,v l; fel, '.i*’ % •** No. 1 Published Quarterly at 950 San Marcos, Texas Second Class Matter, at Postoffiee, San Marcos, Tex. March 21, 194S) CONTENTS What Can Texas Expect of Education As a Science. J. W. Baldwin _ _ - - - - - - - - What Should Texas Expect from Range Conservation. B. W. Allred _ _ _ - - - - - - - What Texas Should Expect from Forest Conservation. A. D. Folwriler - - - - What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation. M. A. Hartman Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem. Floyd A. Pollock — . - - — — - j - - - - Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings of the Southwest — Some Observations and Calculations. Wayne E. Long, W. R. Woolrich, and R. A. Bacon - - — Antenna Response Patterns for Complex Wave Fronts. A H. LaGrone - - — - - - - - A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico. Richard A. Geyer - The Biotic Provinces of Texas. Random Notes on Texas Fishes, Some Adaptive Features of the Porpoise Head. John G. Sinclair — _ - — ^ — iman. CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS O F T H E T E X A S A C A D E M Y O F SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical, Br. U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A & M College Station Secretary-Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Editor J. L. Baughman Marine Lab., G.F.O.C. Rockport Pres. Conserv, Coun. J. G. Sinclair Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Rep. to A.A.A.S. C. D. Leake Dean, Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston V President, Sec. I, Physical C. F. Squire Physics, Rice Institute Houston V. Pres., Sec. II, Biological S. H. Hopkins Biology, A. & M, College Station V. Pres., Sec. Ill, Social R. H. Sutherland Hogg Foundation, U. of T. Austin V. Pres., Sec. IV, Geological A. A. L. Mathews Geology, U. of H. Houston V. Pres., Sec. V, Conservation V. H. Schoffelmayer Texas Chemurgic Council Dallas Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Biology, A. & M. College Station Junior Academy Greta Oppe Chemistry, Ball High Galveston BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A. & M. College Station Secretary-T reasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Elected Director J. C. Godbey Chemistry, Southwestern U. Georgetown Elected Director W. Armstrong Price Geologist College Station Elected Director Gordon Gunter Marine Lab., U. of T. Port Aransas BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) W. R. Woolrich, Dean Engineering, U. of T. Austin L. W. Blau Humble Oil & Refining Co. Houston E. DeGolyer DeGolyer & McNaughton Dallas J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist Houston 0. S. Petty Petty Geophysical Co. San Antonio MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardm-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. X^SpIIhs E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B, B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C, Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Freeport C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don G. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.C. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor The Texas Journal of Science Volume II, Number 1 March, 195 0, Vol. II The Texas Journal of Science No. 1 March 30, 1950 WHAT CAN TEXAS EXPECT OF EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE? J. W. Baldwin The University of Texas The author of this paper is convinced that whatever else may be claimed for modern education it includes a wide variety of more or less scientific aspects. It will be admitted that a considerable portion of this area of the social sciences bears scant likeness to some of the older and more exact nat¬ ural sciences. It is also true that many of its scientific phases cannot boast of precision tools and techniques comparable to those employed in natural sciences. On the other hand, it can be said that in the past few decades the appli¬ cation of scientific procedures and instruments in the solution of educational problems has grown to such porportion as to command the respect and the approbation of many specialists in all other social sciences, and in not a few natural science areas. Many thousands of the most capable research specialists in the field of education are devoting their best talents and energies to the important task of taking the guess work out of educational principles and practices. The extent to which these problems have yielded to solution through the applica¬ tion of scientific research techniques is agreeably surprising. The scientific movement in education is rapidly gaining momentum in Texas as well as elsewhere. Texas is producing its quota of leaders in this movement. The extent to which Texas will be able to collect dividends as profits on its investment in this enterprise will depend chiefly on the extent to which we able able and willing to finance a broad and intensive program of educational research. It will probably realize a wider margin of profit from such an investment than it would from any other source of income. Education has become a profession devoted to the science of human engineering. It has begun the application of scientific procedures to the dis¬ covery, the development, and the conservation of human values and re¬ sources. We have learned that our human resources are more important than our natural resources. To employ the most effective techniques in the dis¬ covery, the conservation, and proper utilization of human potentialities has become the task which education has chosen to accept as its obligation. No other enterprise can be of greater significance and concern to the state, the nation, and the world. The remaining phases of this paper will be devoted to an explanation of the opportunities available for the application of scientific procedures in educational practices, and the channels through which the findings of edu¬ cational research may be implemented to enhance the welfare of Texas and other areas as well. EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Within a generation educational administration has grown up from a job involving disciplinary control by means of brute force to a professional status which demands the service of the most capable individuals available APR 1 0 1950 4 The Texas Journal of Science for the position. Many years of special training under the guidance of the greatest experts is now essential for the preparation of leaders who are cap¬ able of organizing, administering, and supervising the greatest industry in the state and the nation. This enormous development of this aspect of educational endeavor has been achieved, for the most part, through the application of scientific pro¬ cedure to the mammoth undertaking. It is the employment of scientific techniques which keeps the machinery of educational administration operat¬ ing smoothly and effectively. Even before the school plant is constructed the administrator makes scientific surveys of population trends and the social and economic aspects of the community in order to determine the proper location for the plant, and to ascertain the requirements for space, equip¬ ment, and other facilities in terms of research findings. By means of such scientific planning it is possible to save large sums of money and to create physical facilities which will serve the needs of the students many times as adequately as guess work procedure would be likely to provide. Innumerable factors involved in the erection and the equipment of school plants are at present based on exact measurement in harmony with years of scientific study on the part of many specialists. The size of classrooms and laboratories, problems of heating, lighting, sanitation, safety, convenience, sound proof¬ ing, the ca^'eteria equipment and arrangement, office space and equipment, and many other factors miss the requirements by wide margins if not worked out in advance of actual construction. Furthermore, scientific techniques are employed in the securing of teaching and non-teaching personnel and in supervising their activities. The total organization, including provision for all kinds, of student activities, parent teacher organizations, integration of all of the school interests and undertakings, and innumerable problems of management and control, func¬ tions far more effectively when planned and conducted in light of results of scientific studies. THE CURRICULUM One of the most profitable phases of educational research deals with the selection, the organization, the grade placement, and the evaluation of the curriculum, and the adjustment of the curriculum to individual and group needs and interests. Dozens of large volumes have been written in the past three decades describing the vast amount of painstaking research which has been produced in the field of curriculum development. Immeasurable economies in teaching and learning have resulted from these studies and surveys. After the discovery of pupil needs and interests through the utilization of school and community surveys, the study of the nature of child develop¬ ment, and the application of the philosophy of education, it has been found highly profitable to employ scientific procedures in the determination of the experiences which will equip the pupil with the information, the skills, the habits, and the attitudes which enable him to deal intelligently and effec¬ tively with the problems, the responsibilities, and the opportunities which will confront him as a youth and as an adult. In no other field of educational research has greater progress been made, and in no other is there greater promise for the future. It is an undertaking which commands the endeavors of the entire school staff as well as many individuals and agencies outside of the school. Millions of student hours are What Can Texas Expect of Education As A Science 5 saved, and the effectiveness of teaching and learning is augmented incal¬ culably by scientific determination of curricular activities best suited to in¬ dividuals and groups at various grade levels. Much wasteful duplication is avoided, and harmful gaps in pupil experiences are discovered in time to make restitution before it is too late to overcome dangerous deficiencies. As one of the most valuable outcomes of research in the field of cur¬ riculum development the curriculum has been broadened and made flexible, so that the needs of students of all levels of intelligence are adequately met. Provisions have also been made for the proper education of physically handi¬ capped children. The school has become an agency for the education of all of the children instead of the mythical average pupil, chiefly as a result of curriculum research. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS The development and use of standardized tests, and the construction of other precision tools in the measurement of educational performances have marked an outstanding achievement in the application of science in the solution of difficult problems in this profession. By means of objective diagnostic tests schools and school systems are able to discover their elements of strength and weakness so that remedial measures may be taken where the need is shown to be greatest. Standardized achievement tests provide a scientific measure of pupil progress toward the achievement of the improvements which diagnostic tests indicate as desir¬ able. It is possible through the use of standardized tests to compare the standards achieved in different schools and systems. These tests not only tell how much progress students make as compared with other students in a given school or in other schools, but serve as a good measure of the teacher’s effectiveness and the relative values of different teaching procedures. One of the earliest tests to be used for scientific investigation in education is the scientifically developed intelligence test, by means of which it is possible to adjust the work of the school to children of widely varying levels of intelligence. Coupled with aptitude tests, intelligence tests assist the school in the guidance of students into experiences which will equip them for the kind of vocational and avocational activities best suited to the needs and interests of each. Thousands of students have by this means found places in life which make them happy and useful citizens engaged in useful, hopeful employment, thus avoiding frustration and despair which would have resulted from misfit preparation and unwise choice of occupation. Many of the types of tests and testing procedures which have been developed in educational institutions have been adopted with great profit by industry, the armed forces, and other agencies. They have assisted these agencies in handling personnel problems in much the same "way that they have been employed in school administration. Many volumes have been written on the development and administra¬ tion of testing as an application of scientific procedures in the field of human engineering and other types of human relations. In many instances it is necessary to depend upon carefully developed criteria, and the use of only approximately accurate central tendencies to supplement more exact tools and techniques which are used to the extent that they will apply in the situation. While not always satisfactory to those who employ them, they are immeasurably more effective than opinion and guess work. 6 The Texas Journal of Science TEACHING procedures All members of the profession recognize the fact that, regardless of how well all other factors involved in the educational program may com¬ pare with an ideal pattern, no worthwhile objective can be achieved until the child for whom the whole agency has been developed has been person¬ ally benefited by the provision which has been made for his educational development. To manipulate the program so as to insure that it will con¬ tribute the greatest possible assistance to his proper development requires effective teaching procedures. Many of the most effective procedures have been discovered through scientific investigation and through trial in the laboratory of classroom activities. Scientific measurements have proven that enormous improvement in the effectiveness of teaching and learning have resulted from the employ¬ ment of some modern methods which have been given the approval of re¬ search investigators. It has been possible to prove that teaching can be made fifty per cent more effective in some areas by the utilization of audio-visual aids as a supplement to other means or techniques which are generally employed in such situations. The time and effort needed to learn to spell and read have been reduced to a small fraction of that required a genera¬ tion ago. Hundreds of skills in all phases of educational growth are now mastered with far greater proficiency and much greater economy than that which resulted from unscientific procedures a few decades ago. All of this saving in time and effort and in improvement of outcomes has made it possible for us to realize enormous dividends on our investment in education as compared with the outcomes from hit or miss teaching which is too often practiced, even after more effective procedures have been demonstrated. CONCLUSION The instances of the application of science and scientific methods in education which have been mentioned in this paper are only a few examples of the research activities which are carried on in Texas and elsewhere in an attempt to assist education in doing a better job in the preparation of better equipped and better motivated citizens of the state and the nation. Texas has increased its financial support to education several hundred per cent within the past quarter of a century. It has a right to expect greatly increased dividends on its investment. The writer believes that Texas educators will keep faith with their state, and that there will be no cause to regret having given this profession such a favorable vote of con¬ fidence. It is a challenge which the profession cannot afford to ignore. It has been proven that where greater support has been given to edu¬ cation greater material prosperity has come to all individuals and institu¬ tions in the areas involved. This kind of wealth will without doubt repay Texas many times over for its investment in its educational institutions. But in the opinion of the writer, financial dividends or material rewards will be paled into relative insignificance by the profits in the form of social, moral, and spiritual values which Texas has a right to expect as a result of the kind of training and guidance this increased investment will enable education to provide for the youth of today, who will be the leaders in all walks of life tomorrow. The employment of science in the improvement of the outcomes of educational endeavors will certainly contribute a very What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation 7 large share of the benefits to be realized by the state in return for it;s invest¬ ment. If science in education can train students to think, plan, and work in harmony with scientific principles and techniques, the contribution of science in education will not end when the day arrives for the student to be sepa¬ rated from school. He will be a student all of his life, and will be able to chart his career so as to achieve the most happiness for himself and his dependents, and to contribute the greatest values to society which fostered his preparation for a happy, useful life. WHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FROM RANGE CONSERVATION By B. W. Allred Chief, Regional Range Division Soil Conservation Service Fort Worth, Texas INTRODUCTION Texas has the land and climatic resources to double and perhaps treble its present grass resources. This great improvement will become a reality when the following accomplishments have been achieved on all land: 1. Rangeland grazed tolerantly and restored to the desired condition. 2. Eighty to ninety million acres of trees, brush and weeds satisfactorily controlled, 3. Neces¬ sary developments for livestock and grassland management ,such as : a. Fencing, b. Stock water, c. Water conservation measures, d. Corrals and feeding con¬ veniences. 4. Artificial seeding of a. Eight million acres of abandoned farmlands, b. Fifteen million acres of low condition rangelands. 5. Supplies of home grown and commercial supplementary feeds. 6. Necessary cooperative action on part of landowners and public. There are about 116 million acres of native grazing land on which these practices are wholly or partially needed. This acreage of Texas grass¬ land is as large as the total area of California. Over half of the yearly forage for Texas livestock comes from native grass. There are about seven million cattle, seven million sheep, 2.4 million goats and three million horses and mules. Also, each year about 13 million pounds of dressed meat comes from deer, small game animals, and game birds most of which live all or part of the year on grasslands. Quantity and quality of range vegetation goes downward as range condition goes from excellent to poor condition. This is indicated in Table 1. TABLE 1'“' COMPARATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OF SITES AND CONDITION CLASSES Fort Worth, Texas 1946 Percent of Climax VALLEY SITE UPLAND SITE RIDGE SITE Vegetation in Each Lbs. of Vegetation Lbs. of Vegetation Lbs. of Vegetation Condition of Class 100% Climax Other Climax Other Climax Other Excellent _ 75% 5000 ..... 3000 .... 2000 .... Good _ 50% ..... 3900 200 2200 300 1400 125 Fair _ 25% _ 2700 700 1700 225 900 310 Poor _ _ 1600 900 750 250 400 308 * Weights were taken in October. The Texas Journal of Science Pioneering Texans found great variety in kind and productivity of the original plant communities from the forests in humid East Texas to the arid plateau grasslands of the Trans-Pecos. All Texas grasslands provide nourishing forage when . plants are green. West Texas grazing plants cure out in the dry air and lose less of their summer nutrients than summer-growing plants in eastern Texas. More protein or more green winter supplementary pastures are needed in eastern Texas than are required in the West. INCREASE OF WOODY VEGETATION Waste trees and brush are taking over land in Texas faster than it can be cleared. There are 80 to 90 million acres of these plants. The woods are getting deeper every year. It is estimated that mesquite has taken over 5 5,000,000 acres, cedar 18,000,000 and creosote bush 16,300,000 acres during the last 75 years. Also there are about 20 million acres of live oak and 9 million acres of postoak and blackjack oak. These oaks have not invaded far beyond their original outposts, but have increased in density as much as two or three hundred per cent in many areas. Liveoak provides considerable good forage and small amounts are desirable. Other woody plants taking over profitable rangelands are tarbush 12,100,000 acres; sand sagebrush 6,400,000; shinnery oak 8,800,000; guajillo 6,800,000; huisache 6,3 80,000 and wild rose 40,000 acres. Guajillo is a good forage plant. It has increased as grass stands have been reduced. In addition to those acreages, mesquite will take over 300,000 acres this year, cedar 2 5,000, huisache 20,000 and sand sagebrush 10,000. Creosote bush will creep in over 5,000 more acres, liveoak 1,600, shinnery oak 1,800, guajillo 1,500, tarbush 3,000 and wild rose 500. On acres already established, mesquite will strengthen its strangle hold by five per cent on 10,000,000 acres, cedar on 1,500,000, creosote bush 1,000,000, liveoak 500,000, shinnery oak 75,000, guajillo 21,500, huisache 680,000, tarbush 700,000, wild rose 10,000 and sand sagebrush 100,000. Control of brush and trees must be resolved through good range man¬ agement, mechanical and chemical controls and artificial range seeding. Tree dozing, brush cutting, cabling and ploughing, have all given good results, but original benefits are shortlived except where proper methods for controlling sprouts by machines or goats or chemicals have been used. Original costs run from $1 to $4 per acre for cabling; $4 and $5 per acre for brush cutting; $5 to $20 per acre for tree dozing and ploughing. Acre cost of follow-up in sprout control has been cut to 2 5c to $1 per acre per year where brush cutting maintainers are being used. Correct use of goats on oak sprouts has cut maintenance costs on several ranches. Among chemical controls kerosene has been most widely used. Costs run from $7 to $16 per acre. Ninety per cent of treated trees have died in some instances, but smaller rates of kill are more common. Sand sagebrush can be killed with properly applied 2,4-D at a cost of $2 per acre. The increase in grass production after killing sagebrush may run from 2 5 to 100 per cent. The deep-rooted sand sagebrush competes stubbornly with grass for moisture. Once established it resists competition from grasses. Sand sagebrush removal is imperative before a quick improvement can be What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation 9 expected. Rested sagebrush and scrub oak ranges improve very slowly unless brush rccts are killed. Response of grass production following clearing of brush varies by areas. Grass improvement following sagebrush control is spectacular. In the High Plains and Rolling Red Plains the increase is much less. Removal of dense stands of mesquite on the Spur Experiment Station has only brought about a 1 5 per cent greater beef yield compared to untreated areas. Brush removal with the deep plough in the Rio Grande Plains has proved very satisfactory in terms of immediate forage production. On the R. Hinnant ranch east of Laredo, Texas, and Robert Briggs' ranch east of Catarina, the grass yield was increased several hundred per cent in one year. Dense brush thickets covered both areas and very little grass could be found. REVEGETATION— -NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL On 116 million acres of native grazing land most of which is in less than excellent condition, natural revegetation is the means by which the largest good will come. Where brush is not a serious problem and where ranges are in excellent, good or well into fair condition, sufficient plants will be presented for natural revegetation. On these condition classes most new growth will originate from rootstocks, tillers and stolons. Mature, sod¬ forming Indiangrass, big bluestem, sideoats, grama, tobosa, and seacoast blue- stem may increase 2 to 6 inches outward from each side in a growing season. With tillering grasses like blue grama, little bluestem, Texas winter- grass, tall dropseed and pink pappasgrass, the outward growth may be to 2 inches per year from each side. Other especially active sod formers may spread from 2 inches to 6 feet per year. Some of these are: Buffalograss, curlymesquite, vinemesquite, and western wheatgrass. Some reproduction from seed occurs on ranges in higher condition classes but generally this type of stand improvement is far less important than extension from vegetative parts. Many seedlings sprout but live only a short time and die of com.petition from established plants. Often little bluestem, in climax stands, produces as many as 40-100 seedlings per square yard, but practically all die before fall. Grasses of the following species produce numerous seedlings under favorable conditions: Little bluestem, splitbeard bluestem, broomsedge ‘bluestem, silver bluestem, pinhole bluestem, cane bluestem and New Mexico bluestem, all species of the following genuses: Aristida, Stipa, Trachypogoit, Bromus, Heteropogon, Pappophorum, Chloris, Trichloris, Cenchrus, ’bet aria and Paspalum. Artificial seeding of many ranges in poor and low, fair condition may often prove profitable but too little is known about the complex job. Nat¬ ural reseeding is best in humid areas, flood plains, subirrigated, gravelly, rocky or sandy sites. It is most difficult in dry regions, where blowing is a problem, and on dry heavy soils. Natural seeding is better on moderately grazed summer rested ranges than on heavily grazed or summer grazed areas. It is rare on heavily used ranges. Following are results of natural seeding on a few Texas ranches: Richardson ranch, Jacksboro, Texas. Range in fair condition. The number of one and two year old plants per square yard was: Texas winter- grass- — 6; little bluestem— 24. Figures are average for four separate plots. Range has been grazed moderately yearlong for four years. 10 The Texas Journal of Science Gage-Catto RaiKJi, Marfa, Texas. There were from 5 to IS cane bluestem seedlings in threeawn-burrograss sod, but none on bare ground. Some burrograss -and purple threeawn seedlings were found on bare ground. These were ranges in poor and fair condition but had been rested last two summers and carried full quota cattle in winter. Of the John Royal ranch, Menard, Texas, a chalky hill side of S acres had numerous little bluestem plants 1 and 2 years old, about 40 plants per square yard. Seventy-five per cent of them were seedlings and year-old plants. In some brush cleared bottoms on the ranch, in two years Indiangrass increased 200 per cent, Texas wintergrass and Canada wildrye 300 percent and curlymesquite improved 50 per cent in cover and the vigor is better. Rainfall absorption is high. Grazing was year-long on curlymesquite but bluestem and Indiangrass were rested in summer. Soil conservation districts have specialized in seeding worn out farm land and depleted ranges with native grasses. In many cases, adapted in¬ troduced grasses have been planted on old farm land to control erosion and to provide extra forage. There is considerable variety in kinds of Texas grasslands, due to sig- PROTECTIVE VALUE OF RANGE COVER IN PREVENTING SOIL SPLASH DURING RAINS i44.oooa 1 ^ »UUv 120.000 1 1 1 mo AAA r Y ~ lOo.OOU o ^ 96.000 QC UJ ^ 84.000 Q LU ^ - 72.000 a! 60.000 C/) ~ 48.000 8 Li_ 36.000 o m 24.000 _J 12.000 \ \ I 1 \ \ \ \ X “Elt" 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 LBS, OF FORAGE S LITTER PER ACRE,,.,„, 1. Chart No. 1. "Protective value of range cover in preventing soil splash during rains.” What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation 11 nificant variations in climate, soil, elevation, and temperature. Soil conser¬ vation districts plant native and introduced species that are locally adapted. MORE RAIN SOAKS IN WHERE RANGE COVER IS GOOD There is a direct correlation between amount of soil splash and rate of rainfall penetration and amount of forage and litter on the range. Field checks have been made on important range sites in the Rio Grande Plains near Carrizo Springs, Trans-Pecos near Pecos, Edwards Plateau near San Angelo, Grand Prairie near Fort Worth, Western Cross Timbers near Jacks- boro. Rolling Red Plains near Cheyenne, Oklahoma, Fligh Plains near Big Spring and Amarillo. Ranges with most cover had the best soil protection and moisture intake was much faster on all areas evaluated. Also there was a close correlation between soil splash and moisture absorption and range condition. Ranges in excellent condition produce the most forage and generally have more litter per acre than ranges in lower condition classes. Charts 1 and 2 show the effects of different amounts of cover on mois¬ ture absorption and soil splash. The trend has been similar in all areas eval¬ uated. Therefore charts 1 and 2 generally are indications of what happened 2. Chart No. 2. '"Effect of various amounts of cover on infiltration of rainfall into the soil.” 12 The Texas Journal of Science at Amarillo and elsewhere. Hourly moisture intake was 3/1*0 inches on bare ground. On range in low fair condition with 800 pounds of vegetation per acre, the soil soaked up one inch per hour. On a range in low good condition with 2200 pounds of cover per acre, water was absorbed at rate of 8.4 inches per hour. The range in low excellent condition produced nearly 6,000 pounds of cover per acre but hourly moisture absorption was 9.3 inches. Most all of the evaluations show that from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of well- distributed cover to the acre is adequate for soil and water conservation. On bare ground soil splash amounted to 72 tons per acre. It was only 3 5 tons where cover weighed 1,200 pounds an acre. It was reduced to 7 tons an acre when cover weighed 2,200 pounds and was only 3 tons an acre when cover weighed 3,300 pounds and splash dropped to nothing when cover weighed 4,800 pounds an acre. Soil is adequately protected when splash is not over 6 tons per acre. These valuations revealed the singular role of algae and lichens in water¬ proofing the soil surface. At first runoff is high and soil splash slight. Con¬ tinuous peppering by heavy raindrops eventually dislodges part of the pro¬ tective coat and soil splash is increased. Algae covering is greater on lightly grazed or protected ranges. Algae and lichens serve as pioneering plants and provide a place for seeds to germinate and grow because moisture under algae is generally higher than on bare ground. AN ADVENTURE COOPERATION It is too late for mere approval of soil conservation. It is time for energetic action. Averting famine is the unifying compulsion of today, and 3. This range is in excellent condition. Plant cover is made up of 75 to 100 per cent climax or original plants. Forage production and soil protection are maintained at highest levels. No more than 50 per cent of the annual growth should be grazed. What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation 13 4. The range here is in good condition, with 50 to 75 per cent of vegeta¬ tion composed of climax plants. Production is two-thirds or less of maximum and soil protection is adequate as long as 50 per cent of the yearly plant growth is left. 5. This range is in fair condition, with 2 5 to 50 per cent of vegetation composed of climax plants. Forage production is generally less than half of maximum. No more than half of the climax plants should be grazed. Total forage production is often inadequate to protect the soil on this site when the range is in fair range condition. 14 The Texas Journal of Science more can be done to activate the job than ever before. Of the major problems outlined^ more are truly social than technical. No amount of brilliant scientific knowledge is of much value until the land- owners become so interested that they will put the knowledge to use. Under a democracy where people are self -ruling they can mobilize force and action in such an efficient way that no others could possibly do, because they are planning and managing to better their own resources. They are the only ones under our democracy who have the right to do it. Ninety per cent of Texas is covered with self-ruling democratic soil conservation districts. Texas soil conservation district cooperators already have about 20 million acres of grazing land planned for conservation. On a good many acres the better grasses are thickening and erosion is becoming less. Some ranges have improved 2 5 to 50 per cent in 4 to 8 years. Nearly one million acres of poor farmland have been seeded .to native and intro¬ duced grasses. These new acres will graze 80 to 90 thousand head of cattle each year. 6. This range is in poor condition. None to 2 5 per cent of the plants are climax or original kinds. Production is generally 2 5 per cent, or less, of maximum. No more than 50 per cent of the climax plants should be grazed. Total forage production on this site is generally inadequate for soil protection when ranges are in poor condition. When there are no longer enough plants left to reseed the range, seed of such plants must be artificially introduced to hasten recovery. What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation 15 WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT FROM FOREST CONSERVATION A. D. Folweiler Director, Texas Forest Service . The A. and M. College of Texas The word "forestry” will be substituted for "forest conservation” in this paper because it is a synonym and is the briefer term. Forestry has drawn on most, if not all, of the pure and applied sciences. It is an art as well as a science and is concerned with the continuous production of timber on the same unit area of land. This paper will be primarily concerned with forestry as a form of land use. Forestry deals with a renewable natural resource, i.e., timber. It is based on plant ecology, pedology, entomology, botany, plant physiology, plant pathology, and genetics. At least a century ago European foresters developed forest management techniques applicable to the Continent and to Scanda- navia. Many of the techniques were adopted, without modification in the United States. With climatic and edaphic environment in the United States considerably different from the cool climate of Europe, adaptations were necessary. With the experience of the Europeans behind them, however, foresters in the United States were able to make rapid progress in develop¬ ing procedures for sustained timber production in the several regions of the country. The South was one of the last regions to adopt forest management. Today the South is recognized as having the most favorable environment for the production of timber, on a land unit basis, in the United States. The only exception is the Pacific Northwest region where rainfall ranges from 60” to 100” per year. Within a relatively short period of time, the attitude of the southern forest products industries, and the public as well, has changed from one of either apathy or antagonism toward forestry to one of consid¬ erable interest. This is because it has become increasingly evident that forest land in the South is capable of continually producing a renewable resource, i.e,, timber of considerable present and potential value. For the successful practice of forestry, at least two things are essential. These are the control of forest fires and the control of plant succession achieved largely through the control of cutting practices. Forest fire con¬ trol is entirely a matter of applied engineering. The control of plant suc¬ cession, however, requires considerable skill so that the timber stands will be treated in a manner that will produce the results desired by the practic¬ ing forester. As in any enterprise where man is pitted against an environ¬ ment not subject to complete control, as well as being unpredictable, invari¬ able success in forestry is difficult. For example, in the pine area west of the Mississippi River there was a marked deficiency of precipitation in 1947 and 1948. In the fall of 1946, there was an abundant crop of pine mast. This produced innumerable pine seedlings in the pine area in the spring of 1947. There were also approximately 40,000,000 seedlings planted in the aforementioned area in the spring of 1947. The mortality of the natural as well as planted reproduction varied from 90% to 100%. This is cited to illustrate that failures in reforestation occur not because of any lack of technique, but due to failure of an environmental factor, chiefly rainfall. Sometimes nature is more cooperative. 