, cannot be attributed to increased activity of the sodium hydroxide. It must be remembered that these activity values are “average values” for the sodium ion and the hydroxide ion. It may be argued that addition of an aprotic solvent like dioxane decreases the solvation shell of the hydroxide ion but increases that of the posi¬ tive sodium ion. Thus the hydroxide’s activity would be increased and that of the sodium ion decreased. This selective solvation would account for the increased reactivity and the lack of change in activity of the sodium hydroxide as determined by emf measurements. An investigation of the solvent’s effect on individual ions is needed to determine if such selective solvation is actually occurring. LITERATURE CITED Glasstone, S., 1942 — An Introduction to Electrochemistry, D. von Nostrand, Inc., New York, N. Y. Chapter 6. 218 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 3 Activity coefficients for NaOH solutions (f2) relative to the activity coefficient of 0,01 M NaOH in water (fi)H20 plotted vs concentration of NaOH. Hani, H., 1961 — Cation exchange-resin membranes. Chem. Abstr., 55: 23873, Jap. Patent 2695. Harned, H. S., 1925 — The activity coefficient of sodium hydroxide in aqueous solu¬ tion. 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 47: 676. Lakshminarayanaish, N., 1965 — Transport phenomena in artificial membranes. Chem. Rev., 65, 491. RELATIVE ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE 219 Nair, P. M., and S. V. Anantakrishnan, 1956 — Kinetic studies in ester hydrolysis, IV, Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in mixed solvents. Proc. Indian Acad. Scl, 32A: 187. ViERK, A., 1950 — Experimentelle Untersuchungen an flussingen zweitoffsystemen, Zeit, fur Anorg. Chemie^ 261 : 293. Weissberger, a., 1955 — Technique of Organic Chemistry, Vol. Ill, Organic Sol¬ vents, 2nd ed. Interscience Pub. Inc., New York, N. Y., p. 372. Yager, B. J., C. B. Kay, J. D. Mastrovich, and L. E. Whittington, 1969 — The variation of Saponification rate constants of three aliphatic esters in several aqueous-organic solvent systems. Tex. J. Sci., 21: 3. The Big Thicket Forest of East Texas by CLAUDE A. McLEOD Department of Biology , Sam Houston State University, Huntsville 77340 ABSTRACT The Big Thicket forest of eastern Texas is characterized, as it occurs today, on the basis of species composition and geographic distribution. This forest, with other pine-hardwood forest types, represents the western most extension of the South¬ eastern Evergreen Forest Region. The Thicket forest is an admixture of evergreens, both conifers and hardwoods. It is the hardwoods, with their associated understory species, that define and identify this forest type in relation to adjacent vegetational types. Species lists and a map of the area are included. INTRODUCTION The Big Thicket of East Texas is an extensive forest area of mixed mesic woodlands, originally exceeding an area of 2 million acres. The vegetational structure of this forest type is sufficiently homogeneous in species composition to delineate it ecologically from adjacent wood¬ lands to the west, north, and east, and from coastal grasslands to the south. While numerous areas of similar vegetation occur eastward, this extensive woodland type is one of the larger of its kind in the southern United States. The area, popularly referred to as the Big Thicket, has long been ill defined, poorly bounded, and questionably named. Definite knowledge concerning the vegetational composition of the Thicket forest, its ecolo'gical definition and bounding in relation to contiguous forest types has been significantly lacking. Two fundamental questions have long required answers; 1st, what is the Big Thicket, and 2nd, where is the Big Thicket. To supply answers to these and other questions relating to this forest type a study was made of the Thicket forest community, its species composition, and geographical distribution. The criterion for defining, delineating, and mapping the Thicket vegetation is based upon the presence of indicator plant species and The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 222 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE their uniform distribution throughout the Thicket forest area. The map accompanying this report shows the area, extent, and boundaries of this forest type. DESCRIPTION OF THE BIG THICKET FOREST The Big Thicket forest is characteristic of certain inland coastal plains vegetation. This forest, with other pine-hardwood forest types, represents the western most extension of the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region of authors. The Thicket forest is an admixture of ever- | greens, both conifers and hardwoods. About 50% of the forest compo- j sition is that of evergreens. This is in part, the magnolia-laurel oak- ! beech sub-faciation of Shelf ord (1963). Red bay {Per sea borbonia)^ is j however, often more abundant in the Thicket forest understor}' than cherry laurel {Prunus caroliniana) , especially in the more level, i poorly drained soils. Also, laurel oak is replaced by white oak as a I dominant in the more elevated, better drained soils of the Thicket ( forest. Loblolly pine {Pinus taeda) , is always present as a co-dominant | in the Thicket forest type. |l Warner, et al. (1936) described the Thicket forest as “an edaphic- [ mesophytic mixed woodland, dominated in its climactic form by a | splendid loblolly pine-hardwood forest type.” More specifically, this [ is a loblolly-pine-white oak-beech-magnolia forest. Its understory is ij rich in both evergreen and decidious shrubs, a variety of climbing vines, and both annual and perennial herbs. It is the hardwoods, with ! their associated understory species that defines this forest type and identify it in relation to adjacent vegetational types. j I SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY ! I Much of the Thicket forest occurs on lands of low relief; however, j the northern extension is well expressed at elevations exceeding 250 j feet. Here the topography is of low-lying hills, moderately incised by [ numerous small streams. These are spring fed and produce clear, soft water. These small tributaries sustain larger streams which empty into the San Jacinto, Neches, Trinity, Angelina, and Sabine Rivers. The lower courses of these streams, or their confluence, traverse the more level plains flatlands, emptying their water into the Gulf of i Mexico. Thicket forest vegetation is best expressed on deep, fine sandy loams deposited during the Pliocene era, represented in large part by the | Willis sands and soils of analagous character in the Miocene belt on 1 the north, and Pleistocene sands (Lissie) on the south. THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST TEXAS 223 These soils, because of the nature and structure of their sub=soils, have exceptionally favorable soih water relations. This is important in the development of the mesophytic Big Thicket forest type. These soils are mostly fine sandy^loams on the surface, with reddish to yellow, friable sub-soils, usually well areated. Because of these and other characteristics, soils of the Thicket forest maintain a fairly high degree of fertility. The Big Thicket forest vegetation follows the above soils in its most westward extension. THE BIG THICKET COMMUNITY The Big Thicket Forest vegetation is sufficiently homogeneous in species composition to delineate it from adjacent vegetational types. While the Thicket forest type exhibits a general structural physiog¬ nomy or vegetational expression throughout, it may best be under¬ stood and interpreted by designating the vegetation of the more northerly, more elevated terrain as the “upper thicket,’' and the more level flatlands terrain nearer the coast as the “lower thicket.” The “upper thicket” forest community is differentiated from the lower in large part by the presence of one co-dominant species, American beech {Fagus grandifolia) . This tree species rarely occurs in the forest community of the more level flatlands type to the south, being replaced by the swamp chestnut oak {Quercus michauxii)^ and laurel oak {Quercus laurifolia) . The enclosed map (Fig. 1 ) shows the extent and delineation of each thicket forest type. It is interesting to note that small streams, originating in the higher elevations may carry beech along their courses into lands of lower elevations to the south. Big Thicket forest vegetation is both abundant and varied. This is true of the forest ovrestory, subordinates and woody understory species. Vegetational stratification is usually well developed and clear¬ ly noted in undisturbed forest communities. The more common woody plants of the Thicket forest community, some important indicator species, are included in the following plant list Core overstory dominants Loblolly pine^ Southern magnolia White oak Subordinates Red maple American hornbeam Hop-horn-beam U nderstory Red bay Sweet leaf Arrow-wood viburnum j See appendix for specific names of plants listed. These recommended “common names” follow clo-selj those in “Standardized Plant Names” by Kelsey & Dayton, 1942. THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 224 Downy-leaf viburnum I Maple-leaf viburnum i Carolina buckthorn | Witch hazel Yaupon Cyrilla | Inkberry holly I Hawthorn spp. Piedmont azalea Possum-haw holly Deerberry Sebastian’s spurge Several important overstory components occurring throughout the Thicket forest are sugar maple, white ash, linden, mockernut hickory, shagbark hickory, and nutmeg hickory. Others are bitternut hickory shumard oak, sweetgum, tupelo gum, laurel, willow, and water oaks; the latter 3 species becoming more common as the forest extends into the coastal flatlands. Red bay, occurring as a large shrub or small tree is a widespread understory indicator species throughout the Thicket forest. Sweet leaf, as a large shrub or small tree, also occurs throughout most of the Thicket forest. Cherry laurel, a small tree species, is interspersed throughout the area, sometimes becoming quite abundant. Arrow- wood viburnum is common in the “lower” thicket, while maple-leaf and downy-leaf viburnum are frequent in the understory of the i “upper” thicket. Witch hazel and deerberry are present throughout i the Thicket forest area. Sebastian’s spurge is a widespread small shrub ' becoming more abundant along flatland stream benches. Piedmont j azalea, while seldom abundant, occurs throughout the Thicket forest j on the more fertile, well drained soils, Silverbell is present in the understory of most of the Thicket forest, especially along small stream banks and benches, as is American wisteria. Dwarf greenbrier. par¬ tridge berry, and crossvine are everpresent but inconspicious indicator species throughout the Thicket forest. Carolina buckthorn, occurring [ as a large shrub or small tree, is found throughout the Thicket forest, | rarely abundant but common on the more fertile upland soils of the | area. [ Inkberry holly and cyrilla become increasingly common in the |, understory of the more acid, less well-drained soils. Yaupon and haw- | thorn, while not indicator species, are present throughout much of the ! Thicket area. ; Other upland tree species of the Thicket area, most of which occur . American beech American holly Flowering dogwood Cherry laurel Hawthorn spp. Fringe tree THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST TEXAS 225 on intrusion soils or dry^hill habitats, and are not Thicket forest species, include: Black cherry Black hickory Black-jack oak Blue- jack oak Longleaf pine Post oak Red mulberry Shortleaf pine Southern red oak Southern sugarberry Sweet gum Winged elm Some upland shrubs and small trees of the Thicket area include: American plum Carolina holly Chinquapin DeTils walking stick Dogwood, stiff Downy snowbell Eastern redbud Flat woods plum Georgia holly Huckleberry, tree Little-hip hawthron Parsley hawthorn Paw-Paw Possum-haw holly Rusty blackhaw Tree species commonly occurring along stream banks, benches, and bayous, of the Thicket area are: American elm Bald cypress Box elder Carolina ash Cedar elm Cherry bark oak Eastern cottonwood OTercup oak River birch Shumard oak Sweetbay magnolia Sycamore Water elm Water hickory Water tupelo Small trees and shrubs occurring in similar habitats, often with above tree species: Black willow Blueberry hawthorn Button bush Elderberry Fetter bush Hazel alder Mayhaw hawthorn Sebastian’s spurge Silverbell Southem-wax myrtle Strawberry bush Swamp privet Virginia sweet spire Woody vines common in the Thicket forest area include: American wisteria Carolina jassamine Cat grape Common greenbrair Crossvine Dwarf greenbriar Heart-leaf ampelopsis Lanceleaf greenbriar Muscadine grape Supplejack Virginia creeper Winter grape Some woody plants that are common to bog habitats: (This community is restricted to poorly drained acid soil details of the area and, as such, is not strictly Thicket type) . Azalea, Texas Bayberry wax myrtle Baygall holly Cyrilla Drummonds red maple He-huckleberry Inkbeny holly Laurel greenbriar NarrO'wleaf viburnum Poison sumach Possom-haw viburnum Rabbit-eye blueberry Red chokecherry Southern wax myrtle St. Johns- wort Swamp bay Sweet bay magnolia Trident red maple Tupelo, bog 1 Area of the origina! Big Thicket Forest vegetation of last Texas, THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST TEXAS 227 MAPPING THE BIG THICKET FOREST TYPE METHODS Field mapping was done on half-scale county general highway maps, and soils maps of the same scale with soil types superimposed. U. S. geological contour maps were used to some extent. Auto, jeep, and boat were used in traversing the area and establishing Thicket forest boundary lines. Airplane sorties were of value in delineating river bottomlands and floodplain forest areas from adjacent upland types. This was done during late winter season, as most bottomland tree species of the area are deciduous, or semi-deciduous. DISCUSSION The criterion for defining, delineating, and mapping the Thicket forest vegetation is based upon the presence of indicator plant species and their uniform distribution throughout the Thicket forest. The term mapping, as used in this study, simply means determining the extension or area of the Big Thicket forest type, and bounding it in relation to the surrounding contiguous vegetational types. An examination of Figure 1 will show the lack of symmetry of the Thicket boundary as well as the irregularity of the distribution of the vegetational type. Intrusions of the coastal prairie soils, the more sterile longleaf pine soils, and dry, red-clay sandy hill soils supporting short- leaf pine-hardwood types tend to interrupt the distribution of the Thicket vegetation. These are not invasions of the contiguous vegeta¬ tion types but rather a condition of long stabilized, habitat- vegetation relationship in the case of both the Thicket forest and adjacent vegetation. There is present, where one vegetation type gives way to another, a zone of transition betw'een the 2 types. Here may be seen an inter¬ mingling of the individuals of the types as well as certain other plants which prefer this transition habitat. These zones may be quite broad and indefinite, or sharp and well defined. Influencing these transitions locally are soil changes, topo.graphy, soil-water relations, or the inter¬ actions of these and other factors. Inasmuch as the Thicket Forest type must transcend into adjacent vegetable types continguous on all boundaries, it is evident that zones or ecotones of varying widths and degrees of species alignment are to be anticipated. There occur within the bounds of the Thicket area, small calcaerous prairies around which the zone of transition is fairly narrow and well defined. There are also hills or elevated areas capped with shallow, sandy soils supporting shortleaf-pine-hardwood types in 228 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE which the zones of transition may be gradual and weakly expressed by the slowly changing vegetation from one forest type to the other. This is also true in some cases of transitions from Thicket type loblolly pine-hardwoods into the often mixed loblolly-longleaf non-Thicket types. Post harvest invasions of loblolly pine onto sites originally sup¬ porting almost pure stands of longleaf pines is frequent on both the flat, poorly drained sites of the “lower” Thicket area, as well as on dry hill habitats of the “upper” Thicket forest area. There are, occasionally, areas of the Thicket forest where certain important understory indicator species may be fewer than the average for the type. Also, there are some small areas where a dominant or i understory species may be lacking. This, however, does not materially | alter the overall physiognomy of the Thicket forest community. j Forest areas are mapped within the boundaries of the Thicket which ' may weakly express the type, but these woodlands are, in their vege- j tational composition, more Thicket type than not. | An example of this is an area of flatlands forest, located mostly in | Liberty County, in the vicinity of Cleveland, but extending westward j into Montgomery County and southward into northeastern Harris j Count}'. The soils supporting this forest are younger geologically, f than adjacent forest soils to the west and north. These soils border i. upon the Beaumont clays to the south and southeast. They are more i elevated than these coastal soils and are acid in their reaction and | exhibit, in both their surface and subsoils, favorable physical structure | that support Thicket type vegetation. j There is evidence this is a younger forest than the forest contiguous , to the northwest. Over most of this area fair-to-good Thicket type forest is developed; however, parts of the forest area may be lacking in one or more understory indicator species. Swamp chestnut, water, | and willow oak increase into these flatlands. Cherry bark oak becomes j frequent along the stream banks. Dwarf palmetto becomes increas- i ingly abundant in the more poorly drained swale habitats. | In lower Jasper County, near Kirby ville, is a loblolly pine-hardwood ji forest type, interspersed with longleaf pine, which approaches Thicket j type vegetation. However, certain important overstory and understory | indicator species are absent. This forest type gradually transcends, i northwardly into a mixed pine-hardwood forest type. The terrain I becomes more elevated and the soils of the small stream valleys, as well as some of the more elevated hill sites, support good Thicket vegetation. Still further north, in the area of Newton and Burkville, exceptional stream type Thicket is developed along the courses of several small | streams. Their valleys have developed fertile, hammock soils that I THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST TEXAS 229 support the best of this Thicket-type flora. These streams, little affected by droughts, are spring fed, and their waters clear and cold. They flow eastward into the Sabine River. The topography of this area is of picturesque, forest covered hills, broken by numerous small streams. The upland surface soils, rather coarse sands, are shallow to deep, and are underlain with reddish, sandy clay subsoils of high water-absorbing capacity. These highly permeable upland soils are leached of their more soluble minerals and are low in organic matter. Their surface soils often become quite droughty in the summer time. Originally, many of these more elevated soils supported almost pure stands of longleaf pine. Early logging of these even, virgin stands left few trees for seed production, and present stands of longleaf pine are usually sparse. Invading loblolly pine has, in some areas largely replaced the longleaf. Hardwoods have in¬ creased; the most common species are blue jack, southern red, and black-jack oaks. Small units of Thicket flora occur outside the mapepd Thicket Forest area. These have developed upon hammock soils analogous to those of the Thicket proper, but because of their small area, or separation from the main body of the Thicket vegetation by disjunct vegetational types, are not mapped as part of the Thicket forest. Within the mapped thicket area are a number of localized forest- type discontinuities of varying size. The larger of these are, in most instances, of the shortleaf pine-hardwood forest type. Elevated ridges or areas of hill terrain capped with droughty, sandy topsoils over red sandy clay subsoils support this forest type. Analogous sites but supporting long leaf pine, often in mixed stands, also occur. These are developed, however, on different type soils. Local areas of non-thicket type loblolly pine hardwood forests also occur and are dispersed fairly generally throughout the Thicket forest area. The larger of these dis¬ continuous forest types has been mapped out of the Thicket proper; those occupying smaller areas are not delineated. TFIE BIG THICKET TODAY There are numerous areas within the Thicket forest that have been cleared for townsites, farms, ranches, and recreational areas. These activities have altered, or eliminated in many cases, certain species of original hardwoods, some of which are key indicator species of the Thicket forest type. This development trend may be expected to accelerate. Management in southern pine-hardwood is directed toward growing 230 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE more pine timber at the expense of the hardwoods. Hardwood control, as practiced in these mixed forests, becomes a significant factor in altering the natural structure of the Thicket forest community. Con¬ servationists are interested in preserving portions of the Thicket forests, especially some of the better remaining stands that still retain their structural integrity insofar as species composition is concerned. While few areas of pristine Thicket forest remain, probably as much | as 35% of this original virgin mixed forest type, now a subclimax woodland, might reasonably be expected to return to its original stabil¬ ized condition if further unmolested. This recovery would require no i special management on the part of man, except that he leave this j process strictly to nature. S APPENDIX Common and Scientific Names of Plants of the Big Thicket Area COMMON NAME American beautyberry American beech American elm Arrowwood viburnum Arrowwood viburnum, downy leaf Azalea, piedmont Azalea, Texas Bald cypress Bay-berry waxmyrtle Box elder Blackhaw Black cherry Black willow Blueberry hawthorn Blueberry, rabbit-eye Button bush Carolina ash Carolina buckthorn Carolina jasamine Cedar elm Cherry laurel Chinquapin Common greenbriar Crossvine Cyrilla Deerberry Devils walking stick Dwarf greenbrier Dwarf palmetto BOTANICAL NAME Callicarpa americana L. Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Ulmus americana L. Viburnum dentatum L. Viburnum dentatum var. pubescens Ait. Rhododendron canascens (Michx) Rhododendron oblongifolium (Small) Mill Taxodium disticum (L.) Rich. Myrica pennsylvanica Lois. Acer negundo L. Viburnum prunifolia L. Prunus serotina Ehrh. Salix nigra Marsh. Crataegus brachyantha Engelm. & Sarg. Vaccinium virgatum Ait. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Fraxinus caroliniana Mill. Rhamnus caroliniana Walt. Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait Ulmus crassifolia Nutt. Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Ait. Castanea pumila Mill. Smilax rotundifolia L. Bignonia capreolata (L.) Bureau Cyrilla racemiflora L. Vaccinium stamineum L. Aralia spinosa L. Smilax pumila Walt. Sabal minor (Jacq.) Pers THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST Eastern cottonwood Elder Flowering dogwood Forestiera Fringe tree Grape, cat Grape, muscadine Grape, sweet winter Hazel alder Heart-leaf ampelopsis He-huckleberry Hickory, black Hickory, bittemut Hickory, mockemut Hickory, nutmeg Hickory, shag-bark Hickory, water Holly, american Holly, baygall Holly, Carolina Holly, georgia Holly, inkberry Holly, possum-haw Holly, yaupon Hop-hombeam Hornbeam, American Huckleberry Kentucky wisteria Lance-leaf greenbrier Laurel greenbrier Linden or basswood Little-hip hawthorn Mapleleaf viburnum Mayhaw-hav^thom Narrowleaf viburnum Oak, black Oak, blackjack Oak, cherrybark Oak,^ swamp chestnut Oak, laurel Oak, overcup Oak, post Oak, southern red Oak, shumard Oak, water Oak, white Oak, willow Parsley-leaf hawthorn TEXAS Populus deltoides Bartr. Sambucus canadensis L. Cornus floridana L. Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Poir. Chionanthus virginicus L. Vitis palmata Vahl. Vitis rotundifolia Michx. Vitis cinera Engelm. Alnus serrulata (Aiton) Willd. Ampelopsis cordata Michx. Lyonia ligustrina (L.) Britt Carya texana Buckl. Carya cordiformis (Wangh.) K. Koch Carya tomentosus Nutt. Carya myristiciformis (Mich.) Nutt. Carya ovata (Mill) K. Koch Carya aquatica (Mich.) Nutt, Illex opaca Ait. Ilex coriacea (Pursh.) Chapm. Ilex ambigua (Mich.) Chapm. Ilex longipes Chap. Ilex glabra (L.) Gary Ilex decidua Walt. Ilex vomitoria Ait. Ostrya virginiana (Miller) K. Koch Carpinus carolinana Waat. Vaccinium arhoreum Marsh. Wisteria macrostachya Nutt. Smilax lanceolata L. Similax laurifolia L. Tilia caroliniana Mill. Crataegus spathulata Hook. Viburnum acerifolium L. Crataegus opaca Hook. Viburnum nudum var. angustifolia Torr. & Gray Quercus velutina Lam, Quercus marilandica Muenchh, Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia (Ell) Ash. Quercus michauxii Nutt. Quercus laurifolia Michx. Quercus lyrata Walt. Quercus stellata Wangh. Quercus falcata var. falcata Mich. Quercus shumardii Buckl. Quercus nigra L. Quercus alba L. Quercus phellos L. Crataegus marshallii Egglest. 231 232 COMMON NAME Partridgeberry Paw-paw Pine, loblolly Pine, longleaf Pine, shortleaf Plum, american Plum, flatland Plum, mexican Poison sumach Possum-haw viburnum Red bay Redbud, eastern Red choke-cherry Red maple Red maple, drummond’s Red maple, trident Red mulberry River birch Rusty-blackhaw Sebastian’s spurge Silverbell Snowbell, downy Southern magnolia Southern wax-myrtle Southern hackberry Stiff dogwood St. John’s wort Strawberry bush Sugar maple Swamp bay Swamp privet Sweet bay magnolia Sweet leaf Sweet gum Sycamore Supple jack Tupelo, black Tupelo, bog Tupelo, water Virginia creeper Virginia sweetspire Water elm Winged elm Witch hazel Yaupon THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE BOTANICAL NAME Mitchella repens L. Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal Pinus taeda L. Pinus palustris Mill. Pinus echinata Mill. Prunus americana Marsh. Prunus umbellata Ell. Prunus mexicana Wats. Rhus vernix (L.) Knutze. Viburnum nudum L. Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng, Cercis canadensis L. Pyrus arbutifolia (L.) L. f. Acer rubrum L. Acer rebrum var. drummondii (Hook & Am.) Sarg. Acer rebrum var. tridens Wood Morus rubra L. Betula nigra L. Viburnum rufidulum Raf. Sebastiana fruiticosa (Bartr.) Fern Halesia diptera Ell. Styrax americanum var. pulverilentum (Mich.) Perkins Magnolia grandiflora L. Myrica cerifera L. Celtis laevigata Willd. Cornus stricta Lam. Hypericum nudiflorum Michx. Euonymus americanus L. Acer saccharum Marsh. Persea borbonia var. pubescens (Pursh.) Sarg, Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Magnolia virginiana L. Symplocos tinctoria L. L’Her. Liquidambar styraciflua L. Platanus occidentalis L. Berchemia scandens (Hill) K. Koch Nyssa sylvatica Marsh Nyssa sylvaticaYax. biflora (Walt.) Sarg. Nyssa aquatica L. Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. I tea virginiaca L. Planer a aquatica (Walt.) Gmel. Ulmus alata Michx. Hamamelis virginiana L. Ilex vomitoria Ait. THE BIG THICKET FOREST OF EAST TEXAS 233 LITERATURE CITED Kelsey, H. P., and W. A. Dayton., 1942 — Standardized Plant Names. J. Horace McFarland Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Shelford, E., 1963 — The Ecology of North America. Univ. Ill. Press, Urbana. Warner, S. R., H. B. Parks, V. L. Cory, et al., 1936 — Biological survey of the East Texas Big Thicket Area. Privately published. i tA V iff ■ ".rM <;;■ ^ , '*1 ' ' i'i • : 7 . •' k'.'f.y'-'* I '* t ! "<'.A / \ >, '■.t\,'- ■ - ■ -i'.! . ’ .■■T^;^ -' .:f Properties of Solubilized and Matrix-Supported Erythrocyte Membrane ATPhase by HARRY D, BROWN and SWARAJ K. CHATTOPADHYAY Biochemistry Section^ Cancer Research Center Business Loop 70 and Garth Avenue Columbia^ Missouri 65201 ABSTRACT In the development of a model relatable to ion-transport metabolic disease, an ATPase has been solubilized from erythrocyte ghosts using the techniques of butanol extraction and digitonin solubilization. Solubilized products of the 2 methods' were similar but not identical. Both active materials, based upon the criterion of gel- filtration, have a molecular weight between 150,000 and 200,000. A disulfide reduc¬ ing agent appears to be essential to activity. Bo-th types of preparation were purified by gel filtration and the properties of the active fractions studied and compared. The digitonin-solubilized enzyme was used also as a derivative of carboxymethyl cellulose azide. Properties of this preparation were compared with the ghosts them¬ selves and with the 2 solubilized enzymes. Interpretation of changes in metal- and cardiac-glycoside effects upon the several types of preparations has been presented, INTRODUCTION An adenosine triphosphatase of erythrocyte ghosts has been estab¬ lished as a “transport enzyme” satisfying both biochemical (Post, et al.^ 1960) and physiological (Skou, 1965) criteria. In our studies of another membrane ATPase (Brown, et aL^ 1966, 1967), we have found basis for relating the catalytic properties of the enzyme to the integrity of the associated membrane. Because complexities present in the tissues are not present in erythrocyte ghosts, and because trans¬ port properties have been rigorously established, this tissue was chosen for solubilization by digitonin treatment and butanol extraction. We have considered the properties of ATPase of isosmotically prepared ghosts, the enzymatic properties after solubilization or extraction from the membranes, after purification, and after linkage of the solubilized enzyme to insoluble support matrices. The Texas Journal of Science, Yol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 236 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MATERIALS AND METHODS Erythrocyte ghosts were prepared from citrated blood bank blood. The washed cells were hemolyzed in 2 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.4, with 5 mM EDTA and then washed 3 times with the same buffer contain¬ ing 2 mM sodium chloride. White ghosts were obtained. These isolated membranes were resuspended in a volume of 0.1 M Tris buffer, pH 7.2, containing 0.25 M sucrose or prior to alcohol extraction they were resuspended in water, equal to the original volume of the blood. They were homogenized, cold, with a Potter-Elvehjem mill using a Teflon pestle at moderate speed intermittently for three minutes. The erythro¬ cyte-ghost preparation was used immediately or stored at —10°. Soluble preparations were obtained either by treatment of the ghost suspension with digitonin or by extraction of the membrane suspension with aqueous butanol under nitrogen. For some experiments, a 2% digitonin suspension was added to the resuspended ghost fraction to bring the mixture’s steroid concentration to 0.5%. This was stirred for 2 hours and allowed to remain undisturbed for an additional 30 min¬ utes. It was then homogenized for 2 minutes and the suspension centri¬ fuged at 100,000 X g for 60 minutes. The resulting supernatant had ATPase activity (digitonin-'‘solubilized” ATPase). In other experi¬ ments, 10 ml of the ghost suspension were mixed with the same volume of 8% butanol in water containing 10 mg of cysteine. The extraction was made under a continuous stream of nitrogen. This and all steps of enzyme preparation were carried forward at 5°C. Gel filtration was used to purify the digitonin-solubilized and butanol-extracted preparations. A 2.5 cm X 45 cm column was packed with a preswelled slurry containing 5 gm of Sephadex G-200 (particle size 40-120/1,) dextran. The gel bed was washed for 24 hours in the same 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 7.2, which was used to hydrate the gel. ATPase activity was determined after incubation for 1 hour at 40° (Fiske and Subbarow, 1925) . Inorganic phosphate was measured after protein was precipitated with 50% trichloroacetic acid. Protein level in the enzyme solution was determined by the phenol procedure (Lowry, et al.^ 1951). The reaction mixture contained 0.1 ml of enzyme solution (0.2 to 0.5 mg protein) 0.8 ml of substrate and 0.1 ml of water (some experiments contained 10~^ M ouabain). The sub¬ strate mixture in 0.1 M Tris/HCl buffer, pH 7.2, contained disodium ATP or Tris ATP (0.7 mg/ml of reaction mixture for ghosts), 1 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl and 1 mM MgCL. Because of the presence of endo¬ genous metal and the retention of NaCl during preparation, metal concentrations in the membrane incubation mixture were higher than I ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE AT PHASE 237 indicated (18 mM, Na+, 2.7 mM, measured by flame emission photometry). These values, though not optimal for total membrane ATPase activity, yielded preparations which were maximally in¬ hibited by 10"^ M ouabain. Some preparations were studied as insoluble derivatives of cellulose matrices. The chemistry of these procedures has been described in detail by Brown, et al. (1968a,b). Digitonin-solubilized enzyme was reacted with carboxymethyl cellulose azide (2 mg CMC azide per ml enzyme preparation). The mixture was stirred for 4 hours and stored one hour or more all at 2-5 ° . By analogy to our findings in the study of similar enzyme systems, we assume that the enzyme underwent reaction through its free amino groups to form an insoluble derivative of the cellulose matrix (Brown, et al.^ 1967). The matrix-enzyme complex was sedimented at 600 X g for 5 minutes, washed 3 times with water and resuspended in half the original enzyme volume. This insoluble material was used in suspension as the matrix-supported enzyme. Incubation and assay of enzymatic activity (inorganic phos¬ phate analysis) were carried forth as for the other preparations. RESULTS After either detergent treatment or butanol extraction, activity was found in the supernatant (100,000 X g, 60 min.). A 10-minute pro¬ longation of centrifugation lowered the catalytic activity of the super¬ natant. The active material was completely excluded from a Sephadex G-150 column but chromatographed on a G-200 column. These facts indicate that the active membrane fragment had a molecular weight between 150,000 and 200,000. The elution of a protein marker, y-globulin (M.W. 180,000), just ahead of the active material further substantiates this conclusion. The elution patterns of the 2 solubilized preparations after chroma¬ tography on Sephadex G-200 indicate that the butanol-extracted enzyme elutes as a single peak with a molecular weight near 200,000^ and the detergent-solubilized preparation elutes as several active frac¬ tions with lower molecular weights. Butanol-extracted enzyme was less active than digitonin-treated enzyme, but both these preparations were more active than the ghosts. Gel filtration was a method of purification for digitonin-solubilized preparations. The most active fraction (pooled tubes) chromato¬ graphed from the detergent-solubilized material showed an increase in activity over that of the membrane preparation. Butanol-extracted preparations were active in our experiments onl3r 238 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE if cysteine (mg/ml) was present. In describing the method, Hegyvary (1966) had reported a necessity for the presence of cysteine or gluthathione. Digitonin-solubilized preparations were active in the absence of these substances, but the steroid itself is thought to function in disulfide reduction. When digitonin-solubilized preparations were linked to carboxy- methyl cellulose matrix, the activity level changed little ( 7 % average increase over the level of the solubilized enzyme) . The detergent-solubilized and solid-supported preparations differed from each other in their responses to metals. In every instance, the concentration of one of the 3 metals was varied and the other 2 were maintained constant. Tris ATP was used as substrate where Na+ effect was studied. Digitonin-solubilized (dialyzed) and gel-purified preparations were stimulated by Na+, K+ and Mg++ at 5 mM, 10 mM and 2 mM respectively. The matrix-supported preparation was stimu¬ lated at a different level; Na+ •K+ at 10 mM, but Mg++ was stimu¬ latory at 2 mM. The optimum pH for maximum catalytic activity of detergent- solubilized preparation was observed at pH 7.2; a slight shift of 0.2 unit was noticed in matrix-supported enzyme. Hegyvary (1966) reported that butanol-extracted preparations, like the ghost membranes themselves, were ouabain-inhibited, Na+ + stimulated and Mg++ activated. The Na+ + K+ response of our alco¬ hol-extracted preparations was inhibition rather than stimulation, though we otherwise confirm Hegyvary’ s observations. This accords with our findings in other systems (Brown, 1966): slight changes in the manipulative technique alter the pattern of membrane ATPase activity. The difference in the activity of our butanol-extracted ATPase from that described earlier presumably resides in a “minor” aspect of the handling technique. We presently lack the information necessary to resolve this. The molecular weights of the “solubilized” enzymes, the need for a nitrogen atmosphere to obtain a relatively stable butanol-extracted product and the appearance of active material in a number of gel filtration fractions all seem to be points indicating that we are not, in any of these preparations, dealing with a pure protein. The successful use of a nitrogen atmosphere argues that a lipid is present and accords with observations of Schatzmann (1962) . That change in activity follows conformational change, consequent upon size of the membrane fragment or the character of the matrix support, may be indicated by different metal- and cardiac-glycoside effects (Table 1 ) upon the several types of preparation. An alternative ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE AT PHASE 239 Table 1 Ouabain effect upon erythrocyte ghost ATPase activity Preparation No. Preparation type Activity Activity in presence of lO"^ M ouabain Per cent change M030 Ghost 0.063 0.038 —39 Ml 08 Ghost 0.106 0.074 —30 M807 Ghost 0.108 0.081 —25 1110 Digitonin-solubilize d 0.138 0.075 —45 1214 Digitonin-solubilized 0.158 0.086 —45 1219 Digitonin-solubilized 0.158 8007 Digitonin-solubilized 0.076 0.084 +10 DG128 Digitonin-solubilized gel filtered 0.183 0.132 —28 DG106 Digitonin-solubilized gel filtered 0.195 0.131 —39 B121 Butanol-extracted 0.135 0.113 —16 B128 Butanol-extracted 0.102 0.065 —36 B214 Butanol-extracted 0.086 CA216 Matrix-supported 0.180 0.097 —46 CA220 Matrix-supported 0.146 0.084 —42 Activity /xmoles Pi/mg protein/hr. Each number represents the average of 3 repetitions with maximmn 5% variation. explanation — separation of inherently different proteins — remains a possibility. Erythrocyte ghost adenosine triphosphatase may be placed in a solution of particles with colloidal dimensions while retaining some of the properties of the “transport enzyme.’' The expression of these characteristics can be altered by handling procedures and by the for¬ mation of insoluble active derivatives. These alterations in activity may relate to in vivo functional changes which relate membrane bound ATPase to metabolic defects. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work supported by Muscular Dystrophy Associations of America, Inc. LITERATURE CITED Brown, H. D., 1966 — A characterization of the ouabain sensitivity of heart micro¬ somal ATPase. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 120: 162. Brown, H. D., S. K. Chattopadhyay, and A. Patel, 1966-^ — Sarcoplasmic-reticulum ATPase upon a solid support. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 25: 304. - , 1967 — Properties of butanol-extracted and detergent-solubilized mem¬ brane ATPase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 120: 222. 240 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Brown, H. D., A. Patel, S. K. Chattopadhyay, and S. N. Pennington, 1968a — Cellulose-matrix supported biological substances. Enzymologia, 35: 215. - , 1968b — Support matrices for apyrase. Enzymologia, 35: 233. Fiske, C. H., and Y. Subbarow, 1925 — The colorimetric determination of phos- 1 phorus. /. Biol. Chem., 66: 375. Hegyvary, C., 1966 — Second Inti. Biophys. Cong. Ahstr., 293. Lowry, O. H., N, J. Rosebrough, A. L, Farr, and R. J. Randall, 1951 -—Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. /. Biol. Chem., 193: 265. Post, R. L., C. R. Merritt, C. R. Kinsolving, and C. L. Albright, 1960 — Membrane adenosine triphosphatase as a participant in the active transport of sodium and potassium in the human erythrocyte. /. Biol. Chem., 235: 1796. Schatzmann, H. j., 1962 — Lipoprotein nature of red cell adenosine triphosphatase. Nature, 196: 677. I Skou, j. C., 1965 — Enzymatic basis for active transport of Na+ and K+ across cell membranes. Physiol. Rev., 45: 596. Chemical Limnology of a Developing Reservoir (Lake Meredith) in the Texas Panhandle by W. A. COOPER, R. S. HESTAND, IIP, and C. E. NEWTON^ West Texas State University, Canyon, Texas 79015 ABSTRACT The physical and chemical history of Lake Meredith waters from the closure of the dam in February, 1965 until the last of December, 1968 is presented. Included are watershed data and tabular and graphic depictions of specific conductance, total hardness, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, temperature, chlorides, sulfates, sodium-potassium, and volume. Thermocline formations occurred during March and remained until late September or early October each year. Lake volume increase was spasmodic with major inflows in 1965 and 1967. The volume as of December 31, 1968 (300,000 acre-feet) represents less than half the total capacity of the reservoir. Sodium-potassium, chlorides, and sulfates showed steady increases from less than 100 mgm/L to near 250 mgm/L each during the 4-year period. Accompanying increases in total hardness, total dissolved solids, and specific conductance are noted. Total dissolved increased from 500 mgm/L to 1100 mgm/L, while total hardness rose from 110 mgm/L to near 275 mgm/L, and the specific conductance increased from 1200 to 1800 mmhos/cm. Increase in mineral constituents appeared to be from leaching and solution of geological formations in the lake bed and walls. INTRODUCTION Numerous studies have been made of chemical quality and biologi¬ cal productivity in constant-flow streams and in reservoirs having a more or less constant supply of water. To our knowledge much less has been reported about chemical and biological quality of reservoirs having intermittent discharges of water into them, particularly in the southwestern American high plains. Investigations of impoundments in the general area of the Texas panhandle include a biological and chemical study of Conchas reservoir, located on the Canadian River in eastern New Mexico, (Jester, 1960), a rehabilitation study of Clayton Lake in north-eastern New Mexico, (Navarre, 1960), and a series of job completion reports of projects by the Fish and Wildlife 1 Present address: Florida State University, Tallahassee. 2 Present address: Department of Biology, North Texas State University, Denton. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 242 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Division of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department which are con¬ cerned with studies of the Canadian River in and near the areas being inundated by Lake Meredith, (Toole, 1954”-64). Cole (1963), Clark (1966), and Fruh and Higgins (1968) have pointed out the sparcity of limnological data for reservoirs in Texas, The purpose of this paper is to provide continuing chemical data for Lake Meredith, an impoundment on the Canadian River in the Texas panhandle (Figure 1). When filled to conservation pool level, Lake Meredith will have a capacity of 864,000 acre-feet and a surface area of 16,505 acres. An additional 543,600 acre-feet will be available for flood control. Sanford dam was closed in February, 1965, to begin the filling of Lake Meredith. Inflow from heavy rains on the watershed during the spring and summer of 1965 increased the volume from 20,000 acre-feet to about 225,000 acre-feet in early fall. A 2nd period of heavy rainfall during the summer of 1967 caused a volume increase to about 330,000 acre-feet where it remained through December, 1968. An aqueduct system which transports water to 1 1 cities and towns in the Texas panhandle and south plains is in operation and, along with evaporation and seepage, is a contributing factor to the fluctua¬ tions in volume during dry weather periods. METHODS OF SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT Three sampling stations were established in Lake Meredith at U.S. Bureau of Reclamation sedimentation range lines R-1 (Station I), R-8 (Station II), and R-16 (Station III). Triangulation markers were located on the North shores to allow repositioning on each station with reasonable accuracy. Each station was visited at 2-week intervals when possible. Temperatures were measured at the surface, 15-20 foot, middle, and bottom levels of the lake at each station by means of an electronic thermister-thermometer with the sonde attached to a calibrated cable (Applied Asssociates Austin, Inc.). The depth and thickness of the thermocline was determined when present. Samples for chemical and biological analyses were taken with a Incite Kemmerer sampler (attached to a calibrated rope) from the same depths indicated above. Dissolved oxygen samples were “fixed” in the field according to azide modifications of the standard Winkler method, then titrated in the laboratory the same day. In addition, all samples were analyzed by Standard Methods (1966) or by Hach (1966) procedures for pH, specific conductance, turbidity, apparent color, total hardness (as CaCOs), alkalinity (P. and M.O.), calcium. CHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF A DEVELOPING RESERVOIR 243 Fig. 1. Key and vicinity maps of Lake Meredith. iron, sulfate, fluoride, chloride, silica, phosphate (meta plus poly) , and nitrate (NO3 plus NO2 as NO3). Calculations were made for carbo¬ nates, bicarbonates, sodium-potassium (frequently checked by flame photometer), magnesium, and total dissolved solids. Representative data from Station I, near the dam, are given as characteristic of the lake (Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) . Data for Stations II and III are included only as annual averages for comparisons of specific component changes and for linear differences from one end of the lake to the other each year (Table 7). Data for 1965 was made available by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and by the Canadian River Municipal Water Authority. TEMPERATURE The highest surface temperatures in Lake Meredith each of the 3 years of sampling were near 27°C in mid-summer, while the lowest ranged from 2 to 5°C in January and February, Thermocline forma¬ tion usually began during March and continued until October, except in 1968 when it disappear by the first week in September. Figure 2 depicts seasonal variations in surface temperatures with thermocline occurrences represented by shorter low temperature lines beneath each peak. 244 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OXYGEN Seasonal variations in oxygen had the expected pattern with higher concentrations during cold temperature months and lower concen¬ trations during warmer months. Reduced oxygen content in the hypo- limnion was noted each year (Tables 1, 2, 3; Figure 2) . SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, HARDNESS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS Specific conductance measurements had an average increase from about 1200 mmhos/cm^ in 1966 to near 1500 mmhos/cm^ in 1968 Table 1 Water Quality Factors — Lake Meredith — (representative data) — 1966 Date Depth (feet) Temp. C. 0, ngm/L N02 NO3 ®S®/L 2-24 1 2.7 11.0 1.30 .22 35 2.7 11.0 1.05 .22 65 2.7 11.0 1.08 .26 5-24 1 19.4 7.0 1.78 .18 30 19.0 7.0 1.43 .22 68 17.0 7.0 2.43 .13 7-28 1 27.0 8.0 4.60 .31 30 26.0 5.0 4.60 ,31 64 20.0 2.0 6.40 .31 10-13 1 19.0 8.2 1.70 .18 35 19.0 7.5 1.70 .22 65 18.0 7.0 2.10 .18 Table 2 Water Quality Factors — Lake Meredith — (representative data)- -1967 Date Depth (feet) Temp. C. O2 mgm/L PO4 mgm/L NO2 NO3 2-9 1 3.5 12.2 .40 .15 35 3.5 11.7 .50 .15 68 3.5 11.7 .40 .15 5*-26 1 20.0 8.5 .40 .05 20 18.5 8.0 .40 .10 40 17.5 7.5 .30 .10 64 15.5 2.0 .40 .10 7-27 1 27.3 9.4 .20 .13 20 26.0 9.0 .20 .10 38 24.5 8.6 .18 .07 76 20.6 0.1 .30 .03 1 19.0 7.1 .70 .18 20 19,0 7.2 .60 .08 40 19.0 7.3 .58 .18 77 19.0 7.4 .58 .13 10-10 CHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF A DEVELOPING RESERVOIR 245 Table 3 Water Quality Factors — Lake Meredith— (representative data) — 1968 Data iepth (feet) Teiip, C, ©2 mgffi/L PO, mgM/L IO3 2-20 1 5,0 13.0 .20 ,22 15 5,0 13,0 ,20 .22 40 . 5.0 13.0 .30 .22 80 . 5.0 13.0 .30 ,22 5-24 1 . 16.0 9,0 .50 ,31 20 16.0 9.0 .50 .25 40 15.5 9.0 .30 ,25 78 15,5 10,0 ,30 .26 7-18 1 27.0 ■8.0 .20 .00 15 26.0 8.1 .20 ,16 40 26.0 8.0 ,15 .16 79 20.0 1.2 .62 _ 1.00 10-1 1 20.0 8.4 ~~ t 20 20.0 8.4 .20 t 40 20.0 8.4 .30 t 76 20.0 8.4 .30 t Table 4 Chemical Factors — -Lake Meredith — (representative data)— 1966 Date Depth Ca Mg Na K SO4 Cl Diss. Solids Total Aik. pH Total Hard. Spec, Cond . 2~24 1 60 13 172 187 168 790 152 8.1 208 1230 35 60 13 172 180 174 788 152 8.2 200 1230 65 61 13 172 176 168 790 152 8.2 200 1230 5-24 1 60 18 192 225 184 870 168 8.3 220 1130 30 60 18 192 205 184 870 168 8.3 220 1130 68 60 18 192 205 184 880 168 8.2 220 1150 7~28 1 62 15 199 220 184 885 160 8.4 216 1280 30 62 16 199 240 182 885 170 8,4 220 1280 64 70 12 200 180 184 875 184 8.2 224 1290 10-13 1 60 25 204 210 210 912 180 8.6 250 1290 35 60 25 200 210 210 915 180 8.6 250 1280 65 62 26 200 210 210 915 180 8.5 260 1290 (Tables 4, 5, 6; Figure 3). One major decrease of about 200 mmhos occurred during the late spring and summer of 1967 following the large inflow which increased the lake volume by some 90^000 acre-feet. Total hardness increased rather steadily from 125 mgm/L following the closure of the dam to near 200 mgm/L by the beginning of 1966, Further increases brought the average hardness to about 275 mgm/L by the end of 1968. (Tables 3, 4, 5; Figure 3). Variations in hardness were not as notable in relation to the large inflow of 1967 as were those of other constituents. 246 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 5 Chemical Factors — Lake Meredith — (representative data) — 1967 bate Depth Ca Mg' 'Na K o-' IjOT ci Diss. Solids Total Aik. p-R ' ■ " "Total ' ' Hard. Spec. Cond. 2-9 1 66 18 210 200 204 930 200 8.8 240 1500 35 66 18 210 200 200 930 200 8.4 240 1500 68 62 26 200 190 200 930 200 8.8 250 1500 5-26 1 70 19 228 225 222 1001 204 8.3 248 1400 20 65 22 220 210 210 1000 200 8.4 250 1400 40 66 21 210 225 200 1002 195 8.3 250 1400 64 67 20 229 225 220 1005 210 8.3 247 1380 7-27 1 62 23 196 210 202 904 170 8.5 250 1400 38 63 23 204 225 200 927 180 8.5 250 1400 76 72 20 206 225 200 968 190 8.2 260 1450 10-10 1 56 23 214 220 220 934 162 8.4 232 1300 40 70 19 209 220 200 956 194 8.4 250 1300 77 60 24 217 215 200 960 196 8.5 244 1400 Table 6 Chemical Factors — Lake Meredith — -(representative data)- -1968 Date Depth Ca Mg Na K Cl Diss. Solids Total Aik. Total Hard. Spec. Cond. 2-20 1 74 19 223 225 226 1003 196 8.5 264 1550 15 68 24 225 225 236 1005 200 8.5 266 1550 40 64 26 225 230 226 1003 202 8.5 264 1500 80 64 31 229 240 240 1039 200 8.5 284 1550 5-24 1 70 24 245 220 229 980 190 8.5 272 1570 20 66 28 237 230 220 1046 230 8.5 274 1510 40 69 28 235 260 215 1074 226 8.5 284 1520 78 73 22 239 250 218 1025 204 8.5 272 1590 7-18 1 72 23 237 240 246 1014 176 8.4 256 1610 15 74 24 235 238 240 1028 194 8.4 260 1600 40 74 22 238 240 232 1015 188 8.4 262 1600 79 86 11 235 240 232 1066 210 8.3 272 1590 10-1 1 72 22 244 240 256 1048 188 8.6 111 1700 20 72 23 234 238 240 1033 196 8.6 276 1700 40 66 27 231 230 242 1022 196 8.6 274 1700 76 72 22 240 240 248 1038 192 9.0 111 1700 Total dissolved solids followed a pattern similar to that of total hard¬ ness with a relatively steady increase from near 500 mgm/L at the time of dam closure to 800 mgm/L by the end of 1966 and on up to just over 1,000 mgm/L by December, 1968 (Tables 3, 4, 5; Figure 3). pH AND ALKALINITY Both pH and alkalinity exhibited definite changes from lower toward higher values. The pH of the lake water was similar to that CHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF A DEVELOPING RESERVOIR 247 of the Canadian River, pH 84-8.2 at the beginning of the study. As the volume of the lake increased the pH became more alkaline until it reached an average of near 8.6 in 1968. The highest pH recorded in the lake was 9.1 at Station III in September, 1966. It was noted that large inflows of water brought about a reduction in pH values for a few months, then the pH would gradually increase to previous average values. At the beginning of the project, total alkalinity was measured at approximately 150 mgm/L with the main constituents in the forms of carbon dioxide and bicarbonates. As the pH increased the constitu- Fig. 3. Specific conductance, dissolved solids and total hardness-— Lake Meredith. 248 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ents shifted to carbonate and bicarbonate. By January, 1967, alkalinity had apparently stabilized at 195-220 mgm/L with one major decrease following the large inflow in the spring of 1967. Previous levels of alkalinity were reestablished by May, 1967 (Tables 4, 5, 6). SPECIFICATIONS Sodium-potassium, sulfate, and chloride concentrations (mgm/L) increased as the lake became older (Tables 4, 5, 6; Figure 4) . All 3 of these ions increased at about the same average rate of about 20 mgm/L per year. Spot samplings by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (personal correspondence) revealed that these ions were measured at an average of less than 150 mgm/L each during 1965, a year of rapid filling of the lake. By February, 1966, sodium-potassium, sulfate, and chloride concentrations had increased to 170-180 mgm/L with the chloride in the lower portion of the range. By the end of 1966 ion concentrations of these 3 entities had increased to 200-210 mgm/L with an annual average of 185=195 mgm/L (Table 7). During 1967 the annual averages of the 3 ions had increased to about 212 mgm/L and by the end of 1968 to an average of 230 mgm/L and still increasing. Calcium and magnesium levels showed a definite increase from averages of 61 mgm/L and 18 mgm/L, respectively, in 1966 to 72 mgm/L and 22 mgm/L in 1968 (Tables 4, 5, 6, 7). Little seasonal fluctuation was noted in either constituent. Fluoride concentrations remained relatively stable throughout the study period. However, there was a slight increase from an average 0.92 mgm/L in 1966 to 1.00 mgm/L in 1968 (Tables 4, 5, 6, 7). Again little seasonal variation was noted. Nitrate levels showed some seasonal variation (Tables 1, 2, 3) with higher concentrations occurring in early summer. From 1966 through 1968 there was a decrease in nitrate availability from 0.19 mgm/L average to 0.08 mgm/L average at Station 1. However, concentrations of nitrates were seen at Stations II and III towards the shallow end of the lake (Table 7) . Phosphates in Lake Meredith were quite high in 1966 averaging 1.39 mgm/L. In 1967 the phosphate concentration was reduced to 0.35 mgm/L average and to 0.33 mgm/L in 1968 (Tables 1,2, 3, 7). No sample was analyzed in which the phosphate or nitrate content was zero. DISCUSSION The principal purpose for the construction of Sanford dam (to form Lake Meredith) and the aqueduct system was to furnish a supple- CHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF A DEVELOPING RESERVOIR 249 Table 7 Specific Ion Annual Averages — Lake Meredith ion (mgm/L) Year Station I Station II Station III Calcium 1966 60.5 63.7 65.7 1967 63.5 64.4 68.6 1968 72.0 70.0 69.4 Magnesium 1966 17. .8 16.0 17, .1 1967 20. .8 21.1 17. ,8 1968 22. .0 24.1 22. .1 Sodium- 1966 192 193 201 Potass. 1967 212 210 216 1968 231 235 242 Sulfate 1966 1967 1968 197 211 233 188 208 234 197 234 247 Chloride 1966 186 188 197 1967 211 208 234 1968 233 234 247 Fluoride 1966 0.92 0.93 0.93 1967 0.95 0.95 0.95 1968 1.00 1.00 1.00 Phosphate 1966 1967 1968 1.39 0.35 0.33 1.17 0.38 0.36 1.84 0.53 0.37 Nitrate 1966 0.19 0.23 0.25 (NO2, NO3 1967 0.09 0.07 0.08 N as NO3) 1968 0.08 0.12 0.14 mental supply of municipal and industrial water to 1 1 cities and towns in the Texas panhandle and south plains. In addition, Lake Meredith serves for flood and sediment control and provides recreational and fishing and wildlife benefits to the area. The Lake Meredith watershed is mostly rolling range land with a few cultivated areas and covers an area of approximately 6,050 square miles in the central Texas panhandle and eastern New Mexico. Hill (1962) described the lakebed as being constituted of clay shale, silt- stone and sandstone. Gypsum is also present throughout this stratum, the Whitehorse. The river has cut through the following strata which are exposed on the bluffs surrounding the lake: (1) Ogallala, consist¬ ing of partly consolidated sand, silt, clay, and gravel cemented in places with caliche; (2) Dockum, of variegated clay shale with inter- 250 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE bedded sandstone and conglomeritic sandstone; (3) Quartermaster, of silty shale and sandstone, brick-red in color; and (4) Alibates, 2 dolo¬ mite members with intervening red and gray silty and clayey shale. In addition, overflow and release waters from Conchas and Ute Lakes in eastern New Mexico flow into the lake. With so many strata of relatively soluble materials exposed to the water in the lake there apparently has been leaching and solution of many of the ionic constituents. For instance, one possibility for the increases in calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, sulfate, and car¬ bonate ions may be from dissolving of the dolomite and gypsum formations at and below the surface of the water (Reid, 1961). Another consideration, but less likely, would be the inflow of water which bears higher concentrations of the ions than are in the lake, with diffusion following. However, data accumulated following the large inflow of 1967 indicated that dilution rather than concentration of the lake water occurred and lasted for several months before the levels of previous concentrations of various constituents were regained. It was theorized that accumulation of minerals in “potholes” in the river might be flushed into the lake periodically causing an increase in mineral content. Thus far, there has been little evidence of this type of introduction of minerals is of consequence in the overall mineraliza¬ tion of the lake. It then appears that inflows of a diluting nature have come into the lake occasionally and that during the times between these inflows, Fig, 4. Volume, sodium-potassium, sulfates and chlorldes^ — ^Lake Meredith. CHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF A DEVELOPING RESERVOIR 251 minerals have dissolved, or have been leached, into the waters and have increased the ionic content. Work is continuing. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors were supported in part by a grant from the Committee on Organized Research, by the Killgore Research Center, and by the Biology Department of West Texas State University. LITERATURE CITED Clark, J., 1966^ — Publications, personnel and government organizations related to the limnology, aquatic biology and ichthyology of the inland waters of Texas, Tex. A&M Univ. Water Resources Inst., Tech. Rpt., 5. Cole, G. A., 1963 — The American southwest and Middle America. In Frey, D. G., eds., Limnology in North America, pp. 393-434. Fruh, E. G., and R. B. Higgins, 1968 — Relationships between the chemical limnol¬ ogy and raw water quality of a subtropical Texas impoundment. Tex. J. Sci., 20(1): 13-32, Hach Water and Sewage Analysis Procedures, 1966 — Hach Chemical Co., Ames, Iowa. Hill. L. W., 1960 — Appendices to Definite Plan Report, Canadian River Project, Texas, Vols. I, ll. United States Bureau of Reclamation, Amarillo, Texas. Jester. D. B., 1960 — Biological and chemical studies of Conchas Reservoir. New Mex. Dept. Game and Fish, (Processed) , Navarre, R. J., 1960 — Clayton Lake rehabilitation. New Mex. Dept. Game and Fish, (Processed), Reid, G. K., 1961 — Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1965 — American Public Health Association, Inc., New York. Toole. M., 1954--64 — Reports on basic investigations on Texas lakes and streams. Northwest areas (chemical). Fish and Wildlife Div., Tex. Parks and Wildl. Dept., (Processed). Effects of Various Osmotic Agents on Elongation of Avena Coleoptile Segments^*^ by GERALD G. FARR and W. E. NORRIS, JR, Department of Biology ^ Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos 78666 ABSTRACT ' The effects of sucrose, fructose, glucose, glycerol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 1000, mannitol, pentaerythritol, sorbitol, and D=galactose on the elongation of Avena coleoptile tissue in both the presence and absence of 10 /iM indole-3-acetic acid was determined. Sucrose, fructose, and glucose exhibited stimulatory effects on elongation both in aqueous solution and in lAA, Galactose was stronglj’ inhibitory. The other compounds tested, with the exception of poly¬ ethylene glycol 1000 and glycerol, yielded inhibition proportional to- their concen¬ trations. It appears that ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, pentaerythritol, and sorbitol maj- be used as effectively as mannitol as an osmoregulator. INTRODUCTION The dependence of cell elongation on turgor pressure has been estab¬ lished by various workers. Cleland (1959) has shown that cell elonga¬ tion occurs only when the turgor pressure exceeds a critical value and that the rate of elongation is proportional to the amount by which the turgor pressure exceeds this value. The action of various sugars [primarily as osomtic agents, although their possible role as “food factors” has been entertained by Schneider (1938)] on rates of elongation and curvature of plant tissues and organs has been studied, Bonner (1934) found glucose and fructose to increase the elongation of Avena coleop tiles with fructose being more effective and yielding more consistent results, Ferguson, et al. (1958 a&b) have investigated the effects of galactose, mannose, dextrose, xylose, other sugars, and sugar alcohols upon excised tomato roots. Dickinson (1968) has related the osmotic effects of pentaerythritol, mannitol, sorbitol, glycerol, ethylene glycol, and propylene glycol to ^ Supported by state appropriated funds for organized research to Southwest Texas State University. 2 Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Texas Academy of Science at Angelo State University, March 6, 1970. The Texas Joimial of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 254 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Starch synthesis associated with increased respiration and elongation in germinating lily pollen. Jackson (1962 a&b, 1965) observed the effects of glucose, sucrose, galactose, mannitol and carbowaxes (poly¬ ethylene glycols) on the rate of elongation of root hairs of Agrostis alba L. seedlings. Various studies have directed attention to the effect of sugars on elongation of oat coleoptiles (Baker and Ray, 1965 a&b; Bayley and Setterfield, 1957; Cleland, 1967; Nitsch and Nitsch, 1956; Ordin and Bonner, 1957; Ordin et aL, 1955, 1956). The majority of the work utilizing Avena tissue has been done in the presence of indole-3-acetic acid (lAA) and in one to 2% sucrose (primarily as an osmotic agent) while, with the exception of mannitol, little or no work has been done using many of the other osmotic agents. For example Cleland (1963) incorporated 2% sucrose in some of the media that he used in studying various aspects of the cell wall behavior of oat coleoptiles, while Schrank (1956) found the presence of 2% sucrose in the medium to be essential for L-methionine to cause a stimulation of geotropically- induced curvature of the oat coleoptile. The results of some of the studies referred to above have not always been consistent; indeed, Nitsch and Nitsch (1956) call attention to the fact that different experimental conditions employed by various authors have resulted in inconsistent data, while Wiegand and Schrank (1959) point out the necessity of limiting the comparison of data to observations made under the same experimental conditions. The purpose of this investigation was tO' study the effects of osmotic agents upon Avena coleoptile segments under consistent experimental conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experimental procedures were identical to those described by Norris (1967) . Avena sativa L. seeds, Victory strain (U.S. Department of Agriculture, C. I. 2020), were used in these experiments. The seedlings were grown on filter paper strips that were immersed in distilled water which previously had been aerated. Additional details of the growing method are described by Wiegand and Schrank (1959) , Only seedlings that were 72 hours old and that had 30 ± 2 mm coleop¬ tiles were used. Growth measurements were made on coleoptiles which were isolated from the seeds and primary leaves. The second 5 mm sections, measur¬ ing from the apex were used. These sections were floated in Petri dishes that contained the media (20 sections/20 ml solution). The ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS 255 control medium was distilled water or 10 ,/xM lAA. The substances to be tested were prepared fresh prior to each experiment. During cutting and transferring, the sections were exposed to low intensity red neon light (wave lengths longer than 6074A) , The sections were allowed to elongate in the dark for 24 hours. At the end of this period, their lengths were measured with a micrometer in the ocular of a stereo¬ scopic microscope. All procedures were carried out at a temperature of 22 1°C. In the figures that follow each plotted point is the average of numerous measurements; the exact number is specified in parenthesis by some of the points and by the control lines. With the exception of Figure 2 (see legend) standard deviations are shown on the control lines and on some points. RESULTS Figure 1 shows the effects of various concentrations of sucrose on elongation of oat coleoptile sections in water and in lAA. The amount of elongation of the coleoptile segments in a 24-hour period in water, and in 10 jjM. IAA are taken as control values (solid line and dashed line, respectively) . Throughout this work these control values aver¬ aged about 6.2 mm in water and approximately 8.3 mm in IAA revealing an actual elongation of 1.2 and 3.3 mm above the initial 5 mm length. It is apparent that the presence of sucrose resulted in a stimulation of elongation of the oat coleoptile amounting to a maxi¬ mum of about 80% at sucrose concentrations of 1.5 and 2% in IAA. Sucrose is less stimulatory (60% in 3% sucrose) to elongation in water. The data presented in Figures 2 and 3 record in a similar manner the effects of fructose and glucose on elongation of the coleoptile sec¬ tions in water and in IAA. Fructose is most stimulatory (63%) in IAA at a concentration of 1.5% and in water (115%) at concentra¬ tions of 2 and 2.5%, while glucose shows maximum stimulation (49%) in IAA at 0.5 and 1.0% and in water (58%) at concentrations of 1 .5 % and 2.5 % . It is of interest that all three sugars show a decreas¬ ing sitmulation of elongation at the higher concentrations in IAA. This is most notable in glucose, where 3% in 10 /xM IAA yields the same value as the control. Figures 4 and 5 record in a comparable way the influence of ethyl¬ ene glycol, propylene glycol, mannitol, pentaerythritol, sorbitol, and D-galactose on elongation of the coleoptile segments. In the presence of exogenous auxin all concentrations of these substances tested (i.e. 256 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 1. Influence of sucrose on elongation of the second 5-mm segment of the Avena coleoptile in water and in lAA (1 0 (ilA). 0.5 through 3% in 0.5% steps) reveal inhibition of oat coleoptile seg¬ ment elongation; furthermore essentially a straight line relationship results in that the higher the concentration of the substances the greater is the degree of inhibition. This inhibition ranges from 12 to 16% in 0.5% concentration to 40 to 60% in 3% concentration with the exception of D-galactose which is the most inhibitory (55% at 0.5% and 83% at 3%). In general the same relationship is exhibited when the medium is water. The inhibition of elongation ranges from 0 to 20% in 0.5% concentration to 15 to 70% in 3% concentration. Ethylene glycol at the lowest concentration actually shows a slight, though not significant stimulation; the most inhibition (70%) is ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS 257 130 120 110 E E z o < 9.0 o z o yj 80 70 60 so 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 CONCENTRATION of FRUCTOSE in % Fig. 2. Influence of fructose on elongation of the second 5-mm segment of the Avena coleoptile In water and in lAA (10 juM), Vertical lines show observed ranges; rectangles represent standard deviations; solid black indicates the 95 % confidence interval for the mean. Each plotted point is the average of 35 to 40 measurements. caused by 3% mannitol, while propylene glycol in water is without effect. In addition to the compounds reported on above glycerol and poly¬ ethylene glycol 1000 were tested and found to be without significant effect. There is some indication that both substances stimulate elon¬ gation slightly in water, and that glycerol may be inhibitory to lAA. 258 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DISCUSSION Auxin-induced wall loosening and its conversion into extension initiates elongation. Continued elongation results if there is, among other things, intussusception of new cell wall material, osmoregula¬ tion, and water available for expansion (Cleland, 1958). Cleland (1967) has shown that auxin-induced wall loosening, and the con¬ version of wall loosening into cell elongation, differ in their relation¬ ship to turgor pressure. It is evident from the data presented that sucrose, glucose, and fructose are stimulatory to elongation of oat coleoptile segments both in water and in the presence of exogenous lAA. The maximum stimu¬ lation of elongation was obtained with 2 and 2.5% fructose in water and with 1 .5 and 2% sucrose in 10 fiM lAA. CONCENTRATION of GLUCOSE in % Fig. 3. Influence of glucose on elongation of the second 5-mm segment of the Avena coleoptile in water and in lAA (10 fJifA). ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS 259 CONCENTRATION IN % Fig, 4. Effect of ethylene glycol, propylene glye©!, and mannitol on elongation of the second 5-mm segment of the Avena eoleopfile in woter and in lAA CIO /xML interaction of sucrose with Auxin has been noted (Schneider, 1938). Sucrose is frequently incorporated in test solutions used for cell elongation studies. Bonner (1934) reported that the addition of sugar to exogenous auxin solutions on which oat coleoptile segments were floated further increased the growth. He also found fructose to increase elongation, which is in accord with results reported here. Synergistic 260 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 CONCENTRATION IN % Fig. 5. Effect of pentaerythritol, sorbitol, and D-galactose on elongation of the second 5-mm segment of the Avena coleoptile in water and in lAA (1 0 ^M). In Studying the auxin-induced water uptake by Avena coleoptile sec¬ tions Ordin, et aL (1956) found that in the presence of sucrose the tissue could make extensive adjustments of its internal osmotic pres¬ sures. Glucose is known to be a contributing factor in the net synthesis of cell wall material (Ordin, et al.^ 1955). Baker and Ray (1965 a&b) found, upon the application of substrate amounts of glucose to oat ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS 261 coleoptile segments whose elongation was inhibited by Ca+ that lAA caused an increase in the rate of gross cell wall synthesis. They also observed that the rate of. absorption of glucose was increased by elon¬ gation and that the rate of wall synthesis was dependent on glucose concentrations at internal sites of utilization. Cleland (1967) has shown that a decline in turgor pressure is accompanied by a decrease in labeled glucose incorporation into the cell wall. A relationship between auxin-induced elongation of Avena coleop¬ tile sections and their respiration is known (Bonner, 1949). Carbo¬ hydrates function as respiratory substrates, and this respiration may be associated with the synthesis of ceil wall material. Ordin, et aL., (1956) have shown that the auxin-induced increment in respiration diminishes with increasing external osmotic concentration and is abolished by concentrations which reduce elongation to low values. The significant increase in elongation observed in the presence of sucrose, glucose, and fructose probably results from ( 1 ) their contri¬ bution to turgor pressure (2) their provision of raw material for synthesis, and (3) their use as respiratory substrates. The lack of contribution to one or more of the above mentioned processes may account for the fact that ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, mannitol, pentaerythritol, sorbitol, and D-galactose all prove to be inhibitory to oat coleoptile segment elongation both in lAA and in water. Since various workers have employed polyethylene glycols (carbo- waxes) as osmotic agents Jackson (1962) undertook an evaluation of them. He found very low concentrations of carbowaxes to completely inhibit growth of root hairs of redtop grass seedlings but their effects on lAA-induced elongation of oat coleoptiles was similar to those yielded by equivalent concentrations of mannitol. Mannitol has been widely used (e.g. Ordin, et ah, 1955, 1956; Cleland, 1958, 1959, 1963, 1967; Jackson, 1965) to increase the os¬ motic concentration of biological solutions. Ordin and Bonner (1957) report mannitol to be without effect on Avena coleoptile section growth in concentrations up to 0.02 M. It has been generally assumed that mannitol acts solely as an osmotic agent in preventing water uptake and has little direct effect on cell metabolism (Thimann, 1954). Mannitol inhibits cell elongation, and also prevents synthesis of cell wall material (Bayley and Setterfield, 1957; Baker and Ray, 1965), In studies of elongation of root hairs of redtop grass seedlings Jackson (1965) found mannitol to be rapidly absorbed and metabolized, and to be as stimulatory as either glucose or sucrose. Trip, et al. (1964) have examined 26 plant species and found 1 5 of them to respire man- 262 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE nitol. They conclude however that mannitol can be used as an osmo- regulator with Avena coleoptiles in short term experiments, since Avena metabolizes it very slowly. Jackson (1965) also concludes that mannitol is a satisfactory osmotic agent for many studies, but cautions against the prevalent assumption that it is nonabsorbable and meta- bolically inert in higher plants, since he found mannitol to have effects upon metabolic processes independently of its role in increasing the osmotic concentration of the external medium. Our results with man¬ nitol are in accord with those reported by Cleland (1967). Dickinson (1968) has recently employed, among other compounds, pentaerythritol and sorbitol as non-metabolizable osmotic agents in his studies of the rapid starch synthesis associated with increased respiration in germinating lily pollen. He found that the pattern of respiration and starch synthesis was not altered when the pollen germinated in a pentaerythritol medium instead of the usual sucrose medium. The data reported here indicate only an osmotic effect inhi¬ bition is linear with increasing concentration. Of the various substances tested galactose proved to be the most inhibitory. This effect is well known since Ordin and Bonner (1957) reported galactose to be quite inhibitory to Avena coleoptile section growth. They concluded that inhibition caused by galactose was not due to its osmotic properties, or to its effect on respiration, but rather to its interference with cellulose synthesis. Ferguson, et al. (1958) reported galactose to be inhibitory to the growth of excised tomato roots. Baker and Ray (1965) employed galactose as an inhibitor in studies in auxin effects on cell wall synthesis and cell elongation. The data reported here indicate that ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, pentaerythritol, and sorbitol may be used equally as effectively as mannitol in the osmoregulation of Avena coleoptile tissue. The widespread use of sucrose in promoting oat coleoptile segment elonga¬ tion is supported, although fructose may be nearly as effective. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of the use of pentaerythri¬ tol as an osmotic agent for coleoptile tissue studies. LITERATURE CITED Baker, D. B., and P. M. Ray, 1965 — Direct and indirect effects of auxin on cell wall synthesis in oat coleoptile tissue. Plant Physiol., 40: 345-352. - , 1965 — Relation between effects of auxin on cell wall synthesis and cell elongation. Plant Physiol., 40: 360-368. Bayley, S, T., and G. Setterfield, 1957 — Thb influence of mannitol and auxin on growth of cell walls in Avena coleoptiles. Ann. Bot. N, S., 21: 633-641. ELONGATION OF AVENA COLEOPTILE SEGMENTS 263 Bonner, J., 1934 — Growth substance and cell elongation. Thesis, California Institute of Technology. - , 1949 — Relations of respiration and growth in the Avena coleoptile. Amer. J. Bot., 36: 429-436. Cleland, R., 1958 — A separation of auxin-induced cell wall loosening into its plastic and elastic components. Physiol. Plant., 11: 599-609. - , 1959 — Effect of osmotic concentration on auxin action and on irre¬ versible and reversible expansion of the Avena coleoptile. Physiol. Plant., 12: 809-825. - - , 1963 — ^Independence of effects of auxin on cell wall methylation and elongation. Plant Physiol., 38: 12-18. - , 1967— A dual role of turgor pressure in auxin-induced cell elongation in Avena coleoptiles. Planta, 77: 182-191. Dickinson, D. B., 1968 — Rapid starch synthesis associated with increased respiration in germinating lily pollen. Plant Physiol., 43: 1-8, Ferguson, J. D., H. E. Street, and S. B. David, 1958a — The carbohydrate nutrition of tomato roots. V. The promotion and inhibition of excised root growth by various sugars and sugar alcohols. Ann. Bot. TV. S., 22: 513-523. - , 1958b — The carbohydrate nutrition of tomato roots. VI. The inhibition of excised root growth by galactose and mannose and its reversal by dextrose and xylose. Ann. Bot. TV. S., 22: 523-538. Jackson, W. T., 1962 — Use of carbowaxes (polyethylene glycols) as osmotic agents. Plant Physiol., 37: 513-519. - , 1962 — Effect of sugars on rate of elongation of root hairs of Agrostis alba L, Physiol. Plant., 15: 675-682. - , 1965 — Mannitol-induced stimulation of elongation of root hairs of Agrostis alba L. Physiol. Plant., 18: 24-30. Nitsch, j. P., and C. Nitsch, 1956 — Studies on the growth of coleoptile and first intemode sections. A new, sensitive, straight-growth test for auxins. Plant Physiol, 31: 94-111. Norris, W. E., Jr., 1967 — Reversal of hydroxyproline-induced inhibition of elon¬ gation of Avena coleoptiles. Plant Physiol, 42: 481-486. Ordin, L., T. H. Applewhite, and J. Bonner, 1956 — Auxin-induced water uptake by Avena coleoptile sections. Plant Physiol, 31: 44-53. Ordin, L., and J. Bonner, 1957 — Effect of galactose on growth and metabolism of Avena coleoptile sections. Plant Physiol, 32: 212--215. Ordin, L., R. Cleland, and J. Bonner, 1955 — Influence of auxin on cell-wall metab¬ olism. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S., 41: 1023-1029. Schneider, C, L., 1938 — The interdependence of auxin and sugar for growth. Amer, J. Bot., 25: 258-270. ScHRANK, A. R., 1956 — ^Ethionine inhibition of elongation and geotropic curvature of Avena coleoptiles. Archiv. Biochem. Biophys.., 61: 348-355. Thimann, K. V., 1954— The physiology of growth in plant tissues. Amer. Scientist^ 42: 589-606. 264 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Trip, P., G. Krotkov, and C. D. Nelson, 1961^ — Metabolism of mannitol in higher plants. Amer. J. Bot., 51: 828-835. WiEGAND, O. F., and A. R. Schrank, 1959 — Regimen for growing uniform Avena coleoptiles. Botan. Gaz., 121: 106-110. Alterations in In Vitro Adrenal Corticosteroidogenesis Following Goitrogen Administration to Rats^ by JOHN L. McCarthy and LINDA W. LAURY Department of Biology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222 ABSTRACT The administration of anti-thyroidal levels of p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to rats for 12 weeks was associated with a decreased capacity of adrenal mitochondria from treated rats to carry out 11^-hydroxylation of deoxycorticostrone (DOC) in vitro. The conversion of DOC into corticosterone was lower in PABA-adrenal mito¬ chondria when conversions were supported by NADPH + Ca^T, NADH + NADP + Ca2+, or by Kreb’s cycle intermediate. Preliminary findings on effects resulting from 2 or 4 weeks administration of propylthioracil or methyl mercaptoimidazole to rats suggested that adrenal 1 1 ^-hydroxylation in vitro was increased when con¬ versions were supported by u-ketogluterate, succinate, or malate. The observations support the suggestion that adrenal function can be depressed by PABA adminis¬ tration. INTRODUCTION An apparent unusual response of rats to goitrogen administration was noted in the change in plasma corticosteroids in animals fed a diet containing p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) . McCarthy, et al. (1959) noted that the systemic blood plasma from rats fed PABA for 12 weeks contained lower levels of corticosterone (B) with increased amounts of a Porter-Silber positive chromogen. While changes in adrenal secre¬ tion of glucocorticoids might account for the response observed, Cortes and Peron (1964) determined that the secretion of B and 18-hydroxy- 11 -deoxycorticosterone (18-OH DOC) into adrenal venous blood of PABA-treated rats was unchanged from control values. Treatment with this goitrogen generally produces a lower adrenal weight, de¬ creased adrenal 32-P incorporation and thyroid hypertrophy, and inhibition (McCarthy, et al. 1959, McCarthy and Murphree 1960). In a study of in vitro corticosteroid production, McCarthy and Laury (1970) obtained results which indicated a lower level of corticosteroid conversion by incubated adrenal homogenates from PABA-fed rats. 1 Supported by NIH Grant AM-05744. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 266 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The data were interpreted as indicating a decrease in the generation and/or utilization of reduced nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). Since the latter report showed evidence for decreased substrate oxidation and 11^-hydroxylation, this investiga¬ tion was undertaken to evaluate in vitro corticosteroidogenesis by adrenal mitochondria from goitrogen-treated rats, EXPERIMENTAL Groups of male Holtzman rats, 140-160 gm body weight, were housed 5 animals per colony cage. Animals were maintained under conditions of 14 hours of light and 10 hours of dark in a temperature- controlled room. For each experiment control and goitrogen-treated groups consisted of 12 to 18 rats each. Control animals were fed Purina ground laboratory chow while PABA-groups received the feed containing 4% PABA by weight. Animals were given tap water to drink and the appropriate diet ad libitum. Some experiments involved treatment with propylthiouracil (PTU) and methylmercaptoimidazole (MMI) . These goitrogens were administered in the drinking fluid as PTU 0.1% (pH 8 in distilled water) or MMI 0.01%. At the end of the treatment period (12 weeks except as otherwise noted in Tables) control and treated rats were decapitated. The adrenal glands were rapidly removed and maintained in an ice-cold moist chamber with 0.25 M sucrose. The glands were cleaned, weighed, and homogenized in a Tris 20 mM-nicotinamide 50 mM- sucrose 0.25 M mixture. An adrenal mitochondrial pellet (pellet 2, P2, 5,000 X g sedimentation) was obtained for each group by the method described by Peron and McCarthy (1968). The adrenal mitochondria from control or goitrogen-treated rats will be referred to as control mitochondria, PABA-mitochondria, etc. Incubations were carried out by adding aliquots of the mitochon¬ drial suspension to beakers containing bicarbonate or Tris buffer 20 mM, with NaCl 15 mM and nicotinamide 50 mM. Precursor steroid 1 1 -deoxycorticosterone (DOC), 60 /^g, was added in 0.02 ml of ethanol-propylene glycol (1:1). Mitochondrial 1 1 ^-hydroxylation of DOC was supported by adding oxidizable substrate (isocitrate, suc¬ cinate, etc.) 10 mM or by adding NADPH, 800 /xg in the presence or absence of calcium ions (Ca^+) 11 mM. The final volume of the incu¬ bation media was brought to 2.0 ml with 0.154 M KCl. Incubations were carried out in a Dubnoff metabolic incubator for 30 minutes at 37°C under 95% oxygen-5 % carbon dioxide for bicarbonate buffer or 100% oxygen for Tris buffer. ALTERATIONS IN In V itrO ADRENAL CORTICOSTEROIDOGENESIS 267 Production of corticosterone (B) from DOC was measured in di- chloromethane extracts of aliquots of incubation media using a modi¬ fication (Moncloa, et al. 1959) of the sulfuric acid fluorescence method. Protein analyses were performed using the method of Lowry, et al. ( 1951 ) . Corticosteroid products are expressed as millimicromoles of product per milligram mitochondrial protein. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the first experiments (Table 1, Experiments 1,2) PABA mito¬ chondria from rats given goitrogens for 12 weeks showed decreased capacity to 1 1 /3-hydroxylate DOC in vitm in the presence of NADPH or oxidizable substrate. Non-swollen adrenal mitochondria are gener¬ ally impermeable to NADPH; addition of Ca^+ induces large ampli¬ tude swelling facilitating entry and exit of pyridine nucleotides and stimulates maximum 1 1 ^-hydroxylation (Peron, et al. 1965, Peron and McCarthy, 1968). As the level of NADPH was increased in the media, in the presence of Ca^+ 11 mM, B production by control mito¬ chondria increased. These observations are in general agreement with the results reported by Peron, et al. (1966) . Under identical conditions of NADPH concentration, the B production by PABA mitochondria increased but remained below control values. When reducing equiva¬ lents for support of hydroxylation were generated by transhydroge¬ nation (NADH + NADP) in the presence of Ca“+ (Peron, et al. 1966), again B production by the PABA mitochondria was lower than for control P2. Additional evidence of decreased in vitro 1 1 /3-hydroxylation in PABA mitochondria is drawn from the data on substrate supported reactions (Table 1, Experiment 2, 3). Numerous investigators have demonstrated the ability of Kreb's cycle intermediates to support in vitro 1 1 /3-hydroxylation by rat or bovine adrenal mitochondria (see Gammer, et al. 1968, Harding, et al. 1968, Peron and McCarthy 1968) . It is considered that the reducing equivalents from the oxidized sub¬ strates generate intramitochondrial NADPH (either directly or via the energy dependent transhydrogenase) from which electrons are transferred to cytochrome P-450 via a flavoprotein and nonheme iron. With rat adrenal mitochondria, incubation with isocitrate generally provides the highest rate of substrate supported DOC conversion into B (Guerra, et al. 1966, Peron and Tsang 1969) . For rat adrenal mito¬ chondria, isocitrate oxidation has been found to occur via an NADP linked enzyme (Peron and McCarthy 1968, Peron and Tsang 1969). In all cases (Table 1 ) substrate supported conversion of DOC into B was markedly reduced in PABA mitochondria. Addition of thyroxine 268 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE to mitochondria incubated with isocitrate slightly reduced B produc¬ tion by control preparations but further decreased the already low conversion by PABA mitochondria. Succinate or malate supported conversions by control P2 were stimulated by the addition of thy¬ roxine, while the basal B production in PABA mitochondria was slightly suppressed rather than enhanced by that addition. When ATP was added to control mitochondria in the presence of succinate or malate, B conversion was further enhanced. A slight stimulation of B formation was observed with PABA P2 + succinate + ATP. In regard to the effects of thyroxine in vitro^ Jao and Koritz (1962) found that addition of M thyroxine suppressed some phases of corticoid conversion by adrenal homogenates or mitochondria in the presence of pyridine nucleotides. The latter workers did, however, find that the conversion of DOC into B was unaffected by thyroxine. The adrenal tranhydrogenase enzyme, however, is known to be in¬ hibited by thyroid hormone in vitro (Oldham, et al.^ 1968). Peron, et al., (1966) found marginal effects of thyroxine and ATP on mito¬ chondrial malate supported 1 l|d-hydroxylation, though succinate sup¬ ported conversions were inhibited by thyroxine but stimulated by ATP. While results of this study (Table 1 ) vary somewhat from those of Peron, et al. (1966), there was generally little to no effect of thy¬ roxine or ATP on PABA mitochondria except for isocitrate (Table 1, Experiment 3) . The finding of decreased corticosteroid conversion with PABA mito¬ chondria confirms the previous report on in vitro steroid conversion by adrenal homogenate from rats treated with this goitrogen (Mc¬ Carthy and Laury, 1970). The latter investigation was carried out to determine the effect of time of PABA treatment on in vitro corti- costeroidogenesis. Since the more marked effects of PABA required a long term treatment, an investigation using more potent anti-thyroidal agents was undertaken. Rather than a consistent decrease in 11^8- hydroxylation, in vitro PTU or MMI mitochondria from rats treated for 2 or 4 weeks (Table 2) showed evidence of increased B production. Incubations in the presence of a-ketcgluterate, succinate or malate produced higher levels of B by the experimental preparations than that seen with control P2. Isocitrate supported DOC conversion was decreased in both PTU and MMI mitochondria from the 2 week study period; at the 4 week period, B production was suppressed to a lesser extent in PTU mitochondria and actually enhanced in MMI P2. Both the results of this study on mitochondria and the previous one using adrenal homogenate (McCarthy and Laury, 1970) indicate that fol¬ lowing PABA administration decreased 1 1 j0-hydroxylation of DOC ALTERATIONS IN In VitrO ADRENAL CORTICOSTEROIDOGENESIS 269 Table 1 1 1 jS-Hydroxylation of Deoxycorticosterone by Adrenal Mitochondria from Normal and PABA-Fed Rats^ 2 Additions Experiment 1 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Contr© I Control Cbntrbf PABA muMoles corticosterone per mi mitochondrial protein illigram P2 + DOC NADPH 800 pg 28.0 15.9 8.1 4. .3 16.5 7.2 NADPH 200pg +Ca^^ 75.1 52. .3 NADPH 400 |jg +Ca^“^ i32.4 91. 6 NADPH 800>ig +Ca^“^ 432.6 228.0 149.7 88.7 NADH 800 pg + NADP 800 pg 2!.l 6.9 NADH 800 pg + NADP 800 pg + 358,9 243.9 128.0 85.0 NADH 800 pg + NADP 800 pg + T4^ 4.3 4.2 NADH 800 pg + NADP 800 pg +14+ 135.2 71.4 IsocItrate 135.0 87.0 148.5 30.9 isocitrate + T4 135.2 9,5 Isocitrafe +ATP 126.3 20.5 Succinate 20.2 12,1 34 J 8.4 Succinate + T4 ___ 41.3 7.2 Succinate +ATP — 63.9 12.7 Malate 36.7 n.o Maiafe + T4 53.8 9.0 Malate + ATP 53.8 11. 0 ^ Animals were treated with 4% PABA for 12 weeks. 2 Experiments 1 and 2 carried out in bicarbonate buffer 20 mM; Experiment 3 carried out in Tris buffer 20 mM. ® T4, thyroxine added to a final concentration of 50 mM; ATP added to a final concentration of 100 mM. in vitro occurs in the presence of NADPH or Kreb’s cycle inter¬ mediates. The decreased in vitro corticosteroidogenesis may be interpreted as a reflection of decreased in vivo adrenal activity in PABA-treated rats. Support for this suggestion may be drawn from studies where in vivo adrenal stimulation leads to greater rates of 1 1 ^-hydroxylation in vitro. In rats, in vivo adrenal inhibition, which leads to adrenal hyper¬ trophy or exogenous ACTH administration has been found to be followed by increased rates of substrate supported 1 1 ^-hydroxylation by adrenal mitochondria (Laury and McCarthy, 1968). 270 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 In Vitro 1 l^S-Hydroxylation by Adrenal Mitochondria from Rats Given Propyl¬ thiouracil or Mercaptoimidazole for 2 or 4 Weeks 2 Weeks* 4 Weeks Control PTU MMI Control PTU MMI Additions to muMoles B/mg mitochondrial protein P2 + DOC + 3.2 2.6 3.2 1.7 1.7 1.7 NAD PH 22.5 8.1 13.9 22.0 21.2 3!. 2 Citrate 29.2 13.3 14.5 — — — Isocitrate 51.8 22.9 27.9 56.6 43.4 65.4 a-Ketogluterate 3.2 6.7 9.2 — — Succinate 8.1 22.9 26.0 6.3 13.3 15.0 Malate 27.9 46.8 58.1 39.0 66.7 IIO.O ^ Incubations carried out in phosphate buffer 20 nilNI; see text for other additions, for 20 minutes at 37°C. If the in vitro findings with PABA-P2 do reflect lower in vivo adrenal function then it is difficult to reconcile these in vitro findings with the in vivo observations of Cortes and Peron (1964). The latter investigators found that adrenal venous B and 18-OH DOC secretions and adrenal weight were unaffected by PABA treatment. Previous studies have shown that the PABA treatment can produce decreased adrenal weight as well as lowered adrenal 32-P incorporation and thyroid enlargement and functional inhibition (McCarthy, et al. 1959, McCarthy and Murphree, 1960) . We have mentioned previously (McCarthy and Laury, 1970) that our study of adrenal venous 18-OH DOC secretion in PABA treated rats failed to show an increase, in agreement with the report of Cortes and Peron (1964). In the same animals, however, systemic plasma analysis did show increased Porter- Silber positive chromogen as reported by McCarthy, et al. (1959) . An explanation is not readily available to account for the PABA effect to result in normal adrenal venous secretion, an altered corticoid level in systemic blood and the evident reduction for capacity for in vitro corticosteroidogenesis (Table 1). On the basis of in vivo studies one might expect that induced hypothyroidism would reduce adrenal ALTERATIONS IN In VitrO ADRENAL CORTICOSTEROIDOGENESIS 271 function= Melby, et al. (1960) attributed the increased cortisol secre¬ tion in thyroxine treated dogs to be a result of increased peripheral metabolism of glucocorticoids. It may well be that differences in effect of PABA on adrenal function and on blood corticoid levels may also reflect changes in peripheral metabolism and excretion. Tata, et aL (1963) noted that thyroidectomy depressed, and exogenous thyroxine stimulated the respiratory quotient of rat skeletal muscle or liver mitochondria without uncoupling oxidation phosphorylation. Freed- land and co-workers have studied effects of thyroid hormones on enzymes and metabolism in a number of tissues. In a recent report by Freedland and Murad (1969) on enzyme activities in the 20,000 X g supernatant of adrenal homogenate, thyroidectomy resulted in a decrease in soluble protein and some glycolytic enzymes but increased malic enzyme. In normal and thyroidectomized rats, thyroxine in¬ creased activities of enzymes related to glycolysis and NADPH pro¬ duction. While the hypothyroid state induced by PABA treatment might give rise to decreased 1 1 ^fl-hydroxylation, somewhat similar results might be anticipated to follow administration of other goitro- gens. Goitrogens do act by several mechanisms and extra thyroidal effects of some agents are known. Also it was observed that in com¬ paring effects of goitrogens only PABA and low iodine diets were associated with marked changes in peripheral corticoid levels (Mc¬ Carthy, et aL 1959). The short term treatment with PTU and MMI gave rise to increased in vitro 1 1 ^fl-hydroxylation, particularly in the presence of succinate and malate. It is also of interest that succinate and malate supported 1 1 /3-hy droxylation were changed more mark¬ edly by exogenous ACTH (Laury and McCarthy, 1968). Treatment of rats with thiouracil or MMI has been shown to produce thyroid hypertrophy and decreased adrenal weight (Zarrow, et aL 1957, Mc¬ Carthy, et al. 1959). Steinetz and Beach (1963) tested the effect of thiouracil administration to rats on adrenal response to ACTH. No evidence was found that the in vivo adrenal gland response to ACTH was suppressed following goitrogen treatment, however, in vitro adrenal tissue from thiouracil treated rats showed increased response to ACTH. Our observations on in vitro effects following PTU and MMI may reflect similar changes, though these studies involving PTU and MMI must be confirmed and extended by experiments involving prolonged treatment with the 2 goitrogens. The effect of PABA treat¬ ment does lead to decreased in vitro corticosteroidogenesis particularly evident in the adrenal mitochondrial reaction. 