16 The Texas Journal of Science If forestry is considered from the standpoint of land use, then there is more to it than the mere production of a flow resource, i.e., timber. Well managed forests develop a vegetal cover that is conducive to control of erosion and ground water storage by reduction of runoff due to maintenance of the surface soil in a permeable condition. Water, both surface and ground, is becoming of increasing importance as a factor in industrial expansion even in humid Southeast Texas. There is abundant evidence that crops of annuals that require row tillage, as for example cotton, have contributed no small degree to soil erosion and subsequent silting of streams. Cellulose fibers are the end result of cotton culture. On the inferior hill soils, on the average only 150 pounds of cotton cellulose are produced annually per acre. The same sites will produce 700-1600 pounds of usable wood cellulose an¬ nually with little or no soil erosion and diminished runoff when there is forest management. CONTRASTING FOREST TYPES IN TEXAS Texas has two broad vegetational forms, viz., eastern and western. The dividing line is approximately the 98th meridian. In extreme East Texas, say Lufkin, and extreme West Texas, say the Davis Mountains, the respec¬ tive forest vegetational patterns are typically those of the southeastern and the southwestern parts of the United States. From both an area and economic standpoint, the eastern forests are much more important than the western. For this reason much more attention has been paid by foresters to the eastern forests than to the western types. A discussion of West Texas forest conservation must be mostly in an abstract way rather than one gained from extensive experience. WEST TEXAS Trees have been used for windbreaks and shelterbelts in the High Plains area. Their usefulness has been established. Techniques for the estab¬ lishment of windbreaks have been developed and demonstrated. Whether more windbreaks are established will be determined entirely by the people who live there and the public agencies that work with them in the develop¬ ment of their land uses policies and practices- Trees and shrubs for windbreak establishment can be made available either through private or public nur¬ series. For the present, the windbreak is the only contribution that forestry can make to the High Plains region. The cedar breaks, an area of approximately 5,000,000 acres, can be referred to as a forest region because the vegetal covering is mountain cedar (Juniperus mexicana). Most of the residents of the area, i.e., the Edwards Plateau, regard the species as a noxious one, largely because it invades areas that formerly were reputedly stocked with range grasses. Very few land- owners have an interest in maintaining a stand of cedar. It is the published opinion of the Soil Conservation Service, moreover, that from the stand¬ point of maintenance of a soil cover for underground water storage, cedar is considerably inferior to grass. There is no denying the fact that the prin¬ cipal known use of mountain cedar is for fence posts. From information currently available, forestry can contribute very little to the economy of the cedar breaks area in the immediate future. Some of the mountains of West Texas, i.e., the Trans-Pecos area, have produced stands of timber of commercial value. Wood used in the con- What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation 17 struction of Ft. Davis, for example, was sawn from ponderosa pine timber growing in the nearby Davis Mountains. Ponderosa pine, however, is a species that grows very slowly as compared with the pines of East Texas. The fact remains that there seems to be no pressure to use the area suitable for ponderosa pine production for other purposes. With control of fire and grazing, it should be possible to grow timber of commercial value in some of the rugged environment of the Trans-Pecos. It is doubtful whether forests and forestry will ever make an important contribution to the econ¬ omy of West Texas, but forestry practice on some of the forest lands can make available a locally scarce commodity, i.e., timber, as well as aid in the control of runoff and erosion. east TEXAS The humid East Texas forest region can be readily divided into two areas or forest types, viz., the post oak belt of approximately 4^/4 million acres of forest land and the pine belt of almost 10% million acres. The post oak belt of East Texas, situated just west of the pine belt, occupies roughly 5,000,000 acres of land that supports a deciduous forest that has been heavily cut over for fuel and fence posts for generations. It has never had the economic importance of the East Texas pine area. There is today no clearly defined land use for the post oak belt. The lighter soils of the area seem to be capable of growing pine timber. It has been fairly well established, moreover, that there should be a soil cover of some sort maintained to reduce excessive runoff and subsequent erosion. The tendency of landowners in the post oak area seems to be to convert the area into range. This may be the best use for some of the area, but it is questionable whether it is the highest use for all of the area’s soils of sub-marginal agri¬ cultural value. It is likely that forestry can and should be practiced on some of the lands. What species of economic importance can and should be grown can be determined only by investigation. As of this writing, no steps have been taken to obtain answers to the question of the place that foresstry should have in the post oak belt. The pine belt of approximately 100 miles in width lying adjacent to Louisiana and Arkansas is by far the most productive forest area of the state. In the area, almost 60% of the land can be classified as forest land. A large part of the economy of the area is founded on timber. The future economic health of the area will be closely related to the productivity of the forest land. Petroleum and natural gas production today play an impor¬ tant part in the area’s economy, but both are non-renewable natural re¬ sources of limited quantities. If forestry were practiced on the lands of East Texas suitable for pine timber production, and that includes all or parts of 40 East Texas counties, the timber resources could be doubled and perhaps trebled within twenty years. All that would be required would be the appli¬ cation of techniques now known and proven to be economically feasible. Until relatively recently, it was quite common to think of timber resources in terms merely of so many board feet of lumber. Today the forests of East Texas are thought of increasingly as producing a renewable resource usable not only for lumber but rather as a crop of perennials 100 feet tall usable for a host of other things such as pulpwood for paper and containers, pulpwood for conversion into rayon, for plywood, for wallboard, for poles for transmission lines of public utilities, for ties for railroads, for chemical conversion into plastics and wood sugars suitable for animal feed, 18 The Texas Journal of Science and last but not least, in its dynamic potentialities, ethyl alcohol. The chemi¬ cal conversion of wood today is based on knowledge of the characteristics of the cellulose molecule. Lignin is still a chemical mystery to the extent that its characteristics are unknown. It is merely a matter of time, however, before the chemical qualities of lignin will be known, thus increasing the usefulness of wood for chemical conversion. It is in the pine belt of East Texas that genetics can be applied to a much greater degree than has been the case to date. As a matter of fact, genetics has been very largely ignored in southern forestry practice. For many years public agencies have advocated the so-called ^'selection” system of cutting. In practice it has tended to remove the most vigorous trees in a stand. The Swedes have clearly demonstrated that the productivity of forest land can best be attained by arranging the timber fellings so that the most vigorous trees will be available for reproducing the stand. Individual selec¬ tion for reproduction. purposes has been a generally accepted practice in the animal industries. Superior progeny have resulted from careful selection of parents. The Swedes deliberately sought to increase the quality of the trees in their forests' by application of the basic principles of genetics. They have been exteremely successful in their efforts. There has been some publicity to the more spectacular part of forest genetics, i.e., the development of hybrids. At the Eddy Tree Breeding Institute in California some pine hybrids have been produced. It is likely, however, that in the South there will be greater progress in the immediate future toward raising forest land unit productivity if simple rules of good genetics are followed rather than de¬ velop hybrids whose reproduction will be necessarily slow. All that is re¬ quired is the selection of high-quality vigorous trees to serve as sources of seed for the Fi generation. There is some concern among foresters on the manner in which hard¬ woods are invading the pine forests. It is very likely that fire can be used as a silvicultural tool to maintain pine in a dominant ecological position. If ecological succession were permitted to follow its natural course in the pine forests of East Texas, the oak-hickory climax would no doubt be at¬ tained. Unfortunately the climax type is economically inferior to the sub¬ climax pine type. Research now being done by public agencies should soon supply the answer to the questions (a) is fire a useful and economic tool for maintaining pine stands and (b) if it is, then just how should it be applied? The bottleneck to having forestry widely practiced and generally ac¬ cepted so that there will be more abundant timber production is the matter of land tenure, i.e., relationship between the individual and the land. The current concept of property rights gives to- the owner absolute rights over his land. In East Texas alone, 5 8,000 owners of forest land are involved. They are the owners of parcels of land varying from 5 acres to 600,000 acres. Their attitude toward their forest land ranges all the way from abso¬ lute indifference toward the maintenance of the productivity of the land to the extent of exercising no control whatsoever in the matter of forest fires and cutting practices, to enthusiasm, even to the extent of being un¬ economic, in forest fire control, cutting control, and timber stand improve¬ ment. To raise the unit area productivity of East Texas timber lands requires a tremendous amount of either (a) education of the individual landowners What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation 19 to the economic opportunities in timber production or (b) some sort of self-imposed private regulation or public regulation of cutting practices. The great majority of the landowners favor the control of forest :dres. Few, however, practice adequate control over the manner in which their timber is harvested. The fact remains that there can be much more timber grown in the East Texas pine belt than is being grown there today. It is highly desirable to grow timber on the land suited for it in order to sustain the economy of the area at such future time when the stock pile of the non¬ renewable resources, petroleum and natural gas, is depleted. Timber is an important raw material adaptable to change in shape by physical processes and through chemical conversion. This is nothing new. It is repeated here for the purpose of again mentioning what has been stated elsewhere in this paper, viz., that the East Texas forests will never produce abundantly until there is adequate control of forest fires and vegetal succession. Today there is not even adequate forest fire control, the bed-rock of forestry. There are approximately 2,000,000 acres of the pine belt, or one-fifth of the area, that have inadequate or no forest fire control facilities. A start has been made toward the education of the landowners in improving their attitude toward their forest land. Most of the larger forest land units are under some degree of control of fires and cutting practices. But a great deal re¬ mains to be done in achieving control of vegetal succession by the indi¬ vidual landowners who own relatively small parcels of land of 50 to 500 acres. The educational process is a slow and painstaking one. If the East Texas pine lands are to even approach their production potential for timber, then there must be greater public recognition of the intrinsic value of timber as a form of raw material for industry. Timber is not only a form of wealth to the owner, but also an important raw material for industry. Foresters in public and private employ in Texas are applying directly cr indirectly, the techniques that have been developed in forest conserva¬ tion. In the most productive forest area of Texas, the techniques are being applied, in varying degrees of intensity, to only one- third of the IOV2 million acres. On the remaining two-thirds, there is nothing being done by the land- owners to sustain or increase the productivity of the forest land. The for¬ estry potential in the remainder of the State’s forest area outside of the East Texas pine belt is an unknown quantity, especially as it applies to the post oak, cross-timbers, cedar breaks, and mountain forests. The fact remains that, gauged by expenditures in other southern states, the generally accepted public responsibility of forest fire control in inadequately financed in Texas. It can be argued that landowners will be apathetic toward forestry practices until there is adequate protection from the risk of having the timber de¬ stroyed by fire. This sort of reasoning tends to move in a vicious circle that can be broken only by the landowners and the public when they make up their minds that the practice of forestry has as many economic advantages as the production of cattle or row crops. The techniques of timber pro¬ duction are available to those who wish to use them. 20 The Texas Journal of Science WHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FROM IRRIGATION M, A. Hartman Irrigation is artificially applying water to land. The exact date man started irrigating is not known but apparently it was not long after he started cultivating. One theory, based on archeological discoveries, is that the human race and civilization did not advance until cultivation and irri- gation were begun. The assumption is that civilization progressed after man had time to spend on some of the finer arts such as painting and pottery making. This spare time was not available until he started intensively farm¬ ing land and making a living did not require all of his time. Cultivation and irrigation also meant that man stayed in one place and did not have to move when natural foods were consumed. Historians and archeologists differ as to what part of the world irriga¬ tion was first practiced. This is not as important as what type was -prac¬ ticed, why it was practiced, and whether it was beneficial use of land and water. Irrigation has been practiced for many centuries in the Nile Valley, in Mesopotamia, in China, as well as in some sections of the Americas by the American Indians. Genesis 2:10 may be an early Biblical reference, as it says: "And a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads.” Two of the ancient methods consisted of allowing the water to flow over the land and thereby providing an opportunity for infiltration; and holding the water on the land by terraces or dikes forming closed basins that allowed the water to penetrate. These two methods are still used by most people. Modern irrigators also apply some water with various types of rain simulators, and a very small amount of water is applied with porous underground pipe. As the need for food and fiber increased beyond that readily available, man increased the supply by irrigating hitherto unused land, just as modern India is rapidly expanding its irrigated area in an attempt to produce more for its rapidly increasing population. The practical value of this method of agriculture is indicated by the many centuries that it has been practiced in the Nile Valley and in China. Even in our own state, records of some of the old missions in the Rio Grand Valley near El Paso, Texas, show that some of that land has been successfully irrigated for 400 years. This land still produces over two bales of cotton per acre if it is farmed the conservation way. The intent and purpose of irrigation is to produce agricultural products but our present practices often disregard techniques and procedures based on scientific principles and proven facts and literally just apply water to land. Such farm irrigation does not properly consider land, water and plants. The result is: (1) a waste of water through surface runoff and deep percolation; (2) land deterioration due to water-logging, leaching and an accumulation of harmful salts; (3) decreased net profits due to an in¬ crease in labor required per unit of agricultural products and a decrease in volume of crop produced, primarily due to a poor balance or relationship of the basic factors required to produce plants. Improper water use of this kind is exploitation of natural resources (soil and water) and encourages waste and land deterioration. What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation 21 Fig. 1 — -Improper irrigation caused by long runs, steep grade and applying too much water. Result is erosion, unequal distribution of water, leaching at lower end and wasting water at lower end by surface runoff. Fig. 2- — -Soil is heavy, tight clay, being irrigated in Pecos River Valley. Cotton failed, soil is very saline and cloddy, with character of water available for irrigation. This soil is unsuitable for cultivation to crops but may be utilized for production of salt-tolerant grasses. 22 The Texas Journal of Science Conservation irrigation on the other hand is uniform application of required amounts of water without waste or erosion; and, in addition to providing for the maximum use of rainfall and safe disposal of the excess, it maintains soil productivity. Conservation irrigation makes beneficial use of irrigation water as well as rainwater. In practicing conservation irriga¬ tion, the following must be done: 1. Apply water uniformly. 2. Apply water without causing erosion. 3. Apply water in needed amounts, so as to prevent excessive leaching. 4. Prevent surface waste of this water. 5. Make maximum use of rainfall, 6. Adequately dispose of excess rain. 7. Maintain soil productivity. This will result in wise use of soil and water resources with minimum waste and deterioration — in other words, permanent irrigation agriculture, which is what Texas can expect from science in irrigation. This type of conservation is the goal of the Soil Conservation Service and its technicians who are assisting soil conservation districts in Texas. The Soil Conservation Districts through their supervisors and the district program and plan request the assistance of the Soil Conservation Service. They develop plans with individual farmers and their neighbors. The con¬ servation plans are based on an inventory of basic soil and water resources and farm management principles. The technical assistance that will result in permanent agriculture by making beneficial use of soil and water resources is provided by the .Soil Conservation Service through the soil conservation districts, which are strictly local self-governing farmer-controlled groups. There are many phases of science that are involved in developing, apply¬ ing and maintaining a coordinated conservation program on irrigated land. These include mathematics, chemistry, physics, hydraulics, hydrology, soils, Fig. 3 — Alfalfa drowned out on irrigated field because of uneven distribution of water. The excess water percolates downward, leaching the low areas and raising the water table. What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation 23 & Fig. 4— Field being irrigated after the land has been prepared for irrigation. Following irrigation, small high places are cut and low places filled before the crop is planted. The water is being used to locate small high and low places prior to planting. Fig. 5 — Small equipment moving soil. This is how most farmers level their land. 24 The Texas Journal of Science agronomy and mechanics. The scope of conservation irrigation can be seen from a brief discussion of some of the factors that must be considered in properly developing and correlating the seven major purposes that must be accomplished: 1. APPLY WATER UNIFORMLY. If the Same amount of water is to be applied on all of the areas in the field, it is necessary to know how fast water will be absorbed. This absorption rate or infiltration rate or perme¬ ability rate varies with soil type, soil condition, type of crop, as well as condition of the surface of the soil. The opportunity for infiltration must also be the same over the area. The amount that is needed will vary but all amounts need to be applied uniformly. 2. APPLY WATER WITHOUT CAUSING EROSION. Erosion or soil removal by flowing water not only removes some of the basic land resources from an area but also leaves the area too irregular for irrigation water to spread uniformly. Soil erosion by flowing water is affected by the speed or rate of flow, which in turn varies with the slope, size and shape of the stream, and the condition of the surface over which the water is flowing. 3. APPLY WATER IN NEEDED AMOUNTS SO AS TO PREVENT EXCESSIVE LEACHING. The amounts of water that are needed will depend on the depth of the root zone, the available water-holding capacity of the soil, the amount of harmful salts in the soil and water, the amount the crop is using in a week or month, the economic results expected and the time period be¬ tween irrigations. This requires field determinations of depth of root zone of various crops during various stages of growth by seasons, field determi¬ nation of amount of available plant water in the root zone and available plant water-holding capacity of the soil. Also required is adequate control Fig. 6 — Irrigating cotton. Shows turnout box being shut down when water is about 100 feet from end of tab. A concrete block check. This check is constructed on the farm. What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation 25 Fig. 7“— -Level rows being irrigated from turnout box and equalizing ditch. Water does not cover the top of the beds. Fig. 8 — Checking moisture penetration while irrigating with a probe. • A probe can be used to check the depth of penetration and when the soil is wet in the root zone irrigation can be stopped. 26 The Texas Journal of Science of the water so that the predetermined amount can be applied. This requires adequate delivery ditches with appurtenant water control structures such as gates, checks and turnouts. 4. PREVENT SURFACE WASTE OF WATER. Surface waste can occur from both evaporation and surface runoff. Excessive evaporation wastes water the same as surface runoff. Evaporation varies with temperature, humidity, wind movement and opportunity for evaporation. Surface conditions will greatly affect the opportunity for evaporation. Surface runoflf will vary with amount and rate of application, amount needed, method of application, and surface condition at time water is applied. In addition, the human element plays an important part in surface waste—Is water properly controlled by the irrigator? 5. MAKE MAXIMUM USE OF RAINFALL. Rainfall is the cheapest water the irrigation farmer receives. It is applied uniformly without cost. It must be kept from concentrating in low areas and the soil must be in condition to absorb the rain when it falls. Amount and intensity of rain expected by seasons of the year must be considered. Rainwater contains no harmful salts and should, therefore, be used to leach harmful salts out of the soil if they exist. This requires knowledge of the kind and amount of salts present, as well as subsurface drainage conditions. 6. ADEQUATELY DISPOSE OF EXCESS RAINWATER. After all of the rain¬ water that can be used is stored in the soil, and it continues to rain, the excess must be drained off either from the surface or through the soil profile. This requires information on crop needs, storage capacity of soils, sub¬ surface drainage conditions, surface drainage ditches and appurtenant struc¬ tures, expected or probable rainfall (both amount and intensity), and con¬ dition and pattern of the overall surface drainage. 7. MAINTAIN SOIL PRODUCTIVITY. For most economical crop produc¬ tion, a proper balance of the plant growth requirements must be maintained. Basically, plants require plant food, water, air, sunlight, temperature, and a place to grow. A satisfactory balance must be maintained between these basic requirements for maximum feasible plant production. More efficient irrigation and increased crop yields are the returns which J. W. Pratt is getting since he began installing the needed conservation measures. In 1946 he developed a coordinated plan with the Toyah-Limpia Soil Conservation District at Pecos, Texas. These measures have increased his cotton yield 30 per cent. Using the same head of water, it takes about 2 5 per cent less time to irrigate 100 acres than it did before he started ap¬ plying proper practices. On the same acreage he, therefore, uses 2 5 per cent less water with 2 5 per cent less labor. Lupe Flores, a cooperator of the El Paso-Hudspeth Soil Conservation District, near El Paso, Texas, increased his cotton and alfalfa yield 50 per cent on his 92 -acre farm, through a coordinated plan developed with the help of Soil Conservation Service technicians assisting the El Paso-Hudspeth Soil Conservation District in 1946. He applied a large part of the plan the first year and increased his cotton and alfalfa yields 50 per cent in 1947 over previous years. M. F. McKnight of Hale Center, Texas, increased his wheat yields 40 per cent in 1948 after applying his conservation plan on his irrigated farm. This included an irrigation system that would uniformly apply his irriga¬ tion water without waste and erosion, and maintain his soil productivity^ with hubam sweetclover. What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation 27 H I,- I- 1' ^ If ^ ''V'.T’'', „^5; t*k I III .-■ '‘ , 5^ '* •’ I ill ' ' ;.''■ '-^/ulV I ."s Ilf '■ •-.- '. '•e^ ? ’ "' *■ ='••••' ^’ ;T'a' ■* -S Fig. 9 — -Cattle grazing 20 -acre improved pasture. A mixture of alfalfa and crested wheatgrass was planted. Grazing has been at the rate of one cow per acre for about six months. Fig. 10 — Weighing second picking cotton grown on formerly idle land. In first picking, 48 acres in cotton produced 3 8 bales. Rest of 92- acre farm is in alfalfa. 28 The Texas Journal of Science Jack Garrett, a cooperator with the Southmost Soil Conservation Dis¬ trict, near Harlingen, Texas, increased his cotton yield on 5 5 acres, and decreased his labor required to irrigate the land by at least 2 5 percent. Based on the experiences of these and other farmers in soil conservation districts in Texas, such practices result in 2 5-50 per cent larger net profits. On an average, labor costs of irrigating are decreased 2 5 per cent. Twenty- five per cent less water is used. Per-acre yields of crops are increased from 2 5-50 per cent. The result is a sustained net income 25-50 per cent higher and beneficial use of soil and water resources with minimum waste and deterioration. Conservation irrigation, or irrigation based on the best scientific infor¬ mation available, can do the following for Texas: Net agricultural income for Texas farmers can be increased because less labor is required to produce the crop and the value of the crop produced is increased. The exact amount to base such figures are cut of date. The 1939-1940 census data show about three-fourths of a million acres irrigated in Texas. Conservative estimates are that over a million acres were irrigated on the High Plains of Texas during 1948 and only one-fourth this much land was irrigated in 1940. This expansion has not been as phenomenal in other parts of the state as it has been on the High Plains, but irrigation in the rest of the state would only have had to be doubled in order for Texas to have two million acres now under irrigation. Conservation irrigation would therefore increase the net profits 2 5-50 per cent on two million acres. This increase in net profits would be in addition to a saving in water. The amount of water that is used on two million acres of irrigated land would be reduced by 2 5 percent. This water, in some instances, could be used to irrigate additional land. In other instances it could be used to allevi¬ ate water shortages in industrial and urban areas. CULTURAL SIGNITICANCE OF THE NAVAJO PROBLEM Floyd A. Pollock Head of Department of Sociology Stephen F. Austin State College Nacogdoches, Texas Located in Northeastern Arizona and extending across the borders into Northern New Mexico and Eastern Utah is an area of almost twenty-five thousand square miles, equal to that of West Virginia and almost three times that of Massachusetts. This vast stretch consists of semi-arid desert plateaus and mountain ranges varying in altitude from five thousand to ten thousand feet. It is weirdly beautiful in appearance, but drastically limited in water supply and in vegetation necessary for the sustenance of animal and human life. The thin soil is unable to produce adequate vegetation for the increasing flocks and it is now seriously threatened by erosion through overgrazing. Living on the plains of this vast area is the largest tribe of Indians in the United States, the Navajo, which has increased from nine thousand in 1868 to an estimated sixty thousand in 1950. They have wrested a living through their herds of sheep and goats, small farm plots, their skillful weav- Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem 29 ing and silver-smithing, and the few occasional opportunities for day labor. Theirs is the story of a brave and colorful people facing a crisis which is tending toward a catastrophe through the natural increase of population and the "'seemingly inevitable” increase of horses, sheep, and goats. This crisis is developing although the population density is only two persons to the square mile.^ The Navajo problem is a complex combination of Indian heritage, Indian customs, and Indian ways of life, which are in conflict with the Navajo Indian Service’s scientific program of soil conservaticn and methods of social reform. The scene is a dramatic demonstration of the often self¬ contradictory process of social change which, largely through lack of fore¬ sight and future planning on the part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, has brought critical social disorganization which is evident throughout the Reservation. A survey, in the early 1930’s, revealed that there were over a m^illion head of livestock on the Navajo Reservation- The growth has been a gradual one and the Navajo are unable to comprehend what has been happening to their most important natural resource, the range.^ With the relatively swift multiplying of people and the seeming nec¬ essity of increasing the flocks, the grass has been gradually reduced and in some parts almost eliminated. An excess of animals caused a grass shortage. In pite of this shortage the Navajo population continued to grow and the size of flocks continued to increase, while at the same time the range be¬ came less able to cope with the burden placed upon it. A second phase of the Navajo problem grows out of the program initiated by the United States Office of Indian Affairs, in 1933, in an at¬ tempt to solve the seemingly catastrophic condition of the ever increasing herds and flocks and the resultant soil erosion. The main objects of the Navajo program are "human adjustment and land rehabilitation,” but in practice emphasis seemingly has been placed on land rather than upon human adjustment and rehabilitation. The Navajo situation as a sociological problem centers around the group’s social-cultural valuves in conflict with enforced changes in their pastoral economy; an economy which is basic to Navajo civilization. The sociological phases of the Navajo situation are closely related to the fact that under present conditions the Navajo have a very limited in¬ come. Furthermore, the specialization and limitations of the pastoral econ¬ omy of these Indians have become associated with fixed cultural patterns and uses. So long as the natural resources of the Navajo country could cope with the ever increasing number of animals on the Reservation, Navajo economy remained intact, but when the range was no longer plentiful and the land was wasting away, through the devastation process of soil erosion, the Navajo were suddenly confronted with a situation which was foreign to their daily routine of life. Basic then, to the situation, is the necessity of a conservation program to save the Navajo’s land. To the Navajo, the problem which they face is a strange paradoxical process. It is the policy of the Indian Service to develop a conservation program of saving the land as a means of saving the people, but the Navajo see only inconsistency in iPhelps-Stokes Fund, The Navajo Indian Problem (New York; 1939), p. vii. ^Gehardt Laves, Land Management in the Navajo Area (Window Rock: Navajo Service School Bulletin No. 3, 1937), p. 2. 30 The Texas Journal of Science the program since, to them, it has stressed the saving of the land regardless of the economic and social cost to the people. The situation has developed into more than the necessity of a scientific plan of conserving the natural resources of the Reservation; there is need for the consideration of the human factor since the cultural and social ele¬ ments are also involved. As a rule, new social developments come slowly, and in due time a culture may make some definite changes without any break in its continuity. The core of Navajo culture is of an economic nature, based on a pastoral industry, and as such, under present conditions it has become comparatively unstable. The core of a culture is largely immune to direct disturbance, but it is bound to be indirectly affected by any impor¬ tant changes in the total cultural configuration. Normally these changes are of a sort which allows time for adjustment, but a sudden introduction of a new element into a culture, or a sudden change in the general routine of the life of the group, makes it difficult for a society to maintain its in¬ tegrity, and a serious disruption is likely to follow. The Navajo have been so dependent on the natural resources of their country that they have tended to exploit their range, thus bringing about the problem of soil erosion. This situation has made it necessary for each family to have less land for its flocks; hence their basic economy of sheep culture has been disrupted, their culture pattern has been thrown out of balance, and because of the lack of ability to make a proper adjustment, these Indians have, to a certain extent, become disorganized. During the summer of 1937 the Navajo showed signs of great hostility to the Reser¬ vation policies, but by late fall the Indian Service reported that an air of tranquility had supplanted the turmoil of the previous summer months. However, the problems of horse roundups and the disposal of old and worth¬ less stock was far from being settled. In spite of the fact that many of the horses were so poor they could hardly stand and some staggered as they walked, the Indians expected a good price for them. When the Indians were paid only three dollars per head for their horses, they felt that they were being robbed; thus they became even more bitter toward the stock reduction policies. While many of the horses that the Navajo were asked to sell were unproductive and of no particular use to their owners, they had a high prestige value to the Indians. For more than a century the social position of an ambitious young Navajo, desiring to raise himself in the esteem of his fellow tribesmen, depended largely upon his success in accumulating the largest possible number of horses. To let his horses go was to break this long tradition and to lower his own status. In Navajo society a collection of horses is equivalent to the orchids and candy which the young suitor in white man’s society presents to the lady of his choice. The prestige value of the horse persists among the Navajo; therefore, it was a difficult task to persuade the average Navajo to sell his surplus horses in order to make the grass on the range available for his sheep. When the Indians realized that they were not only to be reduced to ten horses, but that in some districts each family was to be permitted to retain only three, their bewilderment turned to anger and hostility. Since the summer of 1939, some progress has been made in the removal of excess and non-productive horses on the Navajo Reservation, but the Indian Service is forced to carry this program through in the face of Navajo opposition and hostility. Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem 31 The depressed attitude of the Navajo is so obvious that the traders who have known them throughout the years are continually reminded of the changes which have taken place among these Indians during the last decade. One trader made the following comment: Conditions on the Navajo Reservation are the worst I have ever ^known. The biggest reason for this mess is too much theory and not enough practical common sense. The Navajo program may look all right on paper, but it certainly doesn’t work when you are dealing with human beings, s Sheep and goats had been grazed on the poorest of ranges and many were considered unfit for human consumption. The field men, realizing this fact and evidently having little consideration for the feelings of the Indians, shot thousands of goats and left them in heaps to rot. In Navajo Canyon three thousand five hundred head were shot at one time,"^ Through¬ out the Reservation hundreds of goats ' and sheep were slaughtered before the eyes of the Navajo and left to decay where they had fallen, polluting the water of the area and befouling the air for miles around. This was a • lesson in economy which had only recently been introduced to the white man and one which the Indian could in no wise understand. Sheep and goats are basic to the Navajo culture; Navajo has always looked to them for their subsistence. Even though thousands of animals were not fit for human consumption,^ to the Navajo, shooting them and leaving them to rot was nothing less than barbarism and an inexcusable waste. The poorer people owned many of the goats and they were the people who were easier to force into submission. The pressure was so great that in their ignorance they often sold below their quota. The selling of practi¬ cally all their goats, as was done by many, was a great mistake. The goat was the poor man’s only source of milk. A goat sold for only one dollar, which meant little toward buying goods, but having the goat to kill and eat meant much since it answered the question of the family food supply for several days. Goat milk was widely used by both adults and children and was a valuable means of feeding orphan lambs. The loss of his native milk supply has resulted in an increase purchased of canned milk from the trader; but since many Navajo are unable to buy canned milk, thousands are without any milk supply at all. The last few years have revealed a noticeable in¬ crease of tuberculosis and illness among the Navajo children which, no doubt, is due in part to malnutrition and the lackof a proper milk supply,® There is much to indicate that the Navajo— a once proud, happy people filled with the spirit of independence and security— are now in a stage of mental depression, A man who has worked a lifetime and has increased his flock to a thousand head, hoping to help his children get started in life, finds his flock reduced within a few years to two hundred head. Thus his income is cut down well over half, his status is lowered, and his feeling of security is gone. The Navajo’s spirit is broken, for his economy has been struck a vital blow. He continually worries, for he knowns not what he and his children will have to eat and wear. However, the Navajo’s concern is by no means limited to the material results of the loss of his flocks and herds. He sees in the reduction of his stock the serious problem which ®Harry Wetsel, trader. Interview by the writer, August 31, 1940. Condipons of the Indians of the United States. Part 24 (Washington, D. C. : United States Printing Office, 1937), p. 17988. 5New Mexico Association of Indian Affairs, Urgent Navajo Problems (Santa Fe: New Mexi¬ co Association of Indian Affairs, 1940), p. 9. 32 The Texas Journal of Science confronts the young people who desire to marry and go into the sheep business for themselvess. Although all the moral consequences which the Navajo attributes to the Government’s program may not be justified, it is a factor in the future outlook for Navajo youth in as much as this situa¬ tion has affected the attitudes of the young people. The quota of stock which a group may have is based on the family unit, so naturally this eliminates the possibility of the younger Navajo starting in the stock busi¬ ness. Furthermore, the Navajo have always been interested in accumulating livestock. They desire to be able to earmark some sheep when a child is born and have the offspring from those sheep become the property of that child. This system guarantees that when the child is ready to marry, a fair sized fllock will have already accumulated and the young couple will be assured prosperity and independence. As a result of the ycung people having little to do, and being unable to accumulate any livestock, their elders are aware of a change in attitude which seems to be taking place within this group. The following comments illustrate the cognizance of these changes: Working for wages has been a bad thing for us, especially the young people. They don’t know anything about how to use their money and it isn’t long until the white man has it all. This is not the fault of the government in all respects, but taking our sheep ^nd paying wages made it impossible for our young people to go into the sheep business, but at the same time made it possible for them to have cars, liquor, go to the movies, and to associate with bad white people. This situation cer¬ tainly spoiled our people ; they didn’t learn these things gradually, but it came all at once ; maybe in twenty-five years from now it will be better for maybe by that time they will be used to it. When they had their sheep to look forward to, they were different, but now our young people haven’t their sheep industry and they seem to be a part of both the white man’s ways and the Navajo’s ways, and they don’t fit any place.® The father of a large family has this to say: Young people working for wages turn out to be no good. They spend all their money for foolishness and they are no good to their own people . . . They don’t learn to care for the sheep or how to farm, and if they are thrown out of work they just loaf and get into trouble . . . This thing is ruining our young people. When I was young, we talked about our homes, our flocks, and getting ahead, but now the young people haven’t anything to look forward to. Of course under these conditions we can expect our children to be idle and become lazy and crazy like the white young people do. A lot of young boys have nothing else to do but to get on a horse and ride around and get into mischief. Our children are a lot more immoral than they used to be ; there is a lot more common law marriage and illegitimacy too.'^ Basic to the Navajo-Federal conflict are two definitions of the situa¬ tion. The Federal Government has one definition; the Navajo Indians have another. But the administration’s definition has become the plan of action in conserving the Reservation range. The group’s definition of the situation is handed down from the past to the present. This past definition becomes the basis for values and atti¬ tudes, be they economic, social, cultural, religious, or intellectual. Thus the definition of the situation is determined by pre-existing attitudes of the individual or the group. Consequently, they have a direct effect upon indi¬ vidual or group behavior. The old definition of the situation is based on set values of action only when the individual or the group is permitted to define the situation and act accordingly. In the case of present Navajo-Federal relations, the plan of action is not based on old values and attitudes which had been in the process of development for several generations. As a result of the Navajo’s pastoral culture, the Navajo had learned to place value upon the quantity rather than the quality of livestock. His status in society was largely determined by the number of sheep, horses, and goats that he owned. He acquired and wore the finest jewelry possible. The accumulation “Frank Demon, Interview by the writer, August 29, 1940. Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem 33 of turquoise and silver was not only a means of saving, which satisfied his desire for security, but its display appeased his wish for recognition. The Federal Administration’s method of procedure in solving the problem has reversed the old plan of accumulation and calls for a drastic change in Navajo economy. To the Navajo it means an about-face; it is a reverse of procedure and of the old routine of life with little attention being given to the old values and attitudes. The horse pattern carried with it not only the convenience of the horse as a means of transportation in the vast area of the Reservation, but the horse had come to have a high prestige value to the Indians, and as such their attitude toward the horse is one of great pride in a personal possession. The ambitious young Navajo, who seeks social position and desires to be held in high esteem by his fellow tribesmen, will attempt to accumlate a large number of horses. When a man owned twenty-five, fifty, or even a hundred head of horses, and could show no economic benefit for keeping more than three of them, he was compelled to give up something which had cultural value to him. To let their horses go was to break a long tra¬ dition and at the same time it lowered their status. The prestige value of the horse persisted in Navajo society; thus the Indian Service was dealing with something of an intangible nature which goes deeper than economic values when it attempted to persuade the Navajo to give up their horses. The jewelry pattern among the Navajo is not only a means of saving, but the display of fine jewelry carries with it a certain amount of pride and prestige which appeals to the owner’s vanity. According to the traders, most of the Navajo have been forced to sell their silver and turquoise and many families which once possessed fine specimens of Navajo jewlery are now without any jewelry at all. This is a great loss to the Navajo since the social relationship developed around jewelry constitutes a pattern which is of both social and economic value. At one time the Navajo used his jewelry as a means of obtaining credit with the local trader, but in recent years these Indians have been unable to redeem their family heirlooms and the valuable silver belts, bracelets, and turquoise necklaces are not only passing from them but from the Reservation as well. The Navajo display of a wealth of jewelry is rapidly vanishing and with it passes much of the am¬ bition, pride, and dignity which has characterized this tri.be The present development is not a normal outgrowth of cultural change in Navajo society, but it is a forced change of basic culture patterns. The Navajo people have little to which they can turn for a livelihood when they give up the long established cultural traits of their pastoral economy. One of the chief difficulties of past as well as in the present admin¬ istrative policies when dealing with the Navajo has been an insufficient knowledge of their cultural background. There has been not only a notice¬ able lack of understanding of the Navajo’s cultural values and attitudes, but there is also absence of an appreciation of their realtion to the Navajo’s pastoral economy. Furthermore, there has been inadequate experience in the understanding of Navajo psychology and the principles involved in adhering to it when applying certain government regulations to the Navajo. These people are freedom loving, independent and self-reliant. They are too vigorous a people to be a subject nation with the routine of their daily lives controlled by many regulations and yet be happy. All this gives rise to an extremely difficult human problem. The Navajo are psychologically different from the white man in their reactions to social 34 The Texas Journal of Science and economic adjustment. Since they are ultra-conservative, they become bewildered and restless when social and economic pressure is forced upon them. There is a deep underlying psychological reaction on the part of the Navajo to the ever increasing pressure and infiltration of the white man’s cultural and economic influence. They are going through a period of cul¬ tural and economic change which in their present status will continue for many years. In spite of the Government’s Reservation centered policies, there is no denying the fact that the Navajo is a minority group slowly but surely being engulfed by the continual pressure of the white man’s culture. To exist and survive the Navajo will have to work with the white man and will be compelled to accept many of the white man’s ways. To say that the Navajo can continue to be isolated and live apart from the white man is unreasonable and a blind ignoring of facts. The Navajo have been considered by some to adopt readily new cus¬ toms, but they adopt new customs from the Spanish, the Mexican, and other groups because that which they accept fits into their culture. The acculturation which is now in process is coming slowly and is hard because it is coming through the process of pressure. John Collier, the former Com¬ missioner of Indian Affairs, had as an ideal the saving of the Indian by no longer forcing him to become a white man as the old policy had done. How¬ ever, basic to the whole reduction program was the pressure of a changing culture process which will more and more compel the Navajo to accept the white man’s ways of economy. This means that they will eventually accept a cash rather than a barter system and will then truly compete with the white man. When this day comes, the Navajo in order to exist will be forced to accept the white man’s civilization, and Collier’s methods in Navajo economy will have defeated his own philosophy. The process of culture breakdown is at work among the Navajo. Cer¬ tain pressures are forcing a change in their customs and their ideals; hence, unless they are aided in making a proper adjustment, their whole social structure will crumble. There will no longer be any meaning to life since all the old goals and ambitions will be gone. Laws may be passed and regu¬ lations may be made to control and guide the Navajo in certain channels, but these will be mere words unless they make sense to the people. An important phase of the picture is the special problem created by the Navajo’s position on the Great Divide. His home is the watershed of the Colorado River, a fact which places him in the center at an acute crisis in the American conservation problem. There is no ill feeling toward the Navajo on the part of the Federal Government, as the Navajo is prone to think, but the Navajo is the victim of a situation for which no one can be held responsible. The Navajo’s economy is at stake, but his type of econ¬ omy is in conflict with our economy. In the final analysis the Federal Gov¬ ernment is obligated to preserve both the Navajo’s and the white man’s economy, and at the same time save the spirit of the Navajo Indian. If this task is to be accomplished, forces must be brought into action which will assure a program based on well-planned social engineering. In modern America it is no longer possible for a minority group to retain its old cultural patterns by remaining isolated from the majority group. There is an ever increasing pressure and infiltration of the white man’s social and economic influence. The minority groups are slowly but surely being engulfed by the continual pressure of modern American culture. Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings 35 CONTROLLING ROOF SOLAR HEAT EFFECTS IN BUILDINGS OF THE SOUTHWEST—SOME OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Wayne E. Long\ W. R. Woolrich^, and K. A. Bacon^ The expression that '^everybody talks about the weather but nobody does anything about it’" is not only trite but no longer true. Man long ago decided that there was little, or nothing, that he could do to control or basically change the whims and caprices of nature, but since the dawn of history man has been doing things to control the effects of weather on his environment. Out of the slow evolution of man’s efforts has come a vast scientific and economic industry called air conditioning. Yes, the engineer and the architect are doing something about the weather. Although admitting that present day year around control of man’s surroundings is not economically within the reach of the average wage earner, the public has not let the scientist, the physicist, the engineer, nor the architect rest because of such an admission. This fact, combined with certain other economic considerations, seems to have spurred the public into demanding less expensive and more generally adaptable methods of comfort heating and cooling. Within recent months several of our technical publications have given much space to a discussion of solar heating. All such ideas are intriguing and eye-catching; the old appeal of "something for nothing.” So now the harnessing of solar energy is no longer a dream but an accomplished fact. We of the southwestern United States, however, are not so much interested at the present time in the use of solar energy for heating. We are seeking shelter from the heat of the sun. To better understand this statement let us consider a few pertinent facts relative to solar intensity. The famous Texas climate is primarily re¬ sponsible for the location of such a great number of military air training fields in our state. That our Texas atmosphere is exceptionally clear is at¬ tested to by the location of the McDonald Observatory in the Davis Moun¬ tains where there are approximately 300 clear days and nights each year. Of such climate and weather we are justifiably proud— until we begin seeking to defend against it. The cloudless days and the clear atmosphere of our Texas climate then turn traitor to us and cause us to suffer from the long season of intense solar energy reaching the earth’s surface through the clear atmosphere. Research investigations have determined that a maximum of about 420 British Thermal Units of radiant solar energy strike each square foot of the earth’s atmosphere each hour. Of this 420 BTU, about 300 reach the earths surface while the remaining 120 are absorbed or otherwise dissipated iDy the water vapor, dust particles, smoke, etc. in the atmosphere. In pass- ing through the atmosphere this radiant energy has practically no effect in raising the ambient temperature. It is a far different story, however, when these energy waves strike the roof of your house. The mass, or opaque rnaterials of construction, of the roof absorbs the radiant energy with, at times, an almost unbelievable increase of temperature. At Austin, Texas the speaker in late September of this year recorded temperatures as high as 168 F under a slate shingle on the north slope of a pitched roof. (Prof. ^Professor, Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas ^Dean of Engineering, The University,. of Texas ^Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas 36 The Texas Journal of Science Miller of the Mechanical Engineering Department of Purdue University once told me that he had recorded black body temperatures from solar radiation greater than 212° F.) The absorption of solar energy is manifested by an increase of temperature of the roof and is then passed on by conduc¬ tion, convection and radiation to the air and ceiling below. The end effect of this solar radiation on the roof is a high attic air temperature and an uncomfortably hot living space beneath. During the summer of 1946 the speaker made some tests on the roof and attic of a frame type residence at College Station, Texas, and observed air temperature of 130° F in an un¬ ventilated attic. It is obvious from these few temperature observations that solar energy is a very real factor to be considered in the problem of human comfort, and that this one source of heat alone is worthy of serious consideration by the architect and the engineer. We have reached the point in our technical and practical knowledge where we can stop simply talking about the weather and can do something about it. Now let us consider some of the methods of shielding ourselves from the effect of solar radiation. The most obvious method is the placing of some form of insulation between the roof and the occupied space. Either of two types of insulation, reflective or mass, may be used. Reflective in¬ sulation, such as highly polished aluminum foil is usually placed between the roof rafters or joists and serves very effectively in throwing the radiant heat waves back into the roofing material. This method of insulation does not prevent the absorption of radiant energy by the roof, but it forms an effective shield for the ceiling and tends to reduce the temperature of the attic air. Mass insulation, such as rock wool or insulcotton, placed either between the roof rafters or on the ceiling in the attic forms a heat barrier and reduces the rate of heat transfer from the attic to the occupied space, and at the same time reduces winter exfiltration of warm air to the attic. In the use of either of these methods of insulation the attic air in the summer will reach a temperature higher than that of outside air unless the attic is effectively ventilated. A second and quite popular method of reducing the effect of solar radiation is the use of forced ventilation. In most cases the fan is installed in the attic and is arranged to pull air into the living space and to discharge it through the attic. When this system is used insulation is of little or no use as a barrier to summer heat, but is usually justified on the basis of fuel saving for winter heating. A method of using the attic fan now gaining some popularity, especially in buildings of great mass, such as brick, or stone construction, is that of night operation only of the fan for drawing the cool night air through the building for cooling purposes and then closing the windows and doors during the day. In using forced air circula¬ tion to counteract or reduce the effect of solar radiation it is essential that the attic air, be continuously displaced with outside air during the period of the day when the solar heat is passing through the roof to the attic. Neither of these methods of solar shielding prevents the absorption of radiant energy by the roof. The application of water to the roof, however, either by ponding or by spray, intercepts solar radiant energy at its point of conversion to heat and thus removes the source of high temperatures before these temperatures are felt in the occupied space. The protection of flat roofed buildings from high solar heat tempera¬ tures by roof ponding was investigated by Woolrich and Rice in 1946 at the Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings 37 University of Texas. Differing hypotheses had persisted relative to the virtue of deep versus shallow water ponding in maintaining low roof temperatures in the summer sun. The argument against deep pondage was that the cost of building construction is greatly increased when roof pond depths are increased from two inches to eight or ten inches since the weight of water supported for each 100 square feet of roof increases approximately 500 pounds for each inch of depth of water. These investigations ascertained that on a typical summer day in Central Texas when the official U. S. Weather Bureau reported a dry bulb atmospheric temperature of 100° F the roof carrying two inches of water would rise to 108° F and the roof with six inches of water would reach 103° F. Adjacent unwetted red slate tar-felt roofing went up to 15 8° F. The wet bulb atmosphere temperature on this same day remained closely to 76° F. The two inch pond of water warmed up much quicker each morning but likewise cooled off much more quickly at night, thus partially offsetting the slight gain of effectiveness of the six-inch pond of water. Summarizing, in this and subsequent tests, it is indicated that there is little justification to invest in a roof construction to support more than one to two inches of pond water. If the roof surface temperature is an important factor in keep¬ ing the rooms beneath cooler, then the shallow pond of water is an effective insulator from solar heat. An alternate method of the use of water for the interception of solar heat is that of covering the roof with a spray. This system was used in the summer of 1949 by Prof. R. A. Bacon of the University of Texas on a three bed room residence having a pitched roof. In this particular test the roof was kept covered by a spray of water flowing at the rate of about 100 gal¬ lons per hour. The evaporation from the roof was approximately 50 gallons per hour resulting in a run-off, or waste, of about 50 gallons per hour. It should be stated here that this test was only a preliminary run for the purpose of deciding upon the proper design and pattern for more efficient coverage of the roof. On September 19, 1949, of the above test period the mean roof tem¬ perature between the hours of ten A. M. and four P. M. on the north slope of the wet roof was 117° F. while that of a dry area on the same slope was 132° F, This difference of 15° F. was not reflected to any appreciable degree on the air temperature of the occupied space because of the insulat¬ ing effect of attic air and massive ceiling. The ceiling was composed of one-half inch plaster, four inches of hollow tile and two inches of con¬ crete. The air temperature of the occupied space during this period varied from 82 to 87° F. while the outside air temperature for the same period ranged from 83 to 87.5° F*. The difference of 15° F. between the wet and the dry roof tempera¬ tures, at first thought does not seem very impressive. However, when it is realized that the evaporation of 50 gallons of water per hour from the roof represents the removal of approximately 415,000 BTU per hour the result takes on a much greater significance. Not all of this heat, of course, finds its way into the occupied space. A great portion of the roof heat is re-radiated to surrounding objects or is given off to the outside air by con¬ vection. Especially is the latter true after sundown when the air tempera¬ ture has dropped several degrees. May we reemphasize that the Southwestern United States where summer sun is intensive over a long period of’ the year, where the need for space 38 The Texas Journal of Science heating during the cool months is of short duration, and is inexpensive, the economic interest in solar energy from the personal comfort viewpoint is quite opposite from that in the more northern latitudes. Our principal quest and interest, therefore, is directed to trying to keep our homes cool by shielding ourselves from solar radiation by utilizing both prevailing winds and humidity conditions in ventilation, and by adapting reversed cycle phenomena for room refrigeration rather than for heat pump warming. We should construct our homes with the major objective of designing for room coolness instead of natural warmth. These and other problems of heat transfer and of structural design are being investigated at Austin, Texas, on six ceramic houses constructed by the Acme Brick Company of Fort Worth, Texas. The Bureau of Engineer¬ ing Research of The University of Texas is conducting a rather extensive research on these residences along the lines of foundation and structural problems and of heat transfer. It is anticipated that this research will require about two years and the data and results of these investigations will be made public as they are collected, and it is hoped that with this data we can proceed more intelligently in "doing something about the weather.” LITERATURE CITED Woolrich, W. R., and W. M. Rice — Solar radiation absorption by wetted roots. Heating and Ventilating 45 (1): 84-87. ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FOR COMPLEX WAVE FRONTS A. H, LaGrone Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory The University of Texas ABSTRACT This paper describes the results of antenna response measurements made with a 20-foot parabolic antenna on a 2.5-mile path over Lake Buchanan near Austin, Texas. The measure¬ ments were made to test the angle separation qualities of this antenna for complex wave fronts composed of two wave components under various conditions of relative phase and angular separation. These tests were made in conjunction with other tests conducted by the Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory, the results of which are reported elsewhere (Straiten and LaGrone, 1949). INTRODUCTION The Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory of The University of Texas has been conducting a study of the problem of angle-of-arrival of microwave radio signals in the lower troposphere since the fall of 1945. In the course of this study, several methods have been tried (Straiton, Gordon, LaGrone, 1948; LaGrone, Hamlin, Straiton, 1948; Hamlin, Seay, Gordon, 1949) with varying degees of success. One method of attack was that of using the high resolving power of a very large antenna to indicate the angle-of-arrival by pointing for maximum signal. The inaccuracies of this method were generally well known; however, the study did serve to point out the range of errors to be expected for a given antenna and the effect of the variables in a wave front on the indicated angle-of-arrival. This study was made for a wave front composed of two wave com¬ ponents of known relative magnitude and angular separation in space. The two wave components are referred to as the direct wave and the reflected * This work was conducted under Office of Naval Research Contract N5ori-136, P. O. 1. Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts 39 wave. The study is made by obtaining response patterns for several cases under controlled conditions in the field and comparing them with theoretical response patterns obtained by mathematically analyzing assumed wave fronts. The field-measured data were taken for a wave length of 3.2 centi¬ meters over a 2. 5 -mile path over Lake Buchanan near Austin, Texas. The antenna used was a 20 -foot parabolic antenna with a rectangular face, Figure 1, and is the same antenna used by the Bell Telephone Laboratories in their early microwave angle-of-arrival measurements (Sharpless, 1946). Figure 1 Receiver Site Showing Bell Laboratories’ 20-Foot Parabolic Antenna 40 The Texas Journal of Science It is assumed that maxima in the scanning pattern of this antenna occur when the axis of the parabola is pointed in the direction of the incoming wave. METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SCANNING PATTERN FOR THE ASSUMED WAVE FRONTS The method used is that of vector addition. This method consists of summing up the signal strengths at the appropriate phase angles along the face of the antenna for various angles-of-antenna tilt. The resulting signal strength is then plotted against angle-of -antenna tilt to obtain the scanning pattern, Figure 2. The angle of tilt which gives maximum signal is the in¬ dicated angle-of-arrival. This method necessarily assumes that each portion of the wave front can be regarded as a secondary source or Huygen's source of known electric intensity, phase, and polarization and that the receiving antenna has trans¬ mitting characteristics such that it generates a wave that is uniform in phase and magnitude in the plane of the face. As a receiver, equal signals at any two points along its face produce equal response. This method is described by Friis and Lewis (1947). In general, an antenna with variations in re¬ sponse to equal signals along the face would indicate approximately the same angle-of -arival as a somewhat smaller antenna of the characteristics assumed above. The antenna itself is assumed to have a rectangular opening, to be vertically mounted, and to have a width so small that horizontal variations in phase and signal strength in the wave front are negligible. ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERN FOR A SINGLE WAVE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORIES . THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS . AUSTIN. TEXAS FIG. 2 Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts An example of this method can be found in LaGrone, Hamiin and Straiton (op. cif.) field-measured response patterns The field-measured response patterns for 'the 20-foot antenna are shown in Figure 3 for ten cases in which the angle between the two wave com¬ ponents was controlled by a predetermined height-above-ground setting of the transmitter. The relative phase was allowed to change as the difference in the path lengths varied with transmitter height. The arrows on each curve indicate the angular separation of the two wave components a-nd the true angle-of-arrival of the components. The arrow to the right marks the angle-of-arrival of the direct w.. ve while the arrow to the left indicates the angle-of -arrival of the reflected wave. The reflection coefficient was approxi¬ mately .94. A study of these curves shows a response pattern which varies in magnitude and shape as the wave components are brought closer together in space and the relative phase changes. In only one case does the maximum signal indicate the true angle-of-arrival of the direct wave. In six of the ten cases, the presence of the second wave component is not even indicated. The four remaining cases do show two major signals as being received but in no case does the maximum signal indicate the true angle-of-arrival of either wave component. RECEIVER HEIGHT - 30 FEET DISTANCE - 2.25 MILES TRANSMITTER HEIGHT AS SHOWN 20 -FOOT ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FiG. 3 42 The Texas Journal of Science THEORETICAL ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FOR A 20-FOOT ANTENNA The curves in Figure 4 show three theoretical response patterns for a 20-foot antenna when receiving two signals of the same frequency simul¬ taneously which are separated in space by a fixed angle. The angle of sepa¬ ration is indicated by the location of the arrows. The signals were assumed to be of the same magnitude. In this study only the relative phase of the two signals was varied. The relative phase is indicated on each curve. It is immediately apparent that each of these curves resemble a curve in Figure 3. It is also apparent that in no case does maximum signal indicate the true angle-of -arrival of either wave component. The effect of relative phase is then obvious since that was the only variable. The curves in Figure 5 represent a more detailed study of an assumed wave front composed of tv/o wave components with a 20-foot antenna. The angle- of -arrival of the direct wave is shown by the a arrow and that of the reflected wave by the ^ arrow. Their angular separation in space is the angle between a and /S. The relative time phase of the two components is indicated on each curve. The reflection coefficient was assumed to be 0.6. A study of these curves shows how both the angular separation in space and the relative time phase of the two signals affect the antenna re¬ sponse pattern. The scale is too small to show the magnitude of the error in the angle-of -arrival of the direct wave as determined by maximum signal in all but a few cases; however, most of the cases do show an appreciable error. Other studies, not within the scope of this paper, would show that the THEORETICAL ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERN FOR 20-F00T ANTENNA FIG. 4 Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts 43 relative magnitude of the signal components as well as the addition of other components affects the antenna response pattern to a comparable degree. SUMMARY The pointing for maximum signal method of determining the angle-of- arrival of the direct wave appears to be unsatisfactory when the wave front is composed of more than one wave component and they are separated in space by an angle less than that of the basic antenna pattern. Any factor affecting the relative phase or the angular separation in space of the two wave components would have a direct bearing on the antenna-response pattern and on the angle-of -arrival of the maximum signal. LITERATURE CITED Fr,iis, H. T. and W. D. Lewis — 1947^ — Radar antennas. Bell System Techn. Jour. 26 (2) ; 219. Hamlin, E. W., Seay, P. A. and W. E. Gordon — 1949 — New solution to the problem of verti¬ cal angle-of -arrival of radio waves. Jour. Appl. Phys. 20 (3) LaGrone, A. H., Hamliri, E. W. and A. W. Straiton— 1948 — The indicated angle-of-arrival by phase front analysis. Electrical Eng. Res. Lab. Univ. Tex., Rept. No. 12. Sharpless, W. N. — 1946 — Measurement of the angle-of-arrival of micro-waves. Proc. Inst. Radio Eng. 34: 837-845. Straiton, A. W., Gordon, W. E. and A, H. LaGrone— -1948 — A method of determining the angle-of-arrival. Jour. Appl. Phys. 19 (6) : 524-533. Straiton, A. W. and A. H, LaGrone — 1949 — Microwave angle separation on a two and one- half mile overwater path. Electrical Eng. Res. Lab., Univ. Tex. Rept. No. 30. 1 w G i 1 rrrt i if .... ...... TIME VV TIME TIME / \ PHASE A f\ PHASE ^ ^ PHASE ■ i: X. 84048' IE 16 84048 12 16 8404 8 12 16 84048 12 16 84048 12 16 ANTENNA TILT ANGLE - O- I UNIT= 0.083 DEGREES ANTENNA RESPONSE FOR PHASE FRONT COMPOSED OF TWO PLANE WAVES FIG. 5 44 The Texas Journal of Science A BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE GULF OF MEXICO Richard A. Geyer Humble Oil and Refining Company Houston L Texas TABLE OF CONTENTS Reference Numbers OCEANOGRAPHY Historical _ _ _ 1 - 6 General _ 7 - 12 Theoretical _ 13 - 19 Temperature Characteristics _ 20 - 30 Salinity Characteristics _ 3 1 - 32 Tidal and Current Characteristics _ 33 - 45 Other Physical Characteristics _ . - - - 46 - 50 MARINE BIOLOGY Historical _ _ _ 5 1 General and Theoretical _ 52 - 73 Statistical _ 74 - 82 Regional Ecological Surveys and Population Studies Fish and Shrimp General _ 8 3 - 111 Louisiana _ 112 - 11/ Texas _ 118-124 Mexico _ 125-126 Oysters General _ 127 - 128 Alabama _ 129 - 133 Mississippi _ 134 Louisiana _ 13 5 - 143 Texas _ : _ 144 - 160 Mexico _ 161 - 162 GEOLOGY Historical and General _ _ 163 - 182 Theoretical and Structural _ _ 183 - UO Sedimentology and Paleontology _ _ 191 - 213 Economic Geology Petroleum Exploration _ 214-223 Shore Line Preservation _ _ _ _ 224 - 228 Changes in Characteristics of Mississippi Delta Historical and General _ 229 - 244 Mud Lump Phenomena _ 245 - 25 5 Geologic Age _ 2 56 Geologic Origin _ 2 57 Miscellaneous _ 258 - 26 5 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 45 TABLE OF CONTENTS— continued Reference Numbers GEOPHYSICS Historical and General _ _ 266 - 269 Seismic _ 270 - 272 Gravity _ _ 273 - 28 1 Magnetic _ 282 METEOROLOGY Historical _ ^ _ 283 - 289 General _ , _ 290 - 301 Effects of Wind Hurricanes Theoretical _ 302 - 3 1 1 Regional General _ 312 - 3 36 Alabama _ 3 37 Florida _ 33 8 - 3 39 Louisiana _ 340 - 344 Texas _ 345 - 348 Northers, Moonsoonal Effects, Etc. _ _ _ 349 - 3 59 Effects of Temperature _ 360 - 371 Effects of Rainfall _ 372 - 3 80 Charts _ 1 - 24 APPENDIX A Mortality Caused by Changes in the Physical Environment of the Organism _ - _ 1 - 17 Mortality Caused by Rapid Changes in Organic Environment _ _ 18 - 63 Discussion of the Paleontological Aspects of Mass Mortality _ _ _ 64 - 80 APPENDIX E Additions to Mass Mortality and Gulf of Mexico Annotated Bibliographies INTRODUCTION This bibliography was compiled in order to list and to some extent evaluate the available information in the literature dealing with the oceanography, marine biology, geology, geophysics, and meterology of the Gulf of Mexico. It could serve as basic reference material for planning marine biologic and oceanographic studies that might be conducted to gain more information about the marine population, productivity, and oceanographic normals of this area, and about those factors influencing 46 The Texas Journal of Science any fluctuations in these quantities. It also demonstrates the meagre amount of information published about this area and indicates the great need for further scientific studies. The emphasis in the marine biological references is placed on the ecological phase of this subject rather than on the taxo¬ nomic aspects. It is evident from the number and nature of the references found in this bibliography that the literature on the Gulf of Mexico is not compar¬ able with that existing for any similar area of 500,000 square miles. For example, Bencker (ref. 2) lists 133 expeditions to the Arctic and only one to the Gulf of Mexico during the period from 1800 to 1930. Relatively few references are available that can be used directly in the investigation of marine population and productivity studies and the determination of oceanographic normals for this area. It is therefore necessary that further surveys of this type be conducted in order to supply the necessary informa¬ tion. However, these problems have received some attention from time to time as far back as 188 5. Stearns (ref. 10 5) proposed a fishery survey be conducted on an annual basis in the Gulf of Mexico citing the increasing scarcity of fish and the necessity of fishermen traveling increasing distances for profitable fishing. His proposed list of monthly expenses is interesting and reflects the prevailing costs at that time. For example, the maintenance of a 60-ton schooner to be used for this survey was quoted as $75.00 per month, provisions at $150.00 and salaries of a mate and cook $50.00 and $40.00 respectively. More recently, 1926, Contrevas (ref. 3) outlined a proposed international oceanographic expedition in Latin American waters. In addition, a fisheries’ program for the Texas coast was outlined in 1943 by Gunter (ref. 120) and his publication '^Studies of Marine Fishes of Texas” in 1945 (ref. 121) represents a very detailed study of this subject. MARINE BIOLOGY It is also evident from some of the references that the problem of fluctu¬ ations in the productivity of the Gulf of Mexico with special reference to edible fish and Crustacea has long existed in this area. For example, as far back as 1883 Stearns (ref. 103) noted a marked decrease for the five pre¬ vious years and proposed investigations to determine the cause. Higgens and Lord in 1927 (ref. 95) comment on the fact that "The idea that it will not be long before the fish supply of Texas and the Atlantic Coast states will be exhausted is fast gaining recognition. The recent scarcity of certain species in the Texas markets emphasized this possibility.” Gunter (ref. 116) in 193 8 describes in some detail the seasonal variations and abundance of certain estuarian and marine fishes in Louisiana in which annual re-current seasonal peaks of abundance and migration were shown for many species. Sellars (ref. 101) in 1885 offers another example of marked fluctuation in the abundance of fish during this time. Wood (ref. Ill) in 1883 in a dis¬ cussion of the fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico believes that the fishing banks of the Gulf if properly marked and exploited would compare favorably with those of Newfoundland. A substantial number of references will also be found dealing with natural occurring phenomena responsible for the mortality of fish in this area. The mass mortality of fish and other marine life from these causes is of such importance and interest that this subject is treated in more detail in the appendix of this bibliography. The references listed there are not confined exclusively to the Gulf of Mexico area but include recorded in- A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 47 stances of this phenomenon from all parts of the world. In addition, numer¬ ous references to the paleontological implications and the possible relation¬ ship of the problem of the origin of oil are also included. One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality caused by excessive cold is reported by Bartlett (ref. 286) in 18 56 in a book on "Exploration in Texas.” The relationship between fish mortality and periods of excessive cold is also described in references by Storey (ref. 106), Willcox (ref. 110), Miller (ref. 99), Finch (ref. 86), Galloway (ref. 87), Gunter (refs. 91 and 92) and many others. Other factors responsible for mortality such as marked changes in salinity can be found in references by Collier and Parker (refs. 31 and 32). Addi¬ tional data on salinity are available in references by Dietrich (ref. 10) and Parr (ref. 12). Statistical information on the production of fish in the Gulf of Mexico is available in references of the type listed under Anderson and Powers (refs. 74 through 78) and extend back at least as far as 1893 in reference 79 by Collins and Smith. In addition, some data are also available for 1887 in reference 82 of Stearns and Jordan, A general review of the Texas oyster industry as it existed more than 50 years ago can be found in reference 80 by Kibbe in 1898. Numerous references to ecological factors involved in oyster culture in the coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico for a period of approximately 50 years are also avail¬ able. For example, Moore (ref. 141) in 1899 describes the oyster beds of Louisiana and mentions the various predators and their effert on the oysters from statements made by the oystermen. Other early references include one by Moore (ref. 156) in 1907 on a hydrographic and biologic survey of the oyster bottoms in Matagorda Bay, Texas, and a report by Rathburn (ref- 159) in 1895 in which factors involved in oyster mortality in the Galveston Bay, Texas, area are discussed. METEOROLOGY The meteorologic references can be used as source material for a number of analytical studies in the Gulf of Mexico area. Some articles which sum¬ marize the occurrence of hurricanes, thunderstorms, and so forth, are found in references 284 and 28 5 respectively. In addition, Frankenfield (ref. 287) in 1917 reviews the storms in Galveston from 1875 to 1915 and Frazier (ref. 28 8) in 1921 describes some of the major storms in this area and their attendant changes in shore line as far back as 1527. The occurrence of northers has been described in the literature as early as 18 56 by Bache (ref. 349) and Forshey (ref. 352) in 1857. An interesting account of early Texas coast storms is found in an article by Stewart (ref- 359) in 1919. Discussions of Texas monsoons and land and sea breezes are also included, as for example, in articles by Harrington (ref. 354) in 1895 and Heckathorn (ref. 355) in 1919. GEOLOGY The geological references for this area are of particular interest from the standpoint of demonstrating the changes in shore line occurring during the recorded past. These accounts are found, for example, in articles by the Beach Erosion Board such as reference 226 in 1937 on major changes in Grand Isle, by Bache (ref. 229) in 1851 and reference 230 in 1859, and many others. A number of interesting references of the occurrence of oil seeps in 48 The Texas Journal of Science the Gulf of Mexico are also presented in the section on economic geology. These include references by Harris (ref. 216) in 1910, Hayes and Kennedy (ref. 218) 1903, Phillips (ref. 220) 1900, and Turner (ref. 222) 1903. Reference 223 by the U. S. Hydrographic Office includes maps showing oil slicks in the Gulf of Mexico for the years 1900, 1905 and 1906. Haseman (ref. 217) in 1921 in an article on the "Humic Acid Origin of Asphalt” discusses the presence and origin of other bituminous solid and semi-solid substances along the coast of Florida and Georgia where the water from fresh water swamps flows into the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico. Very early references on the geology of lower coastal Louisiana describing many of the present productive domes can be found as early as 1869 by Hilgard (ref. 219), as well as very recent references dealing with the oil possibilities of the Gulf Coast continental shelf in terms of geological factors by Carsey (ref. 214) in 1948 and Critz (ref. 215) in 1947. SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY A number of interesting references on the sedimentology and paleon¬ tology of this area are also available including a description of foraminifera cores from the continental slope by Phleger (ref. 202) in 1939 and Trask, Phleger and Stetson (ref. 207) in 1947. Recent changes in sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico are discussed in the latter reference based on the latest expedition in 1946 by the research vessel "Atlantis” of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Earlier important references on sedimentology especially with respect to the Mississippi Delta area include those of Trow¬ bridge (refs. 208 through 210) in 1923, 1927 and 1930, Bullard (ref. 192) 1942, and Russell (refs. 204 and 205) 1937 and 1939. Some of the earlier references in sedimentology are those by Riddle (ref. 203) 1846 and Turner (ref. 211) 1903, A detailed analysis of the sediments of Barataria Bay ap¬ pears in an article by Krumbein and Aberdeen (ref. 197) 1937. A number of interesting theoretical and structural geologic references are found including those by Price (ref. 186) 1933 on the roll of diastroph- ism in the topography of the Corpus Christi area of southern Texas, and reference 188 by the same author in 1947 discussing the equilibrium of form and forces in tidal basins of the coast of Texas and Louisiana. In addi¬ tion, this author in conjunction with Gunter (ref. 187) 1942 discusses cer¬ tain recent geologic and biologic changes in South Texas including their probable causes. Two important references of special interest to paleontolo¬ gists are those of Maury (refs. 198 and 199) appearing in 1920 and 1922 consisting of extensive annotated bibliographies of recent mollusks of the Gulf of Mexico and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from the Gulf states. These references include littoral species from Tampa to Corpus Christi as veil as recent deep water species dredged by the "Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico. CHARTS A number of references are listed in the Appendix dealing with both navigational aids and early charts some of which are primarily of historical interest for this area. The best source of recent charts of various types and other navigational aids for the Gulf of Mexico are found in references 16 through 20 and include publications by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy. A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 49 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The major portion of this bibliography was obtained from the refer¬ ence and library facilities made available by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and its repository^ the Library of the Marine Biologic Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Other cooperating libraries which were visited during the course of the preparation of this bibliography include the Ameri¬ can Geographical Society, and the reference division of the New York Public Library in New York, the Libraries of the U. S. Geological Survey, the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Library of Congress in Washington. In addition, an appreciable number of references were called to my attention by Mr. T. S. Austin of the Oceanographic Division of the Hydrographic Office, Mr. Jack Baugh¬ man, Chief Marine Biologist of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commis¬ sion, and Dr. Gordon Gunter, Acting Director of the Institute of Marine Science. The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the Humble Oil & Refining Company for permission to publish this annotated bibliography. OCEANOGRAPHY HISTORICAL 1. BACHE, A. D. (1^59)— Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, 32nd Congress, 2nd Session, House Document 64 (Progress report on triangulation along Gulf coast with notes on changes in the passes) 2, BENCKER, H. (1930)— bathymetric soundings of the oceans (with chronological list of oceanic expeditions from 1800-1930), Hydro. 50 The Texas Journal of Science Rev. (The number of expeditions to each of the major regions of the world is as follows: Arctic 13 3, Antarctic 36, Indian 10, around the world 1 5 , Gulf of Mexico 1 ) 3. CONTRERAS, FRANCISCO (1926) — Provecto para una Exploracion oceano- graphica Internacional Lationamericana (Proposed International Latin American oceanographic expedition), Mem. de la Soc. Cient. "Antonio Alzate,” Tomo 45, Num. 1-6, pp, 165-187 (Outlines proposed ocean expedition, its objectives, type of personnel and equipment, and lists some of the earlier expenditions) 4. KOHL, j. G. ( 1863 ) — Aelteste Geschichte der Entdeckung und Erfor- schting des Golfs von Mexico und der ihn umgebenden Kuesten durch die Spanier von 1492-1 543 (The oldest history of the discovery and exploration of the Gulf of Mexico and contiguous areas by the Spaniards from 1492 through 1543), Zeits. fuer allge. Erdkunde N. F., Bd XV, pp. 1-40, 169-194 (This series forerunner of Zeit. der Gesell fuer Erdk.) 5. NELSON, FRED J. (1942) — The good Gulf, U. S. Naval Institute Pro¬ ceedings 68, May, pp. 622-630 6. SHELBY, CHARMION c. (Editor) (193 8) — Grenier’s Journal of his voyage to Vera Cruz 1745, Louisiana Hist. Soc. Quart. 21, No. 3, pp. 631-655 GENERAL 7. AGASSIZ, ALEX. ( 1888) — Three cruises of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer ^^Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from 1877 to 1880, Bull, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College in Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., vol. 14, 15 8. AGASSIZ, LOUIS ( 1888)- — Tiventy-three cruises of the Blake,” Gulf of Mexico, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2 vol. 9. DIETRICH, GUENTER (1936) — Das ^^ozeanische Nivellement” und seine Anwendung auf die Golfkueste und die atlantische Kueste der Verein- igten Staater von Amerika ("Sea level” and its application to the Gulf coast and the Atlantic coast of the United States of America), Zeitschr. f. Geophysik, Jahrg. 12, Heft 7/8, p. 287-298 10. - - (1939) — -Das Amerikanische Mittelmeer (The Gulf of Mexico), Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin, Zeitschr., pp. 108-130, photo, pp. 115, 120, 121, 127 (Summary and evaluation of much of the available information in addition to the introduction of some new material on physical oceanography) 11. FORSHEY, c. G. (1878) — -The physics of the Gulf of Mexico and its chief affluent the Mississippi River, Salem, 42 pp. 12. PARR, A. E. ( 193 5 ) — -Report on hydrographic observations in the Gulf of Mexico and the adjacent straits made during the Yale Oceano¬ graphic Expedition on the '^Mabel Taylor” in 1932, Bull. Bingham Ocean. Collect, vol. V Art 1, pp. 1-93, Sept. THEORETICAL 13. DIETRICH, GUNTER (1937) — Frageii der Grossformen und der Herkunft des Tiefenwassers im amerikanischen Mittelmeer (Questions as to the A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 51 major features and origin of the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico) , Ann. d. hydrogr. 65, pp. 345-347 14. . — .. — - — =- (1937)-— 1. Die Lage der Meeresoberflaeche im Druckfeld von Ozean und Atmos pbaere, mit besonderer Berneck- sichtigung des westlichen Nordatlantischen Ozeans und des Golfes von Mexiko (The position of the ocean surface relative to the oceanic and atmospheric pressures with respect to the western north Atlantic ocean and the Gulf of Mexico), II. Ueber Btiuegung und Herkunft des Golf stromw assets (On the movement and origin of the Gulf stream), Berlin Univ., Institut f. Meereskunde, Veroeff., N.F., A. Geogr.-naturwiss. Reihe, Heft 33, pp 1-51, 52-91 15. HERSEY, j. B. AND MOORE, H. B. {194S ) —Progtess report on scattering layer observations in the Atlantic, Trans. Amer. Geoph. Union 29, pp 341-354 (Also includes data from Gulf of Mexico. Describes the detection on echo-sounding records of denser media between the surface and the ocean bottom, and discusses possible origin) 16. LiNDENKOHL, A. (1^96) Spczifisches Geivicht des Oberflaechenwassers im Golf von Mexico und im Golfstrom (Specific gravity of the sur¬ face waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf stream), Petermanns Mitt. vol. 42,' pi. 3 at end (Compiled from expeditions of ''Blake,” "Albatross” and "Palinurus”) 17. PARR, A. E. {19} 5 ) —Hydrographic relations between the so-called Gulf stream and the Gulf of Mexico, Trans. Amer. Geoph. Union, 16th Ann. Meeting, April, Pt. I, pp. 246-2 50 18. STOCKS, THEODOR AND wuEST, G. ( 193 5) — Die Ticfenvethaeltnisse des Offenen Atlantischen Ozeans (The depth characteristics of the open Atlantic ocean), Deutsche Atlantischen Exped. "Meteor,” 1925-1927, Wiss. Erg., Bd. 3, Teil 1, 1. Lief., 31 pp 19. STOCKS, THEODOR {19 } S) —Motphologie des Atlantischen Ozeans. Statistik der Tiefenstufen des Atlantischen Ozeans (The morphology of the Atlantic Ocean. Statistics of the submarine topography of the Atlantic Ocean), Deutsche Atlantische Exped., "Meteor,” 1925-27, Wiss. Erg., Bd. 3, 1. Teil, 2. Lief., pp 3 5-151 TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 20. CHURCH, p. E. (1936)- — Surface temperatures of the Gulf Stream and the waters on its margin. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., vol. 17, no. 12, pp 350-351 21. HiRSCH, A. A. (1939) — -Mississippi River water temperature at New Orleans, Monthly Weather Review 67, p. 415 (The 68-year average monthly air temperature and the 24-year monthly average water temperature, 1915-1938, is plotted. Maximum difference between air and water temperatures slightly more than 10 F. It occurs at the time of minimum river temperature in mid February. In the summer the largest difference in other direction is 2.5 F) 22. LINDENKOHL, A. {1S96) —Residtate der Temperatur tind Dichtigkeits- beobachtungen in den Gewaessern des Gtdfstroms und des Golf von Mexico durch das Btireau des USCGS (Results of the temperature and density observations of the waters of the Gulf Stream and the 52 The Texas Journal of Science Gulf of Mexico made by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey), Petermanns Geogr. MitteiL, Heft 2, pp 2 5-29, Map 23. - - (1896) — Temperaturer im Golf von Mexico und im Golfstrom in der Tiefe von 460 metern (Temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Gulf Stream at a depth of 460 meters), Peter¬ manns MitteiL, voL 42, 3 pi. at end (Compiled from work of Sigsbee et al) 24, SLOCUM, G. ( 193 5)" — Sea surface temperature summary for the east- central Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 71 (Gives mean temperature to 0.1 degree by months) 2 5. - - - 1935) — Sea surface temperature summary for the northwest Gidf of Mexico' 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, pp 147-148 (Gives mean temperature to 0.1 degree by months) 26. - - - (193 5)— Sea surface temperature summary for the north-central Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 174 (Gives mean temperature to 0,1 degree by months. 77.8 F mean) 27. - — - — (193 5)“Sc^ surface temperature summary for the sotit lowest Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 204 (Gives mean temperatture to 0.1 degree by months. 78.5 mean) 28. - - — (1936) — Sea surface temperature summary for the southwestern portion of Florida straits, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 64, p. 310 29. - - — (1934) — Regression equations analyzing the imme¬ diate antecedents of temperature anomalies in straits of Florida surface water. Monthly Weather Review 62, pp 11-34, 411-415 30. TANNEHiLL, I. R. (1923) — Influence of the Gtilf water surface tem¬ peratures on Texas weather. Monthly Weather Review 51, pp 345-347 SALINITY CHARACTERISTICS 31. COLLIER, A. w. (1938) — Salinity as an ecological factor in Texas bays, Proc, Texas Acad, Sci. 31, p. 14 32. PARKER, w. E. (1934) — Variation in salinity, coasts of Louisiana and Texas, USC and GS Field Eng. Bulk, June, no, 7, p. 57 TIDAL AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS 33. ANONYMOUS (1930) — Harmonic constants, Int. Hydro. Bureau Spec. Pub. No. 26 (Lists harmonic constants used in tidal computations for 12 ports in the Gulf of Mexico area) 34. CLINE, I. M. (1920) — Relation of changes in storm tides on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the center of and movement of hurricanes. Monthly Weather Review 48, pp 127-146 (Hurricanes are in all instances preceded by storm tides. The water commences rising on the coast in front of the cyclonic area one to two days before storm is experienced. Changes in the position of the rise of the storm tide indicates changes in the course of the storm) 3 5. GRACE, s. F. (1932) — The principal diurnal constituent of tidal motion in the Gulf of Mexico, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. Geophys. suppl. 3, pp 70-83, 7 figs. A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 53 36. — — ■ (1933) — The principal semi-diurnal constituent of tidal motion in the Gulf of Mexico, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. Geophys. suppl. 3, pp 156-162 37. HAUPT, E. M. ET AL (lH98)—Discussion on Paper 875 (Origin of the Gulf Stream and circulation of waters in the Gulf of Mexico with special reference to jetty construction by N. B. Sweitzer, Jr.), Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 40, pp 90-112 (Also discusses origin of currents in the Gulf of Mexico) 38. MARMER, H. D. (1926)- — The tides at the entrances to the Panama Canal, Geogr. Rev. 16, pp 502-503 39. - — - - - - (1933) — -Mean Gulf level and Gulf level at Biloxi, U. S. Board Surveys and Maps, Regular Public Meeting, February 14, pp 3-5 40. - — - - - (1942)— -The tide at Pensacola, U. S. Naval Insti¬ tute Proc. 68, no. 10, October, pp 142-1431 41. - - - - — - - (1927) — Tidal datum planes, USCGS Sp. Pub. No. 13 5, 142 pp (Data for some of Gulf ports on page 60) 42. PETERS, H. {\92})—Theorie der eintaegigen Gezeiten im sued chinesi- schen Meere und im Golf von Mexico (Theory of the daily tides in the South China Seas and the Gulf of Mexico), Ann. d. Hydro. 51, pp 1-8 43. PROUDMAN, j. (1929) — Bibliography on tides 1910-27, Inst. Geodetic and Geophysical Union, Oceanography Section, Bull. No. 12, 27 pp. 44. RAPPLEYE, H. s. (1932) — The 1929 adjustment of the level net. The Military Engineer, vol. 24, no. 3 8 (Some tidal data for a number of ports along the Gulf of Mexico) 45. SWEITZER, N. B., JR. (1889) — Origin of the Gulf Stream and circula¬ tion of waters in the Gulf of Mexico, with special reference to the effect of jetty construction, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 40, pp 86-98 OTHER PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 46. Annual Report of Activities Related to Oyster Problems (1944-45) First Bienn. Rept. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries. (Discusses the soluble phosphorus content in the Gulf of Mexico varying in the Louisiana area in general from 2 to 8 milligrams per cubic meter, although values of 16 milligrams per cubic meter are obtained near Southwest Pass and Pass-a-Loutre. These values are similar to those obtained by G. Riley in his paper, "The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico,” Jour. Mar. Res. 1, pp 60-73, 1938) 47. CLARKE, G. L. {193 8) -—Light penetration in the Gulf of Mexico, vol. 1, no. 2, Jour. Mar. Res., April 9, pp 8 5-94 48. LLOYD, s. J. (1915) — Radium content of water front the Gulf of Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 46, p. 342 (Reprint from Sci. Abs. Ser. A, p. 863, July 26) 49. RILEY, G. (1937) — The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico, Tour. Mar. Res. I, pp 60-74 (Includes data on phosphate content and other nutrients for this area) 54 The Texas Journal of Science 50. WELLS, R. c. (1919) — New determinations of carbon dioxide in water of the Gulf of Mexico, USGS Prof. Paper No. 120a, 16 pp MARINE BIOLOGY HISTORICAL \j 5;i. BARTLETT, j. R. (18 56)^ — Personal narrative of exploration and inci¬ dents in Texas, etc., Appleton, N. Y., 624 pp (One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality in this area caused By excessive cold) GENERAL AND THEORETICAL 52. ANONYMOUS (1934) — Legislative Investigating Committee on salt water fisheries and marine taxation, Report, Supplement to the Jour, of the House of Representatives of the 44th Legislature of the state of Texas, Austin, pp. 1-13 3 (Also includes discussion of scientific and technical aspects including need for additional passes to the Gulf of Mexico) 53. - - (1930) — Louisiana man perfects new system of trawling for shrimp along coast, Fish and Oysters Reporter XII, no. 5, pp 14-15, Tampa, Florida (New gear provides protection for undersized shrimp by permitting them to escape automatically from the trawling net) 54. CARLSON, Y. A. {19 OS) -—Brilliant Gulf waters. Monthly Weather Re¬ view, 36, pp 371-372 (Note by a mariner of the presence of colored water caused by certain phytoplankton) 5 5. CARY, L. R. AND SPAULDING, M. H, (1909)- — Further contributions to the marine fauna of the Louisiana coast, Gulf Biologic Station, Louisi¬ ana, 21 pp 56. COLLINS, j. w. (1887) — Report on the discovery and investigation of fishing grotmds made by the Pish Commission steamer Albatross” during a cruise along the Atlantic Coast and in the Gulf of Mexico, with notes on the Gulf fisheries, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fisheries 188 5, pp 217-311 (Discussion confined primarily to area off western Florida and Key West) 57. GALTSOFF, p. s. {19^1)— Oyster industry and problems of management of public oyster reefs in Texas, (Texas) Game, Fish and Oyster Com¬ mission, Coastal Division, Corpus Christi, (April 10, mimeographed report) , 6 pp 5 8. GUNTER, G. ( 193 8) — Notes on invasion of fresh water by fishes of the Gulf of Mexico, with special reference to the Mississippi- Atchafalaya River systems, Copeia, II, New York, pp 69-71 (Records of migrations of CARCHARINUS, PLATYDON DASY- ATIS, SABINA, TRINECTES, MACULATUS, and MUGIL CEPH- ALUS from the sea to inland water, and DOROSOMA CEPIDIAN- UM from brackish to fresh water) - (1941) — A plague of toads, Copeia, p. 266 - (1943) — Texas marine resources in war, Texas Fish and Game 1, pp 4-17 59. 60. A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 55 61. HACHEY, H. B. (1934) — The weatherman and coastal fisheries, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 64, pp 382-389 (The interrelations between meteorology, oceanography and economic aspects of fisheries are discussed to indicate the probable importance of marine meteorology and hydrography to the forecasting of the nature of the fisheries in a given area) 62. PENFOUND, w. T. AND HATHAWAY, E. s. (193 8) — Tlant communttks in the marshlands of southeastern Louisiana, Ecol. Mon. 81, pp 1-56 63. PERRIER, REMY ( 1 92 1 ) —-Co#r5 Element ah c de Zoologie (Elementary Course in Zoology) , Maison et Cie, Paris (Marine zoological study of the "Nuestra costa des Gulf os” especially near "Campeche Sonda”) 64. PHILLIPS, B. Notes on a trip in the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Fish. IV, p. 144 (Random remarks on the presence of a number of types of marine life) 6 5 , PIERCE, H. D. (18 83) — An opinion of the cause of mortality of fishes in the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Comm. F'ish and Fisheries 3, p. 332 66. REED, c. T. (1941) — Marine life in Texas waters, Tex. Acad. Sci., Anson Jones Press, 88 pp 67. RILEY, G. A. {\9J>7)—The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico, Jour. Marine Res. I, no. 1, pp 60-74 (Discusses data on phosphate content and other nutrients in these waters) 68. STOREY, M. H. {1919) —Contribution toward a revision of the OPHI- CHTHYDID eels. The genera CALLECHELYS, and BASCAICHYS, with descriptions of new species and notes on MY RIGHT HYS. Stanford Ichthyol. Bull. I, no. 3, pp 61-84 (Table and key to genera. Description of 21 species of which C. BERRY AE from the Gulf of Mexico is new) 69. TAUNER, L. j. (1887) — Report on the work of the U. S. Fish. Com¬ mission steamer ^^Albatross^^ for year ending December 31, 1885, Rept. of U. S. Comm. Fish. 188 5, 89 pp. Also as Document 118 (Also mentions taking a number of torpedoes aboard to experiment on the effect explosion would have on fish. Record of dredging areas on pages 64-71 and hydrographic records, temperatures, bottom conditions, etc., on pages 72-8 5) 70. THEEL, HjALMAR (1886) — Report of the Holothurioidea, Bull, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, vol. 13 (Based in part on data obtained from the Gulf of Mexico) 71. TOMPKINS, w. F. (1938) — The effect on Lake Fontchartrain of opera¬ tions of Bonnet Carre Spillway during the Mississippi River flood of 1937, Shore and Beach 6, pp 3-4 72. vioscA, p. JR. (1927) — Flood control in the Mississippi valley in its re¬ lation to Louisiana fisheries, Trans. Amer, Fish Soc., 57, pp 29-64 (Effects of flood waters on oysters and muskrats also mentioned) 73. — — - — — - — - {1928)— Louisiana wet land and the value of their wildlife and fishery resources. Ecology 9, pp 216-230 STATISTICAL 74. ANDERSON, A. w, AND POWERS, E. A. (1939)- — Fishery statistics of the 56 The Texas Journal of Science United States, Statistical Digest 1, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 144-157 75. — - - - (1940) — Fishery statistics of the United States, Statistical Digest 4, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 147-160 76. — - - — (1941) — Fishery statistics of the United States, Statistical Digest 7, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 101-108 77. - — — (1942) — Fishery statistics of the United States, Statistical Digest 11, Dept. Int. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 139-144 78. — - - — - — (1947) — Fishery statistics of the United States for 1943, Statistical Digest 14, U. S. Dept. Int. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 136-138 79. COLLINS, j. w. AND SMITH, H. M. (1893)~A statistical report on the fisheries of the Gulf states. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish, 1889, XI, pp 91-184, also as Document 206 (Discusses various phases, activities and potentialities of fishing in¬ dustry in this area and lists four pages of species present. Also pre¬ sents commercial catch for 1889-90 by states and counties bordering the Gulf of Mexico) 80. KiBBE, j. p. (1898) — Oysters and oyster culture in Texas, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. XVII, pp 313-314 (General review of Texas oyster industry) 81. SMITH, H. w. (1893) — Investigation of the fisheries of the Gulf states. Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1889-91, pp 179-180 (A statistical report) 82. STEARNS, s. AND JORDAN, D. s. Fisheries of the Gtilf of Mex¬ ico, from the fisheries and fishery industry of the United States, Sect. II, pt. XV, pp 533-587 REGIONAL ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS AND POPULATION STUDIES FISH AND SHRIMP GENERAL 83. BAUGHMAN, J. L. (1941) — Notes on the sailfish ISTIOPHORUS AMERICANUS (Lacepede) in the western Gulf of Mexico, Copeia, vol. 1, pp 33-37, New York (The distribution of this fish coincides approximately with the line of coral reefs. Season of occurrence, abundance, distribution, food, spawn and natural enemies also discussed.) 84. BURKENROAD, M. D. (1939) — Further observations on PENAEIDAE of the northern Gulf of Mexico, Bull. Bingham Ocean. Inst. VI, no. 6, pp 1-62 (Relative abundance and bathymetric distribution of this organism based on 3 5 trawl hauls on the continental shelf in the neighbor¬ hood of the Mississippi River. Discussion of geographical distribution and environmental factors also included.) 85. - - — (1934)— The PENAEIDEA of Louisiana, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. LX VIII, no. 2 86. FINCH, R. H. (1917) — Fish killed by the cold wave of February 2-4, 1917, in Florida, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp 171-172 87. GALLOWAY, J. c. (1941) — Lethal effect of the cold winter of 1939-40 on marine fishes at Key West, Florida, Copeia 2, pp 118-119 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 57 88. GiNSBURGj L (1930)- — Commercial snappers (LUTIAIDAE) of Gulf of Mexico, Document No. 1089, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C., U. S. Dept, of Interior, voL XL VI, pp 265-276 89. GUDGER, E. w. {l9}9)~The whale shark in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, Sci. Mon. 3, pp 261-264 (Localities of eight groups of whale sharks observed in the Gulf of Mexico) 90. GUNTER, G. (1941) — Vertical distribution of fishes in shallow coastal waters, Copeia, pp 1-3 8 91. — - — — - — — - (1940)" — Marine fishes killed by the cold wave of January, 1940 (Abstract), Proc. Texas Acad. Sci. 23, p. 27 92. - — - - - - — (1941) — -Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas coast, January, 1940, Ecology 22, no. 2, pp 203-208 93. — — — — - — . . (1941) — Relative numbers of shallow water fishes of the northern Gulf of Mexico with some records of rare fishes from the Texas coast, Amer. Mid. Nat. 26, pp 194-200 94. HART, w. D. {19 \2)~— Oyster and fish industry of Louisiana, Trans. Fish Assoc. 42, pp 151-156 95. HiGGENS, E. AND LORD, R. (1927)- — Preliminary report on the marine fisheries of Texas, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1926, Appen. IV, pp 167-199 ("The idea that it will not be long before the fish supply of Texas and the Atlantic coast states will be exhausted is fast gaining recog¬ nition. The recent scarcity of certain species in the Texas markets emphasized this possibility . . . ’’(Opening sentences of this report) Various fishing districts from the Rio Grande to Galveston were visited and studied) 96. JARVIS, N. D. {195 5 )— -Fishing for red snappers and groupers in the Gulf of Mexico, U. S. Dept, of Interior, Bureau of Fisheries, Investi¬ gational Report No. 16, 2 pp 97. JORDAN, D. s. AND GILBERT, c. H. (1882) — -Notcs ou fishes observed about Pensacola, Florida, and Galveston, Texas, with description of new species, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, pp 241-307 98. JORDAN, D. s. ET AL (1928) — Check list of the fishes, and fish-like vertebrates of north and middle America north of the northern boundary of. Venezuela and Columbia, Rept. U. S. Comm, of Fish, Appen. X, pp 1-670 (Includes animals found in the Gulf of Mexico area) 99. MILLER, E. M. (1940) —Mortality of fishes due to cold on the south¬ east Florida coast 1940, Ecology 21, pp 420-421 100. RATHBURN, R. (1892)- — The fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico, Rept. U. S. Comm, of Fish. 1888-1889, pp LVI-LIX (Discusses location of red snapper banks) 101. SELLARS, L. H. ( 1885 )- — Abundance of fish in the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish, vol. V, p. 304 (Suddenly abundant again in 1885 for the first time since 1881) 102. SMITH, H. M. {1^95)Snapper fishing on Campeche Bank, Gtdf of Mexico, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1893, pp 68-70 (Comments on the very great abundance of fish in this area all year even at the time when fishing is poor at other places in the Gulf of Mexico) 58 The Texas Journal of Science 103. STEARNS, s. ( 1883 )- — Fluctuations in the fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico and the proposed investigations of them, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., vol. Ill, pp 467-468 (Marked decrease for five previous years from Mississippi River to 50 miles east of Pensacola, although some commercial species still abundant south of Pensacola to Cedar Keys) 104. • — - - - (1884) — On the position and character of the fishing grounds of the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. IV, pp 289-290 (Correlates good fishing with rocky bottom and depths shallower than 40 fathoms) 105. — - - - ( 1885 ) — Examination of the fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., vol. V, pp 28 5-287 (He proposes a fishery survey to be conducted on an annual basis in the Gulf of Mexico for best results using a small schooner about 60 tons. Lists monthly expenses of one mate $50, cook $40, 4 fish¬ ermen at $2 5 each, provisions $150, and maintenance $75. Would be desirable to have one or two young men with knowledge of nat¬ ural history aboard. Cites increasing scarcity of fish and necessity for fishermen to travel increasing distances to catch enough fish) 106. STOREY, M. (1937) — The relation bettveen normal range and mortal- ity of fish due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, Ecology 19, pp 10-26 107. TULiAN, E. A. (1923) — The present status of the Louisiana shrimp industry, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 53, pp 110-121 108. - - (1926) — Increase in the salt tvater shrimp catch from Louisiana waters, Trans. Amer. F’ish Soc. 56, pp 169-174 109. WEYMOUTH, F. ET AL ( 1932) — A survey of the life history of the common shrimp of the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 62, pp 108-110 ("The common shrimp differs decidedly from any other aquatic animal supplying a major fish industry in that it has a life cycle of only one year. The entire catch (one hundred million pounds in 1929) is composed of individuals that have not had and never will have an opportunity to spawn”) 110. wiLLcox, j. (1887)-— Fw/? killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 6, p’. 123 111. WOOD, M. L. ( 1883 ) — The fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U, S. Bur. Fish 1882, vol. II, pp 19-20 (Believes fishing banks of Gulf if properly marked and exploited would compare favorably with those of Newfoundland) LOUISIANA 112. GOWANLOCH, J. N. (1932) — The importance and conduct of hydro- graphic studies in Louisiana in relation to commercial fisheries, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 62, pp 3 3 6-339 (Cites need for extensive hydrographic surveys of the Gulf of Mexi¬ co and contiguous areas; also includes some hydrographic data ob¬ tained in the area by a 57-ft gov’t. -owned research vessel "Black Hawk”) - - - ( 1 9 3 3 ) — F/s/aes and fishing in Louisiana, La. Dept. of Con. Bull. No. 23, 63 8 pp 113. A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 59 114. GUNTER, G. ( 193 5) — Records of fish rarely caught in shrimp trawls in Louisiana, Copeia 1, pp 39-40 115. — - - — =» — — - {1916) —Studies of the destruction of marine fish by shrimp traivlers in Louisiana, La. Conser. Rev. 5, pp 18-24, 45-46 115. _ — - - — — ( 1938) — Seasonal variations in abundance of cer¬ tain estuarine and marine fishes in Louisiana, with particular refer¬ ence to life histories, Ecol. Mono. 8, no. 3, pp 313-346, 16 figs. (Number of fish caught in ottor trawls in Barataria Bay and the Gulf of Mexico were plotted monthly from October, 1931-March, 1934, annual re-current seasonal peaks of abundance and migration were shown for many species) 1 1 7. - — - — - (1938) —The relative number of species of marine fish off the Louisiana coast, Amer. Nat. 72, pp 79-83 TEXAS 118. EVERMANN, B. w. AND KENDALL, w. c. (1894) — The fisJoes of Texas and the Rio Grande Basin considered chiefly with reference to their geographic distribution. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 12, pp 57-126 119. FOWLER, H. w. (1931)- — A collection of fishes from the Texas coast, Copeia 2, pp 46-50 120. GUNTER, G. (1943)-— A fisheries program for the Texas coast, Proc. and Trans. Texas Acad. Sci, 26, pp 53-54 121. — — — . — — {1945)— Studies on Marine Fishes of Texas, Publ. of the Inst, of Marine Science, vol. 1, no. 1, May, pp 1-190 12 2. PEARSON, j. c. {1929)— Natural history and conservation of red fish and other commercial SCAENIDS on the Texas coast. Bur. of F’ish, vol. XLIV, pp 129-214, Doc. No. 1046 (Page 13 5 describes summer of 192 5 as characterized by a period of excessive salinity in Laguna Madre causing severe mortality of fish trapped within the lagoon) 123. STEVENSON, c. H. (1893 )- — Report on the coast fisheries of Texas, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1889-1891, pp 373-420, Doc. 218 (Page 379— "Little difference has been noticed in the quantity of the species taken from year to year. Exceptions are redfish which decreased in abundance, but pompano and mackerel more abundant.” Gives location of red snapper bank— very plentiful- — obtained eight tons in five hours. The finest oyster reefs in Texas are located in Matagorda Bay 45 sq. mi. Texas oyster law statutes given at end of report) MEXICO 124. BELTRAN, ENRIQUE (1928) — La Pesca en los litorales de golfo y la necesidad de los estudios de biologia marina para desarrallaresa fuenta de riqueza (The need for investigating the fish of the littoral zone of the Gulf as a source of natural wealth), Memorias y revista de la Sociedad cientifica "Antonio Alzate,” Tomo 49 Num. 9-12, pp 421-445 12 5. FRAGOSO, F. N. (1938) — The situation of the fishing industry in Mexico, Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 68, pp 2 56-261 (Lists chief commercial species in Gulf of Mexico in Mexican waters) 126. GOMEZ, I. c. (1926) — Riqueza Pisquera de Mexico' y Es pedes Notables Memorias de la Soc. Cient. "A. Alzate,” vol. 45, nos. 7-12, pp 429-452 (Common and rare species of Mexican fish) 60 The Texas Journal of Science OYSTERS GENERAL 127. MOORE, H. F. (1898)- — Physical characteristics of the Gulf states fa¬ vorable to oyster culture, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. XVII, 1897 p. 277 (Brief statement to that effect only) 128. scHECHTER, V. (1943)— -T WO flat worms from the oyster drilling snail Thais floridana haysae Clench, Jour. Paristol. vol. 29 ALABAMA 129. DELCHAMPS, j. L. (1896) — Notcs respecting oysters of Mobile Bay and Sound in Mobile County, Alabama, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. XV, pp 339-340 13 0. GALTSOFF, p. s. (1930) — 'Destruction of oyster bottoms in Mobile Bay by flood of 1929, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1929, Append. XI, pp 741-758 131. MOORE, H. F. {1913)— Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi Sound, Alabama, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1911, 60 pp, also Doc. 769 (A detailed hydrographic and biological survey with special refer¬ ence to factors involved in oyster culture) 132. - (1911) — Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi east of Biloxi, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, pp 1-42, Doc. 774 13 3. RITTER, H. p. (1896) — Report of a reconnaissance of the oyster beds of Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound, Alabama, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 15, pp 325-340 MISSISSIPPI 134. MOORE, H. F. (1913) — Conditions and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi coast east of Biloxi, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, 1911, 41 pp, also as Doc. 774 (one map) (A detailed hydrographic and biological survey with special reference to factors involved in oyster culture) LOUISIANA 13 5. CARY, L. R. (1906) — The conditions of oyster ctdture in the waters of the parishes of Vermillion and Iberia, Louisiana, Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 4, pp 1-27 (Discusses survey of productive areas and ecological conditions from standpoint of oyster culture) 136. DYMOND, j. (1914) — The oyster of Louisiana, 1st Bien. Rept. Dept. Conser. Louisiana. (Discusses effects of change in salinity of water on oyster) 137. FIEDLER, R. H. (1932) — Fisheries of Louisiana, La. Cons. Rev. 2, pp 3-8, 26 (Statistical survey) 13 8. GATES, w. H. (1907) — -A few notes on oyster culture in Louisiana, Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 15, pp 1-32 (Discussion of practical problems involved in oyster culture as well as effect of certain ecological factors) 139. GLASER, o. c. (1904) — Some experiments on the growth of oysters. Bull. Gulf Biolog. Sta. 2, pp 9-31 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 61 (Includes a discussion of certain ecological factors significant to the growth of oysters in, this area) 140« KELLOG, j. L. {1905}— -Notes on marine food mollmks of Lomsiana^ Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 3, pp 1-43 (Discusses ecological factors favorable in this area to marine mollusk culture) 141. MOORE, H. F. {1H99)— Report on the oyster beds of Louisiana, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish, voL 24, pp 49-100; (1898) (Includes description of various predators and their effect on the oyster from the statements made by the oystermen. AlsO' discusses oyster legislation for Louisiana) 142. — — _ and pope, t. e. b. {190^}— Oyster culture ex¬ periments and investigations in Louisiana, Rept. U, S. Comm. Fish, p, 1M2, Doc. 731 (Discusses factors involved, including major ecological ones, in suc¬ cessful oyster culture for this area) 143. SPAULDING, H. H. (1906)— A preliminary report on the distribution of the scallops and clam-s in the Chandeleur Island regions, Louisiana, Bull, Gulf Biol. Sta. 6, pp 29-43 TEXAS 144. BAUGHMAN, J. L. (1948)— Aii for the oyster, Texas Game and Fish 6, pp 4-5, 15 ... (Discusses oyster culture situation in Texas and gives recommenda¬ tions for its improvement) 145. ■ ■ • ■ — — (MMS) Oyster and oyster planting in Texas (A compilation of all the material available on Texas oysters, includ¬ ing history, surveys, pests, mudshell, laws, etc.) 146. BURR, J, G, (1928) — The oyster problem of the Texas coast with sug¬ gestions for its solution, Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 2, pp 1-9 147. — - — (1933 )— in oyster culture on the Texas coast. Bull, Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 6 pp 1-24 148. FEDERiGHi, H. AND COLLIER, A. w. (MMS)- — Stirvey of oystcr pest of the Texas coast (Includes discussion of -ecological conditions related W oyster culture in area extending from Corpus Christi to Galveston. Reported in Baughman, J. L. '"An Annotated Bibliography of Oysters,” 1947 Pub. by Texas A and M Research Foundation, 794 pp 149. GALTSOFF, p. s. ( 1 9 2 6 ) — S«f ^^3/ of Texas waters with regard to oyster culture, Rept. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm., pp 11-14 (Discusses ecological factors involved in oyster culture along Texas coasts between Corpus Christi and Matagorda Bays) 150. — (1931)— A survey of oyster bottoms in Texas, Bur. Fish. Invest. Rept. VI, pp 1-30 (Stresses factors involved in oyster culture although some ecological data are presented) 151. " — ^ _ ( 193 5)— Oys/cf culture problems in Texas, Gal¬ veston, Texas, December 14 152. GUNTER, G. {1942)— Seasonal condition of Texas oysters, Proc. and Trans. Texas Acad, Sci. 2 5, pp 89-93 62 The Texas Journal of Science 153. HEDGEPETH, j. w. (1946) —Report on marine biological work for the fiscal year 1945-46, Kept. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 1945-1946 (Discusses ecological factors involved in oyster culture) 154. HIGGINS, E. {1930)— Progress in biological inquiries, 1929, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, App. XV, Doc. 1096, pp 1069-1121 (Includes a discussion of salinities in Galveston Bay with regard to oyster culture) 15 5. HOPKINS, A. E. (1931) — Factors influencing the spawning and setting of oysters in Galveston Bay, Texas, U. S. Dept, of Interior, Bur. Fish, 47, pp 58-83 156. MOORE, H. F. (1907) — Survey of the oyster bottom in Matagorda Bay, Texas, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1905, 86 pp, Doc. 610 (1 map) (Hydrographic and biological survey with special reference to oyster culture. He notes "Shore lines in places differed considerably from permanent marks made by USC and GS and later reoccupied. In general the bay has encroached upon the land between 100 to 500 yards from the shore line shown on the projections furnished by the USCGS.” Includes a large map of area) 157. — - — — - AND DANGLADE, E. (1915) — Conditions and ex¬ tent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Lavaca Bay, Texas, Rept. U. S. Bur. Fish. Appen. II, 1914, 45 pp, 1 map (A detailed hydrographic and biologic survey with special reference to factors involved in oyster culture is presented. Also gives scale of hardness in terms as used by oyster growers: hard penetration <4”; stiff penetration between 4-8”; soft penetration between 8-13”; very soft penetration between 13-18”; ooze > 18”) 158. o^MALLEY, H, (1929) — Kept, of the Commissioner, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, pp I-XXXIII (Includes discussion of feeding, controlled field experiments and a survey along the Texas coast of oysters) 159. RATHBURN, R. ( 1895)^ — Report on the inquiry respecting food fishes and the fishing grounds, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, 19, pp 23-26 (Discusses factors involved in oyster mortality occurring in Gal¬ veston Bay, Texas) 160. SCHLESSELMAN, G. w, (1943)— Some economic aspects of Texas marine fisheries and developments, Proc. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26, pp 80-83 (Abs.) (Discusses oyster production in terms of economic and ecological factors involved. Annual production now is less than one million pounds, whereas in 1904 peak year of production two million pounds were produced. MEXICO 161. CONTRERAS, F. (1932) — Datos para el estudo de los ostiones Mexicanos (Data for the study of the Mexican oysters), Anales del Inst. Biol., vol. 3 162. DLTGES, A. ( 1905) — Apuntes de bromatologia animal para Mexico (Notes on the animal bromatology for Mexico), Mem. Soc. Alzate 24, pp 33 1-338 (Has a short discussion of oyster situation in Mexico) A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 63 GEOLOGY HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 163. ANONYMOUS (1947)^ — Geological shidy of Gulf coast continental shelf, Oil and Gas Jour. 46, pp 82-87 164. — — - — - — (1947) — Magnolia testing offshore formations in the Gulf, World Petroleum, vol. 18, no. 3, pp 60-61, 110 165. BOLTON, H. E. (1915) — -The location of La Salle’s colony on the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Valley Hist. Rev., vol. 2, no. 2 (September), pp. 165-182, map opp. p. 173 166. DARBY, w. (1816)- — A geographical description of the state of Louisi¬ ana, Philadelphia, John Melis (Darby was apparently the first to recognize the Mississippi origin of the Bayou Teche course) 167. DOHM, c. F. (1936) — List of maps dealing with Rlaquemines and St. Bernard parishes, Louisiana Dept, Cons., Geol. Bull. No. 8, pp 321-338 168. FISK, H, N. (1944) — Geological investigations of the alluvial valley of the lower Mississippi River, Miss. River Comm., Vicksburg, Miss. 169. HACKETT, c. w. (1931) — Pichardo’s Treatise on the Himits of Louisi¬ ana and Texas’, vol. I, 630 pp, Univ. Texas (vol II published 1934, 618 pp) 170. HiLGARD, E. w. {1^69)— Summary of a late geographical reconnais¬ sance of Louisiana, Amer. Jour. Sci., 2nd ser., XL VIII, pp 331-345 (General reconnaissance geology of area) 171. - - - - (1871) — On the geological history of the Gulf of Mexico, Amer. Jour. Sci. Ill, vol. 11, pp 391-404 (Brief discussion of historical geology of area from Cretaceous through Quaternary) 172. - - - - - (1891) — -The late Tertiary of the Gulf of Mexico, Amer. Jour. Sci. Ill, vol. XXII, pp 5 8-65 173. - — - - - — (1881) — The basin of the Gulf of Mexico, Amer. Jour, Sci. in, vol. XXI, pp 283-291 (Generalized description of the bathymetric character of the area including a map; pL IX after p. 343 174. HILL, R. T. (lS99)-—Cuba and Puerto Rico, Century Co., N, Y., 429 pp, 2nd ed. (See pp 3-5 for Gulf of Mexico) 175. HOWELL, E. E. (1904)- — Relief model of the Bay of North America including the Gulf of Mexico^ and Caribbean Sea, USC and GS (Also available as frontispiece in Schuchert’s "Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region,” 193 5, John Wiley, 2nd ed., N. Y.) 176. REESE, PAULINE (1938)- — The history of Padre Island (Texas), manu¬ script thesis for M.A. Degree, Texas College of Arts and Industries, Kingsville, Texas, 12 5 pp 177. RUSSELL, R. j. AND HOWE, H. V. (193 5) — Chenicrs of southwestern Louisiana, Geog. Rev., vol. 2 5, no. 3, pp 449-461 178. RUSSELL, R. J. (1936) — Physiography of the lotver Mississippi Delta, Louisiana Dept. Cons., Geol. Bull. No. 8 (This work is the only complete and authoritative compilation of the data on the Mississippi Delta within Plaquemines and St. Bernard Parishes, La. It includes much information on the details of the 64 The Texas Journal of Science physiography, subsidence, and rate of delta growth.) 179. . . . . "■ AND DOHM, c. F. ( 195 6) -—Bibliography , La. Geoi. Survey Bull. No. 8, pp 279-320 (Very comprehensive bibliography on geology and hydrology of lower Mississippi River delta area) 180. RUSSELL, R. j. {l940)—QtMiernary history of Louisiana, GeoL Bull., Soc. America, voL 51, p. 1228 181. scHUCHERT, c. H. {19} 5 ) —Historical geology of the Antillean- Carrihhean region or the lands bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, John Wiley, New York, 811 pp (See especially Section II, pp 5 8-78. Also comprehensive geologic and paleontologic bibliography for the region.) 182. SUESS, E. ( 1904-1909)— Dtfs Antlitz der Erde (The face of the earth), vols. I and II, (Eng. trans. by Sollas) (See p. 5 51, voL I and pp 137, 20 5, 599, voL II for Gulf of Mexico) THEORETICAL AND STRUCTURAL 183. LAWSON, A. c. (1942)— Mississippi delta— a study in isostasy, GeoL Soc. Amer. voL 53, pp 1231-1254 (Delta is in isostatic balance and will continue to be throughout its growth up to a limit of thickness that is determined by the initial depth of water.) 184. MACGREE, w. (1892) — The Gulf of Mexico as a measure of isostasy, Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), XLV, pp 177-192 (Detailed discussion of criteria for the general subsidence of this whole area as a result of isostatic adjustment to the great load of sediments received from its continental drainage basin.) 18 5. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL {1926-1927) —Committee on sub¬ marine topography and structural history of the Caribbean, Gulf region, Ann. Kept., Append. I 186. PRICE, w. A. {1933)— Role of disastrophism in topography of Corpus Christi area, South Texas, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 17, pp 907-962 187. ■ — GUNTER, G. (1942)— Certain recent geologi¬ cal and biological changes in South Texas with consideration of prob¬ able causes. Proc. and Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26, pp 13 8-156 18 8. PRICE, w. A. {1947)— Equilibrium of form and forces- in tidal basins of the coast of Texas and Louisiana, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 31, pp 1619-1663 189. SHEPARD, F. (1937) — Salt domes related to Mississippi submarine trough, Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 48, pp 1349-1361 190. STEPHENSON, H. E. (1928)— Mtf/Of marine transgressions and regres¬ sions and structural features of the Gulf Coastal Plain, Amer. Jour. Sci. 5, vol. 16 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 191. ATWOOD, w. w. AND PEATTiE, R. {I917)—Saping the silts of the Mis- sississippi river, Bull. Geol, Soc. Amer, 28, pp 149-150 (Abstract) 192. BULLARD, F. M. {1942)—Source of beach and river sands on Gulf coast of Texas, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 53, pp 1021-1043 193. DicKESON, M. w. AND BROWN, A. (1848)— sediments of the Mississippi, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1, pp 42-5 5 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 6^ 194. DOHMj c. F. {193 6)— Igneous^ metamorphic and sedimentary pebbles from the Chandelem Islands, La. Geol. Survey Bull. 8, pp 397-402 195^ (l936)-=-Prfro^f«'_^^3/ of two Mississippi river sub-deltas, La. Geol. Sur. Bull. 8, pp 3 39-402 196. FAULKNER, F. H. {l9'^5)—St^^dies of river bed materials and their movement, with special reference to the lower Mississippi river, LJ. S. WaterworL Expt. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss., Paper 17, 161 pp 197. KRUMBEiN, w. AND ABERDEEN, A. (1937)— scdiments of Barataria Bay, Jour. Sed. Pet. 7 198. MAURY, CARLOTTA j. (1920) —Recent moUusks of the Gulf of Mexico and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from the Gulf states, Part h Pelecypoda, Bull. Amer. Paleontology 8, 113 pp, 1 pi. (Annotated bibliography with synonymy of 345 forms of pelecypods as limited to the title together with their distribution and occur¬ rence. Includes recent littoral species from Tampa tO' Corpus Christi and recent deep water species dredged by the '■'Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico) 199. . (1922)— Recent mollusca of the Gulf of Mexico and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from Gulf states, Part 11. Scapho'da, Gastropoda, Amphineura, Cephalopoda, Bull. Amer. P'aleon. 3 8, 142 pp (Annotated bibliography of organisms listed in title together with their distribution and occurrence. Includes recent littoral species from Tampa to Corpus Christi.) 