272 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LITERATURE CITED Cammer, D., D. Y. Cooper, and R. W. Estabrook, 1968 — Electron transport reac¬ tions for steroid hydroxylation by the adrenal cortex. In, K. McKerns (Ed.), Functions of the Adrenal Cortex, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp. 943-992. Cortes, J. M., and F. G. Peron, 1964 — Lack of effect of chronic administration of p-aminobenzoic acid on the secretion of 18-hydroxy deoxycorticosterone and corticosterone by the rat adrenal. Steroids, 3: 551-556. Freedland, R. a., and S. Murad, 1969 — Effect of thyroid hormones on metabolism III. Effect of thyroxine and thyroidectomy on adrenal gland enzymes. Endo¬ crinol., 84: 692-694. Guerra, F., F, G. Peron, and J. L. McCarthy, 1966 — Further studies on cortico- steroidogenesis III. Effect of biological substrates and electron transport depen¬ dence in rat adrenal mitochondria. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 117: 433-449. Harding, B. W., J. J. Bell, S. B. Oldham, and Lowell Wilson, 1968 — Cortico¬ steroid biosynthesis in adrenal cortical mitochondria. In, K. McKerns (Ed.), Functions of the Adrenal Cortex, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp. 831-896. Jao, j., and S. B. Koritz, 1962 — The in vitro effects of thyroxine on corticoid synthesis in rat adrenal homogenate. Metab., 11: 1302-1309. Laury, L. W., and J. L. McCarthy, 1968 — Enhancement of substrate supported 11/3 -hydroxylation in adrenal mitochondria following cyanotrimethylandro- stenolone or ACTH administration. Amer. ZooL, 8: abstract 92. Lowry, 0. H., N. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr, and R. J. Randall, 1951 — Protein measurement with Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193: 265-275. McCarthy, J. L., R. C. Corley, and M. X. Zarrow, 1959 — Effect of goitrogens on the adrenal gland of the rat. Amer. J. Physiol., 197: 693-698. McCarthy, J. L., and L. W. Laury, 1970 — Adrenal corticosteroidogenesis and hypothyroidism: effect of long term treatment with p-aminobenzoic acid. /. Grad. Res. Center, 37: 67-76. McCarthy, J. L., and R. L. Murphree, 1960 — Adrenal atrophy and thj'roid inhi¬ bition following PABA. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med., 105: 515-517. Melby, j, C., R. H. Egdahl, J. L. Story, and W. W. Spink, 1960 — Production and catabolism of cortisol following administration of thyroxine analogs. Endocrinol., 67: 389-000. Moncloa, F., F. G. Peron, and R. I. Dorfman, 1959 — The fluorometric determi¬ nation of corticosterone in rat adrenal tissue and plasma: effect of administering ACTH subcutaneously. Endocrinol., 65: 717-72L Peron, F. G., F. Guerra, and J. L. McCarthy, 1965— Further studies on the effect of calcium ions and corticosteroidogenesis 11. Adrenal mitochondrial swelling by calcium ions. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 110: 277-000. - , 1966 — Further studies on corticosteroidogenesis IV. Inhibition of utilization of biological substrates for corticoid synthesis by high calcium con¬ centrations. Possible role of transhydrogenase in corticosteroidogenesis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 117 : 450-469, ALTERATIONS IN In V itro ADRENAL CORTICOSTEROIDOGENESIS 273 Peron, F. G., and J. L. McCarthy, 1968 — Corticosteroidogenesis in the rat adrenal gland. In K. McKerns (Ed.), Functions of the Adrenal Cortex, Appleton- Century-Crofts, New York, pp. 262-337. Peron, F. G., and C. P. W. Tsang, 1969 — Further studies on corticosteroidogenesis YI. Pyruvate and malate supported steroid 1 1 ^-hydroxylation in rat adrenal gland mitochondria. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 180: 445-458. Steinetz, B, G., and V. L. Beach, 1963 — Some influence of thyroid on pituitary- adrenal axis. Endocrinol., 72: 45-58. Tata, J. R., L. Ernster, O. Lindberg, E. Arrhenius, S. Pedersen, and R. Hedman, 1963 — The action of thyroid hormone at the cell level. Biochem. /., 86: 408-428. Zarrow, M. X., L. M. Horger, and J. L. McCarthy, 1957 — ^Atrophy of the adrenal gland following thiouracil and vit. B^g- Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med., 94: 348-349. t ;4»av ■ '^ V_ V-' ’ ■ - > \; fr ■ '■ ■> - ■''■ v. '.’ ' ' ■’ ■ V ' 'i~' '. ' ■■ ■'<■ ; , s5«r-‘ .. -. - '■ > ; > i'f/vi r • ^'''^ iksp' f. \ - ■' ' * . , . ' ,. .V. • IXV ^ r'm JV/.f". ■■ ■'. ■i‘5v-j^''' '.'i "'' I. '- t\ - I >.'^ ■ X ■,-!:Ai|r||^|3 , '■ , -• X ‘ ... '• ' ^ t ■ ’ ' ■ )i.,';,,yH.f'ri} ' n..' ' . ■• ,;.• ■■ ■•••'''» J • ,./kj , ,.« . -<:j.. 5 ■', h'^m ■■ '.y- ■■-; V. :. . ', • • v'’. . ay-s^ki»- • 'r- _ : -V: I ' ' /V' ‘ ''•' -i- •' . ’ '• . ‘ •».. ■" ... • ■ . ' ■ ^ fi .r ’-C'V? ...-'- -'. •« -r ;f‘T. ■ ■.' ' ■ ' ' • ■"' ■' y^-rt >W... ' . >-7.*'f Xjr-.- ..); ^ ' ' *ii ■vs >>.•■: ,■,.. • 'Vf^* ■' '■X''',;^! . • ' j^'.' ' , i»v ; J'i-’' • .''.twiy h' If." '-’/W- ^^9>V. -'V ; ’ ’ .V '• W ^\ •» • I., >r.-‘ .'w,.r - ■.™...i«ir;y.v. .V. ^.'•, ; ■ .V -■■ 3x^1 "Mh Bionomics of Stictia Carolina at Lake Texoma, with Notes On Some Neotropical Species (Hymenoptera :Sphecidae) by C. S. LIN Department of Biology Huston-Tillotson College^ Austin 78702 ABSTRACT Three colonies of Stictia Carolina (Fabricius) were located at Lake Texoma and vicinity in southern Oklahoma, in three distinct habitats: lakeshore, sand dune, and island. About 200 wasps of both sexes occurred on the sand dune and island areas and over 2000 emerged on the lakeshore. Male wasps appeared on June 15, and the females made their appearance 3 days later. Males outnumbered females by 10:1. The daily activities of the males consisted of various types of sun dance, courtship fight, and nuptial flight. The female began her reproductive behavior by locating suitable nesting site, digging long burrow, and laying a single egg inside the empty brood chamber. The larva was fed mostly on horseflies by progressive provisioning for 3-5 days. A female wasp required about 10 days to complete a nest. Compe¬ tition for food to supply the larvae in the lakeshore population led several females to prey upon small cicadas and skippers, a previously unrecorded food supply. INTRODUCTION Stictia Carolina (Fabr.) is the largest of the North American bembi- cine wasps. The body is robust, black with light yellow maculations, the female measures 2.8 cm and the male about 2.5 cm in length. It is widely distributed along the Eastern seaboard, from Pennsylvania to Florida and through the southwestern states from Kansas to Texas and Louisiana. Bryant (1870) described this wasp as “horse-guard” because the female wasps were seen preying on horseflies around stables and cattle ranches in the south during the summer months. Ashmead (1890) found that the wasp took Tabanus atratus in Florida. Hartman (1905) examined several nests in Texas which contained calliphorid flies, houseflies, and syrphid flies. Hine (1906, 1907) made careful counts of horseflies in each nest in Louisiana and found the number to 6 between 30 and 60. Evans and Lin (1956) collected a large number of Tabanus sulcifrons Macq. from 5. Carolina nests in Kansas. Krombein (1958, 1959) found 2 species of calliphorid flies being used as larval food in North Carolina. In a more recent study The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 276 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OKLAHOMA KINGSTON fOLOGICAL '?VsTATlON TEXAS Fig. 1. Habitats of Stktia Carolina at Lake Texoma. (1) Lakeshore, (2) Sand dune, (3) Island. in Florida, Evans (1966) found the prey to consist of 20 species of horseflies, 3 species of flowerflies, and one housefly. Parker (1929) lists 20 species in the genus Stictia, of which only S. Carolina inhabits America north of Mexico. The other species are widely distributed in the Neotropical region. ECOLOGY AND HABITATS Lake Texoma, an impoundment of the Red and Washita Rivers, lies on the lower edge of the Transition zone of the Nearctic region, 200 m above sea level. It is in a biotic province characterized by mixed tall grasses, blackjack-post oak forest, willow trees, and tamarix bushes BIONOMICS OF Stictia Carolina at lake texoma 277 growing near the shoreline. The red clay lakeshore is covered by constantly shifting sand. A few small farms and cattle ranches are located near the lake. The Red River separates the states of Oklahoma on the north and Texas on the south (Fig. 1 ) . (1) Lakeshore habitat — This habitat is located on the northern shore of the Red River arm of Lake Texoma (also known as Engineer Flat) about 5 miles northwest of Willis Bridge. This sandy shore, about half the size of a football field, is only 3-5 m above the water line. Tall grass, volunteer wheat, smilax, etc., form a dense ground cover above the sandy shore. A huge colony of S, Carolina and smaller population of Oxybelus sparideus Cockerell and Psammaecius nebulo- sus (Packard) inhabit this area. (2) Sand dune habitat — This is a wind-blown open sand dune known locally as Paw Paw Point, located on the tip of the north shore about 5 miles southeast of Engineer Flat. The entire dune is about an acre in size, its upper dome-shaped surface is covered with loose white sand; the lower is a firm layer of coarse, red sandy-clay. It is about 30 m from the lake level and slopes gradually toward the water line. Several species of bembicine wasps nest on the loose sand, while Cerceri simplex graphica F. Smith occupies the crusty slope. (3) Island habitat — Island #2 is the largest island in the middle of the lake. It has a surface area of about one-half square mile and is characaterized by a mixed vegetation of wild plum and black willow. Soft and fine sand around the shore line. A sandy slope is located on northeastern side of the island where several species of digger wasps were found. Emergence and Behavior of the Male Wasps Stictia Carolina males emerged from the underground over- winter¬ ing cocoons in mid-June. A few made their appearance between June 15 and June 20, then the male population gradually built up from late June to early July when peak activity occurred. The number of males declined sharply after mid-July, and completely disappeared. There were about 2000 on the lakeshore and 200 each on the sand dune and on island #2. It was a most exciting spectacle to observe several thousand wasps emerging from the burrows in mid-morning and grouping into a low flight formation of several hundred squadrons, each consisting of a dozen or so males flying over a certain sandy spot below. The har¬ monious and rhythmic flight movement seemed to be the combination of square, circle, round and contra dancing, and the buzzing sound could be heard over hundred yards away. They flew leisurely close 278 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE to the ground and oriented to a particular spot where a female wasp was about to emerge. As she emerged these males made a sudden dive toward her, surrounded her, and fought fiercely each other in a rolling ball with the female wasp in the center. This severe courtship fight is very characteristic for these big wasps. Only one male of each squad¬ ron was successful in making contact with the newly-emerged female, and the pair flew off to a nearby poplar tree, about 5 m above the ground. The mating lasted only 20-30 seconds. The unsuccessful males dispersed momentarily, then resumed their flight as usual. After 10-15 min. of vigorous flying ritual, they would pause a while by perching on smilax branches or sipping nectar of buck brush. Reproduction and Nesting Behavior of the Female Wasps Very few female wasps emerged before June 20. After about 2 weeks of busy mating activity (June 25 to July 10) the males dis¬ appeared and the population consisted only of females. During this period the females activity consisted of a sequential pattern: to locate a suitable nesting site, to excavate the burrow and brood chamber, to lay an egg, to hunt and to feed the larva, and to make final closure for the protection of the young. This sequence may repeat about every 10 days. Nidificating behavior — The female wasp usually started nest¬ digging in the sunny morning hours. Several attempts were made to determine a suitable site as if on the trial and error basis. After a while the female apparently decided on one burrow and completed excava¬ tion procedure. The strong forelegs, armed with sharp tarsal combs, enabled her to kick the sand like a miniature jet stream ejected out from under her body. Many females may work close to each other, less than half meter apart. The nest is a simple diagonal tunnel termi¬ nated with an enlarged brood chamber. A total of 20 nests were dug out and examined, 10 from the lakeshore, and 5 each from the sand dune and island #2 nesting sites (Table 1). It took a female 1-2 days to excavate a nest. Upon completion, an inner closure was made in front of brood chamber, and the entrance was carefully covered (Fig. 2). Ovipositing behavior — The female wasp may return to inspect the nest several times before entering the brood chamber to lay an egg. The egg, which is creamy white and about 7 mm long, is laid in the center of the empty cell (Fig. 3, top). After laying the egg the female emerges and begins making an elaborate outer closure. Hunting and provisioning behavior — The mother wasp will wait BIONOMICS OF Stictia Carolina at lake texoma 279 Table 1 Nest construction-dimension of nests and brood chambers of Stictia Carolina at Lake Texoma (in centimeters). Nest no . Length Depth Brood chamber Inner closure Outer closure 1 48 cm 28 cm 5 X 2 cm 10 cm 5 cm 2 30 30 n n n 3 45 24 IS ft n 4 42 25 If 15 n 5 48 28 ?l 12 8 6 40 25 fS !? 7 42 24 H II ft 8 38 17 If 10 5 9 50 25 H 15 10 10 45 28 ft 12 II 11 60 26 4x3 20 II 12 45 22 ?t 18 •1 13 52 25 Sf II II 14 55 30 If 11 It 15 50 25 H II II 16 65 30 5x3 20 II 17 60 25 ft II II 18 75 30 !l II II 19 70 11 II It 20 78 1! IS W 11 Lakeshore nests: 1-iO. Sand dune nests: 11-15. Island #2 nests: 16-20. for 2 days for the egg to hatch. She will return several times to inspect the nest, then may bring in the first fly to feed the newly hatched larva. The fly, either common housefly or stable fly, was totally para¬ lyzed and held firmly by the wasp’s middle legs. She used her forelegs to open the outer closure near the entrance and carried the prey directly into the brood chamber where she may remain for a few minutes. The outer closure was always refilled upon exist from the 280 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE nest. During next 2 days, larval food consisted of several species of medium-sized flies, i.e. sarcophagid or calliphorid flies, but in the last 2-3 days of progressive provisioning large brown horseflies, Tabanus sulcifrons Macq. were supplied. Many females of the lakeshore area also preyed upon small brown cicadas, Melampsalta calliope (Walk.) and brown skippers, Atalopedes campestris Boisduval (Table 2) . This Fig. 2. Profile of nests of Stictia Carolina. From top; lakeshore nest, sand dune nest, island nest. (About one sixth of actual size) A— —Outer closure, B — -Inner closure, C— Broad chamber. BIONOMICS OF Stictia Carolina at lake texoma 281 variation in prey species may have been a result of competition for larval food in this dense population. It may be due to visual cue and easy reach for these females to utilize the very different insect orders. Progressive feeding lasts 3-5 days depends on the weather condition. After the last prey was brought in, the female made a very elaborate final closure, by filling, kicking and leveling the sand around the entrance in order to completely conceal the nest. The females in the lakeshore and island habitats did not make as elaborate a final closure as those nesting on the open sand dune. This was probably a result of Fig. 3. Terminal brood chamber showing the developmental stages of Stictia Carolina, From top: newly laid egg, fullgrown larva and cocoon with prepupa inside for overwintering. 282 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 Nest contents — prey records for Stictia Carolina Sit Lake Texoma. Nest No. T. sulcifrons Other prey and remains* Remarks 1 12 10 head capsules half-grown larva 2 9 12 head capsules half-grown larva 3 10 4 Tabanids and remains half-grown larva 4 7 3 cicadas and remains half-grown larva 5 6 4 cicadas and remains half-grown larva 6 6 2 skippers and remains half-grown larva 7 9 2 cicadas and remains half-grown larva 8 10 4 calliphords and remains half-grown larva 9 7 5 sarcophagids and remains maggots, larva died 10 5 3 cicadas and remains half-grown larva 11 12 3 calliphorids and remains half-grown larva 12 14 ... and remains half-grown larva 13 16 .... and remains young larva 14 17 .... and remains young larva 15 14 3 stable flies young larva 16 15 5 house flies young larva 17 13 4 sarcophagids young larva 18 10 . . . , some remains half-grown larva 19 14 . . . , some remains half-grown larva 20 16 . . . . , some remains half-grown larva Total 222 Tabanus sulcifrons, 7 callipliorids, 9 sarcophagids, 8 muscoids. * Six additional cicadas as well as 4 skippers were taken away from the female wasps when they returned to the burrows. the close spacing of the nests and the presence of vegetation around the nests. The life span of the female wasps is about 3 months, so not more than 1 0 offspring may be produced in the summer. Life Cycle and Developmental Stages of Stictia Carolina Egg — The egg is laid on the empty brood chamber and hatches within 2 days into a young larva with chorion still attached to the posterior end of the body. Larval development — The newly hatched larva, about 8 mm long, wiggles its head to find the first fly brought by the female. Tiny mandibles are used to cut the victim’s abdominal wall. The larva feeds on the body contents leaving the fly’s exoskeleton. The larva grows about 5 mm a day. A full grown larva, after 5 days of progressive provisioning, may reach 35 mm (Fig. 3, middle) . Cocoon — After 5 days of feeding, the larva reaches maturity and begins to spin a cocoon. First, a network of silk threads is attached to BIONOMICS OF Stictia Carolina at lake texoma 283 the wall and ceiling of the brood chamber then the larva turns its body toward the apex and starts to make the pointed end of the cocoon shell by gathering very fine sand grains and cementing them together with silk gland secretion. After the cocoon about half-completed the larva turns around to make the blunt end of the cocoon which is covered with a thin lid or “hatch”. Completion of the cocoon requires from 24 to 30 hours. The newly formed cocoon is rather soft and light brown in color. It then hardens and becomes darker in color. It measures 30 mm in length with a center diameter of 14 mm. There are 8 tiny air spores around the middle of the cocoon which may serve as ventilators for the encased pupa (Fig. 3, bottom) . Life cycle — This is an univoltine wasp. The prepupa and pupa remain inside the cocoon through winter until the following late spring. The adult wasps emerge in mid-May (Florida), late May (Central Texas), mid-June (Southern Oklahoma), and late June (Central Kansas) . Table 3 Prey records for Stictia Carolina in North America. Author Locality Prey (Family) No. Species Ashmead (1890) Florida Tabanidae 1 Bryant (1870) Texas Tabanidae Evans (1966) Florida Tabanidae 20 Syrphidae 3 Muscidae 1 Kansas Tabanidae 6 Muscidae 1 Sarcophagidae 1 Hartman (1905) Texas Calliphoridae Muscidae Syrphidae Hine (1907) Louisiana Calliphoridae 1 Culicidae 1 Stratiomyidae Tabanidae* 1 Krombein (1958) N. Carolina Calliphoridae 1 Muscidae 1 Sarcophagidae 2 Tabanidae 3 * Hine found 30 to 60 horseflies per nest. No specific names were given, so presumably they were- small horseflies of the South. 284 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This Study was supported by the NSF Grant 403 and sponsored by the University of Oklahoma Biological Station at Lake Texoma. The writer is greatly indebted to Dr. Carl D. Riggs, then Director of UOBS, for his continuous interest and encouragement, to Drs, George H. Bick, Charles C. Carpenter and Pat S. Ireton for their assistance on the field trips. LITERATURE CITED Ashmead, W. H., 1890 — Predatory habits of Monedula Carolina (Drury). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1: 24*5. Table 4 List of the Neotropical Stictia wasps. s. anderi (Handlirsch) Peru s. antiopa (Handlirsch) Venezuela, Surinam 3. arcuata (Burmeister) Brazil s. carbonaria (Burmeister) Brazil 3. decorata (Burmeister) Argentina, Chile 3. dives (Handlirsch) Mexico 3. heros (Fabricius)* Mexico, Panama, Brazil, Fquador 3. infracta Parker Peru 3. lineata (Fabricius) Brazil, Argentina 3. maculata (Fabricius) Central and 3outh America f- medea (Handlirsch) Brazil, Surinam 3. mexicana (Handl.) Mexico S. pantherina (Handl.)* Venezuela, Guiana 3. Proserpina (Handl.) Bolivia, Peru 3. punctata (Fabricius)* Brazil 3. si^nata (Linnaeus)* Central and South America, West Indies {Florida, Southern California) 3. sorabrana Parker Peru 3. trifasciata Parker Paraguay S. vivida (Handl,)* Mexico, Southern Texas With biological notes. BIONOMICS OF Stictia Carolina at lake texoma 285 Table 5 Biological records for Neotropical Stictia wasps. Species Locality Author heros (Fabr.) Mexico Evans (1966) S. pantherina (Handl.) British Guiana Bodkin (1918) S. punctata (Fabr. ) Argentina Hudson (1892) «■ S. signata (Linn. ) Amazon Basin Bates (1863) British Guiana Bodkin (I9I8) Richards (1937) Mexico, Costa Rica Evans (1966) Argentina Willink (1947) Porto Rico Wolcott (1923) S. vivida (Handl.) Mexico, 3. Texas Evans (I966)** * 1916 Cornell University Expedition had collected several specimens of Stictia punctata (Fabr.) in. Sao Paulo, Brazil. Hudson’s observations were made in La Plata, Argentina which is over one thousand miles south of Sao Paulo. So the correct identity and distribution of this wasp remains to be verified- ** This writer had collected 20 Sticitia vivida at Port Isabel in early June, 1967. Prey records: Stictia heros (Calliphoridae, Stratiomyidae, Tabanidae). S. pantherina (Tabanidae). S. signata (Muscidae, Stratiomyidae, Syrphidae, Tabanidae, Tachinidae) . S. vivida (Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Tabanidae). Bates, H. W., 1863 — The Naturalist on the River Amazons. John Murray, London- Bodkin, G. E., 1918 — Notes on some British Guiana Hymenoptera. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 297-321. Bryant, A. H., 1870 — The handsome digger wasp as a horse-guard. Amer. Ento¬ mologist and Botanist, 2: 87. Evans, H. E., 1966 — The Comparative Ethology and Evolution of the Sand Wasps^ Harvard Univ. Press, pp. 222-253. Evans, H. E., and C. S. Lin, 1956 — Studies of the larvae of digger wasps. Part II Nyssoninae. Amer. Ent. Soc. Trans., 82: 35-66. Hartman, C., 1905 — Observations on the habits of some digger wasps of Texas. Univ. Tex. Bull., 65: 1-72. Hine, J. S., 1906 — A preliminary report on the horseflies of Louisiana, with a- discussion of remedies and natural enemies. La. State Crop Pest Comm. Circ.,. 6: 43. - - , 1907 — Second report upon the horseflies of Louisiana, La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull, 93: 13-15. Hudson, W. H., 1892 — “A Noble Wasp”, in The Naturalist in La Plata. Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 286 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Krombein, K. V., 1958 — Biolo'gical notes on some wasps of Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 60: 97-110. - , 1959 — Biological notes on some ground-nesting wasps at Kill Devil Hills, N. C. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 61: 193-199. Parker, J. B., 1929 — K generic revision of the fossoriai wasps of the Tribes Stizini and Bembicini with notes and descriptions of new species. U.S. Nat. Mm. Proc., 75: 21-36. Richards, O. W., 1937 — Results of the Oxford University Expedition tO’ British Guiana, 1929, Hymenoptera, Sphecidae and Bembicidae. Trans. Roy, Ent. Soc. London, 86: 101-118. WiLLiNK, A., 1947 — Las especies argentinas de “Bembicini”. Acta Zool. Lilloana, 4: 509-651. Wolcott, G. N., 1923 — Insectae portoricensis. /. Dept. Agr. Porto Rico, 7(1) : 1-313. A Note on Consistent Density Estimation From Stationary Observation Data by H. F. MARTZ, JR. and A. G. WALVEKAR Department of Industrial Engineering Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY Cacoullos (1966) obtains a class of estimators for a multivariate density function as an extension of an earlier work by Parzen (1962) in the univariate case. Roth of these consider an independent sample from the underlying density. It is the purpose of this note to extend this technique to the case of stationary sample data which satisfies a certain independence structure. More precisely, consider a stochastic p-vector process Xi, X2, . . . which is assumed to be strictly stationary of order q and in addition that Xi is distributed independently of (Xi, . . . , Xi_q) for all i>q. By “strictly stationary of order q” we mean that the joint distribution of any q of the random vectors remains invariant under time shifts. The manner in which such a process could arise in practice is illustrated by the following moving average process. If . . . , Y_i, Y„, Y„ . . . represents a sequence of independent identically distributed random p-vectors and if we define a new process by writing Xi = AoYi + AiYi_i + . . . + Aq_iYi_q + i, where the Ai are matrices consisting of constants, then Xi, X2, . . . is seen to satisfy the preceding assumptions. Suppose we are given the sample sequence of data Xi, X2, . . . , Xn, n>q. In this note we obtain an estimator for f (y), the joint pq-density of (Xi_q4.i, . . . , Xi) for every i=q, q+1. ... It turns out that this estimator has the same form as that given by Cacoullos (1966). In addition, these estimators are shown to possess the usual properties of being asymptotically unbiased and squared error consistent. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 288 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE RESULTS Define Ii(y) 00 (vi) satisfies |djd)? < “ DENSITY ESTIMATION FROM STATIONARY OBSERVATION DATA 289 If we define g„(u) = HW,(|)W,(,)g(u-i,u-^)d|d,, then at every continuity point of g, we have limg„(u) = g(u,u) JJW(f) W(7;)d|di;. n-^ oo All indicated vectors are pq-dimensional. We have that E[f„(y)] = JW,(y-i)f(l)d|, by means of the stationarity of Xi, Xg. . . . By use of Theorem 2.1 in Cacoullos (1966), which coincides with Lemma 1 for the case where g has a single pq- vector argument, we have COROLLARY 1. The estimators defined by (1) are asymptotically unbiased in the sense that limE[L(y)] =f(y) n-^ oo holds provided W and h(n) satisfy conditions (i) — (v) of Lemma 1 and if in addition W satisfies JW(|)d| = L Let us now look at the variances of the estimators given by (1). We have Var [f„ (y ) ] = - —L _ [ i Var{ W,. (y-X<-j ) } (n-q+1)" (2) +2 2 2 Cov{W„(y-X->j)WH (y-X+)}] . j=q lz=q 3>l Again, by the use of the special case of Lemma 1, we have that (3) hPWar{Wh(y-X^j)}^f(y) J W^(^)d| as n^oo^ since JW2(|)d^<^. By means of Lemma 1 we also have that E{W,(y-X^,)W,(y-X^)} = ^WhCy-^ W,(y-^)gn (L’7)d^d^ (4) ^gj!(y,y) providing JW(^)d| = 1. By use of (2), (3), and (4), we obtain lim (n— q+1 )hPWar [fn (y) ] n-^ 00 = f(y) JW^«)di + 2[lim (n-q+l)h-«] I 2 (y,y) - P(y) } n-^ 00 J=q l=ci ^f(y) JW^(|)di + lim 2(q-0(2n-4q-l)h^‘‘ ^ . (y,y)-P(y)} (n-q+1) = f(y) J W-(J)dJ, where g* (y,y) = max gi((y,y), i,l 290 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Thus, we can state THEOREM 1. If W andh(n) satisfy conditions (i) — (v) of Lemma 1, then the estimators defined by ( 1 ) have variances satisfying lim (n-q+l)hP^Var[L(y)] 00 THEOREM 2. If in addition to satisfying condition (v) of Lemma 1, the sequence of constants {h(n)} is required to satisfy the condition lim (n— q+l)hP‘i = , n-> 00 then we have that (1) is a consistent estimator for f(y) in the sense that (5) holds. PROOF. By an application of Corollary 1 and Theorem 1, we have that liinE[f„(y) -f(y)]= = lim- - (n-q+l)hP«Var[f„(y)] (n-q+l)hp« + lim{E[f„(y)] -f(y)}^ = 0. LITERATURE CITED Bochner, S., 1955 — Harmonic Analysis and the Theory of Probability, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, pp. 1-3. Cacoullos, T., 1966 — -Estimation of a multivariate density, Ann. Inst. Stat. Math., 18: 179-189. Loeve, M., 1963 — Probability Theory (3rd ed.), D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Prince¬ ton, New Jersey. Parzen, E., 1962 — On estimation of a probability density function and mode. Ann. Math. Stat., 33: 1065-1076. Science Education Mathematical Induction in Geometry by ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ Department of Mathematics Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 Students often have trouble with the principle of Mathematical induction. Usually examples involve sequences and series. It may be useful presenting geometrical examples. 1 . Mathematical induction: A subset S of the set of natural numbers is called inductive wherever a natural number k is in S, then k+1 is also in S. The principle of mathematical induction states that if a subset S of the set of natural numbers is inductive and 1 is in S, then S is the set of all natural numbers (Amir-Moez and Javoher, 1969). Sometimes a slight generalization is given as; if a subset S of the set of natural numbers is inductive and contains a natural number a, then S = {n|n > a, n is a natural number}. The principle of mathematical induction may be used as a mean of proof. We shall give a few geometric examples. 2. Lemma: Consider a line segment AB and a line d parallel to AB (Fig. 1). Let P be a point on d. Then the area of the triangle PAB is independent of position of P. The proof is very simple and we omit it. 3. Theorem: Let "P be polygon of n sides, n > 4. Then there exists a triangle whose area is the same as the one of T. Proof: First we prove the theorem for n = 4. Let ABCD be a quadri¬ lateral (Fig. 2). For example, we consider the diagonal BD. Through A we draw the parallel to BD. This line intersect CD at A^ According to section 2, triangles ABD and A'BD have the same area. Thus the triangle A'BC has the same area as the quadrilateral. So far, we have proved that the proposition is true for n = 4. Now suppose the proposition is true for k > 4, i.e., given a polygon of k sides there exist a triangle T which has the same area as the polygon. Now we choose a polygon of k+1 sides Ai . . . Ak Ak+i (Fig. 3) . Indeed, in (Fig. 3) we have put a few dots for vertices which The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 292 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE d P P are not given. Here again we consider, for example, the segment AiAk. We draw the line through Ak^_i parallel to AiAk- This line intersects Ak-iAk at A^k. By lemma 2 triangles AiAkA\ and AiAkAk+i have the same area. Thus the polygon Ai , . . Ak+i has the same area as the k~sided polygon Ai . . . Ak-iA^^ whose area is equal to the one of a triangle. Thus we have shown that the set S '= {n|n is the number of side of a polygon for which there exists a triangle of the same area as the polygon) is inductive and n = 4 belong to S. This proves the theorem. 4. Theorem: Let ABC be a right triangle with the right angle at A (Fig, 4). Let AH be the altitude corresponding to BC. From H we draw the perpendiculars HL and HK respectively to AB and AC. Then LB _ /ABV “KC “ ^~A£' " The proof is very simple and will be left to the reader. Now let LM2 and KN2 be both perpendicular to BC. We draw M2L2 perpendicular to AB and N2K2 perpendicular to AC. Then L2B _ / AB y “k;c~ ^AC^ ’ The proof is quite simple and one makes use of a few similar triangles. xK=Ki / i / — ~ BM, H Fig. 4. SCIENCE EDUCATION 293 A Fig. 6, Here we pose a question. Suppose we have repeated the construc¬ tion k times (Fig, 5) and we obtain Lk and Kk. Is it true that LkB / AB ^ KkC Indeed, the answer is yes and the proof follows the principle of mathe¬ matical induction. We shall leave the proof to the reader. 5. Omar Khayyam and induction: There is a famous proposition in geometry which is used in many parts of mathematics. But the proof of it is quite difficult. The first rigorous proof has been given by Omar Khayyam (Amir~Moez, 1968). Here we shall state the propo¬ sition. Let ABC be a triangle and H a point on the line segment AB (Fig. 6). Through H we draw a line parallel to BC. This line intersects AC at K, Then AH _ AK HB KC ‘ Indeed the proposition can be proved easily when the segments AH and HB have rational lengths with respect to a unit. But other cases are quite difficult. Omar Khayyam defines irrational numbers through an infinite sequence and then uses mathematical induction to prove the proposition. Here we shall not go into details. The reader may refer to (Amir-Moez, 1968). 6. The area of a rectangle: Given a rectangle ABCD, where AB is perpendicular BC, the area of the rectangle is (AB) (BC). Here again if AB and BC have rational length with respect to a unit, the proof of the proposition is quite easy. But in case one or both of AB and BC are irrational the proof becomes very complicated. Again mathe¬ matical induction may be used. We leave details of sections 5 and 6 to the reader. This may be used as a project for a student of mathe¬ matics in the so called undergraduate research. 294 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LITERATURE CITED Amir-Moez, a. R., 1968 — Khayyam and irrational Magnitudes, Scripta Mathe- matica, 27(3). - , and J. N. Janoher, 1969— Precalulus Math,, Edwards Brothers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, p. 19. Note Section MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION IN EULIMNADIA TEXAN A, TEXAS’ MOST COMMON EULIMNADIAN CONCHOSTRACA. Those who have attempted to identify any clam shrimp of the genus Eulimnadia will realize that rarely does a specimen fit the key characteristics closely enough for one to be secure in its identity. This difficulty is the result of taxonomic interpretation having been based on few specimens and usually from a single population. The objectives of this investigation were to measure the extent of the morphological variation in the most common species in the United States, that of Eulimnadia texana. Specimens were acquired from Mr. Denton Belk of the University of Texas,. Austin, Texas; Dr. E. L. Mills of Queens University, Kingston, Ontario; Dr. W. G. Moore of Loyola University, New Orleans, Louisiana; and from Dr. T. E. Bowman of the United States National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. I am indebted to these contributors, to Dr. J. G. Mackin of Texas A&M University, and to the Committee for Organized Research at Southwest Texas State University for their generosity. Numerous other collections ranging in numbers of specimens from one to several thousands were gathered with a dipnet from temporary ponds in the western and southern parts of Texas. The Eulimnadia were separated, preserved in 70% ethanol, and identified with the use of the key proposed by Mattox (1959, Ward and Whipple’s Freshwater Biology, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 577-585) and original sources. Twelve to 15 adult specimens of each sex from each of 14 samples of E. texana were chosen at random and examined under magnification to determine if they were mature and intact. Those specimens with broken or damaged parts were rejected and new ones drawn from the sample to replace them. The staining procedure often rendered the carapace lines difficult to count, there¬ fore the specimens were examined to determine length, height, and the number of lines on the carapace before staining in a 0.5% aqueous solution of acid fuchsin. The specimens were dehydrated in a graded series of alcohols and stored in xylene. Measurements of the various morphological features used as key character were made in millimeters under 120 X magnification with a calibrated ocular micrometer after dissection in a drop of Permount mounting medium and prior to the application of the cover slip. The number of body segments, unpaired telson spines, paired telson spines, and lines on the capapace were counted and the carapace lengths and heights were determined by measuring through the appropriate major axis. In the cercopod, telson, scape, and first antennal lengths measurements were made from their origins to their distal ends. A forked filament occurs between the spined, posteriolateral margins of the telson. The distance between each pair of spines was taken as a unit of measurement and the position of the forked filament in the row of spines on the telson was determined. Many of the species are delimited on the basis of the length of the first antenna in relation to the length of the scape on the 2nd antenna. The ratio of these 2 measurements was considered a character and analyzed for variation. An analysis of variance was computed from the data taken from the specimens on each character at each collection site, and by sex. The ratio of the between sami)le variance and the within sample variance was determined and the results are shown in the following table of F-values. The Te.xas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 296 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Eulimnadia texana analysis of variance F-values Character Males DF( 11/150) Females DF( 13/200) Carapace length 47.54 48.65 Carapace height 27.29 49.93 Number of lines 59.55 56.10 Forked filament origin 2.96 4.30 Unpaired telson spines 2.77 4.73 Paired telson spines 4.60 7.02 Telson length 14.62 15.06 Cercopod length 16.34 57.61 Scape length 18.52 8.90 First antennal length 16.33 9.50 First antennal length-scape length ratio 1.08*f 2.02* Number of body segments 6.68 3.20 5% point (*) 1.85 1.82 1% point (t) 2.37 2.31 The F-values indicate that the characters were significantly variable at the 1% and 5% levels of the F-distribution with the exception of the antennal length-scape length ratio. Since an F-value is a ratio of one number to another, a large F-value results only if the numbers used in making the ratio differ greatly in magnitude. The larger F-values for certain characters in the table of F-values occur because the within sample variance was small and the between sample variance was large. This would be the expected result if the samples came from different habitats and the specimens examined were responding in their development to the environmental conditions prevailing in their respective habitats. This hypothesis probably has some validity since these specimens were collected from a wide spectrum of habitats varying from clean, clear, and freshly flooded bermuda grass flats to manurial sheep watering holes. Our laboratory culture experiments, while still rather primitive, indicate that this species is unusually susceptible both vitally and morphologically to the environmental conditions produced in the laboratory. When graphs, Sissom (1967, unpubl. Ph.D. Dissert., Tex. A&M Univ., College Station), were made from the data for each of the characters, typical, unimodal, “normal” types of population curves resulted. However, not all of the key characters studied bore the same relationship one to another. A close examination of the graphs made of carapace lengths, carapace heights, cercopod lengths, telson lengths, scape lengths, the first antennal lengths, and the number of carapace lines revealed a quantitative proportional relationship between the 14 samples. Generally, if specimens of a sample were small in one of these 7 characters, they were corre¬ spondingly small in the other 6 characters. This appears to be a simple growth response and in the table of F-values these characters have the larger F-values. Graphs of the data for the number of body segments, number of unpaired telson spines, number of paired telson spines, and the origin of the forked filament show that the means of all samples varied around the total mean and that the means of all samples lay within plus or minus 2 standard deviations of the total mean imply- NOTES 297 ing that the data in these characters more closely approach the normal distribution. This is supported by the smaller F-values for these characters in the table of F-values. In the first antennal length-scale length ratios the males differ sharply from the females indicating a marked sexual dimorphism. Of all the characters studied this ratio is the only one not significantly variable at the 1% and 5% levels in the males and at the 1% level in the females. It is significantly variable at the 5% level in the females. The taxonomic significance of this may only be known when ratios have been determined for several other species. A highly variable character is not as useful in the description of a species as those that are less variable but if it can be shown that in 2 species there is no significant overlap in the mode and range of a character, the character may still be of value. A case in point is the number of carapace lines. In E. tezana the number of carapace lines ranges from 3-13. This range includes the ranges of 4 other species. However, it does not include E. alineata which has no carapace lines, E. antillarum which has a maximum of 2 carapace lines, nor significantly does it include E. diversa which has a maximum of 3 and an average of 2 lines in the male and a maximum of 4 with an average of 3 lines in the female. Of the 353 specimens of E. tezana studied only 2 mature specimens had 3 carapace lines and only 29 mature specimens had 4 carapace lines. In summary it is concluded that while only the first antennal length-scape length ratio appears to be statistically reliable among the 12 characters, the other 11 may receive limited use in separating E. tezana from other species of Eulimnadia when similar data has been taken on the other species. These data further indicate that E. tezana has a gene pool which permits this species to adapt to a wide variety of habitats in a wide geographical area. It is believed that a detailed study of the way that the morphology of these organisms vary under differing laboratory conditions and when several resamplings of these same populations have been made to see how they vary through several generations will it be possible to answer the question of whether these variations reported in this study are temporal or if varieties exist within these populations of E. tezana. Stanley L. Sissom, Dept, of Biology, Southwest Tezas State University, San Marcos, 78666. PLATYARTHRUS SCHOEBLI BUDDE-LUND NEW TO TEXAS AND THE NEW WORLD WITH NOTES ON P. HOFFMANNSEGGl BRANDT (CRUSTA¬ CEA, ONISCOIDEA, SQUAMIFERIDAE). Species of the terrestrial isopod crusta¬ cean genus Platyarthrus Brandt are non-obligate parasites of ants being inhabitants of ant burrows in the temperate and Mediterranean parts of the world. Several species have been recorded from the Old World (Vandel, 1962, Faune France, 66: 443; Gruner, 1966, Die Tierwelt Deutschlands, 53(5): 218.) The species P. hoff- mannseggi Brandt was first encountered in the New World near New Haven, Connecticut (Van Name, 1940, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 77: 116). Brooks (1942, Ecology, 23(4): 427-437) recorded the names of many ant hosts of the isopod and also recorded experimental information in regards to responses to physical factors of the isopod from Connecticut. The author examined a single female specimen of P. schoebli Budde-Lund (1.8 mm long) from San Antonio, Texas, in the collection of the United States Museum of Natural History (USNM 87091) and also collected P. hoffmannseggi in New Jersey. The specimen of P. schoebli from Texas was collected from the burrow of the “cut ant” (most probably Pogonomyrmez barbatus). Three specimens of P. hoff¬ mannseggi were collected in New Jersey from locations in the woods bordering the 298 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fif. 1. Plafyarthrus schoebli Budde-Lund. Fig. 2. Anterior part P. schoebli. Fig. 3. Platy- arthrus hoffmannseggi Brandt. Musconetcong River at New Hampton, New Jersey. Two female specimens (2.6 and 2.9 mm long) were taken from the rot of a small fallen tree branch in muddy, moist shaded leaf litter and in no direct association with ants. The 3rd specimen (collected by Dr. E. Edney) was taken from the burrow of the ant Formica fusca (as far as could be determined) in a rotten stump. The ant species is widespread in New Jersey and the mid-Atlantic states, and is one of the ant hosts recorded by Brooks (1942 op. cit.) from Connecticut. The 5th peduncular segment of antenna 2 in species of Plafyarthrus is flattened. The species are small (rarely over 5 mm long), broadly-oval in outline, blind and pigmentless. All species in the family have scales covering their bodies and have NOTES 299 2 flagellar articles on antenna 2. The flattened peduncular segment of antenna 2 can be used to distinguish the species from those of Trichorhina Budde-Lund which are also in the Squamiferidae and of subtropical and tropical distribution. Only a few species of T richorhina are blind. Another species, Haplophthalmm danicus Budde-Lund (Trichoniscidae) is as small or smaller than specimens of Platyarthrus and lives in decayed logs and underbark. It is never a parasite in ant burrows, but occasionally is associated with ants in the same log. The species is oval-elongate in outline and has a single ocellus and 4 small flagellar articles. Scales are not present on the body. Like specimens of P. hoff- mannseggi, specimens of H. danicus feign death when disturbed in their habitats and are difficult to distinguish in the litter of the habitat. They were casually associated with P. hoffmannseggi in the same rotten stump in New Jersey, since They were not present in the ant infested part. Specimens of H. danicus have tubercules on the dorsum similar in some ways to those present on specimens of P. schoelbi, and where the ranges of the 2 species overlap in the New World con¬ fusion in identification can result. Species of Platyarthrus are told apart by the pattern of, or the lack of, dorsal ornamentation. Specimens of P. hoffmannseggi are relatively smooth and lack dorsal ornamentation (Fig. 3). Specimens 4.5 mm long have been recorded by Vandel (1962 op. cit.). Other species including P. schoebli have longitudinally elongate tubercles on the dorsum of the cephalon, the peraeon and to some extent the pleon (Fig. 1). The species P. schoebli is divided into subspecies on the basis of the pattern of dorsal tubercles, especially on segment I of the peraeon (Vandel, 1962, op. cit.: 453). The specimen from Texas has dorsal tubercles comparable to those of the nominate subspecies, hence the name is P. schoelbi schoelbi Budde-Lund (Fig. 2). Specimens longer than 1.8 mm can be expected from the New World since Vandel (1962, op. cit.) records specimens as long as 4 mm. In addition to using VandeFs excellent illustrations of P. schoelbi, the specimen from Texas was com¬ pared to some identified as P. schoelbi by K. W. Verhoeff from Switzerland and also in the United States Museum of Natural History (USNM 56181). The author would like to thank Thomas E. Bowman of the United States Museum of Natural History for aid in obtaining the specimens. Help was obtained from the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Fund of the American Museum of Natural History to visit the U.S. Museum of Natural History. George A. Schultz, 15 Smith Street, Hampton, New Jersey 08827 . ALBINO GEOMYS BURSARIUS IN TEXAS. Four, adult plains pocket gophers {Geomys bursarius) exhibiting complete albinism were trapped in 1969-1970 near Mt. Enterprise, Rusk County, Texas. The land-owner who trapped the gophers estimated that during a 2-year period a total of 40-50 gophers were trapped, 4 of which were complete albinos. One was brought to us alive, 2 were frozen and one was not seen. Two were males, but the sex of the other 2 is unknown. Since the occurrence of albinism seemed unusually high we trapped in the immediate area but caught only 13 gophers, all of which were normally colored. Of 229 plains pocket gophers previously collected from the 8 counties in the immediate area none are albinos. Albinism has been reported previously in pocket gophers, especially Thomomys (Storer and Gregory, 1934, /. Mamm., 15: 300-312; Bradley, 1963, /. Mamm., 4 J: 261 ) but to our knowledge this is the first record for G. bursarius. — Edwin D. Michael, Div. of Forestry, West Virginia Univ., Morgantown 26506, Reese I. Taylor, and Danny L. Wilkinson, Department of Biology, Stephen F. Austin State University, N acogdoches, Texas. 300 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE COMBAT BEHAVIOR IN MALE GREAT PLAINS GROUND SNAKES (SONORA EPISCOPA EPISCOPA) . Twenty-seven Sonora episcopa episcopa (Kennicott) were collected March 16, 1969, in Bell County, Texas and subse¬ quently housed in a 34.5 X 9.0 X 25.5 cm plastic box with a layer of sand (2 cm deep) and a water dish. On March 17, 1969, at 4:15 P.M. (CST), 2 specimens were observed in the mating position, as described by Kassing (1961; Tex. J. Sci., 13: 1 85-203 ) . One was a banded male, the other a unicolor female. The snakes rubbed the sides of their heads together and intertwined their bodies. The coils were at times loosened, during which the male bit the female 3 times anteriad (2 cm) mid-body. After approximately 8 minutes, a smaller, unicolor male approached the mating pair. The banded male released the female and bit the smaller male posteriad and then anteriad (<1 cm) mid-body. The 2 snakes intertwined their bodies from their tails cephalad, and rolled over several times. After about 5 minutes, the snakes released their grips on each other and the larger male again bit the smaller. They became intertwined again, remained so for 10 minutes, and then seperated. The larger banded male returned to the unicolor female and maintained coitus for over one hour. Similar behavior was observed on March 19, 1969 (8:15 P.M.) and March 20, 1969 (10:45 P.M.). On March 19, a unicolored male successfully displaced 2 other unicolored males and then mated with a banded female. The combats were very short, lasting only one or 2 minutes, the male returning each time to a female. On March 20, a unicolored male displaced another unicolored male and then mated with a unicolored female. In all instances, the victor was either the same size or larger (2-4 cm) than the displaced males. Coitus was involved in all cases, before between, or after male combat. These observations of male combat in 5'. e. episcopa are significant in that there were no reports of male combat among these snakes. It is interesting that Kassing (1961; op. cit.), in maintaining many individuals of S. e. episcopa together, did not observe such behavior. Bogert and Roth (1966; Amer. Mus. Novit. 2245: 27 p.) noted that many times, combat behavior is mistaken for mating behavior; the observed interrelations between mating and combat behavior of S. e. episcopa tend to support their suggestion. Field observations are hindered by the secretive and nocturnal nature of S. e. episcopa. However, these laboratory observations suggest that combat and mating behavior of this species is induced by aggregation. Bogert and Roth (1966; op. cit.) noted that small cages restrict m.ovements and that behavior “observed under such conditions may or may not be wholly normal.” Thus, one might conclude that forced aggregations of these snakes might increase the rate of spurious observations. However, on many field occasions, several individuals were found together under the same ground surface rocks. James C. Kroll, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station. COPROPHAGY IN THE TEXAS TORTOISE, GOPHERUS BERLANDIERL While on a recent field trip to Falcon Reservoir, Starr County, Texas in July, 1970, I chanced to observe an adult Texas Tortoise (Gopherus berlandieri) feeding on plant material embedded in peccary (Tayassu tajacu) feces. Although the scat was rather dry, it was fresh enough so that some of the various components retained their color. The tortoise fed on the dull-red fruits of Opuntia sp. (probably O. lind- heimeri), which had been partially digested. Auffenberg and Weaver (1969, Bull. NOTES 301 Fla. State Mus., 13(6): 146-191) noted that this species consumed rabbit droppings, as v/eli as its own feces. The feeding behavior herein noted indicates that the co’prophagous habits of this species may be more extensive than previously sur¬ mised. The decided preference shown by G. herlandieri for red-colored materials (Grant, 1960, Tram. San Diego Soc. Nat. 12: 441-448) could account for the attraction of the tortoise to the feces, even though digestive action had dulled the color of the fruits. Although Opuntia is a moisture source for Gopherus (Auffenberg and Weaver, op. cit.), it is doubtful that much remained in the once-eaten cactus fruits. By utilizing rabbit, peccary, and its own species’ droppings, it is possible for G. herlandieri to increase its food niche slightly, as well as the efficiency with w'hich cellulose-rich plant parts are assimilated. Legler {Univ. Kam. PuhL, Mus, Nat. Hist., 11: 527-669) fo^und that Terrapene ornata actively sought cattle dung to obtain the insects within. In the absence of such an unnatural situation as a pasture, coprophagy is a chancy event at best, and although tortoises may consume a wide array of scat matter if they happen to encounter it, they would probably not attempt to search for such food items. Michael A. Mares, Department of Zoology, The University of Texas at Austin 78712. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE TADPOLES OF PSEUDACRIS ORNATA AND BUFO ALVARIUS. About half of the tadpoles of the United States have been adequately described; about half of the remainder have sufficient data for indentifi- cation scattered in the literature. Although data on Pseudacris ornata are included in 2 regional keys and synopses (Seikmann, 1949, unpubl. Ph.D. dissert., Tulane Univ.; Fanning, 1966, unpubl. MS thesis, Fla. St. Univ.) there is apparently no published data except in a key by Chermock (1952, Mus. Pap. GeoL Surv. Alabama, 33). The tadpole of B. alvarius is undescribed. Descriptive notes on these two species are included herein. Staging follows Gosner (1960, Herpetologica, 16: 183-190) and terminology follows Altig (1970, Herpe- tologica,26: 189-207). Pseudacris ornata (Figs. lA, 2A). — These notes are based on 35 specimens (S-27- 38) from Wando and Awendaw, Berkeley County, South Carolina and Pearl River, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, The tadpole of P. ornata is typically hylid with a globular body, lateral eyes, dextral anus, non-emarginate oral disc and a high tail fin that terminates at a verti¬ cal anterior to the spiracle. Both fins are higher than the tail musculature (tail height/musculature height = 4.0). The fins narrow rapidly posteriorly, and the musculature does not reach the tip of the rounded tail. The body ratio is 2.6. The spiracle is sinistral on the longitudinal axis and projects posterodorsally. The tube is fully attached except for the distal rim, and the aperture is oval. The nostrils are medium-sized, closer to the anterior margin of the eye than the tip of the snout, and the interorbitai distance/intemarial distance is 2.2, The eyes are medium-sized (2.5 into interorbitai distance), situated slightly nearer the spiracle than the snout, and are easily visible ventrally. The labial tooth row fomula is 2(2)/3[l]; P-3 is shorter than the upper jaw and P-1 and P-2 are subequal without median gaps. The A-2 gap ratio is 4.0, the anterior rows are subequal and longer than the upper jaw, and the labial teeth are small and closely spaced. The jaws are medium and finely serrate. The upper jaw is somewhat angulate with a straight median edge and medium lateral processes that project posterolaterally. The lower jaw is broadly V-shaped. There are 2 rows of marginal papillae around the oral disc except for an anterior gap equal to ,40 302 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 1. Left lateral view of an S-36 (6X) Pseudacrh ornafa lA) and an S-27 (14X) Bufo alvarius (B) tadpole. Fig. 2. Ventral view of the oral disc of an S-36 (37X) P$eudacris ornafa (A) and an S-27 (104X) Bufo alvarius IB) tadpole. times the length of A-1. Numerous submarginal papillae are present at the pos¬ terolateral comers of the oral disc. The dorsum of a preserved tadpole is black with faint black dots with indefinite borders. The peritoneum is black; the gut is not or only slightly visible, while the throat and chest are clear. Both fins have irregular melanic patches. Punctate j melanophores occur on the anterior half of the dorsal fin and along the margins of j the fins. The tail musculature is bicolored for its entire length, although the demar- | cation line is irregular. Occasional melanophores or small melanic patches occur in ' the light half of the tail. i The tadpole of P. ornata is distinct from other hylid tadpoles within its range i and from P. streckeri, an apparant close relative (Mecham, 1959, Tex. J. Sci.. 11: NOTES 303 343-347) by size, color pattern, tail configuration and features of the oral disc. Small specimens may resemble P, brimleyi (Gosner and Black, 1958, Herpetologica^ 13: 249-254) P. triseriata (Yo'imgstrom and Smith, 1936, Amer. Midi. Nat., 17: 629-633) or P. nigrita, but they are separable on pigment patterns and tail con¬ figuration. Bufo alvarius (Figs. IB, 2B). — These notes are based on 8 laboratory specimens (S -2 1-28) raised from adults collected at Tucson, Pima County, Arizona. The tadpole of B. aluarius is typically bufonid with a somewhat depressed body, dorsal ^eyes, medial anus, emarginate oral disc, and a low tail fin that terminates near the tail-body iimction. In dorsal view the body is oval, and the' snout is broadly rounded. Both fins are lower than the tail musculature height (tail height/muscu- iature height = 2.2) . The tail is highest at about midlength and tapers slowly to a broadly rounded tip. The musculature does not extend to the tip of the tail. The body ratio is 1.7. The spiracle is sinistral, slightly below the longitudinal axis and p'rojects pos- terodorsally. The aperture is large and rounded. The nostrils are' medium, nearer the eye than the snout, and the interorbital distance/intemarial distance equals 2.4. The eyes are medium (2.7 into interorbital distance) and situated nearer the snout than the spiracle. The labial tooth row formula is 2(2) /3, although a gap may be present in P-1 at young stages. P-3 is subequal to the upper jaw and P-2 is shorter than P-1; P-l/P-3 equals about 2.0. The A-2 gap ratio is 1.6, the anterior rows are subequal and longer than the upper jaw, and the labial teeth appear large and widely spaced. The jaws are narrow to medium and coarsely serrate. The upper jaw is broadly rounded with short lateral processes. The lower jaw is broadly V-shaped. Marginal papillae extend in a single row from the lateral tips of A-1 to the lateral tips O'f P-3, and submarginal papillae are few tO' absent. The dorsum of a preserved tadpole is coarsely pigmented with large melano- pliores and appears gray or gray-brown. The peritoneum is not pigmented, the gut is readily visible, and the throat and chest are either clear or have a few very small melanic specks. The dorsal fin is moderately pigmented with irregular melano- phores, while the ventral fin is clear of pigment except at the posterior end. The tail musculature is pigmented with scattered large melanophores and small melanic flecks with considerable unpigmented area. Although lighter ventrally, the tail musculature is not bicolored. Live tadpoles appear similar except that large numbers of iridophores cover the belly and are scattered over the do-rsum, so the general coloration is a light golden-brown. Within their range, tadpoles of B. alvarius might be confused with those of B. cognatus, woodhousii and microscaphus. However, B. cognatus tadpoles (Smith, 1946, Univ. Kan. Puhl. Mm. Nat. Hist., 1: 93-96) have distinctively different mouthparts, and B. woodhousii tadpoles (Yo-ungstrom and Smith, 1936, op. cit.) are typically dark with a bicolored tail musculature. B. microscaphus tadpoles (Stebbins, 1951, Amphibians of North America, Univ. Calif, Press) are lightly pigmented, but tail configuration, features of the oral disc and body shape will separate the two, I wO'uld like to thank J. R, Harrison of the College of Charleston and H. A. Dundee of Tulane University for the loan of tadpole specimens and C. J. May of Tucson, Arizona, for providing the adult B. alvarim. Ronald Altig, Department of Zoology, Mississippi State University, State College 39762. V /i^WTAr- '■. ••' ' V- ■1 - . ‘ yiMf <'3pyyv •!.. . . . r.y.;cZ :^^ .’I <•' i ? . ’ *4 jO'I .'f ' i'i7r,^n ^\j ;ri- , -r- /' ’’i ' v'-i. ‘«’0 ; w'.ty* :'>iifii;,v :i<\^.*^*!f--yr'..'r gp&. ‘}4'^i . ‘ -- ’ 'f ‘ ■ ’^‘’' ' '' , K. I" A ri- r. :f‘ J-r . -. ,rr r, j^tv , :i ■ ■'■:!. it,': ,'Y.-^’Va >iH4''''K' ,' •'■ • y? ■ X ,i' ‘¥*'''!-"''-. ,.i ii* , ■, ', . ,. : - 'mv,,.»Si '* ., '., ■• -x*! 7 •“. . 7, n’:-; - _,w-' '.: ..:i: ?>‘:^^^,'ai'»--> ■■■ .', : 4' y . ■ Vyij/i •' y- *' '■'^' ''t’ ^ ''">\':-a ; V* 1-04 xU^‘ s: <^'^ '> ‘ - (;^. ^ . '^Vii - ^ Iv y-.r.VA4' !‘ | '..•,'..'<1^^'! j ''^i : .*'■/ Vi/;'4 {'. ’/’rs'V X’f'' .^1, v.vV if.':v; v5^r"‘*''v..., •> /•■• '•>, Vj-;/V^YA/;* •' ; •"' ’r. • ' "i^- ’’^ -y^- ■'''<' ‘ 'f' /f . ' •A .i'/! # .y..,'.-'A .t ‘i v. v> 7./- »* . . -*■' , .. .y' Dialectic Dietary Simple Sugars and Coronary Thrombosis : A Critique of Yudkin’s Inferred Relationship by JOHN T. THURMOND* Shuler Museum of Paleontology , Southern Methodist University^ Dallas 75222 It is not usual for a paleontologist to find occasion to comment on work of a medical nature. However, a recent paper by John Yudkin (1969) utilizes a paleontological/archeological approach to the prob¬ lem of coronary thrombosis in man. In this treatment is contained some reasoning that is totally erroneous when viewed from a paleon¬ tologist’s standpoint. An extract from this paper (Yudkin, 1969, p. 551) contains the gist of his argument: . . . This very large consumption of sugar [in modern diets] plays a part in causing not only dental caries, but also obesity, diabetes, peptic ulceration, some skin diseases, and above all coronary throm¬ bosis. I might add here . . . that it was chiefly a consideration of prehistoric man’s diet with its content of animal fat that more than any other single factor led me to dispute the widely held view that coronary thrombosis might be caused by this dietary constituent. There is an important assumption here — that selection has adapted the human population to this primitive diet. On the surface this appears obvious, but it does not apply in this case. Natural selection, by its very nature, is operative mainly in the young and young-adult population — prior to and at the commence¬ ment of the breeding period. A cause of death that normally operates after the individual has essentially completed its breeding span is not selected against. Coronary thrombosis falls within this latter category, and cannot be directly selected against to any significant degree. Death from coronary thrombosis seems to be a normal cause of death in the fifth and subsequent decades of life. It is exceedingly * Present address: Department of Geology, Birmingham-Southern College, Bir¬ mingham, Alabama 35204. The Texas Joumal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November, 1971. 306 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE rare prior to the fourth decade (age 30). By the latter age, even in modern populations, an individual is near the close of reproductive life, and is long past normal breeding age when coronary thrombosis becomes common. This fact must have operated even more strongly in primitive populations, where the life expectancy for an individual that survived childhood was only about 30 years (31-34 for males, 28-31 for females; data from Broth well, 1969). These expectancies have been improved on essentially only in the last century. There is no intention here of criticizing Yudkin’s other data, pre¬ sented in several recent papers (cited in Yudkin, 1969). These must stand or fall on their own merits. It is simply intended to underscore the fact that his paleontological reasoning does not serve as a support for the relationship between simple sugars and coronary thrombosis. LITERATURE CITED Brothwell, D. R., 1969 — Dietary variation and the biology of earlier human popu¬ lations; in P. J. Ucko, and G. W. Dimbleby, (Eds.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Gerald Duckworth & Co., London, pp. 531-546, 3 fig., pi. vii. Yudkin, J., 1969 — Archaeology and the nutritionist; in P. J. Ucko, and G. W. Dimbleby, (Eds.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Gerald Duckworth & Co., London, pp. 547-552. Reply to John T. Thurmond by John Yudkin I do not believe that every one of man’s pre-neolithic male ancestors died before the age of 30 or 40. Nor do I believe that those that did survive — perhaps though rarely to 60 or more — did not reproduce. Given then that some men survived and bred above the age of about 50, there would certainly have been a selection against the develop¬ ment of coronary thrombosis produced by their habitual diet. In fact, some men do die below the age of 50 from this disease, so that there would still have been a selection against it, though a slower one, if no one normally survived above the age of 50. But since we are talking of at least 2 million years of selection, and perhaps very much longer, even a very slow process of selection would by now have gone far to eliminating a susceptibility to develop fatal coronary disease from eating animal fat. 29th September 1970 Professor John Yudkin EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: james d. long, Sam Houston State University President-Elect: clark hubbs, University of Texas at Austin Secretary-Treasurer: e. n. drake, Angelo State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h, a. luther, Texas A&M University II — Physical and Space Sciences: l. a. youngman, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences, Meteorology and Oceanography: e. l. lundelius, jr., University of Texas at Austin IV — Biological Sciences: r. c. faulkner, jr., S, F. Austin State University V — Social Sciences: c. m. tolbert, Baylor University VI — Environmental Sciences: j. r. dixon, Texas A&M University VII — Chemistry: h. g. burman, University of Texas at Arlington VIII — Science Education: p. j. cowan, North Texas State University Editor: gebald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: bob h, slaughter, Southern Methodist University CImirmMn, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer, Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University CLARK HUBBS, University of Texas at Austin BOB H, slaughter, Southem Methodist University E. N. DRAKE, Angelo State University GERALD G. RAUN, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, University of Texas at Austin PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E. EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology THOMAS p. DOOLEY, Prairie View A&M University Cover Photo Subbotina triloculinoides (Plummer), a Paleocene foraminifera. For further information on this subject see, “Phylogenetic Reclassifi¬ cation of Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifera” by P. L. Steineck, pp. 167-178. library SLITHSOMIAM INST WASHINGTON 0 C 2 0 5 6 0 SECTION 1 I MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES 'l Mathematics, Statistics, '* Computer Science, i Operations Research SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION VIII SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION VII CHEMISTRY SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION IV BIOLOGICAL SCIENCESj Agriculture Botany Medical Science SECTION III EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology SECTION II PHYSICS I Anthropology Zoology Education Economics History Psychology Sociology AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS Texas Section, American Association of Physics Teachers Texas Section, Mathematical Association of America Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers GENERAL INFORMATION Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro¬ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00, Dues should be sent to the Secretary- Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901. Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. (Second Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Please send 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State Uni¬ versity, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Volume XXIII, No. 3 February 10, 1972 CONTENTS The Mealybugs of Texas (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) . By Bur- russ McDaniel ........... Some Aspects of the Osteology and Evolution of the Neotonic Spring and Cave Salamanders {Eurycea^ Plethodontidae) of Central Texas. By Robert W. Mitchell and Richard E. Smith ...... «=''^ow Temperature Preservation of Toad Spermatozoa (Genus Bufo) By Harry L. Barton and Sheldon 1. Guttman ...... Developmental Rates and Tolerances of the Plains Killifish, Fundulus kansae^ and Comparison with Related Fishes. By Stan Wilson and Clark Hubbs 309 343 363 371 A Survej^ of Metazoan Parasites in Unionid Bivalves of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Denton County, Texas. By Jerry M. Flook and John E. Ubelaker ............ 381 A Skull of Bison latifrons from Lipscomb County, Texas. By Gerald E. Schultz and Charles H. Lansdown ........ 393 Minor Element Analysis and Correlation of Pearlette Volcanic Ash, West Texas. By C. C. Reeves, Jr. and J. R. Craig . 403 Matrix Transformations of Monotonic Product Sequences By Jon C. Helton 409 Reaction by N- (Substituted) Phthalimides with n- Alkylamines. By D. Pat Johnson and Charles G. Skinner . . . . . . . . 413 SCIENCE EDUCATION Electron Scattering from Nuclei and Nuclear Structure. By M. A. K. Lodhi 421 NOTES SECTION Orbits of Basic Subgroups of Primary Abelian Groups Under Automor¬ phisms, fiy Da/ton ......... 431 •^Another Massasauga from Mexico. By C. O. Minckley and W. E. Rinne . 432 Notes on Bufo Marinus Tadpole Aggregations. By Michael A. Mares . . 433 A Method for the Separation of Plant Plasmalemma for Phospholipid Analysis. By L. Bartholomew and K. D. Mace ..... 435 DIALECTIC Environmental Pollution and Texas Law. By David R. Stronck . . . 439 The Mealybugs of Texas (Homoptera rCoccoidea rPseudococcidae) . PART i\ by BURRUSS McDANIEL Department of Entomology -Zoology South Dakota State University, Brookings 5 7 006 ABSTRACT Descriptions and figures are given of the adult females of 12 species of mealybugs found in Texas. Host records along with the distribution of each species are also included. A key to the genera of Texas mealybugs, morphological description of structure used to key mealybugs are included. New host and distributions are desig¬ nated under each species. INTRODUCTION The family Pseudococcidae, the members of which are commonly referred to as mealybugs, is a large and taxonomically difficult group, Ferris (1937) elevated the family Coccidae to the rank of a super¬ family Coccoidea, containing 1 1 families, including the family Pseudo¬ coccidae. Balachowsky (1942) recognized 11 families in a treatment of the superfamily Coccoidea. The basic difference between these sys¬ tems of classification was the definition of limits of the different fami¬ lies included in the superfamily and in the names assigned these. Balachowsky was of the opinion that the family Aclerdidae should be combined with Lecaniidae and the family Pseudococcidae with Erio- coccidae. Ferris recognized Aclerdidae, Pseudococcidae and Lecaniidae as distinct families, but combined Eriococcidae with Dactylopiidae. Borchesnius (1950) recognized the family Pseudococcidae as proposed by Ferris and included the eriococcids as a subfamily. In the latest classification of the Coccoidea involving the pseudococcids and the eriococcids, Borchsenius (1950) proposed the family Kerococcidae to include the genus Kermes°, recognized the family Pseudococcidae s, str.', and utilized the family name Eriococcidae in place of Ferris’s Dactylopiidae. The status, nomenclature, and composition of the fam- 1 Approved by the director of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station as Journal Series No. 860. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 310 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ily Eriococcidae has given rise to a considerable amount of controversy and misunderstanding. Hoy (1962, 1963) has recently treated the family Eriococcidae of New Zealand. It is readily apparent that there is still some disagreement as to the taxonomic status of various families within the superfamily Coccoidea. In the present study, the classification proposed by Ferris (1937) and McKenzie (1960, 1961, 1962, 1964 and 1967) has been followed. Ferris (1917) stated in regard to this family: “It is ... an exaggera¬ tion to say that of the nearly 1 00 species of mealybugs and their allies thus far described from North America, including some thirty-five from California, not more than three or four are recognizable at all on the basis of the existing literature if taken apart from their typical host and their type locality.” As late as 1948, workers in this field ex¬ pressed a desire for an adequate taxonimc revision of the mealybugs (Zimmerman, 1948). A basic publication to aid a worker in the task of identifying species of mealybugs was not available until the 5th and 6th volumes of the Atlas of Scale Insects of North America (Fer¬ ris, 1950--53) provided a basic taxonomic treatment of the mealybugs to which workers may now turn for guidance. Several taxonomists are now concentrating their efforts on extensive studies of local faunas. This is exhibited by the publications of Balachowsky (1956, 1958), Mamet (1958), Williams (1958, 1960), McKenzie (1960, 1961, 1962, 1964 and 1967) , and DeLotto (1961). Members of the family Pseudococcidae are among the most serious pests of plants. Two of the most common and devastating pests of citrus are Planococcus citri (Risso) and Pseudococcus gahani Green. I have collected D. breviceps (Cockerell) in association with pecan trees. Aside from numerous other species of mealybugs feeding above ground there appear to be many subterranean species about which very little is known. Studies of hypogeic mealybugs by Bunzli (1935) and Weber (1944), have demonstrated the importance of soil-inhabit¬ ing mealybugs in the production of some tropical crops. Ferris (1955, 1957), included 26 species of mealybugs recorded from Texas. These records were based on specimens collected by him in 1927 while he was engaged in a study of the Texas members of the superfamily Coccoidea. At the present time, 14 years later, 45 species of mealybugs are known to occur in Texas. The objectives of this study were as follows: (A) to illustrate and describe each Texas species of the family Pseudococcidae, (B) to study and record host plant relationships and distribution of the species within the State and, (C) to construct keys for the identification of the various species in Texas. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 311 . MATERIALS EXAMINED ' ' An effort was made to secure the holotype of each species. In in¬ stances where this was not possible, the homotype or paratype was used for study. When no type material could be obtained, descriptions were based on collections from the Texas fauna. Records included un¬ der the section “Texas Records” were taken from the Texas Agricul¬ tural Experiment Station files or from the literature. Ail determina¬ tions were made by G. F. Ferris or H. Morrison and will be designated by G.F.F,, or H.M., respectively. The author contacted 21 research and educational institutions and many individuals for mealybug material from Texas and adjacent states. However, only the following institutions and private collections had material pertinent to the study. University of California, Department of Entomology and Parasitology, Davis, California (UCC). McDaniel Collection, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota (MC). Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Entomology, College Station, Texas (TAES). Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, Texas (TAESW). Stanford University Collection, Stanford, California (SUC). (This collection has now been transferred to the University of California, Davis.) National Collection of Coccoidea, United States National Museum (NCC). METHOD OF STUDY It is possible to identify individual species of the Pseudococcidae only through examination of microscopic characters. In the prepara¬ tion of specimens for study, the procedure of McKenzie (1956) was followed. Keys presented here are modifications of those constructed by Ferris (1942) andMcKenzie (1960, 1961, 1962, 1964 and 1967), DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS OF THE PSEUDOCOCCIDAE The family Pseudococcidae is defined as follows: Body oval to elongate. Normally with trilocular pores, these rarely absent. Tubular ducts of a distinctive type, being cylindrical invagina¬ tions of the derm, with the inner extremity truncate or slightly con¬ vex, usually continued in the form of a filament arising from one side 312 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE at or close to the apex of the basal filament. Body normally with lateral groups of pores and enlarged, conical setae which form cerarii, these at times present only on anal lobes, occasionally lacking. Two pairs of dorsal ostioles usually present in the adult, or if absent in adult, then present in first larval stage; rarely absent in all stages. Anal ring al¬ ways present, normally collular, divided longitudinally into 2 halves, each with single inner and outer rows of angular cells and 3 setae; may be very much reduced; sclerotization slight and pores nearly or completely absent. Legs normally present and well-developed in the adult, sometimes reduced, vestigial, or lacking in this stage. Antennae always present in adult; usually with 5-9 segments but sometimes re¬ duced to 2-segmented tubercles; normally with terminal segments enlarged and elongated and clavate in appearance. MORPHOLOGY A brief discussion of the major morphological characters used for identification of members of the family Pseudococcidae is included to aid in utilizing these structures. Only morphological characters of taxonomic importance are discussed (Fig. 1 ) . Body Form — ^The body form ranges from elongate oval to broadly oval, occasionally becoming almost circular in outline. Derm — In most forms the derm remains membranous throughout, although it may be strongly sclerotized at maturity as in Antonina. In some species sclerotized tergal plates may form on a portion of the abdominal segments. In some species of Puto, sclerotized areas of considerable size may be present about the cerarii. Sclerotization may also be found on the ventral side of the anal lobes in some species. Usually a sclerotized bar is found on each thoracic segment which furnishes support for the coxa of the leg. The cerarii may be borne upon sclerotized tubercles. The derm is membranous except for these instances and the sclerotization of the clypeus, the tentorium, the mouthparts, and the walls of the pores and ducts. Segmentation — The head and thoracic segments are closely fused whereas those of the abdomen are quite distinct. The anal opening is situated on the 11th abdominal segment which tends to be reduced as is the 1 0th abdominal segment. The vulva of the female is always lo¬ cated on the 8th abdominal segment. The 9th abdominal segment forms the “anal lobes”, each of which bears a long anal lobe seta. The 1 0th segment is represented on the venter by a small median area and on the dorsum by the membranous area around the anal ring or by the anal ring itself. Ventrally no abdominal segments can be definitely MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 313 Fig. 1. Generalized and semidiagrammatic drawing representing morphological struc¬ tures of typical Pseudococcidae. a. frontal cerarius, b. oral-rim duct, c. ostiole, d. seta, e. trilocular pore, f. lateral cerarius, g. multilocular disc pore, h. oral-collar duct, i. anal lobe cerarius, j. 8 segmented antennae, k. 3 segmented antennae, 1. 2 segmented antennae, m. quinque locular pore, n. discoidal pore, o. leg sensoria, p. leg claw, q. circulus, r. multi¬ locular disc pore, s. multilocular disc pore with solid rim, t. anal ring. recognized anterior to segment 3; dorsally anterior to segment 2, al¬ though segment one can be represented by a small lateral area bearing a cerarius. Slight dorsal furrows mark the lines between the thoracic segments and between the prothorax and the head. The head and thorax are not distinctly separated on the venter, but a distinct fold separates the prothorax from the mesothorax. Head and Mouthparts — The head is fused with the prothorax and may be slightly sclerotized just anterior to the clypeus. However, it is normally membranous except for the supporting structures of the mouthparts. The only sclerotized area is the clypeus, which varies throughout the family but is rarely of taxonomic importance. The labium varies in shape and form from elongate and slender to short 314 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE and stout, but is always 3-segmented, with the basal segment indicated by a small, sclerotized piece on each side. Eyes — The eyes are of little taxonomic importance. The compound eyes are reduced and located on a sclerotized base; being large and prominent in Puto and some species of Phenacoccus and very small and inconspicuous in most other forms. No ocelli are present. Antennae — The antennae have long been known to be of taxonomic importance in the recognition of genera and species. Many early de¬ scriptions pay little attention to any other structure. The number of segments in the antennae vary from 2 to 9. The forms with 9-seg- mented antennae seem to always have a tooth on the claw, and these 2 characters taken together define a series of genera. The general form of the antennae is fairly consistent throughout the group with the terminal segment noticeably longer and wider than those preceding it; this gives the whole structure a clavate appearance. The first-stage larva usually has a 6-segmented antennae although some forms have 5 segments. In those forms having more than 7 segments at maturity, the full number is not reached until the last ecdysis. Spiracles — The spiracles are represented by 2 pairs in the thoracic region and are of taxonomic value in only a few forms. In the genus Antonina and other grass-infesting forms the spiracles and their ac¬ companying plate may be enlarged and contain groups of pores. T rilocular Pores — These pores are triangular in shape with sclerotized walls. There is a concave partition extending from each wall toward the center of the pore indicating a central pore as' the 3 partitions end at the margins of the cell. There may be additional walls giving the pore the appearance of being 6-celled but under these conditions 3 of the walls are better developed than the others. Trilocular pores are heavily concentrated on the dorsum except in the intersegmental fur¬ rows and are believed to provide the section that covers the body; few are found on the venter. In some forms these pores are in clusters in the cerarii and it is from them that the wax of the lateral pencils arises. They vary in size from very small and poorly sclerotized to quite large with the walls strongly sclerotized. Multilocular Pores — These pores normally consist of a delicate outer ring, within which is a circle of small openings, the walls being sclero¬ tized. The number of small openings vary from 12 to many. A deli¬ cate central ring is situated within the ring. These pores are commonly found on the venter about the vulva where they give rise to the deli¬ cate, curling thread which surrounds the eggs, or the young if they are bom alive. The multilocular pores may appear on the abdomen extending to the cephalic region of the venter, and in some cases they MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 315 are also present on the dorsum. Taxonomically, the distribution of the multilocular pores is very important as many times species ap¬ pear to be almost identical except for the arrangement of the pores. In some forms, as in the genus Puto\, these pores are greatly enlarged with the outer ring and radii strongly sclerotized, thus giving a wheel¬ like appearance. Quinquelocular Pores — These pores are usually pentagonal in shape with radii extending to the center and defining 5 cells with a small central cell. They are found chiefly in the genus Phenacoccus where they are confined to the venter of the cephalic region, thoracic areas, and the anterior-most abdominal segments. Quinquelocular pores vary in size from extremely small with delicate walls to very large with strongly sclerotized walls. Tubular Ducts — These ducts are formed by an invagination of the body wall and are cylindrical with the inner end being truncate or slightly convex. A filamentous prolongation of the duct arises at the inner end with the filament forming a delicate tube which extends into the lumen of the gland. This filament is so delicate its presence may be difficult to ascertain in ordinary preparations; at times it may be lacking. These ducts show important variations as follows: (1) in¬ vagination of the derm is the simplest form; (2) the tube thickens just within the point of invagination forming a sclerotized oral collar called the oral-collar ducts; (3) the mouth of the tube is slightly ele¬ vated above the surface of the derm with the outer margin forming a sclerotized ring, these being called oral-rim ducts; (4) the orifice is surrounded by a sclerotized area bearing small setae; (5) the sclero¬ tized area is produced into a sclerotized tubercle bearing the orifice of the duct at its apex. Taxonomically, the combination of these differ¬ ences in form and size and the arrangement of these ducts is quite im¬ portant, These ducts secrete a wax which forms a thread extending from the duct. When the ducts are quite large, as in Ferrisia and Heli- coccus, the secretion forms stiff, glassy threads that are conspicuous features of the living insect. Dorsal Ostioles — The ostioles consist of a pair of slit-like openings on the 7th abdominal segment and one pair in the cephalic region. The derm about the slits is slightly elevated and the margins of the slits may be sclerotized. The presence of the ostioles is a characteristic fea¬ ture of the Pseudococcidae but in some species these structures may^ be reduced in number or entirely lacking. However, on the totality of characters, the forms without 2 distinct ostioles must be assigned to the family Pseudococcidae. Cerarii — The cerarii, arranged about the margin of the body, are 316 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE groups of setae and pores from which the lateral wax pencils arise. Commonly each cerarius is composed of 2 small, stout setae which may be conical or lanceolate, associated with a cluster of trilocular pores and a number of small, slender auxiliary setae. There are usually 1 7 pairs arranged in the following manner: one on each side of each abdominal segment; one on the head anterior to each antennae; one on the head posterior to each antennae; remainder on the thoracic segments. If there are 18 pairs of cerarii, as in the genus Phenococcus^ the postfrontal pair are counted in the same manner as the lateral cerarii. The number may be reduced in the thoracic region. The pres¬ ence of cerarii is a distinctive feature of the Pseudococcidae. Body Setae — All pseudococcids possess at least a few small setae, while many may be quite hairy. The ventral setae are slender, of varying lengths, arranged in transverse rows on the abdominal and thoracic segments, and in a cluster in front of the cylpeus. The dorsal setae may be slender or stout and conical or lanceolate, and equalling those on the cerarii in size. Anal Lobes — ^^The anal lobes are formed by the arching of the 9th abdominal segment in front of the anal ring with its lateral extremities forming more or less prominent lobes. The cerarii of the 9th abdomi¬ nal segment differ from those of the other segments by having larger setae, more pores, and usually a few slender setae. These cerarii are more commonly surrounded by a sclerotized area. The anal lobe on the venter usually has a sclerotized area, frequently of a distinctive form. The anal lobe almost always possesses an '‘anal lobe seta” which is situated at the apex and is larger and longer than all other setae. Anal Ring — The anal opening is found on the 11th abdominal seg¬ ment and is enclosed in a strongly sclerotized ring bearing 6 or more slender setae. In the sclerotized ring there are irregular openings of numerous pores, thus the ring is described as being “cellular”. In some forms the ring may be reduced with the pores nearly or completely absent, or it may be greatly enlarged with the number of pores greatly increased. Vulva — The vulva is a slit from which radiate delicate dermal folds normally on the 8th abdominal segment on the venter. Ordinarily the multilocular pores, when present, are clustered about the vulva. The presence of the vulva is an index to the maturity of the specimen. Circulus — ^^The circulus is a simple sclerotized ring found on the venter of the abdomen. It encloses a smooth, poreless and hairless area which at times projects from the body. The enclosed area becomes deeply pigmented at full maturity. The presence or absence, and the size and form of the circulus are of great taxonomic importance. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 317 Legs— The legs are usually present throughout life, but in a few forms they may be reduced or lost in the first instar. The principal taxonomic character is the presence or absence of a tooth on the planter surface of the claw. Other characters that may be present but are of little taxonomic significance are as follows; ( 1 ) the trochanter has a long seta on its posterior border near the apex, and 2-3 small clear spots^ probably sensory structures, on each face near the posterior end; (2) the coxa bears small, pore-like spots in a wrinkled area; (3) the tibia may have small, clear spots; (4)^ the apex of the tarsal segments bears 2 or more long and apically spatulate setae; (5) the claw bears 2- apically spatulate setae or “digitules” which arise near the base with one on each side. KEY TO THE TEXAS GENERA OF THE FAMILY PSEUDOCOCCIDAE 1. Legs absent . . . . . . Legs present or vestigial ........................................... 2. Anal ring invaginated into abdomen; bearing setae longer than diameter of ring . . . ANTONINA Signoret Anal ring not invaginated into abdomen; bearing setae shorter than di¬ ameter of ring . PALUDICOCCUS Ferris 3. Dorsum with cerarian spines and some body setee e'nlarged, stout, and in form of truncate cones . . STEMMATOMERINX Ferris Dorsum with cerarian spines conical; body setae basically lanceolate, not enlarged in form of truncate cones . 4. Tubular ducts with orifices borne at apex of sclerotized projecting tubercles, these enlarged and elongated . HELIOCOCCUS Sulc Tubular ducts without enlarged orifices. . . ’ . 5. Spiracles enlarged, sclerotized; a curved band of pores across opening of spiracle . . ANTONINOIDES Ferris Spiracles not enlarged; without curved band of pores across spiracle open¬ ing . . . . . . . 6. Anal ring vestigial; cellular pores absent or if present few in number . Anal ring well-developed; cellular pores numberous . 7. Antennae 8-segmented . . . DISTICHLICOCCUS Ferris Antennae 5-7 segmented . HUMOCOCCUS Ferris 8. Posterior coxae enlarged and flattened, bearing many small pores; spira¬ cles large, accompanied by crescent of trilocular pores . . . .PSEUDANTONIA Green Posterior coxae not enlarged and flattened, not bearing small pores . 9. Cerarii with 5-20 enlarged setae arising on sclerotized plate . ................................................ PUTO Signoret Cerarii with only 3-4 enlarged setae; anterior cerarii not arising on sclero¬ tized plate . . . . 10. Tubular ducts on dorsum large; orifice surrounded by sclerotized region bearing one or more setae . . . FERRISIA Fullaway Tubular ducts on dorsum without large orifice surrounded by sclerotized region . . . . . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. 9 10' 11 318 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 11. Oral-rim tubular ducts present . Oral-rim tubular ducts absent . . . 12. Cerarii numbering 6-18 pairs . Cerarii numbering 1-4 pairs on dorsum, or completely absent . . CHORIZOCOCCUS McKenzie 13. Cerarii with auxiliary setae accompanying enlarged cerarian setae . . PSEUDOCOCCUS Westwood Cerarii without auxiliary setae accompanying enlarged cerarian setae ex¬ cept in anal lobe cerarius . SPILOCOCCU S Ferris 14. Denticle or tooth present on plantar surface of claw, may be well-developed or quite small . . Denticle or tooth absent on plantar surface of claw . 15. Cerarii present or absent on anal lobes . . . . AMONOSTERIUM Morrison and Morrison Cerarii normally with 1 8 pairs or reduced to 5 or 6 pairs . . . . PHENACOCCUS Cockerell 16. Cerarii numbering 18 pairs . PLANOCOCCUS Ferris Cerarii numbering 1-17 pairs . . . 17. Spiracles bearing pores within arms of crescentic area of sclerotization; anal ring broadly sclerotized, bearing large setae . . . SYRMOCOCCUS Ferris Spiracles without pars within arms of crescentic area of sclerotization .... 18. Anal lobe cerarii with 5 or more conical setae . . CAT AENOCOCCUS Ferris Anal lobe cerarii with 3-4 setae, or cerarii absent . 19. Anal lobes with cerarii of paired conical setae . Anal lobes with cerarii of very slender, paired setae; dorsum without tubular ducts . EURYOCOCCUS Ferris 20. Cerarii 6 or more pairs, including frontal group . . DYSMICOCCUS Ferris Cerarii no more than 5 pairs, including frontal group . 