200. MURRAY, j. (1^^5 )~Report on the specimens of bottom deposits. Reports on the results of dredging ... by the U. S. Coast Survey Steamer ^^Blake^^ . . . Bull. Mus. of Compr. Zool. at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., No. XXVII, vol. 12, pp 37-61 201. ■- — - ■ ' (1899)— -Off the survey by the SS Britannia^’ of the cable route hettveen Bermuda, Turk^s Islands and Jamaica, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 22, pp 409-429 (Describes bottom sediments in this and contiguous areas which in¬ clude parts of the continental shelf of western Florida. Coral mud and sand together with some blue mud and ooze. Map facing p. 428) 202. PHLEGER, F. B. (1939) —Foraminif era cores from the continental slope, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 50, p. 1395 203. RIDDELL, J. L. (1^46) —DeposIts of the Mississippi and changes in Us motith, DeBow*s Review 2, pp 43 3-448 204. RUSSELL, R. (1937)— Mineral composition of Mississippi River bed materials, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 48, p. 1307 205. RUSSELL, R. J. AND RUSSELL, R, D. ( 1939) —Mississippi River delta sedimentation, Recent Marine Sediments, Amer. Assoc. Petrol, Geol. 206. THORP, E, (1931)— Description of deep sea bottom samples from the western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea, Scripps Inst. Ocean. Tech. Bull. 3, pp 1-31 207. TRASK, p. D., PHLEGER, F. B., STETSON, H. c. (1947 ) —Recent changes in sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico, Science 106, No, 2759, No¬ vember 14, pp 460-461 208. TROWBRIDGE, A. c. (1923) Sedimentation at the mouths of the Mississippi River, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 34, p. 95 (Abstract) 209. - - — ^ (1927) — -Disposal of sediments carried to the 66 The Texas Journal of Science Gulf of Mexico by Southwest Pass, Mississippi River, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 3 8, p. 148 (Abstract) 210. - — (1930) — Building of the Mississippi delta, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol, 14, pp 867-901 (One of the most recent comprehensive reports on this subject.) 211. TURNER, H. j. {1901))— Examination of mud from the Gtdf of Mexi¬ co, Bull. U, S. Geol. Survey 212, pp 107-112 212. STEiNMAYER, R. A. (1931) — Phases of sedimentation in Gulf coastal prairies of Louisiana, La. Cons. Rev. 1, pp 10-14, 27-28 213. — — — - — ^ — (1939) — Bottom sediments of Lake Pont char - train, Louisiana, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 23, pp 1-23 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY PETROLEUM EXPLORATION 214. CARSEY, J. B. (1948) — Basic geology of the Gulf coastal area and the continental shelf. Oil and Gas Jour. 47, pp 246-2 51 215. CRiTZ, J. s. (1947) — Oil possibilities on the Gulf coast — continental shelf. Oil Weekly 124, pp 17-2] 216. HARRIS, G. D. (1910)- — Oil and gas in Louisiana with brief summary of their occurrence in adjacent states. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 429, 192 pp. (Cites occurrence of oil in the Gulf on p. 9; map facing p. 6) 217. HASEMAN, J. D. (1921) — The humic acid origin of asphalt. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 5, pp 75-79 (Discusses the formation of asphalt and a number of other bitumi¬ nous solid and semi-solid substances along the coast of Florida and Georgia, where the water from fresh-water swamps flows into the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico. The swamp water contains notable quantities of humic acids and related substances in solution, and these are precipitated by the salt water.) 218. HAYES AND KENNEDY (1903) — 0/7 fklds of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coastal plains. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 212, 174 pp (pp 104-107 mentions presence of oil ponds in the Gulf about two miles offshore near mouth of Sabine) 219. HiLGARD, E. w, (1869) — On the geology of lower Louisiana and the rock salt deposit of Petite Anse, Amer. Jour. Sci. XL VII, ser. 2, pp 77-89 (A description of the general geology of the region with special emphasis on such areas as Petite Anse or Avery’s Island, Cote Blanche, Five and Weeks Islands, etc. Origin attributed to crystallization from the pure brine of salt springs.) 220. PHILLIPS, w. B. (1900) — Texas petroleum. Bull, Univ. Texas 5, July (Discusses origin of oil ponds off Sabine River in Texas.) 221. PRATT, w. E, (1947) — Petroleum on continental shelves. Bull. Amer. Assoc, of Petrol. Geol. 31, pp 657-672 (Includes discussion of offshore water of Gulf of Mexico.) 222. TURNER, H. J. (1903) — Examination of mud from Gulf of Mexico, Bull, U. S. Geol, Survey 212, pp 107-112 (Geologic and biologic analyses of mud. Mentions briefly presence of sea wax found along shores of Gulf from Sabine to Corpus Christi A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 67 in cakes 6-8 feet long and 1-2 inches thick. Presence of oil in mud samples also mentioned.) 223. UNITED STATES NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE (1900, 1905, 1906) - Maps showing oil slicks in the Gnlf of Mexico SHORE LINE PRESERVATION 224. BROOKE, M. M. (1934)— Shore preservation in Florida, Shore and Beach 2, New Orleans (Discusses effects of building jetties and sea walls on the erosional and depositional characteristics of the adjoining areas.) 225. MARKS, E. H. (1936)— -Discussion of Galveston seawall, Shore and Beach 4 226. UNITED STATES ARMY ENGINEERS BEACH EROSION BOARD (1937) — Report on erosion at Grande Isle, Louisiana, Shore and Beach 5, pp 77-83 (The 6-foot depth contour of the 193 5 survey shows a decided shore¬ ward movement since 1891 survey. The recssion averages 2300 feet.) 227. - - — - — — ( 193 5) -“S^or^ protection of Galveston Bay, Harris County, Texas, House Doc. 74, 74th Congress, 1st Sess., 6 pp, 2 pi. 228. WASHINGTON, c. c. {193S)—Galveston Island shoreline and the pro¬ tection of Galveston beach. Shore and Beach 6, pp 105-108 CHANGES IN CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSISSIPPI DELTA HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 229. BACHE, A. D. (IS5 1 )— -Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, 32nd Congress, 1st Sess., House Doc. 26, pp 74-78 (Reconnaissance survey compared with Talcott’s survey of 1839 in which changes in the eastward passes and advance of marshes are discussed. ) 230. - - - (1^59)— Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, 3 5th Congress, 2nd Sess. S. Doc. 14, p. 103 (Progress report of work in hydrography, triangulation and topog¬ raphy) 231. BARNARD, j. c. ( 1863 )- — HydrauUcs of the report on the Mississippi River of Humphreys and Abbot, Amer. Jour. Sci. 2nd ser., XXXVI, pp 16-37, 197-212 (Discusses deepening of passes) 232. BROWN, R. M. (1910) — Maximum, minimum and average hydrographs of the Mississippi River, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. 42, pp 107-110 233. BURWELL, w. M. (1^74) —Memoir of the delta canal from the Mw- sissippi River below St. Philip, into the Gulf of Mexico near Use au Breton: Compiled from the best sources, Rept. Chief of Engineers, Appen R 15b, pp 792-801 (History of attempts to deepen bars and of the proposed canal) 234. coRTHELL, E. L. (1878) — The South Pass jetties, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 7, pp 131-148 (Account of construction problems encountered in construction of jetties) — - — — — (1881)-— A history of the jetties at the mouths of the Mississippi River, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2nd ed. 235. 68 The Texas Journal of Science 236. DEBOW, j. D. B. (1856) — Connection of the Mississippi and Lake Borgne, DeBow’s Review 20, pp 107-111 (Discusses plans for a canal) 237. DENT, E. j. (1927) — The mouths of the Mississippi River, Trans. Amer. Soc, Civil Engrs. 87, pp 997-1006 (Makes comparisons of changes since early surveys by Talcott) 23 8. ELLIOTT, D. o. (1932) — The improvement of the lower Mississippi River for flood control and navigation, War Dept. Corps of Engrs. Expt. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss., 3 vols. 239. FORSHEY, c. G. {\%71>)—The delta of the Mississippi— The physics of the river, etc., Proc. Amer. Soc, Adv. Sci. 21, pp 78-111 240. HiLGARD, E. w. (1874)- — On some points in MalleTs theory of vul- canicity, Amer. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., VII, pp 534-546 (He believes that the Gulf coast has oscillated almost 1000 feet since glacial times) 241. MATTisoN, G, c. (1924) — Aerial survey of the Mississippi River delta, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Sp. Publ. 10 5, Sec. 271 (Describes methods used and ideas for future surveys) 242. MONTAiGU, R. (1874) — Project of a ship canal between the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, Sect. War. Kept. Chief Engr., Appen. R15C, pp 801-822 243. QUINN, J. B. (1898)-— History of attempted improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi River, 5 5th Congress, 3d Sess., House Doc. 142, pp 52-62 244. scHWEiZER, c. w. (1934) — Thalweg Soundings, Mississippi River, New Orleans to the Gulf; showing hed materials, April 30 -May 5, 1934, (Available in photostat form from Mississippi River Commis¬ sion, Vicksburg, Miss.) MUD LUMP PHENOMENA 245. ANONYMOUS (1868) — The Mississippi River, DeBow’s Review 5, pp 454-471 (Discusses mud lumps and shallow gas phenomenon) 246. BURROWS, J. c, (1883)- — Improvements of the Mississippi River, 47th Cong., 2nd Sess., House Doc. Rept. 198 5 (Discusses mud lumps) 247. CARTWRIGHT, s. A. (18 59) — The Mississippi: its bars, obstructions, outlets, etc,, DeBow’s Review 26, pp 524-53 8 (Includes discussion of formation of mud lumps) 248. coRTHELL, E. L. (1884)— The South Pass jetties, etc., Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 13, pp 313-3 30 (Also discusses mud lumps) 249. DELAFiELD, R. (1829) — Report on the survey of the passes of the Mis¬ sissippi, 21st Cong., 1st Sess., House Doc. 7, no. 1, pp 7-14 (Describes mud lumps) 2 50. ELLET, c. JR. (18 50})— Report on the improvement of the navigation across the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi River, 31st Congress, 2nd Sess., S. Doc. 17, no, 3, pp 1-18 (Describes conditions existing at passes at various times, mentions sharp contrast between fresh and salt water boundary, and discusses origin of mud lumps) 2 51. HARRIS, G, D. (1902)— The geology of the Mississippi embayment. A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 69 Kept, of Geol. Survey of La., Spec, Kept. 1, pp 1-39 (Discusses mud lumps) 252. HiLGARD, E. w. (1871)---Of^ the geology of the delta and the mud lumps of the passes of the Mississippi Amer. Jour. Sci. II, pp 23 8-246, 356-364, 425-435 (A long detailed description to support his thesis that the mud lump formation constitutes the normal mode of progression of the Mis¬ sissippi mouths and that the Mississippi delta is unique among all deltas in this respect. Rate of upheaval may be as much as several feet in a day. Believes they are caused by drawing up of vent gas and artesian water and their subsequent search for an outlet.) 253. SHAW, E. w. (1913)“ from mud lumps at the mouths of the Mississippi, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull, 541 A, pp 12-15 254. — - - — - {191})— -The miid lumps at the mouths of the Mississippi, U. S. Geol, Survey Prof, Paper 8 5 B, pp 11-27, pi. 1-3, Washington (Caused by squeezing together of soft clay layers in places where pressure is less strong and that lumps are not formed by volcanoes or by pressure from the accumulation of salt, sulphur and gas below the surface.) 25 5. THOMASSY, V. (1860) — Geologie pratique de la Louisiane (Practical Geology of Louisiana), New Orleans, 263 pp (Discusses mud lump phenomena which he attributes to vents of subterranean streams) GEOLOGIC AGE 2 56. HILGARD, E. w. {1S70) —Report on the geological age of the Mississippi delta to General A. A. Humphreys, Wash. Govt. Printing Office, 16 pp. GEOLOGIC ORIGIN 257. HILGARD, E. w. (1906)— The exceptional nature and genesis of the Mississippi delta. Science, n.s., 24, pp 861-866 (Summaries, theories and observations of mud lumps) MISCELLANEOUS 258. BROWN, j. s. {1937)— The Florida ship canal, Econ. Geol. 32, pp 589 259. CUNNINGHAM, c. H. (1936) — The hydraulic problems of the Mis¬ sissippi passes. Shore and Beach 4, pp 13-17 (Problems involved in maintenance of these passes together with their history) 260. HAM AKER, J. I. (1930) — The composition of beach sand, with special reference to its organic component, Randolph-Macon Woman’s Col¬ lege Bull. 16, p. 4 261. LEVY (1935) — La construction des digues le long du Mississippi (The construction of the dikes along the Mississippi), Technique Moderne 15, p. 12 262. MARSH, R. E. (1939) — Reports on the stirface water supply of Louisi¬ ana to September 30, 1918, La. Dept. Conservation, Geol. Bull. 16 263. PAIGE, s. (1936)-^ — Effect of sea level on the ground water level of Florida, Econ. Geol, 31, pp 537-570 70 The Texas Journal of Science 264. okey, c. w. (1918)- — The wetlands of southern Louisiana and their drainage, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 652. 265. UNITED STATES ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (1936)- — Geological and ground water conditions in Florida in their relation to the Atlantic- Gulf ship canal, Interim Kept, of the Sp, Bd. of Eng. U. S. Army, Corps of Engrs,, Senate Doc. 147, 74th Cong., 2nd Sess. GEOPHYSICS HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 266. ANONYMOUS {1946) —Exploration around the Gulf of Mexico, The Oil and Gas Jour., September 28, p. 13 5 267. COLBERT, L. {1944)— Geophysical measurements in American Repub¬ lics, Sci. Mon., vol. 58, no. 6, pp 43 5-439 268. DEEGAN, c. j. (1946) — Exploring the continental shelf. The Oil and Gas Jour., June 15, p. 98 269. GAMMON, w. (1937) — Use of submarines suggested to seek structure in Gulf, Oil and Gas Jour., August 19, pp. 29-30 SEISMIC 270. ANONYMOUS (1932) — Earthquake epicenters and gravity anomalies in the Gulf of Mexico, etc.. Hydro. Rev. IX, no. 2, p. 11, also H. O. Misc. No. 7941 271. CHRISTIE, N. j. {1947)— Reflection seismograph exploration in coastal waters. Mines Mag. 37, pp 37-40, 66 (Traces the development of reflection-seismic exploration on the continental shelves of the Gulf of Mexico and off the California coast) 272. SHORT, E. H. JR. {1944)— Distant offshore seismic survey conducted in Gulf of Mexico, Oil and Gas Jour., August 26, p. 87 GRAVITY 273. BOWIE, w. (1927) — Isostasy, Dutton and Co., New York, 275 pp (Gives gravity anomalies for eight stations on the Mississippi delta) 274. DALY, R. A. {1940)— Strength and structure^ of the earth’s crust, Prentice-Hall, New York, 434 pp. (Discusses gravity characteristics of the Gulf of Mexico area and Mississippi delta on pp. 264, 266, 306, 373, 376) 275. FROWE, E, (1946) — A diving bell for underwater gravimeter opera¬ tion, Oil and Gas Jour., April 6, p. 101 (Soc. Expl. Geop. Abstract) 276. HEiSKANEN, w. {1939)— Catalogue of the isostatically reduced grav¬ ity stations, publ. of the Isostatic Inst., Inter. Assoc, of Geodesy No. 5, Helsinki, 139 pp (Stations taken at sea in the West Indies-— 103 stations) 277. NEUMANN, G. {1940) —Erf orschungen der Flachwassergebiete der Golfkueste inbesondere mit Flilfe der Drehwaage (Exploration of the shallow water areas of the Gulf Coast particularly with the aid of a torsion balance), Beitr. z. Angew. Geoph., vol. VIII, pp 305-340 278. VENiNG MEiNEsz, F. (1929) — A gravity expedition of U. S. Navy, Amsterdam Soc. Pr., vol. 32, pp 44-99 279. - - - AND WRIGHT, F, E. (1932)— T/jc gravity measur¬ ing cruise for U. S. submarine S-21, U. S. Naval Obs. Pub., 2nd ser., vol. 13, App. 1 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 71 280. WILSON, G. M. (1946)-— Diving chamber permits gravity meter sur¬ veys on ocean bottom ^ The Oil Weekly, April 29, p. 22 281. WRIGHT, F. (1919)— Gravity measuring cruise of the submarine C/SS S-21, Carnegie Inst., Washington, Yr. Bk. no. 28, pp 73-77 MAGNETIC 282. GALLO, j. (19 57 )— Observations at secular variation stations in Mexi¬ co during 1936, Terr, Mag. XLII, pp 217-218 (Magnetic elements reported upon at Merida, Campeche, and Vera¬ cruz in tabulated form) METEOROLOGY HISTORICAL 283. ANONYMOUS (1671)~A description of a great storm that happened to some ships in the gulph of Florida, etc. 1671, Mass. Historical Soc., Boston, Photostat No. 234 284. (1907)— List of hurricanes at Jacksonville, Flor¬ ida, 1842-1907, Monthly Weather Review 3 5, p, 571 28 5. — - — ______ (1915)— Number of thunderstorms in Galveston, Texas, 1884-1913, Monthly Weather Review 46, p, 3 30 286. BARTLETT, J. R. (1^5 6)— Personal narrative of exploration and tnct- cents in Texas, etc., Appleton and Co., New York, 624 pp. (One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality caused by excessive cold, in this area, pp. 530-531) 287. FRANKENFiELD, H, c. (1917)— The troptcal storm of August 10, 1915, at Galveston, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp 405-412 (Also contains historical review of similar storms from 1875 to 1915) 288. FRAZER, R. D. (1921)— Early records of tropical hurricanes on the Texas coast in the vicinity of Galveston, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 49, pp 454-457 (Starts with 1527; describes many changes in shore line during this period) 289. STUART, B. c. (1919)— Early Texas coast storms. Monthly Weather Review 47, pp 641-642 GENERAL 290. EDELER, H. (1937 ) —W itterungsvetlauf eines FrueUingstages tm oest- Uchen .Golf von Mexico (Meteorological characteristics of a spring day in the eastern Gulf of Mexico), Ann. der Hydrog, und Mar. Meteor., voL 65, pp 136-137 291. EXTERNBRiNK, H. (1937)— ■£/« Beitiag zum W ettergeschen im Golf von Mexico, etc., (Discussion of a meteorological phenomenon in the Gulf of Mexico), Meteor. Zeitschr. LIV, pp 3 53-3 59, 413-417, Braunschweig, 3 pts, (Discussion of origin and movement of air masses in this area, as well as section on origin and characteristics of hurricanes. Data on temperature, distribution also included) 292. FINLEY, J. p. (1^^4)— Charts of relative storm- frequency for a por¬ tion of the northern hemisphere, Prof. Papers of the Signal Service XIV, U. S. War Dept., 9 pp, 13 pL (Includes Gulf of Mexico area) 72 The Texas Journal of Science 293. HACHEY, H. B. {191>A)—Theiveafherman and coastal fisheries, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 64, pp 3 82-3 89 (The interrelation between meteorology, oceanography and economic aspects of fisheries are discussed to indicate the probable importance of marine meteorology, etc., to the forecasting of the nature of the fisheries in a given area) 294. MEY, A. (1923) — Pilot ball onaufstiege auf einer Fahrt nach Mexiko, Sept, bis Dez., 1922 (Pilot balloon ascensions on a trip to Mexico, Sept, to Dec., 1922), Hamburg, 1923 Archiv der Deutschen Seewarte XLI,Jahrgang Nr. 4 295. MCAULiFFE, j. p. (1951)— Flying weather in the Corpus Christi Area, Monthly Weather Review 59, pp 188-189 296. MCDONALD, w. F. {1911)— Weather conditions affecting the port of New Orleans, Monthly Weather Review 59, pp 232-233 297. RiEHL, H. AND SCHACHT, E. (1947)- — Methods of analysis for the Caribbean Region, Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., vol. 27, no. 10, pp 569-575 298. RUSSELL, R. j. (1940) — Climates of Texas, Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 3 5, no. 2, pp 37-52 299. TANNEHiLL, I. R. (1925) — Sunspots and the weather at Galveston, Monthly^JWeather Review 53, pp 221-222 300. .visHER, s. s. ( 1943 )— “Sowc influences on American climate of the ocean and Gulf, Bull. Amer. Met. Soc. 24, no. 3, pp 79-84 (Discusses effect of Gulf of Mexico on climate of coastal areas) 301. WEGENER, A. AND KUHLBRODT, E. (1922) — Pilotaufstkge auf einer Fahrt nach Mexico, Maerz bis Juni 1922, (Pilot balloon ascensions on a trip to Mexico, March to June, 1922), Archiv. der Deutschen Seewarte, No. 4, Hamburg EFFECTS OF WIND HURRICANES ' THEORETICAL 302. BOWIE, E. H. (1922) — Formations and movements of West Indian hurricanes. Monthly Weather Review, pp 173-179 303. CLINE, I. M. {\9 2^)— Relation of changes in storm tides on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the center and movement of hurricanes, Monthly Weather Review 48, pp 127-146 (Hurricanes are in all instances preceded by storm tides. The water commences rising on the coast in front of the cyclonic area one to two days before storm is experienced. Changes in the position of the rise of the storm tide indicate changes in the course of the storm) 304. — — - - - — (1926) — -Tropical cyclones, New York (Based on data accumulated primarily from the Gulf of Mexico and contiguous areas) 305. DAY, w. p. (1921) — Stimmary of the hurricanes 1919 ,1920, 1921, Monthly Weather Review 49, pp 658-659 306. DUNN, G. E. (1940) — Aerology in the hurricane warning service. Monthly Weather Review 68, pp 303-3 1 5 (Data all taken from Gulf of Mexico area) 307. NEWNHAM, E. V. (1922) — Hurricanes and tropical revolving storms. Great Britain Meteor. Off. Geophysical Memoirs No, 19, London A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 73 308. scofielDj EDNA (193 8)— O# the origin of tropical hurricanes^ Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., June, pp 244-2 56 309. TANNEHiLL, L R. (1934)— htirficmUy Washington, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Misc. Pub. 197 310. - — ^ (1936)~S^tf stuelh in relation to movement and intensity of tropical storms, Monthly Weather Report 64, pp 25 1-23 8 (Special reference to the Gulf of Mexico) 311. WEIGHTMAN, R. A. (-1916) —Hurricane tracks 1912-1915, Monthly Weather Review 44, p. 521 REGIONAL GENERAL 312. CLINE, I. M. (1915) —Tropical hurricane of October 29, 1915, Monthly Weather Review 46, pp 456-457 313. DAY, w. p. {1922) —Disturbances in southern waters during the hur¬ ricane season, Monthly Weather Review 50, p. 657 314. DUNN, G. E. {19}})— Tropical storm of 1933, Monthly Weather Re¬ view 61, pp. 362-363, 1 chart 315. DYKE, R. A. {191H)— Further notes on the hurricane of August 6, 1918, Monthly Weather Review 47, p. 419 (Barograph at Sulphur, Louisiana, 28.2) 316. GALLENNE, j. H. {1956)—Tropical disturbance July, 1936, Monthly Weather Review 66, pp. 23 8-239 317. {1937)— Disturbance in Gulf of Mexico Novem¬ ber 23-26, 1937, Monthly Weather Review 65, pp 392-393 318. — . . — ■ (1938) — T ropical disturbance of October 1938, Monthly Weather Review 66, p. 325 319. {1939)-— Tropical disturbance of June 12-16, 1939, Monthly Weather Review 67, pp. 175-176 . 320. ------ ■' ' - — — (1940)— Tropical disturbance of August, 1940, Monthly Weather Review 68, pp. 217-218 321. , (1940) — -T ropical dis tur banco of Se pt ember, 1940, Monthly Weather Review 68, pp. 245-247 322. HURD, w. E. (1936)— Atlantic -Gulf of Mexico hurricane of October 30 -November 8, 193 5, Monthly Weather Review 63, pp. 316-318 323. (1937)— Tropical disturbance on the North At¬ lantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, September, 1937, Monthly Weath¬ er Review 65, pp. 332-33 5 324. (1939) — Tropical disturbance of September 24-26, 1939, in the Gulf of Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 67, p. 340 32 5. MITCHELL, c. L. ( 193 3 ) —Tropicul disturbance of July, 1933, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp 200-201 326. (1933) — Tropical disturbance of September, 1933, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp. 274-276 327. - — ------- (1934)— Tropical disturbance July 21-25, 1934, Monthly Weather Review 62, p. 251 328. SUMNER, H, c. (1941) — -Tropical disturbance September 9, 1941, Monthly Weather Review 69, pp. 262-266, 1 chart 329. — — — - (1941)— Hurricane of October 3-12 and tropi- 74 The Texas Journal of Science cal disturbance of October 10--18, 1941, Monthly Weather Review, 69, pp. 303-304 3 30. STEiLKOPF-STUENE ( 1925) — Ergebutsse von Hoeheniuindmessungen attf dein nord-Atlanthchen Ozean und im Golf von Mexico, Feb. bis Mai 1923 (Results of upper air measurement in the North At¬ lantic Ocean and in the Gulf of Mexico February to May, 1923), Archiv. der Deutschen Seewarte, Hamburg 3 31. TANNEHILL, I. R. (1927) — Some inundations attending tropical cyclones. Monthly Weather Review SS, pp. 45 3-45 5 3 32. — - - — (1936) — T ro pical disturbance of 1936 in Gulf of Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 64, pp. 427-42 8, one chart 3 33. — “ — - - (l93^)~Tropical disturbance of August, 193 8, Monthly Weather Review 66, pp. 240-241 3 34. WEiGHTMAN, R. A. (1916) — Hurricanes of 1916 and notes on hurri¬ canes of 1912-1915, Monthly Weather Review 43, pp. 686-687 3 3 5. - — - ( 1932) — The tropical storm of August 12-14, 1932, in the Gulf of Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 60, p. 177 336. - - - — ( 1933 ) — Tropical disturbance of August, 1933, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp. 23 3-23 5 ALABAMA 3 37. ASHENBERGER, A. (1916) — Huvricane of fuly 5-6 at Mobile, Alabama, Monthly Weather Review 44, pp. 402-403 FLORIDA 3 3 8. ANONYMOUS (1907) — List of hurricanes at facksonville, Florida 1842-1907, Monthly Weather Review 3 5, p. 571 3 39. REED, w. F. JR. (1916) — Hurricane of July 5, 1916, at Pensacola, Florida, Monthly Weather Review 44, p. 400 LOUISIANA 340. CLINE, 1. M. (1916) — The tropical hurricane of fuly 5, 1916 in Louisiana, Monthly Weather Review 44, pp. 403-404 341. — - - - — (1920) — -Life history of a tropical storm in Louisiana September 21, 22, 1920. Monthly Weather Review 48, pp. 520-524 342. - - — (1934) — The tropical cyclone of June 16, 1934 in Louisiana, Monthly Weather Review 62, pp. 249-2 50 343. DYKE, R. A (1917) — Tropical hurricane of September 27-28, 1917 Jn southeastern LGuisiana, Monthly Weather Review 45 344. — - - - - {1926)— The tropical storm of August 25-26, 1926 in southern Louisiana, Monthly Weather Review 54, pp. 3 69- 370 TEXAS 345. BUNNEMEYER, B. (1909) — Report on Texas hurricane of July 21, 1909, Monthly Weather Review 37, pp. 3 5 1-3 53 346. - - (1912)— Hurricane of October 11-16, 1912 along southeast coast of Texas, Monthly Weather Review 40, p. 1549 347. FRANKENFiELD, H. c. {1917)— The tropical storm of August 10, 1915 at Galveston, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp. 405-412- (Also historical review of similar storms from 1875 to 1915) A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 75 348. FRAZER, R. D. (1921) —Early records of tropical hurricanes on the Texas coast in the vicinity of Galveston, Texas, Monlthy Weather Review 49, pp. 454-457 (Starts with 15 27 and describes many changes in shore line during this period) NORTHERS, MONSOONAL EFFECTS, ETC. 349. BACHE, A. D. ( 1856) — Winds in the Gulf of Mexico, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 18 56, p. 271-278 3 50. BARTHELENNY, L. (1912) Sur les ^'nortes'' du Gulfe du Mexique d^apres des observations faites a veracruz (Notes on the "northers” of the Gulf of Mexico from observations made at Vera Cruz), Memor- ias. Soc. cientif. Antonio Alzate 30, nos. 1 and 2, Revista cientifica y bibliografica: 8-10. "Extraite du Journal meteorologique du paquebot poste "La Navarre.” 3 51. CLINE, . M. {1^95)— Equinoctial storms of Galveston, Texas, Amer. Met. Jour. 11, 1894-1895, pp. 389-390 3 52. FORSHAY, G. c. ( 1 8 5 7 ) — die Erscheinung des norther” in Texas, (Notes on the phenomenon of a "norther” in Texas), Petter- mans Geogr, Mitteil. p. 3 82 (Describes briefly meteorological characteristics of a Texas "norther” including 20 degrees drop in 20 minutes, high winds and lasting two to three days) 3 5 3. GROGAN, s. A. (19 19 ) —Norther on the east coast of Mexico, their effects and forecast by local observations. Monthly Weather Review, 47, pp. 469-471 3 54. HARRNGTON, M. w. (1^95)— The Texan monsoons, Amer. Met. Jour., vol. 11, pp. 41-54, 1894-1895 (See also Bull. Phil. Soc. of Wash., vol. 12, pp. 293-308) 3 5 5. HECKATHORN, c. E. (1919)— Land and sea breezes in the vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 47, pp. 413-415 3 56. HURD, w. E. (1929)— The norther of the Central American region. Verso of Pilot Chart, Central American Waters Feb., 1929, No. 3 500 U. S. Hydro. Off. 3 57. — - _____ — ( i940)--_L/jp approach of a Gulf of Mexico norther, Monthly Weather Review 68. p. 30 3 58. MCAULiFFE, j. p. (1922) — Cause of the accelerated sea breeze over Corpus Christi, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 50, pp. 5 81-5 82 3 59. STUART, B. c. (1919)— Early Texas coast storms. Monthly Weather Review 47, pp. 641-642 EFTECTS OF TEMPERATURE 360. BROOKS, c. F. (1924) — Gulf of Mexico warm in August, Bull. Amer. Met. Soc. 5, nos. 8 and 9, p. 140 (Average about 87° F some 3-4° F above 1906-10 average. Some observations of 88° and 90°) 361. DYKE, R. A. (1929)- — Nocturnal temperature inversion near the Gulf coast. Monthly Weather Review 57, pp. 500-502 362. FINCH, R. H. (1917) — Fish killed by the cold wave of February 2-4, 1917, in Florida, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp. 171-172 363. GALLOWAY, J. c. (1941) — Lethal effect on the cold winter of 1939- 1940 on marine fishes at Key West, Florida, Copeia 2, pp. 118-119 76 The Texas Journal of Science 364. GUNTER, G. (1940) — Marine fishes killed by the cold wave of Janu¬ ary, 1940, Proc. Texas Acad. Sci. 23, p. 27 (Abstract) 365. - — (1941) — Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas coast, January, 1940, Ecol. 22, pp. 203-208 366. HiRSCH, A. A. (1939) — Mississippi River water temperature at New Orleans, Monthly Weather Review 67, p. 415 (68 yr. average monthly air temperature and 24 yr. monthly aver¬ age water temperature 1915-3 8 plotted maximum difference be¬ tween air and water temperature slightly more than 10 F. Occurs at time of minimum river temperature in mid-February. In summer largest difference in other direction is 2.5° F) 367. MILLER, E. M. (1940) — Mortality of fishes due to cold on the south¬ east Florida coast 1940, Ecol. 21, pp. 420-421 368. STOREY, M. AND GUDGER, E. w. (1937) — Mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida 1886-1936, Ecol. 19, pp. 10-26 369. TANNEHiLL, 1. R. (1923) — Influence of the Gulf water surface tem¬ peratures on Texas weather. Monthly Weather Review 51, pp. 345-347 370. - — - - (1928) — Severe cold waves on the Texas coast. Monthly Weather Review 56, pp. 41-46 371. wiLLcox, j. (1887) — Fish killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 6, p. 113 EFFECTS OF RAINFALL 372. ANONYMOUS (1915) — Ntimber of thunder storms in Galveston, Texas 1884-1913, Monthly Weather Review 46, p. 3 30 373. ASHENBERGER, A. A. (1929) — A tvaterspout in Mobile Bay, July 27, 1929, Monthly Weather Review 57, no. 7, pp. 296-297 374. DYKE, R. A. (1924) — Heavy hailstorms and local squalls at New Or¬ leans, with a summary of the previotis records of hail. Monthly Weather Review 52, p. 20 5 375. HALE, p. G. (1929) — Pensacola waterspouts of June, 1929, Monthly Weather Review 57, no. 8, pp. 3 3 8-339 (Detailed account including data obtained by an aerograph flight and observations from the aerological observatory) 376. MCAULiFFE, J. p. (1923) — Forecasting rain on the west Texas coast. Monthly Weather Review 51, pp. 400-401 377. - - — — (1923) — Waterspouts near Corpus Christi, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 51, p. 402 378. - - (1924) — Severe hailstorm at Corpus Christi, Monthly Weather Review 52, p. 205 379. - - (1933) — Morning showers over the Gulf of Mexico and afternoon showers in thp interior near Corpus Christi, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp. 229-230 3 80. TANNEHILL, I. R. {1921)— Wind velocities and rain frequencies on the south Texas coast. Monthly Weather Review 49, pp. 498-499 APPENDIX CHARTS 1. Laurie’s chart of the Gulf of Mexico, London, R. H. Laurie, 1862 25 X 36 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 77 2. Anonymous, Deffoteto de las costas dc la R^cpublica Mcxicana desde cl rio Bravo del Norte hasta Cabo Quebrado (A collection of coastal charts for the republic of Mexico from the Rio Grande to Cape Quebrado), Annales de la Secretaria de Comunicaciones y obras Publicas, Tercera Series, Tomo V, pp. 113-2 59, Mexico (Shallow bank area favorable for fishing areas can be observed on some of these charts) 3. Brenner, L., Gulf coast history and guide. New Orleans, 1940 4. Chart of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, Amer. Geogr. Soc. Bull. 1881, vol. 13, p. 46, 10 l/2 x 15 3/4 5. Chart of the Gulf of Mexico, West Indies and Spanish Main. New York, E. and G. W. Blunt, 1846-1867 (Four sections: Title: 1845, Add. to 1857 and 1865 (2 editions, 9 insets on 1857 ed.; 2 insets on 1865), SE sheet: 1856 and 1867 editions; NW sheet: 1848 and 1860 ed.; SW sheet: 1852 and 1867 ed.) 6. Copley, C., The north coast of the Gulf of Mexico from St, Marks to Galveston, Pub. by E. and G. W. Blunt, New York, 1842, 25 x 39 7. Great Britain Hydrographic Department, The Admiralty list of lights and time signals, Bart IX, Western side of the Atlantic Ocean (U.S.A., Gulf of Mexico, etc.), Wyman and Sons, London, 1915, 395 pp. 8. Gulf of Mexico, (Bathymetric map. Fig. 59, p. 102, "Three Cruises of the . . . 'Blake’ in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea . . . from 1877 to 18 80” by Alex. Agassiz., vol. I (vol. IV, Bull. Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, 1888); 1:10,000,000 (Map by U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey) 9. Gulf of Mexico sailing directions, Imray and Sons, London, 18 56, 294 pp, 2nd ed. 1870 10. Kerhallet, C. M. P., Manuel de la navigation dans mere des Antilles et dans le golfe de Mexique. (Navigation Manual for the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico), Paris Didot Freres, 18 53, 2 vol. 11. Louisiana Purchase Expedition 1904, List of maps of the cartography of the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, especially of the coast line of Louisiana, Memorial Library, New Orleans 12. Mittler, E. S. and Sons, Westindien Handbuch (West Indian handbook), 2nd ed.. Pilot Guide, 1932-1939, 3 vols. 13. Potomac (Yacht) Log of the cruise of President F. D. Roosevelt in the Gulf of Mexico 29 April - 1 1 May, 1937, 34 pp.. Rare Book Coll, of Lib. of Cong. 14. Preliminary chart of the northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1861, 32x69 15. Preliminary chart of the northwestern part of the Gulf of Mexico, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1861, 31x68 16. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Gulf intracoastal waterway in vicinity of Aransas Pass, Texas, 37 pp, Washington U. S. Govt. Printing Office, 1946, 79th Cong. 2nd Sess., Doc. 700 17. U. S, Coast and Geodetic Survey Charts of Gulf of Mexico (Sailing and general charts Nos. 1113, 1114, 1115, 1116, 1117 Florida to Brownsville Nos. 1007, 1002; Harbor and Coast charts; smooth sheets; planimetric and topographic maps—Corpus Christi 78 The Texas Journal of Science 31, New Orleans 28, Tallahassee 2 5, Key West 20, Mobile 27, Pen¬ sacola 26, Fort Myers 20 (include shore line detail and interior topography) ; sectional aeronautical charts including radio facility charts, radio direction finding, instrument approach and landing, flight, and local aeronautical charts; tide tables) 18. U. S. Coast Pilot Atlantic Coast Part VIII, Gulf of Mexico from Key West to Rio Grande, 3rd Ed., 1908, 177 pp. 19. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Inside Route Pilot Key West to the Rio Grande, 192 5, Washington, D. C., 1926, Ser. No. 325 (See also 1936 Edition, 2nd Ed.) 20. U. S. Flydrographic Office Charts of Gulf of Mexico (Coastal Nautical charts Nos. 1126, 112 5, 0944, 20 56, 0906; stra- tigic plotting chart No. 8; meteorological plotting chart No. 3 5 57; great circle sailing chart No. 5 3 00; isomagnetic chart; bottom sedi¬ ment charts 1125BS, 1126BS; Gulf Coast - Key West to Mississippi; Gulf Coast - Mississippi to Rio Grande; Pilot charts - Central Amer¬ ican Waters (monthly) ; current charts - Central American Waters 1944; notice to mariners) 21. Hydrographic Office, The navigation of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea, vol. 1, 6th Ed. 1905, 747 pp. (Also as USHO No. 64, 1891, 71 pp; USHO No. 63, 1877, 637 pp; USHO No. 86, 1888, 360 pp; 4th ed. 1898, 563 pp; 5th ed. 1901, 664 pp) 22. U. S. Light House Board, List of Lights and Fog Signals of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States, 1868, Washington Gov’t. Printing Office 23. U. S. Mississippi River Commission, Navigation maps of Gulf Intra¬ coastal waterway, Port Arthur, Texas to New Orleans, Louisiana, Off. Pres. Miss. River Comm., 1944, 2nd ed., 3rd ed., 1946 24. Villiers du Terrage, M., L’ expedition de Cavelier de LaSalle dans le golfe du Mexico 1684-1687 par le baron Marc de Villiers (The expedition of Cavelier de LaSalle in the Gulf of Mexico 1684-1687 by Baron Marc de Villiers), Paris, A. Maisonneure, 193 1, 23 5 pp APPENDIX INTRODUCTION The mass mortality of aquatic organisms can in many instances be caused by natural rather than man-made changes in the physical and/or organic environment of the organisms involved. It is the purpose of this portion of the bibliography to compile those references that are readily available in the literature dealing with the mortality of marine populations caused by rapid and pronounced changes in temperature, rainfall, salinity, and oxygen, as well as by the sudden abundance of certain types of plank¬ tonic organisms. In this connection it should be noted that a very compre¬ hensive bibliography on this subject, containing more than 400 titles, was prepared by M. Brongersma-Sanders (ref. 66) and published in 1948 in a journal which is not readily accessible to most investigators. Bartlett (ref. 1) in 18 56 describes one of the earliest accounts of fish mortality caused by excessive cold off the Texas coast. Additional references to mortality from this cause in various parts of the Gulf of Mexico and at different times may also be found. Rathburn (ref. 14) as early as 189 5 de- A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 79 , •scribes an unusually high mortality of oysters in Galveston Bay which he attributes to the presence of a soft mud bottom and unusually low salinity, although some believed at that time that the effluent from a creosote plant night be responsible. Subsequent analyses of water samples smelling of creosote taken near the oysters showed the absence of any poisonous matter. The death of three-quarters of a million fish over an area of 40 kilom¬ eters in Europe is described by Juengst (ref. 15) in 1937. He attributes their death to a decrease in oxygen accompanied by an increase in tempera¬ ture and states that this type of mortality occurred periodically about the end of May in this area. It is evident from these references that frequently it is not so much the absolute amount by which one or several factors in the physical environment change that is responsible for mass mortality of organisms but rather the rapidity with which the change occurs. Frequently the combination of variations in more than one factor such as temperature and oxygen relationships is also responsible, rather than a pronounced change in any one factort Numerous references are available describing mortality caused by rapid changes in the organic environment brought about by the sudden blooming of phytoplankton. This type of mortality is sometimes described as the red tide, red water or red death, and references 18 through 49 which deal essentially with this phenomenon are subdivided geographically. It has been reported in the literature as early as the time of Darwin (ref. 31) in 1871 who mentions red water and its effects off the coast of Peru and alsO' off the Rio Plata in 1832. The description of red water in the head waters of the Gulf of California was also mentioned by Father Conray in 1721 and 1746 according to Streets (ref. 38) in 1878. There is no part of the world oceans in which the phenomenon has not been reported. References to the Gulf of Mexico have been reported as early as 1908 by Carlson (ref. 43) who has a short note in the Monthly Weather Review on ^'Brilliant Gulf Waters.” The most recent outbreak occurred between November, 1946, and June, 1947, off the Florida coast as reported by Gunter in reference 45 in 1947. Ketchum (ref. 47) 1948 in discussing this’ particular outbreak believes that upswelling as a mechanism for making the excess phosphorus nutrient available to the organism is precluded, because the phosphorus content of the water was found to- be 2V2 to 10 times the maximum to be expected at sea. The inference from this statement is that a source of the excess phosphorus must be sought for on land and the mechanism for bringing it to the sea is presumably an excess of rainfall. Woodcock (ref. 49) 1948 has an interesting discussion on the irritation of the human respiratory tract which occurred at the time of the mass mortality in this area. He was able to induce symptoms by breathing air artificially laden with small drops of Gulf of Mexico water containing 56 x 10® dinoflagellates per liter. Red tide as a possible cause for red oysters has also been reported in the literature as early as 1899 by Smith (ref. 23), although no ill effects were observed after eating. However, certain references also appear from time to time, such as reference 37 by Somner et al in 1937, that relate paralytic shellfish poisoning with the reoccurrence of planktonic organisms. Zeiizko (ref. 80) in 1934 also gives an example of mass fish mortality by agencies other than those discussed in the other references, including submarine eruptions and the injurious effects of mass meteor falls. The re- 80 The Texas Journal of Science peated occurrences of mass mortality of marine organisms on a catastrophic scale has led to a certain amount of speculation from time to time regard¬ ing the paleontological aspects of this phenomenon. This applies especially to the possibility that it may serve as a particularly powerful means of faunal accumulation and preservation even to the point of acting as an actual mechanism for the accumulation of organic source material for future oil deposits. References belonging to this category are included from 64 through 80 and are taken from the literature of this country as well as Europe and South Africa. Reference 69 by Gunter, 1947, discusses this subject with special reference to the Gulf of Mexico. He points out the fact that mass mortalities of marine animals living in the shallow water of the Gulf of Mexico occur on a catastrophic scale approximately every 10 years. He attributes their origin primarily to severe cold spells, plankton blooms and excessively high salinities. He also believes that the great extent of the mortality which may occur over an area of several hundred square miles, as well as the low temperature, high salinity and silting caused by high winds or heavy land drainage which may accompany these occurrences in a variety of combinations, are all conducive to fossilization. If such events could occur thousands of times in a million year period, it is possible that the theory may be also valid quantitatively. MORTALITY CAUSED BY CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANISM TEMPERATURE CHANGES 1. BARTLETT, j. R. {1^5 6)— Personal narrative of exploration and inci¬ dents in Texas, etc., Appleton and Co., N. Y., 624 pp. (One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality, caused by excessive cold, in this area, pp. 530-531) 2. finch; r. h. (1917) — Eish killed by cold wave of February 2-4, 1917, in Florida, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp. 171-172 3. GALLOWAY, J. c. (1941) -—Lethal effect of the cold winter of 1939-40 on marine fishes at Key West, Florida. Copeia, pp. 118-119 4. GUNTER, G. (1940)— Marine fishes killed by the cold wave of January, 1940, Proc. Texas Acad. Sci. 23, p, 27 (Abstract) 5. — — - — (1941)— Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas coast, January, 1940, Ecology 22, pp. 203-208 6. MILLER, E. M. (1940) —Moflality of fishes due to cold on the southeast Florida coast 1940, Ecology 21, pp. 420-421 7. STOREY, M. {1937)— The relation bettueen normal range and mortality of fish due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, Ecology 19, pp. 10-26 8. — — — — AND gudger, e. w. ( 193 6) —Mortality of fishes dtie to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, 1886-1936, Ecology, 17, pp. 640-648 9. TAYLOR, h. f. (1917)"— a mortality of fishes on 'the west coast of Flor¬ ida, Science, pp. 3 67-369 10. wiLLcox, J. (1887)- — Fish killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida, Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 6, p. 113 11. ZELiZKO, J. V. (1934)— Neue Belege ueher die Ursachen des M.assen- fodes rezenten Wirbeltiere, Paleon. Zeitr, 16, pp. 91-94 (Includes sudden temperature changes among a variety of factors A, Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 81 such as unusually severe hail and thunder storms, submarine erup¬ tions and swarms of meteors hitting the earth) RAINFALL CHANGES 12. scHAUT, G. c. (1939)— Fish catastrophes during drought, Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 31, pp. 771-822. Chem. Abst. 33, p. 7014 (In an effort to determine the cause of mass destruction of fish life, studies were made of the effect of pure chemicals likely to be present in industrial wastes and other discharges. Over 60 chemicals, organic compounds, gases and wastes were used. Cyanides were found in the supply being investigated. Data on toxicity are given, especially re¬ garding cyanides in their various forms and their means of forma¬ tion.— D. K. French) SALINITY CHANGES ' I 13. RAFFEY, A. ( 1 9 3 2 ) -—Recherches physiologique stir le mecanisme de la mort des poissons stenohalines soumis a des variations de salinite. Bull, de Clnst. Oceanographique 602, 11 pp 14. RATHBURN, R. {\^9 5) -—Mortality of oysters in Galveston Bay, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1893, pp. 23-26 (Unusually high and unexplained oyster mortality in 1892. Empty shells as compared with an expected yield of 300,000 bushels. Soft mud bottom and unusually low salinity ascribed as causes by author. Also believed that effluent from creosote plant might be responsible but chemical analysis ofwater smelling of creosote taken near oysters showed absence of any poisonous matter.) OXYGEN CHANGES 15. JUENGST, H. {1937)—Fischsterben im Kurischen Haff, Geol. der Meere und Binnengewaesser 1, pp. 3 52-3 54 (Three-quarters of a million dead fish over a distance of 40 kilom¬ eters. Death due to decrease in oxygen plus increase in temperature. Occurred periodically about the end of May.) 16. POWERS, E. B. (1937)— Factors involved in the sudden mortality of fish, Trans, of the Amer. Fish Soc. 67, pp. 271-281 (Fish die at and following daybreak not because of a shortage of oxygen but because of a derangement caused by the blood compen¬ sating first for a high temperature, then a low carbon dioxide tension in the water. Also has excellent bibliography on fresh water fish mass mortality.) 17. WOODBURY, L. A. (1941)^ — A stidden mortality of fishes accompanying a super saturation of oxygen in Lake Waubesa, Wisconsin, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 71, pp. 112-117 (Heavy loss of fish caused by this action. Extremely high oxygen content in surface waters, 30-32 ppm. An algae bloom occurred concurrently, primarily CHLAMYDOMONAS. The large quanti¬ ties of this organism undoubtedly accounted for the extreme un¬ balance of dissolved gases.) 82 The Texas Journal of Science MORTALITY CAUSED BY RAPID CHANGES IN ORGANIC ENVIRONMENT RAPID BLOOMING OF PHYTOPLANKTON GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF OCCURRENCES ATLANTIC OCEAN 18. HART, T. F. (1934) — Red 'hvater bloom” in South African seas, Na¬ ture, CXXXIV, p. 459 19. MARTIN, G. w. AND NELSON, T. c. (1929) — Swarmiug of dinoflagel- lates in Delaware Bay, New Jersey, Bot. Gaz., vol. 8 8, no. 2 20. MEADE, A, D. (1898) — Pcridinium and the ^^red water” of Narragan- sett Bay, Science 8, pp. 707-709 (Mass mortality of fish and shellfish — the latter crawling out of water on any available object such as buoys, piers, pilings, etc., even though air temperatures were abnormally high.) 21. PAULSON, o. (1934) — Red ^^water bloom” in Iceland seas. Nature CXXXIV, p. 974 22. SHERWOODS, G. H. AND EDWARDS, V. H. (1901) — -Red tide in Narra- gansett Bay, Rhode Island, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 21, p. 3 0 23. SMITH, H. M. (1899) — Peridinium as a possible cause of red oysters, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1898, pp. CXXVIII - CXXIX (Peridinium is suggested as a possible cause for the red or "'bloody’* oysters present in Chesapeake Bay in 1895-96. All traces disappeared by the spring of 1897. Indications were given of a similar condition existing about 10 years earlier. No ill effects from eating were ob¬ served.) PACIFIC OCEAN 24. ALLEN, w. E, ( 1933) — Red water in La Jolla Bay in 1933, Science, pp. 12-13 2 5. - ( 193 5 ) — ^'Yellow water” in La Jolla Bay in 193 Y Science, pp. 32 5-326 (No appreciable damage to fish) 26. - - — (1938) — ^^Red ivater” along the tvest coast of the United States in 193 8, Science 8 8, pp. 5 5-56 (The presence of only a score of references to red water over a period of about 20 years in this area is attributed to the fact that it is not always recognized or reported when it occurs.) 27. - - (1941)- — Twenty-year statistical studies of marine plankton dinoflagellates of southern California, Amer. Mid. Nat. 26, pp. 603-635 28. ASAKURA, K. (1910) — -The '^AKASHIO” (red tide) along the coast of Kanagawa Ken (Prefecture), Met. Jour. 29, No. 8, August, p. 23 29. BONNOT, p. AND PHILLIPS, j. B. ( 1938) — Red water, its cause and oc¬ currences, Calif. Fish and Game 24, no, 1, pp. 5 5-59 (Most outbreaks of red water due to dinoflagellates which have multiplied tremendously. Pigments give color, most of these organ¬ isms are luminescent. Shellfish and fish are lost in some instances. In California the genus GONYAULAY is the usual offender and kills mussels. Cooking does not affect potency of poisons and humans have been killed. Removal of internal organs will avert this damage.) A Biblicxsraphy on the Gulf of Mexico 83 30. CLEMENS^ w. A. ( 1 9 3 5 ) — wdtc'ff bloofus^^ in Bfitish Columbiu waters, Nature CXXXV, p. 473 31. DARWIN, c. (in? 1)— Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of countries visited during the voyage of HMS ^Beagle’ round the world under the command of Capt, Fitzroy, K. N., New York, Appleton, 519 pp. (Mentions red water and its effects off Peru and also off Rio Plata in an earlier expedition in 1832.) 32. KOFORD, c. A. (1907)—Dmoflagelkta of the San Diego region, Univ. Calif. PubL ZooL 3, pp. 299-340 (Taxonomic references only) 33^ (l9ll)~~DmoflageUata of the San Diego region, Univ. Calif. PubL ZooL 8, pp. 187-300 (GONYAULA POLYEDRA cause of periodic outbreak of red water along coasts of southern California in middle and late sum¬ mer. ) 34. MIYAKE, K. ( 193 5)— -Conquest of the red tide, the foe of cultivated pearls, Unpublished report (Discussed in private publication by Argus Press, Seattle, written by H. W. Nightingale) 3 5. NiSHiKAWA, T. (1901) —Go7tymdax and discolored water in the Bay of Agu, Annotationes Zoolog., Japan, IV, pt. 1, pp. 31-34 36. SOMMER, H. AND MEYER, K. F. { 193 5 )—~Mussel poisontug, Jour. Calif. and Western Med. 42, June 37. SOMMER, H. ET AL {19 37 ) —Relation of paralytic shellfish poison to certain plankton organisms of the genus GONY AULAX, Arch. Path. 24, pp. 537-5 59 3 8. STREETS, T. H. (1878)— -T/ae discolored water of the Gulf of California, Amer. Nat. 12, pp. 8 5-92 (Describes occurrence and cause; also accounts -of Father Conray of red water in the headwaters of the Gulf in 1721 and 1746.) 39. TORREY, H. B. (1902)-— A« unusuul occurrence of dinoflagellates on the California coast, Amer. Nat. 36, pp. 187-192 (Describes wholesale death of fish and shellfish, and existence of red water for a distance of 200 miles along the coast.) 40. WHiTELEGGE, T. (1891)-~-0« the recent discoloration of the waters of Fort Jackson, Rec. Australian Mus. Sidney 1, pp, 179-192. (Had also occurred in 1866. Fully one-half of fauna in area were killed and oysters and mussels with a few exceptions were killed.) INDIAN OCEAN 41. CHACKO, p. L. (1942)~“A« unusual incidence of mortality of marine fauna, Current Sci, 11, p. 409 (An account of a recent “red tide” outbreak in waters of India) 42. CHIDAMBARAM, K. AND UNNY, M. K. (1944)— A/o/c ON the swarming^ of the planktonic algae, Trichodesmuin eurytheraeum in the Pamhaii area and its effect on the fauna, Current Science 13, p. 263 (Eleven species of fish and crabs in large numbers were asphyxiated following the swarming of algae. Putrefaction and pollution caused by dead algae were additional mortality factors.) 84 The Texas Journal of Science GULF OF MEXICO 43. CARLSON, Y. A. (1908) — Brilliant Gulf waters^ Monthly Weather Re¬ view, 36, pp. 371-372 44. GALTSOFF, p. s. (1948) — Ked Tide. Progress report of the investiga¬ tions of the cause of the mortality of fish along the west coast of Florida conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and co¬ operating organizations. Spec, Sci. Kept. No. 46, 44 pp. (Mimeo¬ graphed), 9 figs. (Multilith) (with about 60 titles in the bibliog¬ raphy) . 45. GUNTER, G. ET AL {\9^7)—Mass mortality of marine animals on the lower west coast of Florida November ’46 - January ’47, Science 105, pp. 256-257 46. - - - — (1947) — Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phytoplankton bloom on the %vest coast of Florida, November, 1946, to Jtme, 1947. (In press) 47. KETCHUM, B. H. AND KEEN, j. (1948) — Unusual Phosphorus concen¬ trations in the Florida red tide sea water. Jour. Mar. Res. 7, nc. 1, pp. 17-21 (Total phosphorus content of water containing dense Gymnodinium population was found to be 2^/4 - 10 times the maximum to be expected at sea. The possibility that upwelling of nutrient-rich, deep-sea water is the explanation of this intense plankton bloom is thereby precluded. It is suggested that future studies of intense plankton blooms include total phosphorus determinations at various depths. The results would differentiate between terrigenous con¬ tamination and swarming of the organisms at the sea surface.) 48. LUND, E. J. ( 193 5 ) — So7ne facts relating to the occurrence of dead and dying fish on the Texas coast during July - August, 193 5, Rept. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm., pp. 47-50 49. WOODCOCK, A. H. (1948) — Note concerning human respiratory irri¬ tation associated with high concentration of plankton and mass mortality of marine organisms. Jour. Mar. Res. 7, no. 1, pp. 56-62 (The symptoms may be produced by breathing air artificially laden with small drops of Gulf of Mexico water containing 56x10® dino- flagellates per liter) MEDITERRANEAN SEA 50. EHRENBERG, (1860) — Meeresleuchten im Gulf von Neapel, Peter- manns Geogr. MitteiL, pp, 192-193 (Describes an occurrence of photoluminescence caused by Peridinium in the Bay of Naples over a wide area) ARCTIC OCEAN 51. BROWN, ROBERT (1868) — Oil the nature of the discoloration of the Arctic Seas, Quart. J. Micr. Sci., voL VIII, pp 240-247 52. MOisENTZONA, T. N, (1939)“ — The seasonal changes in the microplank- ion in the Barents Sea in 193 8, Trans, Kmipovich Polar Sci. Inst, of Sea, Fish and Oceanography IV, pp. 129-147, Moscow and Lenin¬ grad A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 85 THEORETICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO THE ORIGIN OF SUDDEN CHANGES 53. ALLEN, w. E. {192^)—-Quantitative studies on inshore marine diatoms, etc., Bull. Scripps Inst. Ocean., Tech. Ser. 1, pp. 347-3 56 (Includes discussion of red water, pp. 352-355) 54. ANONYMOUS {19 } 4) —Chemicals repulse ravages of red tide. Sci. Amer. 5 5. BRONGERSMA-SANDERS, M. (1947)— O^/ the desirability of a research on certain phenomena in the region of upwelling waters along the coast of southwest Africa, Proc. Acad. Sci., Amsterdam, 50, pp. 659-665 56. COLLINGWOOD, c. {1S68) —Observations on the microscopic algae which causes the discoloration of the sea in varioiis parts of the world, Quart. J. Micr. Sci., N.S. 8, vol. XXX, pp. 8 5-92 57. COPPER, L. H. N. (1938) — Phosphorus in the English Channel 1933- 193 8 with a comparison with the earlier years 1916 and 1923-1932, Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 23, no. 1, pp. 181-195 5 8. DARESTE, CAMILLE ( 18 5 5 ) - — Memohe sur les animalcules et autres corps organisees qtii donnent a la mer une coloetir rouge, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 4, pp. 179-239 59. GUNTER, G. (1941)— A plague of toads, Copeia, 7, p. 266 60. - - - — — - (1942) — Of fat’s Bayou, a locality ^vith a recur¬ rent summer mortality of marine organisms, Amer. Mid. Nat. 28, no. 3, pp. 631-633 (A study of the mortality of marine organisms due to pollution caused by the decay of organic matter.) 61. HORNELL, J. (1917) — A new protozoan cause of widespread mortal¬ ity among marine fishes, Madras Fish. Bull. 11, pp. 53-66 62. NIGHTINGALE, H. w. {1936)- — Red ivater organisms, their occurrence and influence upon marine aquatic animals, Argus Press, Seattle, 24 pp (Contains a review of outbreaks of the red tide starting with 1871) 63. RENN, c. F. (1937)— Bacteria and the phosphorus cycle in the sea, Biol. Bull. 72, no. 2, pp. 190-195 DISCUSSION OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MASS MORTALITY 64. BRONGERSMA-SANDERS, M. (1943)^ — De jaarlijksche Visschenterfte bij Walvisbaai (Zuidwest-Afrika) en haar Beteekenis voor de Paleon- fologie, Overdruk vit Vakblad voor Biologen 24, no. 2, pp. 13-18 65. - - - - — (1945) — The annual fish mortality near Walvis Bay (South-West Africa), and its significance for paleontology, Arch, neerlandaises. Zool. 7, pp. 291-294 66. - - - — — (1948)— importance of tipwelling water to vertebrate paleontology and oil geology. Verhandl. Ron. Neder. Akad. Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurk. Treede Sectie, Deel XLV, no. 4, 1 12 pp. 67. GILCHRIST, J. D. F. (1914) — An enquiry into the fluctuations in fish supply on the South African coast. Mar. Biol. Rep., Cape of Good Hope Mar. Biol. Lab., no. 2, pp. 8-3 5. 1 pi. 86 The Texas Journal of Science 68. GUNTER, G. (1945)- — Some characteristics of ocean waters and the Laguna Madre, Texas Game and Fish 3, pp. 7, 19, 21-22 69. — ^ - {\947)~Catastrophism in the sea and its paleon¬ tological significance, vjith special reference to the Gulf of Mexico, Amer. Jour. Sci. 245, November, pp. 669-676 70. iSELiN, c. o^D. (1939) — Some physical factors that may influence the productivity of New England’s coastal waters. Jour. Marine Re¬ search 2, pp. 74-8 5 71. JORDAN, D. s. (1920)— -A Miocene catastrophe, Natural History 20, pp. 18-22 72. MITCHELL, p. H. AND SALINGER, j. L- (1934)— effects of land drainage upon the excess Eases of sea water, Biol. Bull. 66, pp. 97-101 73. MURPHY, R. c. {\926)— Oceanic and climatic phenomena along the west coast of South America during 192‘), Geogr. Rev. 16, pp. 26-54 74. PIERCE, H. D. ( 1883 )— Aw opinion of the cause of mortality of fishes in the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries 3, p. 332 75. SEARS, M. AND CLARKE, G. L. (1940) — Annual fluctuation in the abundance of marine zooplankton, Biol. Bull. LXXIV, pp. 321-328 (Data from continental shelf water of Cape Cod and Chesapeake Bay indicate that important fluctuations in plankton may occur in relatively undisturbed areas. The changes cannot be correlated di¬ rectly with great environmental changes and therefore must be caused by indirect action of physical and biological forces.) 76. SPANGLER, A. M. (1894) — The decrease of food-fishes in American waters and some of the causes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. XIII, 1893, pp. 21-3 5, also Doc. 239 (Describes a variety of factors including dams, explosives, excess fishing and lists eight suggestions to improve the situation.) 77. WEIGELT, J. (1920)— Vow Sterhen der Wirbeltiere, Festchr. J. Wal- ther, Leopoldina, 6, pp. 181-340 78. - - - - — (1927) — Rezente Wirbeltierleichen und ihre pale- ohiologische Bedeutung, Max Weg, Leipzig, 227 pp., 36 pis. 79. — - - — (1928) — Ganoid fischleichen im Kupferschiefer und in der Gegenwart, Palaeobiologica 1, pp. 324-3 5 5 80. ZELiZKO, J. v. (1934) — Neue belege ueber die Ursachen des Massen- todes rezenten Wirbeltiere, Paleont. Zeitr. 16, nos. 1 and 2, pp. 91-94 (Gives examples of mass killing of fishes by frost, sudden tempera¬ ture changes, poisoning of water, submarine eruptions, etc.) APPENDIX B ADDITIONS TO MASS MORTALITY AND GULF OF MEXICO ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES (Obtained Primarily from he Importance of Lf pwelling Water to \ ertebr ate Paleontology and Oil Geology” by Margaretha Brongersma-Sanders) GULF OF MEXICO ANONYMOUS (ISSl) —Mortality of fish in the Gulf of Mexico. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 8, pp. 23 8-240 DAVIS, c. c. {\94%)—Gymnodinium brevis sp. not., a cause of discolored A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 87 water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz., vol. 109, pp. 3 58-360. (Received too late for full discussion), GALZiER, w. c. w. (1882)- — On the destruction of fish by polluted waters in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U, S. Nat. Mus., (1881) vol. 4, pp. 126-127 INGERSOLL, E. (1882)-— the fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, (1881), pp. 74-80 JEFFERSON, j. p. (1878)— -On the mortality in the Gulf of Mexico in 1878. Proc. U. S, Nat. Mus,, vol. 1, pp. 244-245 MOORE, M. A, (1882)' — Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, (1881), pp. 125-126 PORTER, j. Y. (1882)— O# the destruction of fish by poisonous water in the Gtdf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, (1881) pp. 121-123 SMITH, F. G, WALTON, ^ AL (1947) — Red tide and fish mortality on the Florida west coast. Spec, Service Bull., Un. Miami Mar. Lab., 5 pp WALKER, s. T. (1884)- — Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 6, (1883) pp. 105-109 WEBB, J. G. (1887)— The mortality of fish in the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. U, S. Fish Comm., vol. 6 (1886) pp. 11-13 MASS MORTALITY AiYAR, R. G. (1956)— Mortality of fish on the Madras coast in fune 1935. Curr. Sci. Bangalore, vol. 4, pp. 483-489 ALLEN, w. E. (1942) — Occurrences of ^Ted vjater” near San Diego. Science, vol. 96, p. 471 - - (1946a) — Significance of ^Ted water’^ in the sea. Turtox News, vol. 24, no. 2; also in: Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s., no. 287, 1947 - - - — (1946b) — ^^Red WateT’ in La folia Bay in 1945. Trans. Am, Microscop. Soc., vol. 65, pp. 149-153; also in Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s., no. 283, 1947. ANONYMOUS (1862) — Death of fishes in the sea during the monsoon. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol, 10, p. 320 - - - - - - — (1926) — Massenvernischtung von Nutzfischen an der Suedwestkueste Afrikas. Mitt. Deutschen Seef.-Ver., vol. 42, pp. 24-25 — - — - - — (1947) — The red tide. Time, Weekly Newsmag., Atl. Oversea ed., Aug. 11 ATKINS, w. R. G. (1923) — The phosphate content of fresh and salt waters in its relationship to the growth of algal plankton. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. vol, 13, pp. 119-150 - - — - (1926) — The phosphate content of sea water. III. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., vol. 14, pp. 447-468 BEEBY, THOMPSON, A. (1925)- — Oil- field exploration and development. 1. London, XXIV plus 546 plus (32) pp BRANDT, J. (1929)— Phosphate nnd Stickstoffverbindungen als Minimum- stoffe fur die Produktion im Meere. Rapp. Proc. Verb. Cons. Intern. Copenhague, vol. 5 3, pp. 5-3 5 BRONGERSMA-SANDERS, M. (1944) — Eeu H ^S-bevattend sediment met een hoog organisch gehalte uit open zee. Geologic en Mijnbouw (The Hague), n.s., vol. 6, pp. 57-63 88 The Texas Journal of Science BURTT, j. L. ( 18 52)-— O/? fish destroyed by sulphuretted hydrogen in the Bay of Callac. Am. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, vol. 13, pp. 43 3-434; also in: Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, ( 1852), 1854, pp. 1-2. CARTER, H. J. {IS5S)— Note on the red colouring matter of the sea round the shores of the island of Bombay. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 1, pp. 258-262 CLASSEN, T. H. ( 1 93 0 ) — PmWwcfe Fischsterben in Walvis Bay, South West Africa. Palaeobiologica, vol. 3, pp. 1-13 COPENHAGEN, w. J. {\91)A)—Occtirrence of sulfides in certain areas of the sea bottom of the South African coast. Fisheries and Marine Biol. Surv., Union South Africa, Kept. 6, 11 pp covELL, w. p. AND w. F. WHEDON {1957 ) —Effects of the paralytic shell¬ fish poison on nerve cells. Arch. Pathology, vol. 24, pp. 411-418 DEAN, BASHFORD (1923)— A bibliography of fishes. Pt. 3, New York, 707 PP- DENISON, w. (1862)— O/J the death of fishes during the monsoon off the coast of India. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 18, p. 453 DREVERMANN, F. (1931) — Ein jahrelich wiederholtes Massensterben von Eischen und seine Bedeutung. Natur u. Museum, vol. 61, pp. 468-474 FITCH, c, p. ET AL (1934) — W aterbloom as a cause of poisoning in do¬ mestic animals. Cornell Veterinarian, vol. 24, pp. 30-39 FORBES, c. ( 18 58)-- "Ow a quantity of crabs thrown up on the beach in Payta Bay. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 14, p. 294 FRANCIS, G. {1S7S)— Poisonous Ati^stralian Lake. Nature, vol. 18, pp. 11-12. FRITSCH, F. E. (1936) — The problems presented by the algal popidation. Abstr. Comm. sec. Int. Congress Microbiology London, pp. 114-115 .GiLLAM, w. G. (1925)— The effect on livestock of water contaminated with fresh water algae. Journ. Am. Vet. Med. Ass., n.s., vol. 20, pp. 780-784 GLENNAN, A. H. (1887) — -Fish killed by poisoned water. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., voi. 6 (1886) pp. 10-11 HALTERMANN, H. (1898) — Ueber gelbe Wasserbluthe des Meeres (Tricho- desmium). Ann. Hydro, mar. Met., vol. 26, pp. 302-311 HARDY, A. c. (1936) — Plankton ecology and the hypothesis of animal ex¬ clusion. Proc. Linn. Soc., London, Sess. 148, pp. 64-70 HiRASAKA, R. (1922) — On a case of discolored sea water. Annot. Zool. Japan, vol. 10, pp. 161-164 KOCH, H. J. {195S)—Verlammende ver gif tinging door mosselen. Arch. Soc. Gen. Hyg., Tijdsch. Path. Phys. Arbeid, no. 0, pp. 796-80 5 - - — - - — - (1939) — La cause des empoisonnements paralytiques provoques par les moides. Comptes Rend. Ass. franc, av. sc., 63 me session, pp. 654-657 LEES, G. M. {1957)— ''Black sea'’ conditions in the Arabian Sea. Bull. Am. Ass. Petr. GeoL, vol. 21, pp. 1579-15 82 LiNDEMANN, E. (1926) — Massensterben von Fischen infolge einer Hoch- prodnktion von Panzer geissUngen (Peridineen) . K. Mitt. Mitgl. Ver. Wasservers. Abwasserbes. (Berlin), vol. 2, pp. 113-119 M., E., (1908) — Schwefellhaltige Eruptionen auf See. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met., vol. 36, pp. 180-181 MEYER, K. F. (1931) — Newer knowledge on bohdism and mussel poison¬ ing. Am. Journ. Publ. Health, vol. 21, pp. 762-770 A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 89 MICHAEL, E. L. ( 1921 ) —Effect of upwelUng water tipon the organic fer¬ tility of the sea in the region of Southern California. Spec. Publ. Bernice P. Bishop Mus,, vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 5 5 5-595. Also in: Proc. First Pan Pac. Sci. Congress 1921, pp. 5 5 5-595 MiYAjiMA, j. (1934) — La question de I’eau rouge, un peril pour les huitres perlieres. Bull. Soc. Centr. Agriculture Peche, vol. 41, pp. 97-110 MONTAGUE, c. ( 1833 ) — Sur le phenomene de la coloration des eaux de la mer rouge. Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, Bot., vol. 2, pp. 3 32-362 NELSON, N. p. B. {19 Olt)— Observations tipon some algae which cause ^^Water Bloom.” Minn. Bot. Studies, ser. 3, vol. 1, pp. 51-56 OTTERSTROM, C. V. AND E. STEERMANN NIELSEN (1940) — -TwO caseS of extensive mortality caused by the flagellate Prymnesium parvum, Carter. Kept. Danish Biol. Sta., vol. 44 (1939) pp. 1-24 PIERCE, H. D. (1884)- — Notes on the bluefish, mortality of Florida fishes, etc. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., vol. 4, pp. 263, 266 PORTER, E. M. (1886) — Investigation of supposed poisonous vegetation in the waters of some of the lakes of Minnesota. Fourth Bien. Rep. Board Reg. Univ. Minnesota, Suppl. 1, pp. 9 5-96 PRINZMETAL, M., H. SOMMER, AND c. D. LEAKE (1932) — The pharmacologi¬ cal action of mussel poisoning. Journ. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap., vol. 46, pp. 63-73 REUNiNG, E. (1925) — Gediegen Schwefel in der Justenzone Suedwestafrikas. Centralbl. Min. Geol. Pal., Sect. A., pp. 86-94 RILEY, G. A. {I9't>7)—The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Journ. Mar. Research, vol. 1, pp. 60-74 SCHNAKENBECK, w. (1930)' — -Ucber die Ursachen der grossen Fischsterben an der sudwestafrikanischen Kueste. Fischerbote, vol. 22, pp. 408-410 SEYDEL, E. (1913)— Fischsterben durch Wasserblute. Mitt. Fischerei-Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, n.s., vol. 5, pp. 87-91 SOMER, H. AND K. F. MEYER {1937 ) —Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Arch. Pathology, vol. 24, pp. 5 61-598 STAPFF, F. M. (1887) — Das imtere Khuisebthal und sein Strand gebiet . Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, vol. 14, pp. 45-66 STRODTMANN, s. (1898) — Ueber die vermeinte Schaedlichkeit der Wasser¬ blute. Fbrschungsber. Biol. Stat. Plon. vol. 6, pp. 206-212 TAYLOR, H. F. {1919) —Mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, and Fisheries, (1917), app. 3, 24 pp WALDRON, F. w. (1901)— O;? the appearance and disappearance of a mud island at Walfish Bay. Trans. South Afr. Phil. Soc., vol. 11, pp. 185-188 WHITLEGGE, T. (1891)-^ — On the organism discolouring the waters of Port Jackson. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 144-147 WILHELM, G. o. {1932)— Das massensterben von Tintenfischen in der Bucht von Talcahuano. Atti 11th Cong. Int. Zool. Padova 1930, vol. 1, pp. 334-339 GVLF OF MEXICO (Obtained primarily from "An Annotated Bibliography For The Student of Texas Fishes and Fisheries With Material on the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea” by J. L. Baughman, Chief Marine Biologist, Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, An extremely 90 The Texas Journal of ScmNCE comprehensive compilation of more than 1,000 references containing many taxonomic as well as ecological items,) ALEXANDER, A. B. (1905) — Statistics of the fisheries of the Gulf States^ 1902. Kept, U, S. Comm, of Fisheries 29, pp. 411-481. The Texas statistics are broken down on pp. 474-481. ANONYMOUS (1939) — Move to solve Lagiina Madre problem. Monthly Bull, Texas Fish, Game and Oyster Comm. 2 (10), p. 2, 6. (Passes to be dredged into the Laguna Madre.) - - - (1939) — Fisheries of Texas. Fishery Market News 1 (11): 9, Red snapper catches were poor because of bad weather. Better than average shrimp catches were reported up till October 15 although the 1939 run was later than usual. Early season re¬ ports indicate a fair take of oysters. - (1940) — Dredge operation cost on the lower coast. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 3 (10): 5. Cost of passes in the Laguna Madre. - - - (1941) — CtUting of Murdock Landing pass under¬ way. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, F’ish and Oyster Comm. 4 (2): 1. Laguna Madre. - - - (1941)- — Third salt water pass opened. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 4 (7): 1, 8. Laguna Madre. BAUGHMAN, j. L. (1947) — The Florida red tide. Texas Game and Fish 5 (12): 6, 20. Texas once had similar occurrence. - (1947) — Fisheries in Texas. Southern Fisherman 7 (3): 180-181, 254. Discusses the history and present abundance of the commercial fisheries of Texas. - - (1947) — New marine laboratory at Kockport, Texas, Southern Fisherman 7 (7): 28, 108-109, 113-115. - (1947) — A census of Texas waters. Texas Game and Fish 5 (2): 16-17, 19-20. - - (1947)0// exploration in Texas waters. Southern Fish¬ erman 7 (4): 107-109. Effect of seismographic exploration on shrimp and fish. - - — (1947) — Seismographic shots harm fish little, tests indi¬ cate. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. July 11, 1947: 6. - - — - (1946) — An interesting association of fishes. Copeia 1946 (4): 263. 23 species of marine and fresh water fishes found in one rice field canal near Barbour’s Hill. - - - — (1943)— T/ac Lutianid fishes of Texas. Copeia 1943 (4): 212-215 .Lutianus griseus, L. jocu, L. campechanus, L. ay a, L. black- fordii, L. analis, L. synagris, and Rhomboplites aurortibens, with a bibliography of 21 titles. BOYD, w. \v. ( 1938) — Coastal operations. Ann. Kept. Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. Texas Fiscal year ending Aug. 31, 1938: 25-40. Oysters, Laguna Madre, shrimp, hydrology of the bays, coastal catch. BREDER, c. M., JR. (1929) — Field book of marine fishes on the Atlantic coast from Labrador to T exas. G. P. Putman’s Sons, N. Y. i-xxxviii, 1-332, num. figs. 10 black and white plates and 18 in color. BURKENROAD, MARTIN D, (19?> 1) —Notes on sound producing fishes of La. Copeia 1931 (1): 20-28. A number of the common species of Gulf coast fish are capable of producing sounds, among them Syngnathus A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 91 loMisianae, Logodon rhomboides, Chloroscombrm chrysurnsy Zorich- thys pomshsimus, Vomer setipinnh, Caranx hippos, Opsamis sp., Spoeroides sp., the sciaenids, Hyporhampus, Prionotus and Chaeto- dipterus. This paper is a full and good discussion of this interesting phenomenon. Contains no Texas material, although practically all species discussed appear in Texas waters. BURR, j. G, {\9 !>())-—¥ ear book on Texas conservation of wildlife. Von- Boeckmann-Jones, Austin: 1-110, num. ill. Coastal fisheries, Laguna Madre, oysters, frsh water mussels, state fish hatcheries, garfish control by electricity, turtles. A popular account of the work of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. - — — - — — - — {19 i I )— -Electricity as a means of garfish and carp control. Trans, Amer. Fisheries Society. 46: 174-181. A rather ex¬ tensive series of experiments on the control of gar by shocking them with an electrical current met with some success, but was discon¬ tinued for various reasons. - — — - - {1941)— Green Lake. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 4 (13): 12. Fresh and salt water periods in the life of Green Lake. — — - - - — {1942)— Salinity of rivers in West Texas. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 5 (5): 8. - — - — — - — {1942)— Fresh water line on rivers defined. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 5 (7) : 3. - — — - — {1945)— Nature wins. Texas Game and Fish 3 (10): 4, 16-17, 2 5. Failure of Laguna Madre passes and increase of salin¬ ity in that body of water. CARSON, RACHEL L. {1944)— Fish and shellfish of the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Conservation Bull. U. S. Dept. Int., Office of the Co¬ ordinator of Fisheries, 37: 1-45, 21 figs, and bibliography of 24 titles. Number of species in commercial catch of Texas (1940) with data on landings, men and gear. CARY, L. R. (1907)— A preliminary study of the conditions for oyster cul- ] ture in the waters of Terrebonne Parish, La. Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 9: 62 pp COLBY, MALCOLM, JR, (1943) — Poisonous marine animals in the Gulf of Mexico. Trans, Texas Academy of Science 26: 62-70. FARis, ORVILLE A. (1933) — The silt load of Texas streams. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. 3 82: 1-71, figs. An excellent piece of work on a geological factor that must be taken into account by the marine biologists. GOWANLOCH, JAMES NELSON (1932)- — Sea fishes and sea fishing in Louisi¬ ana. Bull. La. Dept, Conserv. 21: 1-87, num. text figs. An excellent treatise on the fishes of Louisiana and hence of the Gulf Coast. Of great value to any student of Texas fishes. GROVER, N. c. {1930)— Sttrf ace water supply of the U. S., 1926. Pt. 8, Western Gulf of Mexico basins. U. S. G. S. Water Supply Paper 628: 1-207, illus. - — — - ( 193 1 )—S^^r/^irc water supply of the U. S., 1928. Pt. 8. Western Gulf of Mexico basins. U. S. G, S. Water Supply Paper 668: 1-123, illus. HIGGINS, ELMER (1927) — Progress in biological inquiries, 1926. Doc. 1029, 92 The Texas Journal of Science App. Vir, Kept, of U. S, Comm, of Fisheries 1927: 517-681. Con¬ tains considerable material on Texas oyster reefs and fisheries, this last by John C. Pearson, p. 627. JONES, R. A. (1928) — Evidence for recent uplift on Gulf of Mexico, (Texas coast). Oil and Gas Jour. 26 (46): 82, 115-116, 118, 121-22, 125-26, 129; 5 figs. LUND, E. j. AND A. H. wiEBE (1936) — Unique distribution of littoral habi¬ tats for oceanographic studies on the Gulf. Proc. Texas Academy Science 19:23, abstract. Discusses territory about Aransas Pass from the standpoint of the establishment of a biological station. MASON, SHIRLEY L. ET AL (1939) — Datum plains for contouring the Gulf coast region. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 23 (9): 1404-1411. NAGLE, j. c. (1902) — -Second progress report on silt measurements. U. S. Dept. Agric. Off. Expt. Sta. Bull. 119: 365-392, illus. ■ - - - - ( 1902)— Progress report on silt measurements. U. S. Dept. Agric., Off. Expt. Sta. Bull. 104: 293-324, illus. ■ — - Third progress report on discharge and silt measurements of Texas streams. U. S. Dept. Agric., Off. Expt. Sta. Bull. 133: 196-217, illus. o’malley, h. (1926) — Report of the Commissioner. Doc. 1002, Kept, of U. S. Comm, of Fisheries 1926: I-XIV. A survey of the oyster beds of the Texas coast was made from December to March. Biological and hydrographical observations were carried on from Galveston to Corpus Christi in many bays and sounds that indent the coast. PRICE, w. A. (1936) — Hurricanes, deltas and resacas. Proc. and Trans. Texas Acad. Sci. 19: 30-31. - - - - GORDON GUNTER (1943)- — Why Laguna Madre is drying up. Texas Game and Fish 1 (5): 14, 17. Geological change. RADER, JESSE L. (1947) — South of Forty. From the Mississippi to the Rio Grande. A bibliography. Univ. Okla. Press, Norman, I-XI, 1-3 3 6. To any student of Texas natural history, and particularly to those in¬ terested in early Texas, this bibliography is invaluable, listing as it does a tremendous mass of early publications on the state, many of which abound in references to fish and game. WHITTEN, H. L. AND H. F. ROSENE (1946) — An ecological study of the fauna of the government ]etties of the Texas Gulf coast. (Abst.) Anat. Rec. 94: 392. MASS MORTALITY ANONYMOUS (1938)- — Laguna Madre a death trap. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, F'ish and Oyster Comm. 1 (9): 1, 4. High salinity in the Laguna Madre kills many fish. - - — (1940) — Along Texas’ great outdoor trails. Monthly Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 3 (6): 6. Rio Grande perch killed by cold; catfish swallows snake. - ( 18 8 5 ) - — Fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico. Report U. S. Comm, of Fisheries. 11: Ixix. Northers on the coast of Texas. BAUGHMAN, J. L. (1947) — Large fish loss from Texas freeze. Southern Fisherman 7 (5): 114-117. Mortality in the Laguna Madre. — - (1947) — A hunter’s dream. Texas Game and Fish 5 (8): 4, 2 5. Fishing about Galveston in 1840. Death of fish in Texas bays due to cold. The Biotic Provinces of Texas 93 BURR^ j. G. {l9A5)Scknce tackles a mystery. Texas Game and Fish 3 (9) I 4, 24-2). Poisoned water off the Texas coast, probably due to a volcanic eruption. (1944)— tragedy on the Concho- River. Texas Game and Fish 2 (12) : 19. Fish killed by sewage from San Angelo. JOHNSON^ s. H. Notes on the mortality among fishes of the Gulf of Mexico-. Proceedings U. S. National Museum 4: 205. Speaks of loss of fish in the Laguna Madre at Corpus Christi due to drop in salin¬ ity, or to cold, THE BIOTIC PROVINCES OF TEXAS W. Frank Blair Department of Zoology University of Texas INTRODUCTION Texas contains an enormous diversity of environments for plant and animal life. The distribution of these environments is controlled generally by climatic conditions, and it is also controlled locally by topographic factors. The north-south line dividing the continent into regions of mois¬ ture sufficiency and moisture deficiency passes through central Texas. Avail¬ able moisture consequently has a major influence on the distribution of plant and animal life in the state. Swamps and mesic forests, with associated moisture-dependent animals, occur in extreme eastern Texas, where rainfall is about 50 inches per year. Desert vegetation and associated drought- resistant animals exist at El Paso, where annual rainfall averages less than nine inches. Temperature also plays an important role in the distribution of plants and animals in the state. There is an enormous change in plant and animal species from subtropical Brownsville on the Rio Grande, where plant growth continues throughout the year and where the average annual tem¬ perature is 73.2° F., to Amarillo in the Texas Panhandle, where the grow¬ ing season averages only 197 days and where the average annual tempera¬ ture is only 56.5° F. Physiographic features such as scarps, plateaus, plains, mountains and drainage systems also influence plant and animal distribution and tend to complicate what might otherwise be a fairly simple pattern of distribution. An orderly classification of the state into regions in which environ¬ ments for animal life are relatively uniform and in which, consequently, the fauna is approximately uniform is essential for the interpretation of the facts of animal ecology and distribution in the state, Bailey (1905) at¬ tempted the first such classification, when he mapped the life zones of Texas. This is not a satisfactory system, because it is based largely on temperature and because it ignores other ecological factors. Under this system, the lower Rio Grande Valley, the eastern Panhandle, and the des¬ erts of the Trans-Pecos are placed in the same life zone. Such diverse regions as Kerr County on the Edwards Plateau, the HuecO' Mountains of the Trans-Pecos, and the high plains of the Panhandle are placed together in another life zone. Such a system obviously is not descriptive of animal distribution and ecology in Texas and has little meaning here. Texas was divided into biotic provinces by Dice (1943) who mapped the general' distribution of the biotic provinces of North America. A biotic 94 The Texas Journal of Science province, according to Dice’s definition, is, "... a considerable and continuous geographic area and is characterized by the occurrence of one or more ecologic associations that differ, at least in proportional area cov¬ ered, from the associations of adjacent provinces. In general, biotic provinces are characterized also by peculiarities of vegetation type, ecological climax, flora, fauna, climate, physiography, and soil.” Dice’s map of the provinces of North America is actually based largely on the distribution of vegetation types, because many of the factors for an adequate classification are un¬ known for many parts of North America. My concept of a biotic province agrees with that of Dice (1943). The present report attempts to fix the boundaries of the biotic provinces of Texas more accurately than was done by Dice in his general report dealing with the provinces of the entire continent. The distribution and classification of biotic provinces in the state are examined in the light of the distribution of topographic features, climate, vegetation types, and terrestrial vertebrates exclusive of birds. Our classification and delimitation of the biotic areas of Texas agrees in general with Dice’s classification, but a few changes are indicated by the material now at hand. The task at hand is much facilitated by the very considerable amount of work that has been done on the distribution of vegetation types in Texas. Bray (1901, 1905 and others) pioneered in this work. Carter (1931) mapped the distribution of vegeta'tion types in conjunction with a soil survey of the state. Tharp (1939) likewise mapped the distribution of the vegeta¬ tion of Texas. Surveys of the vegetation of more restricted areas in the state by various workers are also available. Completion of this report was made possible by a grant from the Research Institute of the University of Texas. Mr. W. A. Thornton served as research assistant on the present project. Various other of my students, including particularly W. K. Clark, A. G. Flury, D. L. Jameson, W. H. McCarley, C. E. Miller, Jr., W. W. Milstead, H. W. Phillips, F’. E. Potter, Jr., and C. L. York, have aided materially in gathering much of the material on which the present report is based. I am especially indebted to my col¬ league, B. C. Tharp, for his untiring patience in identifying plants from various parts of the state. BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TEXAS Three major biotas are represented in Texas. This was recognized by Cope (1880) who distinguished in the state a "Sonoran” fauna, an Austro- riparian fauna and a Neotropical fauna. The first two belong to the Nearctic realm, the last represents the Neotropical realm. The Sonoran fauna of Cope is the fauna of the arid southwestern United States and Mexican tableland. Heteromyid and other sciuromorph rodents predominate among the mammals. Lizards and snakes are repre¬ sented by numerous species. Land turtles and urodele amphibians are scarce. The anurans are mostly species of the genera Btifo and Scaphiopjis, the best adapted groups of anurans for existence under arid conditions. The plants are adapted to existence under conditions of severe moisture deficiency. This biota is well-represented in Texas in the Chihuahuan and Navahonian biotic provinces of the Trans-Pecos. In modified composition this biota is represented also in the Kansan province of northwestern Texas. The