21. Multilocular disc pores present on abdomen . ORACELLA Ferris Multilocular disc pores absent on abdomen . . . . . . PARADOXOCOCCUS McKenzie 12 14 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 GENUS AMONOSTERIUM Morrison and Morrison Amonosterium Morrison and Morrison, 1922. U. S. Natl. Mus., Proc., 60: 47. Cerarii lacking except on anal lobes, on which there are several “acorn-shaped” setae. Dorsum of abdomen with setae equal in length to those of anal lobe cerarii. Anal ring of normal size and cellular ap¬ pearance, bearing 6 setae. Dorsal ostioles absent. Tubular ducts abun¬ dant dorsally and ventrally, without oral rim. Trilocular ducts few, located mainly on dorsum of abdomen. Multilocular pores abundant on venter. Derm at maturity more or less pigmented, of a blue-green color. Circulus present or absent. Legs short, stout with tooth on claw not visible in some specimens. Antennae 7-segmented. i MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 319 One species, Amonosterium lichtensioides (Cockerell), is recorded from Texas. AMONOSTERIUM LICHTENSIOIDES (Cockerell) (Fig. 2) Dactylopius lichtensioides Cockerell, 1897. Sci. Gossip, 3: 199. Eriococcus artemisia Kuwana, 1901. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 2: 399. Erium lichtensioides (Cockerell), 1902. Ann. Mag. N. H., 7(10): 466. Erium lichtensioides (Cockerell), Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 113. Eriococcus artemisiae var. catalinaeYhrhom^ 1906. Can. Ent., 38: 332. Pseudococcus artemisiae Essig, 1909. Pomona Col. Jour. Ent., 1: 36. Amonosterium lichtensioides (Cockerell), Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale 1922. U. S. Natl. Mus. Proc., 60; 47. Amonosterium lichtensioidees (Cockerell), Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. V : 24. Description — Dorsum with “acorn-shaped” and slender, elongated setae. Anal lobes small, well-developed, slightly sclerotized with as many as 10 stout, “acom-shaped” setae and a few trilocular pores. Median region of abdominal segments 3-8 with a transverse, irregular series of setae similar in form and size to those of anal lobe cerarii. Lateral cerarii absent. Remaining dorsal setae small, slender. Trilocu¬ lar pores in mid-region of abdomen or lacking. Tubular ducts numer¬ ous; larger ducts few, arranged in small, irregular groups or in rows across abdominal segments; smaller ducts occur over entire dorsum. Dorsal ostioles lacking, anal ring setae short, scarcely longer than the outer diameter of the ring. Venter with numerous multiocular pores extending from region posterior to vulva forward to thoracic segments. Trilocular pores few, confined to lateral areas of abdominal segments. Tubular ducts of smaller size, abundant, distributed over entire ab¬ domen on venter. Circulus lacking. Legs short, small. Antennae 7-segmented, short. Type locality^ — Fort Collins, Colorado. Type host — Artemisia frigida Willd. Material examined from Texas — Hardeman Co., Quanah, on Ar¬ temisia filifolia Torr., (SUC) . Other material examined — Paratypes from Fort Collins, Colorado on Artemisia frigida, (SUC). Discussion — This scale belongs to a group called “blue-grass mealy¬ bugs.” The adults are enclosed in a felted sac. The “blue-grass mealy¬ bugs” are in the genera Amonosterium, Trabutina, Naiacoccus, and 320 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Nipaecoccus. Members of this group are scattered throughout the world. GENUS ANTONINA Signoret Antonina Signoret, 1875. Ann, Soc. Ent. Fr., 5 (5) : 24. Laboulbenia Lichtenstein, 1878. Mittheil. Schw. Ent. Ges., 5: 229. Posterior pair of dorsal ostioles which may be obscure, anterior pair either entirely lacking or very obscure and not detectable. Trilocular and multilocular pores present, the latter sometimes quite large. Cir¬ cular disc pores on venter of abdomen sieve-like. Tubular ducts with internal dome-shaped termination and without filamentous prolonga¬ tion. Anal openings located at inner end of anal tube at apex of body, with ring large and heavily sclerotized, bearing 6, usually very large and heavy, setae. Body at full maturity strongly sclerotized through¬ out, or at least at posterior end. Legs entirely lacking. Antennae re¬ duced to 2-3 segmented stubs. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 321 KEY TO THE TEXAS SPECIES OF THE GENUS ANTONINA SIGNORET 1. Anal ring at most slightly depressed into the body . . . . NORTON I Parrott and Cockerell Anal ring at inner extremity of a distinctly invaginated tube . . 2 2. Circular, sieve-like disc pores present on ventor of abdomen; dorsum ap¬ parently without trilocular pores . GRAMINIS (Maskell) Circular sieve-like disc pore absent on venter of abdomen; segments of abdominal venter not sclerotized to form distinct plates . . . . BOUTELOUAE Parrott ANTONINA BOUTELOUAE Parrott (Fig. 3) Antonina boutelouae Parrott, 1900. Kan. Expt. Sta. Bull, 98, p. 138, Antonina boutelouae Parrott, Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 121. Antonina boutelouae Parrot, Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 290. Description — Dorsum with trilocular pores. Tubular ducts numer¬ ous, in profile a rather slender tube closed at its inner extremity by a sclerotized, transverse bar which is continuous with a less sclerotized and somewhat dome-shaped termination. Ostioles absent. Multilocular disc pores absent. Venter with same type of tubular pores as on dor¬ sum. Trilocular pores present. Spiracles with conspicuous apodemal plates, each in a depressed area which bears a crescent of crowded pores; this crescent of pores is composed of a few trilocular pores next to spiracular opening, with numerous multilocular pores outside of these. Anal opening borne at the inner extremity of a well-developed tube. Multilocular pores present chiefly in area about vulva and in crescents about the spiracles. Posterior section of body sclerotized. Circulus absent. Legs entirely lacking, with no indication of the dermal pits which mark the position of the legs in other species of Antonina. Antennae short, stout, 3-segmented, Type locality — Manhattan, Kansas Type host — Bouteloua hirsuta Lag. Material examined from Texas — Cameron Co., Port Isabel, on Bou- teloutsp.^ (SUC). Other material examined — Paratypes from Manhattan Kansas, on Bouteloua hirsuta, (NCC). Discussion — All species of Antonina are grass-infesting scales. This species is found at the base of the stem and appears as a white cottony sac. A. boutelouae is the smallest of the Texas species. It has been re- 322 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE corded on species of Bouteloua throughout the western and southwest¬ ern United States. ANTONINA GRAMINIS (Maskell) (Fig. 4) Sphaerococcus graminis Maskell, 1897. Ent. Mon. Mag., 33: 244. Kermicus graminis (Maskell), Cockerell, 1899. Check List, SuppL, p. 392. Antonina graminis (Maskell), Fernald, 1903, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 121. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 323 Antonina graminis (Maskell), Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 294. Description- — Dorsum uniformly beset with small tubular ducts which are dome-shaped at inner extremity. These ducts are quite small, being slightly less in diameter than a trilocular pore. Anal ring located at inner extremity of an invaginated tube. Ostioles absent. Venter with spiracles with sclerotized apodemes. Spiracular opening somewhat depressed, with crescent-shaped band of trilocular pores around outer margin. Multilocular pores relatively few, confined to median region of abdomen and to groups about spiracles. On abdomen there is a broad zone of pores laterad of median multilocular ducts of varying sizes extending from posterior spiracles almost to posterior end of the body. Marginal region of entire venter with small tubular ducts of the same size as those of the dorsum, with a few such ducts in the median region of thoracic segments. Trilocular pores very few, Fig. 4. Antonina graminis (Masksll). 324 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE found chiefly in the crescent about the spiracles together with a few in the median region of thorax. Posterior end of body strongly sclero- tized. Circulus absent. There is a small pit or invagination of the derm at the position which would be occupied by each leg in normal forms. Antennae small, 2-segmented. Type locality — Kowloon, China Type host — “Grass” Material examined from Texas — Kenedy Co., Sarita, on Rhodes grass, (MC) : Palo Pinto Co., Mineral Wells, on St. Augustinegrass, (MC) : San Patricio Co., Sinton, on St. Augustinegrass, (MC) ; Tom Green Co., San Angelo, on St. Augustinegrass, (MC) . Other material examined — Type material from Canton, China, on undetermined grass, (SUC). Texas records — Brazos Co.: College Station, on St. Augustinegrass (TAES), det. H.M. Kleberg Co.: Kingsville, on St. Augustinegrass (TAES), det. H.M.; on Rhodes grass (TAES), det. H.M. Nueces Co.: Corpus Christi, on St. Augustinegrass (TAESW), det. H.M.; on Rhodes grass (TAESW), det. H.M. Tarrant Co.: Arlington (TAES), det. H.M. Discussion — This species is the commonly known Rhodes grass scale. It is of considerable economic importance throughout Texas due to destruction of many important range grasses. In the central and southern parts of the State this scale causes considerable damage to St. Augustinegrass. There are certain grasses that appear to be re¬ sistant to the attack of this scale. Chada and Wood (1960) have done extensive work in Texas on the biology and control of this species. My studies have shown that this species feeds exclusively on the leaf sheath of the grass. There are considerable morphological differences between this species and the other two Antonio found in Texas. ANTONINA NORTONI Parrott and Cockerell Fig. 5) Antonina nortoni Parrott and Cockerell, 1899. Can. Ent., 31 : 280. Antonina nortoni Parrott, 1900. Bull. 98, Kan. Expt. Sta., p. 140. Antonina nortoni Parrott and Cockerell, Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 121. Antonina nortoni Parrott and Cockerell, Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 296. Description — Multilocular pores dorsally on last 3--4 abdominal segments. Trilocular pores scattered over entire dorsum. Tubular ducts with strongly sclerotized transverse bar; central cup absent or ves- MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 325 tigial; orifice may be at times somewhat sunken into body of a sec¬ ondary ring formed next to this secondary ring. Anal ring large and strongly cellular, slightly or not at all invaginated. Venter beset with spiracles each with a quite large apodeme and a conspicuous crescent of pores on outer side of opening; this crescent having a more or less irregular, single or double row of trilocular pores. Laterad of these a multiple series of multilocular pores. Mouthparts set close to anterior apex of body. Cerarii absent. Multilocular disc pores confined to pos¬ terior section of body. Anal lobes not prominent. Body setae all slender and unmodified. Circulus absent. Legs entirely lacking, the only evi¬ dence of them being a small invaginated pouch occurring in position that would be occupied by each leg. Antennae reduced to 2-segmented tubercles, the first segment very short, the second much longer. Type locality — Manhattan, Kansas Type host — Bouteloua racemosa Lag. Fig. 5. Antonina nortoni Parroti and Cockerell. 326 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Material examined from Texas — Homotype from Briscoe Co., Quita- que, on Aristida sp. and Bouteloua sp., (SUC) ; Burleson Co., on Aris- tidas^.^ (NCC). Texas records — Brazoria Co.: On needlegrass (TAES), det. H.M. Brazos Co.: On Aristida sp. (TAES), det. H.M, Erath Co.: On Johnson grass (TAES), det. H.M. Mason Co.: On Sand-drop-seed (TAES), det. H.M. Wharton Co.: On Sand-drop-seed (TAES), det. H.M. Wise Co.: Decatur, on Bouteloua sp. and Eragrostis secundiflora PresL, (SUC). Discussion — This species is found in Texas on a variety of grass species. It is distinguished from the other 2 species found in the State hy the anal ring not being contained in a deep invaginated tube, the region of the anal ring area not heavily sclerotized, and its wide range in size. GENUS ANTONINOIDES Ferris Antoninoides Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 300. Posterior dorsal ostioles present. Multilocular pores only on venter, mainly in region of vulva. Tubular ducts of 2 types, with larger ones having a very large, flaring collar. Trilocular pores present. Anal ring at surface of body or slightly invaginated, broad, very cellular, with 6 large, stout setae. Spiracles with very broad, strongly developed apodemes, found within crescent-shaped, depressed area of trilocular and multilocular pores. Legs well-developed but very small. Antennae reduced, 5-segmented. One species, Antoninoides parrotti (Cockerell), is recorded from Texas. ANTONINOIDES PARROTTI (Cockerell) (Fig. 6) Antonina parrotti Cockerell, 1902. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 9: 452. Antonina parrotti Cockerell, Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 122. Antoninoides parrotti (Cockerell), Ferris, 1953, Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 301. Description — Dorsum beset with numerous trilocular pores, strongly sclerotic. Multilocular pores absent. Tubular ducts small, few in num¬ ber, scattered, with conspicuous oral rim and expanded into body with inner termination dome-shaped. Cerarii absent. Dorsal ostioles absent. Venter with trilocular pores present in crescentic areas about spiracles. Derm at full maturity sclerotized in posterior region. Anal opening MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 327 retracted into body, at times sunken or borne at inner end of short anal tube. Anal ring large, strongly sclerotic, bearing numerous pores and 6 setae, these longer than diameter of anal ring. Spiracles with conspicuously large basal apodemes, crescent-shaped band of pores around outer margin of orifice, band containing numerous trilocular and multilocular pores. Abdomen with distribution of ducts and pores similar to dorsum, multilocular pores present in median region of abdomen in region of vulva. Legs present, small, sometimes distorted. Antennae short, definitely 4-5 segmented. Type locality — Manhattan, Kansas Type host — ^‘‘Grass” Material examined from Texas — ^Cameron Co., Brownsville, on Chloris sp. and Sporobolus sp., (SUC); El Paso Co., Mount Franklin, on Dasyockloa pulchellaWilld., (SUC). Texas records— Brazos Co.: College Station, on grass' (SUC), Cass Co.: Linden, on Sporobolus sp. (SUC) . 328 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Discussion — The genus Antoninoides was erected by Ferris (1953) to include only A. parrotti. This genus is closely related to Antonina Signoret. It differs from the latter genus in that it has legs and the anal ring is home at the surface of the body, whereas members of the genus Antonina have no legs and the anal ring is borne at the end of a much invaginated tube. GENUS CATAENOCOCCUS Ferris Cataenococcus 1955. Microentomology, 20: 3. Body quite rotund. Multilocular pores on midregion of abdominal region around vulva or extending forward to circulus. Trilocular pores abundant. Tubular ducts on venter, rarely enlarged, with single pair on dorsum in cephalic region. Cerarii present in distinct groups, there being from 7—17 of them, or in many small groups with 5—10 setae in each and from 5 to many short conical setae in each. Anal ring at ap¬ proximately its own length from apex of body with 6—10 setae. Anal lobes slightly defined. Circulus present. Legs stout; claw without tooth. Antennae 8-segmented. One species, Cataenococcus olivaceus (Cockerell), is recorded from Texas. CATAENOCOCCUS OLIVACEUS (Cockerell) (Fig. 7) Dactylopius olivaceus Cockerell, 1896. Psyche, 7, SuppL, 1:18. Dactylopius olivaceus Cockerell, 1896. Bull. 4, Tech. Ser., Dept. Agr., p. 36, Pseudococcus olivaceus (Cockerell), Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 107. Lachnodiella acritocera Chaffin, 1923. Fla. State Plant Bd. Quart. Bull. 7: 170. Farinococcus olivaceus (Cockerell), Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale In¬ sects, Ser. VI: 356. Cataenococcus olivaceus (Cockerell), Ferris, 1955. Microentomology, 20: 3. Description — Dorsum with numerous trilocular pores; tubular ducts absent. Anal opening with 6 setae, removed by at least its own di¬ ameter from apex of body. Cerarii present about entire margin in indefinite number; those of last 4 abdominal segments distinct, with setae elongate, numerous; those anterior to 4th segment with a con¬ tinuous series of very small clusters of various sizes, ranging from 3 to perhaps 10 setae. Venter beset with multilocular pores immediately MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 329 Fig, 7. Cataenoccoccus olivaceus (Cockerell). posterior to vulva and just anterior to segment 8. Tubular ducts vary¬ ing in number from 2-10 near lateral margins on abdominal segments 6-9; segment 7 with a band of ducts in midregion. Trilocular pores present. Circulus present. Legs large, stout. Type locality — Chihuahua, Mexico Type host — Yucca australis Trelease Material examined from Texas — Brazos Co., College Station, on Populus deltoides Bartr., (MC) ; Brewster Co., Marathon, on Ber- thelotia sericae Rydb., (SUC); Cameron Co., Brownsville, on Bac- charis sp., (SUC) and Port Isabel, on Yucca sp., (SUC) . Other material examined — Sacramento, California, on Ficus sp., (UCC). Texas records^ — Brewster Co.: Chisos Mountains, on Brayodendron texanum (Scheele) Small, (SUC). Glenn Springs, on Porlieria augus- tifolia (Engelm.) Gray, (SUC), 330 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Discussion — This species has been recorded from Yucca sp. through¬ out the southwestern United States. There is a considerable amount of variation in the arrangement of the cerarii in the specimens col¬ lected in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. C. olivaceous is separated from all other members of the genus by the arrangement of the cerarii which form, in the Texas material, a continuous band along the dorsal margin of the body. GENUS CHORIZOCOCCUS McKenzie Chorizococcus McKenzie, 1960. Hilgardia, 29: 692. Body setae small and slender, being longer on venter. Tubular ducts of oral rim type present. Trilocular pores evenly distributed. Multiloc- ular ducts confined to venter, found predominantly in midregion of abdomen from abdominal segments 4 or 5 to 9. Three or 4 pairs of cerarii present or groups of “spines” with trilocular pores on each side that may be regarded as more or less developed cerarii with anal lobe pair distinct. Anal lobe cerarii with 2 conical setae in association with trilocular pores and one or more slender setae. Penultimate cerarii with spines progressively smaller and more slender, no cerarii in cephalic or thoracic regions. Circulus present or absent, when present extending across fold between abdominal segments 4-5. Legs well- developed, ranging from small, stout to long, slender. Claw with or without tooth. Antennae 6-8 segmented. KEY TO THE TEXAS SPECIES OF THE GENUS CHORIZOCOCCU S mckenzie 1 . Circulus present . 2 Circulus absent; ventral multiocular pores lacking on abdomen . . ALKALINUS (Cockerell) 2. Abdominal segments 4-6 each with 9 or less (usually less) dorsal oral rim ducts; cerarrii confined to anal lobes . ROSTELLUM (Lobdell) Abdominal segments 4-6 each with 12 or more (usually more) dorsal oral rim ducts; cerarii developed on last 2 abdominal segments; dorsum of abdomen with numerous oral rim ducts, each segment, except 7 and 9, possessing from 20-40 such ducts . NEOMEXICANUS (Tinsley) CHORIZOCOCCUS ALKALINUS (Cockerell) (Fig. 8) Pseudococcus neomexicanus var. alkalinus Cockerell, 1900. Can. Ent. 34: 315. Pseudococcus neomexicanus var. alkalinus Cockerell, Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 106. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 331 Distichlicoccus alkalinus (Cockerell) ^ Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale In¬ sects, Ser. VI: 326. Chorizococcus alkalinus (Cockerell), McKenzie, 1960. Hilgardia, 29: 694. Description — Dorsum with tubular ducts of oral rim type through¬ out, rim quite wide, slightly sclerotized. Posterior section containing only a few of the oral rim ducts. Four pairs of cerarii present on last 4 abdominal segments. Anal lobe cerarii with 2 stout conical setae, 4 to 5 small slender setae, with numerous pores; surrounded by a definite circular sclerotized area; remaining cerarii with 2 conical setae, these progressively smaller anteriorly, those of the 6th segment being quite small. Ostioles present. Venter with tubular ducts of same type and size as those on dorsum. Multilocular pores absent. Trilocular pores of same type as on dorsum scattered over entire venter. Anal ring small but clearly developed and strongly sclerotic, removed dorsally from the apex of body. Two distinct pore bands are present. Circulus lack- Fig. 8. Chorizococcus alkalinus (Cockeroll). 332 THE TEXAS JOUR.NAI, OF SCIENCE ing. Legs well-developed without a tooth or claw; posterior coxa with¬ out pores. Antennae 8-segmented. Type locality — Roswell, New Mexico Type host — “Grass” Material examined from Texas — Hardeman Co., Quanah, on Dis- tichliss-^., (SUC). Discussion — This species was placed in the genus Chorizococcus by McKenzie (1960) along with other species having oral rim ducts, the cerarii numbering from 0-4 pairs, and without auxiliary setae except in the anal lobes. Ferris (1953) elevated the variety alkalinus to species rank and placed it in his genus Distichlicoccus . This species is closely related to C. neomexicanus but has the circulus lacking, placing it with other members of the genus that also lack a circulus. However, on the basis of overall morphology it is much more closely related to C. neo¬ mexicanus and other species that have a circulus, by the absence of ventral multilocular disc pores, and by having the cerarii confined to the last 2 abdominal segments. C. alkalinus is unique in having the anal ring removed from the apex of the body. CHORIZOCOCCUS NEOMEXICANUS (Tinsley) (Fig. 9) Dactylopius kingii var. neomexicanus Tinsley, 1898. Can. Ent., 30: 318. Dactylopius neomexicanus Cockerell, 1901. Ann. Mag. N. H., 7(7): 334. Pseudococcus neomexicanus (Tinsley), Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull. 88, p. 106. Spilococcus neomexicanus (Tinsley), Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale In¬ sects, Ser. VI: 468. Chorizococcus neomexicanus (Tinsley), McKenzie, 1960. Hilgardia, 29: 694. Description — Dorsum with trilocular pores. Oral rim ducts slightly larger in diameter than trilocular pores, abundant on abdominal seg¬ ments forming transverse band of 2 irregular rows. Anal ring with setae about twice as long as diameter of ring. Two pairs of cerarii, those of anal lobes with setae, slender, conical, lanceolate, enlarged, and 3-4 small, short setae; penultimate pair with a pair of slender conical setae only; neither cerarius with any noticable surrounding concen¬ tration of pores. Venter with multilocular pores concentrated sparsely about the vulva and forward in central region to posterior border of 6th segment. Oral rim ducts equal to those of dorsum in lateral areas MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 333 Fig, 9. ChorizococcuB neomexkanus (Tinsley). as far forward as mesothorax. Small oral collar ducts with diameter about equal to that of trilocular pore found in clusters in posterior lateral angles and in midregion of segments forward to 6th segment. Posterior coxae beset with pores. Circulus present. Type locality — Organ Mountains, New Mexico Type host — Xanthocephalum sarothrae (Pursh.) Shinners Material examined from Texas- — Randall Co., Canyon, on Xantho¬ cephalum sarothrae^ (NCC). Discussion — This species was recently placed in the genus Chorizo- coccus by McKenzie (1960) due to the presence of oral rim ducts. Ferris (1953) referred it to the genus Spilococcus and stated that it is possibly a synon5rm of C. aphyllonis since the difference in number of dorsal oral rim ducts that separate these 2 forms is well within the range of normal variation for a species. McKenzie (1960, 1961, and 1964) included both C. neomexicanus and C. aphyllonis with no indi¬ cation of the possible synonym mentioned by Ferris (1953) . McKenzie 334 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (1960), in a key to the North American species of the genus Chorizo- coccus^ utilized the larger number of oral rim ducts to separate the 2 species. No specimens of the species C. aphyllonis have been seen during the course of this work as it does not belong to the Texas fauna. The name C. neomexicanus will be used. However, should the sug¬ gestion made by Ferris (1953) be proven correct, then C. aphyllonis would be the valid name for this species. CHORIZOCOCCUS ROSTELLUM (Lobdell) (Fig. 10) Trionymus rostellum Lobdell, 1930. Ent. Soc. Amer. Ann., 23: 233. Trionymus vallis Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. V: 275. Chorizococcus rostellum (Lobdell), McKenzie, 1960. Hilgardia, 29: 694. Description — Dorsum beset with trilocular pores and up to 6 tubular ducts with oral rim arranged in transverse row on each abdominal segment and occurring submarginally on cephalic and thoracic seg¬ ments. Setae few, very small. Anal ring with setae slightly longer than greatest diameter of ring. Cerarii restricted to anal lobes with 2 setae, small and conical. Venter with multilocular pores on segments 5-10 in central and lateral areas of these segments, on anterior abdominal seg¬ ments with clusters posterior to prothoracic coxa and between this coxa and lateral margin. Ducts with slight oral rim in association with bands and lateral groups of multilocular pores on abdomen. Trilocular pores sparsely scattered over venter. Circulus small, circular. Coxae 4 with numerous pore-like spots. Antennae 8-segmented. Type locality — Sacramento, California Type host — Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Material examined from Texas-El Paso Co., El Paso, on Bermuda grass, (MC) ; Jeff Davis Co., Fort Davis, on Cynodon dactylon (MC). Discussion — This species was first described by LobdelP as Triony¬ mus rostellum. Ferris (1950) described it as T. vallis but later (1953) stated that his species was a synonym of T. rostellum Lobdell. Mc¬ Kenzie (1960) erected the genus Chorizococcus for the species with oral rim ducts and the cerarii numbering from 0--4 pairs without auxiliary setae except those on the anal lobes. This species has only recently been discovered in Texas. The previous records of this species were that of Lobdell in Louisiana, and Ferris and McKenzie in Cali- 1 The use of the name Lobdell for this species rather than that of Hoke used by Ferris (1953) and McKenzie (1960) is due to the date of publication and the fact that the author is listed by Morrison (1957) under the married name of Lobdell. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 335 fornia. The discovery of the species in Texas extends the distribution records given by Ferris (1953). This species is closely related to C. neomexicanus (Tinsley) from which it may be distinguished by the cerarii being confined to the anal lobes. GENUS DISTICHLICOCCUS Ferris Distichlicoccus Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. V: 48. Members with multilocular pores absent; trilocular pores present. Large oral rim ducts on dorsum and venter. Anal ring more or less simplified and at times displaced posteriorly to apex of body or to venter, but usually cellular. Dorsum with 2 pairs of ostioles. Cerarii varying in number, but less than 17, ranging from 3-10, always with 2 conical setae and at times with small, auxiliary setae. Circulus lack¬ ing. Legs normal, without tooth or claw. Antennae 8-segmented. One species, Distichlicoccus dasychloae Ferris, is recorded from Texas. 336 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DISTICHLICOCCUS DASYCHLOAE Ferris (Fig. 11) Distichlicoccus dasychlom Ferris, 1953. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. VI: 330. Description — Dorsum with one pair of cerarii, placed on anal lobes with 2 small, slender, lanceolate setae in association with a few tri- locular pores. Cerarian areas not sclerotized and without special clus¬ ters of pores. Setae numerous, slender, of varying lengths, all short. Trilocular pores scattered over entire region. Tubular ducts of oral rim type, in transverse rows across abdominal segments with only a few found on the thorax and head, vayring in size, those of the larger size, the diameter greater than the diameter of trilocular pore. Tubular ducts of a smaller size occur on abdomen with oral collar smaller in diameter than diameter of a trilocular pore. Multilocular pores few, located near lateral margins of last 2-3 abdominal segments. Anal ring removed by about twice its own diameter from apex of body, consisting Fig. n. Distkhik&ceu$ dasyehioam Ferris. MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 337 of simple sclerotized band slightly broadened along lateral areas, bear¬ ing 3 small setae arising from these areas. Dorsal ostiole present. Venter with same slender setae as on dorsum, of varying sizes. Multilocular pores numerous in median region from segments 5—10 and in the lateral regions. Tubular ducts of oral rim type occurring occasionally in lateral areas of meta thorax and mesothorax, found chiefly in median region of abdominal segments 5-10. Circulus lacking. Eyes present. Legs slender, well-developed, without tooth or claw. Posterior coxa with a few pores. Antennae 8-segmented. Type locality^ — ^Mount Franklin, Texas Type host — -Dasyochloa pulchella Willd. Material examined from Texas — Holotype from El Paso Co., Mount Franklin, on Dasyochloa pulchella^ (SUC). Discussion — This species belongs to a group that is primarily related only by the type of host on which they are associated. Ferris (1950) , in erecting Distichlicoccus, stated that members of this genus are found on grasses of the genera Distichlis and Dasyochloa. D. dasychloae is distinguished by a single pair of cerarii on the anal lobe. GENUS DYSMICOCCUS Ferris Dysmicoccus Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. V: 59. Members with dorsal ostioles. Not more than 17 pairs of cerarii, these usually with more than 2 conical setae in association with slender auxiliary setae. Venter with few multilocular and small tubular ducts. Dorsum without tubular ducts having oral rim and usually without tubular ducts of any type. Circulus present or absent, when present, extending across fold between abdominal segments 4 and 5. Legs rather short. Antennae 7 to 8-segmented. KEY TO THE TEXAS SPECIES OF THE GENUS DysmicOCCUS FERRIS 1. With 17 pairs of cerarii . 2 With at most 10 recognizable pairs of cerarii, each containing 3 or more conical setae . DIFFICILIS (Lobdell) 2. Tubular ducts absent on the dorsum; dorsal flat discoidal pores of variable size present anterior to anal ring; some abdominal cerarii with 3 or more conical setae . BREVIPES (Cockerell) Tubular ducts present on the dorsum; ventrally, tubular ducts present only on the lateral margins of the 6th to 8th abdominal segments ...... . . . . . . . . TEXENSIS (Tinsley) DYSMICOCCUS BREVIPES (Cockerell) (Fig. 12) Dactylopius brevipes Cockerell, 1893. The Entom., 26: 267. 338 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Dactylopius brevipes Cockerell, 1893. Bull. Bot. Dept. Jam., No. 46, p. 3. Pseudococcus brevipes (Cockerell), Fernald, 1903. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Spec. Bull, 88, p. 98. Pseudococcus bromelia (Bouche), Brain, 1915. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr., 5: 109. Pseudococcus cannae Green, 1934. Stylops, 3: 162. Pseudococcus longirostralis James, 1936. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. London, 85: 207. Pseudococcus brevipes (Cockerell), Mamet, 1941. Bull. Ent. Res., 32: 57. Pseudococcus cannae Green, Mamet, 1949. Mauritius Inst. Bulk, 3:13. Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell), Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects, Ser. V: 59. Pseudococcus longirostralis James, DeLotto, 1957. Bull. British Mus., 5: 197. Pseudococcus cannae Green, Williams, 1958, Bull. British Mus., 6: 213. Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell), Williams, 1958. Bull. British Mus., 6: 213. Description — Dorsum with trilocular pores. Body setae small, slender. Tubular ducts absent. Seventeen pairs of cerarii present. Anal lobe cerarius with 2 large, conical setae, group of pores and several slender setae, without sclerotization. Remaining cerarii usually identi¬ cal but several specimens showed 7-8 segments with 2 large conical setae and 2-4 small conical setae, with 4-5 slender auxiliary setae. Cerarii of cephalic region may have 3-4 small conical setae. Venter with small tubular ducts in midregion of segments 6-8 and in groups near lateral margins of these segments. Multilocular pores immedi¬ ately around vulva. Trilocular pores present. Anal lobe with slight sclerotization at base of anal lobe setae. Circulus present. Legs short, stout. Antennae 8-segmented. Type locality — Jamaica Type host — Pineapple Material examined from Texas — Cameron Co., Brownsville, on Prosopis glandulosa Torr., (SUC and TAES); Pecos Co., Sheffield, on Prosopis glandulosa, (SUC and TAES) . Discussion — ^This species is recorded throughout the world as a pest of pineapple. The recovery of it from mesquite in Texas supports the suggestion by Ferris (1950) that a species complex is involved. In the Texas material the dorsal disc pores are absent. Williams (1958), in an examination of numerous specimens from all parts of the world, MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 339 also refers to the absence of the dorsal disc pores. It remains for a thorough biological study of this species before a clear understanding of this complex can be understood. This species is distinguished from its closest relative, D. texensis^ by the absence of tubular ducts on the dorsum. DYSMICOCCUS DIFFICILUS (Lobdell) (Fig. 13) Pseudococcus difficilis Lobdell, 1930. Ent. Soc. Amer. Ann., 23: 228. Dysmicoccus difficilis (Lobdell), Ferris, 1950. Atlas of Scale Insects Ser. V: 63. Description — Dorsum beset with small trilocular pores; setae small, slender, tubular ducts lacking. Anal ring with setae slightly longer than 340 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 13. Dysmkoccus difficilis (Lobdell). greatest diameter of ring. Cerarii reduced, being 10-11 pairs, frontal and ocular pairs present. Anterior abdominal segments with cerarii obscure, but with 1-2 conical setae. Remaining cerarii with variable number of conical setae; 2 of which are longer, 2-7 smaller, conical and 0-4 slender, auxiliary setae in association with cluster of pores. Anal lobe cerarii with large area of slightly crowded pores. Venter beset with multilocular pores restricted to vulva region, few in number, about 50. Tubular ducts small, in midregion and lateral areas of seg¬ ments 5-8. Irregular sclerotized area on anal lobes with several slender setae. Trilocular pores present, very small. All setae small, slender. Circulus present. Legs short. Antennae 8-segmented. Type locality — Agricultural and Mechanical College, Mississippi Type host — Fraxinus sp. Material examined from Texas — ^Brazos Co., College Station, on MEALYBUGS OF TEXAS 341 pecan, (MC); Denton Co., Denton, on pecan, (MC); Uvalde Co.; Gamer State Park, on pecan, (MC) . Other material examined- — Homotype from College Park, Maryland on Nyssa sp., (NCG and SUC) . Discussion— 1 first collected this species in Texas on pecan trees in Garner State Park. It has been subsequently collected on pecan trees in Denton and Brazos Counties. The finding of this species in Texas on pecan trees extends the distribution, as it was originally restricted to Mississippi. The infestation is difficult to determine because it lives beneath the bark. The economic importance of D. difficilis on pecan has not been fully determined. However, the host tissue has shown damage with scaling of the bark being a common phenomenon. This species is separated from ail other members of the genus by the ab¬ dominal cerarii bearing 3 or more conical setae. LITERATURE CITED Balachowsky, a. S., 1942 — Essai sur la classification des Cochenilles. Ann, Ecole. Nat. Agric. Grignon, p. 34--38. • - — 1956 — Les Cochenilles du continent Africian Noir. Ann. du Musee Royal du Congo Beige, 1 : 7-142. ■ - 1958 — Les Cochenilles du continent Africian Noir. Ann. du Musee Royal du Congo Beige, 2i 149-431. Borchsenius, N. S., 1950 — Mealybugs and scale insects of the USSR (Coccoidea). (Translation used in the U.S. Dept. Agri. Library) Hard and soft scales of the USSR (Coccoidea). Akad. Nauk. ZooL Inst., Tableaux Analyt. de la Faune de USSR, 32: 250. Bunzli, G. H., 1935 — Untersuchungen uber coccidophile Ameisen aus den Kaffee- feldern von Surinam. Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Ges., 16: 455-593. Chada, H. L. and E. A. Wood, Jr., 1960 — Biology and control of the rhodesgrass scale. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull., 1221, 1-21 pp. Delotto, G., 1961 — New Pseudococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea) from Africa. Bull. Brit. Mus. {Natural History), No. 6, 10: 14-238. Ferris, G. F., 1917 — Methods for the study of mealybugs. /. Econ. Ent., 10: 321-325. — - , 1937 — Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America, The Diaspididae, Part I. Stanford Univ. Press, 1-136. “ - ■, 1942 — -Atlas of the scale insects of North America. Part 4 (Diaspididae), Stanford Univ. Press, California, sections 385-448. • - - — ” — 1950 — Atlas of the scale insects of North America, the Pseudococcidae (Part I), Stanford Univ. Press, 5: 1-277. — — — - 1953~Atlas of the scale insecte of North America, the Pseudococcidae (Part II). Stanford Univ. Press. 6: 279-506. 342 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE - , 1955 — Atlas of the scale insects of North America. Vol. VII. The fam¬ ilies Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Conchaspididae, Dactylopiidae, and Lac- ciferidae. Stanford Univ. Press, California. 233 pp. - , 1957 — A review of the family Eriococcidae. (Contribution No. 100), Micro. Entom.., 22: 81-89. Hoy, J. M., 1962 — Eriococcidae (HomopterarCoccoidae) of New Zealand. V. Z, Dept. Sci. Ind. Res., Bull. 146, 5: 216 pp. - , 1963 — A catalogue of the Eriococcidae (Homoptera:Coccoidae) of the world. N. Z. Dept. Sci. Ind. Res., Bull. 150, 5-260 pp. Mamet, R., 1958— New Pseudococcids from Mauritius (Homoptera:Coccidea). Roy. Ent. Soc., Proc., Ser. B., Taxonomy, 11: 79-86. McKenzie, H. L., 1960 — Taxonomic study of California mealybugs with descrip¬ tions of new species (Homoptera:Coccodea:Pseudococcidae). Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta., No. 15, 29: 681-770. • - , 1961 — Second taxonomic study of California mealybugs (Homoptera: Cocoidea :Pseudococcidae), Hilgardia, Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta., No. 2, 31: 15-52. - , 1962 — Third taxonomic study of California mealybugs, including addi¬ tional species from North and South America (Homoptera: Coccidea: Pseudococ- cidae). Hilgardia, Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta., No. 14, 32: 637-688. - , 1964 — Fourth taxonomic study of California mealybugs with additional species from North America, South America, and Japan (Homoptera :Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) . Hilgardia, Calif., Agr. Expt. Sta., No. 10, 35: 211:70. - , 1967 — Mealybugs of California, with Taxonomy, Biology and Control of North American Species. Univ. Calif. Press, 1-525. Morrison, H., and A. V. Renk, 1957 — A selected bibliography of the Coccoidea. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 734. 222 pp. Weber, N. A., 1944 — The neotropical coccid-tending ants of the genus Acropyga. Ent. Soc. Amer. Ann., 37: 89-122. Williams, D. J., 1958— The mealybugs (Pseudococcidae: Homoptera), described by W, M. Maskell, R. Newstead, T. D, A. Cockerell and E. E. Green from the Ethiopian Region. Bull. Brit. Mus {Natural History), No. 8, 6: 9-236. - , 1960 — The Pseudococcidae (Coccoidea: Homoptera) of the Solomon Islands. Bull. Brit. Mus. {Natural History), No. 10, 8: 388-430. Zimmerman, E. C., 1948 — Insects of Hawaii. Univ. of Hawaii Press. 5: 141-276. Some Aspects of the Osteology and Evolution of the Neotenic Spring and Cave Salamanders {Eurycea^ Plethodontidae) of Central Texas^ by ROBERT W. MITCHELL and RICHARD E. SMITH Department of Biology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409 ABSTRACT Several osteological features are examined in all of the described species of the neotenic salamanders inhabiting springs and caves in central Texas. Anatomical evidence supports the argument that all of these salamanders are of common descent and should be assigned to the genus Eurycea and that the genus T yphlomolge should not be recognized. The evolutionary history of these salamanders is discussed in¬ corporating considerations of anatomical features, differing selection pressures be¬ tween spring and cave environments, time of invasion of central Texas by the an¬ cestral stock, and times that caves were available for colonization by this ancestral stock. INTRODUCTION The purposes of this paper are to point out some of the skeletal features of the neotenic spring and cave salamanders of central Texas, to further support the argument that they are congeneric, and to dis¬ cuss their evolution. The first of these salamanders known was described in 1896 by Stejneger as Typhlomolge rathbuni9 The specimens upon which the description was based issued from a newly drilled artesian well in San Marcos, Hays Co. This remarkable species has since been taken at nearby Wonder (Beaver) Cave, Johnson’s Well, and Ezell’s Cave, all of which are in close proximity within the corporate limits of San Marcos. It is the latter locality with which this salamander is now most closely identified. Despite some citations to the contrary, rathbuni has never been taken at any other locality. This salamander remains today the epitome of cave adaptation among vertebrate animals. ^ Supported by grant funds from the Water Resources Center, Texas Tech Uni¬ versity. 2 Unhappily, this animal is now exceedingly rare. The last sighting of a specimen (in Ezell’s Cave) was made by the senior author in September of 1967. The unique fauna of Ezell’s Cave, including also several rare and interesting endemic troglobite invertebrates, is now under the protection of the Texas Nature Conservancy. 344 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The next neotenic salamander described from this region was Eurycea neotenes (Bishop and Wright, 1937) from spring-fed Culebra Creek about 5 miles north of Helotes, Bexar Co. Several additional species have beeen described: Eurycea nana (Bishop, 1941) from the spring-fed headwaters of the San Marcos River, Hays Co.; Eurycea latitans (Smith and Potter, 1946) from Cascade Caverns near Boeme, Kendall Co.; Eurycea pterophila (Burger, Smith, and Potter, 1950) from Fern Bank Spring on the Blanco River about 6 miles northeast of Wimberly, Hays Co.; Eurycea troglodytes (Baker, 1957) from the Valdina Farms Sinkhole about 16 miles north of D’Hanis, Medina Co.; and Eurycea tridentifera (Mitchell and Reddell, 1965) from Honey Creek Cave near Spring Branch, Comal Co. There are, then, 3 spring- dwelling and 4 cave-dwelling species presently described, and we have several additional cave-dwelling species whose descriptions are being prepared. The type localities of the described species are shown in Figure 42. Mitchell and Reddell (1965) proposed that the genus Typhlomolge be relegated to synonymy with Eurycea. This was prompted by the particular features of tridentifera which placed it intermediate be¬ tween rathbuni and the remaining species. The cave dwelling species were arranged in a series showing increasing cave adaptation in the sequence of latitans, troglodytes, tridentifera, and rathbuni. The undescribed species which we are presently studying will cause this series to approach an even closer continuum. In proposing the syno¬ nymy, Mitchell and Reddell stated, “Because of the apparent lack of j good qualitative differences, the fact that the obvious differences are ones of degree only, and the close proximity of the species, we suggest I that the neotenic salamanders of the Edwards Plateau are, in fact, a closely related group of species descended from a common ancestor. Present differences within the group are evidently a function of the differences in selection pressures between the subterranean and epigeal environments. We, therefore, see no justification in the the retention ; of T yphlomolge as a valid genus and propose that the new combination Eurycea rathbuni (Stejneger) more accurately reflects the systematic j relationships of this salamander.” Unfortunately, Mitchell and Reddell ! did not study the skeletal systems of these salamanders in detail, in- j eluding only a discussion of the hyobranchial apparatus. Wake (1966) published a monograph on comparative osteology and , evolution in the plethodontid salamanders. In this paper. Wake dis- ' agreed with the conclusions of Mitchell and Reddell (1965) and sug¬ gested that the genus Typhlomolge should be retained and that i Typhlomolge arose from a pre-Eurycea ancestor. To the first point he 345 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EurjCea Stated, “Because the diversity within the Texas paedogene group is so great and because the vertebral and orbitosphenoid characters enable the group to be conveniently divided, I choose to recognize the genus Typhlomolge and refer to it the species rathbuni and tridentifera'' To the 2nd point he suggested, “Perhaps the ancestral Typhlomolge stock entered the subterranean habitats at a relatively early date, and the Eurycea somewhat later.” He further stated, “Anatomical evidence indicates that both genera evolved from the same general evolving ancestral stock but that T yphlomolge was derived from a pre-Eurycea ancestor and the other Texas paedogenes from a Eurycea or very Eurycea-\i\e stock.” Subsequently, some authors (e.g., Blair, et al., 1968) have accepted the position of Mitchell and Reddell while others (e.g., Brame, 1967) have agreed with Wake. Wake’s osteological criteria for retaining Typhlomolge to include tridentifera seem, on the basis of his studies and the lack of such studies by Mitchell and Reddell, to merit consideration. Unfortunately, Wake had only 13 cleared and stained specimens of the 7 species in the series and no specimens of neotenes. Thus, Wake relied entirely upon the anatomical evidence presented by this inadequate sample, and he failed to consider at all the times when central Texas caves probably became available for colonization. We are fortunate to have had a larger number (35) of cleared and stained specimens available, all topotypes of all described species. These preparations were not made so much to attack the taxonomic problem at hand but rather because study of the new species demanded reinvestigation of the described ones. As a result of our studies, includ¬ ing consideration of geological events in central Texas, we find Wake’s argument for separation of T yphlomolge and Eurycea to be unrealistic and his suggestions for a dual ancestry of the neotenic salamanders of central Texas to be untenable. METHODS AND MATERIALS Specimens were cleared and stained by procedures modified from Taylor (1967) . Briefly, the method we have used with excellent results is as follows: 1 . If specimens are formalin or alcohol preserved, soak in water for at least one day to remove as much preservative as possible. 2. Bleach in 10%--15% H2O2 in sunlight until specimens are opaque white, up to several hours depending upon degree of pigmen¬ tation. 3. Digest with trypsin until translucent (about 10 gm of 1:110 powder dissolved in one liter of sodium borate buffer prepared by 346 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE combining equal volumes of saturated sodium borate solution and distilled water), several hours to about one day. Several specimens may be digested in about 500 cc of fluid. 4. Transfer to fresh digesting solution containing one-half of the original amount of trypsin to which is added, drop by drop, sufficient staining solution (saturated solution of Alizarin Red S in 70% ethyl alcohol) to color the fluid reddish. 5. Stain for several hours (until deep red staining of the more superficial bones is evident) . If specimens are quite delicate, it is best to stain in the first digesting solution. 6. Run up a graded EtOH series (25%, 50%, 75%, 85%, 95%, 100%) leaving about one-half day in each. A similar series of methyl cellosolve is equally satisfactory. Make slightly basic with NH4OH to assure that destaining will not occur. 7. Transfer to a 1:1 solution of 100% EtOH (or cellosolve) and xylene, then to 1 00% xylene leaving about one-half day each. Clearing will occur in the xylene, and if this reveals that either digestion or staining has been insufficient, the specimens may be returned to 100% EtOH and then directly to water where necessary steps may be repeated. 8. Make final transfer to methyl salicylate for study and storage. Of course, times will be affected greatly by size of the specimens. Times cited here are most suitable for specimens of 30 mm to 60 mm snout- vent length. Specimens so prepared are in every way — transparency, durability, ease of handling — superior to specimens prepared by the older KOH-glycerine method. Photographs were made originally at 3:1 object-image ratios on 35 mm color transparency film from which black and white conver¬ sions were made. Drawings were made with dissecting microscope and camera lucida. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION There are 2 problems to which we should like to address ourselves, one taxonomic, the other evolutionary. It should be emphasized that the former is superficial to the more fundamental nature of the latter. The problems are not unrelated, since the taxonomy of these sala¬ manders should reflect their evolutionary relationships. As previously mentioned. Wake (1966) argued for retention of the genus Typhlomolge to which he moved Mitchell and ReddelFs (1965) Eurycea tridentifera. He would separate the 2 genera by the following particular features: 347 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EuryCSa Eurycea 1 . orbitosphenoids present 2. diapophyses not extending beyond lateral zygapophyseal margins 3. no alar processes on para- pophyses 4. >14 trunk vertebrae T yphlomolge 1 . orbitosphenoids absent 2. diapophyses extending beyond lateral zygapophyseal margins 3. alar processes present on parapophyses 4. 14 or fewer trunk vertebrae A glance at our illustrations will show immediately why we shall argue for the synonymy of T yphlomolge and Eurycea as proposed by Mitchell and ReddelL Absence of orbitosphenoids can hardly be used as a reason for removal of tridentifera to Typhlomolge. In our sample of 10 cleaned and stained tridentifera, 7 lacked the orbitosphenoid (Figs. 1-6, 14, 16) and agreed with the 3 specimens available to Wake. Three of the 10, however, possessed orbitosphenoids. One of these lacked the right bone (Fig. 7) but retained the left one (Fig. 8) . Another specimen had paired, moderately developed orbitosphenoids, approximately equal in size (Figs. 9, 10, 18). The remaining individual possessed a very well developed right orbitosphenoid (Figs. 11, 20) and a somewhat lesser developed left one (Fig. 12). Of our undescribed species of cave Eurycea, one shows similar orbitosphenoid variation, but in this species the bone is only occasionally lacking. With increasing cave adaptation in these neotenic Eurycea, the orbitisphenoids become reduced in size and occur in a smaller per¬ centage of individuals in the population. The extreme in this morpho- cline (as in most others) is rathbuni which apparently is wholly lack¬ ing in orbitosphenoids. But the reduction and subsequent loss of these bones with increasing cave adaptation is hardly surprising since the bones are closely associated with the eyes, the optic nerve frequently passing through a foramen in the posterior of the bone (Figs. 24, 28), through a notch in its posterior edge, or immediately behind it. Size and presence or absence of the orbitosphenoids are thus worth little, if any, more than the eye in indicating true relationships of cave- adapted anaimals (see Mitchell, 1968, pp. 616-617). Even one of our specimens of spring salamander {pterophila) had quite small orbito¬ sphenoids (Figs. 30, 31) indicating the probability that within the genus there is some size variation of this bone not associated with cave habitation. Thus, while percentage occurrence of orbitosphenoids might be of some diagnostic value at the populational or specific levels- in these salamanders, it is inappropriate at the generic level. 348 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Figs. 1—12. Eurycea tridentlfera,, right and ieft lateral views of the skulls of six dif¬ ferent specimens. Orbitosphenoid bones stippled. Note the absence of orbitosphenoids in the first three specimens (Figs. 1—6), the absence of this bone on the right side of specimen 4 (Fig. 7) but Its presence on the left side (Fig. 8), the equal development of the orbito¬ sphenoids on both sides of the skull of specimen 5 (Figs. 9, 10), and the greater but unequal development of these bones in specimen 6 (Figs. 11, 12). Fig. 5 Fig. 6 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EurfCSa 349 Fig. II Fig. 12 Figs. 1 3-20. E0rfcea tridentifei’a, dorsol and right lateroS views of the skylls of four different specimens. Note obscene© of ©rbitospheneld in Figs. 14 and 16 fspecimen 2 of Figs, 3 and 4 and specimen 3 of Figs. 5 and 61. Note presence, but unequal development, of orbifosphenoids in Figs. 18 and 20 (specimen 5 of Figs. 9 and 10 and specimen 6 of Figs. 1 1 and 121. 351 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EuryCCa Fig. 24 Fig; 21 Figs. 21—22. Eurycea lafitans, dorsal and right lateral views of the skull of same speci¬ men. Note the large orbitosphenold. (premaxilla missing). Figs. 23—24. Eurycea troglodytes, dorsal and right lateral views of the skull of same specimen. Note the large orbitosphenold with optic foramen near its posterior edge. Figs. 25—26. Eurycea rafhbuni, dorsal and right lateral views of skull of same specimen. Note absence of orbitosphenoids. Figs. 27—28. Eurycea neotenes, dorsal and right lateral views of skull of same specimen. Note large orbitosphenold with optic foramen near posterior edge. Figs. 29—30. Eurycea pterophila, dorsal and right lateral views of skull of same speci¬ men. Note well developed orbitosphenold. Fig. 31. Eurycea pterophila, right lateral view of different specimen. Compare its poorly developed orbitosphenold with that in Fig. 30. Figs. 32—33. Eurycea nana, dorsal and right lateral views of the skull of same speci¬ men. Not# the development and nature of the orbitosphenold. Fig. 26 352 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ! I i I I Fig. 32 Fig. 31 Fig. 33 353 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EuryCCa Wake’s other criteria for retention of Typhlomolge make use of 3 vertebral features: relative diapophysis length, presence of alar proc¬ esses on the parapophyses, and number of vertebrae. Diapophysis length is a continuum whether one considers individuals of different species, individuals of the same species, or even different vertebrae of the same individual. The futility of attempting to use relative diapo¬ physis length as a generically diagnostic feature is shown (Fig. 39) in several anterior vertebrae of troglodytes. The vertebral characteristics shown in this figure are, in fact, common to all the central Texas Eurycea'^ the anterior few diapophyses are longer than the others and typically extend beyond the zygapophyseal margins. Even in the mid to posterior regions of the vertebral column, some individuals of species in Eurycea {fide Wake) may have occasional diapophysis lengths which violate his generic criterion (Figs. 35, 37) . In some individuals of rathbuni, diapophyses are short to the point of violating the criterion (Fig. 41) or are of such length to make a decision arbitrary. Wake’s reference point, the lateral zygapophyseal margin, is not altogether stable; the degree of zygapophyseal protuberance varies (Figs. 36, 38), though not as much as does diapophysis length. We cannot accept as valid, at the generic level, the separation of a continuous variable by a reference point, itself subject to variation. To be sure, some species do tend to have, on the average, longer transverse processes than others — those of rathbuni, for example, are longer than those of neotenes. Perhaps, judiciously used, transverse process length may be of some value in specific or populational separations. The use of presence or absence of alar processes on the parapophyses in separating these salamanders is without any justification. These small processes are not, as stated by Wake, present only in rathbuni and tridentifera. We have found prominent alar processes in neotenes (Fig. 34), nana (Fig. 36), troglodytes (Fig. 38), and pterophila, in addition to tridentifera and rathbuni. In fact, alar processes on the whole were more abundant (proportional to vertebra number) in our specimens of nana (3) than in our specimens of rathbuni (4). Al¬ though the greatest number was shown by a rathbuni (19 processes among 13 vertebrae), 2 of the specimens of nana exceeded in alar process count the remaining 3 rathbuni. One rathbuni had a total of but 3 alar processes. In none of our 10 tridentifera were alar processes very common; in fact, 2 individuals lacked them altogether. Rather than using these processes to separate genera, it would seem more appropriate to characterize the central Texas Eurycea in general as frequently possessing at least some alar processes on the parapophyses. Number of trunk vertebrae might be of some value in generic 354 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 37 Fig, 41 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF Eurjcea 355 separation were there any sound criteria remaining for it to support and if some specific vertebra cO'Unt did, in fact, separate these sala¬ manders into 2 groups. But neither is true. There is no more reason Fig. 42. Map of several central Texas counties showing type localities of oil described neofenic Earyeeo, O indicates surface record, • indicates cave record. Numbers designate the species as follows: 1— -I. latltans^ 2-—E. troglodytes, 3—E. fridentifera, 4— -E. rathbuni, neoteneSf 6—E. pfemphlla, 7—E, nana. Haehured line Indicates position of the Bal- cooes iscarpment. Fig. 34. Eurycea neotenes, ventral veiw of vertebral column, mid-region. Arrows point to alar processes. Fig. 35. Eurycea pfemphlla, ventral view of vertebral column, mid-region. At line, note that diapophysis extends slightly beyond lateral zygapophyseal margin. Fig. 36. Eurycea nona, ventral view of vertebra! column, mid-region. Arrows point to alar processes,- others evident. At lines, note that diapophyses extend well beyond lateral lygapophyseal margins. Fig. 37. Eurycea latitans, ventral view of vertebral column, mid-region. At line, note that dIapophysis extends slightly beyond lateral zygapophysea! margin. Fig. 38. Eurycea troglodytes, ventral view of vertebral column, mid-region. Arrow points to olar process. Fig. 39. Eurycea troglodytes, dorsal view of vertebral column, anterior. Note that dia¬ pophysis of Isf trunk vertebra extends well beyond lateral zygapophysea! margin while the dIapophysis of 5th trunk vertebra only meets this margin. Fig, 40. Eurycea fridentifera, venfrol view of vertebral column, mid-region. Arrow points to a unicapitate rib. Note paucity of alar processes. Fig. 41. Eurycea rathbuni, vonfral view of vertebral column, mid-region. Arrows point to olar processes. At line, note that dispophysis does not extend beyond lateral zygapophy- seo! margin IBIas from the slightly oblique view is minimal since the end of the dIapophysis Is near the plane of the lygapophyseoi morginl. 356 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE for separating genera at a vertebra count of 14 than there is at any other number. A count of 17 is shared by some of our specimens of neotenes, pterophila, and nana. A count of 16 is shared by nana, lati- tans, and troglodytes . A count of 15 is shared by troglodytes and one undescribed species. A count of 14 is shared by the same un described of our species, tridentifera, and rathbuni, A count of 13 is shared by tridentijera, rathbuni^ and the undescribed species. Wake stated, additionally, that the otic capsules of tridentifera are large and resemble those of rathbuni which he described as dispro¬ portionately large. A visual comparison of dorsal skull views (Figs. 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, and 32) suggests that this statement is erroneous. If these illustrations are used to calculate the otic capsule: head length ratio, it is found that the shortest capsule is possessed by a rathbuni (Fig. 25), the longest by a tridentifera (Fig. 17), but the 2nd longest by a nana (Fig. 32), The widest capsule belongs to nana (Fig. 32) followed by rathbuni (Fig. 25) . Perhaps a detailed statistical treatment of data from large samples would reveal significant specific differences, but it is suggested from our specimens that latitans (Fig. 21) may have the smallest otic capsules and nana the largest. (The dorsal skull views clearly demonstrate, in general, a great similarity among all the species. The only skull photograph readily separable from the others is that of the elongated skull of rathbuni. Certainly, there are some points of difference between the skull characteristics of the different salamanders; these are helpful in specific diagnoses.) Thus, solely on the basis of anatomical features, we see no justifi¬ cation for retention of the genus Typhlomolge^ neither containing tridentifera and rathbuni nor rathbuni alone. As previously mentioned. Wake (1966) suggested xhalTyphlomolge was derived at a relatively early date from a pre-Eurycea ancestor and that the remaining species were derived later from a Eurycea or a Eurycea-\\\Q: ancestor. Two questions are critical to this problem. In addition to asking when the ancestral salamander populations were available for colonization of central Texas caves, one must also ask when the caves, themselves, were accessible to potential colonizers. Wake states that the pve-Eurycea ancestor of Typhlomoge may have entered the Edwards Plateau “in early Tertiary when favorable cli¬ matic conditions prevailed and relatively uniform forest communities extended from Appalachia into Mexico and to the West Coast,” He further states that Typhlomolge was “probably differentiated when Tertiary drying was beginning to drive plethodontids eastward”. He seems to accept, after Braun (1950), that the region was drying in mid-Tertiary. He also states that presumably the genus Eurycea “arose 357 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF Eurycea relatively early in Tertiary”. He apparently assigns some pre-Mio¬ cene time to this event, and to the existence of Eurycea in central Texas, since he suggests as “much too recent” Dowling’s (1956) esti¬ mate of Miocene to Pliocene for generic differentiation and isolation of Interior Highland endemics (with which, as a unit, Wake discussed the central Texas endemics) . A simple fact has been overlooked. Subterranean environments can¬ not be colonized until they are accessible to colonizers. If Wake is correct, Typhlomolge differentiated and Eurycea established its pres¬ ence in central Texas before any caves in the area were available for colonization! Prior to the Miocene, the cavernous limestones of central Texas lay deeply buried by late Cretaceous deposits. Uplift of central Texas occurred during the Miocene, but exposure of all cavernous limestones did not occur at this time, nor even simultaneously at any time. Along the Balcones Escarpment, the faulting, itself, resulted in earlier exposure than in areas away from the fault. In the latter areas, exposure could not occur until erosional removal of the overlying Cretaceous deposits. It is barely possible that some fault zone caves might have been available for colonization in the late Miocene, but it is more likely that this was a Pliocene event. It is even possible that the fault zone caves were not opened until early Pleistocene. Subterranean systems in areas removed from the fault zone were probably not avail¬ able for colonization until mid- Pleistocene (Mitchell, 1969; Bull and Mitchell, 1971; A. R. Smith, pers. comm., see acknowledgements). Furthermore, it should be pointed out that exposure of caves of even close proximity need not have been coincident in time because of differential dissection of the area by surface stream drainages. We are not the first to suggest this rough time schedule in geological events in central Texas. Barr (1960), in his studies of the cavernicole beetles of the genus Rhadine, has suggested that fault zone caves are no older than early Pleistocene since late Pliocene or early Pleistocene Uvalde gravels occur in terraces high above the present stream channels which dissect the eastern and southern margins of the Edwards Plateau. Holsinger (1967), in his study of the cavernicole amphipods of the genus Stygonectes, incorporates, in his discussions of the evolution of this group, geological events in central Texas of approximately the same time relationships as we have presented. On the basis of geologi¬ cal evidence, then, one can look only to the genus Eurycea for the ancestral stock of all the central Texas salamanders. It seems most plausible to accept either early Tertiary (Wake, 1966) or Miocene-Pliocene (Dowling, 1956) as the time of appearance of Eurycea in central Texas. It further seems most logical to presume 358 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE that neoteny evolved in the genus prior to the time that cave coloniza¬ tion occurred since this would be an important “preadaptation” for a potential cave colonizing urodele. Only if Eurycea became established in central Texas in the mid to late Tertiary would there seem to be sufficient time to permit the evolution of neoteny prior to the time of cave accessibility. Blair’s (1958) suggestion that invasion of central Texas by Eurycea in the Pleistocene as a consequence of the spread of Arcto-Tertiary forests would seem to place the genus there at too late a date. Blair’s suggestion that endemism of Eurycea in central Texas was a Pleistocene event is certainly acceptable to us, but, in part, for reasons other than those he cited. We concur that interglacial drying was important in this endemism, but only for the spring dwelling species. Endemism in the cave species was also largely, if not entirely, a Pleistocene event, but simply because cave opening happened to occur coincidentally during this time. It is here that the concept of the cave as a “refuge” should be clarified. Caves become refuges not so much because colonizers are forced into them by inhospitable surface climates, but more because they permit the survival of already estab¬ lished colonizers as inhospitable climates remove parent populations on the surface (Barr, 1967). It might be suggested that the caves were already available for colonization when Eurycea arrived on the scene, but we think it likely that the salamanders were there prior to cave opening. Otherwise, it would seem that some other type of colonizer would probably have already occupied the “salamander” niche — a fish, maybe, or perhaps some large invertebrate — precluding successful establishment of sub¬ terranean salamander populations. This is open to debate, however, since there are many shallow limestone aquifers present now in central Texas which are largely (there are a few established “surface” cray¬ fish populations) without salamanders or any other species which might fill their niche. It is necessary to devote some considerable attention to the array of selection pressures to which the neotenic salamanders of central Texas have been exposed if there is to be any hope of understanding their evolution. Three reasonably valid assumptions may be made about these selection pressures. First, the spring salamanders as a group have ; probably been exposed to grossly similar selection pressures. Second, I the cave salamanders as a group have probably been exposed to grossly ' similar selection pressures. Third, spring and cave salamanders have j been exposed to grossly different selection pressures. The similar selection pressures to which the spring dwelling sala- i manders have been exposed is reflected by their present day homo- 359 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EurjCea geneity. Only 3 species have been described, and it is questionable if pterophila should be recognized as a ‘‘good” species. Many locality records for neotenic Eurycea are known in central Texas (Baker, 1961). These salamanders are so difficult to identify that ''neotenes'' is the usual specific epithet applied if the collections were not made at the type localities of pterophila or nana. Future studies may show some of these spring populations to be distinct, but regardless, one is im¬ pressed by their great similarity. It seems highly unlikely that homo¬ geneity in these neotenic surface dwellers was ever less than it now is. One could hardly suppose that there would be drastic divergence among populations inhabiting such similar environments as a group of relatively isothermic springs. Moreover, any heterogeneity which might have arisen in the ancestral stock would probably have been damped as Pleistocene climatic changes permitted occasional reestab¬ lishment of contact between disjunct spring populations. From this relatively homogeneous ancestral stock were derived the colonizers of the caves, and there is every reason to believe that this colonization continues at the present time as evidenced by the existence of several “surface” salamander populations apparently well established in sub¬ terranean waters. The most striking heterogeneity in this group of salamanders occurs, obviously, between the spring-adapted and the cave-adapted species. Heterogeneity also occurs within the group of cave salamand¬ ers as witnessed by the conflicting views on their taxonomy. Mitchell and Reddell (1968) pointed out that the former heterogeneity results from the differences in the selection pressures between surface and subterranean environments, a fact so manifestly obvious that it need hardly be elaborated. The latter heterogeneity may be attributed to any or all of the following: 1 ) any differences which may have existed between the gene pools of the colonizing populations, 2) differences in the selection pressures between different subterranean systems, 3) time of gene flow disruption between cave and surface populations, 4) disparate times of colonization. To the first point we may recall that we have already suggested homogeneity in the ancestral stock, but, of course, at least slight gene pool differences always exist between dif¬ ferent colonizing populations derived from the same parent popula¬ tion. To the 2nd point we may repeat that, within a rather circum¬ scribed geographical area such as central Texas, selection pressures are likely to be fairly similar, both qualitatively and quantitatively, resulting in relatively comparable evolutionary rates in the established cavemicole populations. Elsewhere, Mitchell (1969) has discussed the distributional level at which rate probably assumes considerable 360 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE importance. To the 3rd point it must be stated that gene pool separa¬ tion between surface populations and their cave derivatives did not necessarily occur at the time of cave colonization. Gene flow between cave and surface populations may, in some instances, have continued well after colonization, and, even after severance, may have been reestablished at some later date (but see Mitchell, 1969, regarding gene pool disruption of aquatic vs. terrestrial cave colonizers). To the 4th point it may be said that disparate times of colonization prob¬ ably contribute the most to the observable differences between these cave salamanders. Mitchell and Reddell (1968) discussed both the aspects of time and rate in the evolution of the central Texas Eurycea. The senior author has reexamined this discussion with the realization that he and Reddell underemphasized the time problem, a consequence of attempting to point out the problem of rate which is so seldom mentioned in literature on cavernicole evolution. There are 2 aspects of the time problem. First, as we have discussed, the caves became available for colonization at different times. Second, the improbability of successful colonization of such a stringent environment probably contributed to a greatly protracted period of time during which those inhabited caves were successfully colonized. Thus, the time of cave opening would be the earliest possible, but unlikely, time of coloniza¬ tion. Based upon the foregoing, it seems evident that rathbuni has been evolving for the longest period of time. It is, of course, anatomically the most cave adapted species, and, not surprisingly, it inhabits a sub¬ terranean system at the Balcones Escarpment (Fig. 42), that zone where cavernous limestones were first exposed. It is probably derived from a successful colonization which occurred during this early time of exposure whatever might have been the precise time as discussed earlier. The 2nd most cave adapted species, tridentifera, is at least as far removed from the fault zone as the least adapted species, latitans (Fig. 42). It might be suggested that the pre-tridentifera population colonized subterranean waters well in advance of the predatitans popu¬ lation even though the subterranean systems might have been avail- , able for colonization at roughly equivalent times. Or, perhaps, some ; of those factors other than temporal discussed earlier were of overrid- i ing importance. The degree of adaptation of troglodytes^ which occurs I rather close to the Escarpment (Fig. 42), is presently equally conjee- | tural. For whatever little may yet be said in explanation of the distri- | bution of these cave species, it is obvious that a ''pYe~Eurycea ancestor” cannot account for rathbuni on the Escarpment and tridentifera far | removed from that area. ^ 361 OSTEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF EurjCea With the possible exception of rathbuni, the evolution of these cave salamanders dates only from the Pleistocene. Lest it seem that we are suggesting too brief an evolutionary history, let it be remembered that in particularly rigorous environments, selection pressures are intense, effecting rapid evolutionary rates and, that caves are rather ephemeral environments in which the mere existence of obligate cavernicoles is de facto evidence for rapid evolution. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We appreciate the assistance of Mr. James R. Reddell with whom the senior author is collaborating in the description of new species of central Texas Eurjcea, We thank the follovdng persons for making available specimens for us to study: Prof. W. K. Davis, E. rathbuni; Dr. Jim Bogart, E. tridentifera; Dr. H. M. Smith, E. latitans. We ap¬ preciate the loan of specimens from the Texas Natural History Col¬ lection, University of Texas at Austin. Particular thanks are expressed to Mr. A. Richard Smith, Texas Speleological Survey and doctoral candidate in geology at the University of Texas at Austin, for provid¬ ing the senior author with the latest thinking on the geology of cave formation in central Texas. We also express appreciation to Dr. Dan Wells, Director of the Water Resources Center, Texas Tech University, for the Center’s interest in supporting these studies. LITERATURE CITED Baker, J, K., 1957 — Eurycea troglodytes: a new blind cave salamander from Texas. Tex. J. Sa'.,9(3)-. 328-336. ■ - , 1961 — Distribution of and key to the neotenic salamanders of Texas. Southw. Nat., 6(1): 27-32. Barr, T. C., Jr., 1960 — The cavernicolous beetles of the subgenus Rhadine, genus Agonum (Coleoptera:Carabidae). Amer. MidL Nat., 64(1): 45-65. ■ - 1967 — Observations on the ecology of caves. Amer. Nat., 101: 475-492. Bishop, S. C., 1941 — Notes on salamanders with descriptions of several new forms, Occ. Pap. Mm. ZooL, Univ. Mich., 451: 6-9. - - , and M. R. Wright, 1937 — A new neotenic salamander from Texas. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 50: 141-144, Blair, W. F., 1958— Distributional patterns of vertebrates in the southern United States in relation to past and present environments. In C. L. Hubbs (Ed.) Zoogeography. American Assn. Adv. Sci. PubL 51. pp. 433-468. ■ - , et al, 1968 — Vertebrates of the United States. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. Brame, a. H., 1967— a list of the world’s recent and fossil salamanders. Herpeton, 2(1): 1-26. 362 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Braun, E. L., 1950 — Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. Biakiston, Phila¬ delphia. Bull, E., and R. W. Mitchell, 1971 — Temperature and relative humidity re¬ sponses of two Texas cave-adapted millipedes, Cambala speobia and Speodesmus bicornourus (Diplopoda). Southw. Nat., In Press. Burger, W. L,, H. M. Smith, and F. E. Potter, 1950 — Another neotenic Eurucea from the Edwards Plateau. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 63: 51-58. Dowling, H. G., 1956 — Geographic relations of Ozarkian amphibians and reptiles. Southw. AflL, 1(4); 174-189. Holsinger, J. R., 1967— Systematics, speciation, and distribution of the subterranean amphipod genus Stygonectes (Gammaridae). Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 259. Mitchell, R. W., 1968 — New species of Sphalloplana (Turbellaria; Paludicola) from the caves of Texas and a reexamination of the genus Speophila and the family Kenkiidae. Ann. SpeleoL, 23(3) : 597-620. - , 1969 — A comparison of temperate and tropical cave communities. Southw. Nat., 14(1): 73-88. - , and J. R. Reddell, 1965^ — Eurycea tridentifera, a new species of trog- lobitic salamander from Texas and a reclassification of Typhlomolge rathbuni. Tex. J. Sci., 17(1): 12-27. Smith, H. M., and F. E. Potter, 1946 — A third neotenic salamander of the genus Eurycea from Texas. Herpetologica, 3(4) : 105-109. Stejneger, L., 1896^ — Description of a new genus and species of blind tailed batra- chians from the subterranean waters of Texas. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 18(1088): 619-621. Taylor, W. R., 1967 — An enzyme method of clearing and staining small vertebrates. Proc. TJ. S. Natl. Mus., 132(3596): 1-17. Wake, D. B., 1966 — Comparative osteology and evolution of the lungless sala¬ manders, family Plethodontidae. Mem. So. Calif. Acad. Sci., 4. Low Temperature Preservation of Toad Spermatozoa (Genus Bufoy by HARRY L. BARTON and SHELDON L GUTTMAN Department of Zoology and Physiology^ Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056 ABSTRACT Seven extenders, 3 protective agents, 3 freezing rates, and 3 thawing rates were tested in various combinations as possible methods of preserving the motility of toad spermatozoa. Cells extended in Alsever’s medium, protected with 15% ethylene glycol, and frozen slowly in a — 20° C freezer, showed the highest per cent motility for short periods of time (one to 3 days) . After 20 days storage, cells frozen slowly in fetal calf serum and thawed by the fast method showed 9.0% motility with a 15% or 20% concentration of ethylene glycol in the extender. Cells frozen in fetal calf serum with a 20% concentration of ethylene glycol in the extender, frozen by acetone slush, stored at —70° C for 15 days and thawed by the fast methods, showed 7.5% motility. Various combinations of Alsever’s medium and fetal calf serum were tested, but none were as successful as either of the extenders used alone. INTRODUCTION Extensive research has been conducted utilizing toads as experi¬ mental animals. Studies of genetic compatibility as a postmating iso¬ lating mechanism (Blair, 1963) usually involve stripping eggs from a female toad into a sperm suspension obtained by first killing a male toad, and then excising and macerating its testes. Crosses are frequent¬ ly made between animals of distant geographical origins; this makes it necessary to ship animals, sometimes even between continents. Toads frequently do not survive this shipment. A system of low temperature sperm preservation would eliminate this requirement. In addition, the sperm not used in a particular cross could be maintained and used for additional crosses at a later date; this would reduce the number of males required for genetic compatibility studies. Techniques have been developed for preserving spermatozoa of do¬ mesticated animals (Polge, 1957; Salisbury, 1957; Sherman, 1964; Jones and Martin, 1965; Martin, 1965) and of commercially important fish (Hoyle, et al., 1968; Truscott, et ah, 1968). The purpose of our 1 Requests for reprints should be made to the junior author. 364 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Study was to develop a method, utilizing low temperature, to preserve spermatozoa of toads (Bufo) . METHODS AND MATERIALS Animals The toads used in this study were Bufo americanus^ collected in the spring of 1968 and 1969 from the midwestern United States. Collection of Sperm The stock sperm suspension was prepared by macerating one gram of whole testis dissected from pithed toads in 2 ml of extender. This mixture was fluid enough to be handled efficiently with a small bore pipette. The test solution was prepared by adding one part of stock sperm solution to 9 parts of extender. This solution was divided into one ml quantities for freezing. Extenders The following extenders were used: de-chlorinated tap water (con¬ trol) ; Basal Medium, Eagle, Earle Base, pH 7.0 (B-D Laboratories, Inc., 1967) ; egg yolk citrate, pH 7.2 (Salisbury, et al.^ 1948) ; skimmed milk, pH 7.6; Alsever’s medium, pH 8.2 (Hodgins and Ridgeway, 1964); modified Cortland medium (Truscott, et al.^ 1968); and fetal calf serum (Grand Island Biological Co., New York) . Protective Agents Glycerol (G), ethylene glycol (EG) and dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) were used. Each was initially tested at a concentration of 10%. Combinations of extender and 10% protective agent which did not support sperm cells for 24 hours were not tested further. If the cells showed motility after 24 hours, tests were made using concentrations of 5, 15, and 20% protective agent. Freezing Rates Three freezing rates were tested. (1) Samples were placed in a freezer at — 20°C. The rate of temperature drop was 0.7C°/min. (2) Prepared samples were stoppered and plunged into an acetone-dry ice slush at — 79°C. The rate of temperature drop was 45C°/min. Samples were stored in an ultra-low temperature freezer at— 70°C. (3) The most rapid method of freezing was with liquid nitrogen at a tempera¬ ture of —196° C. The tubes were stoppered and plunged into the liquid. The rate of temperature drop was approximately 200C°/min. Samples LOW TEMPERATURE PRESERVATION OF TOAD SPERMATOZOA 365 Table 1 Per Cent Motility of Bufo americanus Spermatozoa After Freeze-Thaw Using Filtered Water, BME, and Modified Cortland Extender. EXTMDER PROTECTIVE NUMBER OP FREEZE THAW % MOTILITY (M) AGENT SAMPLES RATE RATE 1 DAY 3 DAYS 5 DAYS FILTERED NONE 6 ALL ALL 0 WATER '[Ofo G 2 SLOW PAST k. 2 0 G 2 SLOW MED. 3 0 - 10^ EG 2 SLOW PAST 23 3 0 10^ EG 2 SLOW MED. 21 7 4 10^ DMSO 2 SLOW PAST 10 4 0 10^ DMSO 2 SLOW MED. 3 3 0 BME NONE 6 ALL ALL 0 - 10^ G 2 SLOW MED, 2 0 ^0fo EG 2 SLOW PAST 8 0 - EG 2 SLOW MED. 24 0 - ^0i DMSO 2 SLOW MED. 3 0 MODIFIED NONE 6 ALL ALL 0 CORTLAND G 2 SLOW MED. 2 0 - 10^ EG 2 SLOW PAST 4 0 - ^0fo EG 2 SLOW MED. 12 0 'lOfo DMSO 2 SLOW PAST 0 - ^0% DMSO 2 SLOW MED. 4 0 - were stored in the ultra-low temperature freezer at — 70°C. The samples to be frozen in acetone slush and liquid nitrogen were stop¬ pered to preclude any adverse effects on the cells which might be caused by fumes. T hawing Rates Three thawing rates were tested. (1) Fast thaw- — Samples were removed from storage and placed in a 25° C water bath until all visible ice crystals had melted. Then they were removed from the bath and allowed to warm to room temperature. (2) Medium thaw — The samples which were stored at — 20°C (see above) were placed in a coldroom at 5°C for one hour and then moved to 21°C. Those samples stored at ~70°C were placed in a ~20°C freezer for one hour, then moved to a coldroom at 5°C for one hours, and finally, moved to 21 °C. (3) Slow thaw— A one liter Dewar flask was filled with ethylene gly- 366 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 2 Per Cent Motility of Bufo americanus Spermatozoa After Freeze-Thaw Using Alsever’s Medium (a). PROTECTIYE AGMT IIJMBER OF SllffLES %0 MOTILITY (M) 1 DAY 3 10 15 20 10 HE 3 0 5 3 L7 0 ^Qfo G 5 22.8 3*5 0 15^ G 3 39.3 0 20% G 3 46.7 0 Si DMSO 3 12.0 0 ^Qfo DMSO 5 10.6 1.0 0 ^Sfo DMSO 3 45.6 3.1 0 20% DMSO 3 76.7 10.3 2.0 0 S% EG 3 29.0 0 ^0% EG 6 50.1 38.2 20.5 3.0 4.0 0 15^ EG 6 88.0 55.0 11.0 4.3 2.0 ■ 0 20% EG 6 66.0 27.0 22.3 16.0 7.6 0 (a) Represents those samples frozen by the slow method and thawed by the fast method. All others were ineffective in preserving motility. col, placed in a — 20°C freezer, and left overnight. Samples to be i thawed by this method were placed in the flask the next day, the flask ; was covered -with insulating material, and placed in a coldroom at 5°C ; until the samples thawed. Lyophilization 1 Samples extended in fetal calf serum were placed in glass vials in | one ml quantities and frozen in acetone slush. The vials were then | placed in a Virtis Lyophilization Chamber and lyophilized under a ! vacuum of 5 microns. Samples were reconstituted' by the addition of one ml of double distilled water and were then stored under vacuum in a coldroom at 5°C. Detection of Motility A small drop of sample was placed on a microscope slide and studied under a phase contrast microscope at 450x. Ten 'random fields were LOW TEMPERATURE PRESERVATION OF TOAD SPERMATOZOA 367 examined and the per cent of motile sperm was determined by a com¬ parison of the motility of the sperm sample with the motility of a stock sperm solution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seven extenders containing 10% protective agent were tested. Two of these, egg yolk citrate and skimmed milk, failed to preserve the motility of the cells through any of the freeze-thaw treatments. How¬ ever, when these 2 extenders were tested by other investigators using mammalian spermatozoa, excellent results were obtained (Polge, 1957 ; Salisbury, 1957; Sherman, 1964; Jones and Martin, 1965; Martin, 1965). These extenders did not preserve salmon spermatozoa regard¬ less of protective agent or concentration employed (Hoyle, et aL, 1968; Truscott, et al.^ 1968). Three of the extenders, de-chlorinated tap water, BME, and modified Cortland medium, preserved the cells for short periods of time (Table 1 ) . All 7 extenders were tested for hypo- or hypertonicity to the sperm cells by examination of sperm under the microscope for periods up to 45 minutes. No shrinking or expansion of the cells was noted. This does not exclude the possibility of long term effects, but these were considered unimportant because the longest period of equilibration (time from addition of cells to extender until freezing) did not exceed 30 minutes. Modified Cortland medium was used for preserving salmon sperm (Hoyle, et aL, 1968) but all samples showed zero motility after freezing. The non-frozen samples which had a 7:5 % concentration of DMSO as a protective agent showed high motility and 92 to 96% fertilization. The samples preserved with glycerol or ethylene glycol showed lower motility and fertilization rates. Alsever’s medium was tested (Table 2). Concentrations of ethylene glycol above 5% yielded motility for periods up to 15 days. Although the per cent motility was slightly higher with a 20% concentration of EG, the 1 5 % concentration is more favorable for preservation for short periods of time, one to 3 days, and the 20% concentration of EG is more favorable for longer periods, 5 to 15 days. Alsever’s medium was tested with salmon sperm by Truscott, et aL (1968) . All frozen samples showed zero motility. Non-frozen controls, held for 18 hours at 2°C, showed good motility and 94% fertilization. Hodgins and Ridgway (1964) otbained slightly better results when they used a 25% concen¬ tration of DMSO and froze samples with liquid nitrogen; they reported “slight” motility upon thawing, A preliminary test to determine the effectiveness of fetal calf serum 368 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 3 | Per Cent Motility of Bufo americanm Spermatozoa After Freeze-Thaw Using [ Fetal Calf Serum Extender (a). j FREEZE RATE( b ) EG NUMBER OP SMPLES i MOTILITY (M) 1 DAY 3 5 10 ^ 15 20 25 SLOW lONE 2 0 SLOW 5 2 h.5 it. 5 1.5 0.5 0 SLOW 10 2 72.0 76.0 77.5 35.0 6,0 0 SLOW 15 5 69.0 67.5 20.7 19.3 17.5 9.0 0 SLOW 20 3 20.3 17.0 15.0 16.0 17.6 9.0 0 MED. NONE 2 0 MED. 10 2 18.0 12.0 10.0 5.5 0 MED. 15 2 39.5 12.5 10.0 5.0 0 MED. 20 2 50.5 25.5 28,0 17.5 7.5' 0 (a) Represents results using EG as protective agent, G and DMSO were not tested^ (b) Slow or medium freezing rate with rapid thawing rate were the only combinations effective* Table 4 | Per Cent Motility of Bufo americanm Spermatozoa After Freeze-Thaw Using i Various Combinations of Alsever’s Medium (A) and Fetal Calf Serum (FCS)* EXTENDER PROTECTIVE NUMBER OP % MOTILITY (M) AGENTS SAMPLES 1 DAY 3 10 15 20 25^ A + 15^ EG 2 90.5 61.0 29.0 4.5 PCS 20^ EG 2 98,0 33.9 3.0 50^ A + 15^ EG 2 59.0 10.0 25.0 8.0 50^ PCS 20% EG 2 86.5 16.5 2,0 75^ A + 15^ EG 2 45.5 15.0 21.0 7.0 25^ PCS 20^ EG 2 90.5 21.5 7.5 -X- Represents samples frozen by the slow method and thawed by the fast method. LOW TEMPERATURE PRESERVATION OF TOAD SPERMATOZOA 369 as an extender showed that, when combined with a concentration of EG as small as 5%, it could preserve cells. Higher percentages were not used because they prevented complete drying during lyophiliza- tion. Although all attempts to preserve motility by freeze-drying were unsuccessful, fetal calf serum was the only extender that preserved motility through freeze- thaw at 2 freezing rates, slow and medium (Table 3). There appears to be only a slight difference between the samples frozen with a 15 and 20% concentration of EG for storage periods from 5 to 20 days. However, samples with a 15% concentration of EG, frozen at a slow rate, resulted in a higher per cent motility for periods from one to three days while the highest per cent motility with samples frozen at the medium rate was with 20% EG. Fetal calf serum is more viscous than the other extenders and it contains natural buffers rather than the artificial buffers of the others; this may enhance its effectiveness. We tested whether a combination of Alsever’s medium and fetal calf serum could increase preservation time and per cent motility (Table 4) . A combination of the 2 might enhance the advantages of each and give better protection. The per cent motility of the samples tended to decrease as the concentration of Alsever’s medium increased, indicat¬ ing reduced effectiveness due possibly to dilution or to some syner¬ gistic effect. Before the best extender and protective agent can be ascertained, additional studies at different pH’s combined with determinations of the per cent fertilization of toad eggs by sperm, treated with various agents, are necessary. LITERATURE CITED B-D Laboratories Incorporated, 1967 — Tissue culture: A manual of materials and methods. Baltimore, Maryland. Blair, W. F., 1963 — Evolutionary relationships of North American toads of the genus Bufo: A progress report. Evolution, 17: 1-16. Hodgins, H. O., and G. J. Ridgway, 1964 — Recovery of viable salmon spermatozoa after fast freezing. Progr. Fish-Cult., 26: 95. Hoyle, R. J,, B. Truscott, and D. R, Idler, 1968 — Studies on freezing sperm of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Fis. Res. Bd. Canada Tech. Rep., No. 93. Jones, R. C., and I. C. A. Martin, 1965 — Deep-freezing ram spermatozoa; The ef¬ fects of milk, yolk citrate, and synthetic dilutents containing sugar. J. Reprod. Fertil, 10: 413-423. Martin, I. C. A., 1965 — Influence of equilibrium, freezing rate, method of dilution, and diluent on the survival of deep-frozen bull spermatozoa. Aust. J. Biol. Sci., 18: 901-915. 370 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PoLGE, C., 1957 — Low-temperature storage of mammalian spermatozoa. Proc. Roy. Soc. {London)., B147: 498-508. Salisbury, G. W., 1957 — Recent developments with bull semen diluents. Anim. Breed. Ahst., 25: 111-123. Salisbury, G. W., C. B. Knodt, and R, W. Bratton, 1948 — The freezing point de¬ pression and its relation to the diluter problem, /. Anim. Sci., 7: 283-290. Sherman, J. K., 1964 — Low temperature research on spermatozoa and eggs. CryobioL, 1: 103-129. Truscott, B., D. R. Idler, R. J. Hoyle, and H. C, Freeman, 1968 — Sub-zero preser¬ vation of Atlantic salmon sperm. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 25: 363-372. Developmental Rates and Tolerances of the Plains Killifish, Fundulus kansae, and Comparison with Related Fishes by STAN WILSON^ and CLARK HUBBS University of Oklahoma Biological Station^ Willis ^ 73462 and The University of Texas at Austin^ Austin 78712 ABSTRACT Fertilized eggs of Fundulus kansae from south central Oklahoma hatch at tem¬ peratures between 12.6°C and 35.8°C. The effects of temperature on the develop¬ mental rate of eggs of the plains killifish (and related summer spawning fishes) are much greater than on similar winter breeding fishes. It is assumed that the impact of thermal effluents will be most significant on those fishes that breed in winter. INTRODUCTION Most organisms are adapted to survive the physical conditions usually found in their environment; however, planned electric power developments may produce sufficient heat to alter the temperatures in nearby waters. Knowledge of thermal limiting factors may avoid complications from heat pollution. Although temperature can affect all life stages, most fishes are progressively more eurythermal with age (Hubbs, 1966); therefore, early ontogeny may be the most critical thermally. We have studied the temperature tolerance and developmental rate of zygotes of the plains killifish, Fundulus kansae. The plains killifish is an inhabitant of small prairie streams in which thermal extremes are likely (Cross, 1967). Adults breed in the summer in northeastern New Mexico (Koster, 1948) and in the winter in south Texas (Hubbs and Wauer, M.S.), indicating that seasonal factors (temperature?) are significant in reproduction. METHODS AND MATERIALS Adult plains killifish were obtained in south central Oklahoma dur¬ ing June and July, 1970, and taken to the University of Oklahoma Biological Station in Willis, Oklahoma, in styrafoam coolers. Almost all of the stocks were from Sandy Creek east of Tishomingo but a few 1 Present address: Murray State College, Tishomingo, Oklahoma. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 372 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE fish were from Oscar Creek east of Oscar, Coffeepot Creek west of Rubottom and a creek tributary to Buncomb Bay northeast of Willis. All eggs were exposed to sperm from the same population and no differences were noted that can be attributed to stock source. The technique of egg stripping and fertilization followed the method of Strawn and Hubbs (1956). Females were stripped by applying slight coelomic pressure on the ventral portion of the fish. Eggs were placed directly into a petri plate (sometimes this consisted of eggs from more than one female) , milt was removed from the males in a manner similar to that described for egg removal. The milt of F. kansae males is usually not visible macroscopically and because of this several males would be processed to increase percentage of fertilization. The zygotes were inoculated into individual screwcapped culture tubes (20 X 125 mm), which were placed in the temperature gradient blocks described by Hubbs, et al. (1969). Temperatures were ± 0.2°C at each station except when electrical power and/or compressed air supplies were off. On those 3 occasions the extreme hot or cold stations tended to approach ambient temperatures but only for short intervals. Comparison of results with and without such interruptions did not show differences, thus these technical problems are not believed to seriously distort the validity of the results. The eggs were checked daily for developmental stage and the 4 intervals used have patterns typical of the others. Gastrulation is con¬ sidered to be equivalent to Oppenheimer (1937) Stage 19; eye pigmen¬ tation equivalent to Oppenheimer Stage 28; and hatching equivalent to Oppenheimer Stage 34. The 4th stage, starvation death, should reflect rates of yolk consumption (or general metabolism). Eggs were considered to have been successful if the young were normal and died with small or absent yolk sacs. Those that were abnormal (usually with the tail curled ventrally) often were quiet when examined and lived much longer than their active siblings at the same temperature. The number of days required to reach each stage was recorded for each egg and those were averaged for each temperature station. Nor¬ mal young after 3 to 25 days of free swimming sank to the bottom and did not move but had a visible heart beat. Such young were allocated a half-day survival as they were obviously dying. Most of the tests were run in Lake Texoma water — water pumped from the Buncomb arm — that had been placed in culture tubes 2+ hours before inoculation (adequate time for temperature equilibra¬ tion). This water may have contained supplies of microorganisms, but little population growth would be likely in 5cc water held in darkness. DEVELOPMENTAL RATES, TOLERANCES OF THE PLAINS KILLIFISH 373 TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE Plains killifish eggs placed at incubation temperatures within an hour of fertilization successfully hatched, swam normally, and used up their yolk reserves at temperatures between 15 and 34,3°C and more than half were successful at temperatures between 16.8 and 33.5 °C (Figure 1 ) . The upper limit is notably higher than the 28.5 °C reported for the related Fundulus parvipinnis (Hubbs, 1965). We believe that the differences are real; 4 tests with 10 or more eggs were done on F. parvipinnis at the intermediate temperatures. The lower limit for F. kansae seems to be colder than that for F. parvipinnis (16.8°C) indicating that the latter is more stenothermal. 15 20 25 30 35 Fig. 1. Percent of gastrulated Fundulus kansae that survived to complete depletion of yolk supplies. At high temperatures many larvae were deformed and the upper plot includes and the lower plot excludes deformed larvae. At 15°C only 2 of 5 eggs gastrulated and the lower plot assumes that 4 were actually fertilized (the rate was usually above 90% at op¬ timal temperatures). DEVELOPMENTAL TEMPERATURE RATES The eggs gastrulate in one (over 30 °C) to 8 (below 13°C) days (Figure 2). Thermal effects on gastmlation rate seem to be greatest below 18°C. The eyes pigment after 2.5 (about 32° C) to 28 (below 13°C) days. Eye pigmentation is delayed at sublethal warm temper¬ atures (above 34° C) and with increasing cold. At temperatures be¬ tween 20 and 30 °C the rate doubles with a 9°C change, but below 19°C a doubling occurs in about 5°C. Hatching occurs after 6 (above 30°C) to 40 (below 16°C) days. There is little thermal effect on hatch¬ ing time above 30 °C, considerable delay with increasing cold between 22 and 30°C, and very much thermal effect below 20°C. Starvation 374 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 2. Time fo achieve 4 developmental stages by F. kansae. The circled starvation death figures include those that are malformed. death occurs after 14 (about 32° C) to 63 (15°C) days. Larvae at the ' warmest temperatures live one day longer than at more moderate | temperatures and the amount of effect of cold is greater below 20 °C than above 20 °C. At the hottest temperatures some embryos hatch deformed. These live quietly on the bottom and only swim in tight DEVELOPMENTAL RATES, TOLERANCES OF THE PLAINS KILLIFISH 375 circles. Their survival potential in nature would be low but, in the experiments, they often outlived their normal siblings. At the highest temperatures all hatched larvae are deformed and at these tempera¬ tures die shortly after hatching. Many eggs were incubated in optimal temperatures until the embryos were cephalized and then placed at lethal or sublethal tem¬ peratures, At hot temperatures these transferred eggs follow the devel¬ opmental success of the few eggs that gastrulate under the same con¬ ditions; that is, at 36.4°C they develop eye pigmentation and then die and at 35.8° C many hatch but all are deformed. At cold temperatures eye pigmentation will occur when cephalized eggs are incubated at temperatures as cold as 10.2°C and deformed larvae will hatch at 12.6°C. 20 □ A Oo 0 "" A °o 0% ^ o A □ Oo " Oa° OS, HATCHING o Fundu/us ^ Cyprinodon 0 Etheostoma a Men/d/a A O o o ° o ° Oi □ 0 □ □ □ aa a° 0° ° ^ AA " A A A 20 30 Fig. 3. Time to achieve eye pigmentation in four fishes. 10 40 376 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 20 10 8 in 6 > < o 4 2 10 20 g 30 40 Fig. 4. Time to hatch in four fishes. The relationship of hatching time to starvation death is drastically longer in F, kansae than in F. parvipinnis (Hubbs, 1965) . None of the temperatures had posthatching survival greater than 50% of the pre¬ hatching time in F. parvipinnis, but above 20° C all were greater than 50% in F. kansae. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER FISHES Although the developmental rate of few fishes has been ascertained over a broad spectrum of their temperature tolerance, comparisons of some examples may provide tentative conclusions. Because conditions (and stages) must be equivalent, we have selected 3 other fish for comparison. Two, Menidia audens (Hubbs, et ah, 1971) and Cyprino- don rubrofluviatilis (Echelle, et aL, in press) , are also summer breeders in central Oklahoma; and the 3rd Etheostoma lepidum (Hubbs, et aL, 1969) is a winter breeder in central Texas. We contrast the rate data of these 3 species with that of F. kansae for eye pigmentation (Figure •^“T” ' ' • ‘ I ' ' ' ' 1 ^ EYE PIGMENTATION o Fund ulus ^ Cyprinodon 0 Etheostoma D Menidia o ' \ o □ l □ % °o O, «00 “S'' °°o 0 o Oa □ ° ^ Co ° 0 o o o Oa A o 0 a o o o o ^ p □ o AA AAAAQ 00aAA DEVELOPMENTAL RATES, TOLERANCES OF THE PLAINS KILLIFISH 377 m >- < Q 10 20 30 • 40 OQ Fig. 5. Time to complete utilizafion of yolk supplies in four fishes. 3), hatching (Figure 4), and starvation death (Figure 5). In each stage the winter breeding E. lepidum is more cold tolerant and less warm tolerant than the more northern summer breeders. The data for hatching and starvation clearly show that E. lepidum eggs are less subject to temperature caused changes in developmental rates. Because the summer breeding fish have maximum developmental temperature tolerances close to temperatures at which proteins denature, embryos may hasten their development in order to hatch and move to a cooler part of the stream. Perhaps this is also influenced by the respective sites of egg deposition: midstream rapids for E. lepidum^ and quiet shallows for M. audens^ C. rubrofluviatilis, and E. kansae^ in which temperatures are relatively consistent and highly variable, respec¬ tively. The 3 summer breeders tend to have similar prehatching rates (especially Cypriimdon and Menidia) but very different times for 100 80 - 0 40 * '"I ”1 . 1 I I I 0 . o V oO/ STARVATION DEATH o Fund ulus ^ Cyprinodon 0 Etheo stoma D Menidia 0^ 0^ A ^ O A % o ''00. \a > O VVA O O V A ° o A ° A Oq A A O □ □, O O O Oo o A 0^0 A A O O □ □ D □ □ □ 378 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Starvation death. The starvation death times for fishes with similar breeding seasons in a similar area are closely parallel to egg diameters ' — 0.96 mm for M, audens^ 1 .47 mm for C. rubrofluviatilis and 1 ,60 mm for F. kansae. Yolk volumes may cause some delay in hatching time ! but clearly result in longer survival on yolk supply. Any increase in | posthatching survival will be selectively advantageous and that in- ; creased survival potential may compensate for the decreased fecundity associated with increased yolk supplies. E. lepidum also has a long , posthatching survival and a 1.38 mm diameter egg (Hubbs, 1967). j DISCUSSION I Fundulus kansae is able to withstand a wide range of temperatures : during its ontogeny. The rates are extremely rapid at high temper- ! atures which permit embryos to hatch quickly and to move from areas of excess heat — that is, they may abound in areas of heat pollu¬ tion. Winter breeding fishes in contrast may be less adapted to con¬ ditions associated with major electrical generation developments. The developmental rate of F . kansae is strikingly different from that of F. parvipinnisy a circumstance that supports the hypothesis, based on hybridization data (Hubbs, 1971), that F. parvipinnis is distinct from other Fundulus species. LITERATURE CITED Cross, F. B., 1967 — Handbook of Fishes of Kansas. Misc. Puhl. Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kan., 45. Echelle, Anthony A., C. Hubbs, and A. F. Echelle, in press — Developmental rates and tolerances of Cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis. Southwestern Nat. Hubbs, Clark, 1965 — Developmental temperature tolerances and rates of four southern California fishes, Fundulus parvipinnis, Atherinops affinis, Leuresthes tenuis, and Hypsoblennius sp. Calif. Fish and Game, 51 : 113-122. - , 1966 — Fertilization, initiation of cleavage and developmental tempera¬ ture tolerance of the cottid fish, Clinocottus analis. Copeia, 1966: 29-42. - , 1967 — Geographic variations in survival of hybrids between etheo- stomatine fishes. Bull. Tex. Mem. Mus., 13. - , 1971 — Teleost hybridization studies, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 38: 289-297. - , A. E. Peden, and M. M. Stevenson, 1969 — The developmental rate of the greenthroat darter, Etheostoma lepidum. Amer. Midi. Nat., 81: 182-188, - , H. B, Sharp, and J. F. Schneider, 1971 — Developmental rates of Menidia audens, with notes on salt tolerance. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 100: 603-610. DEVELOPMENTAL RATES, TOLERANCES OF THE PLAINS KILLIFISH 379 - , and R. Wauer. ms. Seasonal changes in the fish fauna of Tornilla Creek, Brewster County, Texas. Koster, W. J., 1948 — -Notes on the spawning activities and the young stages of Plancterus kansae. Copeia, 1948: 25-33. Oppenheimer, J. M., 1937 — The normal stages of Fundulus heteroclitus, Anat. Record, 68: 1-15. Strawn, K., and C. Hubbs, 1956 — Observations on stripping small fishes for experi¬ mental purposes. Copeia, 1956: 114-116. A Survey of Metazoan Parasites in Unionid Bivalves of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Denton County, Texas by JERRY M. FLOOR and JOHN E. UBELAKER Department of Biology Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222 ABSTRACT A survey of the parasites of unionid clams of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir indicated the presence of the following trematode-host relationships: Aspidogaster conchicola in Amhlema plicata, Amblema costata, and Anodonta corpulenta; Cotylaspis insignis in Lampsilis anodontoides, L. radiata hydiana, Proptera purpurata, A. corpulenta; and Bucephalus elegans in P. purpurata, L. anodontoides, and L. r. hydiana. A new species of rhopalocercous gorgoderid cercaria was found in association with Amblema plicata. Water mites, Unionicola spp., were taken from A. plicata, A. costata, Leptodea laevissima, Arcidens confragosus, A. corpulenta, P. purpurata, L. anodontoides, L. r. hydiana, and Quadrula quadrula. Statistical treatment indicated that probability of parasitic infection increases significantly with size (age) of the clam in the following relationships: C. insignis in L. r. hydiana, B. elegans in P. purpurata, and gorgoderid sporocysts in A. plicata. Evidence suggesting parasitic castration of the host was noted in Bucephalus in¬ fections of P. purpurata and L. r. hydiana and in gorgoderid infections of A. plicata. INTRODUCTION In the summer and autumn of 1 969 a series of collections was made in an attempt to determine the parasitic fauna associated with the unionid bivalves from Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Denton County, Texas. In a previous survey of the bivalves of this drainage system (Elm Fork of the Trinity River, north-central Texas) Read (1954) reported the occurrence of hydrachnid mites and leeches {Placobdella spp.) . The only other consideration of parasites of bivalves in Texas prior to the present study was a survey by Centner and Hopkins (1966) of the trematode fauna of clams in the Little Brazos River. MATERIALS AND METHODS Clams were collected at Sycamore Bend Park on the Hickory Creek arm of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir. Specimens were collected peri¬ odically from July through November at water depths ranging from. 2 inches to 5 feet. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 382 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Clams were examined microscopically for both exo~ and endopara- sites. Each bivalve was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm and was sexed either by the general appearance of the gonad and the material ex¬ pressed therefrom or by the presence of eggs or glochidia in the gills. Determination of age for each clam proved difficult because of the indistinct delineation of growth lines in many specimens. Valve length was therefore chosen as an alternate index of age. An average size was ! determined for each successive growth period in each species of clam on the basis of several shells bearing relatively distinct growth lines. | Parasites were fixed in A.F.A. and stored in 70% alcohol. Mites were cleared in lactophenol and mounted in glycerine jelly for study. | Trematode specimens were stained with Harris’ or Ehrlich’s hema¬ toxylin or precipitated borax carmine slowly cleared in ascending con¬ centrations of xylene and mounted in Piccolyte. ' The t-statistic was applied to test the hypothesis that probability of ' infection with trematode species increased with size (age) of the host. | The level of significance was set at P<0.05 for the one-tailed test. A . 2-way contingency table was employed to test for a significant relation- i ship between trematode sporocyst infection and atypical gonad struc¬ ture and function observed in several bivalve specimens (a = 0.05). RESULTS Nine species of unionid clam were taken in collections from Garza- Little Elm Reservoir. The bivalve species and numbers of each col¬ lected were 146 Amblema plicata{S3j) ^ 4 Amblema costata Rafines- ! que^, 4 Leptodea laevissimail^edi) ^ 4 Arcidens conjragosus{Saj) ^ 11 Anodonta corpulenta Cooper, 62 Proptera Lamarck), 12 Lampsilis anodontoides (hea) ^ 14 L. radiata hydiana{l^ea) ^ and 51 Quadrula quadrula Rafinesque. Parasites identified included adults of 2 aspidobothrean trematodes, Aspidogaster conchicola Raer and Cotylaspis insignis Leidy; sporocysts and cercariae of 2 digenetic trematodes, Bucephalus elegans Woodhead and a new species of rhopalocercous cercaria ; and at least 2 species of water mite, Unionicola Haldeman. j The parasites associated with each bivalve species and their frequen¬ cy of occurrence are presented in Table 1. For more comprehensive | treatment each parasitic species and its hosts are discussed individually. : Only a few specimens were found to be free of any of these parasites. | 1 Despite the conclusion of Clarke and Clench (1966) that A. costata is merely an ecophenotype of A. plicata, these forms are treated here as distinct species. All speci¬ mens of both types observed iwere completely sympatric and morphologically dis¬ tinct; no intergrades were found. , A SURVEY OF METAZOAN PARASITES IN UNIONID BIVALVES 383 The species of unparasitized specimens and the ratio of these speci¬ mens to total sample for that species are: 2/146 Amblema plicata, 1/4 Amblema costata, 1/4 Leptodea laevissima, 1/4 Arcidens confragosus, and 2/14 Lampsilis r. hydiana. Table 1 Frequency occurrence of parasites from host species Hosf Unparasitized Aspidogaster Cotylaspis Bucephalus Cercaria Unionicola Concurrent Trematode Infections ' conchicola (AduTt)~ ins ignis IA3Utr elegans •(Sporocyst)** sp, (Sporocyst) • spp. Amblema plicata 1.37% (2/146)0 2.74% (4/146) — — 5.48% (8/146) 98.63% (144/146) — Amblema costata 25.00% (1/4) 50. 00% (2/4) — — 75.00% (3/4) Leptodea 25.00% (1/4) — — - 75.00% (3/4) — laevissima Arcidens 25.00% (1/4) — — — 75.00% (3/4) — confragosus Anodonta ... 9.09% (I/ll) 72,73% (8/11) ... 100% (ll/ll) C. insignis- corpulenta A, conchicola ■V.09% (l/ll) Proptera ... ... *20.97% (13/62) *35,48% (22/62) ... 100% (62/62) C. insignis- purpurata ¥7 elegans 6.4PAW62) Lampsilis *33.33% (4/13) *58.33% (7/12) 100% (12/12) C. insignis- anodontoides elegans ^5 .“00% (3/12) Quadrula — — — 100% (51/5.1) — quadrula Actinonaias carinata 14.29% (2/14) *35.71% (5/14) *35.71% (5/14) 85.71% (12/14) C. insignis- F. elegans ^1.43% (3/14) ° Denominator of fraction indicates total size of mollusk sample in that row; numerator indicates number of mollusks in the category of that column * New host record ** First locality record for Texas Erratum: For Actinonais carinata read Lampsilis radiata hydiana. Aspidogaster conchicola Baer, 1827 Infections of Aspidogaster conchicola Baer, 1827, were observed in the following clams: Amblema plicata (Say) (frequency =4 infected/ 146 clams collected), Amblema costata Raf. (f=2/4), and Anodonta corpulenta Cooper (f=l/ll). This aspidobothrean was always found within the pericardial cavity and kidneys of its host. Only adult stages were noted, although the larvae are known to develop in the same host species as the adult. No relationship between clam size (age) and Aspidogaster infection was statistically demonstrable. The modal burden for all host species was 1 Aspidogaster; however, occasional specimens harbored surprising numbers of this fluke, the heaviest infection noted being 22 worms in a single Amblema plicata. 384 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Cotylaspis insignis Leidy, 1857 Specimens of Cotylaspis insignis Leidy, 1857, were taken from the following unionids: Anodonta corpulenta Cooper (frequency =8 in¬ fected/11 clams coWecXedi) ^Proptera purpurata (Lamarck) (f=13/62), Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea) (f=4/12), and L. r. hydiana (Lea) (f— 5/14). P. purpurata, L. anodontoides, and L. r. hydiana are new host records. These flukes were invariably found in the suprabranchial chamber of the bivalve on the surface of the body wall overlying the kidneys. No immature stages of Cotylaspis were observed, although the larvae of this aspidobothrean probably develop in the same host as the adult. Only in Lampsilis r. hydiana could any relationship be statistically demonstrated between host size (age) and Cotylaspis insignis infect¬ ions (t=2.878, d,f=10, 0.0050 and 0 < Xq < 1 for q > 1, or (2) there exists a positive integer m such that x^ < 0, Xi>0ifm7^1,0 1 if q > m. Further¬ more, X is in Q if and only if either ( 1 ) Xi > 0 and 0 < Xq < 1 if q > 1, (2) there exists a positive integer m such that x^ < 0, Xi > 0 ifm7^1,0 1 if q > m, or (3) there exists a positive integer r such that x^ = 0, Xi > 0 if r^l, and 0 < Xq < 1 if 1 < q < r. Sequences in P and Q will be known as decreasing product sequences and nonincreasing product sequences, respectively. Theorem 1. If A is a matrix, then the following are equivalent: ( 1 ) if X is in P, then Y is in P, and (2) A is a diagonal matrix such that an > 0 and app = 1 for p > 1. Proof. Suppose (1) is true. For Y to exist for every sequence in P, A must be row finite, and for Y to be in P for every sequence in P, there can not exist a positive integer p such that apq = 0 for q > 1 . Each element of A is nonnegative. (Proof. Suppose there exists a posi¬ tive integer m and a positive integer n such that amn < 0. For a proper choice of Xn and sufficiently small Xq’s for q n, a positive sequence X in P will be constructed such that ym < 0 and ym+i < F Thus, Y is not in P. ) 1 AMS Subject Classification (1968MR) : Primary 4031. 2 Key Phrases. Matrix, sequence to sequence transformation, mono Ionic product sequence. 3 Present address: Department of Mathematics, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 410 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE The matrix A is a diagonal matrix. (Proof. Suppose A is not a diagonal matrix, then there exist positive integers m and n such that m n and amn ^ 0. Furthermore, suppose m is the least such integer. Either n < m or n > m. Suppose n < m, then ann > 0. Let Xq = % for 1 < q < n and Xq = 2 for q > n, then if one chooses Xn to be a sufficiently small negative number, a sequence X in P will be con¬ structed such that yn < 0 and ym < 0. Thus, Y is not in P. Therefore, suppose n > m. Either m = 1 or m > 1 . Suppose m = 1 . If agi > 0, we can select a positive sequence X in P with a sufficiently large first element such that yi > 0 and y2 > 1. Since Y is not in P, aai = 0. Hence, there exists an integer r such that r > 1 and a2r > 0. Let Xi = — 1 and Xq = 2 if q > 1, q A n and q A r, then if one chooses each of Xn and Xr to be a sufficiently large positive number, a sequence X in P will be constructed such that yi > 0 and y2 > 1. Thus, Y is not in P. Suppose m > 1. Let Xq = % if 1 < q < m, Xm = — 1, and Xq = 2 if q > m and q A n, then if one chooses Xn to be a sufficiently large positive number, a sequence X in P will be constructed such that yp > 0 for 1 < p < m — 1 and ym > 1- Thus, Y is not in P.) If p > 1, then app = 1. (Proof. Suppose there exists p > 1 such that app A 1 . Either 0 < app < 1 or app > 1 . Suppose 0 < app < 1 . Let Xi = —1 and Xq = 2 if q > 1 and q ^ p, then if one chooses Xp to be a number such that Xp > 1 and appXp < 1, a sequence X in P will be constructed such that yi < 0 and yp < 1. Thus, Y is not in P. Therefore, suppose app > 1 . Let Xi = 1 and Xq = I/2 if q > 1 and q A p, then if one chooses Xp to be a number such that 0 < Xp < 1 and appXp > 1, a sequence X in P will be constructed such that yi > 0 for 1 < i < p — 1 and yp > 1. Thus, Y is not in P.) We have shown that (1) implies (2). Since it is easily shown that (2) implies (1), this part of the proof is omitted. This completes the proof of Theorem 1 . Theorem 2. If A is a matrix, then the following are equivalent: ( 1 ) if X is in Q, then Y is in Q, and (2) A is row finite and either aiq = 0 for q > 1 or A is a diagonal matrix such that an > 0 and app = 1 for p > 1. Proof. Suppose ( 1 ) is true. The matrix A must be row finite for Y to exist for every sequence in Q. We will now show that an > 0. (Proof. Suppose an < 0. Let Xi be a positive number such that agiXi < 1 and Xq = 0 for q > 1 . Hence, X is a sequence in Q such that yi < 0 and y2 < 1. Thus, Y is not in Q.) Either an = 0 or an > 0. Suppose an = 0. Thus, aiq = 0 for q > L (Proof. Suppose there exists an integer n such that n > 1 and am 7^ 0. MATRIX transformations OF MONOTONIC PRODUCTS SEQUENCES 41 1 Let Xq = 0 if q ^ n and let Xn be a number such that amXn < 0 and agnXn < 1. Hence, X is in Q, yi < 0 and j2 < 1. Thus, Y is not in Q). Suppose an > 0. There does not exist a positive integer m such that anin — 0 for n > 1. (Proof. Suppose there exists a positive integer m such that amn = 0 for n > 1. Since an > 0, m > 1 . If we let Xq = 1 if q > 1 and choose Xi to be a sufficiently small negative number, a sequence X in Q will be constructed such that yi < 0 and y^ = 0. Thus, Y is not in Q.) We can now show the remainder of (2) to be true in a manner similar to the proof of Theorem 1. Therefore, (1) implies (2). It is easily shown that (2) implies (1), and hence, this will be omitted. This completes the proof of Theorem 2. The conditions to map P into Q are the same as the conditions to map Q into Q. However, there does not exist a matrix which maps Q into P. Also, if P' and Q' denote the sets of real sequences such that X is in P' (in Q') if and only if {IH_^x^}^_^ is an increasing (non¬ decreasing) sequence, then Theorems 1 and 2 remain true when P' and Q' are substituted for P and Q, respectively. Reaction of N- (Substituted) Phthalimides with i^-Alkylamines by D. PAT JOHNSON and CHARLES G. SKINNER Department of Chemistry North Texas State University Denton 76203 ABSTRACT In an effort to determine if the mass of the alkyl group of amines would affect their reactivity with N- (substituted) phthalimides, several different alkylamines were interacted with a variety of N- (substituted) phthalimides. A comparison of the yields of the reaction products was made after a reaction time of one hour, and after the reactions reached equilibrium. By varying the alkylamines, and by using differ¬ ent N-substituents on the phthalimide nucleus, steric factors influencing the yield of products were examined. INTRODUCTION An investigation of the reaction of an N- (substituted) -phthalimide with various alkylamines indicated that certain N-alkylphthalimides react with alkylamines to form the N5N'-(disubstituted)phthalamides in high yields (Spring and Woods, 1945). For example, N-methyl~ phthalimide, interacts with methylamine to produce N,N^-dimenthyl- phthalamide, and this reaction was demonstrated to be reversible (Spring and Woods, 1946) . A recent study of the interaction of alkylamines with 3-phthalimi- dopropionyl chloride indicated that lower molecular weight n-dl- kylamines initially condensed with the acyl chloride and subsequently cleaved the imide bond to form diamides. In contrast, long chain n-alkylamines reacted only with acyl chloride, and did not appear to cleave the phthalimide system (Clifton, et aL^197Q) . An examination of structural models of N- (substituted) phthaL imides (constructed with Leybold atom models) suggested that there is sufficient free area around the carbonyl groups of the phthalimide to permit aminolysis by high molecular weight alkylamines. The initial purpose of this study was to determine if, in fact, steric factors are involved as indicated by an analysis of product yields in the reac¬ tion of the N- (substituted) phthalimide with low and high molecular weight amines. Previous studies have suggested that the electronic The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, Fehruary, 1972. 414 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE character of the substituent groups and solubility of the derivative are the main factors influencing the rate and type of reaction (Barber and Wragg, 1946) . EXPERIMENTAL Organic Syntheses^ N-( Substituted) phthalimides. A mixture of 0.20 mole phthalic an¬ hydride (29.6 g) and 0.20 mole of the appropriate amine was heated under reflux in an oil bath at 150°C with stirring for 2 hours. The resulting N- (substituted) phthalimide produced was recrystallized from 95% ethanol to yield white crystals: N-benzylphthalimide, m.p. 116°C; N-n-decylphthalimide, m.p. 59-60°C; N-n-butylphthalimide, m.p. 34-35°C. N ,N^-(Disubstituted)phthalamides (Table 1). Selected 72-alkyl- amincs, containing from one to 14 carbons, were reacted with the above indicated N- (substituted) phthalimides. Each of the reactions was carried out by dissolving 0.05 mole of the appropriate N- (substi¬ tuted) phthalimide in 50 ml dioxane and adding this solution drop- wise to 0.05 mole of the various rz-alkylamines dissolved in 50 ml of a 1 : 1 mixture of dioxane and water. The addition was carried out over a one-hour period with the reaction vessel being cooled in an ice bath. Stirring was continued for an additional hour at room temperature, after which the solvent was removed on a rotary evaporator in vacuo at room temperature. An aliquot of the reaction mixture was saved for later analysis to determine the reaction yield under the specific reaction conditions. The major quantity of product was recrystallized from 95% eth¬ anol, and the crystalline N,N-(disubstituted)phthalamides were dried in vacuo over CaCL. Specific reaction details and analytical data of the products are summarized in Table 1 . Spectral Analysis of the Reaction Mixtures. Infrared spectra of known mixtures as well as pure compounds were obtained using a 1 % solution in chloroform. The spectra of all the N- (substituted) phthali¬ mides showed a strong absorption maximum at 1720 cm“^ which has been associated with the stretching of the carbonyl of the imide group ^ Melting points of all compounds were determined on a Thomas Hoover Capillary Melting Point Apparatus. Infrared spectra were obtained using a Perkin-Elmer Model 237 Grating Infrared Spectrophotometer. Elemental analyses were obtained for carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen content on an F and M Scientific Model 185 Gas Chromatographic Analyzer in the Analytical Laboratory of the North Texas State University ChemisJy Department. The authors are indebted to Mrs. Delaney Blocker for technical assistance. PHTHALIMIDES WITH n-ALKYLAMINES 415 % Calculated ^ Found R R' Melting T Point, °C-" % 2 Yleld"^ Empirical Formula 0 H N C H N Benzyl Methyl 178-9 80 C16H16N2O2 71.62 6.01 10.44 71.82 5.97 10.07 It Ethyl 149 65 C17H18N2O2 72.52 6.45 9.92 72.64 6.55 9.64 II n- Propyl^ 126-7 68 ^18^20^2°2 72.95 6.80 72.68 6.77 n-Butyl 134-5 77 C19H22N2O2 75.51 7.16 9.02 75.5 7.15 8.91 " n_- Pentyl 129-50 85 ‘^20^24^2°2 74.05 7.48 8.64 74.05 7.52 8.65 n-Hexyl 119-22 85 C21H26N2O2 74.54 7.75 8.28 74.7 7.80 8.12 II n-Heptyl 127-8 87 ^22^28’^2°2 74.95 8.05 7.95 74.51 8.12 7.96 II n^- Octyl 150 85 C23H50N2O2 75.56 8.27 7.64 75.77 8.55 7.45 " ii-Nonyl 157-8 79 C24H32N2O2 75.7^ 8.49 7.56 76.07 8.78 7.55 Benzyl ^-Decyl^ 144-5 79 C25H54N2O2 76.10 8.69 75.86 8.t5 Decyl ji-Octyl 115 65 ^26^44^2°2 74.95 10.65 6.72 75.21 10.90 6.57 " n-Decyl^ 99-101 65 ^28^48^2^2 75.62 10.88 75.52 10.59 " ii-Tetradecyl^ 105-4 90 C52»56^202 76.74 11.27 76.91 11.59 Butyl n- Propyl^ 115 50 C13H22N2O2 68.67 8.45 68.76 8.60 " n- Pentyl-^ 100-01 70 C17H26N2O2 70.51 9.02 69.96 9.04 " n-Octyl^ 145-4 71 ^20^52^2^2 72.25 9.70 8.45 72.07 9.89 8.29 " n-Decyl^ 127 78 C22H35N2O2 75.29 10.07 75.20 10.20 n-Tetradecyl^ 110-11 82 ^26^44’^2°2 74.95 10.65 75.10 10.75 ^All compounds were recrystallized in 95^ ethanol. ^Yields based on Infrared analysis of reaction at equilibrium. ^Elemental analysis of this compound was obtained by Midwest Mlcrolab# Indianapolis^ Indiana. (Abramovitch, 1957). An absorption peak was also observed at 1400 cm“^ due to a particular stretching mode of the 5-membered ring por¬ tion of the phthalimide (Katritzky, 1959). The N,N'-(disubstituted)- phthalamides, on the other hand, showed a shift of the carbonyl stretching frequency down to 1670 cm“^ (Nakaniski, 1962), and the absorption peak at 1400 cm~^ was not present in these compounds. The latter data are consistent with the phthalimide ring portion of the original compound having been cleaved. The per cent absorption at 1400 cm“^, 1670 cm“^, and 1720 cm“^ was subsequently plotted versus the per cent of N,N'-disubstituted) - phthalamide present in at least 3 known mixtures as well as the 2 pure components, and a curve was drawn through the 5 absorption values. An aliquot of each crude reaction mixture was reduced to dry¬ ness, and the ir spectra of the mixture determined. The absorption maximum of the sample at 1400 cm“^ was then compared with the standard absorption curve at 1400 cm“^, and the per cent product 416 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE yield was extrapolated. In a comparable manner, the per cent yield was determined using absorption maxima at 1670 and 1720 cm“^. The 3 different calculated per cent yield measurements were then aver¬ aged to produce the reported data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In an effort to investigate the effect of chain length of 72-alkylamines upon the rate and degree of cleavage of N-( substituted )phthalimides, a series of reactions was carried out with different N- (substituted) - phthalimides. Each of these reactions was carried out at least in tripli¬ cate for determination of percentage yield of product. Maximum yields were determined by examining the composition of the mixture after various time intervals, and a constant composition with time was es¬ tablished. N-Benzylphthalimide was reacted with rz-alkylamines containing one to 10 carbons, and the reaction yields were determined after one hour reaction time; and again, after the reaction yields became con¬ stant. All of the amines were found to cleave the phthalimide bond to some extent after one hour as evidenced by the recovery of the cor¬ responding N-benzyl-N'- (substituted) phthalamides. As indicated in Figure 1, after one hour of reaction time, the yields varied from 37- 47%, except in the case of the methyl-, ?2-nonyl-, and /i-decylamines, which were somewhat greater. Using longer reaction times (12-18 hours), it was observed that the percentage yields of diamide pro¬ duced increased to about 65-85% depending upon the amine used. These results, unlike those observed between alkylamines and 3-phthalimidopropionyl chloride (Clifton, et al.^ 1970), indicate that long chain amines do possess the ability to cleave the N-benzylphthal- imido system to form the corresponding N-alkyl-N'-benzyl deriva¬ tive. Further, it is interesting to note that the longer chain amines gave somewhat higher yields of disubstituted products than the lower homologs in this latter series. In order to eliminate the possibility of the aromatic function in the N-benzylphthalimide derivative being a deciding factor in the amino- lysis, 72-decylphthalimide was also interacted with a variety of 7?-al- kylamines. Ethyl-, n-propyl-, and n-pentylamines produced less than 30% yields of the A^-n-decyl-N'( substituted) phthalamide products; whereas, /z-octyl-, n-decyl-, and w-tetradecylamines reacted to pro¬ duce 65, 65, and 90% yields of the anticipated products, respectively. A longer reaction time was required to reach maximum yields in the N-n-decylphthalimide series than in comparable reactions using lower molecular weight N- substituents. PHTHALIMIDES WITH r?-ALKYLAMINES 417 No. Carbon Atoms in Alkylamine Fig. 1. Yield of N-benzyS-N^-falkyOphfhalamide produced from interaction of equi-molar quantities of N-benzylphthalimide with various n-alkylamines. Dark bars after one hour re¬ action time; clear bars after equilibrium. N-n-Butylphthalimide was also chosen as a model reactant since the butyl group has approximately the same steric size as the propionyl chloride moiety in 3-phthalimidopropionyl chloride. The product yields after one hour of reaction time at room temperature with the N-butyl derivative ranged from 30% in the case of propylamine to 80% for the tetradecylamine aminolysis as indicated in Figure 2. As was previously observed in the case of the cleavage of N-benzylphthal¬ imide, the longer chain amines gave a higher yield of diamide product than did the shorter chain amines. 418 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE No. Carbon Atoms in Alkylamine Fig. 2. Yield of N-buty!-N'-(alkyl)phthalainide produced from inferaction of equi-molar quantities of N-butylphthalimide with various n-alkylamin@s. Dark bars after one hour re¬ action time; clear bars after equilibrium. The mechanism for the aminolysis of /?-butylamine with ethyl formate has been proposed to involve a base catalyzed acyl cleavage involving a tetrahedral intermediate (Bunnett and Davis, 1960). By analogy, the present reaction of an N“( substituted )phthalimide with an i2-alkylamine may be envisioned to follow a similar mechanism. The product distribution would depend on the relative electron at¬ tracting ability (or acidity) of the -NR-CO- and -NHR'- groups. An amide group is appreciably more acidic than an amino function, amides having pKa’s about 10-1 1 pK units lower than amines (March, 1968) . Accordingly, it would be anticipated that the diamide would be the favored product, and the experimental results are consistent with this hypothesis. The consistently higher yields in the N-benzylphthal- imide reaction sequence may be explained by the slightly greater acidity of the -NR-CO- group when R is benzyl. Benzylamine has a PHTHALIMIDES WITH F2-ALKYLAMINES 419 II 0 rv pKa about 1 .3 pK units below that of 72-butyh and /i-decylaminey thus, the acidity of the -NR-CO- is greater when R is benzyl than when R is ?i-butyl or w-decyl in the respective N- (substituted) phthalimides. The results obtained in this study suggest that steric effects of the alkylamine are not primary factors in determining yields of diamide products, since amines of 6 or more carbons produce yields greater than lower homologs. Nor does the basicity of the attacking alkylamine appear to be a significant factor since all alkylamines studied have comparable pKa values (Damsgaard-Sorensen and Unmack, 1935; Harned and Owen, 1930; Hoe^rr, et ah, 1943). The N- (substituted) - group already present in the phthalimide nucleus appears to be the determining factor in the yield of diamide products, and this view¬ point is not inconsistent with the previously reported differences in the aminolysis rates observed with N-phthalimido-jS-alanylamides. ACKNOWLEDGMENT 'The authors are indebted to the Robert A. Welch Foundation for partial support of this study. ^ Taken from “Dissociation Constants of Organic Bases in Aqueous Solution,’^ Handbook of Chemistry and Physics^ 49tli ed., edited by Robert C. Weast (Cleveland^ Ohio, 1968), pp. D=87-8. 420 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE REFERENCES CITED Abramovitch, R, a., 1957 — The infrared spectra of some diacylamines in the 6/i region. I. Chem. 5oc., 1413-1417. Barber, H. J. and W. R. Wragg, 1946 — Composition of the antimalarial drug R.63 and the Ing and Manske hydrazine hydrolysis of N-substituted phthalimides. Nature, 158: 514. Bunnett, J. F. and G. T. Davis, 1960 — The mechanism of aminolysis of esters. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 82: 665-674 Clifton, G., S. R. Bryant and C. G. Skinner, 1970 — N'- (Substituted) pantothen- amides, antimetabolites of pantothenic acid. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 137: 523-528. Damsgaard-Sorensen, P. and A. Unmack, 1935 — Bestimmung der dissoziations- kontante eines im wasser schwerloslichen amins (tri-n-butylamin) . A. Phys. Chem., A 172: 389-397. Fusier, P., 1950 — Contribution a Petude de la jS-alanine et de ses derives. Ann. Chim. (Paris), Ser. 12, 5: 882-892. Harned, j. S. and B. B. Owen, 1930 — The thermodynamic properties of weak acids and bases in salt solutions, and an exact method of determining their dissocia¬ tion constants, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 52: 5079-5091. Hoerr, C. W., M. R. McCorkle, and A. W. Ralston, 1943 — Studies on high molecular weight aliphatic amines and their salts X. Ionization constants of primary and symmetrical secondary aimes in aqueous solution. /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 65: 328-329. Katritzky, a. R., 1959 — The infrared spectra of heteroaromatic compounds. Quart. Rev. (London), 353-373. March, J., 1968 — Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure. McGraw-Hill Book Co., St. Louis, p. 220. Nakaniski, K., 1962 — Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy -Practical. Holden-Day, Inc., San Francisco, p. 46. Spring, F. S. and J. C. Woods, 1945 — The application of the Hofmann reaction to the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds. Part III. Synthesis of 3-alkyl-2:4- diketo-l:2:3:4-tetrahydroquinazolines from N-alkylphthalamides. /. Chem. Soc., 625-628. - and - , 1946 — The reaction between N-substituted phthali¬ mides and primary amines. Nature, 158: 754-755. Science Education Electron Scattering from Nuclei and Nuclear Structure / by M, A. K. LODHI Department of Physics^ Texas Tech University Lubbock, Texas 79409 The nuclear charge and current distribution as obtained from the electron scatter¬ ing experiments have been successfully interpreted with exception of few elements like lithium-six (®Li) . This article discusses the anomalies of this nucleus and gives a review of the current, rather confused situation of ^Li. The information given here regarding the structure and properties of ®Li nucleus in particular and ®Li-like nuclei in general has accumulated from the scattering of high energy electrons. I. INTRODUCTION The interaction between negatively charged electrons and positively charged atomic nuclei is primarily the well known electromagnetic one. The salient features of this interaction are well understood. Since the electromagnetic force is much weaker compared to the nuclear force, measurements can be made rather accurately without disturbing the structure of the nucleus a great deal by using electrons as a probe. Consequently electrons have been used as projectiles for studying the structure of atomic nuclei. The scattering of high energy electrons from nuclear targets has become a powerful and, thus, a favorite tool for investigation of the structure of nuclei. In fact, the amount of detail of nuclear structure revealed in electron scattering experiments is governed by the energy range of the bombarding electrons. Clearly speaking if a scattering experiment is to discover some information about the distribution of matter, charge, and/or current inside the nucleus, it is imperative to use a scattering particle which will enter the nucleus. To delineate features of nuclear dimensions, it is neces¬ sary to use the probe of the de Broglie wavelength of the order of 1 0“^^ cm. For electrons to have this small de Broglie wavelength they must have energy over 1 00 MeV. However, there is another elementary particle which also interacts with nuclei essentially only through elec¬ tromagnetic forces. This is /x-meson. This article deals only with the electron scattering method since it is most instructive for studying the nuclear structure. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 422 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE II. WHY ®Li? Historically the first measurement of nuclear size was made by Lord Ernest Rutherford in 1911 when he tried to interpret the famous ex= periment of the scattering of alpha particle from the gold atom carried out at the University of Manchester. From this experiment and others it was found by Rutherford that the nuclear radius could be repre¬ sented by the semi-empirical formula R = roA^/3 X lO-i^cm (1) where ro = 1.2 and A is the mass number of a given nucleus. Although the method followed in coming to this formula was a crude one, it has been confirmed by later careful studies. With a great deal of improvement in the accuracy of measurements high energy electron scattering experiments indicated some features which could not be explained in the light of the conventional theory, namely, the independent-particle shell model (IPSM) in which the nucleons are supposed to be moving independent of each other in a centrol potential (Elton, 1961). Particularly in case of ®Li the experi¬ mental data as obtained from the high energy electron scattering did not accord with the results predicted by the IPSM in the ordinary sense using the Born’s approximation (Suelzle, et aL, 1967). (Born’s approximation is a mathematical method of studying the scattering phenomena which is relatively good for light nuclei.) Although one may be confident in using the Bom’s approximation and expect the interpretation of the measured data to be especially simple (Hoff- | stadter, 1957). However, following this approximation, it is found to be much more complicated for as light a nucleus as ®Li. It is well i known that among the lightest nuclei the ®Li nucleus behaves anomal¬ ously towards the electron scattering phenomena (as well as in some other experiments) (Elton, 1961). The nucleus of lithium-6 is espe¬ cially interesting because it is the lightest stable nucleus that contains p-shell nucleons. It consists of six particles having three protons and : three neutrons. It occupies an intermediate position in nuclear struc¬ ture theory. It is placed betweeen those few very light nuclei for which i the entire dynamics is of interest, for which detailed wave functions are necessary for any calculation, and all those relatively heavier I nuclei in which the scheme of grouping the particles is of primary ' interest, for which simplified models are generally used. Moreover it ; has an extensive discrete spectrum. Thus many studies of ®Li of a i purely spectroscopic nature, using the IPSM, have been performed. These studies describe all the six particles of ®Li by considering the four particles (two protons and two neutrons) in the Is-shell and the SCIENCE EDUCATION 423 remaining two particles (one proton and one neutron) in the Ip-shell thus giving the pure configuration of (ls)%(ls)\(lp)p(lp)n and ask how the degeneracy is split. The energy spacing is either studied in terms of the slater integrals which pertain to the entire Ip-shelL Many spectroscopic investigations lump together the first four particles as an inert Is-closed shell usually called, in this case, an ‘'Alpha parti¬ cle” core and treat more explicitly only the motion of the remaining two Ip-nucleons. These particles are usually designated as valence nucleons. Unfortunately none of the IPSM spectroscopic studies can give any basic understanding of this nucleus, despite the accuracy with which they treat the level splittings. The detail information about the nuclear structure of ®Li is obtained from high energy electron scatter¬ ing. However, unlike other nuclei it is difficult to have a satisfactory theoretical interpretation of the experimental data. It seems obvious that ®Li is a rich and challenging subject for nuclear structure studies. Consequently many measurements and calculations have been per¬ formed upon it. Nevertheless the problem of ®Li does not quite seem to be sufficiently solved hitherto in spite of a long history of investiga¬ tion. III. FORM FACTOR Atomic nuclei are not just charged points or homogeneous spheres but they have some density distributions of charge and current de¬ creasing gradually perhaps near their surfaces. It is possible to deduce some useful information about the density distributions in nuclei from the scattering of high energy electrons on the assumption that the electrons are subjected to electromagnetic interactions. Scattering processes are, in general, classified in two categories, namely, elastic and inelastic. For elastic electron scattering, the scattering process leaves the target nucleus in the ground state configuration whereas for the inelastic scattering, the process excites the target nucleus from the ground state to some higher state configuration. In general, the elastic electron scattering furnishes the information on the spatial variation of the static charge and current density of nuclei in their ground state whereas the inelastic scattering provides the information on the strength and multipolarity of the transition and also the spatial de- pendence of the transition charge and current densities. During the scattering process a certain amount of momentum from the projectile electrons is transferred to the nuclear target. This momentum transfer is usually denoted by q7r. If a nucleus is regarded in the gross approximation as a sphere of radius R, the scattering of electrons from the nucleus is more or less the same as that from a 424 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE point-nucleus as long as q < 1 /R. However, the electron scattering cross section begins to deviate from the point-nucleus scattering cross section when the momentum transfer q approaches the order of the inverse size of the nucleus i.e. q ^ 1 /R. This deviation from the point nucleus scattering is called the “Nuclear form factor” and is usually denoted by F(q) , The square of the nuclear form factor can be defined as the ratio of the differential scattering cross-section measured experi¬ mentally to the differential scattering cross-section calculated on the assumption of a point-nucleus. Mathematically it can be written as where dcr dn is the differential scattering cross-section for a small solid angle dQ. The nuclear form factor as function of the momentum transfer q can be measured experimentally for a fairly large momentum trans¬ fer. The inverse Fourier transform of the measured form factors, in principle, yields the charge and current distribution within the nucleus and also its spatial extent. However, in actual practice this is not the usual process to follow for the following reasons. For practical diffi¬ culties there are not sufficiently accurate observed values available for the nuclear form factor, and also it is not available at sufficiently large values of q to determine the nuclear structure quite well. Usually a density distribution p(r) for charge (and/or current) is assumed or obtained from some wave function in many forms and then the nuclear form factor is calculated. The calculated or the so called theoretical form factors are compared with the experiment to discover which of the possible forms of p(r) are consistent with the data. Mathematically the nuclear form factor in the Rom’s approximation can be written as (Morkurgo, 1956) F(q) = / exp (iq-r) p(r) dr , (3) where for elastic scattering 1 ^ p(r) = po (r) = — |Mridr2...dri_idri+i,..drA , (4) 'Zj ^ ^ and for inelastic scattering p(r) = pot(r) Zj ■ X i=l / dridr2...dri_idri+i...drA (5) 0 In equation (3) and (4) as always "^r’s are the nuclear wave functions of a nucleus of mass number A and atomic number Z. It is these wave functions whicR must be chosen carefully so that the nuclear form factors calculated from them are in agreement with the observed data. SCIENCE EDUCATION 425 IV. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES The nuclear form factors as. obtained from electron scattering have been fitted quite well for many light nuclei assuming symmetric charge and current distributions derived from the IPSM with an infi¬ nite harmonic oscillator potential by several workers. The usual IPSM has been used in explaining nuclear properties more than any O'ther nuclear model. This may be partly due to its simplicity, but the main credit to this model is its wide range of success. Nevertheless, in par- icular, in the case of ®Li the nuclear charge fo-rm factor, obtained from the IPSM wave function with a standard harmonic oscillator radial part, falls off much more rapidly with increasing momentum transfer than the experimental data (e.g. Lodhi and Mires, 1970 and references therein) , In an attempt to fit the data several modifications have been made to the harmonic oscillator wave functions of ®Li, In the early days of electron scattering experiments, it was found that the spatial extent of the charge distribution, as characterized by the root mean square (rms) charge radius of ®Li was surprisingly large when compared with that of the other p-shell nuclei. Later on^ in studying the nucleus of ®Li the Stanford group found that the high energy electron scattering could not be interpreted in terms of a simple harmonic-well shell model for this nucleus. However, the Stanford data could be fitted with a modified harmonic-well model where the s- and p-nucleons are assumed to move in different harmonic potential- wells (Burleson and Hofstadter, 1958). The rms charge radius of ®Li as determined in this manner depended on the particular charge distri¬ bution model. In this model the rms radius of ®Li was found to be the same from two different approaches which are contrary to each other, namely the p-nucleons are assumed tO' be moving in a more extended well than the s-nucleons (Burleson and Hofstadter, 1958) or vice-versa (Jackson, 1960). However, the value of the rms radius thus obtained was too large, although the two calculated form factors were in good agreement with the experimental data for small momentum transfer (Burleson and Hofstadter, 1958; Jackson, 1960). A contemporary approach called cluster model for studying ®Li was pushed fo-rward. In the cluster representation if four particles move together as an alpha particle and the O'ther two particles moving to¬ gether form a deuteron cluster, the dynamics of this, nucleus reduces to- the dynamics of a two-body system namely alpha-deuteron cluster system (Yang, et aL, 1961; Schmidt, et al.^ 1963). Ano'ther cluster representation proposed is a three-body system in which the two valence nucleons do not form a deuteron cluster but move at random 426 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (Wackman and Austern, 1962). In principle, the cluster model could be shown identical to the IPSM provided the former is completely antisymmetrized and that the potential well parameters is the Is- and Ip-shell nucleons in the lowest configurated wave function of ®Li in the latter model are the same. Later on the identity of the shell and cluster models was shown in some broader sense (Lodhi, 1967), That is the transition of one model to the other was made possible when i) the Is- and Ip-nucleons in the lowest configuration of the IPSM wave function of ®Li are allowed to move in different potential wells and ii) some higher configurations are mixed with lowest configurated wave function of ®Li in the same potential well. The trial wave functions of ®Li in the aforesaid phenomenological cluster models reproduced its correct energy levels (Yang, et al., 1961; Schmidt, et aL, 1963) and nuclear moments (Wackman and Austern, 1962). However, the question of its rms radius and nuclear form factor remained unan¬ swered to a great extent by this model. A different approach which yielded good results for other Ip-shell nuclei was called for in describing the behavior of ®Li toward electron scattering. This technique is at least theoretically well founded (Kurath, 1960). In this method shell model wave functions were generated for Ip-shell nuclei from state of independent particles mov¬ ing in a spheriodal potential. A very reasonable assumption that the admixture of higher configurations, especially the admixtures of states (ls)‘^(lp)'^““2p, (ls)^(lp)'^“tif, (ls)^(lp)''ld, and (ls)^(lp)'^2s in the wave function of the predominantly (Is)^(lp)" configuration should be taken into account. This deformed nucleus model was used for successfully (Pinkston and Satchler, 1961; Goswami and Pal, 1962) to illustrate these collective effects which tend to admix 2p, If, Id, and 2s states into the lowest configuration. On the other hand, the pairing effect mainly tends to admix (lp)"“2(2s)^, (lp)”“^(ld)^, and (Is)^ (Ip) - into the states (Is)^(lp)''. In the like manner an admixture of higher configurations was proposed to the predominant state (Is)^ (Ip)- of ‘^Li with the following assumption (Elton and Lodhi, 1965; Lodhi, 1966). In case of ®Li the basic assumption of the IPSM — that the two-body nucleon-nucleon forces can be completely represented by an average central force — is unlikely to be valid. There is, however, a substantial residual two-body interaction due to which mixing of higher configuration in the IPSM becomes important. The residual potential was treated as a perturbation to the harmonic oscillator potential in order to calculate the admixture coefficients. Another technique, called projected Hartree-Fock (PHF) method, of using the admixture of higher configurations in the harmonic oscillator well was SCIENCE EDUCATION 427 employed (Bouten, et ah, 1967; 1968). These prescriptions improved the agreement between the theoretical and experimental form factors of ®Li as obtained from the high energy electron scattering. However there remained a large discrepancy between their calculated and experimental inelastic form factors. The results of their energy calcu¬ lations were also not quite satisfactory. In recent years several attempts at modifying the harmonic oscil¬ lator type of wave functions by several workers were made. For ex¬ ample a simple minded approach was that the harmonic oscillator radial wave function of ®Li in the relative coordinate frame was multi¬ plied by a correlation function which was assumed due to the so called short-range interaction (Wong and Lin, 1967). Another approach was to use a combination of an oscillator and an exponential type of radial wave function of ®Li (Radhakaut and Nazadat-Ullah, 1969). The nuclear form factors of this nucleus as calculated from these wave- functions showed a definite improvement over the one predicted by the IPSM wave function when compared with experimental data. The price paid for 'such improvements was rather large. The static quadru- pole moment of ®Li in the ground state and its rms charge radius as calculated using the aforesaid wave functions respectively were too large to accept. Lately attempts have been made to get an agreement between the observed and the theoretical form factors using the IPSM wavefunc- tion of ®Li with a phenomenological type of two-body correlation (Atti, 1968, 1969) . It is yet to be seen how this type of wave function behaves toward other observables. Recently some excellent work on a variational approach to two-body correlations in finite nuclei has been published in the literature (Brink and Grypeos, 1967). In this work a variational approach to finite nuclei in their ground states using two- body interactions containing hard cores has been developed which is theoretically well founded. An independent approach somewhat simi¬ lar to one described above has been more recently prescribed which is particularly suitable for a nuclear system with a doubly closed shell and two particles or holes (e.g., Lodhi and Mires, 1970, and references therein) . ®Li, being such a system, has been treated by this approach. This method maintains the qualitative features of the more funda¬ mental approach and at the same time preserves the simplicity of the IPSM. In this scheme the IPSM wave functions in the harmonic oscillator potential well are taken as the basis functions. The two-body nucleon-nucleon interaction is invoked to correlate the valence nuc¬ leons only, by introducing a nucleon-nucleon correlation function in a relative coordinate frame. A variational approach is used in obtaining 428 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the energy level structure of the nucleus in question and thus the extra parameter (or parameters) introduced through the correlation func¬ tion is evaluated. For ®Li this method may be regarded to be somewhere between the simple uncorrelated single-particle model and the three- body model (Wackman and Austem, 1962) of the alpha particle, proton and neutron system. This method provides a correct energy spacing of ®Li (Lodhi and Mires, 1970). The elastic and inelastic (Lodhi, 1970) form factors of ®Li have been calculated in this model. The comparison of these form factors with the experimental data shows a reasonable agreement. Calculations for the quadrupole tran¬ sition in ®Li using this technique shows a considerable improvement over the result obtained from the single-particle model (Lodhi, 1969) . This method has also produced quite encouraging results when applied to other nuclear or hypemuclear systems. V. CONCLUSION The high energy electron scattering by the p-shell nuclei can be in¬ terpreted, in general, with the ordinary single-particle wave function in the standard harmonic oscillator potential well. However, in the case of the lithium-six nucleus it is not so simple as in cases of other p-shell nuclei. It is rather difficult to explain the form factor in the re¬ gion of large momentum transfer. Several models have been proposed in explaining this anomaly. It is observed that those models which have invoked the so called residual potential and some type of nucleon- nucleon correlation in the IPSM-Hamiltonian and wave function of ®Li respectively have met with some success in fitting the nuclear form factor obtained from the high energy electron scattering. It may be borne in mind that to invoke the so called short-range correlations in the Is-core particles would produce rather drastic effect which is per¬ haps physically unrealistic for the electron scattering calculations be¬ cause the interaction operator in this process is only electromagnetic which is long-range. No doubt, the short-range correlation plays an important role in calculations like /x-meson absorption or scattering cross-section where the interaction is strong. However, this might give rather a wrong tendency in the charge from factor calculation if it is used without some modification. On the other hand its use cannot be ignored completely since electromagnetic properties of a nucleon in¬ side a nucleus may be seriously affected by the presence of other nu¬ cleons in its vicinity. Finally it may be timely remarked that some more realistic calculations would be available only from a model which has some relationship with the basic nucleon-nucleon interaction, i.e. SCIENCE EDUCATION 429 the potentials, central as well as residual used in the IPSM theory, must have their origin in this interaction. The author wishes to thank Dr. D. L. Parker for his help in pre¬ paring this paper. REFERENCES CITED Atti, C. C. D., 1968 — Phys, Rev., 175: 1256. - , 1969 — NucL Phys., A129: 350. Bouten, M., et ah, 1967 — Nucl. Phys., AlOO: 90. - , 1968 — Phys. Letters, 191. Brink, D. M. and M, E. Grypeos, 1967 — Nucl. Pkys., A97: 81. Burleson, G. R. and R. Hofstadter, 1958 — Phys. Rev., 112: 1282, Elton, L. R. B., 1961 — Nuclear Sizes, Oxford Univ, Press. - and M. A, K. Lodhi, 1965 — Nucl. Phys., 66: 209. Goswami, a. and M, K. Pal, 1962 — Nucl. Phys., 35: 544. Hofstadter, R., 1957 — Ann. Rev. Nucl. Sci., 7: 231. Jackson, D. F., 1960 — Proc. Phys. Soc., 76: 949. Kurath, D., 1960 — Nucl. Phys., 14: 398. Lodhi, M. A. K., 1966— Nucl. Phys., 80: 125. - 1967— Nucl. Phys., A97 : 449. - , 1969 — Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc., 14; 1205. - , 1970' — Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc., 15: 781. - - and R. W. Mires, 1970' — Nucl. Phys., A149: 625. Morkurgo, G., 1956 — Nuovo. Chim., 3 : 430. Pinkston, W. T. and C. R. Satchler, 1961 — Nucl. Phys., 27: 270. Radhakaut, S. and Nazakat-Ullah, 1969^ — Nucl. Phys., A123: 673. Schmid, E. W., et ah, 196'i—Phys. Rev. Letters, 7: 263. SuELZLE, L. R., M. R. Yearian and H. Crannell, 1967 — Phys .Rev., 162: 992. Tang, Y. C., et at, 1961 — Phys. Rev., 123: 548. Wackman, P. H. and N. Austern, 1962 — Nucl. Phys., 30: 529. Wong, S. S. M. andD. L. Lin, 1967 — Nucl. Phys., AlOl: 663. ^ i Notes Section ORBITS OF BASIC SUBGROUPS OF PRIMARY ABELIAN GROUPS UNDER AUTOMORPHISMS. TwO' subgroups of the group G will be said to- be equivalent if there is an automorphism of G sending one of the subgroups ontO' the other. In addition to proving that any 2 basic subgroups- of corank one of a direct sum of cyclics G are equivalent, an example will be provided to show that not every iso¬ morphism between basic subgroups of corank one is induced by an automorphism. This example will also show that a recent result of Hill (1968, Bulk Amer, Math. Soc., 74: 1123-1124) cannot be generalized in a certain direction. Throughout the paper G will be a primary group which is a direct sum of cyclic groups. The subgroup of G generated by |xj_ , . . . , will be denoted by , . . . , and 2Gj will denote the direct sum of the groups G^. All other notation is standard, DEFINITION. A basic subgroup B of G has corank one if G[p]/B[p] has rank one ; equivalently, if G/B is isomorphic to Z (p . THEOREM. If G is an unbounded direct sum of cyclic groups, then any 2 basic subgroups of corank one are equivalent. ■ Proof: First it will be shown that if B is a basic subgroup of G of corank one, then there is a decomposition of G such that G = 2Gj, where G^ is a direct sum of cyclic groups of order p"L 1 A nj_ < ... < n^ < n|^j_ < . . . , such that Gi = ©G/ and B ■= eg/ © 2 i such that Tj D B ^ Tj. For otherwise, p®i + iGnG[p] C B, and due to the purity of B and the fact that G/B is unbounded, this is impossible. Choose aj g Tj\B and replace T|=:©T/ by Sj = © T/. Now G'=ESj and the S/s- have the desired property. Assume then that for each i, yj g Sj, yj | B, and enlarge the singleton (Yi) to a maximal independent set [yj} U {tjj} in Sj. If for some j, tjj | B, then since Jj + B and ty ©B each have order p in G/B, there is an integer ay relatively prime to p such that yj — ayty = by e B. If ty is replaced by by, the resulting set is still a basis for Sj. Let be any element of G such that p"i”^x3_ — The order of the coset Xj_ © B in G/B is p"i and if z,, is such that = y2, then there is an integer ag relatively prime to p such that g Put If been chosen, define Xj,y.5_ to be where = and where is relatively prime to p such that Xj. — £ B- The fact that G/B is an ascending chain of cyclic groups and that each coset Zj. © B 1 has order in G/B insures that this construction can be carried out. For the remaining basis elements by of Sj, choose gj j e B such that j = by and define G/ to be' the subgroup of G generated by the independent set (gy). Let Gj = © G/, then G = EGj and each Gj is a direct sum of cyclics of order while B = EG/ © E 0 H/ is a direct sum of cyclics of order p"i and B'=:2H/0 2 onto 2 which sends Xj — p‘"i + i'"ixj to Wj — These isomorphism induce an automorphism of G sending B onto B'. Hence B and B' are equivalent. COROLLARY . If G and G' are isomorphic direct sums of cyclic groups with basic subgroups B and B' respectively, of corank one, then there is an isomorphism of G onto G' which sends B onto B'. Note that the proof of the theorem establishes a partial converse to Lemma 31.1 of Fuchs (1960. Abelian Groups, Pergamon Press, Oxford). Finally, we state the example mentioned earlier. EXAMPLE. Let G = 2, where the order of Xj^ is p^, for n = 1, 2, . . . , and let B^ = 2 0 2, Bg = 2 0 2. Then Bj^ and B2 are basic subgroups of G of corank one and are iso¬ morphic under /?:Bj^ -» B2 given by (1) /3(x2„+i)=X2„_,.j — p2x,„^3 (2) /3(x2„ — P%2„ + 2)=X2„ . t If p extends to an automorphism of G let /3(Xj^) = x^^ + for all n. Then by (2), l2n — P^^2n4-2 P“^2n + 2 n. It follows that for some k > 2, ^2 = P^x^ 0 f . . . + p2^'-2x2j^ and hence that — P^x^ — ... — = P^^Cxgk+g + ^2k+2) ' = 0. But then the order of ^(x2jj_^2) greater than p0 so< P does not preserve j order. Hence not every isomorphism between basic subgroups of equal finite corank extends to an automorphism of G. From this example it follows that not every automorphism of a basic subgroup ; (of corank one) extends to an automorphism of G. Suppose to the contrary that every automorphism of B is induced by one of G and let B' be any other basic subgroup of corank one. By the theorem, there is an isomorphism /?: B — > B' which ;; extends to an automorphism of G. Every isomorphism y: B — > B' is of the form | y = Ra, where \a e Aut(B) and by assumption a and p, and hence y, extend to automorphisms of G. i Hill (1968, op. cit.), has shown that if G is a primary group with subgroup H I such that G/H is a direct sum of cyclics, then any height-preserving automorphism of H can be extended to an automorphism of G. The example above shows that , Hill’s theorem is no longer true if G/H is divisible rather than a direct sum of ' cyclics. Hence Hill’s condition cannot be weakened by requiring G/H to be a direct sum of cocyclics, for example. Dalton Tarwater, Department of Mathematics, Texas \ Tech University, Lubbock 79409. ' ANOTHER MASSASAUGA FROM MEXICO. The 3rd specimen of massasauga, r Sistrurus catenatus (Rafinesque) from Mexico, (Carnegie Museum 52767), was ! taken in the terminal marshes of Rio Puente Colorado (see Fig. 20 in Minckley, 1969, Univ. Tex. El Paso Press, Sci. Ser., 2:65). 11 km. south of Cuatro Cienegas de j Carranza, Coah., Mex. on 4 Sept. 1970. All massasaugas previously collected in !) Mexico have come from this basin (McCoy and Minckley, 1969, Herpetologica, 1, 25(2): 152-153). This specimen, a female, was taken in salt grass {Distichlis spp.) bordering the ; marsh, within 2 feet of water. It was disturbed by seining activities and was captured as it emerged from the grass. NOTES 433 Data indicate that scale rows are 23-23--17; ventrals, 147, subcaudals, 30: body blotches, 25; tail bands, 5; snoutwent length 336 mm, and tail length 58 mm. The minimum dorsal count of 17 rows at the anus is characteristic of S. c. edwardsi; other specimens from this area had a scale row count of 19 (McCoy and Minckley, op. cit.). We thank C. J. McCoy, Carnegie Museum, for his comments and suggestions con¬ cerning this note. Support of N.S.F. grant 6477X (to W, L. MincHey) is acknowledged, C. O. Minckley and W. E. Rinne, Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 89109. NOTES ON BUFO MARINUS TADPOLE AGGREGATIONS. The literature on New World tadpole aggregation is largely limited to temperate species, with the exception of Stuart’s (1961, Herpetologica, 17: 73-79) paper on Rhinophrynus. The following observations of the behavior of Bufo marinus tadpole aggregations were made on 3 days of a 10-day period during the dry-season month of March 1970 at a small pond along the Rio Rincon. The site is in the Tropical Wet Forest (Hold- ridge, 1967, Life Zone Ecology, Tropical Science Center, San Jose, Costa Rica), of the Osa Peninsula, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. Temperature was measured with a Schultheiss rapid equilibrium thermometer. Before sunrise, 10 dense (little to no space between tadpoles) tadpole aggregations were located along the shore in water 5-10 mm deep. Some were in such shallow water that the dorsum of each tadpole was exposed to the air. Small, loose (at least one tadpole width between animals) clumps of tadpoles were seen under mats of floating green algae. The temperature of the shallow water was 21. 8C and the water in the center of the largest aggregation was 22. 2C. Shortly after sunrise, the largest group moved to deeper water (15-25 mm) and increased in size by recruit¬ ment from smaller aggregations. After having attracted most of the tadpoles in the immediate vicinity, the group, containing roughly 2500 individuals of the estimated 6000 in the pond, began moving about the pond in an amoeboid-like manner. “Pseudopods” would form primarily at the anterior end of aggregations (i.e., the direction in which the mass was moving), seldom along the sides, and never pos¬ teriorly. The latter would have necessitated a reversal of an aggregation’s direc¬ tional motion. The pseudopod moved ahead slowly, with the majority of tadpoles lagging behind. After the pseudopod reached a length of 15 cm or more, the animals in the main group would stream rapidly after it. Generally, aggregations remained rather contained, but periodically they spread out over distances of up to 4.5 m as tadpoles from the main body hesitated in streaming after the pseudopod. Swimming speeds varied; one pseudopod moved 45 cm in 139 sec, whereas the tadpoles which followed it traversed the same distance in 1 7 sec. A number of smaller aggregations behaved in much the same manner as the large one. Exchange of individuals between large and small aggregations was common, usually occurring when groups were less than 20 cm apart. Some tadpoles, particularly those in the area most densely covered with algae, did not exhibit as marked a clumping behavior as described above. A dozen tadpoles were placed in a glass petri dish filled with water and par¬ tially immersed in the pond. A pseudopod from a passing aggregation 15 cm away moved toward the dish, and after swimming about the captive tadpoles for a minute or so, rejoined the main group. This suggests that visual cues may be important in the formation and maintenance of aggregations. During 5 hr of continuous observa- 434 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE tion, the large aggregation moved along the northern and eastern pond edges, generally remaining within 1.5 m of the shore, and travelling roughly 70 m. As the aggregations moved, a great deal of very rapid tail-flicking occurred, resulting in agitation of the water with a concomitant spreading of algae over the tadpoles. These algae appeared to be utilized as food. Bragg (1946, Herpetologica, 3: 89-97) described similar behavior of aggregations of Scaphiopus hurterii and stated that it functioned in causing shallow depressions to form in the muddy bottom which filled with water and decreased the surface area over which evaporation could occur. Although it is possible that the tail-flicking behavior functions similarly in the 5. marinus aggregations, no shallow depressions were seen to form. The large mobile groups of tadpoles can be termed feeding aggregations. They were often seen swarm¬ ing about small, partially-submerged twigs where floating algae were trapped. Several tadpoles were also seen attempting to wrest a small fish head from one | another. After 3 hr, feeding activity began to diminish. By 1 000 hr, the aggregations ! had largely dispersed into small groups which remained in deeper water or in the small algae-covered region of the pond. ! Table 1 indicates the positioning of the tadpoles relative to water temperature. It appears that the tadpoles sought the cooler water and responded to only slight tem¬ perature gradients. Note particularly the data for 1100 and 1400 hr, which suggest i an ability to detect differences of 0.4C. When a small shade-giving shelter was set up in the deeper water during the hottest part of the day, tadpoles in the immediate vicinity gravitated toward the shaded water, indicating that they would have pre- Time Temperature Tadpole Position Shallow Water Deeper Water Shallow Water Deeper Water 0545 21.8 * X 0910 34.6 31.8 X 0930 31.0 33.6 X 1005 38.0 33.8 X 1100 37.4 37.0 X 1330 37.2 36.4 X 1400 34.0 34.4 X 1445 34.6 32.5 X * Although no measurements were made at this time, it was assumed that water temperatures of the two depths had equalized during a night * s cooling. NOTES 435 ferred a cooler temperature had it been available. Neither eccritic nor lethal tem¬ peratures were determined, although the animals placed in the petri dish showed no obvious signs of heat stress in water which reached a temperature of 39. OC. Various laboratory experiments (e.g., Rose, 1960, Ecology 41: 188-199) have shown that crowding inhibits tadpole growth, although this has not been adequately demonstrated in nature. It would seem, in any case, that the selective advantages of aggregating must outweigh the disadvantages. In the present study, the fact that the tightly clustered tadpoles were more conspicuous and easily captured by the investigator than non-aggregated tadpoles is probably not selectively disadvanta¬ geous. Although vertebrate predators are probably in the area, the B. marinus larvae could very well be poisonous and thus not naturally preyed upon (cf. Licht, 1968, Herpetologica 24: 93-98; Papenfuss, 1960, Herpetologica, 16: 43). Inverte¬ brate predators, which are probably more apt to attack toad larvae (Brockelman, 1969, Ecology, 50: 632-644) would be expected in the pond. One tadpole was cap¬ tured by a dragonfly larva (Odonata) and succeeded in freeing its snout, or was released, only after a struggle., Brattstrom (1962, Herpetologica, 18: 38-46) has demonstrated that aggregated tadpoles absorb heat more rapidly than non-aggregated tadpoles. It is possible that the early morning aggregations could have formed to allow the tadpoles to more rapidly increase their body temperatures to a point where the energy-demanding feeding aggregations could function. As the water temperature increased during the day, a point was reached which approached the upper limits of thermal preference for the organisms, with the result that the aggregations were disbanded and cooler water was sought. I wish to thank Dr, Norman J. Scott and Mr. Richard Wasserzug for aid in identifying the tadpoles. Dr. W. Frank Blair and Mr. Daniel F. Williams read the manuscript, and their help and criticism is gratefully acknowledged. My wife, Lynn, typed and edited the manuscript. This research was undertaken while I was a member of the Organization for Tropical Studies course, “Tropical Biology; An ecological approach.” Michael A. Mares, Department of Zoology, The University of Texas at Austin. 78712. A METHOD FOR THE SEPARATION OF PLANT PLASMALEMMA FOR PHOSPHOLIPID ANALYSIS. Earliest work in the study of plasmalemma con¬ cerned micromanipulation of single cells with or without their cell walls. This was soon abandoned because of the difficulty encountered in isolating the plasmalemma (Plowe, 1968, In Branton and Park, Eds., Papers of Biological Membrane Structure, Little, Brown & Co., pp. 23-44). Hays and Barland (1966, /. Cell Biol., 31: 209-214) reported isolation of the plasma membrane from toad bladder epithelial cells. Mc¬ Farland (1964, In, Dawson and Rhodes, Eds., Metabolism and Physiological Signifi¬ cance of Lipids, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 399-412) reported the isolation of protoplast membrane (comparable to the plasma membrane of eucaryotic cells) still intact with cell wall from gram-positive bacteria, the cell wall in this case contained no lipids. Chloroplast and mitochondrial membrane has been isolated and studied, but evidence seems to point to a different origin for the membranes associated with these ••structures as both organelles appear to arise from division or a pre-existing structure (Muhlethaler and Frey-Wyssling, 159, J. Biophys. Biochem. CytoL, 6: 507-512; Luck, 1963, /. Cell Biol., 16: 463-499; Nass, 1967, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 145: 60-67; Goodenough and Devine, 1970, Sci. Amer., 223: 22-29). No literature, how- 436 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ever, could be found concerning the separation of the plasmalemma from any plant for phospholipid analysis. Since cell walls of plants contain no lipids it was thought it would be possible to separate the plasmalemma from other cell constituents for phospholipid analysis by separation with the cell wall. A method utilizing this type of separation is reported in this paper. Methods and Results Phaseolus limensis, lima beans, were incubated 4 days at 35°C between wet paper towels over crumpled towels submerged in distilled water. At the end of this period they were transferred to a tray containing wet paper towels arranged to support the seedlings. This tray was then placed in a growth chamber at 30 °C, 48% relative humidity, and a photoperiod of 14 hours for approximately 3 days to develop root systems of sufficient quantity for analysis. When the root system was sufficiently developed 10 g of root tips were removed with a razor blade into a 0.25 M sucrose solution under air as suggested by Marinetti, et al. (1964, In, Dawson and Rhodes, eds.. Metabolism and Physiological Significance of Lipids, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 71-93). This was blended in a Waring blender at high speed in a cooler at 3°C using 15 sec alternate on, off intervals for a total of 60 sec “on.” Blending was con¬ tinued for another 60 sec to further fragment the cells. This solution was then rough filtered through a brass screen (20 strands per inch) . The filtrate was homogenized at 3 °C in a sintered glass cell homogenizer to insure cell fragmentation. Separation of the cell wall was carried out at 3°C with a rough separation of the cell wall and nuclei from other cell organelles using an alteration of the separation techniques of Hays and Barland (1966, op. cit.). The solution was centrifuged 2 minutes in an international centrifuge at a speed that gave a relative centrifical force of 1370 X D at the tube tip to throw the cell walls and nuclei to the bottom. The supernatent was discarded and the pellet gently washed, then suspended in approximately 5 ml 0.25 M sucrose per tube. The suspensions were then filtered I through 2 thicknesses of Mira-cloth (a commercial silicon treated cloth) under ' gravity, and rinsed with an additional 20 ml 0.25 M sucrose. Two more layers of \ Mira-cloth were placed on top, all 4 layers turned over, and an additional 20 ml ; 0.25 M sucrose was filtered through. The filtrate containing nuclei was discarded. All 4 discs were then rinsed and suspended in 25 ml 0.25 M sucrose. Sucrose gradient ; centrifugation tubes (cold) were then set up overlaying 2 ml 69% sucrose, 2 ml 55% sucrose, 2 ml 36% sucrose, and 2 ml from the disc suspension. This was centrifuged in an international centrifuge at 3°C for one minute giving a relative centrifugal force of 259 X G at the tube tip and for 2 minutes giving a relative centrifical force of 1370 X G at the tube tip. The pellet was then checked under a phase microscope j to be sure the cell wall was free of all cell organelles. If whole intact cells were ■ present the pellets were suspended in 10 ml 0.25 M sucrose and ground in a sintered , glass homogenizer and checked again under a phase microscope. If all cells were | fractured, the above separatory steps were repeated. The presence of plasmalemma I with at least some of the cell walls was verified with the phase microscope (Fig. 1). | This technique was also tried using root tips of radish, and leaves of lettuce and ' spinach. It was found that centrifugation times had to be altered to fit each plant type for isolation of the “cell case” with the plasmalemma. The presence of cell walls in the absence of cell organelles was verified in each instance with the phase NOTES 437 Fig. 1. A, Pilose photomicrograph of cell homogenate. Broken cell wall CCI and membrane fragment farrowL X 400. B, Membrane fragment larrowl and broken cell wall fCI. X 1000. i microscope. Subsequent extraction and analysis of phospholipids was carried out using plasmalemma prepared by the above method. L. Bartholomew and K. D. Mace, Department of Biology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, 75961. Dialectic Environmental Pollution and Texas Law By DAVID R, STRONCK^ Science Education Center The University of Texas at Austin A us tin, T exas 78712 ABSTRACT Our air and water can no longer carry in dilution the pollutants which are now being discharged. The greatest present obstacle to implementing an effective pro¬ gram is the lack of adequate scientific understanding of the environment. The pres¬ ent pollution control agencies of this State of Texas lacks funds, personnel, and appropriate organization to meet the needs of the citizens. INTRODUCTION The Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development to The House Committee on Science and Astronautics reported to the 90th Congress that if society will not voluntarily refrain from destroying the environment, then the quality of our habitat must be maintained through regulations based on accurate scientific and technological in¬ formation. The greatest present obstacle to implementing an effective pollution control program is the lack of adequate scientific under¬ standing of the environment. The subcommittee recommended a mas¬ sive education program to explain the principles of ecology and pol¬ lution to the public. The voters must be able to define the quality of life which we want in our land. The effects of pollution are usually regional. Kneese (1964) has recommended that pollution control agencies should be regional. Nev¬ ertheless, these regional agencies should not be divided according to the environmental medium into which waste products are deposited. Legislators have usually failed to recognize the interrelationships be¬ tween water, air, and land (Subcommittee, 1968). There now exist scientific processes by which most pollutants can be removed from the air by extraction before the wastes are emitted into the atmosphere outside of the factory. Similarly water can be purified. Solid wastes remain as an ultimate problem. 1 Present address: General Biology, Washington State University, Pullman. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, February, 1972. 440 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Our air and water can no longer carry in dilution the pollutants which are now being discharged. The latest projections from the Bureau of the Census predict a population of 300 million in the year 2000 (Barnett, 1970) . Our population is rapidly becoming more urban and industrialized. The public now uses 360 billion gallons of fresh water per day; Americans will need 1,000 billion gallons per day by the year 2000. Nevertheless, research by the staff of The Senate Com¬ mittee on Public Works (1963) indicates that only 650 billion gallons per day is the maximum amount of fresh water that can be used in America. Some writers predict that municipal sewage output by the year 1980 will become equivalent to the untreated waste of 150 mil¬ lion people. At present industry is discharging organic waste with an equivalency of the waste from a population of 160 million people (Hines, 1966) . This alarming figure is expected to double by the year 1980. In terms of weight, the greatest contributor to pollution is from sources of air pollution. During the next few decades we may expect repetitions of the disasters which have already occurred. For example, in 1952 during a 4-day period 4,000 persons died because of smog in London (Kimball, 1969). Today the English have greatly improved the quality of their air by legislation. ANTI-POLLUTION LAWS According to the State Bar Committee on Laws Pertaining to Pol¬ lution, the most important power possessed by a pollution control agency is the “power to establish air and water quality standards” (Foy, 1970). A 2nd important power is that of granting a permit or variance to a potential polluter. This variance guarantees the indi¬ vidual that he may pollute the environment without fear of enforce¬ ment of the standard. Some states have agencies which can carry out effective controls. Iowa by the Act of 1965 (Ch. 375 #9) provides for the hiring of a staff of employees. Kentucky by its revised statute of 1959 (#220.640) allows the agency to conduct hearings and to compel attendance of witnesses and defendants. Montana by its revised code of 1962 (#69-1338) has an agency which can initiate legal proceed¬ ings. Connecticut by its General Statute of 1960 (#25-26) requires the submission of plans for waste treatment and disposal facilities for purposes of approval or disapproval. With the exception of New York, most pollution control agencies have no organized program of public education on basic pollution problems. Epforcement of present pollution control laws is far from ideal. Pol¬ lution control legislation is designed to eliminate and reduce pollution DIALECTICS 441 activity, not to punish polluters or to repair damages which have been done, California through its Water Code (#13060) has an agency which may issue a cease-and desist order requiring a pollution activity to be ended. Nevertheless, polluters are allowed much time to comply with a board order and to make the necessary changes. Florida because of its Air and Water Pollution Control Act of 1967 (#17) is one of the few states which holds polluters liable for the damage caused to waters and fish and for expenses required to restore the waters to their former state. Air pollution is probably the most serious threat to our present en¬ vironmental quality. Once this form of pollution enters the atmos¬ phere, man is helpless and forced to wait for nature to purify. There is now a danger that the atmosphere in the future will not longer be able to purify itself because of the excessive discharges of pollutants. In 1968, $1,500 million was spent on air pollution control in the U.S. while $7,734 million was the income from consumer expenditures on all tobacco products in the U.S. during 1963 (Kimball, 1969) . The Federal Air Quality Act of 1967 (#107) directs the Depart¬ ment of Health, Education, and Welfare to designate broad atmos¬ pheric areas or air basins. After consulting the appropriate local and state officials, the Secretary of this Federal Department will define the air quality control regions, the air quality criteria, and recommend pollution control techniques. The greatest inadequacy of the presently defined air quality standards is that they are not based on an under¬ standing of the chemical nature of the atmosphere. Present standards limit the concentration of single pollutants in the air. But the serious effects of air pollution are often the product of interaction among many pollutants (Foy, 1970). Moreover, scientists rarely have been able to relate concentrations of a pollutant in the air with either en¬ vironmental damage or human disease. While direct regulation remains rather ineffective, the government is tending to provide increasing subsidies and payments to polluters as an incentive to improve their waste management practices. Mr. John T. Conner, former Secretary of Commerce, advocated increased tax credits when he spoke at the 44th Annual Conference on Industrial Development and Physical Environment. He argued that because the pollution problem was ignored for many years, government should now share in the financial burden to industry. At least 31 of the states have instituted some form of tax incentive. Pennsylvania and Texas are the only major industrialized states that do not grant tax incen¬ tives for the installation of pollution abatement equipment (Foy, 1970). 442 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Recent interpretation of state laws affirm that citizens may not only have laws which control pollution but may also define the environ¬ ment which they choose. There is nothing unconstitutional in using the police power to beautify a city. The case of Oregon City vs Hartke demonstrates that a city may abolish or limit the extent of unpleasant surroundings. LAWS IN TEXAS The state of Texas has several laws designed to prevent pollution. The Texas Water Quality Act allows for different standards based on the use of water from different streams (Foy, 1970). The Criminal Water Act of 1969 defines “water pollution” in this way: Water pollution means the alteration of the physical, chemical, or biological quality of, or the contamination of, any of the water in the state that renders the water harmful, detrimental, or injurious to humans, animal life, vegetation, or property, or to public health, safety, or welfare, or impairs the usefulness or public enjoyment of the water for any lawful or reasonable purpose. This Criminal Water Act is designed to penalize the one-time offender. The Texas Clear Air and Water Quality Acts seek to control of¬ fenders who engage continually in acts of pollution. The definition of water pollution found in the Criminal Water Act seems too general to meet the due process requirements of certainty and definiteness in penal statutes. Under the Texas Clear Air Act and Water Quality Act, a civil penalty may be placed on any violator of the water or air qual¬ ity standards. The defined standards can be invalidated if there is no credible scientific information to prove that a causal relationship exists between the standard and the interest being protected. Inspectors employed by the Air Control and Water Quality Boards have the right by Texas law to enter private property at reasonable hours to investigate suspected pollutional activities. Nevertheless, since 1967, warrantless administrative searches have been declared uncon¬ stitutional by the United States Supreme Court. Moreover, the in- spection-of-records provisions within the Texas Clear Air and Water Quality Act also appear unconstitutional according to recent decisions of the United States Supreme Court (Foy, 1970) . The basic philosophy of the Texas Water Quality Act and Clean Air Act centers on persuading offenders to cease polluting the environ¬ ment voluntarily (Tyler, 1968). In order for this philosophy to pro¬ duce practical effects, there must be an informed public opinion. Nevertheless, the Texas air and water pollution control agencies have not established any sort of formal educational program for the public’s DIALECTICS 443 benefit. These agencies simply lack funds for providing adequate educational programs. Both the Texas Clear Air Act and the Water Quality Act permit lo¬ cal governmental units to prosecute individuals who violate either lo¬ cal pollution control ordinances or state pollution control laws. Un¬ fortunately these provisions are ineffective because local units of gov¬ ernment do not have adequately trained personnel and are unwilling to prosecute powerful local economic interests. Texas needs regional agencies which are financially self-sufficient. The Air Control Board is a special statutory agency within the Texas Department of Health. Because it is limited tO’ using Health Depaxtment employees, it cannot deal well with the vast and compli¬ cated area of pollution control. The separation from the Water Quality Board gxeatly reduces the possibility of coordination and cooperation. Texas needs one agency which will have laboratory facilities and technicians to consider the total problem of pollutants. Today neither the Air Control Board nor the Water Quality Board has a formal pro¬ gram of research and development for pollution problems. A unified agency should be able to provide an information bank on any given pollution problem. At the present time both the Air Control Board and the Water Qual¬ ity Board consist of part-time members who only donate their time for public service. The Water Quality Board has 7 members. The 3 members appointed by the Governor represent industry, lawyers, and newspaper publishers. The other 4 members serve ex-officio; they are the administrative heads of the Texas Water Development Board, the Department of Health, the Parks and Wildlife Department, and the Railroad Commission. There is inadequate representation for municipalities, agricultural interests, recreational interests, and some segments of industry. The ex-officio members should be removed be¬ cause they will have a conflict of interest. In other words, if 2 agencies should have competing needs, the head of an established agency who serves on the governing board of a pollution control agency, would probably decide any issue in a manner favorable to his own agency. The Air Control Board has a reasonable representation in its 9 mem¬ bers; none of these are ex-officio members. Texas needs full-time members on these boards. Part-time members do not have sufficient time to devise solutions to the present complex problems. There is the possibility that part-time members are strongly influenced by the special interest groups which they represent. The Water Quality Board must consider and weigh 4 factors in pre¬ serving the quality of water in Texas: (1) the public health; (2) pro- 444 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE tection of animals and aquatic life; (3) operation of existing industries; and (4) the state’s economic development. Although public health is listed first, it is the least likely of the concerns to receive attention. In order to have effective controls, the Water Quality Board should have complete power over all matters related to water pollution. Now the authority over pollution abatement is duplicated and splintered among various agencies: Parks and Wildlife Department, Department of Health, and the Railroad Commission. For example, the Texas Water Quality Act gives to the Water Quality Board the supervisory power over all non-public ‘‘sewer systems, treatment facilities, and disposal systems.” On the other hand, the same Act places control of all “public sewage disposal systems” under the Department of Health. Many private individuals have become confused about which agency has jurisdiction when an activity is somewhat ambigious. Unfortunately the Texas Water Quality Act does not require a prospective Deputy Director to meet any specific and reasonable qualifications. The Attorney General may be requested by the Water Quality Board to prosecute an offender. But the Attorney General is not re¬ quired to institute legal proceedings. In practice, before filing a suit, he usually tries to persuade the offender to comply voluntarily with the Board’s standards. The 61st Legislature amended a passage of the Texas Water Quality Act. Formerly an individual had to secure a permit from the Board only if the individual’s waste discharge caused a state of water pollu¬ tion. Now an individual must secure a permit whenever he discharges any waste into a stream. Before the permit is issued, a public hearing must be held. The Texas Clean Air Act clearly states 2 functions which histori¬ cally were outside the scope of the police power. First of all, the air supply of the state is regarded as a natural resource. Secondly, the protection of recreational interests in air is a valid function of the police power. The Solid Waste Disposal Act gives control over the disposition of municipal waste to the Department of Health and control over the disposition of industrial solid waste to the Water Quality Board. Both agencies are instructed to confer with the Air Control Board when air pollution problems are involved. But the jurisdiction of these various agencies is not clear. The Air Control Board must operate under some serious limitations. For example, the Board, with certain exceptions, may not specify the type of anti-pollution equipment, construction plans, or method that a pollution offender must use in eliminating his activity. DIALECTICS 445 The 61st Legislature has amended the Texas Clean Air Act to make it much stronger. Under the old law, the Board could not frame a rule or regulation to control air pollution emissions that did not cross the boundaries of the property on which the source was located. Now the Board can act on any emissions from the confines of a building. CONCLUSIONS On November 17, 1970, State Representative Rex Braun of Houston said he will introduce a bill in January to allow individual citizens to sue polluters (Associated Press, 1970). At the present time a citizen has no legal standing in court. The pollution control boards have no power beyond requesting the Attorney General to prosecute. The public is now demanding rigid enforcement of stronger pollution control laws. Ultimately the public will pay for this enforcement in higher taxes. LITERATURE CITED Associated Press, 1970 — Solon to introduce bill allowing pollution suits: The Daily Texan, 70 (93) : 1. Barnett, L., 1970 — Population pressure: how many children? Zero Population Growth: National Reporter, 2 (9) : 18. Foy, J. H. et al., 1970 — Law, Pollution and the Environment: A View of Pollution Control in Texas. State Bar of Texas, Austin. Hines, N. W., 1966 — Nor any drop to drink: public regulation of water quality, part I: state pollution control programs: Iowa Law Review, 52: 186-235. Kimball, T. L., 1969 — Our National EQ: the First National Wildlife Federation Index on Environmental Quality. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D. C. Kneese, a. V., 1964 — The Economics of Regional Water Quality Management. Resources For the Future, Washington, D. C. Staff of the Senate Committee on Public Works, 88th Congress, First Ses¬ sion, 1963 — A Study of Pollution — Water. Comm. Print, Washington, D. C. Subcommittee on Economic Progress of the Joint Economic Committee, 90th Congress, Second Session, 1968 — Environmental Pollution. Gov. Print., Wash¬ ington, D. C. Tyler, R., 1968 — Methods for state level enforcement of air and water pollution laws: Texas Bar Journal, 31 : 905-910 and ff. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: james d. long, Sam Houston State University President-Elect: clark hubbs, University of Texas at Austin Secretary-Treasurer: e, n. drake, Angelo State University Sectional Vice Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. a. luther, Texas A&M University II — Physical and Space Sciences: l. a. youngman, Angelo State University III — Earth Sciences^ Meteorology and Oceanography: e. l. lundelius, jr., University of Texas at Austin IV — Biological Sciences: r. c. faulkner, jr., S. F. Austin State University V — Social Sciences: c. M. tolbert, Baylor University VI — Environmental Sciences: j. r. dixon, Texas A&M University VII — Chemistry: h. g. burman, University of Texas at Arlington VIII — Science Education: p, j, cowan, North Texas State University Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: bob h. slaughter. Southern Methodist University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer. Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University CLARK hubbs, University of Texas at Austin bob h. SLAUGHTER, Southem Methodist University E. N. DRAKE, Angelo State University GERALD G. RAUN, Augelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, University of Texas at Austin PAUL D. MINTON, Southem Methodist University H. E, EVELAND, Lamar State College of Technology THOMAS p, DOOLEY, Prairie View A&M University Cover Photo Generalized morphological structures of typical Pseudococcidae. For further information on this subject see, “The Mealybugs of Texas (Homoptera: Coccoidea; Pseudococcidae). Part I,” by Burruss Mc¬ Daniel, pp. 309-342. 2nd CLASS POSTAGE PAID AT 3A.N ANGSLO, TEXAS 7690] ■ DC 20560 .•^v r LIBRARY SM I T hi SON I AM ■ IN ST WASHINGTON SECTION I MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research SECTION VIII SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION VII CHEMISTRY SECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SECTION 11 PHYSICS SECTION 111 EARTH SCIENCES Geography Geology SECTION V SOCIAL SCIENCES Anthropology Education Economics History Psychology Sociology SECTION IV BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES' Agriculture Botany Medical Science Zoology AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS Texas Section, American Association of Physics Teachers Texas Section, Mathematical Association of America Texas Section, National Association of Geology Teachers GENERAL INFORMATION Membership. Any person engaged in scientific work or interested in the pro¬ motion of science is eligible for membership in The Texas Academy of Science. Dues for annual members are $9.00; student members, $5.00; sustaining members, $15.00; life members, at least 100.00 in one year; patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment; corporation members, $100.00. Dues should be sent to the Secretary- Treasurer. Texas Journal of Science. The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to all members. Institutions may obtain the Journal for $9.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased from the Editor. Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Editor, P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas 76901. Published quarterly by The University of Texas Printing Division, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. (Second Class Postage paid at Post Office, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Please send 3579 and returned copies to the Editor (P.O. Box 10979, Angelo State Uni¬ versity, San Angelo, Texas 76901). Volume XXIII, No. 4 June 15, 1972 CONTENTS New Local Faunas and Paleoecology (Pleistocene) of North Central Texas. By E. L. Willimon . . 41-9 Generation of Microseisms by Atmospheric Coupling. By D. H. Sherbet and G. R. Keller . . 471 On the Remanent Magnetism in Precambrian Llanite and Town Mountain Granite from Llano County, Texas By H. Spall ... . . . . 479 An Electrodeless Method for Determining Conductivity of Rb-NHg Solutions. By R, L. Davis and E. W. LeM aster ......... 497 A Note on Rectangular Matrices. By /. K. Amburgey, T. O. Lewis, and r. L. Boullion . . . . . . . 503 A Critical Look at the Use of Lincoln Index-Type Models for Estimating Population Density. By R. M. Eisenberg . 511 Toxicity and Sublethal Effects of Methyl Parathion on Behavior of Siamese Fighting Fish {Betta splendens). By M. J. Welsh and C. W. Hanselka . 519 Breeding Season and Early Development of Brachygalaxias bullocki (Os- teichthyes: Galaxiidae). By H. Campos . . . . 531 SCIENCE EDUCATION The Development of Individualized Instruction in Science for the Inter¬ mediate Grades. By D. R. Stronck . . 545 NOTES SECTION Crania sp. (Brachiopoda) from Texas Waters. By J. W. Tunnell, Jr. . . 553 New Locality Records for Diplomonorchis leiostomi Hopkins, 1941 (Trema- toda: Digenea) and Macrovalvitrematoides micropogoni (Pearse, 1949) (Trematoda: Monogenea) with Notes on Their Geographical Distri¬ bution. By J. E. Joy . . . 553 Minerals from McLennan County, Texas. By W T. Huang ..... 554 Behavior of Blind Snakes {Leptotyphlops dulcis) in Response to Army Ant {Neivamyrmex nigrescens) Raiding Columns. By /. F. Watkins, II, F. R. Gehlbach, and R. W. Plsek ............ 556 Notes on the Eruption of Volcan Arenal in Costa Rica. By J. A. Feduccia . 557 Abstracts, 74th Annual Meeting . . 559 Index, Volume XXIII-— 1971 . . . . 615 ' I'CrA) *' /, ‘'' '^Kl ^. ■ ■> ‘'.I'/..', .'£'v; •:, '!*:,! -, ■ T"', ■ f,’ r't , V)f, 'Vf “^L. 'r ' - , ■7;. V \:;y - ••^■' -V'-.:' 1 ".UvM'.i. ; .J;: V y . ' . - ' ■ ■ v- •; ;' V.. It' fei >^i l '4. s 'I -;v'i '13 '.i'’ 7, ■ »■ '■.'’ ■ • ‘ . ' ■ , ’ ^flTW^'JiSk ' ' - ' ■■ ' "''r^-V'-* T‘ p.r '\ '. {'Aiy .It) .'-iti/iJklvM :.itb < V ' ■-,•'• ■ ...^ ’•■ •„ ' i ■ . . . ... . ;CC!/.. ■..-f-^‘-:,-W '•"■' A' . rk ; -., ■ ' -. '’aikV J" A . :,' ■ ... ■ ' . . A.?’' , k'A'-.>kA .n ''• ^■24' . ...'..'w 1.- ' ■ '•' '■■.r. .. .A’ w'- ' .. ' v'. ■ ' MW"^- w v^.) «« > - E ' .^--1 ).k. ■■ '-vky-. - ' yy'^ .^•7,' .*vn . ■;?, ^ '.,. P . Ots^’ftr. iVk»X'V!^ i . )•'! '^*'krVi‘ '{ '/''k-'v. '}' -A, Ak’wA j •' . A*,''-*' ^ i-.V,; .v- -v '.^ .'. ?..., 1. v) 7. ...!^.t ■.*tA..->,.r ‘ ,(.,Ai^it,*r \ -•■ f.yvy.'s) ' ..'••rf,.! - "H ,._. , ; . ■..>■■,>> .j,-'--j«,!...; -■ , , , ..V .1 .. /u...«i,v.^^.;*.i.'v • • -•' " • ';,7!. , A' . .V A.‘ .••'■ i'.. • ‘ ..'- A r\ . ■'■'•; ".I- -.py-rV) 7 yi. ' y-'' ' ' ‘ '^''mA '-A' i' .' ".' .“'J If- .','.. V?.. ''3<'f.' ■ "■; ;Aj .;..‘.'r,,7.-‘.. a :. , ,■ ■.' ' .A-'i ^ y,, , ' ’‘i' \ ( 'CH' r,:',' .'Tl^t; Ju'^ i.nt < ' ‘\ -.'A. ‘.i'ta l^^ '- ' V"' ' .p .A , t, .3^,4^ 4a- ■^- \ .■'-,•■■ "^ f ' I; , , P ' -‘PV-o ;v •7 -J -. 'v . ■t. .<--.;■ A... ri. . . , , « A'V- . }' T,; ^ r..) .. '■ -y.^,5■.■vAi■ ■..: /’■■■'. ■•■■'.'':')) i'"V>;.ia :!• . .<,'..,:„.y*^ ■Y.H '.'..'U, - if .,V/ ■ r '. - . IV A »^a^^>)i^#J New Local Faunas and Paleoecology (Pleistocene) of North Central Texas by EDWARD L. WILLIMON^ Department of Geology Southern Methodist University, Dallas 75222 ABSTRACT Although there are at least 3 fairly well developed terraces along the Trinity River, only the T-2 terrace^ has produced extensive faunal and paleoecological data. The T-1 terrace is badly dissected and is rarely exposed in full section. Extensive commercial gravel operations near Seagoville in southern Dallas County now offer the opportunity to study the Pleistocene clays, sands, and gravels buried beneath the present flood plain. The age of these deposits has been unknown. Two molluscan local faunas were identified which were associated with radio¬ carbon dates, ranging from 20,000 B.P. to 23,000 B.P. These faunas indicate that during this period the area was cooler and more humid than it is today. Further¬ more, one rare exposure at the edge of the present valley has allowed basal T-1 deposits to be traced out of a typical T-1 terrace and under the present flood plain as shown in Figure 7. This demonstrates that many T-0 deposits are the remnants of the partially removed T-1 terrace. INTRODUCTION The history of the Trinity River drainage-net is, and has been, a subject of considerable study and speculation. Although most of the new faunas and stratigraphic work were on or near Bois d’Arc Island, correlations with gastropod faunas of the entire upper Trinity River have been made. Identifications and correlations of late Quaternary sedimentary horizons within a given terrace are usually tentative as the units ap¬ pear similar. These deposits along the Trinity River in Dallas County were first studied by Shuler (1918) ; and then by Shuler (1935), Pat- tillo (1940), Steinhoff (1948) was the first to prepare maps of the 1 Present address: Earth Science Department, Bishop College, Dallas, Texas 75241. 2 T-0 designates the present flood plain, T-1 is the 1st terrace above T-0 (+20 to +30 ft), T-2 is the 2nd terrace above T-0 (+50 to +70 ft.), and T-3 is the 3rd terrace above T-0. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 450 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Quaternary deposits along the Trinity River. Overmyer (1953) cor¬ related the main Trinity River terraces with those of the East Fork and with the City of Dallas area. These correlations considered fossils, lith¬ ologies, structures, and other criteria, but were primarily based on ele¬ vations. Various faunal studies along the Trinity River terraces include those of Allen and Cheatum (1961), Cheatum and Allen (1963, 1965), Cummins (1893), Dalquest (1961), Slaughter, (1962) , Slaughter and Thurmond (1965a, 1965b), Slaughter and Ritchie (1963), Slaughter and Hoover (1963), Allen (In Dalquest, 1965), and Thur¬ mond (1967). No fossils have been reported from any Trinity River terrace of higher elevation than T-2. Likewise, the T-1 terrace has been treated as a less well-preserved terrace, lower than the T-2 terrace. No ac¬ curately identified fauna has heretofore been recognized in the T-1 terrace. Slaughter and Richie (1963) did suggest that undescribed | gravels which produced Pleistocene elephant bones might be basal T-1 : deposits. These gravels, buried beneath Recent and Pleistocene sedi- ! ments of Clear Creek (a tributary of the Trinity River) were thought j to be the remains of a severely eroded terrace which had been covered with Recent flood plain alluvium. ^ The study locations were selected from active commercial gravel J pits, which are numerous in the vinicity (Fig. 1 ) . Where suitable clay * or silt lenses could be found, bulk matrix was sacked and taken to the screening station for fossil recovery. Vertical correlation between vari- ; ous gravel pits was made with the use of an altimeter in conjunction | with the established elevations shown on India, Texas, SE/4 Seagoville ; 15' Quadrangle, 1959, topographic map, photo-revised 1968. | NEW LOCAL FAUNAS i South Fish Creek Local Fauna This local fauna was recovered from the north wall of the Boyd- ; Ware gravel pit and is associated with South Fish Creek, a tributary i of the Red River, near Marysville, Texas. Charophytes (Fig. 6), | gastropods, and a few pelecypods were found associated with articu- ! lated mammoth bones and the crushed remains of an unidentified fish. [ This local fauna was found only a few miles north of a tributary of the i,i Trinity River and the deposits are similar in relative elevation to the |i T-2 terrace of the Trinity River. These fossils are the oldest ones in ij this report, seemingly correlative with faunas of the Trinity River T-2 il terrace. i NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 451 Fig. 1. Map of southeastern Dallas County showing the location of six gravel pits and the principal near-by highways. Radiocarbon dates are not available from the South Fish Creek site and the molluscan fauna is not specific, as far as time is concerned. When the terrace elevation is considered, the South Fish Creek terrace could be synchronous with the T-2 terrace of the Trinity River, usual- i ly considered Sangamonian in age. Only one molluscan species is found in the South Fish Creek local fauna, which has not been found among the local faunas of the Trinity i River terraces. This species is Ferrisiana tarda^ a shallow water gastro- j| pod. Deroceras aenigma (Fig. 6, gg,hh,tt) and Polygyra dorfeuilliana, on the other hand, are found only in sub-Recent deposits along the ■ Trinity River. The very common species, Strobilops texasiana (Fig. 3, I FF,GG,HH,ILJJ), of all reported Trinity River fossil faunas, is absent I from the South Fish Creek local fauna. This could indicate that the ' South Fish Creek local fauna is older than the Moore Pit local fauna i reported by Slaughter (1966), as S. texasiana is reported from the Moore Pit. THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 452 Gifford-Hill 2a Local Fauna This local fauna was recovered from the west wall of the Gifford- Hill No. 2 gravel pit,® approximateyl 6 miles from Seagoville, Texas. Thirty four molluscan species, 2 charophytes, and one mammal were identified from deposits lying below an unconformity. A 2nd local fauna was found in the same pit, but it was located above the uncon¬ formity and is reported as Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna. The upper local fauna is obviously younger and provides a sequence of faunas. One radiocarbon date was obtained from the Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna and one from the Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna. The date from below the unconformity, which was based on plant material, was 22,130 ± 350 B.P. W-1719). The date from above the unconformity, which was based on wood, was 21,540 ± 3010 B.P. (Tx-890). These dates place both deposits in the Woodfordian Substage of the Wiscon- sinan Stage (Frye, et al.^ 1968: E4). Since the indirect effects of con¬ tinental glaciation on the Texas area are not well understood, these terrace deposits can help to illuminate the records of these periods. Taxa, found in the Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna (Table 1) but absent from the Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna, include the deep-water species, Somatogyrus subglobosus; 2 tropical to semitropical species, Tropi- corbis obstructus and Zonitoides nitidus’^ and 2 species of the terrestrial family Pupillidae, which exhibit great adaptability. Z. nitidus requires cool summers and high relative humidity for survival. Polygyra texa- siana (Fig. 2, G, H, I) currently lives only where the average annual rainfall exceeds 30 inches, and usually where it greatly exceeds this amount (Leonard, 1950: 35). A well-presedved right horn-core of an extinct male Bison (Fig. 6, qq, rr, s-s') was recovered by the drag-line operator, while removing overburden, at the Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna level. The specimen was donated to S.M.U. but its base had been cut off. This made identifica¬ tion difficult as the angle of posterior divergence was no longer measur- able. Identification of this specimen as Bison (Simobison) antiquis is I based on comparisons with more complete fossils and measurements. All drowings were made from specimens reported in this study (see Table 1) Helidna orbkulafa tropica (Pfeiffer), A, B, C. Valvafa tricarinata Say, D, E, F, M, N, O. Polygyra texasiana (Moricand), G, H, I. Zonitoides arboreus (Say), J, K, L Lymnaea bulimoides Lea, P. 3 There are two Gifford-Hill gravel pit locations. This is the 2nd location to be mined by this company, and is locally known as Gifford-Hill No. 2 gravel pit. NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 453 Figure 2 454 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE All measurements and indices fall within the reported range of vari¬ ations for Bison antiquis (Skinner and Kaisen, 1947 ; 178), except that the index of horn-curvature is 125.7, while the reported minimum is 128. The indices and measurements also fall within the reported range of variations for Bison occidentalism except for the vartical diameter of the core, which is 108 mm. This reported variation for this measure¬ ment is between 76 mm and 100 mm. The assignment of this specimen to Bison antiquus was based on direct comparison with specimens of B. {B.) bison^B. (B.) occidentalism and B. {Simobison) antiquus in the collections of the University of Texas at Austin, and of the Shuler Museum of Paleontology at Sou- j them Methodist University. The decision was based also on the degree of attenuation at the tip of the horncore, and the absence of a distinct posterior curvature near the tip. Bison antiquus lacks the twisting near j the tip and possesses distinctly pointed horn-cores, while Bison occi- dentalis possesses twisting near the tip and has blunt ends to its horn- | cores. The Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna contains 9 species of aquatic gastro- | pods, which are normally associated with quiet water not subject to seasonal drying. These species require water, from a few inches to over : 3 feet in depth. In addition, these species require water velocities rang¬ ing from moderate to semi-stagnant. Three diagnostic species are ; Gundlachia meekiana (Fig. 5, v, w, x, y, z, aa), Gyraulus parvus (Fig. 3, Z, AA, BB), and Valvata tricarinata (Fig. 2, D, E, F, M, N, 0). Associated terrestrial gastropods include Gastrocopta armifera (Fig. | 4, PP, QQ, BB), Vertigo ovata (Fig. 4, XX, YY, ZZ, e), and Strobilops texasiana (Fig. 3, FF, GG, HH, II, JJ) . The common habitat of the 19 , terrestrial species is one which is humid; is protected by grass, shrubs, ! and occasional trees; has leaf or wood litter; has some thick vegetation; and is cooler than the present climate in this area. Abundant grass ; seeds, cockle burrs, and other plant-remains suggest relatively open | country with occasional trees. The water was cool, slightly alkaline, with a salinity of less than 3.5 parts per thousand, and was well oxy- genated, as attested by the presence of charophytes and ostracods ; (Moovem et al.m 1961; Q242; Schlichting, 1963: IdOaeldl). ; Figure 3 j Heiicodiscus paralfelus (Say}, R, S. i Stenoitema leai alidae (Pilsbry), T, U, V. | Vallonia parvula Sterki, W, X, Y. j Gyraulus parvus (Say), Z, AA, BB. Helisoma anceps (Menke), CC, DD, EE. Strobilops texasiana (Pilsbry & Ferriss) FF, GG, HH, 11, JJ. i| Physa anatina Lea, KK, LL. NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 455 456 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Flora and fauna correlation table for the Trinity River and adjoining areas, based on published and new reports Floral and faunal list Reference Numbers I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X KINGDOM PLANTAE Phylum CHLOROPHYTA Class CHAROPHYCEAE Order CHARADES cf. Chara vulgaris Kieneri .... - cf. Chara baueri Braun . - KINGDOM ANIMALIA Phylum MOLLUSCA Class GASTROPODA (Aquatic Species) Order PULMONATA Cuvier Family PHYSIDAE Dali Physa virgata Gould . * Physa ayrina Lea . . - Physa gyrina Say . - Physa hypnorum (Linnaeus) . - Physa sp . - Family ANCYLIDAE Menke Gundlachia meekiana Stimpson - Ferrisiana tarda Say . . — Ferrisiana rivularis (Say) ... . - Family LYMNAEIDAE Broderip Lymnaea bulimoides Lea .... * Lymnaea obrussa Say ...... . - Lymnaea dalli Baker . . * Lymnaea caperata Say . - Lymnaea reflexa (Say) . . - Lymnaea humilis (Say) . - Lymnaea stagnalis appressa (Say) . . Family PLANORBIDAE Adams Helisoma trivolvis (Say) . - Helisoma anceps (Menke) .... * Gyraulus parvus (Say) . * * * ♦ ♦ * * * ♦ ♦ NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 457 Table 1 — Continued CO Floral and faunal list Reference Numbers I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Gyraulus circumstriatus (Tryon) . . Gyraulus crista (Linn) . Promenetus exacuous (Say) . . Promenetus kansasensis (Baker) . Planorbula armiiigera (Say) . . T ropicorbis obstructus (Morelet) . Family VALVATIDAE Gray Valvata tricarinata (Say) . . . . Valvata tricarinata perconfusa Walker . Order CTENOBRANCHIATA Sctieigger Family AMNICOLIDAE Gill Amnicola integra (Say) . . Amnicola limosa (Say) . Amnicola sp. . Somatogyrus depressus (Tryon) . . Somatogyrus subglobosus (Say) Family POMATIOPSIDAE Stimpson Pomatiopsis lapidaria (Say) . . (Terrestrial Species) Order PULMONATA Cuvier Family PUPILLIDAE Turton Gastrocopta cristata (Pilsbry and Vanatta) . Gastrocopta procera sterkiana Pilsbry . . . . Gastrocopta procera (Gould) . . Gastrocopta pellucida hordea- cella Pilsbry . Gastrocopta tappaniana (Adams) . Gastrocopta procera mulungi (Hanna and Johnston) . ♦ ♦ * ♦ ♦ ♦ Dalquest, 1965 458 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 — Continued I fa i O) fa - S '3=8 p1 1 ^=8 Floral and faunal list Reference Numbers Gastrocopta pentodon (Say) . . Gastrocopta contracta (Say) . . Vertigo ovata (Gould) . Vertigo milium (Gould) . Pupoides albilahris (C. B. Adams) . Pupilla blandi Morse ........ Pupilla sinistra Franzen . Family STROBILOPSIDAE Hanna Strobilops texasiana (Pilsbry and Ferriss) . Strobilops sparsicostata Baker. Family ENDODONTIDAE Pilsbry Helicodiscus parallelus (Say) . Helicodiscus singleyanus (Pilsbry) . Anguispira alternata Say .... Discus cronkhitae (Newcomb) Family VALLONIIDAE Pilsbry Vallonia gracilicosta (Reinhardt) . Vallonia parvula (Sterki) .... Family CARYCHIIDAE Jeffreys Carychium exiguum (Say) ... Carychium exile H. C. Lea . . . Family HELICINIDAE Ferussac Helicina orbiculata tropica Pfeiffer . . . Family LIMACIDAE Gray Deroceras aenigma Leonard . . Deroceras sp . Family ZONITIDAE Pilsbry Hawaiia minuscula (Binney) . Euconulus fulvus (Muller) . . . Euconulus chersinus (Say) . . . Zonitoides arbor eus (Say) .... Zonitoides nitidus (Muller) . . "I g S B 3 CJCJ feH cofa pqcj fa ^ S' S s § s 11 11 SI P II 11? I SI C5fo c/dO o ^ I %% I -T 13 .r- ^ O g ^ g g II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Dalquest, 1965 NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 459 Table 1 — Continued 30 eg Jl J o 'tj a> Floral and faunal list Reference Numbers Retinella indentata (Say) .... Family POLYGYRIDAE Pilsbry Stenotrema lecd alichiae (Pilsbry) . . . . . . Stenotrema leai (Binney) .... Mesodon thyroideus (Say) . . . Polygyra texasiana (Moricand) Polygyra dorfeuilliana (Say) . Praticolella berlandieriana (Moricand) . Family SUCCINEIDAE Beck Succinea ovalis Say . . Succinea avara (Say) . Succinea grosvenori Lea . Succinea sp. . . . . Family BULIMULIDAE Pilsbiy Bulimulus (Rabdotus) dealbatus (Say) . . . . Bulimulus (Rabdotus) sp . Family CIONELLIDAE Kobelt Cionella luhrica (Muller) .... Class PELECYPODA Order TELEODESMACEA Family SPHAERIIDAE Dali Sphaerium striatinum (Lamarck) . Sphaerium sp. . . . Family PISIDUM C. Pfeiffer Pisidium nitidum (Jenyns) . . . Pisidium compressum Prime . . Pisidium walkeri Sterki . Pisidium sp . Phylum ARTHROPODA Class CRUSTACEA Order PODOCOPIDA Family ILYOCYPRIDIAAE cf. Pelecypris sp . cf. Potamocypris sp, . . . a . <8 '-a Ji fa „ -s § O ,t8 I SB “3 cofa pqo Sw Ofa fa II I Ofa o N. J' il CO 3 KP II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X * _ * * * * * 1965 460 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 — Continued Floral and faunal list Reference Numbers cS I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Phylum CHORDATA Class MAMMALIA Order ARTIODACTYLA Family BOVIDAE Gray Bison (Simobison) Antiquus (Leidy) . . Order PROBOSCIDEA Family ELEPHANTIDEA Mammuthus sp . - - * — Indicates that the species was not present in the local fauna. * Indicates that tlie species was present in the local fauna. Table 2 Indices-Computations for Bison ( Simobison ) antiquus 1. HORN-CORE CURVATURE: Hom-core length on lower curve - X 1 00 = Index of curvature Core tip to upper base of burr 308 mm - X 100 = 125.7 = Index of curvature 245 mm 2. HORN-CORE COMPRESSION OR ROUNDNESS Vertical diameter of core at base - ; - X 100 = Index of compression Transverse diameter of core at base 108 mm - - X 1 00 = 96.4 = Index of compression 1 12 mm 3. HORN-CORE PROPORTIONS: Hom-core length on upper curve - X 100 = Index of proportion Circumference at base of core 268 mm - X 100 = 94.4 = Index of proportion 284 mm Figure 4 Castrocopta contracta (Say), MM, NN, 00, PP. Gastrocopta armifera (Say), PP, QQ, RR. Pupoldes afbilabrh (C. B. Adams), SS, TT, UU, VV. Vertigo milium (Gould), a, b, c, d. Vertigo ovata Say, XX, YY, ZZ, u. Gastrocopta tappaniana (C. B. Adams), f, g, h, i. 462 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Gifford-Hill 2b Local Fauna This local fauna is from the same gravel pit as Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna, but from a clay lense above the unconformity. Information concerning the radiocarbon date and stratigraphy were discussed in connection with Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna. An additional radiocarbon date, from gravel pit “B’ of 20,660 ± 350 B.P. (Tx-889), correlates a large portion of the gravel under the present flood plain (T-0 ter¬ race) with the Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna and associated sediments of the T-1 terrace. This date was based on twig and root materials re¬ covered 13 feet below the surface. The diagnostic species of the Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna which do not occur below the unconformity are Helisoma trivolvis, Physa virgata^ Gyraulus circumstriatus, and Amnicola limosa. These aquatic species suggest higher water velocities and more frequent variations in energy levels than those of the Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna. The habi- i tats of the 8 terrestrial species of the family Pupillidae are less restric- 1 tive than those of the lower local fauna. This suggests that climatic ! extremes could have been greater than those of the Gifford-Hill 2a ! local fauna time. Dense beds of aquatic plants, possibly more tree ; cover, and dryer summers are indicated by the total fauna. Well- oxygenated, slightly alkaline water is required by charophytes (Schlichting, 1963: 180-181), ostracods (Moore, et aL, 1961: Q242), and pelecypods (Hibbard & Taylor, 1960: 76) . Gus T homasson Road Local Fauna I This local fauna is from sub-Recent flood plain deposits along a trib- i utary of the Trinity River in eastern Dallas County. The molluscan ' species identified here, which are not found in the older deposits, are F.uconulus cher sinus and Stenotrema leai aliciae (Fig. 3, T, U, V) . No j pelecypods, ostracods, or charophytes were found in this location. ■ Three species of the family Pupillidae usually inhabit grasslands with , few trees (Hibbard & Taylor, 1960; Leonard, 1959) and are able to survive prolonged summer droughts. Other species which suggest i somewhat warmer climates are Strobilops texasiana (Fig. 3, FF, GG, i Figure 5 [ Gastrocopta pentodon (Say), j, k, I. i Cundlachia meekiana Stimpson, v, w, x, y, z, aa. ! Succ/nea sp., gg. Gastrocopta procora (Gould), m, n,, o, p, q. Carychium exiguum (Say), r, s, t, u. Gastrocopta pelfucida hordeacolla (Pilsbry), bb, cc, dd, ee, ff. NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 463 464 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE HH, II, JJ), Carychium exiguum (Fig. 5, r, s, t, u), and Helicina orbiculata tropica (Pilsbry, 1948; 1084). The Gus Thomasson Road local fauna is essentially the Recent fauna of Dallas County, minus the immigrant species introduced by Europeans. The temperature ranges, relative humidities, and the biocoenosis were probably similar to those of this area today. The Gus Thomasson Road local fauna is estimated to be more than 400 years old, based on the absence of immigrant species. When based on the established ages of similar deposits in near-by tributaries of the Trinity River, this local fauna is probably nearer to 1000 years old (Slaughter, pers. comm.). DISCUSSION The T-3 terrace of the Trinity River is usually considered to be Yarmouthian, even though fossil evidence is lacking. The stratigraphic | relationships suggest a pre-Sanganionian age. This terrace remains the | least known of the 3 major terraces along the Trinity River. , The T-2 terrace of the Trinity River contains early Rancholabrean i vertebrate fossils. One example of this is the Moore Pit local fauna ; (Slaughter, 1966: 90). This fauna correlates with the Sangamonian i Stage and establishes a minimum age of about 70,000 B.P. The terrace could be much older than this. The glacial stage and substage names | used in this report are those of Frye, et al. (1969: E4) . The South Fish Creek local fauna is tentatively correlated with the T-2 terrace of the Trinity River. It may be somewhat older than the Moore Pit local i fauna which includes the oldest reported occurrence of Strobilops texasiana (Cheatum & Allen, 1965) and this species is not present in ; the South Fish Creek local fauna. The molluscan fauna suggests a cool, : moist climate without extremes of either high or low temperatures. Charophytes (Fig. 6, ii, jj, kk, 11) and pelecypods show that the water ' was well oxygenated and that it was slightly alkaline. The T-1 terrace of the Trinity River was deposited over bedrock and ; against the older T-2 terrace. This episode was in progress from about 23,000 years ago to about 20,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dates (W- l 1719, Tx-889, & Tx-890) place the T~1 aggradation of the Trinity ' Figure 6 |’ Deroceras aenigma Leonard, gg, hh, tt. ; cf. Chora vulgaris Kernerl, jj. 11. i Chara baueri Braun, il, kk, j cf. PelocypriSf mm, nn. cf. Potamocypris, oo, pp. ' Bison (Simobison) anfsquus Leidy, qq, rr, $s. SECTION 466 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE River Valley early in the Woodfordian Substage of the Wisconsinan Stage. The Gifford-Hill 2a local fauna is from these deposits, and indi¬ cates a moist, cool climate with rainfall distributed throughout the year. There are indications that there were no prolonged periods of extremely cold weather, nor very hot and dry episodes. The relative humidity seems to have been higher than it is today. The Gifford-Hill 2b local fauna is also from these deposits. It reflects a similar general climate with possibly inrceased energy levels. The presence of Bison antiquus and mammoth, along with the radiocarbon dates, places the fossils of these deposits in the late Rancholabrean faunal province. During this period of several thousand years, the T-1 terrace was aggraded, until the flood plain reached an elevation of approximately 20 feet below the older T-2 terrace. The various C-14 dates probably reflect the sequence of depositional unit formation involved in the general aggradation of the valley. This episode of valley-filling was essentially one extended event. The unconformities represent aband¬ oned channels on the flood plain, and tributary drainage adjustments to the aggrading valley-fill. ; Radiocarbon dates from the Trinity River flood plain leave a chrono- : logical gap of about 1 7,000 years. Shells collected by Slaughter from a depth of 38 feet below the present flood plain, were dated 2,280 ± | 200 R.P. (W-1 689) (Slaughter, pers. comm.). During the preceding | 1 7,000 years, an extended period of near equilibrium and degradation must have existed, as many of the older T-1 terrace-deposits remain under the present flood plain (T-0) as demonstrated by the C-14 date . of 20,660 ± 350 B.P. (Tx-889) from gravel pit “B.” Large volumes of ' more recent sediments have not been found in the Trinity River flood plain. I A similar chronological gap exists on the Sulphur River, but cut- and-fill deposits have been found with radiocarbon dates of 9,550 ± ; 375 B.P. (SM-532) (Slaughter & Hoover, 1963). Similar deposits probably exist in the Trinity River Valley, as eustatic events would affect the 2 rivers in a generally similar manner. Slaughter and Hoover ; (1963) also reported a buried river channel cut down into the basal gravels, approximately 15 feet below the present river, which was ' dated 1,833 144 B.P. (SM-599). This date, on the Sulphur River, ■ correlates with a similar down-cutting of the channel of the Trinity | River (2,280 200B.P.). The Sulphur River continued to aggrade j until 1929 when engineering projects increased the gradient and | caused rapid down-cutting to begin again. The Trinity River has ' aggraded at least 38 feet, and probably more, during the same period. A paleosol is found on the Trinity River flood plain, from 8 inches NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 467 Figure 7 Diagramatic Summary of Chronology and Alluviation of the Trinity River Valley T-0 terrace= present flood plain. T-1 terrace — first terrace obove T-O C+20^ — 30 ftJ. T-2 terrace ~ second terrace above T-O (-[“50 — 70 ft.). T-3 terrace = third terrace above T-O (-\-7Q — 90 ft.). to more than 3 feet below the present T-O terrace surface. The age of this 3 to 5 foot thick soil-zone is not known, but it is older than the dark gray alluvium which covers the present day flood plain. This soil zone represents a substantial period of equilibrium as it was neither buried nor remmved during its development. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am greatly indebted to Professor Bob H. Slaughter, Dr. C. Vance Haynes, Jr., and Dr. E. P. Cheatum for their discussions and sugges¬ tions. Thanks are also due to Dr. Myer Rubin of the United States Geological Survey, Isotope Laboratory, for radiocarbon dates W-1689 and W~1719; to Mr. Sam Velastro and Dr. E. Mott Davis, Balcones Research Center, for radiocarbon dates Tx-889 and Tx-890; to Dr. J. A. Doering for maps, data, and consultation; and to the Texas Highway Department, Dallas office, for the logs of core tests in the Trinity River Valley. LITERATURE CITED Allen, D. C., and E. P. Cheatum, 1961— Ecological implications of fresh-water and land gastropods in Texas archeological studies. Bull. Tex. Archeol. Soc., 31: 291-316. 468 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Cheatum, E. P., and D. C, Allen, 1963 — An ecological comparison of the Ben Franklin and Clear Creek local molluscan faunas in Texas. Jour. Grad. Res. Cen., S.M.U., 31(3): 174-179. - , 1965 — Pleistocene land and fresh-water mollusks from north Texas. Sterkiana, 18: 1-6. Cummins, W. F., 1893 — Review of R. T. Hill’s report on artesian water in Texas. Exec. Docu. no. 41, 52nd Congr. Dalquest, W. W., 1961 — Two species of Bison contemporaneous in early Recent deposits in Texas. Southw. Nat., 7: 73-78. - -, 1965 — New Pleistocene formation and local fauna from Hardeman County, Texas. I. Paleo., 39(1): 63-79. Frye, J. C. ei al., 1968 — Definition of the Wisconsinan Stage., Geol. Surv. Bull., 1274-E. Hibbard, C. W., and D. W. Taylor, 1960 — -Two late Pleistocene faunas from south¬ western Kansas. Contrib. Mus. Paleo., Univ. Mich., 16(1): 1-113. Leonard, A. B., 1950 — A Yarmouthian molluscan fauna in the United States. Univ. Kans. Paleo. Contrib., Mollusca, 4: 1-48. - , 1959 — Handbook of gastropods in Kansas. Univ. Kans. Mus. Nat. Hist., Misc. Publ., 20. Moore, R. C. et al., 1961 — Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. Geol. Sos. Amer. & Univ. Kans. Press, Q. OvERMYER, D. O., 1953 — Geology of the Pleasant Grove area, Dallas County, Texas. Unpublished Thesis (M.S.), S.M.U. Patillo, L. F., Jr., 1940 — River terraces in the Carrollton area, Dallas County, Texas. Field and Lab., 8(1) : 27-32. PiLSBRY, H. A., 1940 — Land Mollusca of North America {North of Mexico). Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1, 2, and 3. ScHLicHTiNG, H. E., Jr., 1963 — Charophytes of Pleistocene age from Delta and Denton Counties, Texas. /. Grad. Res. Cen., S.M.U., 31 (3) : 180-181. Shuler, E. W., 1918 — The geology of Dallas County. Univ. of Tex. Bull., 1818. - , 1935 — Terraces of the Trinity River, Dallas County, Texas. Field and Lab., 2(2): 44-53. Skinner, M. F., and O. C. Kaisen, 1947 — The fossil Bison of Alaska and prelimi¬ nary revisions of the genus. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 89(3): 123-256. Slaughter, B. H., 1966 — The Moore pit local fauna: Pleistocene of Texas. /. Paleo., 40(1): 78-91. - , et ah, 1962 — The Hill-Shuler local faunas of the upper Trinity River, Dallas and Denton Counties, Texas. Univ. Tex., Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept of Invest., 48. - - - ,and B. R. FIoover, 1963 — The Sulphur River formation and the mam¬ mals of the Ben Franklin local fauna. Jour. Grad. Res. Cen., S.M.U., 31: 132-148. - , and R. Richie, 1963 — Pleistocene mammals of the Clear Creek local fauna, Denton County, Texas. Jour. Grad. Res. Cen., S.M.U. , 31(3): 117-131. NEW LOCAL FAUNAS AND PALEOECOLOGY 469 - , and J. T. Thurmond, 1965a — Geological and paleontological survey of the Forney reservoir basin, Kauffman and Rockwell Counties, Texas. Fondren Sci. Series, S.M.U., 7. - , 1965b — Geological and paleontological survey of the Bardwell reservoir basin, Ellis County, Texas. Fondren Sci. Series, S.M.U., 8. Steinhoff, R. O., 1948 — Geology of Lavon area, Collin County, Texas. Unpublished Thesis (M.S.), S.M.U. Taggart, J. N., 1953 — Problems in correlation of terraces along the Trinity River in Dallas County, Texas, Unpublished Thesis (M.S.), S.M.U. Thurmond, J. T., 1967 — Quarternary deposits of the East Fork of the Trinity River, north central Texas. Unpublished Thesis (M.S.), S.M.U. >' ^ ' ■ ■ ..• > ‘'■•»*v, Tt i/f', . - > t-.c V'!.’ !> * ■ ' ' ’ / k . ‘ ' * ■ ■♦ , ' • .^i. .,^.- ,• -> -V ■: •'. 'r '- ^'V^r''‘<:"\ . ■ :■' ^ i; vj •? :.i y ^ . j \ . ^ :ul% ., ' ‘ ■'"'' :• ’ ■ • ' ■ ^^ ’■ ' ., , . ','. ' .; ,',. ■•■^^^ *i- ot’ -.1 V' .'=^.- '• , ’"<1' '!’- iv-»<:ii:?;V<:4-\> l’,-: •. .v:s‘>'.i‘:-. ■'. .'V^ .V' i-.L.'r-^vf-'i'. '•'?vi’i^ .,.■•,= .••.=, , :;. c L ' ^ ..^ -.^iMC k^is >< . A J.’ ' ‘ - y/ ' ' ?,’‘''Vf' ■' . / ‘ '■ ' 1 ' 4 ' " V?" ■■^1 ■■’•', -'f''' " /visfe''' ''■ .;■>. .Mr! >■ .'V-':., ‘ : v‘'A-r'' '* ," *' M- '' iV* ' . , '■k,M ' . ,•, ■V.:i -'.,. >\^-y '■' ■•■ . ' .' -V- S t^>* ^ 4.^,4fi>!i'^ v'i ’■^'■'•,tL.i..M' ' - ifc ^ 'A' . ; ■ 4M -• ,•; . ■, ... ■"*•’.,«■<■ '.'.. 'f. I'"' Generation of Microseisms by Atmospheric Coupling by D. H. SHURBET and G. R. KELLER Seismological Observatory Texas Tech University^ Lubbock ABSTRACT Microseism storms at Lubbock, Texas, are made up of predominantly 6-second waves or of predominantly 8-second waves. The difference in average periods can be accounted for in terms of distance of microseism propagation, water depth, and bottom sediments in the generating area. The relationships of water depth and sedi¬ ments suggest that the atmospheric energy which is coupled to the bottom is in the form of pressure waves moving horizontally at the speed of sound in air. INTRODUCTION There is general agreement that microseisms are generated by atmospheric storms over water covered areas. However there is lack of agreement about the exact mechanism which transfers the atmospheric energy into the microseism wave-train. The period of microseisms re¬ corded at Lubbock, Texas, is dependent upon the location of the atmos¬ pheric source as well as the distance of propagation of the microseism energy. Microseisms at Lubbock only rarely have amplitudes large enough to obscure other signals. However, storms do occur and during al Ithe storms the general appearance of the microseisms is the same. The waves arrive in groups of several cycles and the groups are sepa¬ rated by times of comparative quiet. All waves in each group have ap¬ proximately the same period, and maximum amplitude is commonly near the middle of the group. The overall appearance is similar to that of an amplitude-modulated wave-train of constant frequency. Because the period of each wave in every group is approximately equal, a microseism storm is commonly referred to according to this period. At Lubbock some storms are made up almost entirely of micro¬ seisms with periods of about 6 seconds and during other storms all microseisms have periods very close to 8 seconds. There is an occasional example of a 6-second mircoseism storm merging into an 8-second storm. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 472 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LUBBOCK MICROSEISMS !' Figure 1 shows a clear example of a 6-second microseism storm at | Lubbock which coincides with the passage of hurricane Carla of 1961 | across the continental shelf into Texas, and Figure 2 shows an 8-second microseism storm at Lubbock generated by a strong atmospheric storm in the Gulf of Alaska approaching the coast of North America, | Eight-second microseism storms occur less frequently at Lubbock ' than do 6-second storms. They are made up typically of very smooth, near constant frequency wave-trains very similar to the 8-second storms recorded at Bermuda (Shurbet and Ewing, 1956) and very un¬ like the irregular microseisms recorded at Palisades from a source in i the Newfoundland area (Bonn, 1954) and the irregular storm re¬ corded at Berkeley from a source in the Gulf of Alaska (Figure 2). | Some 8-second storms are recorded at Lubbock which are generated by atmospheric storms over the Atlantic Ocean near Newfoundland. Sim- i WWVw^-^ — VvV'A^ VWVVVVVV^ W /^AW\AAA^A/ w»^wwwy\/\/\ y\/\J\l\f\f\/^^ V W^^VVVVV\A AA vs#«wvV^AAl^ ■,(VV\AAn^ ^« V\rw\'C^ 17-18 JUNE 1965 «<««A,A(««^ LUBBOCK BERK E LEY* Fig. 2. Long-period ¥ertical seismograms made ai Lubbock, Texas, and Berkeley, Cali¬ fornia, 16—18 June 1965. The Lubbock seismograms show very smooth 8-second microseisms during the seme time that the Berkeley seismograms show mieroseisms which are certainly a mixfyre of 6-seeond and 8-see©nd waves. The source of these microseisms is a strong otrnospherie storm in the Gulf ©f Alaska. 474 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ilar Atlantic 8-second microseisms have been discussed previously by Bonn, et al. (1954), and by Shurbet and Ewing (1956) who showed that microseisms with periods of 6-seconds and shorter are attenuated more strongly during propagation than are longer period microseisms. Therefore the irregular microseism storm recorded at Berkeley (Figure 2) appears at Lubbock as a storm of very regular 8-second microseisms because shorter periods are filtered out during propaga¬ tion to Lubbock. Six-second microseisms are recorded at Lubbock from atmospheric storms in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast from Cape Hatteras southward to the soutehrn tip of Florida and these storms contain very little if any energy in the 8-second period range. For example, during the 6-second storm of Figure 1 there was an increase in 6-second microseisms at Pasadena, California, and Palisades, New York, but no indication at either place of 8-second waves. Lack of 8- second waves is also shown by the very regular, purely 6-second waves on the Lubbock seismograms (Figure 1) and DeBremaecker (1965) showed that as a hurricane approached land from the Gulf there was at least twice as much energy in microseisms with periods near 6- seconds as there was in microseisms of longer periods. Surely shorter period microseisms which do not propagate over large distances are generated in all coastal areas but it is significant that atmospheric storms in the Gulf of Alaska and near Newfoundland and northward generate strong 8-second microseisms with some energy in 6-second waves, whereas, atmospheric storms in the Gulf of Mexico generate mainly 6-second microseisms. GENERATION MECHANISM Bonn (1952) suggested that pressure pulses in the atmosphere might be related to microseism generation, but he offered no expla¬ nation of the mechanism. An effective coupling mechanism in which pressure waves in the atmosphere moving horizontally at the velocity of sound are coupled to Bayleigh waves with velocity equal to the velocity of sound in air is proposed here. Existence of the microbaroms has been known since 1939 (Benioff and Gutenberg) and this coupling mechanism will cause microseism periods to be dependent upon water depth and bottom conditions in the area of generation. The periods of both microseisms and microbaroms are in the same average range of about 4-10 seconds (Baird and Banwell, 1940) . It is general knowledge that water depth has an effect upon the dis¬ persion of oceanic Rayleigh waves. For example Oliver, et al. (1955) analyzed dispersion to determine water depth. However, the thickness GENERATION OF MICROSEISMS BY ATMOSPHERIC COUPLING 475 and shear- wave velocity of the sediment layer beneath the water has a much stronger effect. The dispersion curves in Figure 3 show that relatively small changes in either sediment thickness or sediment S velocity cause greater changes in Rayleigh-wave dispersion than do larger changes in water depth. Therefore, if the coupling mechanism being proposed here is valid, it must occur in areas where water depth does not change rapidly and where sediment thickness and S velocity are nearly constant. If any of these variables change rapidly then coupling will occur over a band of microseism periods rather than at an approximately constant period as is most commonly observed. It is also commonly observed that microseisms are most strongly generated when the atm,ospheric storm is over shallow water and probably not generated at all when the storm is over deep water. Therefore it is logical to assume that the 6-second microseisms gener¬ ated off the Texas Coast are generated within a band, which lies ad¬ jacent to the coast. In this band, up to 40 miles in width, particularly between the 20 meter and 40 meter depth contours the bottom is very flat (gradient about 3 ft per mile) and it is most reasonable to assume that the upper part of the sediment layer is uniform. Estimations based upon current bathymetric charts, indicate an average water depth of 28 meters. There is also a rather flat zone (gradient about 15 ft per mile at 47 N latitude) along the eastern margin of the Gulf of Alaska. This zone extends out to near the 80 meter depth contour and is only about 20 miles wide. The average water depth in this zone is estimated to be 38 meters and it is assumed that the 8-second microseisms are gener¬ ated when the atmospheric storm or the pressure waves are over the zone. Figure 3 shows that Rayleigh waves may approach the velocity of sound in air within the microseism period range, and it also shows that differences in average water depth alone is insufficient to account for the different periods at which the coupling occurs in the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of Alaska. However, if the shear velocity in the unconsolidated layer is assumed to be slightly lower in the Gulf of Alaska than in the Gulf of Mexico, this effect added to the effects of the deeper water is sufficient to account for the 8-second coupling period in the Gulf of Alaska. It is clearly reasonable to assume that the average sediment particle size might be larger on the continental shelf of the Gulf of Alaska because of the elevation of the adjacent continen¬ tal area. However other factors than particle size also affect the velocity. 476 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 3. The curve A shows the effects of water depth upon Rayleigh wave dispersion, j It IS impossible to draft the difference caused by a 10 meter change in water depth. The ! curves in B illustrate the effects of water depth plus the effect of the shear velocity in the sedi- i ments. The velocities were chosen by reference to Nafe and Drake (1957) and if the sedi- | ment velocity is slightly less, Rayleigh waves approach the velocity of sound at longer I periods. The curves in C show that small increases in sediment thickness also cause the i Rayleigh waves to approach the velocity of sound at longer periods. The calculations of I these first curves were based upon the same model as the first curve except for the differ- » ences in the water and sediment layers. The layer thicknesses are in kilometers and shear |i velocities are in km/seeond. The shallow water model of the Golf of Mexico predicts 6- ' GENERATION OF MICROSEISMS BY ATMOSPHERIC COUPLING 477 It is aiso possible to explain the difference in the unconsolidated layers in the 2 areas in terms of thickness. Figure 3 shows that if the sediments are assumed to be slightly thicker in the Gulf of Alaska than in the Gulf of Mexico, this effect added to the effect of difference in water depth is sufficient to explain the difference in microseism period at which coupling is observed to occur. It is well known that total sedi¬ mentary thickness is greater in the Gulf of Mexico; however, differ¬ ences in consolidation rates could be such that the upper layer with very low velocities is actually thicker in the Gulf of Alaska. Resolution of the question of differences in the characteristics of the sediments is so^ complex that it is suggested here that the coupling mechanism being described perhaps offers the means for arriving at the answer. Ex¬ plosions set in the atmosphere above the water would provide atmos¬ pheric waves for coupling. Study of seismograms could then determine whether the coupling mechanism is effective. If the coupling mechan¬ ism is effective then the seismic waves could be studied to determine characteristics of the sediments. Obviously the mechanism described here does not explain all micro¬ seisms. For example, Oliver (1962) firmly established that very long- period microseisms are generated by ocean waves of equally long period arriving at the coastline. However, the mechanism described here does explain observations showing lack of agreement between the period of ocean swell or surf and periods observed in the microseisms. Observations have been reported when the microseism period is not equal to the period of the swell and neither is the microseism period always easily related to interferring swell as required by the theory of Lonquet-Higgins (1950). The mechanism described here may also explain those observations of high ocean swell not accompanied by increase in microseism amplitude. The general observation that atmospheric storms over deep oceans are not usually sources of microseisms may be the result of lack of coupling of the mechanism being discussed. Figure 3 shows that Ray¬ leigh waves traveling across the ocean with microseism periods would have velocities in the range of that of sound in air. However Oliver and Dorman (1961) have shown that at these periods the Rayleigh wave vertical particle amplitude at the water surface is very small. This will second mieroseisms ond the deeper wafer of the Gulf ©f Alaska predicts 8-second micro- seisms in each case. The curve in D shows thof Rayleigh waves propagating across average ocean with periods of obout 3-sec©nds d® approach the velocity of sound. However, observations do not commonly include such mieroseisms. 478 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE affect the coupling mechanism and could prevent its being effective. It is also probable that microseisms generated in the deep ocean have periods so short that attenuation prevents their being commonly oh- served. Figure 3 indicates the period would be about 3 seconds. Accepted for publication: March 3, 1971. i LITERATURE CITED | i Baird, H. F., and C. J. Banwell, 1940 — Recording of air-pressure oscillations as¬ sociated with microseisms at Christchurch, N. A. /. Sci. Technol.^ 21B: 314. | Benioff, H., and B. Gutenberg, 1939 — Waves and currents recorded by electro- i magnetic barographs. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc.^ 20: 421-426. j DeBremaecker, J. Cl., 1965 — Microseisms from hurricane “Hilda.” Sci.., 148: 1725- ! 1727. Bonn, W. L., M. Ewing, and F. Press, 1954 — Performance of resonant seismome- | ters. Geophys., 19(4): 802-819. Bonn, W. L., 1952 — Cyclonic microseisms generated in the Western North Atlantic | Ocean. J. Met., 9: 61-71. ! Lonquet-Higgins, M. S., 1950 — A theory of the origin of microseism. Phil. Trans. ■ Ray. Soc., Scr. A, 243: 1-35. ' Nafe, j. E., and C. L. Brake, 1957 — Variation with depth in shallow and deep ' water marine sediments of porosity, density, and the velocities of compressional !i and shear waves. Geophys., 22(3) : 523-552. i Oliver, J., 1962 — -A worldwide storm of microseisms with periods of about 27 ’ seconds. 5u/Z. ^oc. Am^r., 52: 507-517. - , and J. Borman, 1961 — On the nature of oceanic seismic surface waves i: with predominate periods of 6 to 8 seconds. Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 51 : 437-455. - , M. Ewing, and F. Press, 1955 — Crustal structure and surface wave ■ dispersion. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 66: 913-946. i Shurbet, B. H., and M. Ewing, 1956 — Microseisms with periods of seven to ten • esconds recorded at Bermuda. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 37: 619-627. On the Remanent Magnetism in Precambrian Llanite and Town Mountain Granite from Llano County, Texas by HENRY SPALL Environmental Research Laboratories National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Boulder, Colorado ABSTRACT The natural remanent magnetization (NRM) of 32 samples (87 specimens) from 3 sites in the 920 m.y. Llanite dike system and 3 sites in the 1000-1050 m.y. Town Mountain granite of the Lone Grove pluton, Llano County, Texas is not stable to demagnetization. Thermal demagnetization to over 600 °C and AF demagnetization up to 1400 oe. produce no convergence of the NRM directions about a unique axis for either rock unit. The best grouping occurs among the initial NRM directions from the granite, and an overall mean for the 3 sites yields a paleomagnetic pole at 163°W, 17°S — which is 25° south of other poles from North American rocks of similar age. There is a bipolar distribution of the granite site means suggesting a reversal of the earth’s field polarity. However 2 components of magnetization are revealed by thermal and AF demagnetization of the granite, suggesting a self¬ reversal phenomenon. The latter is supported by observations of extensive exsolution of ferrian-ilmenite in the granite. The initial NRM directions from the Llanite are stretched out along a great circle which includes the three granite site means. Never¬ theless the Llanite dike is inexplicably magnetized, which is strange in view of its high intensity, the sub-micron grain size of its Fe-Ti oxides, and its short cooling time. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The laboratory work was done at the LFniversity of Texas at Dallas. I am grateful to Dr. C. E. Helsley for the use of his facilities and for partial financial assistance from NSF Grant GP2205 and American Chemical Society Grant PRF 1829 A2. 1 thank Dr, E. E. Larson for the use of his Curie balance. Field work was made possible by a Penrose Research Grant from the Geological Society of America, and I thank Dr. S. E. Clabaugh for help in selecting the outcrops. Part of the writ¬ ing was done during tenure of a CIRES Fellowship at the University of Colorado. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 480 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE INTRODUCTION Basement rocks in Texas are largely covered by younger sedimen¬ tary rocks, except for small exposures in the Llano uplift and in far west Texas (Flawn, 1956). Extensive geologic and isotopic studies have been made in the Llano region; they are summarized by Zart- man (1964) . In the Llano uplift, Precambrian metamorphic rocks are intruded by epizonal to mesozonal granite and granodiorite. Three main facies have been recognized: Sixmile Granite, Oatman Granite and Town Mountain Granite. The relationships among these granites are not always clear cut, and transitional rocks can be found. A dike system of rhyolite porphyry (Llanite) appears to be the last Precam¬ brian igneous event in the region (Burmester, 1966). The Town Mountain granite is pinkish grey, coarse grained, and in hand sample is composed of microcline, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and hornblende. The Llanite consists of phenocrysts of pink feldspar and blue quartz set in a brown, aphanitic ground mass. Zartman (1964) concluded that most of the igneous rocks have Rb/Sr and K/Ar mineral ages which fall within a narrow interval be¬ tween 1000 and 1050 m.y. with no later metamorphism. Only the Llanite shows a significantly younger age of 920 m.y. by Rb/Sr meth¬ ods. At 3 sites in Town Mountain granite of the Lone Grove pluton, and at 3 in the Llanite dike system (Table 1) 15 lb block samples were col¬ lected. The sites sampled were also those selected by Zartman (1964) Table 1 Sites in Town Mountain Granite and Llanite (98. 6° W, 31.8°N) Number Number Town Mountain granite of samples Llanite of samples 1. Petrick Quarry, 2 miles west of 5 1. Quarry 1 mile east of 5" Buchanan Dam at intersection of Texas Highway 16, and Texas Highways 29 and 261 4 miles northeast of Llano 2. Golden Beach roadcut. 6 2. Roadcut' 1 1/2 miles 5 Texas Highway 261, 4 3/4 east of Texas Highway miles north of intersection 16, and 8 miles with Highway 29 northeast of Llano 3. Painted Horse Quarry, located 6 3, Roadcut at Babyhead; ' 5 on Fitz Simons Land and Cattle 10 miles northeast of Company rainch, 2 miles Llano on Texas southeast of Lone Grove. Highway 16 . ! ' REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 481 I for isotopic studies. Orientation for the granite was by magnetic meth- I ods and a declination of 9°E was assumed from the 1965.0 Isogonic I Charts (USCGS). Orientation for the Llanite was by magnetic and I sun compass: the discrepancy between the 2 methods was about 4°, which we can attribute to the high intensity of the dike. In the labora¬ tory, cylinders (specimens) of length and diameter 1 inch were drilled from each block sample. Progressive thermal and/or alternating field (AF) demagnetization were applied to at least one specimen drilled from every sample, using equipment in the paleomagnetic laboratory of the University of Texas at Dallas (Helsley and Spall, 1972). Meas¬ urements of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) of the speci¬ mens were made on a PAR Spinner magnetometer. Model SM-1. The primary aim of the study was to establish that a stable NRM direction existed in both rock types, so that reliable paleomagnetic poles could then be calculated. This aim was not realized because the rocks display an apparently complex magnetic history. Nevertheless a number of unusual magnetic characteristics were observed, which justify that the study by briefly documented as an aid to those who may want to make further studies on the Llano rocks. TOWN MOUNTAIN GRANITE: DEMAGNETIZATION STUDIES The intensity of the granite is low 10~®emu/cc) : thus during de¬ magnetization many specimens became either too weak or unstable (Spall, 1970a) so that a remanent moment could not be measured. In addition, many of the specimens disintegrated after one or 2 heatings above 400 °C because of their coarse grain size. Thus only a limited amount of information is available at elevated temperatures. During demagnetization there is no convergence of the NRM direc¬ tions about preferred axes: one of the basic requirements for demon¬ strating paleomagnetic reliability is that this convergence does occur. In fact the least scatter occurs in the initial NRM directions and they are remote from the present field, although this is not an adequate test of stability. Nevertheless after 3 years’ storage the direction change for 10 specimens averaged only 9°. The AF demagnetization paths (and the initial NRM directions) fall into 3 groups, although a number of specimens could not be categorized. There was fairly good within- sample consistency to AF demagnetization, and duplicate treatments at the same stage gave NRM directions repeatable to within 10°, show¬ ing that no spurious moments were being introduced during demag¬ netization. Thermal demagnetization produced relatively little change in samples from sites 1 and 2, and some significant changes in site 3 samples. 482 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TN TN Fig. 1. Demagnetization response for granite specimens from different samples from fa) site 1 (b) site 2 and (c) site 3. Equatorial profection. Fields in oersted: temperatures In Axial and present fields are also shown. 1 REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PREGAMBRIAN LLANITE 483 Site 1 (5 samples =16 specimens) Three samples ha¥e the same initial NRM directions and they are referred to as group 1 (Fig. la). Some rather erratic changes are pro- duced by AF demagnetization (e.g. specimen 2D) but the directions after high field treatment are somewhat anti-parallel to the initial di¬ rections. On the other hand thermal demagnetization of these samples to 540°C gives very little change in the NRM directions (e.g. specimen 7 A). Two samples could not be categorized: they possessed shallow upward inclinations to the north and southeast respectively; their in¬ tensities were no higher than those from other samples (which might have suggested lightning effects); and demagnetization gave little change in the NRM directions. Site 2 (6 samples = 14 specimens) Three samples show the group 1 type of response to AF demagneti¬ zation: specimens 9 A and lOA are typical of this (Fig. lb). Like the site 1 samples, their demagnetization paths tend to show end points after high field treatment somewhat opposite to the initial directions. As with site 1 , thermal demagnetization of these samples does little to change the NRM directions. Two samples apparently display another response (named group 3), and it is represented by specimens llA and 12A. Nevertheless their high Q' ratios (intensity/susceptibility) caution that they may have been struck by lightning (Strangway, 1965). A high value for the 6th sample suggests a similar cause for its anomalous shallow downward direction to the south, which is unaffected by demagnetiza¬ tion. Site 3 (6 samples =19 specimens) The initial NRM directions of all 6 samples are well grouped at a shallow inclination to the northeast and are designated as group 2. This is the only site at which both demagnetization methods produce the same result (Fig. Ic) . The important point about this group 2 response is that in high fields (700-1400 oe.) and up to (but not above) 575°C the cleaned directions are approximately anti-parallel to the initial directions. This suggests that 2 oppositely directed magnetizations con- I tribute to the NRM, and the idea will be examined more fully in later sections. DISCUSSION Two main demagnetization responses are shown by 12 of the 17 samples of Town Mountain granite. It is felt that high Q' values as a 484 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE consequence of lightning strikes can reasonably explain the apparent group 3 response in 2 samples from site 2. The 3 remaining samples are inexplicably magnetized. Both thermal and AF demagnetization of the site 3 samples suggests fairly definitely that 2 oppositely directed magnetizations contribute to the remanence. One is a soft magnetization which dominates the initial NRM: the other is of high coercive force and does not dominate the NRM above about 575°C. This implies the interaction of 2 min¬ erals perhaps giving a self-reversal feature. It is partially shown by AF demagnetization of several of the samples from sites 1 and 2 (Fig. la, lb). On the other hand the group 1 initial NRM directions of sites 1 and 2 are approximately anti-parallel to the group 2 initial directions at site 3. This could imply that the granite sites were magnetized during a period of time in which the earth’s field reversed its polarity. This is not unreasonable because Currie et al. (1963) estimate that the Sierra Nevada granites may have spent 50,000 to 500,000 years in the range 400 to 600 °C, which is considerably longer than the average time of 4,600 years required for polarity transitions in the last 4 million years (Cox and Dalrymple, 1967) . An interesting speculation is whether the 2 anti-parallel compo¬ nents inferred at site 3 may indicate magnetization actually during a polarity transition. Thus as the granite cooled over a very long time, the remanence eventually acquired along a northeast axis at low tem¬ peratures was opposite to that acquired at high temperatures prior to the reversal. This is a rather tenuous argument, especially since AF demagnetization also produces this features, but it might be explored further by studies of fine grained margins and profiles across the various Llano granites. Despite the reasonably consistent magnetic data from the granite, its overall stability and reliability are questionable; first, because the response to AF and thermal demagnetization is different (this suggests that different minerals are responding to each method), 2nd, by in¬ spection, only the initial NRM directions are well grouped, and 3rd, because the NRM decay curves are not typical of stably magnetized rocks (Fig. 2). The linear form of the AF decay curves verifies that most of the NRM is of low coercive force: in the main, low fields are required to remove 60% of the initial remanence, so that most of the NRM is thus of low stability. [It is generally observed in paleomag- netism that stable magnetizations give rise to knee-shaped NRM decay curves (Irving, et al., 1961) and are of high coercive force (Larson, et al., 1969).] The normalized thermal decay curves (Fig. 2h) suggest REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 485 Log Field (oe) Temperature (°C) A. B. Fig. 2. Normalized decay curves of the natural moment for some of the specimens rep¬ resented In Fig. 1. AF demagnetization in (a); thermal demagnetization in (b). that thermally distributed components of magnetization are present in the granite, and Irving and Opdyke (1965) have associated these with the acquisition of secondary magnetization. Note the fluctuations in in¬ tensity above 440 °C for specimen 17C and above 570°C for specimen 19 A: these are usually related to random magnetization (Irving et aL, 1961). All these observations therefore restrict how far we can in¬ terpret the present data. LLANITE: demagnetization STUDIES The Llanite is an order of magnitude more strongly magnetized than the granite, yet no unique pattern of NRM directions emerged from all 3 sites, even during demagnetization. Instead, the 15 samples could be placed in 4 main groups depending on their response to AF demagnetization: 3 of these groups were similar to those found in the granite. In most cases demagneization to 1400 oe. produced at least 60° of vector rotation, usually along a great circle path and with fairly good consistency between specimens from the same sample. Like the granite, there was also good agreement between duplicate measure¬ ments at the same field. Thermal demagnetization to 650° produced either very little direction change or large erratic movements: no check was made on the within-sample consistency. There was generally little relationship between the AF and thermal demagnetization paths for a given sample again suggesting that different minerals were responding to each technique. 486 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TH filorth Pol*. d.etoK, Q Nsrik Pole. u.p * Axia/ Fi«U * P/’e.%*n-t Field. TN Fig. 3. Demagnetization response for Llanife specimens from different samples from [ (a) site 1 (b) site 2 (c) site 3. Equatorial projection. Fields in oersted: temperatures in "C. ' REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 487 Site 1 (5 samples — 14 specimens) Two types of responses are shown at this site (Fig, 3a). Sample 3 appears to show the group 1 response observed in the granite. How¬ ever, from the high Q" values 3) we can infer that this sample may have been struck by lightning. Samples 1 and 5 illustrate a 4th type of response. Their initial NRM directions are remote from the present field yet on an AF demagnetization they pass around the present field axis. Specimen 5B is typical of the response to thermal demagnetiza¬ tion for all 4 samples treated from this site: even above 600 °C there has been very little directional change. Two samples (4 and 6) show anomalous behaviour (Fig. 3a) although specimen 6B shows affinities with the sample 3 response. Site 2 (5 samples = 13 specimens) Two demagnetization patterns emerge for this site (Fig. 3b). Two samples mirror the group 4 behaviour observed at site 1 . Three samples show the group 2 pattern seen in the granite, and specimen 7 A is typi¬ cal of this. The initial NRM direction is at a shallow angle to the north east, yet on AF demagnetization it approaches the initial NRM direc¬ tions of group 1 . This is the same kind of partial self-reversal feature we observed in the granite. Specimen lOB is typical of the response of the 3 samples thermally demagnetized from this site in that the direc¬ tion changes are erratic. Site 3 (5 samples = 11 specimens) Two samples mirror the group 2 type of behaviour, while the re¬ maining 3 samples show group 3 response (Fig. 3c) . The initial NRM directions of this group are remote from the present field, and on AF demagnetization they tend to mave toward the group 1 paths (Fig. 3a) . Nevertheless, neither their intensities nor Q' values suggest lightning effects, as we reasoned for the same type of response shown by the granite. Specimen 15C is typical of the 5 samples thermally demag¬ netized: there is little real direction change up to 645 °C. DISCUSSION We observe no preferred NRM direction in the Llanite which we can consider to be common to all 3 sites either before or after demag¬ netization. This is certainly true of thermal demagnetization. Three of the group demagnetization responses found in the granite are also observed in the Llanite. However, we cannot be too enthusiastic about this correlation, because the apparent group 1 response in the Llanite, and the apparent group 3 response in the granite, are probably caused 488 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 4. Normalized decay curves of the natural moment for some of the specimens represented in Fig. 3. AF demagnetization in (a); thermal demagnetization in lb). by lightning strikes. The group 2 response is shown by both rock types and is significant in showing evidence for 2 oppositely directed com¬ ponents of magnetization, and thus a possible self-reversal feature. We further observe that not one of the 4 groups is common to all 3 sites, which implies that each site is showing a different, although overlapping, magnetization history. This is unexpected in a dike sys¬ tem which ought to have cooled quickly so that all sites were mag¬ netized at about the same time. Part of the answer to this problem is supplied by the normalized NRM decay curves (Fig. 4). The linear AF decay curves illustrate that there is a considerable coercive force spectrum present in the Llanite specimens, despite their fairly high in¬ tensity. The thermal decay curves show thermally distributed mag¬ netic components which Irving and Opdyke (1965 ) have linked with secondary magnetizations. It is worth commenting on an apparent grouping of NRM directions in the northwest quadrant at about 60° inclination. It is shown by certain of the high field directions in Figs. 3a and 3b and appears to be the end point of the group 3 demagnetization path (Fig. 3c). This grouping is illusory because it is more an artifact of the choice of speci¬ mens used to illustrate each demagnetization response, rather than being typical of the behavior of the whole collection. This is demon¬ strated in a later section by Fig. 7 which shows the NRM directions after various demagnetization stages. Ry inspection there is no pre¬ ferred grouping of the Llanite data at about 60° inclination in the northwest quadrant, especially after the 700 oe stage, which first drew our attention to the feature. REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 489 OPAQUE MINERALOGY Reflected light studies show that ilmenite is the most abundant opaque oxide in both granite and Llanite, with hematite, titanomag- netite, and sphene as subordinate minerals. The average grain size in the Llanite is less than 5 microns, and most of the grains are in the submicroscopic range at 1250 magnifica¬ tion. Thus it is difficult to positively identify each phase, and also to compare the variation from site to site. All than can be said is that randomly oriented, unexsolved, skeletal ilmenites are abundant, with minor cubic titanomagnetites, and hematite (observed as internal re¬ flections throughout the rock) . Hematite is more common in samples which are fractured and weathered in hand sample, and thus is prob¬ ably a product of surficial weathering. All the granite specimens have abundant, large, rounded ferrian- ilmsnites (up to 600 microns across), sub-prismatic titanomagnetite (up to 400 microns long) , small hematites, and occasional pyrite cubes. Ferrian-ilmenite is exsolving to titanohematite, which appears as long trains of lozenges (up to 5 X 10 microns in dimension). In turn, ferrian-ilm_enite may exsolve out of titano-hematite in seriate distribu¬ tion. There is a considerable size range in the ferrain-ilmenite, varying from large grains, to long (300 to 500 micron) parallel trains of 5 micron lozenges in the mafic minerals, to submicroscopic material pep¬ pered throughout the silicates. Most of the large ferrian-ilmenites have coronas of, or are intergrown with, sphene and this observation sug¬ gests that the sphene is deuteric. Titanomagnetite is marginally oxidized along 111 planes to hema¬ tite (martite) usually in amounts less than 10%. This form of hema¬ tite has a much higher reflectivity than exsolved titano-hematite, probably the result of lower titanium content. There is a 3rd type of hematite and it occurs as long needles in the mafic minerals. Since these pass through sphene-ferrian-ilmenite as¬ sociations, it suggests that this hematite was among the last of the opaque minerals to form in the rock. It may be connected with intru¬ sion of the Llanite dike system, but certainly seems to have been pro¬ duced by hot fluids permeating the granite. Since the reflectivity of this hematite is the same as that of the martite, we can speculate that they were formed by the same hydrothermal activity, possibly that which m.ay have caused anomalous biotite ages from the granite (Zartman, 1964). Apart from a variation in the amount of opaque material, there are no noticeable mineralogic differences between the specimens from 490 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE sites 1 and 2 in the granite. Site 3 is distinctive in possessing much more exsolution of titano-hematite, and more submicroscopic ferrian- ilmenite. CURIE POINTS Four Curie points were determined on an Akimoto type balance at the University of Colorado in a field of 2000 oe. (Fig. 5) . All the curves are reversible suggesting that no mineralogic changes took place dur¬ ing heating. The Llanite specimen has a sharp inflexion at 580°C, but a main Curie point at 630 to 640 °C. Specimens from the granite sites show low profile curves, confirming the range of blocking temperatures (thermally distributed components) implied by thermal demagnetiza¬ tion. There are fairly pronounced inflexions at 570 to 600 °C, but main Curie points in the range 630 to 650° C. These observations suggest that members of both titanomagnetite and hematite series contribute to the saturation magnetization in both rock types. This partially explains why such a variety of responses is observed during demagnetization of the 2 rock units e.g. different re¬ sponse of the Llanite to AF and thermal demagnetization, and the 2 component hypothesis for site 3 in the granite. Future studies should focus on the abundance of each phase and its relation to bulk magnetic characteristics. INTENSITIES, SUSCEPTIBILITIES AND RATIOS (tABLE 2) All 3 parameters show considerable variation both at the sample level and at the site level for both rock types. Some of this is un- Fig. 5. Curie point determinations in a field of 2000 oe. REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 491 Table 2 Intensity, susceptibility and Q' ratio data for most of the specimens used in the study Llanite Site Int^sity X 10 emu / cc Sus^e ptibility X 10 emu/oe/cc (Intensity Sus ce ptibility ) Range Median Range Median Range Median 1 4.1 - 33.3 16.3 2.0 - 3.7 3.1 1.7 - 2.6 1.8 2 1.1 2.3 1.6 15. 3 - 19.1 18.3 0.1 - 0.2. 0.1 3 1. 0 =■ 44.2 1,2 3.0- 13.5 4.3 0,1 - 0.5 0. 3 Town Mountain granite Intensity Sus ce ptibility q/ fXAttOSit^ Site X 10 emu / cc X 10 ^ emu/ ( 3e / cc Range Median Range Median Range Median 1 0.13 - 1.2 0.46 2.1 - 4.9 3.5 0.1 - 0.4 0.1 2 0.36 - 330 34. 9 41. 7 - 121 71.9 0. 3 - 3.1 0.6 3 0.11 - 335 3.9 6.6 - 18.2 10.5 0.1 - 0.6 0.3 doubtedly due to variable amounts of Fe-Ti oxides (suggested by the range in susceptibility), and the effects of lightning (shown by high Q' values), but some odd associations remain. For example, the inten¬ sities are generally lower and the susceptibilities are higher in site 2 Llanite specimens than for other sites: yet the opaque mineralogy is no different. We can attribute the high intensity of the Llanite to its very fine grain size. Remanences in igneous rocks associated with such sub¬ micron particles are usually commensurate with high coercive force and high magnetic stability (Larson, et al.^ 1969). Since the NRM of the Llanite is composed largely of soft magnetization (probably ac¬ quired by the larger multidomain titanomagnetites) we may remark that the sub-micron material may have formed by alteration of the primary minerals. In this event it has acquired a hard, chemical rem¬ anent magnetization (CRM) perhaps over a long period of time. Thus demagnetization preferentially erases the soft, primary component, and leaves the complex CRM. Again this is a rather tenuous argument because it raises the questions, which mineral acquired the CRM, titanomagnetite, or hematite, or perhaps both in interaction (to give the partial self reversal features we observe during demagnetization) : also what kind of secondary alteration took place, because Zartman (1964) found no evidence for an event which disturbed the isotopic systems in the Llanite. Furthermore, artificial TRM’s acquired by the Llanite by cooling it from 700 °C in a field of 0.3 oe were normal and 492 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE within 2° of the applied field axis: the intensity of this TRM was com¬ parable with the NRM. This suggests that any self reversal feature is not reproducible and all the magnetic minerals now in the Llanite are capable of reflecting a magnetic field to which they are subjected. Both titanomagnetic and hematite are present in the granite, and here the evidence for their interaction is stronger, e.g. 2 components are suggested by several of the AF demagnetization paths from sites 1 and 2, and particularly all the paths from the samples at site 3. (The fact that the NRM was randomly oriented above 575°C suggests that magnetic noice from the very large, soft titanomagnetites effectively masks any contribution from hematite) . The most likely medium for this interaction is deuteric exsolution of ilmenohematites, because the most extensive ex solution occurs at site 3, and this site firmly implies the idea of 2 oppositely directed components. It is therefore a self¬ reversal interaction of the type described by Merrill and Gromme (1969) . It is unlikely that the reversed component resides in the hema¬ tite formed by partial oxidation of titanomagnetite because similar martitization without self-reversal features, has been observed in 4 Precambrian granites from Arizona (Spall, 1970b) . And if this hema¬ tite were formed by the same hydrothermal activity which produced long needles of hematite in the mafic minerals, we can also dismiss this latter phase as a cause of the self-reversal component. Unfortunately, all the granite specimens disintegrated at 700 °C so we cannot say whether the self-reversal is reproducible. DISCUSSION OF DIRECTIONS OF MAGNETIZATION Neither the Llanite nor the Town Mountain Granite have displayed a consistent stability to demagnetization or a tendency for the NRM directions to converge about a unique axis during magnetic or thermal cleaning. Both are essential to establishing reliability of the remanent magnetism in terms of calculating paleomagnetic poles. The initial NRM directions for all sites in the granite and Llanite are compared in Fig. 6. Means for each site, calculated with Fisher’s methods ( 1 953) , and without regard to anomalous directions, are listed in Table 3. Despite the expected high dispersion, the bipolar distribu¬ tion of granite directions is well brought out by the 3 site means (Fig. 6). It is not so well shown in the Llanite directions, either in the site means (Table 3) or the individual specimens (Fig. 6b). Instead these appear to be streaked along a great circle which includes the 3 granite means shown in Fig. 6a. Note however, that they also tend to cluster according to the various groups observed during demagnetization. REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 493 rh/ Granite A/ortA pok doujn a North pole up a Site 1 Site mean ^ ■ • □ o 2 J T/U ♦ -Pield ♦ Present fleJd LJaniia North po/e dou/n. a ■ A/ortA pole up A □ Side 1 Z Fig. 6. Initial NRM directions for granite (a) and Llanite (b). Equal area projection. Site means for the granite are also plotted (see Table 3). The bipolar distribution in the granite does suggest that it was mag¬ netized during a period of time during which at least one reversal of the earth’s field occurred. Can we say from the distribution of Llanite directions along a great circle that the dike was magnetized actually during a reversal? No, we cannot take these speculations too far, be¬ cause not only is there some evidence for self-reversal features in both rock types, but their NRM is of low stability. This is well shown by 494 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 3 Site mean initial NRM directions for granite and Llanite Dec is declination of the north seeking magnetic vector, east of true north; Inc is its inclination, positive downward; R is the length of N unit vectors, one per specimen; k= (N-1) / (N-R); cKgg is the semi-angle of the cone of 95% level confidence; Long and Lat are the longitude and latitude respectively of the paleomagnetic pole; 5p and Sm are the semi minor/major axes of the oval of 95% level confidence. Rock type Site Dec Inc N R k a 95 Long Lat 6p 8m Granite 1 247 25 16 10.102 2 31 165W 12 S 18 33 2 240 41 14 8. 938 3 29 152W lOS 22 35 3 58 4 19 17. 565 13 10 8E 2 7N 5 10 Overall Mean 242 21 3 2.838 12 37 163W 17S 20 38 Llanite 1 101 49 14 11. 060 4 21 40W 7N 19 28 2 48 33 13 11.414 8 16 2W 45N 10 18 3 247 85 11 8.161 4 28 now 27N 55 56 Fig. 7 which plots the granite /Llanite directions after treatment in 350 to 700 oe. and to 530°C. After 350 oe. the Llanite directions are still streaked along a great circle, but this now includes the present field axis. There is no grouping of any of the directions after 700 oe. At 530°C the Llanite directions are scattered; the granite directions cluster to the west and these illustrate the 2 component hypothesis we deduce from the site 3 data. The conclusion we come to is that the i Llanite is rather inexplicably magnetized. Can any information on the paleomagnetic field directions be ob- , tained? Yes, but the information is qualitative and it is only from the ' granite. Further studies from a very large number of samples of both rock types are required before the complex magnetic behavior of these i simple rock types can be worked out. The overall granite pole, com¬ puted from the 3 sites means (Table 3), is east of the Tonga Islands in the southwestern Pacific. It is in the same general vicinity as other poles determined from North American Precambrian rocks which sug- , gests that it is a qualitative index of the Precambrian field. Neverthe- | less it is about 25 ° south of poles from some Keweenawan rocks of very | similar age (DuBois, 1962), and from the 1020-1040 m.y. Pikes Peak , granite (Spall, 1970a). No structural correction was applied to the i Llano directions, but this is unlikely to cause the discrepancy, because ^ the Paleozoic sediments covering these Precambrian rocks near the collecting sites are flat lying. ' REMANENT MAGNETISM IN PRECAMBRIAN LLANITE 495 TN Granite • North pole down o North pole up Llanite A North pole down A North pole up ♦ Axial field ♦ Present field Fig. 7. NRM directions for Llanite and granite after demagnetization to (a) 350 oe (b) 700 oe and (cl 530° C. iqual area projection. 496 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE CONCLUSION All the ideas suggested by the data reported in this note are con¬ jectural because we observe no really consistent magnetic behavior and none which can be considered to be typical of every sample in either rock type. We can speculate that the paleomagnetic axis at 1000-1050 m.y. was in the vicinity of 163° W, 17 S, that during that j interval a reversal of the earth’s field polarity occurred, and that 2 j oppositely directed components contribute to the remanence of the Town Mountain granite (possibly a self -reversal interaction between titanomagnetite and hematite) . i LITERATURE CITED I Burmester, R. F., 1966 — Llanite, a hypabyssal rhyolite porphyry from Llano Coun¬ ty, Texas. M.S. Thesis. University of Texas at Austin. : Cox, A., and G. B. Dalrymple, 1967 — Statistical analysis of geomagnetic reversal data and the precision of potassium-argon dating. J. Geophys. Res.^ 72: 2603- 2614. ! Currie, R. G., C. S. Gromme, and J. Verhoogen, 1963 — Remanent magnetization : of some Upper Cretaceous granitic plutons in the Sierra Nevada, California. J. Geophys. Res., 68: 2263-1179. Dubois, P. M., 1962 — Palaeomagnetism and correlation of Keweenawan rocks. Geol. Survey Canada Bull., 71. Fisher, R. A., 1953 — Dispersion on a sphere. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A., 217: 295-305. Flawn, P. T., 1956 — Basement rocks of Texas and south-east New Mexico. LJniv. Tex. Publ, 5605. Helsley, C. E., and H. Spall, 1972— Paleomagnetism of 1140-1150 m.y. diabase ■ sills from Gila County, Arizona. J. Geophys. Res. in press. Irving, E., and N. D. Opdyke, 1965 — The paleomagnetism of the Bloomsburg Red Beds and its possible application to the tectonic history of the Appalachians. Geophys. J., 9: 153-167. Irving, E., P. M. Stott, and M. A. Ward, 1961 — Demagnetization of igneous rocks by alternating magnetic fields. Phil. Mag., 6: 225-241. Larson, E. E., M. Ozima, M. Ozima, T. Nagata, and D. W. Strangeway, 1969 — Stability of remanent magnetization in igneous rocks. Geophys. J., 17 : 263-292. Merrill, R. T., and C. S. Gromme, 1969 — Non-reproducible self-reversal of magne¬ tization in diorite. J. Geophys. Res., 74: 2014-2024. i: Spall, H,, 1970a — Paleomagnetism of the Pikes Peak granite, Colorado. Geophys. i /., 21: 427-440. j| - , 1970b — Paleomagnetism of certain Precambrian igneous rocks from the Western United States. Ph.D. Thesis. University of London. jj Strangway, D. W., 1965 — Interpretation of the magnetic anomalies over some [ Precambrian dikes. Geophysics, 30: 783-796. Zartman, R. E., 1964 — A geochronologic study of the Lone Grove Pluton from the !' Llano Uplift, Texas. J. Petrol., 5: 359-408. I Accepted for publication: Feb. 8, 1971. An Electrodeless Method for Determining Conductivity of Rb-NHs Solutions'^ by R. L. DAVIS and E. W, LE MASTER Del mar College, Corpus Christi 78404 Pan American College, Edinburg 78539 ABSTRACT An electrodeless method was used to measure the electrical conductivity of a Pib-NHg solution. Two interpretations of the data are offered: (1) ammonia was freezing out and (2) the solution separated into the 2 liquid phases. INTRODUCTION The alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in liquid ammonia at temperatures down to about — 80°C. These metal-ammonia solu¬ tions are interesting because the number of conduction electrons in the liquid can be varied by adding metal or ammonia to the solution. Satu¬ ration occurs at a metal concentration of 16 to 20 mole percent (MPM = mole percent metal). The concentrated solutions behave as liquid metals and the dilute (ammonia rich) solutions behave as elec¬ trolytes. The metallic solutions are generally free-electron like and ap¬ pear bronze or gold in color. The electrolytic solutions appear blue in color due to electrons that are trapped or solvated by the ammonia and have a low electrical conductivity. At intermediate concentrations the solutions show a miscibility gap where a 2-phase solution forms with the metallic phase floating on the electrolytic phase. These solutions offer an opportunity to study the non-metal to metal transition as rubidium is added to liquid ammonia. The present inves¬ tigation was carried out in the summer of 1969 by one author (RED) in the laboratory of Dr, J. C. Thompson^ at the University of Texas at Austin as part of a research effort which began in 1961 . It is found that electrodes introduce contaminants or catalysts that speed up decomposition of metal-ammonia solutions producing hydro¬ gen and the metal amines. Therefore an electrodeless method devised by Zimmerman (1961) and others (Nyberg and Rurgess, 1962; Bean, 1 This work was supported by NSF, Grant #GY-6949. 2 Work supported by N.S.F. and The R. A. Welch Foundation. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 498 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 1959) has been adapted to liquid metahammonia solutions by Schroe- der et al., (1969) and Teoh (1966; 1970). This electrodeless method is limited to samples having conductivity greater than 300 ohm"^cm"^. One simply observes the conductivity versus temperature and a 2- phase solution formation is accompanied by a sharp break in the con¬ ductivity with temperature. Adams (1970) cites similar behavior in liquid metal alloys Bi-Ga and Hg-Ga. METHOD The electrodeless method of measuring the electrical conductivity of a sample uses the a. c, bridge diagrammed in Figure 1. A solenoid with about 1000 turns of #32 copper wire is one arm of the bridge. An oscil¬ loscope is used as a null-detector to indicate whether the bridge is balanced, with frequency 10 KHZ. The bridge is balanced by varying resistors Ri and R3 and capacitor C without the sample, in the coil, then the resistance of the coil is computed. A sample is inserted into the coil and the bridge is again balanced and the resistance of the coil com¬ puted. The increase in resistance of the coil with the sample inserted is Figure 2, ELEGTRODELESS METHOD FOR DETERMING SOLUTIONS 499 due to eddy currents induced in the sample. These eddy currents are directly proportional to the conductivity of the sample in the range of conductivities encountered in this study. The geometric constants con¬ necting the change in resistance of the coil with the resistivity of the sample are determined by calibrating the cell using mercury. The con¬ ductivity of mercury used was 1 .048 X 10“^ (ohm cm)~^. In one study, a 7.99% solution of rubidium in ammonia, as deter¬ mined by a post mortem titration was prepared. The metal was trans¬ ferred to the glass cell shown in Figure 3 under a tent with flowing helium gas. At that time the cell had 2 additional bulbs with the metal in the outer bulb. Then the metal was distilled twice by heating the metal in one bulb and condensing it in the next. After each distillation a bulb was removed and discarded until the metal was in the main sample cell as shown in Figure 3. The cell containing the rubidium was connected to a still and cooled with dry ice and alcohol. A measured amount of sodium-dried am¬ monia was condensed in the sample cell. The sample cell containing the Rb-NHs solution was used with the electrodeiess method for determining the electrical conductivity of the solution at various temperatures. The tail of the cell was inserted in the coil, Figure 2, and the coil was immersed in a Freon- 12 bath. The Freon was cooled by repeatedly pouring liquid nitrogen intO' it. The conductivity measurements were ■ made while the temperature was dropping. The temperature was measured with a copper-constantan thermo-couple in close proximity to the sample cell. DISCUSSION Two interpretations of these data (Fig. 4) are possible: (1) am¬ monia was freezing out leaving a higher concentration of electrons, and (2) the phase boundary, shown in Figure 5, that separates region III from region II was reached at — 75°C, followed by ammonia be¬ ginning to freeze out at — 79°C. The first interpretation implies there may be no region II and cer¬ tainly no blue-bronze region was visually observed. The 2nd interpre¬ tation relies heavily on the single datum at — 79°C. Lithium, sodium, and potassium show a marked phase separation, while cesium shows none. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that if rubidium exhibits any phase separation (region II) at all, it will be a small one. The small amount of blue solution may not be visually dis- cernable, perhaps because there is no appreciable difference in the densities of the 2 species. We favor interpretation (2). The data can 500 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE be represented by a vertical dashed line in Figure 5, so that between —75 and — 79°C there are 2 phases, and below — 79°C ammonia freezes out and the liquid solution becomes more concentrated. CONCLUSION The data obtained suggests there is a 2-phase separation into a blue | and bronze solution. More conclusive results await more data taken at lower concentrations and smaller temperature intervals than the : present study. ELECTRODELESS METHOD FOR DETERMING SOLUTIONS 501 CoRce nVcth Dvv MPM LITERATURE CITED Adams, P. D., 1970 — Phys. Rev. Lett., 25: 1012. Bean, C. P., 1959 — J. App. Phys., 30: 1976. Nyberg, D. W., and R. E. Burgess, 1962 — Can. J . Phys., 40: 1174. ScHROEDER, R. L., J. C. THOMPSON, and — . — . Ortel, 1969 — Phys. Rev., 178: 298. Teoh, H., 1966 — Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Texas. - - - , 1970 — Unpub. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Texas. Zimmerman, J. E., 1961 — Rev. Sci. Instr., 32: 402. A Note on Rectangular Matrices by J. K. AMBURGEY/ T. 0. LEWIS, ^ and T. L, BOULLION^ INTRODUCTION In a recent sequence of papers (Amburgey, et al.^ 1968; Milnes, 1969; Milnes, et al.^ 1969), a technique for squaring rectangular matrices has been obtained from which the theory of rectangular matrices can be developed in an almost totally analogous fashion to the theory of square matrices. Milnes (1969) and Milnes, et al.^ (1969) were concerned with, respectively, the technique of squaring a rectangular matrix and the development of the concepts of eigen¬ values and vectors of a rectangular matrix. It is the purpose of this paper to further the development of the theory of rectangular matrices by defining and establishing theorems for the concepts of normal, idempotent, hermitian, and orthogonal projection rectangular matri¬ ces. All terms and notations will be as in Milnes (1969). Primarily this means that A will denote a m X n rectangular matrix of rank r and J’*' will denote the carrier matrix of A. Further properties of the carrier matrix J* which will be needed, that are not found in Milnes (1969) or Milnes, et ai, (1969), are de¬ veloped in the following section. OTHER PROPERTIES OF THE CARRIER MATRIX The following lemma is easily established: LEMMA 1 . The matrix N* is the matrix consisting of n-r linearly independent 1 X n row vectors which are row null vectors o/ A+. The matrix M’*‘ is the matrix consisting of m-r linearly independent m X 1 column vectors which are the column null vectors o/ A + . THEOREM 1 . Let J4-,J*+,X+, and be the analogous matrices for A+ as J, J*, X, and Y are for A. Then X+ = Y and Y+ == X. 1 Mathematics Department, Angelo State University, San Angelo, 76901. 2 Mathematics Department, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 504 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Proof: By lemma 1, N* and are the analogous matrices for A+ as M and N are for A. Hence, X+ = I - N(N*N)-W = I - N*+N* = I - N+^N^ = 1- (NN+)* -I-NN+ = Y and Y+ = I - (MM^)-^M = I - M*M*+ = I - M*M+* = I - (M+M) * =: I - M+M == X. The following theorem is immediate from the definition of J + . THEOREM 2. J+ = andV+ = J. From the fact that JJ’*' = X on the column range of A and J'*' J = Y on the row range of A, it follows that J+J% = = A+A (1) and == JJ^ = AA+. (2) THEOREM 3. (a) (J*A)+ = A+J. (b) (AJ*)+ = JA+. (c) (J%A+)+-AJ+. '■ (d) (A+J%)+ = J+A. Proof, (a) By theorem 2 in Greville (1966) we have (J*A)+ = -f -j- ♦ A+J^ if and only if J’*' J*AA’*' and J* J*AA+ are hermitian. + + J* = J+ = J and then (J^A)+ = A+J if and only if JJ*AA* and JJ*AA+ are hermi- tian. By (2), (JJ*AA*)* = (AA+AA*)* = (AA*)* = AA* = JJ*AA*. Hence, JJ'^'AA* is hermitian. By (2), (JJ^AA+)^ = (AA+AA+)^ = (AA+)* = AA+ = JJ*AA+. Hence, JJ’*'AA+ is hermitian. The proofs to (b), (c), and (d) are similar to (a) and are omitted. Since N (A* ) = (N (A+ ) , then the carrier matrix J* of A"^ is given by (3) Thus, by theorem 3, the following theorem holds. THEOREM 4. (a) + + + (JA*) =A* J . (b) + + + (A"J) A* . (c) (d) (A*^ = JA* A NOTE ON RECTANGULAR MATRICES 505 THEOREM 5. (a) (J*AJ*) + = JA+L (b) (AJ*A)+ = A+JA+. (c) (J;A+J*^)+ = J+AJ+. (d) (A+J^A+)+ = AJ+A. Proof: (a) By theorem 3, (J*A) + = A+J. Thus, if it can be shown that ((J*A)J*)+ = (J*) + (J*A)+,then (J*AJ*) + = A+J* = JA+J. Now, ((J*A)J^)+ = (J*) + (J*A) + ifandonlyif (J^A) + (J*A) J* J*"' A+JJ*AJ*J and (J*A) * (J’*'A) J* = A’^JJ^AJ^J are hermitian by theorem 2 in Greville ( 1 966 ) . Now (A+JJ*AJ*J)* = (A+AA+AA+A)* = (A+A)* = A+A = A+ JJ^AJ^ J and since A*AA+ = A% (A*JJ*AJ*J)* = (A*AA+AA+A)* = (A*A)* A*A = A*JJ^ AJ"T Hence, (J*AJ*)+ = JA+T The proofs to (b), (c) and (d) are similar to (a) and are omitted, NORMAL, IDEMPOTENT, HERMITIAN, AND ORTHOGONAL PRO¬ JECTION RECTANGULAR MATRICES In this section a matrix M is said to have property Q if and only if M is a Q matrix, where Q represents normal, idempotent, hermitian, or orthogonal projection. T HEOREM 6. The nX n matrix J’^A has property Q if and only if the m X m matrix AJ* has property Q. Proof: This theorem is proved only for Q being normal since the re¬ maining values for Q are similar to the normal case. J’^A normal im¬ plies (J*A)(J*A)* = (J*A) * (J’^'A) which simplifies to J*AA’*'J = K* A. Premultiplying by J and postmultiplying by J+, the last equation reduces to AA+AA'^ = (AJ*)*AJ* using the facts that AA+ = JJ+, A+A = J+J and J+ = JT Also, AA+AA* = AJ+JA* = AJ*(AJ*)* which implies that AJ’*' is normal. Now AJ* normal implies (AJ’*‘) (AJ^) * = (AJ*) ^AJ* which reduces to AA”^ = JA*AJ’*' since A+A = J*J. Premultiplying by J+ and postmultiplying by J, the equation AA* = JA*AJ* simplifies to J*A(J*A)* = AHJ*A = (J*A)H*A which implies J^A is normal. Hence, J*A is normal if and only if AJ^ is normal. It is easily established that the matrix J*A has property Q if and only if the matrix ( J*A) * = A'*'! has property Q. Also, AJ* has prop¬ erty Q if and only if (AJ*) = JA"^ has property Q. Thus, by theorem 6, any one of the matrices J*A, AJ’*', JA’*', or A’^J having property Q 506 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE implies each of the others has property Q. Hence, the following defini¬ tion is given. DEFINITION 1. The mX n matrix A has property Q if and only if the n X n matrix J*A has property Q. THEOREM 7 . If A* ~ AA+, where X is some complex constant^ then A is normal. Proof: Let A be a complex constant such that A* AA+. Then (J*A) (J*A) * - J*AA*J = J+A(AA+) J = AJ+AA+J = AJ+JJ+J = AJ+J = AA+A = AA+AA+A = AA+JJ+A=- AHJ*A=- (J*A)*(J*A) . Thus, J* A is normal, and hence, A is normal. That theorem 7 does not have a converse is seen from the matrix A given by For this A, and A-= Since A+ J*A 1 1 1 0 0 0^ 'i d 0 1 P 0 1 1 ~1 \ 1 (4) J is hermitian, then J*A is normal. However, it is obvious that A’*' is not equal to AA+ for any complex constant. THEOREM 8. // A = AJ, where A is some complex constant, then A is normal. Proof: If A = AJ, then J’*'A = AJ* J, and hence, A is normal. That theorem 8 does not have a converse is seen in the matrix A given by (4) . As above, A is normal, but clearly, A does not equal AJ for any complex constant A. THEOREM 9. If A = AJ, for some non-zero complex constant A, A* = |A|2A+ . Proof: Since A = AJ, A non-zero, implies A+ = A“H"^, then J+=:.AA+. (5) Also, A = AJ implies A* = AJ*. But, J* = J+ implies that A* — AJ+, and hence A NOTE ON RECTANGULAR MATRICES 507 J+ = . (6) Therefore^ from (5) and (6), A-iA* = AA+ which implies A’^ = AAA+ = |A|2A+ . The following corollary is immediate from theorem 9. COROLLARY 1,. For A, a complex constant^ A = AJ implies A* = A+ if and only if \\\ = 1. That corollary 1 does not have a converse is seen from the matrix A given by 'O 1+i A = 1/V3 For this A, and (7) J = 0 2/V6 0 0 0 l/^y6~-i/-^/6 A+ = 1/V3 0 0 l-i 0 Thus, letting A = 1 , it is clear that A+ = A^ , but A is not equal to J. It should be noticed, however, that A = AJ for A = 1/V2 + i/V2 • In contrast to the matrix A of (4) which is an example of a matrix being normal, but neither A* = AA+ nor A = for any values of A and is the matrix A given by 0 1 A-1/V2 (8) which has the property that it is normal and both A* = AA+ and A = 91. This holds since for this matrix, J = A and A* — A+. THEOREM 10. A is idempotent if and only if A = J. Proof: A idempotent implies J*AJ*A = J*A which implies A+JJ*AJ*AA+ = A+JJ*AA+ or A+AA+AJ+JJ+ = A+AA+AA+ . (9) The left side of (9) yields A+AA+AJ+JJ+ = A+AJ+ =- J+JJ+ ■== J+ , while the right side yields A+AA+AA+ = A+AA+ = A+ . 508 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Thus, (9) reduces to J+ = A+ or J = A. Conversely, if A = J, then J+AJ+ = J+JJ+ — J+ which implies J+AJ+A = J+A or J*AJ*A = J*A. Thus, A is idempotent Thus, A is idempotent if and only if A = J. The following corollary to theorem 10 follows from theorem 9 (with A — 1). COROLLARY 2. A idempotent implies A* = A+. That the above corollary does not have a converse is seen from the matrix A given by ( 7 ) . THEOREM 11. If X non-zero is a real constant, then A = AJ implies A is hermitian. Proof: Now A = AJ implies J*A = J*AJ = AJ*J, and hence, that (J*A)" = (AJ*J)* = A(J*J) = AJ*J = AA-iJ*A == J*A. Thus, J*A is hermitian, and hence, A is hermitian. That the converse of iheorem 1 1 does not hold is seen in the matrix A given by (4). Also, by (4), it is clear that there does not exist an analogous statement to corollary 2 for a hermitian matrix. The following unexpected corollary to theorem 11 is immediate from theorem 10. COROLLARY 3. If A is idempotent, then A is hermitian. Since theorem 11 does not have a converse, then by theorem 10, corollary 3 does not have a converse. That corollary 3 is unexpected is seen from the square matrix A given by |0 0 A=: (10) _i Ij Since A" = A, but A is not hermitian, the analogous statement of corollary 3 in the square case does not hold. f As in the theory of the square matrix, a rectangular matrix A is ■ called a projection if and only if it is idempotent. However, as a conse- i quence of the unexpected result of corollary 3, the following theorem holds. THEOREM 12. A is an orthogonal projection if and only if . A is idempotent. !: It might be noted again that the matrix A given by ( 1 0 ) is a counter- f example of the analogous statement of theorem 12 in the square case, ! From theoresm 8 and 10 the following theorem is obvious. ;! THEOREM 13. If A is idempotent, then A is normal. I Again, the matrix A given by (4) is a counterexample to the con¬ verse of the above theorem. ? THEOREM 14. If A hermitian, then A is normal. A NOTE ON RECTANGULAR MATRICES 509 Proof: If A is hermitian, then (J*A)* = J*A which implies (J*A) (J* A) * = ( J*A) * ( J* A) which implies A is normal. That the converse of theorem 14 does not hold is seen in the matrix A given by (7). Finally, two general theorems are demonstrated. THEOREM 15. The m.X n matrix A has property Q if and only if the n X m A+ has property Q. Proof: Again, only the proof for Q having the value normal will be given. Since A is normal if and only if JA* is normal, then A is normal if and only if (JA*) (JA*)* = (JA*)*(JA*) or JA*AJ* = AJ*JA* = AA+AA* AA* . (11) By theorem 3(c), theorem 4(d), and (11), (JA+)(JA+)* = JA+A+*J* = JA+A+*J-= (AJ+) + (JA*) + = (AJ*) + (JA*)+== ((JA*)*) + (JA*) + = ((JA*)(JA*)*)+= (JA*AJ*)+-: (AA*) + = A*+A+ — A+*A+AA+ = A+*J*JA+ = (JA+)*(JA+). Thus, JA+ is normal if and only if A is normal, and hence, A+ is normal. Since (3) implies J* = J, and since J*A has property Q if and only if A has property Q, then A* has property Q if and only if A has property Q. Also, by theorem 15, A*+ — A+* has property Q if and only if A has property Q. Thus, an extension of theorem 15 is the following theorem. THEOREM 16. The following statements are equivalent. (a) A has property Q. (b) A+ has property Q. (c) A* has property Q. LITERATURE CITED Amburgey, j. K., T. O. Lewis, and T. L. Boullion, 1968 — On computing general¬ ized characteristic vector and values for a rectangular matrix, Invited lecture at the Symposium Theory and applications of generalized inverses held at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas on March 7-8. Greville, T. N. E., 1966 — Note on the generalized inverse of a matrix product, SIAM Rev., 8(4): 518-521. Erratum: SIAM Rev., 1967. 9: 249. Milnes, H. W., 1969 — Characteristic vectors of rectangular matrices, Indust. Math. 19(2): 63-80. - , J. K. Amburgey, T. O. Lewis, T. L. Boullion, 1969 — Spectral eigen¬ value property of A"^ for rectangular matrices, Indust. Math. 19(2): 81-88. A Critical Look at the Use of Lincoln Index-Type Models for Estimating Population Density^ r by ROBERT M. EISENBERG Department of Biology Rice University^ Houston 77001 ABSTRACT Mark-release-recapture methods were used to estimate density in a number of enclosed snail populations. Census information showed poor agreement generally with the index estimates. A problem arises from the fact that conventional methods for placing confidence limits around the index estimates gave no indication of the disparate results which were obtained. INTRODUCTION Mark-release-recapture methods (herein referred to as Lincoln Index -type) have become one of the standard tools of the ecologist for estimating population size (LeCren, 1965; Ricker, 1958; Andrewartha, 1961). The assumptions underlying the method in its simplest form are themselves extremely simple. There are 3 worth considering: 1) Marked animals must behave similarly in every respect to unmarked animals. 2) There can be no immigration into the population from without (emigration is taken care of by the first assumption). 3) Either the initial sample and release of animals receiving marks or the subsequent recapture of marked and unmarked animals must be made at random with respect to the animals in the population. It often is difficult to establish whether these assumptions are met; therefore, much of the widespread use of the method has involved an uncritical acceptance of the assumption (Brinkhurst, 1966; Hunter and Grant, 1966; Penny, 1966; Alcala and Brown, 1967; Brian, et aL, 1967; Delong, 1967; Stott, 1967). It is the purpose of this paper to present some data from a series of snail populations which point out some of the inadequacies in the use of Lincoln Index-type of models. METHODS In 1964, 28 snail-proof enclosures (3x15 ft) were built along the margin of a small permanent pond in Southern Michigan enclosing a 1 This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation on Grant GB 1840. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 512 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE portion of a population of the pond snail, Lymnaea elodes (see Eisen- berg, 1966 for a description of the enclosures and the pond). From 1 June to 3 June 1964, a single sample of adult snails was taken from each of 26 enclosures. Snails were marked with fingernail lacquer and returned to their respective enclosures. From 4 June to 10 June, a total of 3 recapture was made from each of the 26. On 25 June, 4 enclosures were selected from which all of the vegetation was removed and a search begun for adult snails. The removal of snails was accomplished mainly by running a dip net through the enclosures to strain the con¬ tents of the water and the sediment in them. This procedure was fol¬ lowed until 7 July. The above resulted in 3 density estimates for each j of 26 enclosures and censuses for 4 of them. ' Although the lacquer mark is not permanent, losses were deter¬ mined to be negligible during the period when estimates were made. This was ascertained by giving snails multiple marks and observing the losses of these marks at subsequent recaptures. But the 2-week period between the last estimate and the start of the census exceeded the useful life of the marks. During this period the snail shell-nail lacquer interface apparently became wetted and free-floating marks became a common sight in the enclosures. For this reason no meaning¬ ful estimate of mark recovery could be made during the censuring interval. In general, marked snails are easier to find than unmarked snails; however, snails silhouetted against the sides of the enclosures, and those moving foot-up on the undersurface of the water do not show | their marks. Only these latter 2 categories of snails were taken at each sampling time, including the initial sample for marking, ; Estimation of Density ; In this paper the simplest model for estimating density from mark- ; release-recapture information will be used, namely N = MC/R where N is the estimate of population density, M is the number of ■ marked individuals at risk in the population at the time of sampling, i C is the total number of individuals in the recapture sample, and R J is the number of individuals in the recapture sample bearing marks. || Considerations of predetermined sample sizes in determining spe- ;j cific model applicability and the reduction of bias can be important but ji generally have to do with things of a much more subtle nature than j the topic of this paper and are covered suitably elsewhere (Chapman, 1952; Regier and Robson, 1967) . LINCOLN INDEX MODELS 513 Analysis Methods Without some estimate of confidence to place around the estimates of density which come from a Lincoln Index-type of model, extrapola¬ tion becomes more a matter of faith than of science. A variety of methods has been suggested for this purpose and the 3 described below were used in this study. With simple, 2-sample estimates, R (the number of recaptures bear¬ ing marks) may be treated as a binomial variable. By consulting a table of confidence intervals for the binomial distributions, ranges for the value of R are obtained which yield a range for the value of N, the estimate of density (Ricker, 1958) . The second method used in this paper is that proposed by DeLury (1958) for the estimate of the reciprocal of N as given by Schumacher and Eschmeyer (1943). Here the slope of the regression line R/C against M is the estimate of 1/N. The standard error of the regression coefficient (1/N) is required to calculate the confidence limits. 1/N = E(M^R^)2(C^Mp (Schumacher and Eschmeyer 1943) and s2 = y(RyCJ-(5:R^M^)V2qM2 with S|yj^ ~ \/sV^C^M^ (DeLury 1958) The confidence limits are calculated using t values with m — 1 degrees of freedom, where m is the number of individual samples used to cal¬ culate the estimate. See Ricker (1958) for a thorough discussion of the above methods. The 3rd method used simply is to treat the multiple estimates of N as a series of random samples from a population and calculate the con¬ fidence limits around their means accordingly (Hunter and Grant, 1966). RESULTS In Table 1 are presented the results from the study. As there were 3 recaptures from each enclosure, 3 estimates of density have been made. It also is possible to calculate a mean estimate of the 3, namely, M/3(Ci/Ri + C2/R2 + C3/R3) . In the last column of Table 1 are given the results for the 4 enclosures which were censused. An examination of data in this table reveals the highly consistent nature of consecutive estimates from the various enclosures. Table 2 summarizes the results of comparing the calculated confi¬ dence limits with census data for the 4 censused enclosures. In 9 cases the census values were outside the calculated 99% limits, in 3 cases 514 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Table 1 Lincoln index and census information for 26 enclosed adult snail population in June and July, 1964 Enclosure No. M C/R (1) C/R (2) C/R (3) N (1) N (2) N (3) N Census 1 135 121/32 132/31 227/46 510 575 666 584 2 122 158/42 121/27 134/31 459 547 527 511 3 129 267/66 182/48 134/32 522 489 540 517 1,272 4 125 179/29 164/30 186/42 772 683 554 670 5 140 120/22 118/30 135/28 764 551 675 663 6 131 143/54 122/36 141/41 347 444 451 414 7 158 200/46 159/41 156/32 687 613 770 690 1,006 8 120 100/24 122/24 111/21 500 610 634 581 9 140 138/31 159/28 143/28 623 795 715 711 10 151 106/20 165/41 203/39 800 608 786 731 11 122 99/20 150/25 171/26 604 732 802 713 12 128 108/14 93/20 124/31 987 595 512 698 13 130 163/24 157/25 142/27 883 816 684 794 14 165 232/59 133/35 128/30 649 627 704 660 15 230 374/85 238/57 210/52 1,012 960 929 967 16 160 285/81 185/66 112/37 563 448 484 498 17 142 185/41 120/39 121/32 641 437 537 538 18 96 171/34 138/23 142/20 483 576 682 580 19 127 129/20 159/27 104/25 819 748 528 698 20 123 132/32 117/28 138/32 507 514 499 507 21 158 155/57 124/27 135/32 430 726 667 608 22 162 213/66 114/35 110/31 523 528 575 542 709 23 125 124/36 116/29 121/30 431 500 504 478 24 121 126/20 130/25 131/20 762 629 793 728 779 25 127 103/16 132/30 124/27 818 559 583 653 26 121 112/27 134/30 143/33 502 540 524 522 N = M/3(C,/R, + C,/R, + C3/R3) outside the 95% limits, and in only 8 cases were the census values within the 95% limits. As many as 500 individuals separated census figures from confidence limit estimates. DISCUSSION Since Lincoln Index-type of models first appeared there have been numerous modifications and elaborations proposed. Many of today’s models allow one to estimate not just density but such things as birth rates and death rates (for examples see papers by Leslie and Chitty, 1951 ; Leslie, 1952; Leslie, et al.^ 1953; Jolly, 1963; 1965; Seber, 1965) . With the more sophisticated models it is much easier to overlook the basic assumptions as they might appear to be less important when com- LINCOLN INDEX MODELS 515 Table 2 Relationship betweeen confidence limits and census values for enclosures 3, 7, 22, and 24 from the 1964 series Date Binomial (sj(t) DeLury 5/6/1964 Enclosure 6/6/1964 ** ** ** #3 8/6/1964 ** 5/6/1964 * Enclosure 7/6/1964 ** ** ♦ #7 10/6/1964 5/6/1964 ♦ Enclosure 6/6/1964 ** ** #22 7/6/1964 — 4/6/1964 — Enclosure 6/6/1964 __ — ~ #24 10/6/1964 * Census value outside 95% confidence limits. ** Census value outside 99% confidence limits. — Census value within 95% confidence limits. pared to the array of symbols and manipulations required to get esti¬ mates from the data. Yet, a criticism of the simplest form of the model, in regard to the meeting of the basic assumptions, remains a criticism of the most sophisticated form of the model. In the present study there was a total lack of ability to predict from the index estimates and their confidence limits what the true snail densities were. The tightest confidence limits and the greatest disparity between index estimate and census were found in enclosure 3, while the loosest set of limits and the smallest disparity were found in en¬ closure 24. Obviously something was wrong and it would not be reason¬ able to cast the blame on the methods used to place confidence limits around the index estimates. The problem arises from the fact that the act of calculating a set of confidence limits for a Lincoln Index-type of estimate indicates a total acceptance of the model’s assumptions. Tight limits from the methods employed in this paper resulted from con¬ sistent estimates from multiple samples or a high proportion of returns of marked individuals. Neither of the latter can be construed as a test of the model’s basic assumptions. How can the observed differences between estimate and census be I explained? The meeting of the 3 assumptions listed earlier is essential I to the working of the model. A failure to meet any one of the 3 could ! cause spurious results. The snail-proof enclosures took care of the 2nd ; assumption regarding immigration. Thus the fault must lie with the 516 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 2 remaining assumptions. A close look at the first assumption shows that it can be considered to be included in the 3rd. This clearly is seen if the only aspects of behavior considered are those which influences the capture of individuals. The conclusion to be reached is that snails in different enclosures behaved differently and that these differences affected, in a manner which was consistent across time, the probability of inclusion in any given sample. The net result of these differences being that in some enclosures the density estimates described a sub¬ population of the snails rather than the total number present. Un¬ fortunately, there was no way to determine subpopulation existence let alone its quantitative breakdown. Since the activity of individuals determined their inclusion in a given sample, it seems reasonable to conclude that the enclosures could have contained, to a greater or lesser extent, an inactive subpopulation component. Support for this idea came from a knowledge of the snail’s seasonal activity pattern (see Eisenberg, 1966). A reduction in water | level in the enclosures could have caused some of the snails along the margin of the pond to assume a pre-estivation status. Couple this idea j with the fact that water levels in all 26 enclosures were not identical | and you have a prime suspect for cause. ; The lesson to be learned should be obvious. Estimates of population density based solely on Lincoln Index-type of models should be viewed with extreme caution. This warning has been sounded before (Regier and Robson, 1967) but I believe it is worth sounding again. The behavior of the snails described in this paper may represent the i exceptional case. But who would be willing to base a long, expensive population study on that assumption? All that is required to remove ; doubt is some means of checking independently the estimates which are generated from a Lincoln Index-type of model. LITERATURE CITED Alcala, A. C., and W. C. Brown, 1967 — Population ecology of the tropical scincoid lizard, Emoia atrocostata^ in the Philippines. Copeia (3) : 596-604. Andrewartha, H. G., 1961 — Introduction to the Study of Animal Populations. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. Brian, M. V., G. Elmes, and A. F. Kelly, 1967 — Populations of the ant Tetramori- um caespitum Lantreille. /. Animal EcoL, 36: 337-42. Brinkhurst, R. O., 1966 — Population dynamics of the large pond-skater Gerris nafas Degeer (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) . J. Animal EcoL, 35: 13-25. j Chapman, D. G., 1952— Inverse, multiple and sequential sample censuses. Bio- j metrics., 8: 286-306. Delong, K. L., 1967 — Population ecology of feral house mice. Ecology., 48: 611-34. LINCOLN INDEX MODELS 517 DeLury, D. B., 1958 — The estimation of population size by a marking and recapture procedure. /. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada., 15: 19-25. Eisenberg, R. M., 1966 — The regulation of density in a natural population of the pond snail, Lymnaea elodes. Ecology^ 47: 889-906. Hunter, W, R., and D. C. Grant, 1966 — Estimates of population density and dis¬ persal i nthe Naticid gastropod, Polinices duplicaius, with a discussion of com¬ putational methods. Bio. Bull.., 131: 292-307. Jolly, G. M., 1963 — Estimation of population parameters from multiple recapture data with both death and dilution — Deterministic Model. Biometrika., 50: 113- 28. - , 1965 — Explicit estimates from capture-recapture data with both death and immigration — Stochastic Model, Biometrika, 52: 249-59. LeCren, E. D., 1965 — A note on the history of mark-recapture population estimates. /. Animal EcoL, 34: 453-54. Leslie, P. H., 1952 — The estimation of population parameters from data obtained by means of the capture-recapture method II. The maximum-likelihood equa¬ tions for estimating total numbers. Biometrika, 39: 363-88. - , and D. Chitty, 1951 — ^The estimation of population parameters from data obtained by means of the capture-recapture method I. The maximum- likelihood equations for the estimation of death rate. Biometrika, 38: 369-92. - , and H. Chitty, 1953 — The estimation of population parameters from data obtained by means of the capture-recapture method III. An example of the practical applications of the method. Biometrika, 40: 137-69. Penny, M. M., 1966 — Studies of certain aspects of the ecology of Nebria brevicollis (F.) (Colleoptera, Carabidae). /. Animal EcoL, 35: 505-12. Regier, H. a., and D. S. Robson, 1967 — Estimating population number and mor¬ tality rates. In, Gerking, S. D. (Ed.), The Biological Basis of Freshwater Fish Production. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. pp. 31-66. Ricker, W. E., 1958 — Handbook of computations for biological statistics of fish populations. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, #119, Schumacher, F. X., and R. W. Eschmeyer, 1943 — The estimate of fish population in lakes or ponds. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 18: 228-49. Seber, G. a., 1965 — A note on multiple-recapture census, Biometrika, 52: 249-59. Stott, B., 1967 — The movements and population densities of Roach {Rutilus rutilus (L.)) and Gudgeon (Gobio gobio(JL.)) in the River Mole, 7. Animal EcoL, 36; 407-23. Accepted for publication: March 3, 1971. :'■ .' . .4‘‘ , , :. ■'■• - ■> -. 'r I‘.i rr P r - ^ 'V'‘v'' '(i.l ■'. ~ ■ •"• . ' ’\'. ■•'S' ■'\-- '•'■■L,' ■■■('>■''’ "i. ■' ••»'.'•■'<• '.TUbBHSW^' ' ■■’' ■■ ^ -4 ‘‘ / ^ - tyVv-'XA -i'f.'V. 4v'.i iy[ -^Xi , f.'j 1 ' ' r '7 i , ’> , ' t\ ''V t,’ \,f- '‘'-’i.ru't'i'v' * •fjj V/i U^j' ■.;V.l^ ‘A'j* r)f? ' tO ^ ^ ,v,.V,1;t‘nvt, I , ' •<' ■ -.-v,-, .,■ ,. . ■• •^. ,' •^■■' ■•';i/.s;\--:'*' -f ‘ ■ - ^ . .;-■ .., . '>^'";V\;'’ ..w'"!.' '> 'w’i' « ■ .i'l'vf'' .‘ ■■ V ■'“ t-' :>'\ '•'' ' *'.'v'!’'* .■'"■■'•’/' I'vr ' , . ,:V. ■.,-,> I '4/4-. ;■ 4-: • ’ ^.. ’■ ••b-n.'-jiis v: ■ ■ "':j?tJy>./ ■ ■' - ' '• '('•' V ■>rfe ' ':"■ ''y' X- '' \ ,. . • '- v? ' 'Ka • '. - ■ ■ '(X’ .' • s’: ..j®. -. ... . ,'i ■: .■ ■ ' ' ...N 'V'' ''■‘'‘ fl- Toxicity and Sublethal Effects of Methyl Parathion on Behavior of Siamese Fighting Fish (Betta splendens) by MICHAEL J. WELSH and CALVIN WAYNE HANSELKA Department of Biology and Department of Wildlife Science^ Texas A&M University^ College Station 77843 ABSTRACT I Data are presented on lethal concentrations and sublethal effects of methyl parathion (MP) on Siamese fighting fish. The LCg^ was found to be between I 7.5 ppm and 8.0 ppm. j Sublethal effects of MP on response and display behavior were tested. The per- ' centage of the population responding and displaying decreased with increased con- I centrations of MP. Response and display times increased with increased concentra- I tions. A “paradoxical” effect was noted and is discussed. INTRODUCTION The widespread misuse of chemical compounds to control pests is 1 an example of man’s degradation of his environment. Most of the I misuse has been without forethought of the short or long term effects j of such chemicals to the biosphere. Harmful effects have been docu- I mented by many authors (Rudd and Genelly, 1956; Rudd, 1964; I Newsom, 1967; and Risenbrough, et aL^ 1967). : Aquatic situations have drawn more attention than terrestrial prob- j lems because the results are highly visible (i.e. fish kills, lack of j organisms, etc.). Such obvious effects as mortality are easily recog¬ nized, but sublethal and subtle effects of chemical compounds are still I largely unknown. To prevent destruction of an ecological community, i it is necessary to know more than lethal concentrations and pesticide distributions in tissues. To evaluate properly the effects of insecticides on our environment it is necessary to know what the sublethal effects are and at what concentrations these effects become evident. Ab¬ normal behavior may provide a means of identifying toxication by insecticides long before lethal concentrations are reached in a habitat. Methyl parathion (O-O-dimethyhO-p-nitrophenyl phosphorothio- The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 520 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ate) has been shown to inhibit cholinesterase activity in fish (Weiss, 1961). This has been confirmed by several other investigations (Abou- Donia and Menzel, 1967; Williams and Sova, 1966; and Weiss and Gakstatter, 1964). The brain is essentially nerve tissue and is rich in cholinesterase. In most species, the brain is supplied with oxygenated blood that comes directly from the gills. This facilitates quick and direct action of toxic materials. Lethal concentrations of organic phosphate compounds have been determined on a few species of fish: bluegills (Pickering, et aL, 1962), Chinook salmon (Katz, 1961), fathead minnows (Henderson, et al., 1959), and golden shiners (Ferguson, et aL, 1966). Warner, et aL^ (1966) reported that goldfish, exposed for 96 hours to various doses of toxaphene, a chlorinated hydrocarbon, exhibited qualitative behav¬ ioral differences. With the exception of this report, acetylcholinester¬ ase inhibition and lethal concentrations apparently comprise most of the knowledge concerning effects of chemical compounds on fish. Betta splendens (Regan) is a member of the family Anabantidae. It is native to the Malay peninsula and Thailand. The behavior of this species is of interest because of the extreme pugnacity of males to each other. Aggressiveness is marked by a very distinct display ritual (Simpson, 1968). This and other behavioral patterns, together with the undemanding nature of the fish, make B. splendens an excellent research subject. The purpose of this paper is to report toxicity levels and sublethal effects of methyl parathion (MP) on response and display times in Siamese fighting fish. METHODS AND MATERIALS This investigation was divided into 2 phases. The first phase was to determine the LCgo (lethal concentration to 50% of the populations over a given length of time) of MP to B. splendens. A preliminary test was run for 120 hours. MP dissolved in a small amount of hexane was added to 7 4-liter glass jars. Concentrations of MP were 4.0, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, and 8.0 ppm (parts per million) (y/v). Two fish were added to each jar 48 hours later. Two controls had only hexane added. The water was nearly neutral in pH and the water temperature was 25° ± 2°C. A 2nd test was run based on the preliminary data, i MP concentrations of 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, and 8.0 were used. Four fish per j jar were tested for 120 hours under the same conditions as above. Response times and elapsed times to aggressive display between | male B. splendens were investigated in the 2nd phase of this report. ' TOXICITY OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF METHYL PARATHION 521 Thirty males were used in the tests. All were bought from a breeder. Eighteen of the fish were red and 12 were blue. The fish were paired as to size and color and placed in adjoining glass tanks separated by an opaque partition. The fish were allowed 12 hours to acclimate to con¬ ditions in the tanks. The tanks were 45 cm long by 20 cm wide and 25 cm deep. They held 20 liters of water. Tap water was used (pH-7.0 to 7.4) with sodium thiosulfate added as a dechlorinating agent. Water temperature ranged between 23°-25°C. A glass plate rested on top of the tanks to minimize evaporation and to exclude dust. The fish were fed frozen adult brine shrimp. The 15 pairs of fish were randomly assigned to 3 groups — hereafter referred to as I, II, and III. Each pair was tested for response time and display time. Each test was started (time zero) by removing the par¬ tition between the tanks. All fish had to be at least 23 cm from the partition at the start of the test. When individuals became aware of the other fish the time was noted (i.e. response time). Criteria for response was attentiveness toward the other fish — a stiffening of the body generally followed by swimming to the end of the tank nearest the other fish. The time in which to display was then recorded. Display consisted of a spreading of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins; spreading of opercula; and extension of the black brachiostegal membranes. A time limit of 240 seconds was allowed for the fish to respond and dis- play- After each pair had been tested in pesticide-free water, methyl parathion dissolved in ETOH was added to one of the paired tanks. Group I was treated at 1 ppm, Group II at 2 ppm, and Group III at 3 ppm. Five days (120 hours) after treatment the pairs were tested again. Each was tested for 10 trials as before with the exception of Group III; this group was tested 5 times. The MP concentrations of each tank were checked periodically by gas chromatography. A Micro-Tek 2500 instrument with an electron capture detector was used. RESULTS The LCso level of MP for B, splendens was between 7.5 and 8.0 ppm (Figure 1 ) . As shown, no mortality occurred up to 6 ppm. As concen¬ trations increased above this level a sharp rise in mortality occurred. At 8.0 ppm and above there was nearly 100% mortality. A loss of appetite and loss of weight were observed in the surviving fish. Of the 1 1 survivors of the second LCgo test, 2 had enlarged swim bladders and 3 exhibited a protrusion of scales. Fig. 1. A curve showing methyl parathion concentrations versus mortality of B. splendens | at 120 hours. i After removal from the MP treated water, the fish were placed in | untreated water. Within a week the fish were eating normally. They i were as active as the control fish and were apparently behaving normally. Figure 2 shows the percentage of test fish responding to the other male. Prior to treatment, 90% of the fish responded to the other male. At 1 ppm the response percentage dropped to 40%. At 3 ppm only | 4% exhibited awareness of the other fish. Although the response of the untreated controls also declined with an increase in MP concentrations I in the other tank, the differences were significant (at 1 ppm P<.02, i 2 ppm P<. 01, 3 ppm P<. 001). | The percentage of fish displaying followed much the same trends ; (Figure 3). Untreated fish displayed 84% of the time. When treated at 1 ppm, display dropped to 16%; at 2 ppm to 10%; at 3 ppm none | of the fish displayed. There was no significant difference between the ; display of treated and control fish at any concentration of MP. The ! control fish essentially followed this regression. I Figure 4 shows the response times of all the fish tested (assuming | 240 seconds for those fish that did not respond) . A sharp increase in j time with each increment of MP concentration was noted. The in- ji crease was greatest between the untreated group and Group L It in- j creased to 235 seconds at 3 ppm (Group III) . i When only fish that responded were considered (Figure 5), an | increase in time was shown from 0 ppm to 1 ppm. The time then i TOXICITY OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF METHYL PARATHION 523 Fig. 2. Percent of the population responding at three levels of methyl parathion concen¬ tration. Solid line— -treated, dashed line — untreated. Fig. 3. Percent of the population displaying at three levels of methyl parathion concen¬ tration. Solid line-— treated, dashed line— untreated. decreased from 110 seconds to 62 seconds at 2 ppm. A sharp increase from 2 ppm to 3 ppm then occurred. Elapsed time to display could likewise be interpreted in 2 ways. When all the treated fish in each group were considered (Figure 6) a sharp rise occurred from 0 ppm to 1 ppm. A leveling effect from 1 ppm 524 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE i Fig. 4. Response times of the entire population when subjected to three levels of MP concentration. Solid line- — treated, dashed line- — untreated. to 2 ppm then occurred, followed by another increase from 2 ppm to ! 3 ppm. At 3 ppm the average time was 240 seconds — the arbitrarily chosen termination point. Considering only those fish that displayed (Figure 7), a similar trend was obvious except for a sharper increase ' in time (69 seconds to 100 seconds) from 1 ppm to 2 ppm. DISCUSSION The data show that mortality began to increase at a concentration ' of 6 ppm. At a concentration higher than 7.5 ppm but below 8.0 ppm , 50% of the population would be expected to die. However, from 4 ppm I to 6 ppm the fish were inactive and sluggish. Concentrations below : 6 ppm, while sublethal, did produce effects. The data on response and | display times bears out this assumption. When a male B. splendens encounters another male of the same ; species he is stimulated to display as a prelude to active aggression, ■ TOXICITY OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF METHYL PARATHION 525 Fig. 5. Response times of the fish that overtly respond to three levels of MP concentra¬ tion. Solid line- — ^treated, dashed line — untreated. This consists of a ritual which involves a spreading of his fins and stereotyped movements. Before this display, however, he has to be¬ come aware of the other male. From our observations this entails observing the form of the other male. Movements of some sort elicit display. Methyl parathion affects movements and the ability to dis¬ play as shown in the data. In general, the elapsed times for response and display of fish treated with MP increased with concentration. The decrease in response time (Figure 5) has been reported by other investigators. Schatz, et aL, (1964) termed this a “paradoxical effect” (i.e., a rise in the parameter measured occurred at one concentration but a decrease occurred at a higher concentration). The decrease is then followed by another rise in the parameter at the next higher concentration. Similar effects were noted in studies of pesticide effects on fish respiration (Huner, et aL, 1967). Bennett and Day (1970) showed the paradoxical effect through time when investigating endrin absorption rates. These investigators concluded that, after the initial 526 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Fig. 6. Display times of the entire population when subjected to three levels of MP concentration. Solid line — treated, dashed line-— untreated. exposure to the pesticide, the fish developed a physiological mechanism to cope with it. Bennett and Day (1970) suggested that the fish were metabolizing and excreting the chemical. Russell (1966) reported that as cholinesterase becomes progressively depleted, behavioral effects ' move through complex phases. At first there were no effects, then increased efficiency, and later decrements in some behaviors. This has also been noted by Krech, et al.^ ( 1956) . ; Our data support these findings. As behavior is dependent upon i physiological processes the exposure to a low concentration of a cholin¬ esterase inhibiting chemical would result in a lowering of reaction i times. At higher concentrations (2 ppm) the reaction time is facilitated | by cholinesterase inhibitors (Stout, 1963). When concentrations ex- ceed this facilitory tolerance range an increase in reaction time would | result. Interspecific interactions are shown in the data (Figures 2-7). Because only one of each pair was treated with MP, the other fish TOXICITY OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF METHYL PARATHION 527 Fig 7. Display times of the fish that actively displayed at three levels of MP concentration. Solid line— treated, dashed line— untreated. should exhibit normal behavior. Although there was a slight decrease in response, the control fish generally responded normally to the treat¬ ed fish. The initial response to the other male is evidently a passive recognition, requiring no behavioral signal or active stimulus from the other male. This is supported by the response data that show a sig¬ nificant difference between controls and treated fish response (Figure 2). This was not the case, however, when considering display. The control fish reacted similarly as the treated subjects. The display ritual seems to be a response elicited only as a result of active behavioral signals from the other male. As the ability or desire to display was lowered in the treated fish a lessening in display was found in the un¬ treated males. In an indirect way, the organism itself was responsible for not reacting to his rival. By not responding or displaying he did not elicit a response from the other male. The lack of a display on the part of a rival, in turn, negated any elicitation of a response from the 528 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE poisoned fish. The data show no significant difference between the dis¬ play controls and treated fish at any concentration of MP (Figure 3) . This is important because many organisms depend upon behavioral responses for reproduction, territory, and, eventually, age hierarchy. To extrapolate from the laboratory to field situations would be risky. If similar events occur in different species in natural habitats, long term effects would be indicated. It is hoped that more research will be carried out in this area under field conditions. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are indebted to Dr. W. J. Dobson, Texas A&M Uni- i versity, for providing the subjects for this study. We also wish to thank Dr. H. G. Applegate for allowing us the use of his pesticide laboratory. Drs. Applegate and J. M. Inglis, Texas A&M University, critically read the manuscript and offered many useful observations. | This is Technical Article No. 8682, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. This research was supported in part by ' Grant AP 28-05, Division of Air Pollution, Bureau of State Services, ' Public Health Service. LITERATURE CITED i Abou-Donia, M. B., and D. B. Manzel, 1967 — Fish brain cholinesterase: it’s in¬ hibition by carbamates and automatic assay. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.., 21: 99-108. : Bennett, H. J., and J. W. Day, Jr., 1970— Absorption of endrin by the bluegill sun- fish, Lepomis macrochirus. Pesticides Monitoring 3: 201-203. , Ferguson, D. E., D. T. Gardner, and A. L. Bindley, 1966 — Toxicity of dursban to ' three species of fish. Mosquito News., 26: 80-82. Henderson, C., Q. H. Pickering, and C. M. Tharzwell, 1959 — The relative tox- i icity of ten chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to four species of fish. Trans. ; Amer. Fish. Soc., 88: 23-32. Huner, j, V., B. F. Dowden, and H. J. Bennett, 1967^ — The effects of endrin on -i the oxygen consumption of the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. Proc. , La. Acad. Sci., 30: 80-86. j. Katz, M., 1961 — Acute toxicity of some organic insecticides to three species of salmonids and to the three-spine stickleback. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.., 40: 264- [ 268. I' Krech, D,, M. Rosenweig, and E. Bennett, 1956 — Dimensions of discrimination j! and level of cholinesterase activity in the cerebral cortex of the rat. J. Comp, j, Physio. Psy.., 49: 261-268. Newsom, L. D., 1967 — Consequences of insecticide use on non-target organisms. ;; Ann. Rev. Ento., 12: 257-286. TOXICITY OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF METHYL PARATHION 529 Pickering, Q. H., C. Henderson, and A. F. Lemke, 1962 — The toxicity of organic phosphorus insecticides to different species of warm water fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 91: 175-184. Risenbrough, R. W., D. B. Menzel, D. J. Martin, and H. S. Olcott, 1967 — DDT residues in pacific sea birds; a persistent insecticide in marine food chains. Nature, 216: 589-590. Rudd, R. L., 1964 — Pesticides and The Living Landscape. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison. - , and R. E. Genelly, 1956 — Pesticides: their use and toxicity in relation to wildlife. Cal. Fish and Game Dept., Bull. 7. Russell, R. (ed.), 1966 — Frontiers of Physiological Psychology. Academic Press, New York. ScHATz, A., E. B. ScHALscHA, and V. Schatz, 1964 — Soil organic matter as a natural chelating material. Part 2, The occurrence and importance of paradoxical con¬ centration effects in biological systems. Compost Sci., 5: 26-31. Simpson, M. J. A., 1968 — The display of the Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens. Animal Behav. Monogr., 1; 1-73. Stout, W., 1963 — Learning and retention as a function of injection of cholinesterase inhibitors. Dissert. Abst., 64: 9400, 2074. Warner, R. E., K. K. Peterson, and L. Borgman, 1966 — Behavioral pathology in fish: a quantitative study of sublethal pesticide toxication. /. Applied EcoL, 3(Supp.): 223-247. Weiss, C. M., 1961 — Physiological effects of organic phosphorus insecticides on several species of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 90: 143-152. - , and J. H. Gakstatter, 1964 — Detection of pesticides in water by bio¬ chemical assay. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed., 36: 240-253. Williams, A. K., and C. R. Sova, 1966 — Acetylcholinesterase levels in brains of fishes from polluted waters. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1: 198-204. Breeding Season and Early Development of Brachygalaxias hullo cki (Osteichthyes: Galaxiidae) by HUGO CAMPOS Zoological Institute, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile ABSTRACT The reproductive biology of Brachygalaxias bullocki (Regan) in Saval Lagoon, Chile was studied. Adults are reproductive and eggs are laid for 4 winter months ( July-October) . The adhesive eggs are laid singly and hatch in about 2 weeks at temperatures between 10 and 15°C. The young become sexually mature before the next breeding season and few fish live more than 18 months. Brachygalaxias bullocki (Regan) (Fig. 1) is a little known member of the Galaxiidae, a family of fishes restricted to the temperate lands and adjacent shores of the Southern Hemisphere. This distribution can be explained by one or more of the following hypotheses: 1) oceanic dispersal permitted fish to migrate from one land mass to another; 2) dispersal occurred when the land masses were closer together than at present; and 3) the taxa are artificial assemblages of superficially similar fishes. Many galaxiids are known to enter sea water which supports the first hypothesis; however, other galaxiids are not likely to have entered, much less crossed oceans. Species of Brachygalaxias are among those unlikely to be found in sea water. The genus has 2 (or 3) species inhabiting fresh waters in Chile, bullocki (Regan), and Australia, pusillus (Mack). Shipway (1953) and Frankenberg (1969) considered nigrostriatus (Shipway) from western Australia as a sub¬ species of pusillus. The species currently assigned to Brachygalaxias typify the problems associated with galaxiid biogeography. Ecological studies can apply to the validity of the first hypothesis. Fischer (1963) reported that eggs of Brachygalaxias bullocki laid before winter had long dormant intervals and hatched in the spring. If his hypothesis is correct the long dormant period might permit transoceanic transport of Brachygalaxias eggs. In contrast, this study shows that Brachy¬ galaxias bullocki is reproductive for prolonged intervals including late winter months and could provide the spring larvae reported by Fischer. Eggs incubated during this study hatched in about 2 weeks at about 12°C, indicating transoceanic rafting would be difficult. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 532 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 1 mm Fig. 1. Adult Brachygalaxias bullocki. MATERIALS AND METHODS All life history stages (eggs through adult) were obtained in Saval I Lagoon, the canals of the Botanical Garden, and adjacent small streams on Teja Island, Valdivia, Chile. j Eggs were cleared during 3 to 5 minutes immersion in a 1 00 cc. solu- | tion of 0.7% NaCl, adding 3 to 5 cc. of acetic acid. Afterwards the eggs | were preserved in a solution of 10% formalin with 2 to 5% acetic acid (Romeis, 1968: 2436) . The eggs, pre-larvae, larvae, and juvenile stages were anesthetized with Sandoz M.S. 222 for observation and fixed in 5% formalin. The behaviour of the adults was observed in aquaria. ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Brachygalaxias bullocki is most commonly obtained in vegetation zones in the rivers and lakes of southern Chile. Most adults occur in small streams and backwaters with few present in samples from adjacent large streams. Although they seem to avoid rapid current habitats, they swim well when necessary. Fischer (1963) concluded that they are freshwater fishes, and the absence of B. bullocki in brackish water sample stations near Valdivia supports his observations. All life history stages can be obtained from among plants (or in rock crevices) and population densities seem to be directly associated with plant densities. Adults (Fig. 1) have large eyes and well developed cephalic lateral line pores. These attributes would be expected in a predator and the facility with which they detect and eat insects in aquaria supports this hypothesis. The fecundity is less than that reported for 2 other Chilean galaxi- oids (Campos, 1969; 1970). Females have 50-120 mature eggs, with an average of 100. The egg counts were made on females whose total length varied between 30 and 40 mm. The mature eggs vary in diam- j BREEDING SEASON OF Brachygalaxias bullocki 0,1 533 A B Fig. 2. Si^as of ovarian aggs in B. bullocki. eter between 1.0 and 1.9 mm (Fig. 2 and 3) . In spite of the small size of the females the diameter of the mature eggs is almost the same as that of Galaxias maculatus. The size distribution of the fish captured from the population in¬ habiting Saval Lagoon has been studied (Fig, 4). Many adults and some juveniles are found in winter. In the spring many young fish are present along with the adults. This does not signify a sudden disappear- 534 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Diametro en mm Fig. 3. Diameter of 50 eggs deposited by B. bulhcki. ance of the latter, but rather an increase in the density of the juvenile population. One can observe the transition of the juvenile population into adults from the end of spring until summer, and it seems likely that the largest fish are about 18 months old. Males can be distin¬ guished from females by the form of the urogenital papilla. Males have the opening posteriorly oriented and females ventrally (Fig. 5). EGG DEPOSITION Eggs in all stages of incubation have been obtained from water on Teja Island, especially in Saval Lagoon, an artificial body of water with a surface area of about 1,000 square meters and fed and drained BREEDING SEASON OF Brachygolaxlas bullocki 535 □ -I ^ J ^ □ □ S -] '■ '■ d ' vf i j ^ 5. .'5,V«>’f tj pp, i-'‘r ' ■ ■' 1^. V •vvi:...; ,!r; •' i\-- < •^’. ' r ;•# .w 1^' r. (.‘••'•^•^‘'V. - 5«^?' V l‘*' ? •> :/,“ vy:f^ r .vV’'-''’' ’ '"'' ^ * ' ' ■••■ .. .. ■ tt. . ■ ■: ij.’" ■r.^- .;■■ . . ■' ly^ty .i; t ■ -a •^-r'. v.. . .ri.* >'r .-■■ i.^f-amaiw-. ■-■ -■.-.■»■■: - •••.; ■ • '■' ■'•’^'i""'*''^ rf ''*' ' ' ■ .' ■'.■•'^*^?4 • ■„ '*«!’■ >5-’.7,,7 '-Vlii ¥&, ■■■ - = ..V. ■.. .;; ...> ..'i: -,.v-, • i,c4 'i'^E'-SV>W.k'^ ■ /’VU'i :-V . T'vv’v thf'A h- s . ' ' ' / V h^cv^'L'-/' ^ '\;y(s-».- ■;. • ^ -^4 , >■ ‘-^ . -5 'f.'- t ..'5y:. _ _ Y . s>'ifV f I ’ ^ > Vv.v/^rv-;- . ^ ‘’Vi‘V:, ■''■'< ’^.' r I ^ 'r ‘ .. ,.- , .;'■ : :-j.; . ' '‘ ‘•'“"'rV;-', f-': . ""'r' :'«i;^i’ •?;•/’*•'.- .-v . Aaav'il '■ . . . .■;. -,1.-3 :v.:" •; . - ..M. . , ' . ’M',- »■ -’-''A im ■ .f-:‘:y- ‘!>.jfi ;7^ Note Section CRANIA SP. (BRACHIOPODA) FROM TEXAS WATERS. The inarticulate brachiopod Crania has not been reported from the western Gulf of Mexico. Cooper [1954, Fish. Bull, 55 (89) : 363-365] indicated that Crania is rare in North American waters with only a few specimens known, and a single specimen from Campeche Bank as the only one from the Gulf. Dali [1871, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zooi^ 3(1): 35] reported that a few specimens of Crania were dredged by the United States Coast Survey Expedition off the Sambos, Florida in 116 fathoms and off the Sand Key in 105 fathoms. On 20 July 1968 a brachiopod, tentatively identified as Crania sp., was collected while using SCUBA on Seven and One-Half Fathom Reef, 26°5FN., 97°18^W. It was attached to a small rock in approximately 6 fathoms of water. This reef, of Pleistocene origin [Tunnell and Causey, 1969, TA/US, 2(1): 75-76] is located 74 kilometers south of the northern entrance to Padre Island National Seashore and 3.2 kilometers offshore from Padre Island, The specimen was sent to G. Arthur Cooper, Senior Paleobiologist, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., for confirmation. He replied in a letter dated 10 Oc¬ tober 1970 — “Your specimen of Crania arrived safely and has been examined. It is certainly an interesting specimen and unlike any in our collections at the National Museum. An unusual feature of your specimen is the radial lines on the exterior. I know of no other species of modern Crania so marked.” The specimen is deposited in the Texas A&I University invertebrate collection (AIM). Dorsal valve dimensions are: height, 4 mm; maximum diameter 12 mm; and minimum diameter 8 mm. It is limpet shaped and the color is pale yellow- brown. There are approximately 60 radial lines extending from the apex and a few unevenly spaced, jagged concentric growth lines are visible on one side. There are numerous (20-30/mm) setae extending from the perimeter of the dorsal and ventral valve. Many of the setae are 4 mm in length and all contain small radiating barbs or thorns from the primary axis. The ventral valve is relatively flat and thin and conforms to the surface of the rock to which it was attached. This work was supported in part by Texas A&I University faculty research fund (Grant Nos. 449-G-68 and 449-4-69). John W. Tunnell, Jr., Biology Department, University of South Florida, Tampa, 33620. Accepted for publication: Feb. 28, 1971. NEW LOCALITY RECORDS FOR DIPLOMONORCHIS LEIOSTOMI HOPKINS, 1941 (TREMATODA: DIGENEA) AND MACROVALVITREMATOIDES MI- CROPOGONI (PEARSE, 1949) (TREMATODA: MONOGENEA) WITH NOTES ON THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Forty-nine out of 171 croaker {Micropogon undulatus) collected from Clear Lake, Texas between 14 January and 14 April 1971 were infected with Diplomonorchis leiostomi. Infected hosts ranged from 85 to 285 mm in total length. This constitutes the first report of D. leiostomi from Texas, and extends the known range of this trematode westward by approximately 370 miles. D. leiostomi was initially described from Leiostomus xanthurus (10 of 19) and also reported in Orthopristis chrysopterus (2 of 6) in collections from Beaufort, The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 554 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE North Carolina during the summer of 1939 (Hopkins, 1941, /, Parasit., 27: 395- 407). The first report of D. leiostomi in the Gulf of Mexico was from Grand Isle, Louisiana, where L. xanthurus, O. chrysopterus and Pogonis cromis were found in¬ fected (Sparks, 1958, Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 20: 71-82). Additional reports of D. leiostomi have been from: Bairdiella chrysura (1 of 1) in Cabbage Key and Boca Ciega, Florida, and Lagodon rhomboides (1 of 4) from Bayboro Harbor and Tampa Bay, Florida (Sogandares-Bernal and Hutton, 1959, Bull. Mar. Sci., 9: 53-68); M. furnieri and Archosargus unimaculatus from Jamaica, W. I. (Nahhas and Cable, 1964, Tulane Stud. ZooL, 11: 168-229); M. undulatus (6 of 12) from Apalachee Bay, Florida (Nahhas and Powell, 1965, J. Parasit., 51: 16-20); Trinectes maculatus (28 of 84) from Barataria Bay, Louisiana (Corkum, 1966, Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 29: 45-51); and A. rhomboidalis (3 of 5), Lagodon rhomboides (2 of 5), and O. chry¬ sopterus (3 of 4) from Biscayne Bay, Florida (Overstreet, 1969, Tulane Stud. ZooL, 15: 119-176). In the same host sample the gills of 68 croaker, 85 to 250 mm in total length, were infected with Macrovalvitrematoides micropogoni {— Tagia micropogoni) . This is the first report of this trematode from the northern Gulf of Mexico. Macro¬ valvitrematoides micropogoni was first described on Micropogon undulatus from Beaufort, North Carolina (Pearse, 1949, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 100 No. 3255: 25- 38), but was later redescribed from the same host from Alligator Harbor, Florida (Hargis, 1956, Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash., 23: 5-13). This project was partially funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency’s Office of Sea Grants, Department of Commerce, through institutional grant GH-101 made to Texas A&M University. James E. Joy, Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843. Accepted for publica¬ tion: June 2, 1971. MINERALS FROM MCLENNAN COUNTY, TEXAS. During the investigation ‘ of the economic geology of the Waco area, McLennan and adjoining counties, from 1962 to 1970 (Huang, 1972, Bull. Baylor Geol. Studies, in press), the writer collected j 4 minerals from various Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. These minerals are hitherto ! unreported in McLennan County, and are worthy of a brief description, j The writer wishes to express his since thanks to Ed Williamson and Jim Bain | for their assistance in the field, and to the Universal Atlas Cement Company at Waco ; for kindly giving the vivianite samples used in this study. The writer is also grateful to Drs. O. T. Hayward and Jerry N. Namy who have kindly read the final manu- ' script. ' Mendozite. While investigating the Tonk quarry in Edward Limestone, one- ; quarter of a mile east of Crawford, a few samples of powdered mineral, with an ; astringent taste, were collected. This mineral was determined to be mendozite, i; Na20 Al2Q3-4S03-22H20. As far as known, this is the first recorded occurrence of i; mendozite in Texas. The mendozite occurs as a friable porous encrustation up to 15 ) mm. in thickness on the limestone surface near the base of the quarry. i| Under the microscope, the mineral was found to be anisotropic, biaxially nega- j| tive, with an estimated axial angle of about 35°. The B index was near 1.455 ± |j 0.003. Because of the fineness of the grain, precise optical properties could not be p determined. For that reason, the mineral sample was dissolved in distilled water '■] and allowed to evaporate to dryness. The coarsely crystallized product was again ' examined with the microscope. Optically the mineral is biaxial with ( — )2V = 30°- I' 40°. Indices of refraction are: a = 1.432 ± 0.003, /? = 1.456, and y = 1.458 ± 0.003, NOTE SECTION 555 dispersion, r > v. These optical properties are in complete agreement with those of mendozite hy Larsen and Berman (1964, GeoL Surv. Bull., 848, 2nd Ed.) ; they also agree well with those obtained on the original or undissolYed material. The following pyrognostic and chemical tests give further confirmatory proof. In the closed tube the material decrepitated readily and gave abundant water on the wall of the tube. It fused at 1, giving yellow flame of sodium. The material was readily dissolved in distilled water. The filtered solution gave positive tests for the sulfate ion and aluminum, but negative tests for chloride and potassium. A test for iron was also negative, thereby eliminating the possibility of halotrichite. In determining the probable origin of the Texas mendozite, it seems likely that the sulfate came from the oxidizing pyrite which occurs as nodules in Austin Chalk and Edward Limestone. Sulphuric acid released from the oxidized pyrite acted on the clay form an aluminum sulfate, the sodium needed to form the mendozite being derived from sodium clay in the limestone. Celestite. The celestite, which is associated with dolomite and gypsum, occurs as granular to fibrous veins in geodic cavities in a light gray dolomitic limestone on a road cut less than a mile from the Tonk quarry, Crawford. The celestite is colorless to faintly blue, with vitreous to pearly luster. The occurrence of celestite in geodic cavities is reminescent of the well-known celestite in Lampasas, Texas. However, nowhere has the Crawford celestite approached the size and beauty of the Lampasas crystals. The specific gravity of Crawford celestite was determined from 10 transparent grains obtained from 3 separated areas. The average of 4 specific gravity determi¬ nations gave a value of 3.962. Of all the samples investigated, no Ba substituting for Sr was noted. Chemical analysis of the strontium sulfate, SrSO^, gave SrO 56.4, SO343.6, thereby indicating a pure celestite. Celestite is known as a primary constituent of sedimentary rocks. In the Crawford area, the association of the authigenic celestite with dolomite and gypsum indicates that the minerals were deposited from water of high salinity under semi-arid or arid conditions. Vivianite. An earthy, white mineral from the South Bosque Shale was collected while surveying the shale quarry at the Universal Atlas Cement Company, on U. S. Highway 84, 6 miles southwest of Waco. Two additional small lenses of a green earthy mineral were found embedded in the shale on the east side at the bottom of the quarry. Qualitative chemical tests established its identity as vivianite, Peg (P04)2-8H20. The vivianite ranges in form from root-like appearance in small nodules to a granular aggregates in lenses; and in color varies from white when fresh, and green altered to brownish, due to the impurities of limonite and hematite. In accounting for the probable origin of the constituents of the vivianite in the South Bosque shale, it seems most logical that iron and plants and other organic bodies were present in aqueous environments in which the shale was deposited, and that the remains of such organic bodies were replaced by ferrous phosphate to form the vivianite. Arsenopyrite. The arsenopyrite and pyrite occur sparingly in limestone on a creek bottom, one-quarter of a mile north of the Gardner Ranch. Though only the pyrite was found in basalt at the Gardner Ranch (Huang, ma.), the arsenopyrite in the limestone may have come from a yet unexposed igneous body. The crystals of arsenopyrite seldom exceed 8 mm. in maximum dimension; some of them have the following forms: m(llO), q(Oll), e(lOl), k(021), and t(013). When examined under the reflected microscope, the arsenopyrite is pure and free 556 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE from intergrowths and inclusions. W. T. Huang, Department of Geology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76703. Accepted for publication; May 25, 1971. BEHAVIOR OF BLIND SNAKES (LEPTOTYPHLOPS DULCIS) IN RESPONSE TO ARMY ANT {NEIVAMYRMEX NIGRESCENS) RAIDING COLUMNS. Blind snakes feed on ant brood, follow the pheromone trails of ants, and crawl in army ant raiding columns (Watkins, et al., 1967; Gehlbach, et al., 1971). When army ant workers bite and perhaps sting a blind snake, it forms a ball-like, writhing coil and smears cloacal sac fluid on its body (Gehlbach, et al., 1968). This fluid, a mucus-like glycoprotein containing free fatty acids, repells further ant attacks (Blum, et al., 1971). We now present field tests of blind snake behavior in response to natural army ant raiding columns. Blind snakes were from McLennan County, Texas; Seminole County, Oklahoma (L. d. dulcis); and Gomez Farias, Tamaulipas, Mexico (L. d. myopicus); army ants {N. nigrescens) were from McLennan County. Snakes and ants were maintained according to Watkins, et al. (1969). Twenty-seven individuals of dulcis and 11 of myopicus were released 10 cm from natural, ground surface raiding columns of nigrescens. Snakes were removed from cages with paper towels. A gasoline lantern dimly lighted field test areas, all in McLennan Couny, and did not disrupt the nocturnal raiding columns. Number of times blind snakes entered columns, number of attacks by ants, number and duration of coiling responses, and effects of coiling on ants were recorded when snakes contacted the columns. Snakes were removed from the test site when they failed to contact a column, left a column, or followed a column into an area unfavorable for observation. Blind snakes contacted army ant raiding columns during 70 and 27 releases (this j and the following data refers to dulcis and myopicus respectively). They entered i and crawled in the columns during 51 and 36% of these contacts and were attacked j in 37 and 30% of them. Fifty eight and 70% of the attacks elicited defensive coiling and cloacal discharge, which was 50 and 67% effective in deterring the ants from further attacks. The snakes uncoiled, after the attacks subsided, and continued crawl¬ ing in the columns but some were attacked again. Up to 5 separate coiling sequences j occurred after a single release, although the modal number was one. | The present data substantiates the infrequency of blind snakes crawling in j natural army ant raiding columns as indicated by Watkins, et al. (1967). Those | snakes that did enter and crawl in the columns, but were not attacked, may have | been protected by cloacal fluid retained beneath their scales as a result of previous j coiling (cf. Gehlbach, et al., 1968). Biting and stinging by the ants, and perhaps j ant alarm pheromones, may cause a blind snake to coil defensively. The attacks J of 10 and 25 army ant workers caused coiling during 8 and 10, respectively, of 10 ’ test replicates conducted in laboratory arenas (cf. Watkins, et al., 1969). I Qualitative differences in the coiling behavior of myopicus and dulcis were not i apparent. This suggests that the defensive coiling of L. dulcis in response to army j ant attacks is sterotyped. Coiling behavior should not be confused with erratic •! and death-feigning behavior in response to vertebrate predators (Gehlbach, 1970). [ The writhing coil has not been elicited by vertebrate attack on dulcis in our ' experience, although cloacal discharge is a common trait of these blind snakes in 'i response to tactual stimulation. ^ We appreciate the help of James C. Kroll and William A. Carter. This study was iij supported by NSF GB-7620 and Baylor University Grant 21-541 . ,| NOTE SECTION 557 LITERATURE CITED Blum, M. S., J. B. Byrd, J. R. Travis, J. F. Watkins II, and F. R. Gehlbach, 1971 — Chemistry of the cloacal sac secretion of the blind snake, Leptotyphlops dulcis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 38B: 103-107= Gehlbach, F. R., 1970 — Death-feigning and erratic behavior in leptotyphlopid, colubrid, and elapid snakes. Herpetologica, 26: 24-34= - - , J. F. Watkins II, and J. C. Kroll, 1971— Pheromone trail-following studies of typhlopid, leptotyphlopid, and colubrid snakes. Behaviour, 40^ (3-4): 282-294= - , and H. W. Reno, 1968 — Blind snake defensive behavior elicited by ant attacks. Bioscience, 18: 784-785. Watkins, J. F. II, F, R. Gehlbach, and R. S. Baldridge, 1967 — Ability of the blind snake, Leptotyphlops dulcis, to follow pheromone trails of army ants, Neivamyr- mex nigrescens and N. opacithorax. Southwest. Natur., 12: 455-462. — — — . — . — and J. C. Kroll, 1969 — Attractant-repellent secretion of blind snakes {Leptotyphlops dulcis) and their army ant prey {Neivamyrmex nigrescens). Ecology, 50: 1098-1102. Julian F. Watkins II, Frederick R. Gehlbach, and Robert W. Plsek, Biology, De¬ partment, Baylor University, Waco, Texas. Accepted for publication: June 23, 1971. NOTES ON THE ERUPTION OF VOLCAN ARENAL IN COSTA RICA. Two recent articles (Miller, 1970, Pac. Disc., 23: 25-31: and Oppenheim, 1970, Tex. J. Sci., 22: 88-90), have dealt with the eruption of 29 July 1968, of Volcan Arenal in Costa Rica, which claimed the lives of 120 persons. While these articles have covered most of the facts pertinent to the eruption and subsequent events, I would like to add some comments about the Monday morning during which the eruption actually occurred, as I spent the night before the eruption with 2 companions in the town of Tilaran, located approximately 21 kilometers to the west of Volcan Arenal. We spent the Sunday night before the eruption in “the” hotel in the town of Tilaran which is the center of the town’s night activity. There was considerable ac¬ tivity in the drinking-dance hall area of the hotel until about 11:00 P.M., but abso¬ lutely no indication of any foresight of the oncoming disaster. We arose Monday morning (29 July) around 6:45 A.M. to ready ourselves for bird collecting in the area of the town of Arenal, but as it was raining hard we decided to postpone our departure for one hour. We then readied ourselves, paid the hotel owner for our lodging, and started out in our jeep in the direction of the town of Arenal (hence in the direction of the volcano), but there was still no indication of an oncoming eruption. There was little activity in the town of Tilaran when we departed, prob¬ ably because of the hard rain, and very few people were seen in the streets. As we approached the area of Laguna de Arenal (approx. 10 kilometers from Tilaran in the direction of the volcano) we began to note “muddy” water on the windshield. After about 5 minutes it became obvious that indeed Volcan Arenal had erupted. Although my notes do not indicate exactly at what time we noted the presence of ash mixed wih the rain, I suspect that it must have been approximaely 8:00 A.M. At that time we immediately turned around and headed back towards Tilaran and the Pan American Highway which is located at Cahas, some 14 kilometers to the SW of Tilaran. As we drove back through Tilaran, it was still raining, but some people were beginning to emerge from the buildings, and had apparently noted the 558 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE presence of ash in the rain. As we left Tilaran we were forced to stop every 4 or 5 minutes to clear the windshield of the “muddy” rain. By the time we had traveled about 7 kilometers from Tilaran the rain had ceased and one could see the ash ac¬ cumulating on the fields and roadway. The atmosphere was very heavy with the smell of sulfur, and had a brownish-orange hue. By the time we arrived at Cahas and the Pan American Highway (approx. 9:30 A.M.) the landscape was covered with a light grey volcanic ash. In the journey back to San Jose, we noted ash on the landscape as far as approximately 15 kilometers N of the turnoff from the Pan American Highway going to Puntarenas; this would have been approximately 3-4 hours after the initial eruption. In summary, my observations indicate that: 1 ) there was absolutely no indication of an oncoming eruption of Volcan Arenal (as close as Tilaran) prior to the initial eruption the morning of 29 July 1968; 2) a good layer of grey volcanic ash had covered the landscape as far as Cahas within 1- 1 hours after the initial eruption began; and 3) volcanic ash had traveled to near the area of Puntarenas within 3-4 hours after the initial eruption. /. Alan Feduccia, Department of Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 27514. Accepted for publication: March 3, 1971. Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Annual Meeting, Nacogdoches, Texas, March 11-13, 1971 Section I— Mathematical Sciences Friday Morning^ March 12 REGULAR POLYTOPE DESIGNS — Richard Cooper, Trinity University, San Antonio, and Patrick Odell, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. ON TESTS RELATED TO A COVARIANCE MATRIX— J. T. Webster, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. T. W. Anderson, in 1948, laid the ground work for tests for correlation of normal variables in regression situations. One necessary property was that the covariance matrix, S, be of a form where ^ and 6 are known matrices. This paper notes properties of the latent roots and vectors of S such that 2-^ is of this form. As a special case the problem of testing hypotheses concerning variance com¬ ponents in linear models is examined. The familiar property of indempotent matrices again appears as a necessary condition. The problem of several variance components is then put into the framework of Anderson’s approach, TWO EXAMPLES OF MARKOV CHAINS APPLIED TO SAMPLING PRO¬ CEDURES — ^Kenneth S. Stephens, LeTourneau College, Longview. JACKKNIFING STOCHASTIC PROCESSES— H. L. Gray and J. E. Adams, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. The jackknife is a statistical procedure based on a finite sample size is generally used as a method for bias reduction in estimators. The notion of the jackknife is extended to certain classes of estimators defined on stochastic processes. Several properties of the jackknife estimator for stochastic processes are presented. Bias characterization theorems, convergence theorem, and asymptotic properties of the jackknife are the major results. ON PRINCIPAL IDEMPOTENTS— F. M. Speed, Texas A&I University, Kings¬ ville. SELECTION INDEX ESTIMATION FROM INCOMPLETE DATA— W. B. Smith and D. M. Scott, Texas A&M University, College Station. A selection index estimation procedure for partial multivariate normal data was recently developed by Smith and Pfaffenberger {Biometrics, 19700. This procedure is extended to index data records distributed as a multinomial vector, and its proper¬ ties are discussed. Monte Carlo simulation is used to verify these properties and to support its applicability. The combined procedures are applied to a real data situation. The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, June, 1972. 560 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE SMALL SAMPLE POWER OF SOME TESTS OF THE EXPONENTIAL DIS- TRIBLFTION — L. J. Ringer and W. W. Fercho, Texas A&M University^ College Station. The exponential distribution is often used in reliability work to describe the distribution of time to “chance” failure and is characterized by a constant failure rate. In this paper the small sample powers are compared for 4 test statistics for the hypothesis of constant failure rate vs. the hypothesis of non-constant failure rate. The tests are compared for samples of size n= 10(5)50 using the Weibull distri¬ bution for the alternative distribution. The shape parameter of the Weibull is varied from 0.5 to 2.5. For the 2 test statistics which involve arbitrary grouping of the data the effect of group size and number was examined. Friday Afternoon, March 12 AN APPARENT RELATION BETWEEN TWO OLD PROBLEMS— A. D. Stewart, Prairie View A&M College, Prairie View. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION IN GEOMETRY— Ali R. Amir’-Mo’ez, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. AN UPPER BOUND FOR THE RECTILINEAR CROSSING NUMBER FOR COMPLETE GRAPHS IN THE PLANE— C. P. Barton, Stephen F. Austin University, Nacogdoches. GENERALIZED NORMAL SUBSETS AND HOMOTOPISMS— D. R. Cecil, Texas A&l University, Kingsville. A COMPARISON OF VARIOUS NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE SOLU¬ TION OF 2ND ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF | PARABOLIC TYPE — Chih-Jen Kao and B. L. Bateman, University of South- \ western Louisiana, Lafayette. j I Second Order Differential Equations have been used extensively to construct the : theories of various scientific problems. The analytical solutions of 2nd order partial , differential equations of parabolic type are not only complex, but in some instances, j impossible to obtain. In order to ease the burden of cumbersome procedures in j classical mathematics, numerical approaches become necessary. j From various numerical approaches, 4 methods have been examined: Alternating | Direction Implicit Procedure (ADIP), Alternating Direction Explicit Procedure I (ADEP), Banded Matrix Method, and Extrapolated Liebermann Method. I This work, utilizing an RCA Spectra 70/46G, compares each of the 4 methods ji with regard to: the storage requirements, accuracy of the solutions and the com- !' puting time required at any time plate, accuracy of the solutions and the computing j; time required at steady state when applied to the flow problem, the complexity of , each method from the numerical process point of view, the appropriateness of each j; method for persons with different needs. 1, ABSTRACTS 561 A RELIABILITY STUDY OF THE LINEAR VARIATION TRIANGULAR FINITE ELEMENT — Fred Goldsbe-rTy and Paul B. Crawford, Texas Petroleum Research Committee, Texas A&M University, College Station. This paper reports on the reliability of the triangular finite element representa¬ tion for a diffusion system described in cylindrical coordinates. The system under consideration is a rectangular torroid whose inner radius is 3 orders of magnitude smaller tha nthe outer radius. The lateral surfaces of the rectangular torroid are insulated with the inner and outer surfaces held at a constant potential. The accur¬ acy of this simple representation for this system is presented. The results of the effect of partially insulating the inner surface and imposing an uniform anisotropy on the system to determine the role of vertical flow in the system are given. Finally, this me-thod is used to deduce the relationship between a system of random hetero¬ geneity and a homogeneous system. A MINIMAL ALGORITHM FOR CHARACTER RECOGNITION— K. L. White and B. L. Bateman, University of Southwestern Lousiana, Lafayette, Louisiana. A document-scanning device or a cathode ray tube using a light pen may be inter¬ faced with a computer system to place the electronic representation of alphabetic characters into an NxN matrix in core storage. A pattern recognition scheme was developed to determine the identity of the matrix representation. Internal storage in the form of Cortesian coordinates causes an alteration of any original letter configuration; thus, array size is crucial in the development of a simple algorithm for character identification. Variations in image location, image size, and image orientation are recognized and analyzed by the pattern recognition scheme. Finally, a minimum array size is found as a necessary condition for the character identification algorithm to function properly. INCREASING COMPUTER SYSTEM EFFICIENCY THROUG REVISION OF SOME OF THE MOST EXTENSIVELY USED SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY ROUTINES — -Gerald Pitts, Gene Pulley, and Paul B, Crawford, Texas A&M University, College Station. Many scientific computer users are not system oriented and therefore tend to accept system supplied routines as if they were part of the system hardware. A study has been made, and it has been found that many of the extensively used scientific subprograms made available to the user by the system could be improved very greatly. It was found that the subroutines could be revised to give a decrease in execution time and a decrease in core storage. Several examples are discussed in detail. Some of the revised routines run in one-tenth of the time required by the' routine supplied by the vendor. THINKING TIME-SHARE— B. J. DORRELL, Union Oil Company of California, and B. L. Bateman, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette. Time-sharing is a subject which has received considerable discussion in recent articles from a technical stand point. This paper treats the' practical aspect of time¬ sharing and answers many of the questions which puzle the ave'rage' manager who 562 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE knwos little of computers, but often is the one who must make the decision to ac¬ quire such a service. For those contemplating the purchase of a time-share com¬ puter service, this article provides a general knowledge of the basic features to compare in reaching a decision on which service to acquire. The features which de¬ termine the reliability of service, capabilities, simplcty of operaton, and limita- tons are discussed in general terms for the lapman. It provides the potential buyer with a knowledge of what is presently available, thereby placing him in a better position to compare and select the service best tailored to his needs. Economics are not discussed nor is any attempt made to evaluate individual systems or consider those designed for any specific purpose. Section II— Physical Sciences and Space Sciences Friday Morning^ March 12. Division A. RADIO-FREQUENCY . . . SIZE EFFECTS IN SOLIDS— B. J. Vaughn, H .J. Mackey, and J. R. Sybert, North Texas State University, Denton. RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT AND CONTACT PLACEMENT— A. E. Ste¬ phens, H. J. Mackey, and J. R. Sybert, North Texas State University, Denton. BEATING EFFECTS IN THE SHUBNIKOV-DE HAAS OSCILLATIONS AS UNIAXIALLY STRESSED HgSe— K. L. Hathcox, D. G. Seiler, J. R. Sybert, North Texas State University, Denton. THE EFFECT OF UNAXIAL STRESS ON THE MAGNETOPHONON EFFECT OF InSb — Dale L. Alsup and D. G. Seiler, North Texas State University, Den¬ ton. THE EVALUATION OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTANTS BY CHARACTER¬ ISTIC X-RAYS — Tom J. Gray, North Texas State University, Denton. A STUDY OF THE GAMMA DECAY OF 169Tm— Robert Harris and Tom J. Gray, North Texas State Uniiversity, Denton. j NEUTRON INTERACTIONS IN 25Mg— Richard Lear and Tom Gray, North \ Texas State University, Denton. NEUTRON INTERACTIONS IN 27A1— Najat Kheil and Tom J. Gray, North I Texas State University, Denton \ NEUTRON INTERACTIONS IN 27A1— Najat Kheil and Tom J. Gray, North ‘ Texas State University, Denton. | CHARGED PARTICLE ACTIVATION ANALYSIS IN SILICON— Larry Logs- I don and Tom J. Gray, North Texas State University, Denton. :: THE 184.3-80.6 KEV DIRECTIONAL CORRELATION IN 166HO— Tom Criswell I and Tom J. Gray, North Texas State University, Denton. I r Friday Morning, March 12. Division B. : TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYSIS OF GAMMA-RAY DECAY SCHEMES— George i Pepper and Bruce Foster, North Texas State Uniiversity, Denton. ABSTRACTS 563 GROUND STATE ENERGY OF HELIUM-LIKE ATOMS— George Steinke and Don Hardcastle, Baylor University, Waco, THE GROUND STATE ENERGY OF Be BY THE RAYLEIGH-SCHROEDINGER THEORY — -George Saxon and Don Hardcastle, Baylor University, Waco. THERMOLUMINESCENCE — Lane Roquemore and R. E. Anderson, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. ADVANCED UNDERGRADUATE LABORATORY PROJECT TO MEASURE THE MUON LIFETIME— Coy Morris, Melton Lumpkin, Charles Magnuson; Philip Green and Nelson Duller, Texas A&M University, College Station. X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDY OF SUBSTITUTED ETHYLENE LIQUIDS— Robert W. Grubel and Glen T. Clayton, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. LASER CONSTRUCTION AT STEPHEN F. AUSTIN STATE UNIVERSITY— John P. Decker, Nick Carter, Glen Simpson, and Johnnie Jones, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. PHYSICS INSTRUCTION TO NON-SCIENCE MAJORS AT STEPHEN F. AUS¬ TIN STATE UNIVERSITY— John P. Decker, Stephen F. Austin State Uni¬ versity, Nacogdoches. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division A. X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF MOLECULAR LIQUIDS— Glenn T. Clay¬ ton, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. RESONANCE SHIFTS AND SHAPES IN A MICROWAVE CAVITY PER¬ TURBED BY A PLASMA FILAMENT— J. A. Roberts and R. H. Freeman, North Texas State University, Denton. INQUIRY APPROACH INTRODUCTORY COLLEGE LEVEL PHYSICAL SCIENCE— R. N. Little, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF DIRAC EQUATION— G. Pfeiffer and R. Muthurk- ishnan, North Texas State University, Denton. SHELL MODEL CALCULATION OF CE139'- — R. Muthukrishnan, North Texas State University, Denton. COHERENT STATES AND THEIR USE— John H, Harper, North Texas State University, Denton. COMPUTER TECHNIQUES IN THE EARLY DETECTION OF DISEASE— Tom Criswell and Vernon Scholes, North Texas State Uniiversity, Denton. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR MEASURING ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE PARTICLES IN NEUTRON INDUCED REACTION— Fred Abrath and Brace Foster, North Texas State University, Denton. RELAXATION SETUP FOR MEASURING ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE PARTICJ_ES IN NEUTRON INDUCED REACTION — Fred Abrath and Bruce Foster, North Texas State University, Denton. 564 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE RELAXATION TIME FOR SOLIDS WITH ELLIPSOIDAL FERMI SURFACES T, D. Fuchser, H. J. Mackey, J. R, Sybert, North Texas State University, Den¬ ton. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division B. X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF MOLECULAR LIQUIDS— Glen T, Clay¬ ton, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas. CONSTRUCTION OF LOW-COST, LOW ENERGY PROTON ACCELERATOR— D. H. Loyd and H. R. Dawson, Angelo State Uinversity, San Angelo. USE OF LOW-ENERGY PROTON ACCELERATOR IN AN UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICS LABORATORY — H. R. Dawson and D. H. Loyd, Angelo State Uni¬ versity, San Angelo. AN APPLICATION OF THE DIGITAL COMPUTER TO A PROBLEM IN NUCLEAR PHYSICS — M. H. Liang and L. M. Diana, The University of Texas at Angleton, Arlington. Computer programs in Fortran II have been developed for calculating the ac¬ tivity of a source whill fills a test tube from the activity of a standard point source using count rates obtained with each source in a well-type Nal(Tl) crystal. APPARATUS FOR MAINTAINING CONSTANT ELEVATED TEMPERA¬ TURES — S. C, Dunson and L. M. Diana, The University of Texas at Arling¬ ton, Arlington. We have constructed an apparatus to maintain constant elevated temperatures for the purpose of studying positron annihilation in liquids. A hole with a 3-in diameter bored in in one corner of an aluminum block permits insertion of the j liquid sample and measurement of positron lifetime by means of 2 photomultipliers : the longitudinal axes of which form a 90° angle. The 12-in cubiical block houses j 2 Flexible Lo-lag Immersion Heaters, total power 1500 watts, one in a vertical plane | near the sample location and the other in the median plane. The maximum operat- ’ ing temperatures of these heaters, 400° C, establishes the present top limit of the i apparatus. A minute platinum resistance thermometer, fastened to the block near | the sample location, is one leg of the A.C. bridge in the Melabs Model CTC-1 A pro- ^ portional controller. The aluminum heat reservoir is covered with a 2-in thickness 1 of calcium silicate insulation, an Owens-Coming product called Kaylo. Initial tests j: showed encouraging short term temperature stability; at the present time minor ; modifications are planned to improve long term stability. j EXPERIMENTAL NUCLEAR PHYSICS FACILITIES AT SOUTHWEST I TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY, AND THE PHOTODISINTERGRATION j OF THE DEUTERON AROUND 11 MEV.— Larry Tipton, James Read, and || W. R. Jackson, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. j] n-d ELASTIC SCATTERING DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTION MEASURE- !| MENTS USIN 2.5 MEV BOMBARDING NEUTRONS AND TIME OF !) FLIGHT TECHNIQUES — James Read, Larry Tipton, and W. R. Jackson, ji Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. ij RADIOACTIVITY DECAY OF 42K — Fernando Ramos, Gary Rawlings, and Victor j:| Michalk, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. i ^ ABSTRACTS 565 Friday Afternoon^ March 12. Division C. X^RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF MOLECULAR LIQUIDS— Glen T. Clay¬ ton, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. CALCULATION FOR LASER-ACTIVE IONS OF RARE EARTHS— M. Synek, P. Grossgut, A. DaMommio, R, Oakland, and F. Wakim, Texas Christian Uni¬ versity, Fort Worth. New results for laser-active and for other relevant ions of lanthanides have been obtained by our research group. These results are based upon our accurate analytical self-consistent field calculations. An example of our calculated analytical wave functions, and further references, can be obtained from one of our typical publica¬ tions (Synek and Grossgut, 1970, Phys. Rev., 3rd Series, LI). Additional interesting excited states and/or ground states have been calculated for Ce^T, Nd^L, Eu2+, Eu3+ and Tm^T. Also, coefficients of Salter’s equation and vector-coupling coefficients have been generated for states of the configurations sf*^, pf^, df^, spdf and spdf 2. New results were also obtained for oscillator strengths and for Mossbauer density factors; our basic approach, later supplemented using Rach’s algebra, was explained in one of our publications (Synek, Corsiglia, Repka and Grossgut, 1967, Intermit. J. Quantum Chem., 1 S: 89; Symposium). Also, new data were calculated for (r^)^^ values, and for spin-orbit matrices using expressions in terms of 3-] and 6-] symbols. The results are expected to contribute to crystal-field studies on import¬ ant laser-active solid-state materials, and to the ligand-field chemistry of organo- metallic complexes with lanthanide ions. Additional research is in progress. TUNNELING EXPERIMENTS IN SOLIDS— E. Clayton Teague and H. J. Mack¬ ey, North Texas State University, Denton. TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF THIN FILMS— W. D. Deering, North Texas State University, Denton. A DOUBLE SOLENOID CURRENT BALANCE— Carl J. Rigney, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont. AN ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO NEWTON’S SECOND LAW— Joseph C. Buckley, Alamo Heights High School, San Antonio. PHYSICS — THE BIOSOCIAL FOCUS — Robert G. Packard, Baylor University, Waco. Saturday Morning, March 13. Division A. LUNAR EXPLORER 35 AND OGO III: CORRELATION STUDIES 0 FTHE FLUX OF MICRON SIZE DIST PARTICLES IN CISLUNAR AND SEL- ENOCENTRIC SPACE DURING PERIODS OF THE PERSEID AND GEMINID METEOR SHOWERS IN 1967 AND 1968— W. M. Alexander, C. W. Arthur, and J. Lloyd Bohn, Baylor University, Waco. OGO III: VARIATION OF MICRON SIZE DUST PARTICLE FLUX IN CIS- LUNAR SPACE AS A FUNCTION OF GEOCENTRIC RANGE, 1966-1968— W. M. Alexander, C. W. Arthur, and J. Lloyd Bohn, Baylor University, Waco. ROCKET BOURNE EXPERIMENT INVESTIGATION OF DUST PARTICLE FLUX IN THE GEMINID METEOR STREAM IN 1970^W. M. Alexander, J. C. Smith, C. W. Arthur, and J. Lloyd Bohn, Baylor Uniiversity, Waco. 566 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PARTICIPATION OF HIGH SCHOOL SENIORS IN EXPERIMENTAL SPACE SCIENCE RESEARCH: A CREATIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCE— W. M. Alexander, Baylor University^ Waco. A PHASE-SHIFT METHOD FOR MEASURING DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS OF LIQUIDS AT MICRO- WAVE FREQUENCIES— Herbert D. Schwetman, Baylor University^ Waco. EFFECT OF NUCLEAR MOTION ON THE ELECTRIC STATES OF THE HYDROGEN MOLECULE ION — Frederic M. Glaser, Pan American College, Edingurg. COMPUTER USAGE IN THE JUNIOR COLLEGE PHYSICS LABORATORY— William H. Payne, San Antonio College, San Antonio. A NEW DIFFERENCE METHOR FOR SOLVING SETS OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS — Gerald N. Pitts and Paul Crawford, Texas Petroleum Research Committee, Texas AnM University, College Station. The solutions to equations of the Laplace, Poisson, and Fourier types usually in¬ clude numerical approximations. All numerical approximations to these problems involve difference equations. There are both iterative and direct methods for solving these sets of difference equations. Accuracy becomes a major problem when the solution requires a large number of interations to converge. The differencing of absolute magnitudes results in a loss in accuracy after a large number of operations are performed. It was this problem that led to the development of a method that utilized the concept of use of the dif¬ ferences themselves rather than the magnitudes in solution of the problems. This paper presents the new difference method in detail and illustrates the in¬ creased accuracy of the method by showing comparisons between the new method and some previously used techniques. ELASTIC SCATERING OF CHARGED PARTICLES FROM POLARIZED QUADRUPOLE MOMENTS— Y. N. Kim, Texas Tech Uniiversity, Luhhock. The effect of the static quadrupole moment of polarized target nuclei on the elastic scattering of charged particles at low energies has been studied recently by various authors. Although in fact many competing processes may obscure the situation, we consider only the static quadrupole interaction mainly to estimate to which extent this effect can be important. The motion of the system has been de¬ scribed by the Schrodinger equation with the quadrupole term as a perturbation. We find, however, that the 2nd order quadrupole term is often much greater than the first order quadrupole term, thus invalidating the use of perturbation approach. The only case in which we are sure of the validity of perturbation approach is when the projectile is the moun. In this case the first order effect of quadrupole interaction can be large enough to be measured, PHYSICS AND FACILITIES AT TEXARKANA COLLEGE— Paul McFerran, Texarkana College, Texarkana. THE TWO-PHASE REGION OF THE TEMPERATURE VS. CONCENTRA¬ TION GRAPH FOR Rb-NH3 SOLUTIONS— Robert L. Davis, Del Mar Col¬ lege, Corpus Christi. ABSTRACTS 567 RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS OF SELECTED COATING AGENTS— James C. Cox, Jr., Wayland Baptist College, Plainview. The coating of paper is a process of prime importance to the paper industry today and the basic operations involved in such a process make use of a number of rheo¬ logical measurements. Although the evaluating of coatings has long been considered to be only an art, with a single routine physical test being considered a “valid method of testing,” recent changes in attitude have resulted in increasing empha¬ sis on the importance of accurately measuring rheological properties. Investigations of model coatings, based primarily on starch paste compositions, are expected to form the basis for a number of new products which readily fit into prevailing rheological concepts and can be applied by methods now in common use. This investigation reports the results of a series of rheological measurements, made by the use of the various types of viscosimeters presenlty available, in order to determine which conditions best approximate those involved in the actual indus¬ trial processing of the coating. Surface processes involvving the migration of water and binder molecules into paper of various types were investigated in this study of the problems encountered in connection with the rheology of coatings. The results of these measurements show that good flow characteristics are ob¬ served in the case of coatings having apparent viscosities in the order of one poise or less. Other signs of good flow behavior are high gel strength, low initial shearign modulus, and high shearing gradient values. Rheological measurements indicate, however, that tdata from the viscosimeters in general use for coating research can be taken as guidelines only and not as exact information governing coatings, although the methods of characterizing coatings by measuring their flow yields considerable information about the shearing prop¬ erties of coatings and other industrially significant properties. Saturday Morning, March 13. Division B. AN INDIVIDUALIZED RHIGH SCHOOL PHYSICS COURSE UTILIZING HARVARD PROJECT PHYSICS— “JUST FOR FUN”— John George Payne, Plano High School, Plano. SINGLE NEUTRON TRANSFER REACTIONS 9Be (14N, 13N) lOBe (19F, L8F) lOBe — Rudolph M. Gaedke, Trinity University, San Antonio. PARAMETERIZATION OF BROAD OPTICAL BANDS OF DEFECTS IN SOLIDS — John T. Ritter, Trinity University, San Antonio. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECTS IN LIPID BILAYER MEMBRANES— Fred M. Loxsom, Trinity University, San Antonio. A SENIOR LABORATORY EXPERIMENT ON ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT — G. F. Landegren, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont. TRANSFER METHOD FOR MEASURING CONDUCTIVITY OF HIGH-RE¬ SISTIVITY CRYSTALS — James C. Dennis, Stephen F. Austin State Univer¬ sity, Nacogdoches. 568 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LIQUID CRYSTALS AND IR PHOSPHORS FOR SPACE-RESOLVED, LASER RADIATION INTENSITY MEASUREMENTS— Otto M. Fredrick, Jr. and Arwin A. Dougal, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Location and/or space-resolved visualization of near-infrared radiation is often required for the many near-infrared sources now being useed in electro-optical equipment and instrumentation. Unlike visible radiation sources, the location and space-resolved intensity measurement of infrarde (IR) radiation can be difficult and time-consuming. Employing commercially available encapsulated liquid crys¬ tals, infrared display phosphors, and infrared photographic films, the radiation in¬ tensity distributions of near-infrared lasers and other near-infrared sources are studied. “Liquid crystals” are materials that exhibit some of the properties of both liquids and crystals — mechanically they resemble liquids with fluid-like movement, but optically they exhibit many of the properties of crystalline solids, or crystals, with symmetrical optical scatter and characteristic color reflections. The optical properties of liquid crystals, such as the optical reflectance and transmittance, are dependent on the enviroment surroundings and liquid crystals; namely, the tem- peratrue, electric and magnetic field, shear force, pressure , ultraviolet light, acous¬ tic energy, and certain gases, Thus, by observing the optical properties of liquid crystals, e.g., the optical reflectance, one can visualize and display the space-resolved radiation intensity of an infrared source from temperature and energy deposition distributions. Liquid crystals usually operate in the temperature range from 0°C to about 200°C. Available liquid crystal sensitivities range from less than 1°C to more than 10°C for a complete color change from dark red through orange, yellow, and green to dark blue. Typical spatial resolution is about one-thousandth of an inch and typical response time is about one-fifth of a second. “Phosphors” are materials that are capable of emitting visible light after being exposed to radiation. After activation, Kodak IR Phosphor can be employed for space-resolved intensity measurements of radiation in the range of 0.7 to 1.3 microns. Photographic films are presently available for recording radiation in the range of 0.25 to 1.2 microns. Near-field and far-field, space-resolved radiation intensity measurements were ob¬ tained utilizing Kodak IR Phosphor and IR photographic films for continuously emitting near-IR (0.91 microns emission peak) radiation generated by a gallium- arsenide p-n junction diode, pulsed near-IR (1.06 microns) radiation produced by a neodymium doped glass laser and continuous near-IR (1.15 microns) radiation produced by a helium-neon gaseous laser.i RESONANCE EFFECTS IN HELIUM— J. T. Matthews, Texas Woman^s Univer¬ sity, Denton. ESR AS A CANCER RESEARCH TOOL — Larry A. Newman, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. Investigators have been attracted by the hypothesis that free radicals are involved not only in the process of degeneration of normal into tumor cells but also in the subsequent development and growth of malignant neoplasms. The purpose of our experiment is and will be to investigate the free radical concentration in human blood using the method of electron spin resonance and to examine our findings as to the possibility of a means for the early detection of cancer. Our research is carried on in conjunction with that of M. D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute of Houston, Texas and Dr. John D. Wallace of Jefferson Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Jefferson Medical Center and M. D. Anderson Hospital prepare our ABSTRACTS 569 lyophilized blood samples and give us the case history of each sample. A standard¬ ized system of packing was used for all samples to help assure uniformity and re- productivility. Both Dr. Wallace and our research group run an ESR analysis of each sample. Comparison of the results from each group is then made to check the validity of the data. We have found that the variation of concentrations of free radicals of normal donors is slight and we are now in the early stages of analysis of cancer patients. The preliminary results of this study indicates that free radicals in the blood of cancer patients varies from that of normal donors. Patients with earliest detected cancer had concentrations above normal while late cancer patients had concentrations the same or below normal. SEEMAN-BOHLIN FOCUSING X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETER— Donald L. Parker, St. Mary's University, San Antonio. EFFECT OF FLUID MOBILITY AND GRAVITY ON OIL RECOVERY BY MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT— Kenneth C. Haggart and Paul B. Crawford, Texas A&M University, College Station. This paper presents a study of linear, end-to-end miscible flow system through porous media. A 2-phase, 2-dimensional model was used for all calculations. Three variables were studied in detail. These were: the fluid mibility ratios, the ratio of the horizontal viscouse pressure drop to vertical gravity pressure drop, and the ver¬ tical to horizontal rock permeability ratios. All variables were kept with the range of systems characterized by single fingerling of the miscible agent through the res¬ ident hydrocarbon. Results of this study show that areas exist where small critical changes in the fluid mobility ratios an dmay bring on large changes in oil recoveries. CONING IN WATER-OIL OR GAS-OIL SYSTEMS— Fred Goldsberry and Paul B. Crawford, Texas A&M University, College Station. A study has been made of the maximum production rates that can be achieved without coning of water or gas into a well bore. The study shows the effect of thick¬ ness of the oil sand, perforation location and perforation interval on the maximum production rate. The maximum producing rate without coning may be limited by either the ver¬ tical flowing gradient or the difference in fluid densities. These factors are discussed, and it is pointed out how these factors limit the flow. Section III— Earth Science Tuesday Morning, March 12. WATERS AND CIRCULATION OF THE GULF OF MEXICO— Worth D. Now¬ lin, Jr., Texas A&M University, College Station. MIXING PROCESSES BETWEEN SHELF AND DEEP SEA WATERS OFF THE TEXAS COAST — Takashi Ichiye and Hideo Sudo, Texas A&M University, College Station. SOLAR RADIATION DURING THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE GULF OF MEX¬ ICO, 7 MARCH 1970 — Guy A. Franceschini, Texas A&M University, College Station. (1) The Willis Formation appears to represent deeply -weathered Goliad (Pliocene) 570 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE material redeposited by small local streams. This reinterpretation makes the Willis equivalent to the Williana Formation of H, N. Fisk (1938, 1940) and distinguishes it clearly from the Goliad. (2) The Bentley Formation occupies the coastal margin of the outcrop belt regarded generally as Willis, being essentially equivalent to the Hockley Mound Sand Member of the original Willis as defined by John Doering (1935) . (3) The Beaumont is divisible into 3 units, the Oberline and Eunice Formations of Doering (1956) and a less extensive unit between that is referred to provi¬ sionally as the Almeda. This sequence appears identical to that recognized in Louisiana by Fisk except that in this region of less subsidence his Prairie Formation is seen to consist of 3 offlapping units (which are presumed to be entirely superposed in central Louisiana) . Each coastal terrace can be traced without excessive interruption into a correspond¬ ing river terrace along the lower Brazos valley, except that the Willis is not con¬ fined to any present or former valley. Also, one additional latest Pleistocene and 2 Holocene terraces present in the lower part of the valley lack coastwide equiva¬ lents. An almost identical sequence of terraces occurs along the Colorado River below Austin as described by A. W. Weeks (1941, 1945). His work was reviewed in the light of improved topographic map coverage as part of a Master’s Thesis by John G. Parrish (1969), who confirmed its essential accuracy except that Weeks’ Asylum terrace does continue to the coast where it becomes the Lissie (Montgomery) ter¬ race. Those names which Weeks proposed, plus the older Asylum and Capitol, based on type localities along the Colorado River, thus constitute a terrace nomenclature appropriate for regional use. However, no Colorado River terrace equivalent to the provisional Almeda coastal terrace was recognized by Weeks or Parrish. Except for that, and the proposed reinterpretation of the Willis, the correlation of Brazos River terraces that follows is the same as that which Parrish arrived at independently for the Colorado River. Parenthetical figures are terrace slopes in feet per mile. Weeks’ Willis terrace is regarded as essentially a dip slope of the Goliad Forma¬ tion (Pliocene, 13.4) and his Gay Hill Terrace (6.65) is equivalent to the Willis as reinterpreted herein. The Bastrop Park terrace (4.7) continues into the Bentley coastal terrace (and the “landward Willis” outcrop belt of S. Aronow 1968), the Asylum (3.1) continues into Lissie (equals Montgomery), and the Capitol terrace (2.7) becomes Oberlin along the coast, all without interruption except for minor stream dissection. A river terrace equivalent to the provisional Almeda coastal ter¬ race occurs intermittently up the Brazos to at least 15 miles above Navasota where dissection makes it difficult to discriminate from the next-lower Sixth Street terrace, j Weeks’ Sixth Street terrace (2.45) passes beneath the Holocene Riverview terrace j above Hempstead and reappears downstream across the river east of Richmond as | the Eunice coastal terrace, and the latest Pleistocene First Street terrace passes be- j neath the Riverview terrace above Bryan and does not reappear at the surface down- ; stream along the Brazos Valley (nor probably along the lowest Colorado valley I either). Weeks’ Hiverview terrace (1.80) is the early Holocene “floodplain,” and j the Sand Beach (1.65) terrace seems to be a new and lower “floodplain” that is just ^ beginning to develop. ' The terraces along the lower Brazos River display remarkable structural deforma- j tion not recognized along the Colorado, perhaps because the Brazos follows the “salt i strait” connecting the Coastal and Interior salt dome basins. In addition to local i effects on the Holocene terraces around at least 8 active salt domes, the Pleistocene ■ terraces are notably displaced by 4 parallel-to-coast normal fault zones, most (or ABSTRACTS 571 all) of which show some evidence of active movement at present. Of these only the Millican Fault Zone (B. C. Renick 1936) above Navasota is up-to-coast, and up¬ stream from it the landward divergence and slope of the terraces are sharply re¬ duced, marking the Pleistocene margin of the Gulf Coast Geosyncline. The disap¬ pearance of the Sixth Street and First Street terraces beneath the Holocene is pre¬ sumed to result from hasinward flow of salt and shale related to the active domes and faults. Also, the landw’'ard divergence of the Riverview and Sand Beach terraces, at a rate of about 0.15 feet per mile, apparently reflects continued Gulfward tilting since the Sand Beach terrace began to form while sea level was approaching its present position perhaps 10,000 years ago, Friday Afternoon, March 12 THE EFFECT OF REMANENT MAGNETIZATION UPON OBSERVED MAG¬ NETIC ANOMALIES — G. R. Keller, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS OF THE BAY MARKHAND-CAILLOU ISLAND MASSIF — Mark A. Dixon, Mobil R&D Corp, Field Research Laboratory, Dallas. SOME EFFECTS OF THE LUBBOCK TORNADO UPON A LONG-PERIOD SEISMOGRAPH — D, H. Shurbet, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. CATION RATIOS IN EXPOSED ROADCUTS OF THE WECHES FORMA¬ TIONS — James R. Farson, Jr. and K. G. Watterston, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. THE MINERALOGY OF CHAMOSITE— Herschel L. Jones, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. Friday Afternoon, March 12 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF THE HETEROCERAL TAIL ON ATTITUDE OF THE FISH BODY — C. L. McNulty, Jr., Univeristy of Texas at Arlington, Arlington. COMMENTS ON PLEISTOCENE HORSES— Robert L. Meyer, Southern Metho¬ dist Univeristy, Dallas. ORIGIN OF PELLETOIDS IN THE HANEY LIMESTONE— Jerry W. Vincent, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. SOME PROBLEMS AND STUDIES IN URBAN AIR POLLUTION WITH SPE¬ CIAL REFERENCE TO TEXAS— John F. Griffiths, Texas A&M University, College Station. SOME ASPECTS OF THE URBAN CLIMATE OF HOUSTON— Robert C. Run¬ nels, Texas A&M University, College Station. A MODIFIED PICHE ATMOMETER — J. R. Singer and W. T. Miller, Stephen F. Ausitn State University, Nacogdoches. Accuracy of evaporation readings with the Piche atmometer are greatly impaired by rainfall thus influencing the effectiveness of the instrument for research purposes. Absorption of light rainfall by the blotter paper can increase water content in the 572 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE reservoir. Heavy rainfall will damage and sometimes destroy the evaporating blotter surface. A commercially available plastic measuring cup has been used to modify the standard instrument. The modification is explained; comparisons between the modified and unmodified atmometer are given. EFFECTS OF POTENTIAL RATION AND PERMEABILITY OF DRAINAGE PATTERN — Adnan Umar and Barry L. Bateman, University of Southern Louisiana, Lafayette, L. In primary recovery operations, the drainage boundaries between oil wells will be shown to determine by the relative potential drawdown at the producing wells. These relative potential drawdowns will be affected by individual well differences such as total fluid production rate, formation thickness and permeability. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the magnitude of these effects and to relate them to reservoir and production parameters. This paper also suggests possible corrective procedures for causing drainage boundaries to coincide more closely with lease boundaries. The changing drainage pattern will be computed and correlated with potential ratios and permeability. The mathematical model to be used is a finite difference approximation, based on the equation for flow of a slightly compressible fluid in a porous medium. Friday Afternoon, March 12 LABORATORY TRAINING IN GEOLOGY— Robert C. Burton, West Texas State University, Canyon. FIELD TRAINING IN GEOLOGY— Melin C. Schroeder, Texas A&M University, College Station. Section IV- — Biological Science Friday Morning, March 12. Division A. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR OF AXIS DEER— E. R. Fuchs and E. D. Abies, Texas A&M University, College Station. NOTES ON THE RED WOLF {Canis rufus) IN THE COASTAL MARSHES OF TEXAS — D. N. Russell and J. H. Shaw, Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Aus¬ tin. I i THE OVARY: A POSSIBLE PINEAL GLAND TARGET ORGAN— J. T. Norris, I University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. The possibility that the penal gland might have a direct, or, at least, a non- pituitary mediated effect upon the ovary was explored in 3 experiments involving female Charles River (CD) rats hypophysectomized at 55-75 days of age. Before beginning experimentation, a minimum of 2 weeks was allowed after hypophy- sectomy. In the first experiment subcutaneous melatonin injections significantly increased ovarian incorporation as measured by liquid scintillation techniques in PMS- HCG treated rats. Microscopic analysis of the ovaries revealed that they had greater tj follicular development. An isobutanol extract of fresh bovine pineal glands (IBX) ij ABSTRACTS 573 also increased ovarian follicularization and 32p uptake although the increase in phos¬ phorus incorporation was not significant. In the 2nd experiment melatonin again led to increased ovarian follicularization and 32p incorporation (The probability of accounting for the increased 32p uptake by chance < 0.15). An isobutanol extract more highly purified than IBX (PIBX) not only significantly decreeased the ^sp incorporation, but also significantly de¬ pressed ovarian weight. Histological observation of those ovaries showed fewer fol¬ licles and even fewer corpora lutea than FSH-LH treated controls. The PIBX was a melatonin-free, ninhydrin positive fraction (MW approximately 500-1000) which was obtained by gel-filtration with Sephadex G25. A 3rd experiment explored the possibility that the increase in ovarian 32p uptake consequent to melatonin injection was due to increased estrogen production. Estro- genicity was measured by the uterine weight of the hypophysectomized rats. Mela¬ tonin significantly increased uterine weight in FSH-LH treated animals as com¬ pared with controls which received only FSH and LH; melatonin alone was not effective when compared with diluent controls. The pineal gland was determined to elaborate principles capable of inhibiting the effect of pituitary gonadotrophins upon the ovary. THRESHOLD EFFECT OF GLUTHATHIONE ON THE ENDOGENOUS NEU¬ RAL ACTIVITY OF PERIPLANETA AMERICAN A—O. L. Dorsey, South¬ west Texas State University, San Marcos. BRAIN MECHANISMS OF “READINESS” RESPONSES IN VERTEBRATES— W. R. Klemm, Texas A&M University, College Station. BRAINSTEM CONTROL OF ANIMAL HYPNOSIS— R. L. McBride and W. R. Klemm, Texas A&M University, College Station. MORPHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS FOLLOWING PRENATAL CONTIN¬ UOUS GAMMA IRRADICATION IN THE FETAL ALBINO MOUSE— J. A. Coats and S. O. Brown, Wharton County Junior College, Wharton. One hundred and forty-four female white Swiss mice were divided into 6 groups — one control and 5 experimental groups. The 5 experimental groups were exposed to gamma irradiation continuously for the first 20 days of gestation at the rate of 22 R/d, 27 R/d, 30 R/d, 44 R/d, and 52 R/d respectively. On the 20th day all mice that had not littered were sacrificed. A gross examination of the uteri revealed (1) that the litter size of the experimental animals was significantly smaller than the control; (2) that the litter size of the groups treated with 44 R/d and 52 R/d was significanly smaller than the litter size of the groups treated with 27 R/d-30 R/d; and (3) that the resorption of embryos after implantation increased with an increase in radiation dose. The average treated fetus weighed significantly less than the average control fetus but did not differ significantly from the average control in length. A histological study revealed that while the eye and the kidney of the treated animals did not differ observably from the controls’, there were marked differences in 3 other organs: (1) the zona fasciculata in the adrenals of the treated animals failed to chain normally; (2) the livers of the treated animals had an in¬ crease in hemopoietic activity; and (3) the testes of the treated animals contained tubules crowded together and an excess of interstitial cells. 574 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EXPERIMENTAL HEALING OF BONE WITH INTRA ARTERIAL INFUSION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE— R. J. Strader, Abilene Christian College, Abi¬ lene. EFFECTS OF X-IRRADIATION ON 02 UPTAKE IN FROG BRAIN SLICES USING THE 02 ELECTRODE METHOD— C. H. Lin and J. R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. EFFECTS OF X-IRRADIATION ON PLASMA HISTAMINE LEVELS IN RATS USING THE FLUROMETRIC TECHNIQUE— J. L. Ferguson and J. R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. EFFECTS OF X-IRRADIATION AND CO ON THE ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF FROG SCIATIC NERVES— W. Thompson and J. R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. INTERFERENCE WITH A MEMORY PROCESS BY DDT IN GOLDFISH (CARRASSIUS AURATUS)—F. B. Davy and H. Kleerekoper, Texas A&M University, College Station. In a previous study of locomotor behavior of naive goldfish, a positive correlation was established between the magnitude of consecutive turns in opposite directions. Evidence was presented for a decrease in this correlation with increasing elapsed time between turns. This phenomenon was attributed to a central nervous system memory process (Westlake and Kleerekoper, 1970). In the present study, exposure of similar naive goldfish to 10 ppb DDT resulted in a loss of this memory phenome¬ non. This effect has occurred after only 4 days of continuous exposure. These re¬ sults indicate that “sublethal” concentrations of DDT affect the central nervous system of goldfish after very short exposure. Friday Morning, March 12. Division B. UV IRRADIATION OF PHA STIMULATED LYMPHOCYTES— M. 1. Bossart, and J. L. Aune, Texas Woman’s University, Denton. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF SACCHARINS AND CYCLAMATES IN DRO¬ SOPHILA MELANOGASTER— Mary Ann Moon, R. A. Gerdes and E. W. Hupp, Texas Woman’s University, Denton. The mutagenic effect of cyclamic acid, calcium cyclamate, sodium cyclamate, saccharin, calcium saccharin, sodium saccharin, and each compound in combination with glucose was tested in Drosophila melanogaster using a sterility test and the sex-linked recessive lethal test. After determining the LD/50 for each test chemical, the 5% concentration of each compound was used to test the sterility and mutagenic effects. Analysis of variance revealed no significant increase in sterility produced by any of the treatments. Therefore, it was concluded from these experiments that the artificial sweetners alone or in combination with glucose did not cause an in¬ creased sterility in male or female D. melanogaster . According to the results of the Pearson-Hartley method of comparison, cyclamic acid and calcium saccharin were mutagenic agents in D. melanogaster under these test conditions. Each of these chemicals produced a sex-linked recessive lethal frequency large enough to warrant the classification of these 2 artificial sweetners as mutagenic agents under the con- ABSTRACTS 575 ditions of this investigation. However, the classification of cyclamic acid and calcium saccharin as mutagenic agents will require further investigations since there was a large variation of the sex-linked recessive lethals in each replication of the sex- linked recessive lethal test. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF SACCHARINS AND CYCLAMATES IN GOLDEN HAMSTERS — A. Adkins, E. W. Hupp, and R. A. Gerdes, Texas Woman’s University, Denton. The effects of calcium cyclamate, calcium saccharin, and the calcium cyclamate- calcium saccharin mixture known as “sucaryl” upon rats and hamsters were investi¬ gated. Solutions were administered to the animals so that an animal would consume the daily maximum allotment of cyclamate or “sucaryl” as determined by the FDA. This amount was designated as the 1 X concentration; 10 X and 100 X were multi¬ ples of this concentration. Half of the animals on each treatment level reared their young to weaning age; half were sacrificed during gestation approximately 2 days before parturition was due. The 100 X concentration of the “sucaryl” significantly decreased litter size in rats at the 5% level of confidence, and the litter size for the 1 X and 10 X concentrations of saccharin was increased significantly at this level. The number of pregnant rats at the 100 X cyclamate and 100 X “sucryl” level was significantly lower than conrtols. No indication of a significant number of fetal deaths, increase in the number of resorptions, or decrease in survival from birth to weaning was noted in either hamsters or rats. Two cases of teratogenesis were noted in the hamsters in the treated groups and one in the controls. THE EFFESTS OF SALINITY VARIATIONS ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF RANGIA CUNEATA—Y^. B. Bedford and J. W. Anderson, Texas A&M University, College Station. The estaurine clam Rangia cuneata has been shown to be capable of living in salinities ranging from fresh water to full strength sea water for at least several months. Our investigations have shown that Rangia is a osmoconformer at salinities above 10 parts per thousand (ppt) and a osmoregulator below 10 ppt salinity, be¬ coming significantly hypertonic to the environment at salinities below 5 ppt. At an environmental of approximately 2.5 ppt (85 milliosmoles) the blood osmotic con¬ centration was 152 milliosmoles. In addition Rangia is a good volume regulator over a wide range of salinities (2-22 ppt tested). The amino acid uptake by Rangia, as measured by Ci'^ glycine, appears to be effected by the process of osmoregulation; uptake being strongly repressed below 10 ppt salinity. This work supports Stephen’s (1967) statement that the processes which underlie osmotic regulation are incompatable with the rapid accumulation of amino acids from the ambient medium (Estuaries, AAS Pub. 1967). EFFECTS OF A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE UPON VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF NEAR SURFACE OCEANIC ZOOPLANKTERS— Thomas J. Bright and Frank B. Serrari, Texas A&M Universtiy, College Station. A NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT OF PRIMARY ORGANIC PRODUCTIVITY IN THE OCEANS — D. Djuric and G. A. Franceschinii, Texas A&M Uniiver- sity, College Station. THE EFFECT OF A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE UPON DEEP SCATTERING LAYERS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO — Jerard W. Caruthers, Texas A&M University, College Station. 576 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF HORIZONTAL EDDY DIF- FUSITIVITY WITH RELATION TO THE SPIN-DOWN PROCESS IN GULF STREAM CYCLONIC RINGS— Joyce E. Schmitz, Texas A&M Univer^ sity. College Station. CORRESPONDENCE OF COASTAL TERRACES WITH INLAND SURFACES— DeWitt C= Van Siclen, University of Houston, Houston. Six coastal terraces of Pleistocene age, each approximating the depositional top of a corresponding body of sediments, can be distinguished in the region between San Bernard River on the west and San Jacinto River and Galveston Bay on the east. These can be discriminated mostly clearly by the pattern of meander-belt and deltaic-distributary ridges which show up particularly well on topographic maps of Harris and Galveston Counties with one-foot contour interval prepared more than 50 years ago. The terraces recognizable in this way differ from the traditional Willis-Lissie-Beaumont sequence in that: TSMPERATURE TOLERANCE OF CAGED CHANNEL CATFISH, ICTAL^ URUS PUNCTATUS — J. E. Tilton, Texas Electric Service Company, Fort Worth. EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRICAL FIELD ON THE EEG, HEART RATE, TEM¬ PERATURE, AND RESPIRATION IN RATS— H. B. McCain and J. R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. METHODS FOR RECOVERY OF PRATYLENSHUS BRACHYURUS (NEMA- TDA: TLYENCHOIDEA) FROM SOILS— W. H. TRames, Texas A&M UnE versity. College Station. THE EFFECTS OF THE PRESENCE OF A MALE GOLDFISH CARASSIUS AURATUS ON THE LOCOMOTOR BEHAVIOR OF A FEMALE OF THE SAME SPECIES — A. M. Timms, Texas A&M University, College Station. Using the methods described by Kleerekoper (1967) and Kleerekoper, et al. (1969, 1970), the locomotor movements of 8 naive free-swimming female goldfish (25-30 cm total length) were monitored individually in a square tank bounded o nail 4 sides by a one inch mesh wire net. The presence of a free-swimming male gold¬ fish behind one side of this net altered the locomotor characteristics of the female. Unlike in the control period, at least 50% of the total diistance travelled during the experimental period (6-24 hours) was nearest to the' area in which the male' fish was confined. Furthermore, the female made turns of smaller mean angle size, travelled shorter hourly distances, made larger steps betwee'n turns, increased its turning frequency, and often decreased itS' velocity as compared to movements in the absG'nce of a male. These changes were most pronounced in the area nearest to the male. The role olfaction and vision might play in this behavior is. being inves¬ tigated. ATTRACTION O FGOLDFISH TO FLOWING HOT WATER— T. Malar, Texas A&M Uniiversity, College Station. Goldfish swimming freely in a 16x16x2 ft monitor tank wisited mo^re often and spent more time in areas near the hot water inlete. In all the casees, the water en¬ tered the tank, at 15 gal. /min. and 24° C through a perforated inner wall. For the latter part of the fish’s stay in the tank the inflowing water was heate'd along the center 3rd of the inlet wall. During this period the fish was attracted by the hot ABSTRACTS 577 inflowing water. The attraction was increased when the inflowing hot water entered at a different rate than the regular water. At a higher hot water flow the response was more distinct, in that it was confined to areas directly in frotn of the inlets. When the hot water entered at a lower rate, the increase in entries and time spent was spread over a greater distance away from the inlets. Temperature measure¬ ments suggest that the goldfish were responding to the temperature boundaries which were made more distinct by differences in flow rate between the hot and cold water. ORIENTATION THROUGH CHEMORECEPTION IN THE CHANNEL CAT¬ FISH, ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS—n. Kleerekoper, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. The locomotion of mature males of this species is stomgly oriented towards a ripe female through a pheromone released by the latter. The locomotor response was monitored and analyzed. It was concluded that the orientation takes place through the mechanism of chemotropotaxis. ANALYSIS OF STOMACH CONTENTS OF SOME EDWARDS PLATEAU EURYCEA — A. L. Hamilton, Southwest Texas State Uniiversity, San Marcos. SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE MEDITERRANEAN GECKO, HEMI- DCTYLUS TURCICUS IN TEXAS— W. K. Davis, Southwest Texas State Uni¬ versity, San Marcos. The geographic range of Hemidactylus turcicus for Texas was described as one of disjunctness associated with major transportation arteries leading north and east from Brownsville, Texas, including that part of south and south-central Texas bounded by a line leading north from Brownsville to Del Rio, east along U.S. High¬ way 90 to San Antonio, north to Austin, east to Houston and south to Brownsville. Statistical studies indicate that H. turcicus populations in Texas are remarkably uni¬ form in morphological and ecological characteristics. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division A. RESPIRATORY PATTSRNS ASSOCIATED WITH BARLEY EMBRYO CALLUS FORMATION — A. W. Cockerline and C. H. Granatek, Texas Woman’s Uni¬ versity, Denton. The rate of oxygen uptake of in vivo, early differentiating embryos of Hordeum diistichum was compared to that of the in vitro callus formed by these embryos when cultured by Norstog’s medium. A supplemental culture series was run with maleic hydra zide substituted for malic acid in the medium. The percentage oxygen of 10 successive day-level samples was measured with a YSI model 53 biological oxygen monitor coupled to an S. R. Sargent recorder. Actual oxygen consumption was calculated from a standardization of the system. The respiratory data was compared with the normal vs. callus growth pattern of the embryos, and a positive non-linear correaltion was found to exist between the amount of oxygen uptake by the embryos and the rate of increase in cell number. BODY SIZE AS RELATED TO EFFICIENCY OF FEED TO FOOD CONVER¬ SION — J. H. Quisenberry, Texas A&M University, College Station. Supplying food for a hungry world is the concern of every modem agriculturist today. The American scientist is quite firmly convinced that with adequate exchange 578 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE of technical know-how, the world could be satisfactorily fed for many years to come. One of the major prerequisites to the improvement of the world food supply is to inncrease the conversion of plant to animal protein because of the improved amino acid balances and palatability of the latter. Because animals do not convert feed nutrients to food with 100% efficiency, coun¬ tries with high population densities and without sufficient agricultural resources find it difficult to spare plant proteins from the human diet to feed to animals, and con- i sequently, are low consumers of animal products. Without animal protein from I which to get such limiting amino acids as ylsine, the plant protein which these j peopue consume is reduced in value, further accentuating their apparent protein deficiency. When compared to other domestic animals, the laying hen is the most efficient converter of feed to food protein. Only the dairy cow, in the production of milk, ap¬ proaches the laying hen in efficiency of conversion. However, so much feed is re¬ quired for maintenance of the lager ruminant animals, such as the dairy cow, that little is left for growth, milk, or reproduction. The recent widespread introduction of a simply inherited gene for a dwarf laying hen into the test progi’ams of a number of commercial breeders has focused atten¬ tion on body size as a potential breakthrough for increasing the feed to food protein conversion of commercial poetry. A growing world population and increasing need for food justify exploration of this potential tool for further reduction in the cost of producing puoltry meat and eggs. Utilization of the dwarf gene can be made by mating dwarf broiler breeder hens with normal males, with a saving of approximately 18 pounds of feed. For egg-type dwarf stock, a feed saving of approximately 20 pounds of bird per per year can reasoanbly be expected. QUANTITAVE STUDIES ON THE CULTURE CHARACTERISTICS OF AVIAN TRYPANSOMES — L. L. Igambe and T. D. Cotton, Texas Southern University, Houston.* A quantitative investigation was made to determine the cultural characteristics of 5 strains of avian trypanoseomes. The parasites were isolated from naturally in¬ fected wild birds. Twenty percent (20%) of the 78 birds examined in this survey were naturally infected with trypanosomes. Five strains: one each from (1) Brown Thrushes {Toxostoma rufum rufum), (2) Crackle {Quiscalus quiscula) , (3) Scissor- tailed flycatcher {Muscivora forficata), (4) Cowbird {Molothrus ater ater) and (5) Blue Jay {Cyanocitta cristata) were used in this investigation. Whereas, the 5 hemoflagellate strains just cited above cultured readily on an artificial cultural medium, 2 other strains, one from an Eastern King Bird (Tyrannus tryannus) and the other from a Blue Jay failed to culture following the initial diagnosis by means of culture. Recent findings (Cotton 1970), characterizes cultural gradients as follows: 1. Strains which culture readily on artificial cultural media. 2. Strains which culture with difficulty on artificial cultural media. 3. Strains which fail to culture at all on artificial cultural media. This investigation seeks to identify from quantitative techniques, distant cultural characteristics from avian hemoflagellate strains which culture readily on an arti- * Research supported in part by a Texas Southern University Graduate Research Grant (State of Texas) #16789. ABSTRACTS 579 ficial cultural media. The cultural media employed were as follows: 2 modifications of the NNN cultural medium — (1) SNB-9 by Diamond and Herman 1954, (2) 4-N by Baker 1966, (3) Chiang's Semisolid medium, and (4) RES (Ringer’s Egg Serum) medium. Growth rates for each of the 5 trypanosomes strains on the various cultural media were quantitated by employing a modification of the techniques employed for enumeration of erythrocytes. Differential growth rates on the 4 media and agglomeration characteristics (clus¬ ter formation) were recorded. Maximum growths were recorded on the (SNB-9) culture medium while minimum growths were recorded on Chiang’s medium. The cowbird strain showed superior growth on all cultural media used. Agglomeration among the strains was differential, and highly characteristic. This characteristic is comparable to the colony formation of bacteria. Small rosette clumps were noted from the Blue Jay strains, while very large irregular agglomeration masses were observed in the cowbird, but no agglomeration on rosette clusters occurred from the grackle strain of flagellates. Statistical treatment of these data suggest no significant difference in terms of the number of organisms compared with time, however, sharp distinct character¬ istics were noted in morphology and agglomerations. AVENA SEEDLING GROWTH IN ELECTRICALLY CHARGED HOAGLAND’S SOLUTION — J. R. Lott, North Texas State University, Denton. PROGRESS IN CHROMOSOME IDENTIFICATION IN COTTON— M. S. Brown, Texas A&M University, College Station. GENETIC CONTROL OF RECOMBINATION RATES IN TRIBOLIUM CAS- TANEUM — A. A. Dewees, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. CYTOGENETIC STUDIES OF THE GENOME IN PEROMYSCUS (RODEN- TIA) — W. N. Bradshaw, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston. The genus Peromyscus has 48 chromosomes yet shows karyotypic variation among and iwthin some of the species, particularly those with with wide geographic dis¬ tribution. One species, the white-footed mouse (P. leucopus) demonsetrates varia¬ tion within its distribution, while the closely related cotton mouse (P. gossypinus) apparently does not. Evidence indicates the karyotypes of these 2 species are mor¬ phologically different. East Texas and Louisiana populations of the white-footed mouse possess 10 pair of biarmed and 13 pair of single armed autosomes or 11 pair of biarmed autosomes. Eleven and 12 biarmed autosomes are found elsewhere in its range. Populations of the cotton mouse possess 8 pair of biarmed and 15 pair of single armed autosomes. Heterochromatin staining patterns are used in conjunction with morphology to discuss the chromosome homology, karyotypic variation for the species and for possible interspecific hybrids. GENETIC POLYMORPHISM IN RAT ESTERASES— J. E. Womack, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. POLYP DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH IN THE WINTER JELLYFISH, CYENEA CAPITATE VERSICOLOR — P. J. Philips, Texas A&M University, College Station. 580 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PARTHENOGENESIS, ITS INCIDENCE AND HERITABILITY IN THE TURKEY — C. B. Schom, W. F. Krueger, and R. L. Atkinson, Texas A&M University, College Station. Virgin BBW turkey hens in 2 months production, and housed in individual cages, were examined for incidence of parthenogenesis. These hens are from a strain which has been closed to outside breeding for 5 generations. No deliberate selection for parthenogenesis has been practiced. Husbandry has been routine except that the hens in this experiment were treated with certain hormone combinations and vac¬ cinated for fowl pox approximately one month prior to the onset of production. Parthenogenetic development was observed in 13.1% of 3,101 eggs examined, with a range from zero to 75% parthenogenesis. Development was characterized as be¬ ing of the 3 types reported by M. W. Olsen (ARS-USDA), namely, an unorganized disc growing beneath the vitelline membrane; a disorganized cellular system; often with blood isle patterns and digested vitelline membrane; and, definite embryonic development. All eggs were incubated 9 to 12 days prior to examination. Correlation coefficients were calculated between incidence of parthenogeenesis and rate of egg production, fertility, hatchability, D^ embryos and sex ratio. The latter 4 measurements were taken after the hens were inseminated. Rate of produc¬ tion and fertility tended to be positively correlated with incidence of parthenogene¬ sis. All other traits showed a negligible relationship to parthenogenesis. Heritability of incidence of parthenogenesis in the population was 0.20. THE EFFECTS OF MALE PHEROMONES ON GONADOTROPIC SECRETIONS — C. G. Langham and W. A. Sadler, Texas Southern University, Houston. OBSERVATIONS OF COMPENSATORY OVARIAN HYPERTROPHY IN THE GOLDEN HAMSTER — J. Little and B. Benson, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division B. STUDIES ON LONGEVITY AND MORPHOMETRIC CHANGES IN RHAB- DITIS MAUPASI (NEMATODA)— S. P. Sharma and J. E. Ubelaker, South¬ ern Methodist University, Dallas. THE POST-EMBRYONIC STAGES OF EULIMNIDIA TEXAN A~N. E. Strenth and S. L. Sissom, Ranger Junior College, Ranger. Abstract: Eulimnadia texana (Conchostraca, Crustacea) occurs very early during the ecological succession of ephemeral ponds. The egg stage is able to survive drying and upon hatching produces the next generation when environmental conditions are suitable. The egg hatches into a typical free-swimming nauplius bearing 3 pairs of appendages and a median eye. No segmentation occurs in the body region. This first nauplius stage is followed by a 2nd nauplius stage. Four metanauplius stages follow exhibiting increasing degrees of segmentation and specialization. The first trunk segment enlarges and forms the valve or carapace which eventually encloses the body and phyllopod appendages of the adult. The individual growth rate was found to be dependent upon many factors. The entire life history may occur in as few as 7 days. EARLY EMBRYOLOGY OF TRICHOGASTER TRICHOPTERUS—L. Farr, Bay¬ lor University, Waco. ABSTRACTS 581 TARDIGRADA OF TEXAS ;A PRELIMINARY SURVEY— D. S. Caskey and L. McGraw, Lamar State College, Beaumont. From numerous lichen samples collected at scattered points over the state of Texas, 68 specimens of tardigrades were obtained. These specimens represent 2 classes, 2 orders, 3 families, 4 genera, and 8 species. The sampling areas include sites in 5 of the 14 land resource areas of Texas. In these areas, extremes of both temperature and rainfall can be seen. This research is a preliminary study of the various Tardigrada fauna of Texas in an attempt to determine the feasibility of further, more extensive taxonomic work on the phylum within the state. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE OCCURRENCE OF BEETLE WITHIN LOGS— W. D. Shepard, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. AGE AND GROWTH OF WHITE CRAPPIE IN LAKE TEXOMA, OKLAHOMA — -B. G. Whiteside, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. The age and growth data from 2610 Lake Texoma white crappie, Pomoxis an¬ nularis, taken from 5 different sources were combined to give a growth history from 1942 to 1962. The growth history shows a steady increase in fish length with age, while a general decrease in annual increment occurred with age. There was little overlap in fish lengths in age groups I and II, with an increasing amount of over¬ lap among older age groups. Annulus formation on the scales of Lake Texoma white crappie appears to range from late March to ealry June. The vast majority of fish resume growth during April and May with the younger fish resuming growth ear¬ lier than the odler ones. Several other aspects of the growth history are discussed. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE LAGUNA DE LOS OLMOS FISH POPU¬ LATION, NOVEMBER OF 1969 THROUGH OCTOBER OF 1970— C. P. Huckabee and M. H. Simons, Texas A&I University, Kingsville, During the fall o fl969, the Texas A&I University Biology Department began to make an extensive preliminary survey of the biota present in the shallow hyper¬ saline Laguna de Los Olmos. Field work began in November of 1969 and was com¬ pleted in October of 1970. During these 12 months, the composition of the repre¬ sented species and the factors that influenced that composition were measured. In addition, a stomach analysis study of Cynoscion nebulosus (Cuvier), Cynoscion arenarius Ginsburg, Sciaenops ocellata (Linnaeus), Pogonias cromis (Linnaeus), and Paralichthys lethostigma Jordan and Gilbert was made to determine the extent, amount, and constituents of the feeding habits of these game fishes. From the hydrographical and meterological data measured, salinity and water temperature provided the greatest influence upon the fish community in this hyper¬ saline bay system. During the months of April, May, June, July, and August, 60.4 percent of the total number of the fish were collected when the temperature was above 18 C. and the salinity was above 38%o- From the study made upon the stomachs of the previously mentioned fish, the analysis indicates that very little feeding is taking place in the Laguna de Los Olmos. Of 394 stomachs examined, 31% contained food constituents. The majority of these constituents included Brevoortia patronus Goods, Mugils cephalus Linnaeus, Anchoa mitchilli (Valenciennes), Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, Penaeus sp., and Mulina sp. VAUQUELINA CALIFORNICA (ROSACEAE) POPULATIONS IN ARIZONA — K. B. Williams, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. 582 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE LIFE HISTORY STUDIES OF THE RICINULEI (ARACHINDA)— R. W. Mitchell, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. MATING BEHAVIOR IN THE RICINULEI ( ARACHNID A)— J. Cooke, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. SOME FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES ON CERTAIN RICCI AS FROM THE AUSTIN AREA — C. M. Woodfin, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. THE CATTLE EGRET BULBULCUS IBIS IN TEXAS. J. J. Ramsey, Lamar State College, Beaumont. During the summer of 1969 a census was taken of the nesting Cattle Egrets in southeast Texas. A total of 10 nesting sites were located here with a conservative estimate of 15,000 nesting pairs. Other related birds nesting in the same heronries included the Double-crested Cormorant, Anhinga, Great Blue Heron, Little Blue Heron, Common Egret, Snowy Egret, Louisiana Heron, Black-crowned Night Heron, White-faced Ibis, White Ibis, and Roseate Spoonbill. The location of these heronries are as follows: Sydney Island near Port Arthur; Smith Point in East Galveston Bay; 2 heronries near Baytown; North Deer Island in West Galveston Bay, east of East Bernard, Eagle Lake, Warren Reservoir south of Hockley, Cedar Lane, east of Wadsworth, and Ennis. GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE COTTON RAT, SIGMONDON HISPIDUS — A. G. Cleveland, Texas Wesleyan College, Fort Worth, and G. G. Raun, Angelo State University, San Anngelo. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division C. FOOD AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS— H. E. Joham, Texas ASM University, College Station. THE COLLECTION AND TRANSFER OF LIGHT ENERGY IN PLANTS— J. E. Myers, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. GENETIC CONTROL OF CHLOROPLAST DEVELOPMENT— C. R. Benedict and D. L. Ketring, Texas ASM University, College Station. COMPUTER SIMULATION OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES— K. J. McCree, Texas ASM University, College Station. TEACHING PHOTOSYNTHESIS— P. W. Morgan, Texas ASM Uniiversity, Col¬ lege Station. Saturday Morning, March 13. Division A. HEMOSTATIC PROPERTIES OF THERMAL DEGRADATION PRODUCTS OF CELLULOSE — ^W. McCullough and V. M, Doctor, Prairie View ASM College, Prairie View. ANTICOAGULANT ACTION OF ALDARIC ACID AND URONIC ACID LAC¬ TONES IN RATS — B. Shepard, C. Jackson, and V. M, Doctor, Prairie Viiew ASM College, Prairie View. ABSTRACTS 583 CHARACTERIZATION OF TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE ASPARTATE TRANSCARBAMYLASE REVERTANSS IN SALMONELLA TYPHIMU- RIUM — J. E. Womack and G. A. O’Donavan, Texas A&M University, College Station. It has been previously demonstrated that feedback inhibition by cytidine triphos¬ phate (CTP) on asperate transcarbamaylase (ATCase) in Escherichia coli increased with increasing temperature. It thus seemed likely that one could isolate tempera¬ ture-sensitive {ts) mutants which were hypersensitive to CTP and thus require a pyrimidine for growth at high temperatures. Known uracil auxotrophs, shown to be missense mutations in the pyrB gene of S. typhimurium which codes for ATCase, were reverted to a f.9-phenotype at 42C. These ts reverants did not grow at 42C un¬ less fed a pyrimidine. Amongset the ts mutants, the desired class was found, namely those mutants which were hypersensitive to CTP. Growth rates of 2 such mutants were measured along with their parent, LT-2, in minimal media with and without pyrimidines. Whereas the mutants grew at approximately the same rate as the parent at low temperature (21 C), their growth rate difference expanded as the temperature of incubation was increased. The greatest difference was found at 42C at which temperatirre the mutants had zero growth rate. When a yprimidine was added to the minimal medium, no significant difference in growth rate was found at any temperature. In vitro assays for ATCase activity, showed that, just like E. coli the level of inhibition by CTP in both mutant and parent increased with in¬ creasing temperature. However the temperature gradient was much greater in the mutants than in the parent. Thus at 42C these mutants have a temperature sensitive ATCase enzyme due to its hypersensitivity to CTP, creating a pyrimidine require¬ ment. CRYSTALINE STYLE CARBONHYDRASES OF RANGIA CUNEATA—M. Frei and K. Horvath, Texas A&M University, College Station. HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES OF RANGIA CUNEATA—K. Horvath, Texas A&M University, College Station. MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HUMAN PLASMA DNASE I— E. Beasley, R. Matlock, and V. M. Doctor, Prairie View A&M College, Prairie View. REVERSAL OF ETHIONINE-INDUCED GROWTH INHIBITION IN BAC¬ TERIA BY METHIONINE AND ATP — A. J. Ayres and W. E. Norris, Jr., Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. Ethionine-induced inhibition of growth of E. coli and B. cereus has been measured. In the presence of lOmM L-ethionine this inhibition amounts to about 55% and is readily reversed by methionine. Adenosine triphosphate (1-lOmM) also reverses the ethionine-induced inhibition of growth of these bacteria. It has been shown previously that adenosine triphosphate counteracts ethionine- induced inhibition of growth in animals and plants. ATP as well as L-methionine has now been found to reverse the ethionine-induced growth inhibition of E. coli and B. cereus. COMPARATIVE METABOLIC RATES IN SOME CAVE DWELLING ANI¬ MALS — S. Wiley, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. 584 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES OF AVIAN TRYPANOSOMES— T. D. Cotton, L. L Igambi, M. L. Bridges, and R. J. Roberts, Texas Southern University, Houston. The natural infectious incidence of wild birds with hemoflagellates is reported between 20 and 30%. Some survey findings have reported uppermost levels at 89%. Whether or not these parasites are pathogenic to the avian host has never been de¬ termined, consequently, based upon the present findings they are believed to be n3:i-pathogenic. We have noted in our laboratory that whereas, one avian trypanosome strain may be infective to different species of birds, a majority of the parasite strains tested from a variety of naturally infected avian species are likewise infective to single avian hosts. Canaries have proven to be susceptable to most of the strains tested (22 in our laboratory) from various wild birds. The domestic fowl (day-old baby chicks) have been successfully inoculated with 7 of the 8 strains tested and in the excep¬ tional case it was concluded that this strain was adapted to this host. The English Sparrow, Passer domesticus domesticus, is rarely diagnosed as carry¬ ing hemoflagellate infections. The natural infectious incidence in this host has been determined as low as .035% from survey records including over 2000 birds. Ap¬ proximately 25% of this number were diagnosed in our laboratory. Furthermore, attempts to experimentally infect sparrows with the trypanosome strains isolated from various wild birds proved to be unsuccessful. The age range included spar¬ rows from a day-old to adults. It was concluded that due to the very low natural infectious incidence record, sparrows have developed a very high level of resistance or they are naturally immuned to hemoflagellates. Experiments designed to test this hypothesis were as follows; By employing our no'’mal cultural medium routinely used in this laboratory (a modification of the NNN cultural medium designated as SNB-9 by Diamond and Herman, 1954), sub¬ sequent modifications in the blood used was made. This dibasic cultural medium employs difibrinated rabbits blood in the blood agar base. 1 . normal 2. same as normal except the rabbits blood was obtained following several inocula¬ tions of sparrows blood. 3. same as normal except the rabbits blood was obtained following several inocula¬ tions of avian trypanosomes. 4. same as normal except sparrows blood replaced rabbits blood. *. domestic fowls blood following a recovery of an avian trypanosome infection. 6. same as normal except fowls blood replaced rabbits blood. The results from these preliminary experiments suggests a suppresant of growth of the 3 strains of avian trypanosomes in experiments 3 and 4 above and normal to nearly normal growths in experiments 1 and 2 above. SEROLOGY OF THE CERCARIENHULLEN REACTION OF SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI — W. M. Kemp, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. HILL REACTIONS IN SPHEROPLASTS OF THE BLUE-GREEN ALGA— B. Ward and J. Myers, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Spheroplasts of the blue-green alga, Anacystis nidulans, were obtained by treating cells with lysozyme and EDTA. Cells obtained by such treatment were assayed for photosynthetic activities as measured by selected Hill reactions designed to test the competency of the photosynthetic electron transport system. Oxygen evolution with ABSTRACTS 585 Table 1 Average growth rate of three avian strains of tryanosomes on various modified cultural media Culture media SNB-9 blood defibrmated No. of days Crackle Flycatcher Brown Thrasher Normal rabbits blood 3 3+ 1 + 3+ 6 4+ 2+ 4+ 9 4+ 2.5+ 4+ 12 3+ 2+ 4+ Same as normal except the 3 2+ 1 + 2+ rabbits blood was obtained 6 3+ 1 + 2+ following several inocula- 9 3+ 1+ 2+ tions of sparrows blood 12 3+ 1 + 2+ Same as normal except the 3 1 + 1+ 1 + rabbits blood was obtained 6 1 + 1 + 1 + following several inocula¬ 9 1 + 1 + tions of trypanosome cultures 12 1 + Sparrows blood replaced 3 1+ 1+ rabbits blood 6 1+ 9 1 + 12 Organisms per/cu.mm. -j-l — From 1 to 50 organisms/low power field 1,000-4,500 -j — [-2 — Organisms distance from neighboring organisms at least their over body length 4,500-30,000 -| — [ — \-3 — Organisms separated from their neighbor by less than their body length 30,000-200,000 j — 1 — 1 — [_4 — Organisms crowded together in almost constant contact with neighboring cells. Large agglomeration clumps. over 200,000 CO2 as terminal acceptor declined with time of treatment paralleled by electron flow using methyl viologen as electron acceptor for System I. Addition of ferri- cyanide restored oxygen evolution to approximately 80% of control, an indication that System II was functionally still competent. Photoreduction of dichlorophenol- indophenol (DPIP) proceeded at a rate less than that of ferricyanide, in terms of electron equivalents. It was possible to isolate System I by the use of DCMU to block electron flow from System II with electrons being supplied by ascorbate + DPIP. The results of these experiments indicated that System I was still active at 60-70% of control rates. Further, a distinct biphasic effect was observed for System II photoreduction of ferricyanide and DPIP with time of treatment (spheroplast for¬ mation). Under the treatment conditions employed. System II Hill reactions were stable over the period 10 to 60 min. (Phase 1) and declined thereafter (Phase 2). Hill activity of Phase 2 spheroplasts was restored with addition of diphenylcarbazide which is known to serve in place of H.,0 as an electron donor to System II. System I activity remained relatively constant during both phases of spheroplast develop¬ ment. 586 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE i It is proposed that a loss of electron-mediator (s) functioning between the 2 I photoacts is primarily responsible for loss of photosynthetic electron flow in Phase 1 spheroplasts. Additionally, it is suggested that the loss of System II Hill activity in Phase 2 spheroplasts is the result of loss of factor (s) participating in the oxidation of water. ELECTROPHORETICALLY DISTINCT HEMOGLOBINS IN CATFISHES— L. C. Show, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. A KARYOLOGICAL AND IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDY OF LARVAE OF THE MIDGE, CHIRONOMUS ATTENOUTUS, WALKER— E. C. McNack and ; J. J. Session, Texas Southern University, Houston. j Different structures and activities of somatic cells depend upon the presence of an ! abundance of proteins, bo^h structural and catalytic. Since such variations in protein | content exist, and since most of the proteins in a cell originate locally, then differ- I entiation and development must consist of changing patterns in protein synthesis. The giant chromosomes found in some dipteran salivary gland nuclei, because of [ their size and structure offers an advantage for studying cytogenetically genic pat- ■ terns. Painter (1933) and Heitz and Bauer (1933) demonstrated the existence of close relationship between the genetic significance of these chromosomes and their j structures. Salivary gland chromosomes (polytene chromosomes) are characterized by alternating chromatic and achromatic regions along their length They are com- i monly known as bands and interbands respectively. Puffs and rings (Balbiani rings) i are also characteristics of these chromosomes. j Differential gene action as well as molecular variation during development can * be studied utilizing biochemical technique. One of the most convincing techniques ; demonstrating differential gene action during the process of development has been , through the use of autoradiography. Molecular variations which accompany de- I velopment and differentiation has been demonstrated utilizing the Ouchterlony j double-gel diffusion technique. In brief, the present study is intended to provide data j on the process of development, differentiation, and speciation within the midge j Chironomus found in Harris County, Texas. | IMMUNOLOGICAL AND KARYOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING THE PROC- | ESS OF MURINE LEUKEMOGENESIS— R. G. Cuba and J. J. Session, Texas | Southern University, Houston. Saturday morning, March 13. Division B. S FINE STRUCTURE OF ELASMOBRANCH IRIS MUSCLE AND ASSOCIATED I NERVOUS STRUCTURES— K. P. Kuchnow, Texas A&M University, College \ Station. * I AN ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY OF SPORE GERMINATION IN THE I MYXOMYCETE ARCYRIA CINERAE—C. W. Mims, Stephen F. Austin State \ University, Nacogdoches. \ FINE STRUCTURE OF THE TEGUMENT OF ASPEDIGASTER CONCHl- COLA — J. E. Ubelaker, V. F. Allison, and K. T. Dernier, Southern Methodist \ University, Dallas. j The Aspidogastrea are considered to occupy a phylogenetic position near the | Digenea, the Monogenea, or removed completely from the Trematoda. In as much i ABSTRACTS 587 as tegument has been described by electron microscopy for these flatworms except the Aspidobothrea the present work was undertaken to resolve the structure of the tegument of this interesting group so that a functional comparison could be made between the outer layers of these Aspidogastrea and those Digenea and Monogenea so far studied. Study of the tegument of Aspidogaster conchicola indicates many similarities with that of the Monogenea and Digenea. Based on the appearance of cell types, organi¬ zation and organelles the Aspidogaster tegument appears to be characteristic of trematodes, with close resemblences to the Digenea. FINE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART OF THE HOUSE FLY, MUSCA DOMEStica — V. F. Allison and R. S. Sohal, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. The heart of the house fly is a tubular structure situated in the mid-dorsal region of the abdomen. The heart wall is comprised of a single layer of spirally arranged myofibres which show considerable overlapping. However, the anastomosing net¬ work as seen in the vertebrate myocardium is absent. The myofibre is surrounded by a basement membrane which varies in thickness and has embedded within its matrix bundles of slender fibrils. Subjacent to the basement membrane is the plasma membrane which is often scalloped in appearance. At frequent but irregular inter¬ vals the plasma membrane invaginates into the sarcoplasm forming transverse tubules which follow a random course. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is formed by anastomosing tubules and vesicular structures which surround the myofibrils. Trans¬ verse tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum with dense cistemae form dyads, usually at the junction of A- and I-bands. The contractile components form the myofibrillar core. The contractile elements are not divided into distinct myofibrils. The myo¬ fibrils are striated with a discontinuous Z-band, I-band and A-band in each sacro- mere. Mitochondria are seen in the subsarcolemmal pouches, interfibrillar spaces and perinuclear regions. Nuclei are rounded or elongated and are present in the sub¬ sarcolemmal or central region of the myofibril. Intercalated discs which do not show nexi or desmosomes are occasionally seen. Structural modifications accounting for the unique physiologic properties of the insect heart cannot be elucidated as yet. CONCERNING SHAPES AND SIZES OF SYNAPTIC VESICLES AS INICES OF FUNCTION — D. Duncan, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. AN ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF NERVE TERMINAL DEGENER¬ ATION IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE SQUIRREL MONKEY — J, R. McClung, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. FURTHER OBSERVATION ON MITOCHONDRIA WITH PRISMATIC CRIS- TAE AND FILAMENTOUS MATRIX— R. Morales, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Further work with mitochondria containing primatic cristae has revealed that this type occurs as a constant feature and in some abundance in the dorsolateral region of the spinal cord of the cat at all levels. Their location and constancy sug¬ gest that experimental studies with such mitochondria are possible. All such mito¬ chondria occur in astrocytes. The most abundant forms are long rods with an abundance of matrix and very few cristae. The matrix in the majority of such mito¬ chondria is of moderate density and without discernible organization. In some the 588 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE matrix consists of closely packed rodlets with or without occasional prismatic cristae. A frequent pattern is a core of longitudinal rodlets surrounded by a rim of circum¬ ferential ones. In the circumferential zone a single row of triangular cristae is present. These mitochondria vary greatly in size, from 0.2-5. 0 microns. Mitochondria containing ordered arrays of cristae that are triangular in cross section are for the most part much smaller than those with very few cristae and smaller than similar mitochondria described in the Syrian hamster. It is concluded that close packing in the matrix (obviously hexagonal in many instances) is the cause of the prismatic shape of the cristae. SOME COMMENTS ON GLUTARALDEHYDE-OSMIUM FIXATION AS APPLIED IN ELECTRON MICROSCOPY— J. A. Mascorro and R. D. Yates, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. MITOCHONDRIAL FUSION IN THE FLIGHT MUSCLE OF INSECTS— R. S. Sohal and V. F. Allison, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. The fine structure of the flight muscle of the immature and mature adult male house flies was studied. In longitudinal sections of the myofibers of one-day old flies the myofibrils are surrounded by elongated mitochondria, while in cross section 3-5 oval miLochondria surround a myofibril. Mitochondria to myofibril ratio in cross- sectioned myofibers of one-day old flies averages 2.09 ± 0.296. In 2-day old flies some mitochondria show close approximation and fusion. The fusing mitochondria are surrounded by a single outer membrane. The incidence of fusion increases in 7-9 day old flies. Fusion occurs at the narrow as well as broad axis of mitochondria. The mitochondria resulting from such fusion are frequently very irregular in shape and large in size and form closely apposed collar-like rings around the myofibril. Mito- chondria-myofibril ratio in cross-sectioned myofibers of 9-day old flies averages 0.86 ± 0.08 indicating an apparent decrease in the number of mitochondria. It, therefore, seems that the ‘giant’ mitochondria in the flight muscle of insects may arise by an age-dependent fusion of the smaller mitochondria. ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE INTEGUMENT IN THE RICINULEI (ARACH¬ NID A) — V. Tipton, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. . . STUDY OF THE CELL CYCLES IN DIVIDING BRAIN CELLS OF ORTHO- PODMYIA SIGNIFERA — J. Cocke and J. D. Long, Sam Houston State Uni¬ versity, Huntsville. Mukherjee and Rees (1969) established a cell cycle in the dividing brain tissue of the mosquito Aedes dorsalis (Meigen) by autoradiographic methods. Their results correspond to the expected cycle pattern established by Thrasher (1966) . Jan and Boyes (1970) were unable to confirm a definite cyclic pattern in the dividing brain cells of the house fly, Musca domestica L. ocra strain. They attributed their results to differences in XX and XY cell division times within the larval brain tissue. The data thus far accumulated on the dividing brain tissue of Orthopodomyia signifera suggests a cyclic pattern; however, it also suggests that more than a single population of dividing brain cells exists. In this study 3rd and 4th instar, male and female, larval brain tissue was examined and treated as a single population of dividing cells. Results obtained may be due to differences in cell cycle times in 3rd ABSTRACTS 589 and 4th instars, or possibly to male and female differences, or both. Variation in sizes of nuclei within the brain also suggests heterogeneity within this population of cells. A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF VIBRATORY STRESS ON ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY AT A CYTOLOGIC LEVEL— J. D. Whitson, Jr., Keystone High School, San Antonio. The study of electrical impulses originating in a living system is a virgin field. Only since about 1950 has any significant work been done in this area, and the work done has been mainly of a clinical nature in medicine. The first electrical impulses measured were those from the myocardium, and later, the principles of electro¬ cardiography were applied to the measurement of brain and muscular impulses: electroencephalography and electromyography. The problem involved deals with vibratory stress and the effect it has on cellular electricity. Cellular electricity is realized through 2 sources: Glycolysis, in the general cytoplasm; the Krebs citric acid cycle in the mitochondria. Yet, very little “free” electricity is given off by either process. Therefore, the techniques of electro¬ encephalography were, of necessity, employed. Vibratory stress was set at one vibration per second (V.P.S.) or 60 vibrations per minute (V.P.M.); 1.77 V.P.S. or 100 V.P.M.; 5 V.P.S. or 300 V.P.M.; and at 10 V.P.S. or 600 V.P.M. The force of one vibration was 100 dynes, or 10^3 newtons. This frequency of vibration was introduced into a chicken egg in its first 1 8 hours of development. Cellular electricity was measured and recorded by means of a single channel electroencephalograph, built and calibrated for this purpose. In 70% of the cases, the electricity was greater as the stress increased, while in 22% of the cases, the electricity was sporatic or stable in its release. In conclusion, it may be observed that vibratory stress will, in a majority of cases, increase the electricity in a cell. How this is done is uncertain, perhaps by upsetting the chemical cycles or by stimulating early or out-of-phase release of enzymes and electrons in various stages of chemical release of energy in the cell. EFFECT OF TISSUE EXTRACT ON HEALING OF EXPERIMENTALLY IN¬ DUCED BURN ULCERS — J. M. Slack, Texas A & M University, College Station. Section V-— Social Sciences Friday Morning, March 12. Division A. CAMPUS SUBCULTURES — Larry Adams, Texas Christian University, Fori Worth. FACULTY UNREST — William A. Troth, East Texas State University, Commerce. STUDENT UNREST — William Schafer, Northwest Louisiana State College, Nat¬ chitoches, Louisiana. LEGAL ASPECTS OF CAMPUS UNREST— Kenneth W. Gordon, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth. 590 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE |i LEGISLATIVE PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE T. A. C. C. E.— Earl Grabliorn, Texas Advisory Committee on Conservation Education, Texas Edu¬ cation Agency, Austin. CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN TEXAS UNIVERSITIES— Dale D. Allen, U. S. Department of Agriculture, W ashington, D.C. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF RECENT TRENDS IN ENVIRON¬ MENTAL EDUCATION — Donald R. Coker, East Texas State University, Commerce. Friday Morning, March 12. Division B. j DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF RESEARCH PROJECTS INVOLVING WHITE : AND NEGRO PROFESSIONALS— Bardin H. Nelson, Texas A & M Uni¬ versity, College Station. MEXICAN AMERICANS FROM THE RIO GRANDE VALLEY TO GRAND PRAIRIE, TEXAS — Michael C. Kleibrink and David C. Ruesink, Texas A & M University, College Station. A RACIAL COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IN MARTIAL- FAMILY STATUS PROJECTIONS OF TEENAGE GIRLS— Katheryn Ann Thomas, Texas A & M University, College Station. OCCUPATIONAL ROLE MODELS OF NEGRO YOUTH— Wayne H. Oberle and William P. Kuvlesky, Texas A&M University, College Station. A COMPARISON OF ETHNIC ATTITUDES TOWARD HOSPITALIZATION AMONG ANGLOS, MEXICAN AMERICANS, AND NEGROES— Raymond Teske, Jr., Texas A & M University, and Harold Osborne, Baylor University, \ Waco. 1 Friday Morning, March 12. Division C. REGIONAL ANALYSIS— THE RESULTS— William C. Adams and D. Gary Carman, East Texas State University, Commerce. AN ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR FITTING GAMMA FUNCTIONS TO IRS ZIP CODE INCOME DATA — Fred Hebein and David Seymour, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE TEXAS INTERINDUSTRY PROJECT— Herbert W. Grubb, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. \ TORON— TO THE IMPLEMENTATION AND EFFECT OF METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT — John Weakley, Texas A & M University, College Station. RECREATION VEHICLES AND THERI IMPACT UPON TRAVEL AND FACILITY USE — Marion L. Clarke and Robert Bradley, Texas A & M Uni¬ versity, College Station. ABSTRACTS 591 Friday Morning^ March 12. Division D. HISTORICAL ARCHEOLOGY IN TEXAS— Curtis Tunnell, Texas State Historical Survey Committee, AMStin. SYSTEMATIZED ETHNOHISTORY AND PRE-HISTORY CULTURE SE¬ QUENCES IN TEXAS — T. N. Campbell, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. TEXAS QUATERNARY PALEOENVIRONMENT: THE BOTANICAL RECORD — Vaughn M. Bryant, Washington State University, Seattle. THE ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTHEASTERN TEXAS AND ENVIRONS: A CRITICAL SYNTHESIS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE— Mott Davis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. A SURVEY OF CURRENT ARCHEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ROLL¬ ING PLAINS-PRAIRIE REGION OF TEXAS— R» K. Harris and Dessamae Lorrain, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. STATUS OF ARCHEOLOGY IN THE PANHANDLE OF TEXAS— Jack T. Hughes, West Texas State University, San Marcos. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division A. THE OPERATIONS RESEARCH DIMENSION OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT IN THE 1970’s — E. H. Sauls, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. FRESH BLOOD INVENTORY CONTROL AT A BLOOD BANK— L. D. Maurer and Joe Rigby, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division E. THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS OF EMPIRICAL CRIMINOLOGY— Raymon C. Forston, North Texas State University, Denton. RECENT THEORIES AND TRENDS IN JUVENILE DELINQUENCY— Myhra S. Minnis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. RESEARCH TRENDS AND NEEDS IN CRIMINOLOGY— Rupert C. Koeninger, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division C. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF ATTITUDE SCALES IN NATURAL RE¬ SOURCE MANAGEMENT — Leroy Shilling, Texas A & M University, Col¬ lege Station. GROWTH CENSUS IN TEXAS — Niles Hansen,, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. 592 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE REGIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE STATE OF TEXAS— James W. Stevens, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington. NEW BLS MEASURES OF LOCAL EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS— Jack Strick¬ land, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Dallas. CENTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF TEXAS COUNTIES— Jack Isaminger, Southern Methodist University, Dallas. Friday Afternoon, March 12. Division D. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF NATIVE CULTURES IN WEST TEXAS— Michael B. Collins and Karen S. Collins, University of Arizona, Tucson. ON THE CULTURE HISTORY OF THE EASTERN TRANS-PECOS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS — David S. Dibble, Texas Archeological Salvage Project, Austin. TRENDS IN SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS IN THE ARCHAIC OF THE EAST- j ERN TRANS-PECOS — Robert K. Alexander, Texas Archeological Salvage \ Project, Austin. HUNTERS AND GATHERERS OF THE RIO GRANDE PLAINS AND THE LOWER COAST OF TEXAS — Thomas Roy Hester, University of California, j Berkeley. The Rio Grande Plain of southern Texas is a low, rolling coastal plain bordered on the east and south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the north by the Edwards Plateau. | It is a semiarid region, today infested by mesquite and other thorny brush which | spread over the uplands in comparatively recent times. Both the vegetation and | fauna are characteristic of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province. All data suggest that the : climate in post-Pleistocene times was similar to that of today. However, much of the j interior was a grassland savanna with only scattered trees on the uplands. A narrow strip of prairie grassland was present along the lower coast. Human occupation of i the region began in early Paleo-Indian times. The environment of Post-Pleistocene ' times led to the development of 2 major ecological adaptations by the peoples of the region: (1) a “savanna adaptation” in the interior, and (2) a “maritime adaptation” along the littoral. These adaptations can be studied through an examination of the i ethnographical records, and through archaeological investigation of prehistoric settlement and subsistence patterns, and researches into regional technology and j tool kits. i A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF THE UPPER TEXAS COAST — Lawrence E. Aten, Texas Archeological Salvage Project, \ Austin. \ i Saturday Morning, March 13. Division A. ! STATISTICS AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES— Paul D. Minton, Southern Metho- \ dist University, Dallas. MODES OF SOCIOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR: THE EMERGING PATTERN— i William P. Kuvlesky, Texas A & M University, College Station. \ ABSTRACTS 593 HISTORY AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE— Robert J. Chasteen, East Texas State Uni¬ versity, Denton. ECONOMICS AS A SCIENCE — Kendall P. Cochran, North Texas State University, Denton. PERSPECTIVES ON THE AMERICAN FRONTIER— Ben H. Procter, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth. NINETEENTH CENTURY INDIAN REFORM AS A REAFFIRMANTON OF CONSERVATIVE VALUES— Ralph W. Goodwin, East Texas State Univer¬ sity, Commerce. COMMUNITY PLANNING AND ACTION PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS— Carmen Acosta Johnson, T exas Southern University, Houston. It is essentially an anthropological problem to translate from the urgent practical needs of action programs to the theories, tools, and data of the academic sociologist. Action workers function, however, to force the sociologists’ energies into work which is relevant to present-day problems, and provide an opportunity to test hypotheses. The sociologist functions to increase the probability of success of action programs by applying research findings, and by deriving information which can make ef¬ ficient, rational decisions possible. Census data is not immediately useful to action workers. Since social facts are more or less invisible to the untrained worker, special tools must be developed to facilitate communication between the sociologist and those who wish to apply his knowledge to practical problems. We are developing a package of programs for use with the computer which can aid the untrained person to perceive certain social facts, such as the existence of whole populations with certain characteristics, population dynamics, and patterned associations between population variables. The development of such knowledge is an important approach to decision making on the part of action persons, government and others in the area of population. OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEW KNOWLEDGE BASED ON THE 1970 CENSUS— W. Kennedy Upham, Texas ASM University, College Station. The 1970 census presents new opportunities for knowledge and scientific advance¬ ment because it represents both new data delivery and handling systems, and new kinds of information. In the former category the machine-readable tapes provide a great amount of otherwise unpublished data. In the latter the use of 3 major ethnic groups (white, Negro, “Spanish language”) in all basic tabulations, the inclusion of a refined poverty indicator, and the insertion of new questions dealing with per¬ sonal history are major advances. To demonstrate the prompt use of census data from the magnetic tapes, the first net migration estimates for the past decade are presented. Among the basic findings was a reversal of the trend to lose Negroes through net migration to other states. Texas gained natural increase. Most (180 of 254) counties lost population via migra¬ tory transfers, while 6 counties managed to gain so many people that they accounted for 3 times the net increase of the state as a whole. Computer maps of net migration for Texas by county are included to show the geographic distribution of these changes within the state. 594 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE CHANGE IN POPULATION OF TEXAS COUNTIES, 1950-1970 AND ITS IMPLICATIONS — Ben E. Dickerson and Harold M. Clements, Sr., Stephen F. Austin University, Nacogdoches. The population of Texas is increasing at a decreasing rate. Although the actual number of people in Texas is increasing, the rate of growth is lower than in previous decades with the exception of the 1930-40 period. Considerable difference in the growth rate is noted among the counties of Texas. Of the state’s 254 counties, only 35% gained in population during the 1960-70 decade, while the 1950-60 period showed a significantly higher percentage of counties (44%) with a gain in population. The “pull” of employment, educational and other opportunities in the state’s Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas is seen as a pri¬ mary factor in population changes among the counties. Changes among counties in their population growth have created problems for the involved areas. The most important implication made by the study is the need for local authorities to thoroughly study trends in county population growth. Realis- ; tic appraisal of them will permit the more far-sighted persons of influence to better plan for the future. i I THE METROPOLITANIZATION OF TEXAS— R. L. Skranbanek, Texas A&M University, College Station. Changes in definitions of what constitutes metropolitan residence were traced from 1940 to 1970, beginning with the first recognized Metropolitan Districts to the current Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. The amount of space occupied by metropolitan residents increased each succeeding j The number of persons residing in metropolitan areas in Texas has more than 1 quadrupled since 1940, increasing from approximately 2 million at that time to over j 3% million by 1950; over 6 million in 1960; and over 8% million in 1970. Metro- | politan residents made up 73.5% of the state’s population in 1970 as contrasted with ! only 31.8% in 1940. I While the states’ metropolitan population has been increasing, the number of i persons living in nonmetropolitan areas has declined every decade since 1940. Within | metropolitan areas, the central cities have experienced a much lower population I growth than the suburbs. While a small amount of growth in the Negro population j has been observed in suburbs in Texas, the great bulk of Negro metropolitan popu- i lation growth is taking place within the central cities. At the same time whites have ; been leaving central cities in large numbers and moving to suburbs. I i Saturday Morning, March 13. Division C. | AN OPERATIONAL APPROACH FOR ANALYZING ORGANIZATIONAL | VIABILITY — Edmund Gray, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. I CURRENT TRENDS IN PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT— Robert Edwards, I Southwestern Life Insurance Company, Dallas. THE PERSONNEL MANAGER IN THE PROJECT ORGANIZATIONAL— I C. Ray Gullet, East Texas State University, Commerce. j AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WRITTEN ’ AND/OR GRAPHIC COMMUNICATIONS— Ridley J. Gros, Nicholls State I University, Dudely, Mass. 1 ABSTRACTS 595 THE DELPHI METHOD — Samuel W. Cochran, East Texas State University, Commerce. Section VI— -Environmental Science Friday Morning, March 12. INFLUENCE OF COTORON ON THE GROWTH OF ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS IN LIQUID AND SOIL CULTURE— B. K. Chopra, F. Ojusi, and L. C. Collins, Prairie View A&M College, Prairie View. The effect of the herbicide Cororan ( 1,1 -Dimethyl-3 (a, a, a- tri-fluoro-m-tolyl) area on growth of Aspergillus flavus was studied in soil and liquid cultures. The fungus was grown in modified czapek’s solution containing herbicide concen¬ trations of 1, 5, 10 and 20 ppm, plus a herbicide-free check. In another experiment, the fungus was established in flasks of sterilized sandy loam soil, and Cotoran was applied to provide concentrations of 1,5, 10 and 20 ppm of oven dry soil. In liquid cultures, growth of A. flavus was revealed by increased mycelial dry weight, relating to increased concentration of the herbicide. Total COg production by the fungus in the flasks of herbicide treated soil increased with time at concen¬ trations of 1, 5, 10 and 20 pg per g of soil. Utilization of inorganic phosphorus was not significantly affected by the concentrations of the herbicide. Total acid produc¬ tion revealed a pattern similar to COg production pattern. The study suggested that field-rate concentrations of herbicide as indicated by the manufacturers would not stimulate the growth of A. flavus in natural field soil; whereas, higher concentration stimulated the COg production in soil culture and increased dry weights of mycelium in liquid culture. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IS A BY-PRODUCT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN A BLUE-GREEN ALGA — Pat Patterson and Jack Myers, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. Intact, untreated cells of the blue-green alga, Anacystis nidulans, were examined with a sensitive fluorescence assay for production of hydrogen peroxide, Millimicro- molar quantities of peroxide are produced when cells are illuminated. Time course of peroxide production is complicated, displaying an induction period, a rapid burst of peroxide production lasting several minutes, and a subsequent steady peroxide output lasting until cells are returned to dark. Increasing intensity of illumination slightly decreased the induction period, increased the burst several fold, and slightly increased the final steady rate. Abolition of peroxide production by appropriate con¬ centrations of DCMU and o-phenanthroline indicates that the photosynthetic appa¬ ratus is involved. Carbon dioxide starvation, uncouplers of photophosphorylation, and inhibitors of Calvin cycle enzymes all enhance production of peroxide by other¬ wise undamaged cells. These results suggest that the site of peroxide formation in A. nidulans is between the photochemical apparatus and the carbon reduction path¬ ways, and represents a normal temporary shunt, reducing molecular oxygen when carbon reduction is functioning sluggishly. The results are discussed in terms of experimental studies on oxygen evolution in blue-green algae. WOODY VEGETATION OF AN ANGELINA RIVER AREA IN NACOGDOCHES COUNTY — J. A. Raines, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. 596 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE WOODY VEGETATION OF A PALMETTO (SALAL MINOR) AREA IN EASTERN TEXAS — E, S, Nixon, L. F, Chambliss, and J. L. Mallory, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. REEVALUATION OF ABRONIINAE HEIMERL (NYCTAGINACEAE) IN TEXAS — Leo A. Galloway, Texas Tech University, Luhbock. The subtribe Abroniinae (Nyctaginaceae) is treated as 2 genera: Tripterocalyx and Abronia. Examination of populations and of herbarium specimens has resulted in a revised key and an alteration in the known geographic distribution of Texas species. A. ameliae, an endemic, is confined to south Texas. A. fragrans is wide¬ spread in the western half of the state, with A. anguistifolia, A. carletoni, and T. carnea confined to far western Texas. 15 new county records have been established. THE EFFECT OF CO2 CONCENTRATION ON A HALOPHILIC SPECIES OF DUNALIELLA — Oscar W. Van Auken, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. PURIFICATION OF GYMNODINIUM BREVE TOXIN-DRY COLUMN CHRO- MATIGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES— Norman M. Trieff, N. Venkatasubraman- | t ian, S. M. Ray, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, and Texas \ A&M University Marine Laboratories, College Station. | The toxin from the dinflagellate, Gymnodinium breve, associated with red tides ^ in the Gulf of Mexico and previously implicated in paralytic shellfish poisoning by : McFarren, et al. (1965), has been purified by a combination of thin layer chromatog- | raphy (TLC) and dry column chromatography (DCC), (Loev and Goodman, 1967). ! Uni-algal cultures, grown by the method of Gates and Wilson (1960) were acidified ; to pH 5.5 at the optimal time, and the toxin extracted with diethyl ether by the ■ method of Spikes, et al. (1968). The ether extract wa sair-dried, desiccated over SiOg and weighed. This “crude toxin” was treated with ether by Soxhlet extraction and the dried extract was further extracted with acetone. The dried acetone extract | was subjected to DCC using a 30 cm. Nylon tubing, sealed at the bottom except for ' several tiny air holes, and containing Mallinckrodt SilicAR/TLC-4GF equilibrated with the solvent system: benzene, ethyl acetate, ethanol, acetic acid (79: 10': 10:1 | (v/v) %). The same solvent was used for development and yielded 9 bands, 2 of I which were toxic to mice and having R^’s between 0.105 and 0.40, most of the toxicity residing between 0.25 and 0.40. For each DCC run, approximately 30' mg of dried ^ acetone-soluble material were used, requiring about 20 ml of developing solvent. A weight of about 36% of the acetone-soluble material was recovered in the toxic , fractions which were further subjected to TLC on SilicAR/TLC-7GF with a solvent 1 of CHCI3, CH3OH and 6N NHg (90:9.5:0.5 (v/v) %), similar to a solvent system : of Cummins and Stevens (1970). Three bands were observed in our results. The ; 0.5 Rf fraction was found toxic to mice. Toxicity determinations and chemical studies | have been described in detail. Elemental analysis revealed C, H, O, P in percentages quite similar to Toxin II of Martin and Chatterjee (1969) . j PHYSIOCHEMICAL LIMNOLOGY OF THE GUADALUPE RIVER, TEXAS— | Willard Loung, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. j NITROGEN AND PHOSPHOROUS DYNAMICS IN A 153 KILOMETER STRETCH OF THE GUADALUPE RIVER, TEXAS— Herbert H. Hannan, ; Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. ’ ABSTRACTS 597 LIMNOLOGICAL FEATURES OF A SPRING IN EASTERN TEXAS—Jack D. McCiiiloiigli and W. J. Clark, Stephen F. Austin State University^ Nacogdoches, and Texas A&M University, College Station, The limnological features of Tonka wa Spring, a cold water spring in eastern Texas, were investigated for one year. The water accumulates in the sands above the Wilcox Formation and emerges as cold, acid water with high concentrations of nitrates, phosphates, and silica. One year of data shows chemostatic and thermo¬ static water conditions. High carbon dioxide, phosphate, and nitrate levels may be due to the exposure of the water which charges the aquifer, to large amounts of decaying organic matter on the forest floor. The rate of primary productivity in the spring is high, with rates up to 1808 mgC/m^ of water surface/ day. THE MYSIDACEA OF TWO MARSH EMBAYMENTS ON THE TEXAS COAST — Fred S. Conte, Texas A&M University, College Station. Crustacea were collected from 2 marsh embayments, Alligator and Oyster Lakes, located west of West Bay, Galveston, Texas. Collections were taken twice a month, October, 1967 through August, 1969 from 2 replicate stations located in each em- bayment. Collections were made using a 10-foot otter trawl of 2-cm mesh with a 1-cm mesh in the cod end. An additional linear of 3-mm mesh was placed over the cod end to capture smaller organisms that passed through the trawl. The trawl, with its liner, was then pulled through the water by an airboat at a constant speed of 4 mph for 3 minutes. The taxonomic characters of each mysid species was described and the abundance of each species collected was compared in relation to tempera¬ ture and salinity. Mysidopsis almyra Bowman was the most abundant species in all seasons through¬ out the study and collected in salinities ranging between 0,0 and 29.0 ppt. Larger abundances of M. almyra were taken from Alligator Lake which exhibited a lower salinity range than that of Oyster Lake. Mysidopsis hahia Molenock was taken in greater abundances from the higher salinity waters of Oyster Lake. M. hahia was collected in salinities ranging between 3.0 and 28,0 ppt. Taphromysis louisiana Banner, previously reported only from fresh “static” water was collected from both embayments with salinities ranging between 0.0 and 26.0 ppt. Greater abundances were found in Alligator Lake. A few specimens of Bowmaniella brasiliensis Bacescu, previously collected only from Brazil, were collected from both embayments with salinities ranging between 0.0 and 10.0 ppt. One specimen of Brasilomysis castori Bacescu was collected from Oyster Lake in late December, 1967 when the salinity was 12.0 ppt. Previously this species was reported only from coastal marine waters of Brazil and southern Florida. Friday Afternoon, March 12 BASIC LIMNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NAVASOTA RIVER— William J. Clark, Texas A&M University, College Station. RELATIONSHIP OF NET PLANKTON TO DISCHARGE IN THE NAVASOTA RIVER — Paul R. Becker and William J. Clark, Texas A&M University, College Station. 598 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TEMPERATURE PREFERENCE AND TOLERANCES OF SOME AQUATIC CAVE-ADAPTED CRUSTACEANS— William R. Elliott, Texas Tech Uni¬ versity, Lubbock. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECOLOGY OF ROTIFERS— Carl W. Lahser, Jr., Bryan. AGGRESSIVE INTERACTIONS IN REPRODUCTIVELY ACTIVE CYPRINO- DON VARIEGATUS — Betty Barnhill, The University of Texas at Austin, A.ustin. THE DEVELOPMENTAL RATE OF MENIDIA AUDENS WITH NOTES ON SALT TOLERANCE — Clark Hubbs and B. Bryan Sharp, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. DEVELOPMENTAL RATES AND TOLERANCES OF THE PLAINS KILLI- FISH, FUNDULUS KANSAE, AND COMPARISON WITH RELATED FISHES — Stan Wilson and Clark Hubbs, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. CALL TYPES IN THE RAN A PIPIENS SPECIES GROUP— John S. Mecham, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. SERUM PROTEIN CHANGES DURING TRANSFORMATION IN AMBY- STOMA TIGRINUM — Katherine DeLisle, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. A COMPARISON OF THE HEMOGLOBINS IN AMBYSTOMA TIGRINUM AT THE TIME OF METAMORPHOSIS— Margaret Wade, Texas Tech Uni¬ versity, Lubbock. SPERM TAIL COMPLEX OF AMBYSTOMA TIGRINUM: FINE STRUCTURE — Claranne Bush, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Amby stoma tigrinum testes were fixed in glutaldehyde and osmium tetroxide, stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate, and examined with a Hitachi HS-8 electron microscope. Electron micrographs revealed that the sperm tail complex is composed of an axial filament and a flagellum. The axial filament constitutes the supporting axis of the sperm tail; the flagellum occurs in the lateral margin of an undulating membrane which is attached to the concave surface of the axial filament It is suggested that the motility of the flagellum is such that it transverses an arc around the axial filament. In the course of the arc, the flagellum undulates from side to side in a plane parallel to the axial filament. AMBYSTOMA TIGRINUM: CANNIBAL MORPH— Francis L. Rose, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE NORTHERN FENCE LIZARD, SCELO- PORUS UNDULATUS HY AN Cl NT HUS— Glen A. Engeling, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. HOME RANGE ECOLOGY OF THE KEELED EARLESS LIZARD, HOL- BROOKIA PROPINQUA — Frank W. Judd, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. ABSTRACTS 599 Saturday Morning, March 13. Division A. COMPETITION AND NESTING SUCCESS OF FOUR SPECIES OF HERONS ON SPOIL ISLANDS IN THE LAGUNE MADRE, TEXAS—Beth Simersky, Texas A&I University, Kingsville. From March to August 1970 nesting populations of Great Blue Herons {Ardea herodias Linneaus), Reddish Egrets (Dichrorrmnassa rufescem Gmelin), Louisiana Herons {Hydranassa tricolor Muller), and Snowy Egret (Leucopkoyx thula Molina) were studied on 4 spoil islands in the Laguna Madre, Texas. Great Blue Herons began nesting in February with a peak population in late April and early May and a nesting success of 29.7%. Reddish Egrets, Louisiana Herons, and Snowy Egrets began nesting in early May and peaked in June with nesting successes of 42.8%, 35.2%, and 33.7% respectively. The average clutch sizes were 3.3 ±0.9 for Great Blue Herons, 2.9 ±0.7 for Louisiana Herons, 3,3 ±0.9 for Snowy Egrets, and 3.1 ±0.6 for Reddish Egrets. The Great Blue Herons nested in mesquite trees (Prosopis glandulosa), around the edges of the islands, and around the ponds on Borrichia frutescens. The majority of Louisiana Herons nested on B. frutescens and the majority of Snow Egrets and Reddish Egrets on Ambrosia psilostachya. A small area around the nest was defended by all species against intruders. The most inter¬ action occurred between Louisiana Herons and Snowy Egrets. NESTING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE REDDISH EGRET, DICHRO- MANASSA RUFESCENS GMELIN, ON A SPOIL BANK CHAIN IN THE UPPER LAGUNA MADRE, TEXAS—Sharon L. McMurry, Texas A&I U niversity, Kingsville. The nesting season of a Reddish Egret {Dichromanassa rufescens Gmelin) breed¬ ing population in the Upper Laguna Madre extended from March until August, 1970. Courtship, establishment of territory and pair bonding occurred between March and May, incubation during 4 week periods from May to August, and fledging at 4-5 weeks of age during July and August. Success of the nesting popu¬ lation of 112 on the 2 spoil banks studied was 40’% with an average clutch size of 3.1 ± .57. Development of the young from hatching to fledging (approximately 4 weeks) was determined through a series of linear measurements, 38% of the tagged nests were utilized for the measurement of the young. From day 0’-21, the length of the bill tripled; tarsus quadrupled and wing quintupled. The rate of growth was still in evidence, but had gradually leveled off from day 22-35. QUILL MITES, SYRINGOPHILUS SPP., OF SOME TEXAS BIRDS— Stanley D. CastO', Texas Tech University, Lubbock. CHARACTERISTICS OW WILD TURKEY ROOSTS ON KING RANCH— Harry H. Haucke and E. D. Abies, Texas A&M University, College Station. Twenty-one winter roosts of Rio Grande turkeys {Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) were evaluated for physical characteristics and habitat relations, in 2 major vege¬ tative types, live oak {Quercus virginiana), and mesquite {Prosopis juliflora). Results of roosts analyses in the mesquite type are reported here. All roosts were within 1.4 miles (x = 0,42 mi.) of permanent water, all were adjacent to a clearing, and none was farther than 530 ft. (x = 112 ft.) from a thicket of at least 0.5 acre in size. Mean area of clumps used as roosts was 36,300 square ft., and mean area occupied by the roosts was 17,100 square ft. Eight tree 600 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE species 15 ft. or higher occurred in the roosts. These were, in order of abundance, hackberry {Celtis laevigata), mesquite {Prosopis juliflora), huisache {Acacia fornesiana), Mexican persimmon {Diospyros texana), western soapberry {Sapindus drummondii) , and gulf black willow {Salix nigra) . The trees used most frequently as roosting sites were hackberry and mesquite. Other parameters of roost trees included: mean height of major roost trees, 32 ft.; mean height of minor roost trees, 29 ft.; mean dbh of major roost trees, 17 inches; mean dbh of minor roost trees, 14 inches; mean number of trees in roosts, 35 (8-91) ; and mean number of trees used, 17 (7-42). SELECTION FOR GROWTH AND HUNTING CHARACTERISTICS IN BOB- WHITE QUAIL — W. F. Krueger and R. J. Terry, Texas A&M University, College Station. Two lines of Bobwhite quail, an Alabama line 16 and a Texas line 2 generations removed from the wild, have each been divided into meat and hunting sublines along with appropriate genetic controls. One generation of selection is complete. The intent of seelction has been to increase adult body weight and breast fleshing, and to reduce back angle and body temperature in the 2 meat sublines. The objective in the hunting sublines has been to maintain intermediate body size and fleshing and to increase back angle and body temperature. In the Alabama meat subline selection has been effective in creasing body weight (7.5%) and breast angle (5.5%) . There has been no significant change in back angle or body temperature. The Texas meat subline has not responded to selection. There has been no statistically significant change in body weight, breast fleshing, or body temperature. Insufficient selection pressure resulting from small population size may account for this response. | The hunting sublines have responded as expected. Body weight has decreased, body temperature increased, and breast fleshing has remained constant. PLASMA THYROXINE CHANGES IN THE LEAF-NOSE BAT, MACROTIS WATERHOUSII, DURING PREGNANCY— John Capehart, Texas Tech Uni- \ versity, Lubbock. j Studies were begun over a year ago in our laboratory to gain insights into the unique reproductive physiology pattern displayed by the California leaf-nosed bat. Females were collected from southern Arizona in all possible stages of reproductive condition ranging from immature to lactation. Pregnant animals were placed in a j 10-20 foot greenhouse which had been especially modified for that purpose. The i animals were maintained at 72° F. and fed a more than sufficient diet of crickets i and meal worms. The new environment had no effect on the gestation period and j pregnancy proceeded in a normal pattern. Plasma thyroxine concentration and i histological sections of the thyroid gland were also studied from animals in various j stages of reproduction. It was found that during the diapause in embryonic growth the plasma thyroxine concentration fell from one-fourth to one-fifth the concen- • tration of animals in very early or late pregnancy or of that in lactating individuals. | j THE SEROLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THREE SPECIES OF FOXES AND | A PRESUMED HYBRID — Gordon C. Creel and Wilmot A. Thorton, Angelo | State University, San Angelo. 1 ABSTRACTS 601 PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS TEX AN A—Josephine Allex, Texas A&I Uni¬ versity^ Kingsville. Three hundred sixty-eight small rodents were systematically trapped and toe- clipped on a 13,689 square meter plot, located on the margins of Baffin Bay. The area is characteristically semi-arid and sandy supporting wooded areas composed primarily of mesquite, open areas covered with various grasses. Of the 368 rodents, 208 (57%) were Peromyscus leucopus texanus (Woodhouse), 38 (10.3%) were perogrmthm h. hispidus (Baird), 35 (9.5%) were Neotoma m. micropus (Goldman), 33 (8.9%) were Sigmodon hispidus herlandieri (Baird), 25 (6.8%) were Reithro- dontomys fulvescens intermedium (J. A. Allen), 21 (5.7%) were Baiomys t. taylori (Thomas), and 8 (2,1%) were Onychomys leucogaster longipes (Merriam). The average number of Peromyscus supported by the area as indicated from monthly trap results was 31. Of this 31, 56% were males and 44% were females. External evidence of breeding was present from May through November. Immatures were added to the population during the months of August through January with the majority appearing in the latter three months. Also, during these months, there was an increase in the loss of previously marked individuals indicating emmigration and/or mortality. Five individuals were trapped throughout the 16 months of the study period indicating an age of at least 17 months. There is a possibility that one male based upon total length and maturity could be 27 months. The numbers of each of the other rodent species fluctuated in much the same manner of those of P. I, texanus. The greatest numbers occurred during November through January. BEHAVIOR OF AXIS DEER— Eugene R. Fuchs and E. D. Abies, Texas A&M University, College Station. Generally speaking the behavior patterns of axis deer {Axis axis) can be classified as reproductive or non-reproductive behavior. Axis deer of both sexes are capable of breeding throughout the year. The most obvious characteristic of the axis population during the breeding season is the high percentage of males in hard antlers. Bellowing by rutting males is also characteristic of the breeding season which reaches a peak from June through August inTexas. Associated with the breeding season is that of sign-post making in the form of “preaching” and/or “marker-plants” by rutting males. Courtship behavior of a male towards a female in estrous includes ( 1 ) following, (2) chasing, (3) “flehmen”, (4) head-up-tail-up display, (5) mounting, and (6) copulation. A high majority of breeding is performed by the larger, dominant males in the population. Four behavior patterns indirectly related to reproduction are sparring, fighting, pawing, and thrashing vegetation with the antlers by the males. Displays and actual antagonism are characteristic of male behavior during all seasons without regard to breeding condition. Four displays most frequently obse'rved are (1) the present-threat display, (2) the head-down display, (3) the head-up display, and (4) the antler-threat display. Aggressive behavior between females is evident throughout the year and consist of (1) lowering the ears, (2) biting, (3) striking with a forefoot, (4) flailing, (5) body pressing, and (6) head butting. Playful behavior is common among fauns, however adults may join in these “games”. Play consist of dashing along, bucking, dodging, and head butting. Axis deer of both sexes and all ages are very vocal. Rutting males emit hoarse bellows, granting while tending a female, and moaning while displaying to' other 602 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE males. Both sexes emit alarm and curiosity “barks”. Fawns squeal when hungry and seeking their mother. Axis deer are diurnal in habit; feeding in the early mornings and evenings and resting in the shade during the heat of the day. Axis deer are primarily grazers; frequenting open areas to feed. Drinking normally occurs just before dark. INTRODUCTION OF EPIMORPHIC REGENERATION IN THE RAT— John Armstrong, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Presently the induction of extensive epimorphic regeneration in the higher mam¬ mals is virtually unsuccessful. The ability to de-differentiate remaining cells at the j amputational stump seems to be the key to natural epimorphosis in the lower forms and may explain the absence of such in the higher mammals. Marked de¬ differentiation of specialized cellular systems is known to occur in response to certain proteolytic enzymes. A blastemal extract was prepared from the regenerating forelimbs of Ambystoma iriginum. Various amounts of this extract v/ere injected into digital amputee rats. Longitudinal micron sections made of the stump region revealed no significant dif- | ferences between treated and control animals. The action of selected proteolytic en- | zymes is also discussed. | TECHNIQUE FOR MORE ACCURATE MEASUREMENT OF THE U. S. I WEATHER BUREAU EVAPORATION PAN— J. R. Singer and L. W. Sloat, j Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. j ! A new technique for reading evaporation from a standard U. S. Weather Bureau | evaporation pan has been developed. A secondary magnification phenomenon, j created by the shadow of the standard “J” hook, allows accurate interpolation of | readings to the nearest 0.001 inch. Pictures are included. | Saturday Morning, March 13. Division B. : CONSIDERATIONS IN TOTAL, INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CARBON | ANALYSIS — M. A. Champ, W. J. Clark, and W. D. Langley, Texas A&M Uni- j versity. College Station. j CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF SANITARY LANDFILL ! LEACHATE — H. Nugent Myrick, Stephen Weber, and Barbara Wilson, The ! University of Houston, Houston. | CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS OF METALLIC IONS WITH SULFIDE ION j IN POLLUTED NATURAL WATERS— H. Nugent Myrick, The University | of Houston, Houston. I THE BACTERIA IN CHLORINATED WATER OF THE SWIMMING POOL— | W. C. Stevens and Cleddy Varner, Abilene Christian College, Abilene. ECOLOGY AND THE U. S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS— Sewell H. Hopkins, Texas A&M University, College Station. Since October 1968 I have been serving as a consultant to the Corps on the effects of engineering works on the ecology of coastal waters. My colleagues and I have identified a dazen types of engineering projects whose ecological effects should be i studied during the planning stage of the project, and have outlined the kind of study j needed in each case. ; ABSTRACTS 603 During this 2”year period seYeral things have happened that have radically changed the role of the Corps in relation to the environment. Many conservationists, unaware of these changes, probably think of the Corps as an enemy, but actually it is potentially their strongest ally. In March 1967 the Corps refused to grant a permit for a dredge-and-fill type of real estate development in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. To make a test case, they gave as their reason the detrimental effects that this construction would have on fish and wildlife. This led to a landmark court case, as expected — ^the Zabel-Russell Case. In December 1968 the judge of the U.S. District Court at Tampa decided in favor of Zabel and Russell, expressing the opinion that the Corps did not have authority to deny a permit for reasons other than navigation. In July 1970, however, the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals at New Orleans reversed this decision, on the grounds that Congress plainly intended that conversation be considered in granting permits, and that the Corps of Engineers, as the only federal agency concerned with licensing such projects, should consult with other agencies and take ecological factors into account. Four days later the Corps announced new requirements for granting permits to discharge industrial wastes into navigable waters, making water quality the guid¬ ing criterion. Applicants must give full descritpions of the amount and composition of such discharges. Federal and State water quality agencies must approve before the Corps grants waste discharge permits. These recent developments put the Corps into a key position, making it the ac¬ tion agency for carrying out recommendations of ecologists and environmental en¬ gineers. They also create a demand for more environmental experts than are avail¬ able now in either federal or state agencies, to advise the Corps. Right now the Corps is going outside of government agencies, to universities and private com¬ panies, for some of the research and information needed in planning its own projects. It also needs many more ecologists in its own organization to advise on requests for permits and to participate in the planning of Corps projects. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND TEXAS LAW— David R. Strenck, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. The Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development reported to the 90th Congress that if society will not voluntarily refrain from destroying the environ¬ ment, then the quality of our habitat must be maintained through regulations based on accurate scientific and technological information. The greatest present obstacle to implementaing an effective pollution control program is the lack of adequate scientific understanding of the environment. Regional pollution control agencies are usually divided according to the environmental medium into which waste products are deposited. This division comes from the failure to recognize the interrelationships between water, air, and land. Our air and water can no longer carry in dilution the pollutants which are now being discharged. In terms of weight greatest contributor ot pollution is from sources of air pollution. The greatest inadequacy of the presently defined air quality stan¬ dards is that they are not based on an understanding of the chemical nature of the atmosphere where there occurs an interaction among many pollutants. The most important power possessed by a pollution control agency is the power to set standards for air and water quality. A 2nd important power is that of granting a permit or variance to a potential polluter. Pennsylvania and Texas are the only 604 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE major industrialized states that do not grant tax incentives for the installation of pollution abatement equipment. The basic philosophy of the Texas Water Quality Act and Clean Air Act centers on persuading offenders to cease polluting the environment voluntarily. Neverthe¬ less, thees agencies simply lack funds for providing adequate educational programs. Local units of government lack adequately trained personnel and are unwilling to prosecute powerful local economic interests. Texas needs one unified agency which can effectively prosecute violators. SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE CONDITION AND BIOCHEMICAL CON¬ STITUENTS OF THE BRACHISH-WATER CLAM, RANGIA CUNEATA (GRAY) — C. A. Bedinger, Jr., Texas A&M University, College Station. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF HYDROMEDUSAE IN A GULF COAST ES¬ TUARY, MISSISSIPPI SOUND— Philip D. Philips, Texas A&M University, College Station. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON HEART RATE OF TERRAPENE ORNATA— Nancy J. Bethea, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Abstract: Continuous recordings of heart rate and body temperature of T errapene ornata were made over the temperature range of 40° to 33 °C. The greatest rate of change in the heart rate occurs from 10°C to 5°C during colloing and from 10°C to 15°C during warming. The rate of heating and cooling appears to be directly pro¬ portional to body size. Heart rate may be a function of body weight as well as tem¬ perature. EFFECT OF CHICKEN LUTENINIZING HORMONE ON ESTROGEN SYN¬ THESIS IN THE PULLET— John M. Burns, Texas Tech University, Lub¬ bock. It has been shown unequivocally by a number of investigators using a variety of end-points that the immature chicken ovary is responsive to non-avain gonadotropin. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of chicken LH on pullet ovarian estrogen synthesis. Thin-layer and gas-liquid chromatograph techniques | and a variety of extraction methods were employed to gain insight into the problem. Ovarian samples were taken at regular intervals from the day of hatching until the ; onset of laying. It was found that the pullet ovary did not respond to exogenous LH \ treatment until just prior to the onset of laying. ' AXIS DEER: A REPORT OF THEIR FORAGE UTILIZATION ON THE COAS- ; TAL PLAINS OF TEXAS— John C. Smith. ; Axis deer {Axis axis)^ native to India, Nepal, and Ceylon have successfully estab- j lished themselves as free ranging populations and are expanding throughout a large | portion of Central and South Texas. To date there are as many as 10,000 axis deer in ! Texas. [ The axis deer food habit study area was 18,000 acres of the Powderhorn Ranch | on the Texas coast. Approximately 1,300 axis deer were involved. The Powderhorn J Ranch is low Gulf coast rangeland. ! The bulk of the axis diet in India is grass; and in Hawaii it is forb and woody ' species. Based on these findings, the axis deer in Texas may compete with cattle, | white-tailed eder {Odocoileus virginianus) ^ sheep, and goats throughout the year. ' ABSTRACTS 605 The 9 major vegetation types on the study area are: (1) Over 5 ft. liveoaks {Quercus virginianus)^ (2) 2-5 ft. liveoak, (3) 0-2 ft. liveoak, (4) mechanically mowed area, (5) burned brush, (6) windmill influenced area, (7) high flat, (8) low flat, and (9) sedge-cordgrass flat. Axis deer prefer the mowed, windmill, and low flat types because their dominant vegetation is succulent grasses even though these types comprise only a small portion of the ranch. The dominant plants in the very general major vegetation types of brush, mowed, and flat are given. The 10-point and area quadrat methods were used to sample the vegetation. An animal bites technique was used to determine the food preference of axis deer. In 150 hours the tame axis doe took a total of 324,000 bites. Thirty-eight axis and 11 white-tailed deer were collected for rumen analysis during the study year (1969- 1970). The highest food preference of axis and whitetail deer is acorns. Two-thirds of the wild axis diet is grass. Three-fourths of the wild axis diet is grass and sedge. Axis deer eat only a small percentage of forb and woody species throughout the year. Grass and sedge comprised the major consumption by the tame axis doe, but she consumed a large percentage of forb and woody species especially during the winter and spring. The whitetail diet consisted of almost the opposite of the axis diet. Over 90% of the whitetail rumen contents were forb and woody species with woody species being % and forb species being ^ of that percentage. Competition for forage between axis and whitetail deer appears to be very little, but between axis and cattle the competition is great. When grass and sedge are not available in the desired quantity or quality axis are very capable of becoming highly competitive with whitetail for forb and woody species. When acorns are involved axis and whitetail will be highly competitive. Section VII — Chemical Sciences Friday Morning, March 12. MOBILITIES AND TRANSFERENCE NUMBERS OF POTASSIUM, HYDRO¬ GEN, AND CHLORIDE IONS IN DMSO-WATER AND ETHANOL- WATER SOLUSTIONS — B. J. Yager and P. Y. Smith, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. THERMAL STABILITY OF ORGANIC CHLORINE COMPOUNDS AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS FLAME RETARDANTS IN POLYOLEFINS— J. T. Horeczy, Esso Research and Engineering Co., Baytown. HIGH PRECISION SHEAR VISCOSITIES FOR VANDER WAALS LIQUIDS: NORMAL AND ISOMERIC ALKANES— L. D. Eicher and B. J. Zwolinski, Texas A&M University, College Station. SYNTHESES OF ALKYL PICOLYL KETONES AND DERIVATIVES— Timothy Weaver, Ty Gore, Harvey Rogers, and Eldon Sund, Midwestern University, Wichita Falls. Nine alkyl picolyl ketones were synthesized. Some of their physical constants were determined and picratee and hydantoin derivatives were prepared. 606 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE SYNTHESIS OF l-PHENYL-3,3-DIMETHYL-2-BUTANONE AND DERIVA¬ TIVES — ^Rodney Schumacher and Eldon Sund, Midwestern University, Wich¬ ita Falls.* * Research supported by the Robert A. Welch Foundation under Grant No. AO- l-Phenyl-3,3-dimethyl-2-butanone was synthesized after several different attempts had failed. Some of its physical constants were determined and derivatives were pre¬ pared and characterized. PERMEABILITY — G. S. Bright, Texaco, Inc., Port Arthur. Friday Afternoon, March 12. ADDING COLOR TO TECHNIQUE INSTRUCTION— Ann Benham, The Uni¬ versity of Texas at Arlington, Arlington. INVESTIGATION OF THE APPLICABILITY OF EXTENDED HUCKEL THE¬ ORY TO NON-HYDROCARBONS— Judy Varga, University of Colorado, Boulder. Molecular orbital calculations, within the framework of the extended Huckel formalism, are carried out for adducts of the form LiBHg, with L a Lewis base, and for small molecules and ions containing the nuclides ^^B, itq^ 3ip_ for the L:BH3 adducts, both the Cusachs and Wolfsberg-Helmholz formulae for the off-diagonal Hamiltonian matrix elements, Hj^, are employed. The wavefunctions and energies for each approximation are obtained with and without iteration to charge consistency. All other molecular orbital calculations are performed using charge iteration and the Cusachs formula for H^j. Valence state ionization potentials are used for the diagonal terms, Hj j, in all calculations. The extended Huckel wavefunctions and energies are then used to evaluate the X-H nmr spin-spin coupling constants according to the method of Pople and Santry, where X is one of the nuclides listed above. Calculation of the i^B-H coupling con¬ stants for the L:BH3 adducts indicates that use of charge iteration in conjunction with the Cusachs approximation for H^ ^ yields the most accurate coupling constants, and, thus, is assumed to have generated the most valid wavefunctions and energies. The calculated eigenfunctions appear more reliable than the eigenvalues. Iteration to charge consistency increases the magnitude of the i^B-H coupling constants, seemingly due to both an increase in the B-H bond strength and a decrease in the energy separations between the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals. | The agreement of the X-H coupling constants with experiment ranges from very j good for to faip for up and to poor for ^®F. Observed trends are not repro- | duced, but the magnitudes and signs of the calculated X-H coupling constants agree j very well with experimental results in view of the severe approximations inherent ! in the evaluation of the Hamiltonian matrix elements. STRUCTURAL STOICHIOMETRY OF TRANSFORMATION OF URIDINE | DIPHOSPHATE TO 5'-POLYURIDYLIC ACID (a) IN MILD ACID AND | (b) IN ALKALINE MEDIUM AS CONVERSION IS ACTUALLY CAR- 1 RIED OUT BY POLYNUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHORYLASE— W. W. Floyd, I Sam Houston State University, Huntsville. ! The general equation written by Grunberg-Manago and Ochoa for the conversion | ABSTRACTS 607 by polynucleotide phosphorylase of 5^-ribonucleoside dipho-sphates to 5'-polynucleo- tides is particularized to represent structurally the synthesis of n-mer 5'-polyuridyl- ate from uridine diphosphate at pH values of the medium of 1,2, 4, 9, and 12. Forms of substrate and products appearing in the following equations are those indicated by calculations made using ionization constants of orthophosphoric and 5^-ridine pyrophosphoric acids. At pH ca. 9, which is optimum for polynucleotide phosphorylase functioning, a single hydroxide ion cleaves off a left end substrate’s phosphate as the secondary ortho-ion, HP04. Formation of the internucleotide bonds of the polyuridylate pro¬ ceeds likewise, at this pH, by elimination of another secondary phosphate at every link site. In a medium of pH 4 or less, water enters into reaction with the left end substrate molecule. As normal 5 '-polyuridylate ion is synthesized at pH 12, hydroxide ions function as reactants, while water and normal phosphate ions are released to the medium. CHAIN TRANSFER REACTIONS WITH STYRENE AND METHY METHA¬ CRYLATE — R. B. Seymour, J. M. Sosa, and V. Patel, University of Houston, Houston. THE PRODUCTION AND REACTION OF MACRORADICALS— R. B. Seymour, P. Kincaid, and A. Patel, University of Houston, Houston. OXIDATION OF SECONDARY ALCOHOLS BY VANADIUM (V)— FAILURE OF THE HAMMETT RELATIONSHIP— N. Venkatasubramanian, B. G. Sudaram, and N. M. Trieff, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galves¬ ton. The kinetics of the oxidation of 1 -phenyl ethyl alcohol and several ring substituted 1 -phenyl ethyl alcohols by vanadium (V) in aqueous sulfuric acid-acetic acid mix¬ tures have been studied. The reaction does not exhibit any free radical characteris¬ tics. The application of the Hammett relationship yields a Yoncave-up’ curve. A mechanism involving a delicate balance between a one-electron and a 2-electron oxidation in the rate-determining step is proposed. Saturday Morning, March 13 COMPLEX OF, 1,10-PHENANTHROLINE WITH BIS (POLYCHLOROAL- KENYL) MERCURY — E. C. Hurdis and R. Lee, Texas Woman’s University, Denton. INFRARED SPECTRA OF HEX AC YANO- CHROMATE COMPLEXES— R. D. Compton and B. B. Curtice, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. TRACE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC ARSENIC— W. D. Efurd and M. Attrep, East Texas State University, Commerce. VINYL METALLICS AS LIGANDS — J. W. Fitch, Southwest Texas State Univer¬ sity, San Marcos. A SPECTROPHOMETRIC METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SO¬ DIUM DODECYLSULFATE-PROTEIN BINDING CAPACITY— C. R. Willms and E. A. Leimer, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos. A spectrophotometric method for the determination of sodium dodecyl sulfate 608 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (SDS) -protein (bovine serum albumin) has been developed. The method involves competitive binding of SDS and bromophenol blue (BPB) on the BSA molecule. The extent of SDS binding is determined by precipitation of the protein-dye- detergent complex with trichloroacetic acid. The concentration of unbound dye in the supernatant is an indication of the extent of SDS and BPB binding in the com¬ plex. The binding capacity of BSA for SDS determined by this method was 11 moles of SDS per mole of BSA. It was observed that BSA was capable of binding larger quantities of SDS, however, the available evidence indicates that this is a secondary binding. The partial specific volumes (V) of BSA, SDS, and the BSA-SDS complex were measured. The V of BSA, 0.736 ml./gm., and the V of SDS, 0.848 ml./gm., are in good agreement with values reported in the literature. The V of the complex, calcu¬ lated from the partial molal volumees of the protein and the ligand, and the molecu¬ lar weight of the complex is in a close agreement with the measured V of the com¬ plex. STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS OF SOME SELECTED B-ADREN- ERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS— OXIDATION WITH N-BROMOSUCCINI- MIDE — N. M. Trieff, N. Venkatasurbramanian, T. R. Young, and B. Levy, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Recently, the beta adrenergic blocking agents, related structurally to the cate¬ cholamine, isoproterenol, have been shown by Levy to fall into a number of classes of varying selectivity with regard to different tissues. To determine requirements for selectivity and potency of action, various physico-chemical parameters of the beta blockers were studied including the rate of oxidation of the alcoholic group by N-bromosuccinimide (NBS), molecular conformations, etc. This presentation em¬ phasizes the relation between rate of oxidation by NBS and the pharmacologic ent blocking agent — tissue combination. Data were obtained from the literature as activity of different beta blockers, as designated by pAg values, specified for a differ- well as from unpublished work of Wasserman and Levy. The kinetics of the oxida¬ tive reactions were all shown to be 2nd order, first order with respect to both the compound and NBS. Average pAg values for each drug, considering data for all tis- | sues, were plotted as ordinate vs. -log kg (the 2nd order rate constant) as abscissa. I Using data for all drugs: propranolol (Ayerst), pronethalol (Ayerst), USVP 65- i 24C (U.S. Vitamin and Pharmaceutical), practolol (Ayerst), butoxamine (Bur- ; roughs-Wellcome), H 35/25 (Hassle), and MJ 1999 (Mead Johnson), the correla¬ tion was not significant. However, if data from practolol, butoxamine (selective > agents) and MJ 1999 (data available for only one tissue) were omitted, a significant j correlation (at the 0.02 level) was obtained with the regression equation: i pAg = 11.170 — 2.074 (—log kg) (= — 0.987) I Molecular models suggest that butoxamine exhibits selective pharmacologic action ' for vascular tissues due to its rigid structure which prevents its adjustment of con- | formation to beta receptors in other tissues. The precise reason for selectivity of | practolol for cardiac beta receptors is unknown, although one may hypothesize that I, the acetamido group may provide alternate binding sites to the receptor which are [ not as effective attachment points as the alcohol and amine groups on the side chain, i ELEMENTS 104, AND 105 AND THE PERIODIC CHART— L. F. Bate, Huston : Tillotson College, Austin. ABSTRACTS 609 THE TWO-PHASE REGION OF THE TEMPERATURE VS CONCENTRATION GRAPH FOR Rb-NH3 SOLUTION— R. L. Davis, Del Mar College, Corpus Ghristi. Sharp breaks in the temperature vs conductivity graphs occur for 4%, 5%, and 7 % Rb-NHg solutions. These changes in slope signal a separation of the solution into 2 liquid phases. PROPERTIES OF ALPHAKETO ACIDS— METAL ION COMPLEXES— S. Bry¬ ant, J. Smith, V. M. Doctor, Prairie View A&M College, Prairie View, Section Vlll^Science Education Friday Morning, March 12. PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE 3RD, 4TH, AND 5TH GRADES OF JACKSON COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI SCHOOLS— Morris V. Maniscalco, LeTourneau College, Longview. This 1965 study was designed so that the author could look into some problems concerning elementary science teaching. Although the study dealt with one county in Mississippi, many of the problems defined in the study are somewhat characteris¬ tic of other counties as well as other states. At the elementary level, the foundation is laid from which secondray and higher education courses can draw. Science is singled out, but this is true of all fields for the CHILD is ready to grow in new knowledge, but the TEACHER falis in building the strong foundation for later knowledge. Why? From a return of 68 questionnaires (82%) — 63 females, 5 males — it was found that 54 of the teachers were educated specifically to teach the elementary grades and 14 were trained for the secondary grades. Of the science courses taken in high school and/or college, Biology (68%) was at the top of the list. Some 54% of those ersponding felt that Biology was important to elementary teachers. Chemistry showed 40% and 18%, respectively. It was found that some teachers (about 5%) try to teach science at these formative years without themselves ever taking a science course in high school or college. The study did reveal that about 70% of the teachers had taken a methods course in the teaching of elementary science. Thus, 30% of the teachers are unprepared to plant the seeds of science in our children's naturally inquisitive minds. This is hard to understand when 84% of these same teachers felt that the main objective of science in the elementary grades was to help children develop their curiosity. In concluding these findings, it was found that the elementary teachers on a whole were not qualified to teach science, did not have the equipment, interest, or desire to develop a worthwhile science program. AN IN-DEPTH EXPERENCE PROGRAM IN SCIENE METHODS INSTRUC¬ TION-ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL— Joseph Strehele, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, and Audean Allman, Texas Southern University, Houtson THE DESIGN OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING GUIDES— David P. Butts, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. 610 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Professional education is said to be irrelevant and boring. An answer to today’s critics is the approach of the Personalized Teacher Education Program of the Re¬ search and Development Center in Teacher Education at the University of Texas. The basic assumption of this program is that learning will be more effective if it is selected, sequenced, and paced on the basis of personal concern expressed by the learner. In this program learning experiences are provided as resolutions of aroused concerns. To assess better the learner the instructor has data which can be fed back to the student to make him aware of his performance. Skillful interpretation of that data with the student, especially comparing his individual performance to desired standards, provides a means for arousing the concerns of the student who acquires specific competencies. Then instructional programs or sequences are provided whereby the student can resolve his aroused concern and be ready for a new assess¬ ment. Personalized Teacher Education thus is an individualized and diagnostic ap¬ proach to learning. It is unique for each individual. A description of the Self-Directed Learning Guides is given which is followed by a comparison of students acquisition of behavior in both group-based instruction and self-paced instruction. Within the limitations of the study, which utilized intact groups of college stu¬ dents, it is clear that self-paced instruction results in significantly more successful student performance. One possible interpretation of this finding is to confirm that it is highly unlikely that 30 individuals are ready for the same instruction at the same time. Instruction as a resolution of an aroused concern can only be applicable to a small subset of the group of 30 students when that instruction is offered only on a group basis. If, on the other hand, that instruction is offered at a time, through assessment, when the individual is aware of his needs, aroused to action, and re¬ solved in instruction changes in student behavior are both observable and beneficial. DIMENSIONS OF THE PHYSICS CLASSROOM: A FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY — T. C. Smith, Jr., University of Houston, Houston. CHEM STUDY AND TRADITIONAL CHEMISTRY: A NEXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS — Clifford A. Hardy, North Texas State University, Denton. THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE CUR¬ RICULUM MATERIALS DESIGNED TO PROVE STUDENT ATTITUDES — -James L. Milson, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, and Earl J. Montague, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. MEASUREMENT OF PROBLEM SOLVING BEHAVIOR IN RELATION TO THE PROCESSES OF SCIENCE — James L. Connor, University of Houston, Houston. Friday Afternoon, March 12. TO SHOW AND EXPLAIN AUDIO TUTORIAL PROGRAMS DEVELOPED BY 9, 10, 11 YEAR OLDS IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE AND BY INSTRUC¬ TOR — John D. Hunt, Dick Dowling Nongraded Elementary School. A MULTIDISCIPLINE APPROACH TO TEACHING AN ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY COURE — Dave Montgomery and Bobby Walters, Paris Junior Col¬ lege, Paris. ABSTRACTS 611 ADAPTIONS OF SCIENCE— A PROCESS APPROACH FOR SPECIAL EDUCA¬ TION: MATERIALS AND TEACHING TECHNIQUES— John T, Wilson, John J. Koran, Jr. and Robert E. Norton, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION IN THE MARINE SCIENCE FOR THE SIX THROUGH TEN YEAR OLD— Lloyd M. Bennett, Texas Woman^s Uni¬ versity, Denton. A PROGRAM OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION IN SCIENCE (PHYS¬ ICS) FOR THE PRE-SERVICE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER— Leo Gerald Mahoney, University of Houston, Houston. AN APPROACH TO INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION IN SCIENCE- MATH EDUCATION — Milton Payne, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of individualizing the sec¬ ondary education methods course for science and math majors upon the following variables: (1) the students attitude toward the course and (2) the students attitude and behavior toward individualizing instruction as evidenced by his subsequent per¬ formance in student teaching. The process of individualizing the course consisted of 5 phases in which objectives, activities, and evaluation procedures were developed cooperatively by the instructor and members of the class. Implementation of the learning plan consisted of a diag¬ nostic pre-test, 8 large group meetings, and 30 days of individualized learning and instruction. During this time an average of 4 hours per day was spent by the in¬ structor in assisting and guiding individual and small groups of students toward the course objectives. Thirty-seven students were enrolled in the seminar. Upon completion of the 9-week seminar, 35 began and completed 9 weeks of full time student teaching. Sixty-three student teachers representing 6 other methods seminars were randomly selected as a control group for the study. Three instruments were used to collect data. The Purdue Student Teacher Opin- ionaire was used to gather information as to the attitude of the student teachers toward their methods course. A questionnaire was used to determine the cooperating teachers ratings of the performance of the student teachers. A questionnaire was also used to determine the extent to which the student teacher felt that his methods semi¬ nar prepared him for 8 general teaching competencies. A brief description of the competencies is as follows: 1) Instructional Planning, 2) Ability to Use Educational Media, 3) Ability to Use Examples, Problems, etc. Beyond the Text book, 4) Tries Different Methods and Approaches in Teaching, 5) Awareness of and Provision for Individual Differences, 6) Self-Analysis of Teaching Behavior, 7) Readiness for Teaching, and 8) Teaching with Strategies Which Stimulate Thinking and Problem Solving. The items on the cooperating teacher’s and the student teacher’s questionnaire were the same with the exception of one item. A 9th item on both questionnaires asked the cooperating teacher to rate the student teacher on a 5 point scale from poor to excellent. The student teacher was asked to rate Ms methods course on the same scale. Results of the study tend to support the theory that the approach to teaching used 612 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE in educational methods couses can, in fact, have a significant positive effect upon the student’s subsequent performance in student teaching and upon his attitude toward the methods course. Analysis of data revealed that students in the control group were rated consistently higher on each of the 9 questionnaire items than were students in the experimental group. Students in the control group also rated their methods course consistently higher on each of the questionnaire items than did stu¬ dents in the control group. OBSERVATION: A METHOD FOR DISCOVERY— Paul J. Cowan, North Texas State University, Denton. A CORE CURRICULUM AT THE TEXAS WOMAN’S UNIVERSITY— R. A. Gerdes and E. W. Hupp, Texas Woman’s University, Denton. A look at the catalog from most schools will show stagnation, new courses piled on to old, new emphasis upon old. Little change can result when an outmoded course or concept is retained just because it has always been there. Prior to 1968, at The Texas Woman’s University, a required sequence of courses which had seen little re¬ cent change gave the students few if any options and little incentive to pursue Bio- Sciences. 38 hours of specific course work was required for the Biology Major, hence few if any electives could be pursued by the student. In the period 1968-1971 a real evolution has begun in the Biology Department. As is true with the evolution of a species, this is a slow arduous procedure. But, it began and is continuing today. An active departmental curriculum committee presently is working toward further changes in the programs of the Department. The evolution meant a modification in the first 2 years, perhaps it is still too rigid, but experience seemed to show a definite need for the material presented in these courses. The Junior-Senior years were modi¬ fied to provide student choice. A core option sequence allows choice from several advanced courses, to these lists others will be added. With these “core” course elec¬ tives may be chosen to complete the degree requirements. Present contemplation is upon even more reduction of the structural requirements, with perhaps the initia¬ tion of new course sequences to provide for aroused student interest. Such areas as | Environmental Studies, Physiology, and Cell Biology are being reevaluated as to the j student needs and desires. j THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF DRUGS: AN UNDERGRADUATE I ORGANIC CHEMISTRY EXPERIMENT— Robert L. Neman, Laredo Junior i College, Laredo. ! SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN UNDERGRADUATE MATHEMATICS | AND UNDERGRADUATE MATHEMATICS EDUCATION— Llayron L. | Clarkson, Texas Southern University, Houston. j THE PLANETARIUM: EDUCATION OR ENTERTAINMENT— H. Rich Cal- I vird„ Planetarium, El Paso Independent School District, El Paso. | MODERNIZATION OF SCIENCE EDUCATION LABORATORIES ON A SHOE- I STRING BUDGET — Wendall N. Spreadbury, Stephen F. Austin State Uni- i versity, Nacogdoches. ! Specific and formulated advice for setting up elementary and/or secondary science : education laboratories for the training of teachers in old or newly constructed, but | traditional buildings relative to physical facilies, inventory costs and placement i ABSTRACTS 613 based on a priority rating. Article excludes mention of any laboratory apparatus or curriculum associated kits; however, design aids allow for any type of science edu¬ cation approach; ESS, IPS, etc. Priority rating is; 1) lighting, 2) accoustics, 3) furniture, 4) floor covering, 5) wet lab hardware, 6) storage, 7) AV-TV facilities, and 8) AC electrical outlets. Reasons for priority sequence is detailed. DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE* RELATED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS— Roger D. Anderson, Texas A&M University University, College Station. TEACHING THE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES— James E. Dudley, Camp Tyler, Tyler Independent School District, Tyler. SOCIETY-ORIENTED BIOLOGY COURSE— J. Van Overbeek, Texas A&M Uni¬ versity, College Station. EXPERIENCE WITH READING-DISCUSSION COURSES IN BIOLOGY FOR NON-MAJORS — Joseph Q. Heplar, Huston-Tillotson College, Austin. A modified version of the Hutchins general education curriculum, as developed at the University of Chicago, is practiced at a small liberal arts college in Illinois. The student is exposed to the sciences in a sequence labeled Natural Sciences I through IV. Nat Sci I pursues the historical events in the development of atomic theory, while Nat Sci III is concerned with the physical concepts formulated by Galileo, Newton, Huygens, Fresnel, Maxwell, Einstein, and Planck. Nat Sci II analizes the Nature of the Living Organism, based largely on primary sources. The semester’s readings include: Origin of Species, and Voyage of the Beagle by Darwin; An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, Claude Bernard; Great Experiments in Biology, ed. by Gabriel and Fogel; An Introduction to Comparative Biochemistry, Baldwin; Heat and Life, Mendelsohn; Circulation and Respiration, ed. by Graubard; Mirage of Health, Dubos; To Know a Fly, Dethier; The Ecologi¬ cal Theater and the Evolutionary Play, Hutchinson. Scientific American offprints are used to provide background. Nat Sci IV attempts to integrate the relationships between the biological and physical sciences, with overtones on philosophical and cosmological issues. Genetics is stressed. Readings include: Atom and Organism, Elsasser; What is Life, Schrod- inger; On Growth and Form, Thomson; Fitness of the Environment, Henderson; Science and the Modern World, Whitehead; Interrelations — Biological and Physical Sciences, ed. by Robert Blackburn. Scientific American offprints are likewise added for enrichment. Classes range from 15 to 18 students, meeting for 80 minute periods twice weekly. A weekly hour lecture provides additional background. At best, discussion is gener¬ ated by the students, with the teacher as mere participant; on off days, or amidst technical difficulty, silence will reign or the instructor must perforce become the dominant vocalizer. A lively class will spontaneously and incessantly strive towards the clearly defined goal of the course: how and why are the author’s conclusions reached. Dull classes do exist. Examinations are designed, dependent on the imagination of the instructor, to assess the student’s presumably increasing analytical powers for solving problems. However, inasmuch as the faculty is rather a mixed bag, this evaluative phase of the students and hence, of the program itself, is probably the weakest aspect of the school. Unfortunately, theer is no laboratory work to complement the readings- discussion. 614 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A NON-LECTURE SCIENCE COURSE FOR NON-SCIENCE MAJORS— Alex¬ ander J. Dossier, Rice University, Houston. PHYSICAL SCIENCE TEXAS STYLE— Max C. Bolen, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso. The Texas Education Agency has had developed for it a “Resource Guide” for high school physical science (9th grade) teachers. It is process oriented and it is hoped, through its use, teachers can make physical science more relevant to the stu¬ dent. This is designed to help especially the large group of students that do not take Chemistry and/or Physics. This is a report of workshops and inservice training for teachers, who in general have a weak background in Physics and Chemistry. PHYSICS JUST FOR FUN— AN INDIVIDUALIZED COURSE USING HAR¬ VARD PROJECT PHYSICS— John G. Payne, Plano High School, Plano. VERBAL INTERACTION PATTERNS IN SELECTED PHYSICS CLASSES— T. C. Smith, Jr., University of Houston, Houston. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALIZED AND SELF-PACED INSTRUC¬ TIONAL MATERIALS FOR SCIENCE IN THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS — David R. Stronck, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin. From 1961 to 1963 Dr. Burkman at Florida State University held conferences to define appropriate materials for teaching science in grades 7 through 9. The scholars at these conferences advocated a course which would be entirely activity-centered in the laboratory, individualized, and self-paced. In the summer of 1964 this group developed 150 laboratory exercises, which became the new program “Pondering Pushes and Pulls” used in some schools in 1965-66. The United States Office of Education began funding the organization as the Intermediate Science Curriculum Study in June of 1966. Funding came because of the innovations proposed and be¬ cause of the use of computers to test the responses of students to the new materials as they were designed. Later the NSF joined in the contributions which are now over 2million dollars. More than 300 writers have contributed to the production of materials. Over 70,000 students in 22 states have been used in the evaluation of trial editions. In the fall of 1970 Silver Burdett published the 7th-grade materials which empha¬ size basic principles of science. The 8th-grade program which stresses chemical models will be ready in 1971. In 1972 there will be published a series of 9th-grade blocks; each block requires 6 to 8 weeks of experimentation in biology or the earth sciences. All of these materials have a story-line or central core of work which is accompanied by remedial excursions for students lacking certain required skills and enrichment excursions for students of superior ability. The staff of the ISCS has used 5 different tests produced by independent com¬ panies to compare ISCS students with others. Dr. Gentry in Riverside, California, did a comparative study of ISCS with 6 other programs used in his school district. In general ISCS students have performed as well or better than students in other programs. A doctoral dissertation reports on changes in teacher behavior when using the ISCS materials. A COMPUTER SCIENCE COURSE FOR THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL— Darrell D. Haywood, Clear Creek High School, Clear Creek. The Texas Journal of Science Index to Volume XXIII Printed in Austin, Texas U.S.A. by The University of Texas Printing Division Published by THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 19 7 2 A Abelian groups, subgroup orbits, 431 Acacia, sp., 58 Acarinina, praecursoria, 174 Acer, negundo, 230 rubrum, 72, 73, 232 drummondii, 232 tridens, 232 saccharum, 232 acid-base mechanisms, boron compounds, 107 Actinastrum, sp., 147 Actitus, macularia, 61 adrenal corticosteroidogenesis, 265 Aesculus, discolor, 74 Agrimonia, microcarpa, 76 Agrostis, perennans, 76 Ajaia, ajaia, 59 “Albino Geomys bursarius in Texas,” by E. D. Michael, R. J. Taylor, and 'D. L. Wilkinson, 299. algae, in fish, 146 pond water, 84 Texas, 84, 146 “Algae (Chlorophyta and Chrysophyta) in The Lateral-Line Canals of a Giz¬ zard Shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Pisces; Clupeidae)”, by H. W. Reno and F, F. Davidson, 146 Alnus, serrulata, 72, 75, 231 “Alterations in In Vitro Adrenal Corticosteroidogenesis Following Goitrogen Administration to Rats”, by J. L. McCarthy and L. W. Laury, 265 Altig, R. “Descriptive Notes on the Tadpoles of Pseudacris ornata and Bufo alvarius” 301 Amblema, costata, 382, 383, 386, pUcata, 382, 383, 385, 386, 387, 388, 390 Amburgey, J. K., T, O. Lewis, and T. L, Boullion, “A Note on Rectangular Matrices,” 503 Amir-Moez, A. R., “Mathematical Induction in Geometry,” 291 Amnicola, Integra, 457 limosa, 457 sp., 457 ^ Amonosterium, lichtensioides, 319 Amorpha, paniculata, 74 Amelopsis, cor data, 231 amphibians, Arizona, 301 behavior, 433 cave, 343 Costa Rica, 433 evolution, 343 Louisiana, 301 osteology, 343 South Carolina, 301 spermatozoa, 363 tadpoles, 301 Texas, 343 Amphicarpa, hracteata, 76 Anahena, sp., 84 Anas, cyanoptera, septentrionalium, 59 Andropogon, scoparius, 75, 76 diver gens, 75 ternarius, 75, 76 Anguilla, rostrata, 183 616 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Anguispira, alternata, 458 Anhinga, anhinga, leucogaster, 59 Anhydrophryne, sp., 44, 50, Anisosticus, capriolaius, 74 Anodonta, corpulenta, 382, 383, 384, 386, 390, 391, Antonina, boutelouae, 321 graminis, 322 hortoni, 324 parrotti, 326 Antonin aides, parrotti, 326, 328 ants, raiding columns, 556 Anura, cranial morphology, 29 Ara, militaris, 62 Aralia, spinosa, 230 Aratinga, canicularis, 60, 62 Archosargus, sp., 182 Arcidens, confragosus, 382, 383, 386 Ardea, herodias, treganzai, 59 Arenaria, interpres, 61 Ariosoma, sp., 183 Arisaema, triphyllum, 76 Aristida, lanosa, 76 sp., 326 Arizona, amphibians, 301 Artemesia, filifolia, 319 frigida, 319 Arkansas, population migration patterns, 129 Asclepias, sp., 76 tuberosa, 76 Ascyrum, hypericoides, 74 Ash, Pearlette, 403 Asimina, parviflora, 71, 74 triloba, 232 Aspidogaster, conchiola, 382, 383, 386, 389 Aster, lateriflorus, 76 patens, 76 phyllolepis, 76 Atalopedes, campestris, 280 Athryium, filix-femina, 76 atmospheric coupling, 471 ATPase, erythrocyte membrane, 235 automorphisms. Abelian groups, 431 Avena, growth, 253 Axonopus, affinis, 76 B Baccharis, halimifolia, 74 sp., 329 Baccus, J. T., R. E. Greer and G. G. Raun “Additional Records of Baiomys taylori (Rodentia: Cricetidae) for Northern Texas”, 148 Baiomys, taylori, 6, 7, 148 Bairdiella, chrysura, 182 sp., 182 Baldauf, R. J., see Tanzer, E. C. Baptisia, nuttalliana, 75, 76 Bartholomew, L., and K. D. Mace, “Method for Separation of Plant Plasmalemma for Phospholipid Analysis”, 435 Barton, H. L. and S. K. Guttman, “Low Temperature Preservation of Toad Spermatozoa (Genus Bufo)”, 363 Bathystoma, rimator, 182 Bauzaia, sp., 184 behavior, amphibians, 433 effects of chemical agents, 519 fish, 519 snakes, 300, 556 tadpoles, 433 tortoise, 300 wasps, 275 “Behavior of Blind Snakes {Leptoty- phlops dulcis) in Response to Army Ant {N eivamyrmex nigrescens) Raiding Columns”, by J, F. Watkins, II,F. R. Gehlbach, and R. W. Plsek, 556 Berchemia, scandens, 74, 232 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 617 Berlandiera, betonicifolia, 76 Berthelotia sericae, 329 Betta, splendens, 519 Betula, nigra, 232 BiddulpMa, sp., 147 Bidens, ) polylepis, 76 Bignonia, capreolata, 230 “Big Thicket Forest of East Texas”, by C. A. McLeod, 221 “Bionomics of Stictia carolirm at Lake Texoma, with Notes on Some Neo¬ tropical Species (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)”, by C. S. Lin, 275 birds, gastroliths, 179 Louisiana, 180 Mexico, 57 skeletal preparation, 147 Bison, antiquus, 399, 460 latifrons, 393 occidentalis, 399 17BNMR, 107 Botrychium, tenuifolium, 76 Boullion, T. L., see Amburgey, J. K. Bouteloua, hirsuta, 321 racemosa, 325 sp., 326 Brachiopoda, Gulf of Mexico, 553 Texas, 553 Brachycephalus, sp., 35 Brachygalaxias, bullocki, 530 B rayodendron, texanum, 329 “Breeding Season and Early Develop¬ ment of Brachygalaxis bullocki (Osteichthyes: Galaxiidae)”, by H. Campos, 530 Bregmaceros, sp., 182, 184 Brown, H. O. and S. K. Chattopadhyay, “Properties of Solubilized and Matrix- Supported Erythrocyte Membrane ATPase”, 235 Bucephalus, cuculus, 387 elegans, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 391 Bufo, alvarius, 301 americanus, 364 cognatus, 303 marinus, 433 microscaphus, 303 punctatus, 49 sp., 36, 42, 44, 50 woodhousii, 303 ''Bufo marinus Tadpole Aggregations, Notes on”, by M. A. Mares, 433 Bulimulus, dealbatus, 459 sp., 459 Buteo, magnirostris, 60 nitidus, 60 Buteogallus, anthracinus, 60 Brevoortia, sp., 182 C Callicarpa, americana, 71, 74, 230 Callipepla, squamata, 60 Calocitta, formosa, 64 Campos, H. “Breeding Season and Early Development of Brachygalaxias bullocki (Osteichthyes: Galaxiidae),” 530 Caracara, cheriway , 60 “Carbon-14 Containing Compounds Produced by the Pile Neutron Irradiation of Tetramethylammonium Chloride,” by D. W. Rathburn, 201 Carex, albo lutescens, 76 crebri flora, 76 debilis, 76 digitalis, 76 howei, 76 muhlenbergii, 76 Carpinus, caroliniana, 67, 71, 72, 73, 231 Carya, aquaiica, 231 cordiformis, 231 myristiciformis, 231 ovata, 231 sp., 72, 73 texana, 231 tomentosa, 231 Carychium, exiguum, 458 exile, 458 Casmerodius, albus, egretta, 59 Cassadix, mexicanus, 66 618 Cassia, fasiculata, 76 fasiculata, 76 nicititans, 76 sp., 58 Cassiculus, melanicterus , 66 Castanea, pumila, 72, 230 Cataenococcus, olivaceus, 328 Catapsydrax, sp., 172 Cathartes, aura, 60 Catoptrophorus, semipalmatus, 61 cave, salamanders, 343 Texas, 343 Celtis, laevigatus, 72, 232 Cenchrus, pauciflorus, 76 Centurus, hypopolinus, 63 Cephalanthus, occidentalis, 74, 230 Cerceri, simplex, graphica, 277 Cercis, canadensis, 72, 232 Ceryle, alcyon, 63 Chambless, J. W., see Michael, E. D. Chara, baueri, 456 vulgaris, 456 “Characteristics of a Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus) Population Cycle,” by H. Haines, 3 Charadrius, alexandrinus, 61 collaris, 61 Chattopadhyay, S. K., see Brown, H. D. chemical industry, economics, 115 Texas, 115 “Chemical Limnology of a Developing Reservoir (Lake Meredith) in the Texas Panhandle,” by W. A. Cooper, R. S. Hestand, III, and C. E. Newton, 241 Chile, fish, 530 Chionanthus, virginicus, 72, 73, 231 Chloris, sp., 327 Chorizococcus, alkalinus, 330, 331 aphyllonis, 333, 334 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE neomexicanus, 332, 333, 334, 335 rostellum, 334 Chordeiles, sp., 63 Cionella, luhrica, 459 Circus, cyaneus, hudsonius, 60 Cissilopha, san-blasiana, 64 Classification, foraminifera, 167 Clematis, drummondii, 74 Cnidoscolus, texanus, 76 Cocculus, carolinus, 74 Cochlearius, cochlearius, zeldoni, 59 Columba, flavirostra, 61 “Combat Behavior in Male Great Plains Ground Snakes {Sonora episcopa episcopa) ”, by J. C. Kroll, 300 Commelina, erecta, 76 compounds, acid-base mechanisms, 107 boron, 107 Conchostraca, Texas, 295 conductivity, effects of solvent systems, 89 determination, 497 Rb-NHs solutions, 497 “Contributions to the Cranial Morph¬ ology of Eleutherodactylus rugulosus (Cope) (Anura: Leptodactylidae).” by E. C. Tanzer and R. J. Baldauf, 29. Conyza, canadensis, 76 Cooper, W. A., R. S. Hestand III, and C. E. Newton, “Chemical Limnology of a Developing Reservoir (Lake Meredith) in the Texas Panhandle,” 241 “Coprophagy in the Texas Tortoise, Gopherus berlandieri,'” by M. A. Mares, 300 Coragypus, atratus, 60 Cornish, J. V. see King, H. G. Cornus, floridana, 71, 72, 73, 231 stricta, 232 Corvus, ossifragus, imparatus, 64 Cosmarium, sp., 84 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 619 Costa Rica, amphibians, 433 volcano, 557 Cotylapsis, insignis, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 389. 390 Cowley, T. W., see Yager, B. J. Craig, J. R., see Reeves, C, C., Jr. Crania, sp., 553 “'''Crania sp. (Brachiopoda) from Texas Waters,” by J. W. Tunnell, 553 Cratageus, brachyantha, 230 marshallii, 231 opaca, 231 spathulata, 231 viridis, 72 Cretaceous, minerals, 554 Texas, 554 Cribrohantkenina, inflata, 173 Crinia, georgiana, 35 sp., 33,39,41,42, 45, 50 Crotalaria, sagittalus, 76 Croton, glandulosus, 76 Crotophaga, sulcirostris, 63 Crustacea,, Texas, 297, 381 Cuscuta, compacta, 76 Cyclops, sp., 83 Cynodon, dactylon, 334 Cyonoscion, sp., 182 Cyprinodon, rubrofluviatilis, 376, 377, 378 Cyprus, r etr of r actus, 76 Cynilla, racemiflora, 230 D Dactylopius, brevipes, 319, 337, 338 lichtensioides, 332 kingii, neomexicanus, 332 olivaceus, 328 Dasychloa, pulchella, 327, 337 Dasypus, novemcinctus, 148 Davidson, F. F., see H. W. Reno Davis, B. J. “A New Size Record for The Louisiana Pine Snake, Pituophis melanoleucas ruthvenV\ 145 Davis, R, L. and E. W. LeMaster, “An Electrodeless Method for Determining Conductivity of Rb-NH, Solutions”, 479 Dendroica, graciae, 65 nigrescens, 65 petechia, 65 density, population, 511 Deroceras, aenigma, 458 sp., 458 “Descriptive Notes on The Tadpoles of Pseudacris ornata and Bufo alvarius^\ by R. Altig, 301 Desmondium, ciliare, 76 laevigatum, 76 nudiflorum, 76 paniculatum, 76 sessifolium, 76 sp., 75 viridifLorum, 76 “Determination of Acid-Base Mecha¬ nisms of Boron-Containing Compounds — Applications of “BNMR”, by R. Logan, 10'7 development, fish, 371, 530 “Developmental Rates and Tolerances of The Plains Killifish, Fundulus kansae, and Comparison with Related Fish”, by S. Wilson and C. Hubbs, 371 Diaptomus, sp., 83 diatoms, 84 Didelphis, marsupialis, 148 “Dietary Simple Sugars and Coronary Thrombosis: A Critique of Yudkin’s Inferred Relationship”, by J. T. Thurmond, 305 Digitaria, villosa, 76 dimethyl-sulfoxide solvent system, 89 Dioscorea, villosa, 74 dioxane-water solvent mixtures, 210 Diplomonorchis, leiostoma, 553 Discus, cronkhitae, 458 Distichliococcus, alkalinus, 331 dasychloae, 335, 336 Distichlis, sp., 332, 432 Dixon, M. A., “Fish Otolith Assemblage of A Gastrolithic Beach Gravel”, 179 620 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Dorosoma^ cepedianum, 146 Dryocopus, lineatus, 63 Dysmicoccus, brevipes, 337, 338 difficilis, 339 texensis, 339 E Echinacea, pallida, 76 economics, Texas chemical industry, 115 “Effect of Additives on the Photolysis of Polystyrene and Model Compounds”, by R .B. Seymour and H. S. Tsang, 187 “Effects of Ethanol-Water and Dimethyl Sulfoxide- Water Solvent Systems on the Conductivity of Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, and Potassium Chloride”, by B. J. Yager and T. W. Cowley, 89 “Effects of Pulp Mill Water on Plankton and Productivity”, by E. D. Michael and J. W. Chambless, 81 “Effects of Various Osmotic Agents on Elongation of Avena Coleoptile Seg¬ ments”, by G. G. Farr and W. E. Norris, Jr., 253 Eisenberg, R. M., “A Critical Look at the Use of Lincoln Index-Type of Models for Estimating Population Density”, 511 Elachistocleis, sp., 35 “Electrodeless Method for Determining Conductivity of Rb-NH^ Solutions”, by R. L, Davis and E. W, LeMaster, 497 “Electron Scattering from Nuclei, and Nuclear Structure”, by M. A. K. Lodhi, 421 Eleocharis, obtusa, 76 Elephantopus, carolinianus, 76 tomentosus, 75, 76 Eleutherodactylus, rugulosus, 29 Empidonax, sp., 64 “Environmental Pollution and Texas Law”, by D. R. Stronck, 439 Eragrostis, hirsute, 76 secundiflora, 326 Erigeron, strigosus, 76 Eriococcus, artemsia, 319 catalinae, 319 Erium, lichtensioides, 319 “Eruption of Volcan Arenal in Costa Rica, Notes on the”, by J. A. Feduccia, 557 Erythrina, herbacea, 76 erythrocyte membrane ATPase, 235 ethanol-water solvent system, 89 Etheostoma, lepidum, 376, 377, 378 Euconulus, chersinus, 458 fulvus, 458 Eudocimus, albus, 59 Eulimnadia, alineata, 297 antillarum, 297 diverse, 297 texana, 295 Euonymus, americanus, 71, 74, 232 Eupatorium, capillifolium, 76 coelestinium, 76 Euphaga, cyanocephalus, 66 Euthlypis, tephra, 65 Euphorbia, cor difolia, 76 Eurycea, latitans, 344, 351, 353, 355, 356, 360 nana, 34^ 351, 353, 355, 356, 359 neotenes, 344, 351, 353, 355, 356, 359 pterophila, 34 J, 347, 351, 353, 355, 356, 359 rathhurni, 344, 347, 351, 353, 355, 356, 360, 361 tridentifera, 344, 346, 348, 349, 350, 353, 355, 356, 360 troglodytes, 344, 351, 353, 355, 356, 360 evolution, salamanders, 343 F Fagiis, grandifolia, 223, 230 Falco, sparverius, 60 Farinococcus, olivacius, 328 Farr, G. G. and W. E. Norris, Jr., “Effects of Various Osomotic Agents on Elongation of Avena Coleoptile Segments,” 253 Feduccia, J. A., “A Rapid Method for the Preparation of Avian Skeletal Material,” 147 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 621 Feduccia, J. A., “Notes on the Eruption of Volcan Arenal in Costa Rica,” 557 Ferrisiana, rivularis, 456 tarda, 456 “Field Notes on the Dry Season Birds of Nayarit,” by T. H. Lewis, 57 fish, behavior, 519 Chile, 530 development, 371, 530 effects of chemical agents, 519 lateral-line, 146 Louisiana, 179 Oklahoma, 371 otoliths, 179 parasites, 553 reproduction, 530 Texas, 146, 553, tolerances, 371 “Fish Otolith Assemblage of a Gastro- lithic Beach Gravel,” by M. A. Dixon, 179 Flook, J, M. and J, E. Ubelaker, “A Survey of Metazoan Parasites in Unionid Bivalves of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Denton County Texas,” 381 Florida, caerulea, caerulea, 59 “Fluid-Phase Behavior of Binary Mix¬ tures of Some Aliphatic and Poly¬ cyclic Hydrocarbons,” by J, G. Roof, 97 foraminifera, Paleogene, 167 reclassification, 167 F orestiera, acuminata, 231, 232 Formica, fusca, 298 Forpus, cyanopygius, 62 fossils, Pleistocene, 393, 449 Texas, 393, 449 Fraxinus, caroliniana, 230 sp., 340 Fregata, magnificens, rothchildi, 59 Froelichia, floridana, 76 Fulica, americana, americana, 61 Fundulus, kansae, 371, 372, 373, 374, 376, 377, 378 parvipinnis, 373, 376, 378 G Galactia, volubilis, 76 Galeichthys, felis, 182 Galium, pilosum, 76 Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, bivalves, 381 parasites, 381 Gastrocopta, contracta, 458 cristata, 457 pellucida, 457 pentodon, 458 procera, 457 mulungi, 457 tappaniana, 457 gastrolithic beach gravel, 179 Gehlbach, F. R., see Watkins, J. F, II Gelsemium, semper virens, 67, 69, 74, 230 “Gene Mediation and Penicillin Ana¬ phylaxis: The Affirmative Case,” by H. G. King and J. V. Cornish, 151 “Generation of Microseisms by Atmos¬ pheric Coupling,” by D. H, Shurbet and G. R. Keller, 471 Geomys bursarius, 299 Globigerapsis, sp., 172 Globigerina, bolivariana, 173 eugubina, 170 inconstans, 174 sabinica, 170 spiralis, 175 triloculinoides, 170 Globigerinoides, pseudodubius, 174 Globoconusa, daubjergensis, 170 Globorotalia, hroedermanni, 175 pseudobulloides, 170, 172, 173, 174 pseudomayeri, 173 pusilla, 175 Globorotaloides, hexagonus, 172 Gnaphalium, ohtusifolium, 76 goitrogen, 265 Gopherus, berlandieri, 300 Greer, R. E., see Baccus, J. T. Guiraca, caerula, 66 Gulf of Mexico, Brachiopoda, 553 Gundlachia, meekiana, 456 622 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Guttman, S. I., see Barton, H. L, Gymnopogon, ambiguus, 76 Gyraulus, circumstriatus, 457 crista, 457 parvus, 456 H Habernaria, clarella, 76 Haematopus, ostralegus, 61 Haines, H., “Characteristics of a Cotton Rat {Sigmodon hispidus) Population Cycle,” 3 Halesia, diptera, 232 hamamelis, virginiana, 232 Hanselka, C. W., see Welsh, M. J. Hantkenina, inflata, 173 Haplopappus, divaricatus, 76 Haplophthalmus, danicus, 299 Hawaiia, minuscula, 458 Hedbergella, monmouthensis, 170 Hedyotis, nigricans, 76 Helenium, amarum, 76 Heleophryne, sp., 33, 35, 41, 42, 49 Helianthus, hirsutus, 76 Helicina, orbiculata, tropica, 458 Helicodiscus parallelus, 458 singleyanus, 458 Helisoma, anceps, 456 trivolvus, 456 Helton, J. C. “Matrix Transformations of Monotonic Product Sequences,” 409 Hestand, R. S., Ill, see Cooper, W, A. Heterocelus incanus, 61 Heterotheca, latifolia, 76 pilosa, 76 Hieracium, gronovii, 76 Himantopus, mexicanus, 61 Homoptera, Texas, 309 Huang, W. T., “Minerals from Mc¬ Lennan County, Texas,” 554 Hubbs, C., see Wilson, S. hydrocarbons, aliphatic, 97 fluid-phase behavior, 97 polycyclic, 97 hydrochloric acid, 89 Hydroprogne, caspia, 61 Hymenopappus, artemisiaefolium, 7 6 Hypericum, nudiflorum, 232 Hyperolius, sp., 35, 46 I Ictalurus, punctatus, 82 Icteria, virens, 65 Icterus, cucullatus, 66 spurius, 66 Ilex, coreacea, 231 decidua, 231 glabra, 231 longipes, 231 opaca, 72, 231 vomitoria, 74, 231, 232 “Individualized Instruction in Science for the Intermediate Grades, The De¬ velopment of,” by D. R. Stronck, 545 “Industrial Complex Economies of the Texas Chemical Industry,” by D. R. Seymour and R. B. Seymour, 115 Ipomea, pandurata, 74 irradiation, of tetramethylammonium chloride, 201 Itea, virginiaca, 232 J Jacana, spinosa, spinosa, 61 Johnson, D. P. and C. G. Skinner, “Re¬ action of N- (Substituted) Phthali- mides with n-Alkylamines,” 413 Joy, J. E., “New Locality Records for Diplomonorchis leiostomi Hopkins, 1941 (Trematoda: Digenea) and Macrovalvitrematoides micropogoni (Pearse) (Trematoda: Monogenea) with Notes on Their Geographic Dis¬ tribution,” 553 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 623 Juniperus, virginiana, 72 K Kaloula, sp., 35 Keller, G. R., see Shurbet, D. H., 471 Kermicus, graminis, 322 keys, Pseudococcidae, 317 King, H. G. and J. V, Cornish, “Gene Mediation and Penicillin Anaphy¬ laxis: The Affirmative Case”, 151 Kroll, J. C., “Combat Behavior in Male Great Plains Gro'und Snakes {Sonora episcopa episcopay\ 300 L Lachnodiella, acritocera, 328 Lactuca, serriola, 76 Lagodon, rhomboides, 182 Lake Meredith, 241 Lake Texoma, 265, 371 Lampsilis, anodontoides, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 390 radiata, kydiana, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386', 387,388,390 Lanius, ludovicianus, 64 Lansdown, C. H. see Schultz, G. E. Laury, L. W., see McCarthy, J, L. Leiostomus, xanthurus, 182 LeMaster, E. W., see Davis, R. L. Lepidocolaptes, leucogaster, 63 Lepophidium, sp., 182 Leptodea, laevissima, 382, 383, 386 Leptotyphlops, dulcis, dulcis, 556 myopicus, 556 Lespedeza, hirta, 76 stuevei, 76 Leucophoyx, thula, 59 Lewis, T. H., “Field Notes on the Dry Season Birds of Nayarit”, 57 Lewis, T. O., see Amburgey, J. K. Liatris, elegans, 76 Ligustrum, sp., 74 limnology, chemical, 241 Lin, C. S., “Bionomics of Stictia Carolina at Lake Texoma, with Notes on Some Neotropical Species (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)”, 275 “Lincoln Index-Type of Models for Esti¬ mating Population Density, A Critical Look at the Use of”, by R. M. Eisenberg, 511 Liquidambar, styraciflua, 67, 68, 72, 73, 232 Lithospermum, caroliniense, 76 Lobelia, puberula, 76 Local Fauna, Ben Franklin, 456 Clear Creek, 456 Forney Dam, 456 Gifford-Hill 2a, 452 Gifford-Hill 2b, 462 Gus Thomasson Road, 456 Howard Ranch, 456 Moore Pit, 456 South Fish Creek, 450 “Local Faunas and Paleoecology (Pleistocene) of North Central Texas, New”, by E. L. Willimon, 449 “Locality Records for Diplomonorchis leiostomi Hopkins, 1941 (Trematoda: Digenea) and Macrovalvitrematoides micropogoni (Pearse, 1949) (Trema¬ toda: Monogenea) with Notes on Their Geographic Distribution”, by J. E. Joy, 553 Lodhi, M.A.K., “Electron Scattering From Nuclei, and Nuclear Structure”, 421 Logan, R., “Determination of Acid-Base Mechanisms of Boron-Containing Compounds — Applications of “BNMR”, 107 Lonicera, japonica, 69, 74 Lorinseria, areolata, 75, 76 Louisiana, beach gravel, 179 birds, 180 fish, 179 reptiles, 145 “Low Temperature Preservation of Toad Spermatozoa (Genus fiw/o)”, by H. L. Barton and S. L Guttman, 363 Luzula, echinata, echinata, 76 Lycopus, rubellus, 76 Lymnaea, bulimoides, 456 caper at a, 456 624 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OP SCIENCE dalli, 456 elodes, 512 humilis, 456 obrussa, 456 reflexa, 456 stagnalis, apressa, 456 M Mace, K. D., see Bartholomew, L. Macrovalvitrematoides, micropogoni, 553 magnetism, Precambrian, 479 Magnolia, grandiflora, 232 virginiana, 71, 72, 73, 232 Malaxis, sp., 76 mammals, fossil, 393 Pleistocene, 393 populations, 3 Texas, 3, 148, 299, 393 Mammuthus, sp., 460 Mares, M. A., '‘Coprophagy in the Texas Tortoise, Gopherus berlandieri'\ 300 Mares, M. A., “Notes on Bufo marinus- Tadpole Aggregations”, 433 Martz, H. F., Jr. and A, G. Walvekar, “A Note on G)nsistent Density Esti¬ mation from Stationary Observation Data”, 287 “Massasauga From Mexico', Another”, by C. O. Minkley and W. E. Rinne, 432 Matelea, decipiens, 74 “Mathematical Induction in Geometry”, by Ali R. Amir-Moez, 291 matrices, rectangular, 503 “Matrix Transformations of Monotonic Product Sequences”, by J. C. Helton, 409 McCarthy, J. L. and L. W. Laury, “Alterations in In Vitro Adrenal Corticosteridogenesis Following Goitrogen Administration to Rats”, 265 McDaniel, B., “The Mealybugs of Texas (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococci- dae). Part I., 309 McLeod, C. A., “The Big Thicket Forest of East Texas,” 221 “Mealybugs of Texas (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) . Part I,” by B. McDaniel, 309 Megarhynchus, pitangua, 64 Melampsalta, calliope, 280 Melica, mutica, 76 membrane, erythrocyte, 235 Menidia, audens, 376, 377, 378 Menticirrhus, sp., 182 Mesodon, thyroideus, 459 “Metazoan Parasites in Unionid Bi¬ valves of Garza-Little Elm Reservoir, Denton County, Texas,” by J. M. Flook and J. E. Ubelaker, 381 methyl parathion, effects on fish, 519 Mexico, birds, 57 reptiles, 432 Michael, E. D. and J. W. Chambless, “Effects of Pulp Mill Water on Plank¬ ton and Productivity,” 81 Michael, E. D., R. J. Taylor, and D. L. Wilkinson, “Albino Geomys bursarius in Texas,” 299 Michigan, Mollusca, 511 Micropogon, undulatus, 182, 553 microseisms, 471 migration, of Arkansas population, 129 Mikania scandens, 74 Miller, J. M. and D. C. Whitenburg, “Red and Far Red Effect on Oxidative Phosphorylation by Beef Heart Mito¬ chondria,” 145 Mimosa, sp., 58 Mimus, polyglottos, leucopterus, 64 Minkley, C. O. and W, E, Rinne, “An¬ other Massasauga From Mexico,” 432 minerals, arsenopyrite, 555 celestite, 555 mendozite, 554 vivianite, 555 “Minerals from McLennan County, Texas,” by W. T. Huang, 554 “Minor Element Analysis and Correla¬ tion of Pearlette Volcanic Ash, West Texas,” by C. C. Reeves, Jr. and J. R. Craig, 403 Mitchell, R. W. and R. E. Smith, “Some Aspects of the Osteology and Evolu¬ tion of the Neotenic Spring and Cave Salamanders {Eurycea, Plethodonti- dae) of Central Texas,” 343 Mitchella, repens, 75, 76, 232 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 625 mitochondria, beef heart, 142 Mniotilta, varia, 65 model, of population density, 511 model compounds, photolysis, 187 Mollusca, Michigan, 511 Pleistocene, 449 population density, 511 Texas, 449 Monarda, punctata^ 76 monotonic product sequence, 409 Monotropa, uniflora, 76 Morozovella, caucasica, 176 velascoensis, 176 “Morphological Variation in Eulimna- dia texana, Texas’ Most Common Eulimnadian Conchostraca,” by S. L. Sissom, 295 morphology, cranial, 29 anuran, 29 Morns, rubra, 72, 73, 232 Mougeota, sp., 84 Mugil, cephalus, 182 Mus, musculus, 6, 7 Myrica, cerifera, 74, 232 pennsylvanica, 230 N n-alkylamines, 413 Navicula, sp., 84, 147 Nayarit, birds, 57 Nemastylis, purpurea, 76 Neivamyrmex, nigrescens, 556 Newton, C. E., see Cooper, W. A. Nixon, E. S., see Sullivan, J. R. Norris, W. E., Jr., see Farr, G. G. “Note on Consistent Density Estimation From Stationary Observation Data”, by H. F. Martz, Jr. and A. G. Walvekar, 287 Nothoscordum, bivalve, 76 N- (substituted) phthalimides, 413 nuclear structure, 421 nuclei, 421 Numenius, americanus, 61 phneopus, hudsonicus, 61 Nyctanassa, violacea, 59 Nyssa, aquatica, 232 sp., 341 sylvatica, 71, 72, 73, 232 biflora, 232 O observation data, stationary, 287 Oklahoma, fish, 371 Lake Texoma, 275, 371 wasps, 275 “One-Step Method of Synthesis of 4, 5H Pyrido [2,3-F] [1,5] Oxazepine-4- Ones”, by L. L. Woods and S. M. Shamma, 139 Oocystis, sp., 147 Oplismensus, setarius, 77 Opsanus, sp., 182 Opuntia, sp., 300 “Orbits of Basic Subgroups of Primary Abelian Groups Under Automor¬ phisms”, by D. Tarwater, 431 Ortalis, wagleri, wagleri, 60 Orthopristis chrysopterus, 182 sp., 182 osmotic agents, 253 Osmunda, cinnamomea, 75, 77 regalis, spectahilis, 77 “Osteology and Evolution of The Neo- tenic Spring and Cave Salamanders {Eurycea, Plethodontidae) of Central Texas”, by R. W. Mitchell and R. E. Smith, 343 Ostyra, virginiana, 231 otolith, fish, 179 Oxallis, dillenii, 77 Oxybelis, sparideus, 9J77 P paleoecology, Pleistocene, 403, 449 Texas, 403, 449 626 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Paleogene, foraminifera, 167 Pandion, kaliaetus, 60 Panicum, anceps, 77 angustifolium, 77 boscii, 77 helleri, 77 oligosanthes, 77 polyanthes^ 77 sp., 75 xalapense, 77 Paralichthys, sp., 183 parasites, bivalves, 381 fish, 553 Metazoan, 381 Texas, 381, 553 Parthenocissus, quinquefolia, 67, 69, 74, 232 Paspalum, setaceum, 77 Passer, domesticus, domesticus, 66 Pearlette Ash, minor elements, 403 correlation, 403 Pediastrum, sp., 84 Pedicularis, canadensis, 75, 77 Pelecanus, occidentalis, 180 calif ornicus, 58 Pelecypris, sp., 459 penicillin anaphylaxis, 151 Penstemon, laxiflorus, 77 Perognathus, hispidus, 6, 7 Peromyscus, leucopus, 6, 7 borbonia, 222, 232 pubescens, 232 Phalacrocorax, olivaceus, 58 Phaseolus, limensis, 436 phospholipid analysis, 435 photolysis, of polystyrene, 187 of model compounds, 187 Phrynella, sp., 35 phosphorylation, oxidative, 142 “Phylogenetic Reclassification of Paleo¬ gene Planttonic Foraminifera”, by P. L. Steineck, 167 Physa, ayrina, 456 gyrina, 456 hypnorum, 456 sp., 456 virgata, 456 Physostegia, digitalis, 75, 77 pile neutron irradiation, 201 Pinnularia, sp., 84 Pinus, echinata, 67, 68, 72, 73, 232 palustris, 232 taeda, 68, 222, 232 Pisidium, compressum, 459 nitidum, 459 sp., 459 walkeri, 459 Pitangus, sulphuratus, 64 Pituophis, melanoleucas, ruthveni, 145 Planera, aquatica, 232 plankton, effects of pulp mill water, 81 Planococcus, citri, 310 Planorbula, armigera, 457 Plantanus, occidentalis, 72, 232 plants. Big Thicket, 221 Nacogdoches Co., 67 Texas, 67, 221 plasmalemma, plant, separation of, 435 Platyarthrus, hoffmannseggi, 297 schoebli, 297 "’Platyarthrus schoebli Budde-Lund New to Texas and the New World with Notes on P. hoff mannseggi Brandt (Crustacea, Oniscoidea, Squamiferi- dae)”, by G. A. Schultz, 297 Plegadis, falcinella, mexicana, 59 Pleistocene, fossils, 393, 449 mammals, 393 minor element analysis, 403 Mollusca, 449 paleoecology, 449 Pearlette Ash, 403 stratigraphy, 403 Texas, 393, 449 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 627 Plsek, R. W., see Watkins, J. F., II Poa, autumnalis^ 77 Podophyllum, peltatum, 77 Pogonomyrmex, barb atm, 297 pollution, 439 Polygala, polygama, 77 Polygyra, dorfeuilliana, 459 texasiana, 459 Polynemus, sp., 182 polystyrene, photolysis, 187 Pomatiopsis, lapidaria, 457 population cycle, of cotton rats, 3 density estimation, 511 Mollusca, 511 Populus, deltoides, 72, 231, 329 Porlieria, angustifolia, 329 Potamocypris, sp., 459 potassium chloride, 89 Praticolella, berlandieriana, 459 Pratt, W. L., "‘Triodopsis (Neohelix) divesta (Gould), A Pulmonate Land Snail New to Texas”, 145 Precambrian, magnetism, 479 Texas, 479 preservation, of spermatozoa, 363 productivity, effects of pulp mill water, 81 Promenetus, exacuous, 457 kansasensis, 457 “Properties of Solubilized and Matrix- Supported Erythrocyte Membrane ATPase”. by H. D, Brown and S. K. Chattopadhyay, 235 Proptera, purpurata, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 390 Prosopis, glandulosa, 338 Protococcus, sp., 147 Prunus, americana, 232 caroliniana, 222, 230 gracilis, 72 mexicana, 232 serotina, 72, 230 umhellata, 232 Psaltiparus, minimus, 64 Psammaecius, nebulosus, 277 Pseudacris, brimleyi, 303 nigrita, 303 streckeri, 302 triseriata, 303 Pseudococcus artemisiae, 319 brevipes, 338 bromelia, 338 cannae, 338 difcilus, 339 gahani, 310 longirostralis, 338 neomexicanus, 330, 332 alkalinus, 330 olivaceus, 328 Pseudohastigerina, sp., 173 Pteridium, aquilinum, 77 Pulvinulina, velascoensis, 176 Pupilla, blandi, 458 sinistra, 458 Pupoides, albilabris, 458 Pyrrhopappus, carolinianus, 77 Pyrus, arbutifolia, 232 Q Quadrula, quadrula, 382, 383, 386 Quercus, alba, 67, 71, 72, 73, 231 falcata, 68, 72, 73 falcata, 231 pagodaefolia, 231 lauri folia, 223, 231 lyrata, 231 marylandica, 68, 72, 73, 223 michauxii, 223, 231 nigra, 72, 231 phellos, 231 shumardi, 231 stellata, 67, 68, 72, 73, 231 velutina, 223 R Rana, grayi, 35, 44 sp., 36 “Rapid Method for The Preparation of Avian Skeletal Material,” by J. A. Feduccia, 147 628 Rathburn, D. W. “Carbon-14 Contain¬ ing Compounds Produced by The Pile Neutron Irradiation of Tetramethyl- ammonium Chloride,” 201 Rattus, rattus, 6, 7, Raun, G. G., see Baccus, J. T. Rb-NH^ solutions, conductivity, 497 “Reaction of N- (Substituted) Phthali- mides with n-Alkylamines,” by D. P. Johnson and C. G. Skinner, 413 “Recent Migration Patterns of The Ar¬ kansas Population” by T. W. Rogers, 129 “Records of Baiomys taylori (Rodentia: Cricetidae) for Northern Texas,” by J. T. Baccus, R. E. Greer, and G. G. Raun, 148 “Rectangular Matrices, A Note On,” by J. K. Amburgey, T. 0. Lewis, and T. L. Boullion, 503 Recurvirostra, americana, 61 “Red and Far-Red Effect on Oxidative Phosphorylation by Beef Heart Mito¬ chondria,” by J. M. Miller and D. C. Whitenburg, 145 Reeves, C. C., Jr. and J. R. Craig, “Minor Element Analysis and Cor¬ relation of Pearlette Volcanic Ash, West Texas,” 403 Regulus, calendula, 64 “Relative Activity Coefficients of Sodi¬ um Hydroxide in Dioxane-Water Sol¬ vent Mixtures,” B. J. Yager and L. F. Kuntschik, 210 “Remnant Magnetism in Precambrian Llanite and Town Mountain Granite from Llano County, Texas, On the,” by H. Spall, 479 Reno, H. W. and F. F. Davidson, “Algae (Chlorophyta and Chrysophyta) in The Lateral-Line Canals of a Gizzard Shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Pisces: Clupeidae),” 146 “Reply to John T. Thurmond,” by J. Yudkin, 307 reproduction, fish, 530 reptiles, behavior, 300, 556 Louisiana, 145 Mexico, 432 Texas, 300, 556 reservoir, bivalves, 381 Garza-Little Elm, 381 limnology, 241 parasites, 381 Texas, 241, 381 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Retinella, indentata, 459 Rhamnus, caroliniana, 230 Rhododendron, canescens, 71, 74, 230 oblongifolium, 230 Rhus, copalina, 72 glabra, 72 toxicodendron, 74 vernix, 232 Rhynchosia, latifolia, 77 Rinne, W. E., see Minkley, C. O. Rogers, T. W., “Recent Migration Pat¬ terns of The Arkansas Population,” 129 Roof, J. G., “Fluid-Phase Behavior of Binary Mixtures of Some Aliphatic and Polycyclic Hydrocarbons,” 97 rotifers, 84 Rubus, trivialis, 74 Rudbeckia, serotina, 77 Ruellia, humilis, 77 S Sabal, minor, 230 rosei, 58 Sabatia, campestris, 77 salamanders, cave, 343 evolution, 343 osteology, 343 Texas, 343 Salix, nigra, 72, 75, 230 Salvia, azurea, 77 lyrata, 77 Sambucus, canadensis, 74, 231 Sanicula, canadensis, 77 Sassafras, albidum, 72, 73 Scardafella, inca, 61 Scenedesmus, sp., 84, 147 Schrankia, ucinata, 74 Schultz, G. A,, ’"'Platyarthrus schoehli Budde-Lund New to Texas and The New World with Notes on P. hoff- mannseggi Brandt (Crustacea: Oniscoidea, Squamiferidae)”, 297 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 629 Schultz, G. E. and C. H. Lansdown, “A Skull of Bison latifrons from Lipscomb County, Texas”, 393 Sciaenops, ocellatus^ 182 science education, intermediate grades, 545 Scleria, triglomerata, 77 Scutellaria, cardiophylla, 77 integrifolia, 77 Sebastiana, fruiticosa, 232 seismography, 471 Selenastrum, sp., 84 Senecio, ohovatus, 77 “Separation of Plant Plasmalemma for Phospholipid Analysis, Method for the”, by L. Bartholomew and K. D. Mace, 435 SetopJmga, rutilla, 65 Seymour, D. R. and R. B. Seymour, “Industrial Complex Economics of The Texas Chemical Industry”, 115 Seymour, R. B. and H. S. Tsang, “The Effect of Additives on The Photolysis of Polystyrene and Model Com¬ pounds”, 187 Seymour, R, B., see Seymour, D, R. Shamma, S. M., see Woods, L. L. Shurbet, D. H. and G. R. Keller, “Generation of Microseisms by Atmospheric Coupling”, 471 Sigmodon, hispidus, 3, 148 Sissom, S. L., “Morphological Variation in Eulimnadia texana, Texas’ Most Common Eulimnadian Conchostraca”, 295 Sistrurus, catenatus, 432 “Size Record for the Louisiana Pine Snake, Pituophis melanoleucas ruthvenV\ by B. J. Davis, 145 skeletal preparation, birds, 147 Skinner, G. C., seee Johnson, D. P. “Skull of Bison latifrons from Lipscomb County, Texas”, by G. E. Schultz and C. H. Lansdown, 393 Smilax, bona-nox, 74 glauca, 67, 72, 74 lanceolata, 231 laurifolia, 67, 72, 74, 231 pumila, ^0 rotundifiora, 72, 74, 230 Smith, R. E., see Mitchell, R. W. snail, pulmonate, 145 Texas, 145 sodium hydroxide, 89 activity coefficients of, 210 Solea, kleinii, 183 Solidago, rugosa, celtidi folia, 77), 77 solvent systems, effect on conductivity, 89 Somatogyrus, depressus, 457 subglobosus, 457 Sonora, episcopa, episcopa, 300 Sorghastrum, Miottii, 77 South Carolina, amphibians, 301 Spall, H., “On The Remanent Mag¬ netism in Precambrian Llanite and Town Mountain Granite from Llano County, Texas”, 479 spermatozoa, amphibian, 363 preservation, 363 Sphaerium, sp., 459 striatinum, 459 Sphaerococcus, graminis, 322 Spilococcus, neomexicanus , 332 Spiranthes, gracilis, 77 Sporobolus, asper, canovirens, 77 buckleyi, 77 sp., 327 Staurastrum, sp., 84 Stauroneis, sp., 147 Steineck, P. L., “Phylogenetic Reclassi¬ fication of Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifera”, 167 Stenanthium, gramineum, 77 Stenotrema, leai, 459 Stictia, anderi, 284 antiopa, 284 arcuata, 284 carbonaria, 284 Carolina, 275 decorata, 284 dives, 284 heros, 284, 285 630 THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE infracta, 284 lineata, 284 maculata^ 284 media, 284 mexicana, 284 pantherina, 284, 285 proserpina, 284 punctata, 284, 285 signata. 284, 285 sombrana, 284 trifasciata, 284 vivida, 284, 285 stratigraphic units, Oatman granite, 479 Pearlette Ash, 403 Sixmile granite, 479 Town Mountain granite, 479 stratigraphy. Pleistocene, 403 Texas, 403 Strobilops. sparsicostata, 458 texasiana, 458 Stronck, D. R., “Environmental Pol¬ lution and Texas Law”, 439 Stronck, D. R. “The Development of Individualized Instruction for the In¬ termediate Grades”, 545 Strophostyles, helvola, 77 S trios anthes, bi flora, 77 Sty rax, americanum, pulverilentum, 232 Subbotina, triloculinoides, 170, 172, 173 Succinea, avara, 459 grosvenori, 459 ovalis, 459 sp., 459 Sullivan, J. R. and E. S. Nixon, “A Vegetational Analysis of an Area in Nacogdoches County, Texas”, 67 Sylvilagus, floridanus, 7 Symplocos, tinctoria, 232 Synedra, sp., 84 synthesis, of 4,5H Pyrido (2,3-F) (1,5) Oxazi- pine-4-Ones, 139 Syrrhophus, sp., 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 42, 46, 47, 49, 50 T T abanus, atratus, 275 sulcifrons, 275, 280, 282 tadpole, behavior, 433 Tanzer, E. C. and R. J. Baldauf, “Con¬ tributions to the Cranial Morphology of Eleutherodactylus rugulosus (Cope) (Anura: Leptodactylidae)”, 29 Tarwater, D., “Orbits of Basic Sub¬ groups of Primary Abelian Groups Under Automorphisms”, 431 T axodium, disticum, 230 T ayassu, tajacu, 300 Taylor, R. J., see Michael, E. D. tetramethylammonium chloride, 201 Texas, algae, 84, 146 amphibians, 343 ants, 556 Big Thicket, 221 Brachiopoda, 553 caves, 343 chemical industry, 115 Conchostraca, 295 Cretaceous, 555 Crustacea, 297, 381 fish, 146, 553 fossils, 393, 449 geology, 393, 403, 449, 479 Gulf of Mexico, 553 limnology, 241 mammals, 3, 148, 299, 393 mealybugs, 309 minerals, 403, 479, 555 Mollusca, 381, 449 paleoecology, 449 Panhandle, 241, 393, 403 parasites, 381, 553 plankton, 81 plants, 67, 221 Pleistocene, 393, 403, 449 pollution laws, 439 Precambrian, 479 reptiles, 300, 556 reservoir, 241, 381 salamanders, 343 snails, 145 stratigraphy, 403 unionid bivalves, 381 water, 81, 241 Terrapene, ornata, 301 Thurmond, J. T., “Dietary Simple Sug¬ ars and Coronary Thrombosis; A Critique of Yudkin’s Inferred Rela¬ tionship”, 305 Tilia, caroliniana, 72, 75, 231 T ipularia, discolor, 75, 77 Tityra, semifasciata, 63 INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII 19/2 631 Town Mountain granite, remanent magnetism, 479 “Toxicity and Sublethal Effects of Methyl Parathion on Behavior of Siamese Fighting Fish {Betta splen- densy\ by M. J. Welsh and C. W. Hanselka, 519 T radescantia, hirsutiflora, 77 reverchoni, 77 T ragia, urtici folia, 77 T ridens, flavus, 77 T riodopsis, albolabris, 145 divesta, 145 “Triodopsis {Neohelix) divesta (Gould), A Pulmonate Land Snail New to Texas”, by W. L. Pratt, 145 Trionymus, rostellum, 334 vallis, 334 T riphora, trianthophora, 77 T rogon, citreolus, 63 T ropicorbis, obstructus, 457 T yr annus, melancholicus, 64 T runcorotaloides, inconstans, 174 pseudodubius, 174, 175 topilensis, 175 wilcoxensis, 175 Tunnell, J. W. ‘^Crania sp. (Brachio- poda) from Texas Waters”, 553 T urborotalia, centralis, 173 cerroazulensis, 173 Typhlomolge, rathbuni, 343 tridentifera, 345 U Ubelaker, J. E., see Flook, J. M. Ulmus, alata, 72, 232 americana, 230 crassifolia, 230 Uniola, latifolia, 77 sessiliflora, 75, 77 Unionicola, sp., 382, 383, 386, 389 U roconger, sp., 183 V V accineum, arboreum, 71, 74, 231 stramineum, 230 virgatum, 230 V allonia, gracilicosta, 458 parvula, 458 Valvata, tricarinata, 457 “Vegetational Analysis of an Area in Nacogdoches County, Texas”, by J. R. Sullivan and E. S. Nixon, 67 Verbena, canadensis, 77 Vernonia, texana, 77 Vertigo, milium, 458 ovata, 458 Viburnum, acerifolium, 231 dentatum, 230 pubescens, 230 nudum, 232 angustifolia, 231 -prunifolia, 230 rufidulum, 72, 73, 232 Viola, primulifolia, 77 triloba, 77 villosa, 77 Vireo, olivaceus, 64 Vitis, cinerea, 231 lincecumii, 74 palma^a, 231 rotundifolia, 72, 74, 231 volcano, Costa Rica, 557 W Walvekar, A. G., see Martz, H. F., Jr. wasp, behavior, 275 water, chemistry, 241 plankton, 81 productivity, 81 pulp mill, 81 T^0X9.s 24*1 Watkins, J. F. II, F. R. Gehlbach, and R. W. Plsek, “Behavior of Blind Snakes {Leptotyphlops dulcis) in Re¬ sponse to Army Ant {N eivamyrmex nigrescens) Raiding Columns”, 556 Welsh, M. J. and C. W. Hanselka, “Toxicity and Sublethal Effects of Methyl Parathion on Behavior of Siamese Fighting Fish {Betta splen- dusy\ 519 Whitenburg, D. C. see Miller, J. M. Wilkinson, D. L., see Michael, E. D. 632 Willimon, E, L., “New Local Faunas and Paleoecology (Pleistocene) of North Central Texas”, 449 W ilsonia, pusilla, 65 Wilson, S. and C. Hubbs, “Develop¬ mental Rates and Tolerances of the Plains Killifish, Fundulus kansae, and Comparison with Related Fish”, 371 Wisteria, macrostachya, 231 Woods, L. L, and S. M. Shamma, “One Step Method of Synthesis of 4, 5H Pyrido (2,3-F) (1,5) Oxazepine-4- Ones”, 139 X Xanthocephalum, sarothrae, 333 Y Yager, B. J, and T. W. Cowley, “Effects THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE of Ethanol- Water and Dimethyl Sulf¬ oxide-Water Solvent Systems on the Conductivity of Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, and Potassium Chloride”, 89 Yager, B. J. and L. F. Kuntschik, “Rela¬ tive Activity Coefficients of Sodium Hydroxide in Dioxane-Water Solvent Mixtures”, 210 Y ucca, australis, 329 sp., 329, 330 Yudkin, J., “Reply to John T. Thur¬ mond”, 307 Z Zanthoxylum, clava-herculis, 72 Zenaida, asiatica, 61 Zonitoides, arboreus, 458 nitidus, 458 a 'K:^,.4 ;.V^ 'i’^A)tsr..-bv’ ;.^ EE:^:^^;;:']viv’<:'<,:H;^ " Prr[^ -i^ **>'^\ •« ?jr.>< ’V J ' If' ■ ^i>^\ Vi - . ,)> ■'1 '•‘•’ . 'Vi'- v:'V:rr^^ '■' '- . ..■■ - - , .' ‘V:' j, ,; iil. ': * M*m* -Cjv 5w-> hXX ■ i: ■ ;■ ■ . '•*; n , ., . .;. viV'jV ‘■••.r^ .,.■... . ■ ' . t ■\- ,fi’d'.;r>-‘-# |>, . "' '■■ V-;‘ V ••':• ''■/:•■ ■f'/v/'-- ■ ."V i, '.*•'■*. ‘ft’ ■-:■ '■ ':•.'■ >-■■ ■ ' {y ^;v;w '■; ‘ ', *y.;s V; ^i'in ■ ' : ,'VV'’H ■’;}, '■* ' ‘ : -..y iy,i . .yil'r’-'i:- ■ "'- : ^ ' v": ■ r:.:^ i-> « .5- :^h ; ?;,»*■ ‘ ,?^:i.: :: ■'"' '* ' V '■'- /■": • 'tit;-.'. (.; ■;■ ' '■ ' .;■ \ . ■ *rV< . ^\ :>' ;.Vxnv ,. ':}%■'; 'T. ■ Vwt. : : r J/' '5 ‘, -r‘' • .r .4,y ' Xh / ,4 i K' i‘ \'j , :j'v^ .s IV . ....... .V /.■•}/.:' «^vi* .' ij’;' -mix r'--- -. , \V: . , ' ' v''y'lV' ' ■ ■ ^ .J . .5?" .• .. ' yfi;.. . 1, ^ ■ vvV-': ' XX' (t;'' ' ' '<|V.;;.; EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President: clark hubbs, The University of Texas at Austin President-Elect: james r. dixon, Texas A&M University Secretary-Treasurer: e. n. drake ii, Angelo State University Sectional Vive-Presidents: I — Mathematical Sciences: h. o. hartly, Texas A&M University II — Physical Sciences: james g. dennis, Stephen F. Austin State University III — Earth Sciences: jean spencer, Baylor University - IV — Biological Sciences: john e. ubelaker, Southern Methodist University V — Social Sciences: Howard putnam, East Texas State University VI — Environmental Sciences: Arthur h. Harris, The University of Texas at El Paso VII — Chemistry: c. g. skinner, North Texas State University YITL— Science Education: Arthur e. hughes, Sam Houston State University Editor: gerald g. raun, Angelo State University Immediate Past-President: james d. long, Sam Houston State University Chairman, Board of Science Education: Arthur m. pullen. East Texas State Univ. Collegiate Academy: sister Joseph marie armer. Incarnate Word Academy Junior Academy: Fannie m. hurst, Baylor University BOARD OF DIRECTORS CLARK HUBBS, The University of Texas at Austin JAMES R, DIXON, Texas A&M University JAMES D. LONG, Sam Houston State University E. N. DRAKE II, Angelo State University GERALD G. RAUN, Angelo State University ADDISON E. LEE, The University of Texas at Austin H. E. EVELAND, Lamar University THOMAS p. DOOLEY, Prairie View A&M University Cover Photo Weather map showing position of Hurricane Carla at 18 G.M.T., 11 September, 1961. For further information see, “Generation of Micro¬ seisms By Atmospheric Coupling,” by D. H. Shurbet and G. R. Keller. 2nd CLASS POSTAGE PAID AT SAN ANGELO, TEXAS 76901 lirrary SMITHSONIAN INST WASHINGTON DC 20560 i L 1 &.0C in z in * 'Z O O )iiniiiSNi’"NvmosHims^S3 1 dva a n“‘Li b rar i ES^SMiTHsoNiAN^msTiTUTiqt i %% I /#% i i W^,- " f 3| ^^1 V TL lo^ -4q1 ta, P l-f E t life, S Isfe. 3^1 t I? 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