Austroriparian fauna of Cope is characteristic of the mesic forests The Biotic Provinces of Texas 95 blanketing the Gulf coastal plain from extreme eastern Texas to the At¬ lantic. Heteromyid rodents are lacking, and cricetines predominate. Snakes are well represented, but lizards are comparatively few. Land turtles are more numerous than in the Sonoran fauna. The urodeles are represented by numerous species. The anurans are well represented by ranids and hylids, which predominate. The plants are mostly adapted to ample or excess mois¬ ture. This biota is well represented in the Austroriparian province of eastern Texas. The Neotropical fauna extends northward along the eastern coast of Mexico and reaches Texas in the lower valley of the Rio Grande. It extends northward in progressively dilute form in the brushlands of the Rio Grande plain. The Tamaulipan province of southern Texas has a biota that is a Neotropical one with a strong dilution of Sonoran and Austroriparian spe¬ cies. Several Neotropical genera of mammals, snakes, lizards and urodeles reach the northern limits of their distribution in this province. A great area in central Texas, from the Pecos on the west to the western boundary of the Austroriparian forest on the east, is principally a region of transition between the Sonoran and Austroriparian biotas. In this area the two major biotic elements intermix or interdigitate, and Tew primarily Netotropical species enter the area. Two biotic provinces, the Balconian and Texan, are recognized in this transition area, and the Mes¬ quite Plains district of the Kansan province is similarly a transitional area. Several obvious factors influence the distribution of plants and animals in the transitional area, or giant ecotone, that comprises much of the area of Texas. These factors are principally edaphic or physiographic ones. Austroriparian species may be expected to range westward in this area wherever local conditions result in a more mesic environment than the regional average. Western species may be expected to occur eastward in this area where local conditions produce a more xeric environment than the regional average. Dispersal routes are areas of favorable environment for the species that utilize them. The stream systems of Texas provide important routes for the westward distribution of Austroriparian species into comparatively arid, generally treeless environments. The major streams of the state drain eastward or southeastward, and most of them enter or approach the border of the Austroripanian province. The deep, alluvial soils of the stream flood- plains, with their greater supply of moisture for plant growth than is available on the adjacent uplands, support hardwood forests as far west as the Pecos. Some Austroriparian species of plants and animals extend west¬ ward in Texas in these wooded stream valleys into regions that are occu-' pied principally by grasslands. Some Austroriparian species such as the ground skink (Leiolophma later ale) and the fox squirrel (Sciuriis niger) extend westward in the stream-valley forests as far as the Pecos. Others range lesser distances into the broad transition area between humid Austro¬ riparian forest and arid Chihuahuan desert, and some species fail to range westward beyond the limits of the Austroriparian. Rock outcrops on dissected plateaus and on escarpments provide ave¬ nues for the dispersal of saxicolous species. The white-throated packrat (Neotoma alhigula) , which is a characteristic Chihuahuan province species, ranges northward along the rocky escarpment of the high plains. The rock squirrel (Citellus variegafus) , a characteristic Chihuahuan species, ranges 96 The Texas Journal of Science eastward on the exposed limestones of the Balconian province but is absent from the plains of the Kansan province to the north and the Tamaulipan province to the south. Other saxicolous species with a similar pattern of distribution include: the plated lizard (Gerrhonotus liocephalus) ^ barking frog (Eleutherodactylus latrans) and another leptodactylid frog (Syrrhophns marnockii) . Different species of the last have been recognized in the Chi- huahuan and Balconian provinces, but present material indicates the two populations are probably conspecific. The coastal prairie, bordering the Gulf coast, provides an avenue for the exchange of species between the Austroripanian and the Tamaulipan provinces. Due to proximity to the coast, ecological conditions change more gradually from east to west in this coastal strip than they do farther inland. The pygmy mouse (Baiomys taylori) , a Tamaulipan species, extends along this coastal strip into the Austroriparian of eastern Texas. The horned- toad CPhrynosoma cormitnm) follows this strip into Jefferson county in southeastern Texas. The little shrew (Cryptoth parva), rice rat (Oryzomys palustris), green tree-frog (Hyla cinerea) , and others follow this strip from the Austroriparian to the Tamaulipan. Soil types play an important direct, as well as indirect, role in the distribution of vertebrates in the state. Several species are closely re¬ stricted to sandy soils, and their distribution follows the pattern of dis¬ tribution of these soils. The relationship between the distribution of sandy soils and the eastern pocket gophers (Geomys) in Texas has been discussed by Davis (1940b). The distribution of the moles (Scalopus aquaticns) in relation to sandy soils has been discussed by Davis (1942). These arenicolous mammals, with Austroriparian affinities, range far westward in Texas on deep sands in the Kansan and Tamaulipan biotic provinces, but they fail to extend westward on the thin clay soils of the Edwards Plateau. The mountain pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae), which seems to prefer thin, rocky soils, ranges eastward from the Chihuahuan province onto the Ed¬ wards Plateau of the Balconian province. The kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordit) ranges eastward on sandy soils of the Kansan and Tamaulipan, but this species is absent from the thin, tight soils of the Edwards Plateau. Environments that are beyond the limits of preference or of tolerance of a species constitute barriers to the distribution of that species. Tail-grass prairies of the Texan province are barriers to the westward distribution of forest-inhabiting Austroriparian species. These grasslands isolate at present the endemic urodele fauna of the Balconian province from the Austro¬ ripanian fauna from which the Balconian fauna ultimately originated. Where marked physiographic changes are lacking, the environments for animal life change gradually in conjunction with gradual climatic changes. Abrupt physiographic changes coupled v/ith changes in climate result in abrupt changes in the flora and fauna. The Balcones fault line, marking the eastern and southern boundary of the Edwards Plateau is a striking example of this type of barrier. The elevated, dissected limestones of the plateau change abruptly at this line to the comparatively level coastal plain. The escarpment itself is not a barrier, of course. It is the environments on each side of the escarpment that act as barriers to the respective biotas. The role of this escarpment in limiting distribution of the reptiles and am¬ phibians has been discussed by Smith and Buechner (1947). This escarp¬ ment is equally effective in limiting the distribution of some species of The Biotic Provinces of Texas 97 mammals. The saxicolous rock squirrel and brush mouse (Peromyscus pec- taralis) extend eastward to live on the escarpment itself at Austin but fail to extend onto the plains to the east. The Pecos River has long been regarded as an important barrier to plant and animal distribution. The Pecos is no physical barrier, and there is no abrupt physiographic change at the river. The change from Chihuahuan to Balconian flora and fauna actually appears to take place in a strip that may be from 50 to 100 miles wide. The principal barrier here appears to be climatic, and it is remarkable that a change of such magnitude takes place in such a narrow strip. Interdigitation and intermixing of faunas are distinct biogeographic phenomena, and both are important in the transitional areas of Texas. Interdigitation occurs where, due to local, edaphic differences, very different ecological associations may exist in the same area. The extension of Austro- riparian species westward along the stream valleys results in the interdigi¬ tation of this faunal element with grassland faunas in central and western Texas. The Austroriparian species are limited to the wooded stream valleys; western, grassland species occupy the adjacent uplands. Interdigitation is a common phenomenon in the Texan province, where Austroriparian species tend to occupy the oak-hickory forests on sandy soils, and western, grass¬ land species tend to occupy the prairies on clay soils. Intermixing of faunas occurs where, due to intermediate ecological conditions, elements of different faunas intermingle to form distinctive ecological associations. This is illustrated strikingly in the southern part of the Tamaulipan province, where the eastern mole (Scalopus aquatints) an Austroriparian species, the spiny rat (Liomys irroratus) a Tamaulipan spe¬ cies, and the kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) a Chihuahuan species, all occur in the same ecological association. Both interdigitation and intermix¬ ing may occur in the same region. biotic provinces in TEXAS Seven biotic provinces are here recognized within the boundaries of Texas. This is the same number of provinces that Dice (1943) recognizes in the state. Six of the provinces are given the names proposed by Dice and the general location of these areas is the same as mapped by Dice. One of Dice’s provinces, the Comanchian, seems too heterogeneous for recognition as a single province. The northern part of this area is here included in the Kansan province of northwestern Texas. The southern part is considered to be a distinct province, the Balconian. Subdivisions of biotic provinces, distinguished by lesser ecological dif¬ ferences than distinguish provinces, are called biotic districts (Dice, 1943). No attempt is made here to delimit all of the districts in the biotic provinces of Texas, as the necessary information is not available. Such districts as are known are discussed in the following account of the biotic provinces. Both biotic provinces and biotic districts are distinguished by their ecological associations. As defined here an ecological association is a rela¬ tively stable assemblage of plants and animals regardless of the stage of ecological succession. Distributional data on terrestrial vertebrates used in the following discussion are based on specimens in the Texas Natural History Collection at the University of Texas and on literature records from the following 98 The Texas Journal of Science publications: Bailey (1905), Bishop (1947), Brown (1948), Schmidt and Davis (1944), Smith (1946), Taylor and Davis (1947), Wright and Wright (1949), unless otherwise credited. In the following accounts, species of vertebrates of particular interest because of their faunal affinities and the common species are listed by name for each province. The best available estimate of the number of species of each vetebrate group in each province is given, but there seems no point in listing all of these here by name. AUSTRORIPARIAN The Austroriparian province, as limited by Dice (1943), includes the Gulf coastal plain from the Atla^ntic -tn eastern Texas. The western boun¬ dary of this province in Texas is approximated by a line running north from western Harris County to western Red River County, This province extends across the Red River into extreme southeastern Oklahoma to include the Mississippi biotic district of Blair and Hubbell (1938). The Ouachita district of these authors ( op. cit.) is here considered a well-marked district of the Carolinian province, although Dice (1943) placed this district in the Austroriparian. The western boundary of the Austroriparian is the Approximate boundaries of biotic provinces in Texas, Oklahoma and parts of adjacent states. The Biotic Provinces of Texas 99 western boundary of the main body of the pine and hardwood forests of the eastern Gulf coastal plain. The boundary is somewhat arbitrary, as there is no physiographic break to limit the westward extension of the southeastern forest. The characteristic ecological associations of the Austro- riparian extend beyond this boundary in some local, edaphically favorable areas. The pine and hardwood forest of the Austroriparian is limited on the west by available moisture. This limit approximates the boundary estab¬ lished by Thornthwaite (1948) between his type Bi (humid) and Ci (moist, subhumid) climates. In the Bi climate there is a moisture surplus index of 20 to 40 per cent. The vegetation of the Austroriparian in Texas is comprised of the same species of hardwoods and pines that characterize this province east¬ ward to the Atlantic. Tharp (1939) recognizes two vegetational regions, the long-leaf pine and the pine-oak forest regions, within the Austroriparian of Texas. A third one of Tharp’s vegetational regions, the coastal prairie, extends into the Austroriparian along the margin of the Gulf of Mexico. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) is the principal dominant in the southeastern part of this province in Texas. Much of this forest has been cut over and repeatedly burned. Much of this cutover land is occupied by a serai com¬ munity characterized by sweetgum ( Liquid ambar styraciflua) , postoak (Qtiercus stellata), blackjack (Quercus marilandica) and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) (see Tharp, 1925). The pine-oak forest occurs to the west and north of the longleaf pine forest. Tharp (op.cit.) lists the major dominants as loblolly pine (Pirius taeda) , yellow pine (Pinus echinata), red oak (Quercus rubra), postoak and blackjack oak. Hardwood forests on lowlands in the southeastern part of the Austro¬ riparian of Texas are characterized by such trees as: sweetgum, magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) , tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica), water oak {Quercus nigra) and various other species of oaks, elms and ashes. Swamps are com¬ mon in this province, and they are most conspicuous in the southern part of the area in the "Big Thicket” region, which centers in Hardin County. Two plants highly characteristic of the Austroripanian are the Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneiodes) and the palmetto (Sabal glabra). The vertebrate fauna of the Austroriparian of Texas is, with few ex¬ ceptions, the typical fauna of the Austroriparian to the east. At least 47 species of mammals occur in this province in Texas or have occurred there in recent times. At least 29 species of snakes, 10 lizards, two land turtles, 17 anurans, and 18 urodeles are knov/n from the Austroriparian of Texas. Five Austroriparian species of m.ammals, including Dasypterus flori- danus, Keithrodontomys humilis, Peromyscus gossypinus, Peromyscus nuttalli and Microtus ludovicianus, apparently reach their western limits in this province in eastern Texas. Two snakes, Car pho phis amoena and Matrix rigid a, apparently reach westerp .limits here. Eight species of urodeles, in¬ cluding Necturtts beyeri, AinpJnuma means, Ambystoma maculatum, Arnby- stoma talpoidetun, Ambystoma opacum, T>esmognathus fuscus, Eurycea longicauda and Mancultts qtiadridigitatus, and four species of anurans, Hyla femoralis, Hyla crucifer, Rana palustris and Rana grylio, appear to be limited in Texas to this province. Common mammals of thp Austroriparian of Texas include: Did el phis virginiana, Scalopus aquatictis,^^Pipistrellus subflavtis, Lasiurus borealis. 100 The Texas Journal of Science Sciurus niger, Scmrtis carolinensis, Glaucomys volam, Geomys brevicepSy Keithrodontomys fulvescens, Peromyscus leucopus, Oryzomys, palustris, Sigmodon hhpidm, Neotoma floridana, Syhilagus floridanus and SylvHagus aquaticus. Two species, Dasypus novemcinctus and Baiomys taylori, repre¬ sent elements of the subtropical fauna of northeastern Mexico. Two land turtles, Terrapene Carolina and Terra pene ornata, are com¬ mon to this province. Common lizards are: Anolis carolinensis, Sceloporus imdidatus, Leiolopisma later ale, Eumeces laticeps, Cnemidophorm sexlinea- tus and Ophiosaurus ventralis. Representative snakes include: Opheodrys aestiviis. Coluber constrictor, Coluber flagellum, Elaphe obsoleta, Lampro- peltis getulus, Natix sipedon, Natrix erythrogaster, Natrix rhombifera, Sforeria dekayi, Thamnophis sauritus, Micrurus fulvius, Agkistrodon mok~ asen, Agkistrodon piscivortis and Crotalus borridus. The urodele fauna of the Austroriparian is the richest of any province in the state with 13 species. Representative species in addition to those restricted to the province include: Triturus viridescens, Ambystoma taxan- um, and Siren intermedia. Common anurans include: Scaphiopus holbrookii, Bufo valliceps, Bufo woodhousii, Acris gryllus. Pseud acris nigrita, Hyla versicolor, Hyla cinerea, Hyla squirrella, Kan a catesbeiana. Ran a clamitans, Rana pipiens and Microhyla carolinensis. TEXAN The term Texan province has been used by Dice (1943) for the broad ecotone between the forests of the Austroriparian and Carolinian provinces of eastern Texas and Oklahoma and the grasslands of the western parts of these states. The southwestern boundary of this province is here fixed arbi¬ trarily by soil type at the line separating pedalfers from pedocals. The Balcones escarpment forms an abrupt western boundary for the central part of this province in Texas. The western boundary in north Texas is here considered to correspond to the western boundary of the Western Cross Timbers. Rainfall in the Texan province is barely in excess of water need, and the region is classified by Thornthwaite (1948) as a C2 (moist subhumid) climate, with a moisture surplus index of from zero to 20 per cent. The vegetation of this area has been described in detail by Tharp (1926). Edaphic controls on vegetation types are very important in this area which is located near the borderline between moisture surplus and moisture deficiency. Sandy soils support an oak-hickory forest in which the principal dominants are post oak (Quercus stellata) , blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) and hickory (Carya huckleyi) . Clay soils originally supported a tail-grass prairie, but much of this soil type has been put into cultivation. Dominants of the tail-grass prairie are listed by Tharp (op. cit.) as: Agropyron smithii, Andropogon saccharoides, Andropogon scoparius, Stipa leucotricha and Triodia pilosa. Major areas of oak-hickory on sand include: the Western Cross Timbers, Eastern Cross Timbers and the "Oak- hickory” region delimited by Tharp (1939, Pi. I). Major areas of tail-grass prairie include the Blackland, Grand and Coastal prairies (idem). Some char¬ acteristic associations of the Austroriparian occur locally m the Texan. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) occurs in a mixed stand with blackjack and post oak on an extensive area of sand in Bastrop County. A series of peat bogs and marshes, is distributed along a line running roughly southwest from northern Leon County to Gonzales County. The Biotic Provinces of Texas 101 The drainage pattern of the Texan is one of its important biogeographic features. The Red and Trinity Rivers and their tributaries drain the north¬ ern part of the area in Texas, and these - rivers enter the Austroriparian before reaching the Gulf. The Brazos, Colorado, San Marcos and Guadalupe Rivers drain the southern part of the Texan. The alluvial soils of these river valleys support a mesic forest of oaks^ hackberries, pecans and other trees. These mesic forests provide avenues for westward dispersal of forest- inhabiting, Austroriparian species of animals into, and in some cases beyond, the Texan province. Recognition of this transitional region - as a biotic province represents a fairly unsatisfactory disposition of the area, but there seems to be no reasonable alternative. There are no endemic species of vertebrates. Ihe outstanding biogeographic phenomenon, here, is the interdigitation of forest and grassland associations. This has been described in detail for the Texan in a part of northern Oklahoma (Blair, 193 8). Austroriparian species tend to be restricted to the oak-hickory forests, flood-plain forests and to the peat bogs and marshes. Grassland species, whose ranges enter the area from the west, are largely limited to the prairies. Two biotic districts, the Cherokee Prairie and Osage Savanna, have been described in the province in Oklahoma (Blair and Hubbell, 193 8). The Eastern and Western Cross Timbers and Tharp’s (1939) Oak-hickory region contact the Osage Savanna at the Red River and possibly should be considered a part of the same biotic district.’ The Blackland Prairie region of Tharp (op. cit,) probably should be treated as another district, and the Fayette and Coastal Prairie regions as others. Much work remains to be done, however, before the biotic districts of this province can be delimited with certainty. At least 49 species of mammals have occurred in the Texan province in recent times. Forty-one of these occur also in the Austroriparian, and many of these are characteristic species of that province. Eight species range into the Texan from the grassland regions to the west, southwest or north and fail to extend beyond this province into the Austroriparian. Common species of mammals that occur also in the Austroriparian include: Didelphis virginiana, Scalopus aguaticm, Sciurus ntger^ Geomys breviceps, Reithrodontomys fulvescens^ Peromyscus leucopuSy Sigmodon hhpidus^ Sylvilagus floridanus and Sylvilagus aquaticus. Common grassland species of mammals include Citellm tridecemlineatm, Perognathus hispidm^ Peromyscus maniculatm and Lepus calif ornicus. The Gulf coastal prairie of the southern part of the province includes some subtropical species such as Baiomys taylori and Dasypus novemcinctus^ and in recent times Pelts onca and Pelis pardalh, with similar affinities, occurred there. The northern part of the province, in Oklahoma, contains such diverse elements as the Illinoian province (of Dice, 1943) species, Microtm ochrogaster and Zapus Imd- sonius, and the Kansan province species Reithrodontomys montanm. Both species of Terrapene known from the' Austroriparian occur in the Texan. One of these, T. ornata, is a grassland - species that ranges into the area from the west and becomes rare or locaTin the edge of the Austro¬ riparian. The other, T. Carolina, is an Austroriparian species that reaches its western limit in the Texan. Nine of 16 species of lizards in the Texan are eastern forest, or widely distributed, species that are characteristic species of the Austroriparian. Seven are grassland forms that range into the Texan 102 The Texas Journal of Science from the west or north. Common Texan province species of the former group include: Anolis carollnensis, Scelopoms undulatiis, Leiolopisma later- ale, and Ophiosatirus ventralis. Common Texan species in the latter group include: Crotaphytjis collar is, Sceloporus olivaceus, ^hrynosoma cornutum and Eumeces obsoletus. Aat least 39 species of snakes occur in the Texan province. Twenty- seven of these also occur in the Austroriparian. Common Texan province species in this group include: Coluber constrictor, Coluber flagellum, Elaphe obsoleta, Lampropeltis getulus, Natrix rhombifera, Thamnophis sauritus, Agkistrodon mokasen, Agkistrodon piscivorus and Crotalus horridiis. Twelve species range into the Texan from the west and apparently reach their eastern limits in this province. Common species in this group include: Arizona elegans, Thamnophis marcianus, Pituophis catenifer, and Crotalus atrox. The urodele fauna of the Texan province is an attenuated Austro¬ riparian fauna. Only five species of urodeles are known from this area, and this province comprises a barrier to urodele distribution between the en¬ demic Balconian province fauna to the west and the Austroriparian fauna to the east. The commonest urodeles of the Texan apparently include: Ambystoma texanum, Ambystoma tigrinum and '^iren intermedia. The anuran fauna is made up mostly of Austroriparian or widely dis¬ tributed species. Thirteen of the 18 species occur also in that province. Common Texan species of this group include: ^caphiopus holbrookii, Bufo valliceps, Bufo ivoodhousii, Acris gryllus, Pseudacris nigrita, Hyla versicolor, Hyla cinerea, Rana catesbeiana, Rana pipiens and Microhyla carolinensis. Five species have western affinities and fail to cross the Texan into the Austroriparian. The most common of these are: Scaphiopus couchii, Pseu¬ dacris clarkii, Pseudacris streckeri and Microhyla olivacea. The tree-frog, Pseudacris streckeri, comes closer to being an endemic species than any other vertebrate reported from the Texan province. The range of this species lies mostly in the Texan, but in the south the species occurs in contiguous parts of the Tamaulipan and Balconian provinces. TAMAULIPAN The Tamaulipan province, as limited by Dice (1943), extends into southern Texas from eastern Mexico. Dice includes only "the southern tip of Texas” in the Tamaulipan. The logical northern boundary of the Tamaul¬ ipan is, however, the Balcones fault line, which is considerably farther north than Dice’s boundary. Reasons for extending the boundary of this province northward to the boundary of the Edwards Plateau will be given below. To the northeast the Tamaulipan brushlands change gradually to the prairie and oak-hickory alternes of the Texan province. The line separating pedocal soils from pedalfers separates the main body of the Tamaulipan brushlands from the Texan province and forms a fairly distinct boundary between the two provinces. The climate of the Tamaulipan province is semiarid and megathermal according to the classification of Thornthwaite (1948). This means that there is marked deficiency of moisture for plant growth (moisture defici¬ ency index of -20 to -40 per cent) and that some plant growth continues throughout the year. This is the only area of megathermal climate in Texas and one of only three in the United States. The northern and northeastern limits of the megathermal type as mapped by Thornthwaite (op. cit.) The Biotic Provinces of Texas 103 closely approximates the limits of the Tamaulipan province as here estab- iished. • t Thorny brush is the predominant vegetation ■ type of the Tamaulipan province of Texas. This brushland stretches from the Balcones fault line southward into Mexico. From the coast westward the brush thins out as available moisture declines. A few species of plants account for the bulk of the brush vegetation and give it a characteristic aspect throughout the Tamaulipan of this state. The most important of these include: mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), various species of Acacia and Mimosa^ granjeno (Celtis pallida), lignum vitae (Porker a atigusHfolm) , cenizo (Leucophyllum tex- anum) , white brush (Aloysia texana), prickly pear (O'ptmtia lindheimert) , tasajillo (Opnntia leptocmdh) , and Condalia and Castela. The brush on sandy soils differs in species and aspect from that of clay soils. Mesquite, in an open stand and mixed with various grasses, is characteritic of sandy '* areas. Clay soils usually have all of the species listed above, including mes¬ quite. Tharp (1939) recognizes an extensive strip of sand in northern Kennedy, Brooks and Jim Hogg Counties as a distinct vegetational region. Coastal marches, dominated by sacahuiste grass (Spartina spartinae) , are continuous with similar marshes fringing the coast in the Texan and Austroriparian provinces. The northern part of the province in Texas is drained by the Nueces River and its tributaries. The flood-plains of these streams support a well-developed live-oak (Quercus virginiana) forest. The southern part of the province in Texas is poorly drained. Several small basins, without exterior drainage, exist in this area and contain permanent or semi-permanent bodies of water. The Rio Grande has few tributaries, and no major ones, in the Tamaulipan province of Texas. The brushlands of the lower Rio Grande Valley, in Cameron, Willacy, Hidalgo and Starr Counties, are more luxuriant than the brushlands farther south, and they are characterized by the predominance of several species of plants that de¬ crease in abundance northward. The most important of these species in¬ clude:- retama (Parkinsonia aculeta), Texas ebony (Siderocarpos flexicatilis) , wild olive (Cordia hoissieri) and knackaway (Ehretia elUptica) . The most luxuriant brush occurs on the immediate flood-plain of the lower Rio Grande. Large elms (Ulmus crassifoka) dominate the flood-plain in some places, and there is usually an alternation of elm dominants and brush spe¬ cies. A palm (Sab'd mexicana) reaches its northern limit at Southmost, be¬ low Brownsville on the Rio Grande, The lower Rio- Grande Valley, compris¬ ing Cameron, Willacy, Hidalgo and Starr Counties, is best treated as part of a separate biotic district from the area of Tamaulipan province to the north and west. The limits of this district in Mexico are unknown. This district may be called the Matamoran district after the city of Matamoros just across the Rio Grande from Brownsville. The vertebrate fauna of the Tamaulipan province includes a consider¬ able element of Neotropical species, a considerable element of primarily grassland species that range northward into- the Texan and Kansan provinces, some Austroriparian species, and some species in common with the Chihua- huan province, Aat least 61 species of mammals occur in the Tamaulipan of Texas or have occurred there in recent times. There are: 3 6 species of snakes, 19 lizards, two land turtles, three urodeles and 19 anurans. Fifteen of the 61 species of mammals comprise the primarily Neo- 104 The Texas Journal of Science tropical element in the mammal ian fauna of the Tamaulipan. Six of these, Aello megalopbyila, Dasypterm intermedius, Conepatus leuconotus, Felis cacomitli, Liomys irroratus, and Oryzomys couesi, are limited in Texas to the Matamoran district. One species, Felis wiedii, is known only from Eagle Pass. Two species, Didelphh mesamericana and Nasua narica, occur also in the Chihauhuan province of Texas. Six Neotropical species extend north¬ ward or eastward from the Tamaulipan into other biotic provinces or have had such a distribution in recent time. These include: Felis onca, Felis par- dalisy Keithrodojitomys ftilvescens, Baiomys taylori, Tayassu angulatum and Dasyptis novemcinctus. The great bulk of the small mammal population of the Tamaulipan in Texas is made up of a few species that occur throughout the province in this state. These include: Citellus mexicanuSj Perognathns hispiduSy Perog- nathus merriami, Onychomys leucogaster, Peromyscus leucopnSy Sigmodon hispidusy Neotoma micropus and Sylvilagus floridauus. On sandy soils, Scalopus aquaticMs and Dipodomys ordii are common species. One species (Geomys personatus) is widely distributed on sandy soils in this province, to which it appears to be endemic. Two species of land turtles occur in the Tamaulipan of this state. One, Terrapene ornatay is widely distributed in provinces to the north and west. The other, Gopherus berlandieriy is restricted to the Tamaulipan, and its northern and northeastern limits of distribution correspond closely to the boundaries of this province. Six of the 19 species of lizards known from the Tamaulipan of Texas occur in the state only in this province. One, Sceloporti^ grammicuSy is lim¬ ited to the Matamoran district. Two, Crotaphytus reticulatus and Sceloporus cyanogenySy are known in Texas only from the vicinity of the Rio Grande upstream from the area here designated the Matamoran district. Three species, Holbrookia propinqtMy Sceloporus variabilis and Eumeces tetragram- muSy range northward to approximately the northern limit of the province. Common species other than those restricted to the province include: Cole- onyx breviSy Sceloporus olivaceus, Sceloporus undtdatuSy Phrynosoma cornu- tum and Cnemidophorus gularis. Six of the 36 species of snakes known from the Tamaulipan of Texas are unknown from other provinces in the state. Four of these, Drymobius margaritiferusy Ficimia streckeriy Leptodeira septentrionalis and Coniophanes hnperialisy appear to be limited to the Matamoran district. The other two, Drymarchon corah and Sonora tayloriy range over most or all of the province in Texas. Common snakes of the Tamaulipan in Texas include: Coluber flagelluiUy Arizona elegansy Natrix erythrogaster, Natrix rhombifera, Tham- nophis marcianus, T hamnophis saurituSy Crotalus atrox and the previously mentioned Drymarchon corah. The urodele fauna is small. One species, Triturtis meridionalisy appears to be restricted to this province. One species, Amby stoma tigrinuMy is a widely distributed species that occurs in every biotic province in Texas. The third, Siren inter media y ranges into this province from the Texan. Five of the 19 species of anurans are found in Texas only in the Tamaulipan. Three of these, Hyla baudiniiy Syrrhophus campi and Leptodac- tylus labialis, are presently known only from the Matamoran district. One, Bufo marinus (B. horribilh of some authors), is known in Texas only from the vinity of the Rio Grande in Zapata County. One species, Hypopachus The Biotic Provinces of Texas 105 cuneus, ranges northward in the Tamaulipan at least to Bee and Live Oak Counties. Other common species found in the Tamaulipan of Texas include: Scaphiopus couchit, Bufo com pac tills, Bufo valliceps, Acris gryllus, Pseu- dacris clarkii, Rana catesbeiana, Rana pipiens and Microhyla olivacea. CHIHUAHUAN The Chihuahuan province includes all of Trans-Pecos Texas except the Guadalupe Mountains of northern Culberson County. This province extends southward into the states of Chihuahua and Coahuila and, as limited by Dice (1943), it reaches its northern limit in southern New Mexico. The eastern boundary of the province in Texas, as here established, coincides with the eastern rim of the Toyah Basin south to Crockett County, and from there it follows the Pecos River south to its junction with the Rio Grande. This province has a greater diversity of physiographic features than any other province in the state. The northeastern part of the province in Reeves, Loving, Winkler, Ward, Crane and northern Pecos Counties, is apparently an old bolson now drained by the Pecos River (Sellards and Baker, 193 5). South and southeast of the Toyah Basin, the Stockton Pla¬ teau, which is the Trans-Pecos extension of the Comanchean Cretaceous limestones of the Edwards Plateau, comprises a distinct physiographic region in southern Pecos, most of Terrell and eastern Brewster Counties. The old Rio Grande embayment enters Trans-Pecos Texas in southern Terrell County.' All of the remainder of the Trans-Pecos is characterized by the alternation of mountain ranges and bolsons, most of which are now drained by the Rio Grande. The Salt Basin and its southern extension, the Valentine Plain, comprise the largest basin that still lacks exterior drainage. The entire course of the Rio Grande in Texas down to the Boquillas can¬ yons in the Big Bend is an old lake basin (Sellards and Baker, 1935)'. The lacustrine deposits in this old basin are much dissected to produce a "bad¬ lands’* topography. The mountain masses vary tremendously in the environ¬ ments they offer for plant and animal life. Some, such as the Davis, Chisos, Chinati and Sierra Vieja ranges, are characterized by igneous rocks. In others, such as the Glass, Del Norte and Diablo Mountains, Paleozoic lime¬ stones predominate. The highest peak in the Chihuahuan province of Texas is Mount Livermore in the Davis Mountains with an elevation of 83 82 feet. Emory Peak in the Chisos and Chinati Peak in the Chinati Mountains ex¬ ceed 7000 feet, and several peaks in other ranges exceed 6000 feet in eleva¬ tion. The climate of most of the Chihuahuan of Texas is classified by Thornthwaite (1948) as arid (moisture deficiency index of -40 to -60 per cent). This means that there is a serious deficiency of moisture for plant growth. A strip running from Culberson County south to the Davis and Glass Mountains is classified as semi-arid (moisture deficiency index of -20 to -40 per cent). Weather records are scanty from this region, and the above statements represent an over-simplification of the climatic situation in the Chihuahuan of Texas. The biogeography and ecology of the vertebrates are better known for the Chihuahuan province of Texas than for any other biotic province of the state, but such is the diversity of the Trans-Pecos that much remains to be done before we will have a clear picture of animal distribution in this region. Bray (1901, 1905) pioneered in studying the vegetation of the re- 106 The Texas Journal of Science gion. Carter (1931) and Carter and Cory (1932) contributed to our knowledge of the vegetation. Tinkham (1948) described the vegetation of the Big Bend in connection with a faunistic and ecological study of the orthoptera. Most of the other field work in the Chihuahuan of Texas has involved surveys of single mountain ranges. Blair (1940) described the mammalian fauna and the principal ecological associations of the Davis Mountains. Hinckley (1944) studied the vegetation of the Davis Moun¬ tains. The Chisos Mountain region of the Big Bend has probably received more attention than any other part of the Chihuahuan. Borell and Bryant (1942) described the mammalian fauna and mentioned briefly the ecolog¬ ical associations of this area. Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) described the avifauna of Brewster County. Schmidt and Smith (1944) described the herpetofauna of the Big Bend. The Sierra Vieja Range of northwestern Presidio County, and the nearby Valentine Plain and Rio Grande Basin have been studied in some detail. York (1949) described the plant asso¬ ciations of these areas. Blair and Miller (1949) discussed the ecological dis¬ tribution of the mammals and Phillips and Thornton (1949) studied the birds. Jameson and Flury (1949) discussed the ecological distribution of the reptiles and amphibians. Hinckley (1947) described the vegetation of the Sierra Vieja Range. The vegetation of the Glass Mountains v/as described by Warnock (1946). The vegetation and vertebrate fauna of a part of the Stockton Plateau were surveyed in 1949 by a University of Texas field party, and reports on this region will be forthcoming. Tharp (1944) de¬ scribed the vegetation of the Stockton Plateau. The least known parts of the Chihuahuan province in Texas are the Toy ah Basin in the northeast and the area of mountains and basins lying west of a line running from the Guadalupe south to the Van Horn Mountains. The Chihuahuan province of Trans-Pecos probably includes several biotic districts, but the information is too scanty at present to permit de¬ limitation of these districts. The Toyah Basin possibly should be considered a district, and the Stockton Plateau possibly should be considered another. The area of semiarid climate in Culberson, Jeff Davis, northern Brewster, and western Pecos Counties possibly comprise*; another district. York (1949) described the old Rio Grande Basin as the Rio Grande Basin district, and he described the Sierra Vieja Range and the Valentine Plain as the Sierra Vieja district. The latter name possibly has much wider application than the name implies in the climatically arid western part of the Trans-Pecos. Much additional work is needed to determine the ecological interrelationships in the Chihuahuan province both in Texas and in Mexico. Davis and Robertson (1944) recognize three "biotic provinces” in Trans-Pecos Texas. These are designated the "Southern Rocky Mountain biotic province, the Navahonian biotic province, and the Chihuahuan biotic province.” Their so-called biotic provinces are not biotic provinces in the sense that the term has been used by Dice (1943) myself and others. They appear to be discontinuously distributed life belts which are unfortunately given, in two cases, names originally attached to biotic provinces. The vegetation of the Chihuhuan is too varied for detailed considera¬ tion here. The basins support in places a thin cover of grasses such as tobosa (Hilaria mutica)y galleta (Hilaria ]amem) and various species of grama (Bouteloua) , In other places, desert shrubs such as creosote bush (Larrea), catclaw {Acacia greggii) and blackbrush (Flourensia) predominate. The The Biotic Provinces of Texas 107 elevated plains of the Davis Mountain region and of the Diablo Plateau have a good cover of grama grasses. The mountains show vertical zonation in plant communities. On the lower levels and foothills of the mountains thorny shrubs such as catclaw, huisache (Acacia constricia and others), mesquite (Prosopis juUflora) and others are characteristic. Oaks (principally Quercus grisea and Q. emoryi) and cedar (Juniperus monos perma) are characteristic at elevations of from 5000 to 8000 feet. A belt of pinyon (Pimis ednlh) occurs on north-facing slopes above 5000 feet in some of the ranges such as the Davis and Chisos Mountains. Yellow pine (Pinm brachyptera) is dominant on some north-facing slopes above 6000 feet. A small grove of aspens (Populus tremuloMes) occurs near the top of Mount Livermore in the Davis Mountains. The more mesic forest associations predominate on the north-facing slopes of the mountains, and the more xeric grassland and brush associations extend far up on the south-facing slopes. An important feature of animal distribution in the Chihuahuan province is the semi-isolation of species restricted to mountain associations by the intervening basin grasslands. This is an area in which differentiation of animal kinds may be expected to proceed rapidly through the combined effects of isolation, natural selection and random drift in genetic constitu¬ tion. The mammalian fauna of the Chihuahuan province is the richest of any biotic province in the state, with 83 species of mammals recorded in recent times. A majority of the mammals of this province are species char¬ acteristic of the Mexican tableland and our southwestern deserts. Fourteen species are limited in Texas to the Chihuahuan 'province. These -include: Leptonycterh nivalky Myotis yumanensis, Myoth volans^ Myoih subulatus^ Myotis thysanodesy Pipistrel! us hes perns, Tadarida macroth, Eumops perotis, Mephitis macroura, Geomys arenarius, Sigmodon ocbrognathus, Perogna- thus nelsoni, Dipod omys merriami, and the now extirpated Ursus horribilis. Twelve other species occur or probably occur also in the Navahonian province but fail to extend eastward in Texas beyond the Chihuahuan. These include: Myotis lucifugus, Myoth caUfornicm, Corynorhinus rapines- qtiii, Vtdpes macroth, Citellus inter pres, Perognathus penicillatus, Perog- nathus intermedins, Onychomys torridus, Keithrodontomys megaloth, Neo- toma mexicana, Sylvilagus robust us and Ovh canadensis. The species of mammals in the basin deserts and grasslands are in many cases different from the species of the nearby mountains, although some species, of course, range over both mountains and basins. Characteristic mammals of the mountain ranges include: Bassarhcus astutus, Citellus varie- gatus, Citellus inter pres, T homomys hottae, Perognathus nelsoni, Peromyscus hoylii, Peromyscus pectoralh, Peromyscus eremicus, Neotoma albigula, Neofoma mexicana, Sigmodon ochrognathus", Sylvilagus mbustus and Odo'- coileus hemionus. These species exist in numerous semi-isolated populations because of their preference for the ecological associations of the mountain masses, and the desert basins are at least partial barriers to the interchange of individuals between these populations. Characteristic mammals of the desert basins include: Taxidea taxus, Citellus mexicanus, Citellus spilosoma, Crato geomys castanops, Perognathus penicillatus, Dipodomys ordii, Dipodomys merriami, Dipodomys speciabilh, Peromyscus maniculatus, Lepus caUfornicm, Sylvilagus audubonii and Antil- ocapra americana. Some species are important constituents of the small 108 The Texas Journal of Science mammal populations of both the basins and the mountains. The most im¬ portant of these are: Mephitis mephitis, Conepatus mesoleucus, Ferognathus merriami, Onychomys torridm and Keithrodontomys megalotis. The only land turtle of the Chihuahuan province is the widely- distributed Terrapene ornata, which appears to be rather scarce. The lacertilian fauna, like the mammalian fauna, is the richest in species of any province in the state. Twenty-two species are recorded from this province in Texas. Only one, Sceloponis merriami, is restricted to this province in the state. Five other species occur or probably occur also in the Navahonian province but fail to extend eastward beyond the limits of the Chihuahuan. These include: Gambelia wislizeni, Sceloporus magister, Fhry- nosoma douglassii, Cnemidophorus per plexus and Cnemidophorus tessellutus. Characteristic lizards of the mountains include: Coleonyx brevis, Hol- brookia texana, Crotaphytus collaris, Sceloporus merriami, Sceloporus poin- settii, Urosaurus ornatus, Cnemidophorus gularis and Cnemidophorus gra- hamii. Characteristic lizards of the basins and plains include: Holbrookia maculata, Sceloporus undulatus, 'Phynosoma cornutum, Phrynosoma modes- him, Cnemidophorus tessellatus and Cnemidophorus perplexus. Thirty-eight species of snakes have been recorded from the Chihuauan province of Texas. Eight of these are restricted in the state to this province. These include: Diadophis regalis, Elaphe subocularis, Lampropeltis alterna, Sonora semiannulata, Thamnophis macrostemma, Trimorphodon vilkinsonii, Crotalus lepidus, and Crotalus cutulatus. Three other species occur or prob¬ ably occur also in the Navahonian but fail to extend eastward beyond the limits of the Chihuahuan. These include: Salvadora grahamiae, Salvador a hexalepis and Tantilla atriceps. Representative snakes of the basins include: Coluber flagellum, Pituo- phis catenifer, Thamnophis marcianus and Crotalus atrox. Characteristic species of the mountains include: Coluber taeniatus, Elaphe subocularis, Sal¬ vadora grahamiae, Thamnophis eques, Crotalus molossus and Crotalus lepidus. Only one species of urodele, Ambystoma tigrinum, occurs in the Chi¬ huahuan of Texas. This wide-ranging species occurs in abundance in dirt tanks throughout the area. Thirteen species of anurans are known from this province. One, Syrr- hophus gaigeae, restricted to the Chihuahuan, is probably conspecific with S. marnockii of the Balconian province to the east. One species with west¬ ern affinities, Hyla arenicolor, occurs in Texas in only the Chihuahuan and Navahonian provinces. This is an abundant and characteristic species in at least some mountains of the Chihuahuan. Common anurans of the mountains include: Bufo punctatus, Hyla arenicolor, Syrrhophus gaigeae, Rana pipiens and Microhyla olivacea. Com¬ mon anurans of the basins include: Scaphiopus couchii, Scaphiopus ham- mondii, Bufo debilis, and Microhyla olivacea. NAVAHONIAN The Navahonian province barely enters Texas in the Guadalupe Moun¬ tains of northern Culberson County. This province includes most of the mountainous regions of New Mexico, and the Guadalupe Mountains repre¬ sent its southernmost extension. The Guadalupes fall in Thornthwaite’s DBi climate (semi-arid, meso- thermal with potential evapotranspiration of between 28.05 and 22.44 inches) . The Biotic Provinces of Texas 109 Guadalupe Peaks with an election of 8,758 feet, is the highest point in Texas, There is vertical zonation of the vegetation, and this zonation is es¬ sentially the same as in the Chihuahuan province. Dominant trees at eleva¬ tions of from 7,700 to 8,000 feet are western yellow pine (Pinus brachyp- tera)i limber pine (Finns flexilk)^ Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata) and oaks according to Davis (1940). Mosauer, (1932) reported briefly on the amphibians and reptiles of the Guadalupe Mountains. Davis (1940a) reported on the mammals of the region, and Davis and Robertson (1944) presented some additional records of mammals from the area. Burleigh and Lowery (1940) reported on the birds of the Guadalupes. The . mammalian fauna of the Navahonian is less well known in Texas than is the fauna of the Chihuahuan. Only 39 species have been recorded, but 1 5 other species very probably occur there because of their known range outside of Texas. All but three of the 54 certain and probable species of mammals of the Navahonian of Texas occur also in the Chihuahuan province. One species, Cervus merriami, known in Texas only from the Navahonian, is now extirpated there. Two species, Eutamias clnereicollh and Microius mexicanus, restricted in Texas to the Navahonian, are widely dis¬ tributed and characteristic species at high altitudes in the Navahonian of New Mexico. Representative species of mammals of the Navahonian of Texas include: Epiesicus fmcus, Bassariscus ashitus^ Mephitis mephitis Conepatus meso- lencuSj Citellus varie gains, Cifeilus inter pres, Eutamias cinereicollis, Tho- momys bottae, Perognathus intermedius, Dipodomys merriami, Peromyscus boylii, Peromyscus pectoralis, Neotoma albigula, Microius mexicanus and Erethizon epixanthmn. No species of land turtle has been recorded from the Navahonian in Texas, but Terrapene ornata probably occurs there. All but three of the 21 species of lizards that are recorded from, or probably occur in, the province occur also in the Chihuahuan. Three species. Eumeces gaiget, Eumeces tay- lori and Eumeces miiltivirgatus, are known in Texas only from the Nava¬ honian. Common species of lizards of the Navahonian, as indicated by Mosauer (1932), include: Crotaphytus collaris, Holbrookia texana, Uro- saurus ornatus, Sceloporus poinsettii, Phrynosoma cornutum and Eumeces obsoletus. Another species recorded from this province, and also from- the Chihuahuan, is Phrynosoma douglassii, which is a characteristic and widely distributed species at high altitudes in the Rocky Mountains. The only urodele in the Navahonian in Texas is the widely distributed Ambystoma tigrinum, which occurs in every biotic province of the state. The anuran fauna seems tO' be the poorest of any province in Texas. Mosauer (1932) recorded only Eana pipiens from the Guadalupe Mountains, but at least eight other species probably occur there. Species to be expected in the Navahonian of Texas includQiScaphiopus couchii, Scaphiopus hammondii, Bufo compactilis, Bufo cognatus, Bufo debilis, Bufo- punctatus, Bufo woodhomit and Hyla arenicolor. All of these species occur also in the Chi¬ huahuan. KANSAN The limits of this province in Texas, as here proposed, differ consid- erally from the limits proposed by Dice (1943). Dice excludes the Permian redbeds region south of Red River and east of the escarpment of the high no The Texas Journal of Science plains from the Kansan and places this area instead in his Comanchian province, which includes the Edwards Plateau. These Permian red plains, with their open mesquite savanna, are difficult to place in a classification of biotic areas. The fauna is a mixture of eastern forest species and western grassland species, with the latter predominating, and no endemic vertebrate fauna of any consequence has evolved in this transitional area. This redbeds region in Texas bears the same ecological relationship to the Kansan of the high plains as does the Oklahoma area east of the Panhandle that Dice assigns to the Kansan. Both are regions of level to rolling plains, both re¬ ceive more moisture and are better drained than the high plains, and both are primarily regions of transition from eastern to western faunas. Dice’s classification is based principally on vegetation. When we consider physiog¬ raphy, vegetation and vertebrate species the redbeds region seems best treated as a well marked district of the Kansan province. The reasons for this treatment will be brought out below and in the discussion of the Ed¬ wards Plateau, which is treated as a separate province. The Kansan province of Texas and Oklahoma is divided into three rather well marked biotic districts. The Mixed-grass Plains district, described from Oklahoma (Blair and Hubbell, 1938) occupies a broad strip in the western part of that state and extends into the eastern part of the Texas Panhandle. This is a rolling plain on Permian redbeds and is physiographi- cally continuous with the red plains south of the Red River. To the east, this district of the Kansan changes gradually to the Texas province. To the west, the escarpment of the high plains forms a fairly sharp western boun¬ dary for this district. The Mesquite Plains district, described from south¬ western Oklahoma (Blair and Hubbell, 1938), occupies a small corner of southwestern Oklahoma and the exposed Permian of northwestern Texas. This district of the Kansan meets the Texan province at the western boundary of the Western Cross Timbers. It meets the Balconian province to the south at the exposed Comanchean Cretaceous limestones of the Ed¬ wards Plateau. Like the Mixed-grass Plains district, it is limited to the west by the escarpment of the high plains. The Short-grass Plains district, described from Oklahoma (Blair and Hubbell, 1938), is continuous with the Llano Estacado or high plains. The high plains represent a great mass of Cenozoic alluvium derived by outwash from the mountains of New Mexico. A conspicuous escarpment marks the eastern boundary of this area. To the south, this -district of the Kansan province meets the Balconian at the edge of the Edwards Plateau. It extends westward to the valley of the Pecos in New Mexico and northward through the Oklahoma Panhandle into southwestern Kansas. Moisture is deficient throughout the Kansan, and there is a decrease in available moisture from east to west. Thornthwaite (1948) classifies the eastern part of the province, including the Mixed-grass Plains and most of the Mesquite Plains districts as dry subhumid. He classifies most of the Short-grass Plains district as semiarid. The major plant associations of the Mixed-grass Plains district have been described in Oklahoma (Blair and Hubbell, 193 8). The most exten¬ sive association is grassland dominated by several species of beardgrass (Andropogon scoparms, A. saccharcides, A. furcattts), several species of grama (Bontelous gracilis, B. racemosa, B. hirsuta, B. curtipendtila) and buffalo grass (Bnchloe dactyloides) . The Biotic Provinces of Texas . Ill A short-grass association, with buffalo grass the principal constituent, is the most important plant association of the Short-grass Plains district in both Texas and Oklahoma. Various species of grama grasses are also im¬ portant in this area. The most extensive association of the Mesquite Plains district is a mesquite-grass association in which there is an open stand of mesquite and a few other shrubs alternating with a good cover of grasses. The grass cover is formed principally by various species of grama (Bouteloua) and various species of three-awn ( Arhttda) . The broomweed { Gutierrezia texana) and gaillardia (Gaillardia puchella) are abundant and characteristic forbs. Areas of dune sand in all three districts of the Kansan are charac¬ terized by such arenicolous species of plants as shin-oak (OuercMS havardii and other species). Sand sage ( Artemisia filifolia) and various species of Andropogon. The Mixed-grass Plains and Mesquite Plains districts are fairly well drained by streams that drain to the southeast. Various species of trees, including oaks, elms, hackberries and maples, characteristic of the Carolin¬ ian province of eastern Oklahoma and the Austroriparian province of east¬ ern Texas, extend out along some of the stream flood-plains and also exist in steep-walled canyons in the western parts of these districts. Cedars be¬ come mixed with the deciduous trees in the western part of these districts. These forests provide avenues for the westward dispersal of eastern forest species of veretebrates. The Short-grass Plains district is poorly drained except by the North and South Canadian Rivers. The latter has cut through the mantle of Cenozoic alluvium to isolate the high plains of the northern part of the Texas Panhandle from those of the south. The mammalian fauna of the Kansan in Texas includes at least 59 species, of which five are restricted to this province. These species include: Vtdpes velox, Geomys ItitescenSy Perognathus flavescens^ Dipodomys elator and Peromyscus comanche. The last is restricted to the cedar-covered slopes of Palo Duro Canyon, Tule Canyon and other canyons and slopes along the escarpment of the high plains. The range of Dipodomys elator is limited to a small area in the northern part of the Mesquite Plains district and in the southern part of the Mixed-grass Plains district. Characteristic mammals of the Kansan province include: Mustela nigripeSy Spilogale interrupt a, ‘Mephitis mephitis, Taxidea taxus, Canis latrans, Citellus spilosoma, Cynomys ludovicianus, Crato geomys castanops, Perogna- thus hispidus, Perognathus merriami, Onychomys leucogaster, Peromyscus leucopuSy Neotoma albigula, Neotoma micropus, Lepus californicus, Sylvila- gus audubonii and the now extirpated Bison bison. Important species on sandy soils include Dipodomys ordii, Peromyscus maniculatus, Geomys lutes- cens and Scalopus aquaticus. Eastern forest species that reach the western limits of their ranges in this province include: Scalopus aquaticus, Sciurus niger and Sylvilagus floridanus. The stream valleys provide dispersal routes for the extension of these species far westward beyond the limits of the eastern forest. The widely distributed Terrapene ornata is the only land turtle in the Kansan. Fourteen species of lizards are known from this province in Texas, but none of them is restricted to it. Representative lizards include: Hol- brookia maculata, Holbrookia texana, Crotaphytus collaris, Sceloporus tindu- 112 The Texas Journal of Science latus, Phrynosoma cornuturriy Phrynosoma modesfMm, Eumeces obsoletus, Cnemidophoni^s gularis and Cnemidophorm sexlineatus. Thirty-one species of snakes are known from the Kansan of Texas. Only one, Matrix harteriy with a restricted range in the Mesquite Plains dis¬ trict, is limited to the Kansan province. Representative snakes of the Kansan include: Leptotyphlops dtdcisy Coluber flagellum, Elaphe laeta, Arizona ele- gans, Pituophis catenifer, Khinocheilus lecontei, Matrix ery thro gas ter, Tham- nophis marcianus, Thamnophis sir talk, Ehamnophis saurtHis, Tantilla nigri- ceps, Crotalus atrox and Crotalus viridis. The widely distributed Ambystoma tigrinum is the only urodele known from the Kansan. Fourteen species of anurans are known from the province, but none of these is restricted to it. Characteristic anurans of the Kansan include: Scaphiopus couchii, Scaphiopus hammondii, Bufo compactilis, Bufo cognatus, Bufo debilis, Bufo punctahis, Bufo woodhousii, Acris gryllus and Rana pipiens. BALCONIAN The Edwards Plateau of Texas seems best treated as a distinct biotic province. This area, like the area of prairie and oak-hickory alternes to the east, is characterized principally by the intermixture of faunal elements characteristic of other, major, provinces. In this province, the vertebrate fauna represents a hodge-podge of Austroriparian, Tamaulipan, Chihua- huan and Kansan species. The Edwards Plateau is a physiographically discrete unit. The vegetational aspect is different from that of adjacent provinces. The aggregate vertebrate fauna is quite unlike that of any other area here designated a biotic province. In one vertebrate group, the urodele amphib¬ ians, there is a well-marked, endemic fauna. For these reasons the Edwards Plateau is treated as a biotic province in spite of the fact that its area is less than that of most of the provinces recognized by Dice (1943). The name Balconian is proposed for this province. This term is derived from the Balcones fault zone, which forms the southern and eastern boundary of the province. This name, in turn, is derived from Balcones Creek in north¬ ern Bexar County. The Balconian province, as here defined, takes in most of the Edwards Plateau as limited by Sellards, Adkins and Plummer (1933) : (Figs. 3 and 4),. the Lampasas Cut Plain and Comanche Plateau of Raisz (1939), and the Central Mineral, or Llano Uplift, region. That part of the Edwards Plateau lying west of the Pecos, and often referred to as the Stockton Plateau, is not included, but is referred instead to the Chihuahuan province. Most of the Balconian province lies on Comanchean Cretaceous lime¬ stone, but igneous intrusives and sediments as old as pre-Cambrian are exposed in the Llano Uplift region. The Comanchean sediments of the Balconian province have been much dissected, particularly in the southern and eastern parts of the area. Several rivers, including the Colorado, Nueces, Concho, Blanco, Llano, Frio, Pedernales, Sabinal, Medina, Guadalupe, Devil’s and San Saba, drain the area. The topography of the eastern and southern parts of the area is rugged due to dissection of the limestone by these rivers and their tributaries. Limestone caverns and springs are common features of these areas. In the central and northwestern parts of the region surface drainage is poor, and broad relatively level uplands exist between the can¬ yons of the streams. Massive outcrops of limestone are characteristic of the The Biotic Provinces of Texas 113 stream canyonSj and limestone fragments occur at the surface over practi¬ cally the entire area. The Llano Uplift region, which is structurally a large dome (Sellards and Baker, 193 5) is lower than the adjacent Edwards Plateau due to the erosion of most Cretaceous sediments from this area (op.cit.). The topog¬ raphy is rolling to hilly. Sandy soils predominate and contrast with the clays and clay loams of the Edwards Plateau. The climate of the Balconian is characterized by a decrease in rainfall from east to west. Approximately the eastern half of the province is classi¬ fied by Thorn thwaite (1948) as C1B4 (dry subhumid, mesothermal with average annual potential evapotranspiration of between 39.27 and 44.88 inches). Approximately the western half is classified as DB3 (semiarid, mesothermal with average annual potential evapotranspiration of between 33.66 and 39.27 inches). The southern margin of the province has a DB4 climate. The most characteristic plant association of the Balconian is a scrub forest of Mexican cedar (Juniperus mexicma) , Texas oak (Quercm texana), stunted live oak (Quercus virginiana) and various other less numerous spe¬ cies. This association occupies the more dissected parts of the area to the near exclusion of others, and it occurs throughout the area of the Balconian, Mesquite is distributed throughout the Balconian, and to the west it and the live oak become the most conspicuous woody vegetation. The flood- plains of the streams are occupied by a mesic forest of large live oaks, elms, hackberries and pecans. Along the Medina River, in the southeastern part of the province, large cypress trees (Taxodmm distichum) fringe the stream course. This species occurs along some other streams in the eastern part of the province. Several plants characteristic of the Chihuahuan province extend east¬ ward for varying distances into the Balconian. The beargrass (NoUna texana) extend across the Balconian. The lecheguilla (Agave lecheguilla) occurs at least as far east as Montell in Uvalde County, and the pinyon (Pinus edulh) occurs sparingly in the same area. Three vegetational regions are recognized by Tharp (1939) within the limits of the Balconian province. His oak-hickory-mesquite region cor¬ responds to the Llano Uplift region. His oak-cedar region corresponds to the dissected southern and eastern part of the Edwards Plateau and extends somewhat farther north than the limits of the Balconian province as here drawn. His live oak-mesquite savanna region lies in the central and north¬ western part of the Balconian province. Fifty-seven species of mammals are known from the Balconian province of Texas, but no species is restricted to this province. One species, Lasionyc- terh noctivagans^ has been taken in Texas only in this province, but this rare, migrant bat undoubtedly occurs in other provinces of the state. The mammalian fauna of the Balconian contains a strong element of charac¬ teristic Chihuahuan species that range intO' the province from the west and a strong element of Austroriparian species that range into the province from the Texan to the east. There is a small Tamaulipan and a small Kansan province element in the Balconian fauna. Mammals with Chihuahuan affinities that range widely in the Balcon¬ ian include: Antrozom pallidus, Bassarisc.us Conepatus mesoleucus, Citellm variegatus, Peromysctis boylii and Peromysctis pectoralis. Another 114 The Texas Journal of Science species, T homomys hottae, ranges eastward about half-way across the south¬ ern part of the province. Another species, Neotoma alhigula, ranges east¬ ward three-fourths of the way across the province to Llano County (Bailey, 1905). Another species, Erethizon epixanthum^ ranges eastward at least to Kerr and Mason Counties (Taylor and Davis, 1947). Most of these Chi- huahuan species are saxicolous forms that inhabit the rugged, dissected parts of the Balconian terrain. Mammals with Austroriparian affinities that range widely in the Bal¬ conian include: Didelphis virginiana, Pipistrellus subflavus, Sciunis niger and Sylvilagus floridatius. Another species, Nycticems Jmmeralis, ranges as far west as Bandera County. Another, Geomys breviceps, ranges westward into the sandy soils of the Llano Uplift region. Two others, Neotoma flori- dana and Pitymys pinetorum, occur as far west as Kerr County. The stream valleys probably have been important avenues of dispersal of most of these Austroriparian species across the prairies of the Texas province and into the Balconian. In the latter province, some of them occur, however, in the cedar-oak scrub forest away from the stream courses. A few species of mammals in the Balconian fauna have their affinities with the Tamaulipan province to the south. Two of these Tamaulipan spe¬ cies, Felis pardalis and Felts onca^ have been extirpated in the Balconian. Three others, Tayassu angulatum, Dasypus novemclnctus and Citellus mexi- canuS) range widely in the Balconian. The last of these ranges northward into the Kansan and westward into the Chihuahuan. A few characteristic Kansan province species range into the Balconian. Two species, Taxtdea taxus and Keithrodontomys montanus, appear to be widely distributed in the Balconian. Another species, Cynomys ludovtcianus, ranges into the northwestern part of this province. Other characteristic mammals of the Balconian include the widely distributed Perognathus hispidus, Perognathns merriami, Peromyscus leuco- pus, Sigmodon hispidus and Leptts calif ornicus. Population densities of the mammals usually remain low in the Balconian by contrast with the high densities achieved by the same species in the Tamaulipan province to the south. This phenomenon may be due in part to the fact that this is a tran¬ sitional region in which the various species are approaching the limits of their ecological tolerance. The destruction of native vegetation over most of the region by overgrazing may be a contributing factor. The only land turtle of the Balconian is the widely distributed Terra- pene ornata. The lizard fauna of 16 species is comprised principally of Chi¬ huahuan and widely distributed western species with a small element of Austroriparian species. Characteristic Chihuahuan species include: Coleonyx brevis, Holbrookia texana, Sceloporus poinsettii and Urosaurus ornatus. An¬ other species, Gerrhonotus liocephalus, restricted in Texas to the Balconian and Chihuahuan, should probably be regarded as a Balconian species that reaches western limits in the Chihuahuan. Other characteristic species of the Balconian, most of them with western affinities, include: Holbrookia maculata, Crotaphytus collaris, Phrynosoma cornutum, Eumeces brevilinea- tus, Eumeces obsoletus and Gnemidophorus gularis. One common species, Sceloporus olivaceus, ranges from the Tamaulipan northward through the Balconian to the western part of the Texan. Three species of lizards range into this province from the Austro¬ riparian by way of the Texan and reach western limits in the Balconian. The Biotic Provinces of Texas 115 One species, Leiolopisma laterale, ranges across the province and reaches its western limit at the western border of the Balconian. Two species, Cnemido- phorus sexlineatus and Ophiosaurus ventralis, range at least as far west as Kerr County. Thirty-six species of snakes are known from the Balconian province, but none of these is restricted in Texas to this province. The majority of the snakes are widely distributed western species that range over several biotic provinces in Texas and western North America. Three species are known in Texas only from this and the Chihuahuan provinces. These are: Ficimia cana, Thamnophh eques and Crotalus molossus. Several species are characteristic Austroriparian forms that reach or approach western limits in this province. These include: Opheodrys aestivus, Diadophis ptmctatus, Heterodon contortrixy Coluber constrictor y Storeria dekayiy Haldea striatula, Haldea valeriaCy Micrtirus fulviuSy Agkistrodon mokasen and Agkistrodon piscivorous. Other common and representative snakes of the Balconian in¬ clude: Leptotyphlops dulciSy Coluber flagelluniy Coluber taeniatuSy Elapbe obsoletUy Salvadora lineatUy Arizona elegans, Sonora episcopay Thamnophis marcianuSy Thamnophis sauritusy Hypsiglena ochrorhynchay Matrix erythro- gasteTy Matrix rhombifera and Crotalus atrox. Fifteen species of anurans are known from the Balconian province. Two species, Eleutherodactylus latrans and Syrrhophus marnockiiy range from this province westward into the Chihuahuan but occur in no other province of the state. Four species are common Austroriparian species and range into the Balconian from the east. These are: Bufo vallicepSy Acris grylluSy Hyla versicolor and Rana catesbeiana. Other common and repre¬ sentative anurans of the Balconian include: Scaphiopus couchiiy Bufo com- pactilisy Bufo debiliSy Bufo punctatus and Microhyla olivaceay all widely dis¬ tributed western species. The widely distributed Bufo woodhousii and Rana pipiens are common. Two species, Fseudacris streckeri and Pseudacris clarkiiy common in the eastern part of the province, range northward from the Tamaulipan through the Balconian and Texan. The urodele fauna of the Balconian includes seven species. One of these is the widely distributed Ambystoma tigrinum. Another, Plethodon glutin- osuSy is a characteristic Austroriparian species. Five species are endemic, neotenic forms that have developed in subterranean drainages and springs of the Edwards Plateau. These include: Typhlomolge rathbuniy Eurycea nanay Eurycea neotenesy Eurycea latitans and Eurycea pterophila. SUMMARY Three major biotas are represented in Texas. Plants and animals of the eastern, humid, coastal-plain forest enter eastern Texas. Plants and animals of the arid southwestern deserts and mountains are characteristic of Trans- Pecos Texas. Various species of Neotropical plants and animals enter south¬ ern Texas on the Rio Grande plain. These biotas interdigitate and intermix in characteristic combinations throughout much of the area of Texas. Seven biotic provinces are recognized within the borders of Texas, but no one of these is completely limited to the state. The Austroriparian province extends into eastern Texas and occupies a strip of coastal plain from the Gulf of Mexico to the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma. The plants and animals of this province are mostly species that extend eastward on the coastal plain to the Atlantic. The Texan province, bordering the Austro¬ riparian in eastern Texas, is a broad ecotone between the Austroriparian 116 The Texas Journal of Science forest and the semiarid grasslands to the west. It is characterized by the interdigitation of forest and grassland associations and species. The Tamauli- pan province includes the Gulf coastal plain south of the Balcones Escarp¬ ment and west of the boundary between pedalfer and pedocal soils. This province is characterized by an intermixture of Neotropical species, Austro- riparian species and southwestern desert species. The Chihuahuan province includes all of Trans-Pecos Texas except the Guadalupe Mountains. The plants and animals of this province are mostly species that are widely dis- triluted in the mountains and deserts of southwestern North America. The Navahonian province, which includes a large part of New Mexico, extends into Texas in the Guadalupe Mountains. The fauna shows close relationship to the fauna of the Chihuahuan province, but several high-elevation species occur in the Navahonian and fail to reach the Chihuhuan. The Kansan province takes in the Panhandle and the red plains to the east of the escarp¬ ment of the high plains. The plants and animals are mostly grassland species, but some Austroriparian species extend along wooded stream valleys into the eastern part of the province. The Balconian province includes the Ed¬ wards Plateau, the Lampasas Cut Plain, and the Central Mineral Region. This is a region of intermediate ecological conditions between the eastern forests and the western deserts. The fauna is a mixture of Austroriparian, Tamaulipan, Chihuahuan and Kansan province species. There is an endemic urodele fauna of five known species. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, Ver,non — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna 25: 1-222, 16 pis., 24 figs. Bishop, S. C. — 1947 — Handbook of salamanders. Comstock, Ithaca, N. Y. : i-xiv, 1-555, 1 pi., 14'^ figs.. 56maps. Blair, W. F. — 1938 — Ecological relationships of the mammals of the Bird Creek region, northeastern Oklahoma. Amer. Mid. Nat. 20 : 473-526, 12 figs. - 1940 — A contribution to the ecology and faunal relationships of the mammals of the Davis Mountain region, southwestern Texas. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. Mus. Zool. 45: 1-39, 3 pis., 1 map. Blair, W. F. and C. E. Miller, Jr. — 1949 — The mammals of the Sierra Vieja region, south¬ western Texas, with remarks on the biogeographic position of the region. Tex. J. Sci. 1 (1) : 67-92. Blair, W. F. and T. H. Hubbell — 1938— The biotic districts of Oklahoma. Amer. Mid. Nat. 20: 425-454, 1 fig. Borell, A. E. and M. D. Bryant — 1942— Mammals of the Big Bend area of Texas. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 48: 1-62, 5 pis., 1 fig. Bray, W. L.— 1901 — The ecological relations of the vegetation of western Texas. Bot. Gazette 32: 195-217, 262-291, 18 figs. - 1905 — Vegetation of the sotol country in Texas. Bull. Univ. Tex. 60 : 1-24, 11 figs. Brown, B. C. — 1948 — An annotated check list of the reptiles and amphibians of Texas. Unpub. M. S. thesis, Tex. A. and M. Coll.: 1-419 (typewritten), 109 maps. Burleigh, T. D. and G. H. Lowery, Jr.— 1940^ — Birds of the Guadalupe Mountain region of western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. La. State Univ. 8 : 85-151, 4 pis., 1 fig. Carter, W. T. — 1928 — Soil survey (reconnaissance) of the Trans-Pecos area, Texas. Bull. Univ. Tex., Sci. Ser. 1-66, 12 pis., 4 figs., 1 map. - 1931 — The soils of Texas. Tex. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 431 : 1-192, 90 figs., 1 map. Carter, W. T, and V. L, Cory — ^1932 — Soils of Trans-Pecos Texas and some of their vegeta¬ tive relations. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 15: 19-32. Cope, E. D. — 1880 — On the zoological position of Texas. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17 : 1-51. Davis, W. B. — 1940a — Mammals of the Guadalupe Mountains of western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. La. State Univ. 7: 69-84, 1 fig. - 1940b — Distribution and variation of pocket gophers (genus Geomys) in the southwestern United States. Tex. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 590: 1-38, 6 figs. - 1942 — The moles (genus Scalopus) of Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 27 : 380-386, 1 map. Davis, W. B. and J. L. Robertson, Jr. — 1944 — The mammals of Culberson County, Texas. Journ. Mammalogy 25: 254-273, 1 pi., 2 figs. Dice, L. R.- — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor: 1-78, 1 map. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 117 Hinckley, L. C. — 1944 — The vegetation of the Mount Livermore area in Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 32 s 236-250, 5 figs. - 1947 — Contrasts in the vegetation of Sierra Tierra Vieja in Trans-Fecos Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 37 ; 162-178, 9 figs. Jameson, D, L. and A. G. Flury — 1949 — The reptiles and amphibians of the Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 1 (2) i 54-79, 2 figs, Mosauer, Walter — 1932- — ^The amphibians and reptiles of the Guadalupe Mountains of New Mexico and Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. ZooL Univ. Mich. 246 : 1-18, 1 pi. Phillips, H, W. and W. A. Thornton — 1949 — The summer resident birds of the Sierra Vieja range In southwestern Texas. Tex. J, Sci. 1 (4) ; 101-131. Raisz, Erwin — 1946 — Map of the landforms of the United States. Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. Schmidt, K. P. and D. D. Davis — 1944 — Field book of snakes. Putnam, New York : i-xiii, 1-365, 34 pis., 103 figs, Schmidt, K. P. and T, P, Smith — 1944 — Amphibians and reptiles of the Big Bend region of Texas. PubL Field. Mus. Nat. Hist., ZooL Ser. 29 ; 75-96. Sellards, E» H., W. S. Adkins, and F. B Plummer — 1933 — The geology of Texas, Vol I, stra¬ tigraphy. Univ. Tex, Bull. 3232; 1-1007, 11 pis,, 54 figs. Sellards, E. H. and C. L. Baker — 1935 — The geology of Texas, VoL II, structural and eco¬ nomic geology. Univ. Tex. Bull. 3401 ; 1-884, 8 pis., 40 figs. Smith, H. M. — 1946 — Handbook of lizards. Comstock, Ithaca, N. Y. : i-xxi, 1-557, 135 pis., 136 figs., 41 maps. Smith, H, M. and H. K. Buechner — 1947— The influence of the Balcones Escarpment on the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in Texas. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci. 8 : 1-16, 1 fig. Taylor, W. P. and W. B, Davis — -1947 — The mammals of Texas. Texas Game, Fish, and Oyster Commission Bull. 27; 1-79, 14 pis. Tharp, B. C. — 1926 — Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th meridian. Univ. Tex. Bull. 2606; 1-100, 29 pis. - 1939 — The vegetation of Texas. Tex. Acad. Sci. Publ. Nat. Hist., Non-tech. Ser. 1 : i-xvi, 1-74, 7 pis,, 5 figs. - 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. and Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 27: 81-91. Thornthwait©, C, W. — 1948 — ^An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geogr. Rev. 38 s 55-94, 13 figs., 1 map, Tinkham, E. R, — 1948 — Faunistie and ecological studies on the orthoptera of the Big Bend region of Trans-Pecos Texas, with especial reference to the orthopteran zones and faunae of midwestern North America. Amer. Mid. Nat. 40; 521-663, 37 figs. Van Tyne, J. and G. M. Sutton^ — 1937 — The birds of Brewster County, Texas. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. Mus. ZooL 37; 1-119, 6 pis., 1 map. Warnock, B. H. — 1946 — The vegetation of the Glass Mountains, Texas. Unpub. Ph. D. thesis, Univ. Texas; i-v, 1-68 (typewritten), 22 pis., 5 maps, frontis. Wright, A. H. and A. A, Wright — ^1949 — Handbook of frogs and toads. Comstock, Ithaca, N. Y. : i~xii, 1-640, 126 pis., 37 maps. York, C. L. — 1949^ — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribution in the Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 1 (3) : 46-62, 2 figs. RANDOM NOTES ON TEXAS FISHES PART I J, L. Baughman Chief Marine Biologist Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission *'And here/^ says Oviedo, ^'is to be noted that in the great ocean sea there is a very strange thing to be considered, which all that have been in 'the Indies affirm to be true; And, this is that like as on the land, there are some provinces fertile and fruitful, and some barren, even so doth the like chance in the sea; so that at some windes the ships sail fiftie, or a hundred, or two hundred leagues and more without taking or seeing of one fish: and again, in the selfe same ocean in some places, all the water is seen tremble by the moving of the fishes, where they are taken abundantly.” Oviedo’s statement anent the distribution of fishes is as true now as it was then, and, in many parts of the world, we know no more about the matter than did the ancient Spaniard. Particularly, this statement may be applied to the western Gulf of Mexico, where, despite the fine work of Pearson (1929), of Gunter (1945), and the papers of Fowler (1931), Reed (1941) and Evermann and Kendall (1894), the distribution of even the more common fishes is not well known. 118 The Texas Journal of Science Very often a species of which only a single individual has been taken in our waters is more plentiful than such a record would indicate, while other species, through repetition of the original notes, have gained a respectable place in the literature, and with it an undue prominence. The tendency has been to consider the western portion of the Gulf as ecologically identical with the Floridian and West Indian areas, and at least one pair of compilers (Cross and Parks, 1937) have included in their list of Texas fishes many for which the only authority seems to be a state¬ ment in Jordan and Evermann (1896-98) that the species are found from Florida to Brazil. Such listings are, I believe, fallacious. To my mind, the western Gulf of Mexico presents an entirely separate faunal complex, cut off from Florida by the vast and silt-laden flood of the Mississippi, and from the West Indies by the deeps extending from the mouth of that river down through the Yucatan Channel, past the Mister iosa and Rosalind Banks, to the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea. Even a cursory inspection of the literature of the last few years wfill show that, from a portion of the waters in question, there have been de¬ scribed new gobies, seahorses, flatfishes, scorpaenids, iniomids, batrachoids and ophidiids, to a number greater than from any other similar area. More¬ over, none of these species are found to any great extent in the Floridian fauna. Add to this the fact that certain species, such as Pristis microdon (Baughman, 1943), and Cyclopsetta chittendeni^ have not been reported from the more eastern complex, although they occur in the waters of Cen¬ tral and South America, and you have a partial basis for the hypothesis that many of the species in this portion of the Gulf have come, not from the eastward, but rather originated to the south, and have migrated north¬ ward along the coast of Central America, Texas forming the northern¬ most portion of their range. The western Gulf, then, forms a pocket, somewhat analogous to the Gulf of California, which catches and retains species which do not appear on contiguous continental coasts, i.e., in the one instance to the east of the Mississippi, and in the other, on the outer portion of the peninsula of Lower California. This hypothesis is, of course, open to criticism, and may be proved entirely wrong as further material is collected and examined. It is unfortunate that no extensive work such as the "Fishes of Chesa¬ peake Bay’’ has been published on the fauna of the western Gulf for, as it now is, the student is forced to spend much time and effort in a search for scattered papers, many of which are not readily available. There are the works of Meek (1905), Regan (1906-08) and Hubbs (1936), which are in general concerned with fresh water species, and of Meek and Hilde¬ brand (1923-28), all of which are of some value, but which are really not primarily concerned with the region in question, A few papers on the fauna about Tampico, Progreso and Cozumel Island exist, but there is little else that has any bearing on the area between these points and the mouth of the Mississippi, with the exception of the papers mentioned in paragraph three of this paper. Nevertheless, there is sufficient material now in the museums of the world to form a real basis for an attempt to evaluate the fish fauna of this section and of Texas in particular. In the Chicago Museum of Natural History there is a large collection made by Mr. A. C. Weed, at Point Isabel, in 1924, and another made by C. T. Reed, from about Corpus Christi. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 119 There are at the University of Michigan, two collections made by the author, as well as a great deal of material (mostly fresh water) accumulated by Dr. Hubbs and various others. Other collections made by Reed and by the author are in the National Museum. These cover the territory about Galveston, Freeport, Port Aransas and Corpus Christi. The old Bureau of Fisheries collections have all been placed in the National Museum; among them should be one made by the "Grampus” from the continental shelf of the area in question, and two collections of littoral fishes, namely Pear¬ son’s, from the lower Texas coast, and that made by the shrimp investiga¬ tions under Lindner and Anderson, from western Louisiana and eastern Texas. There is a collection in the Houston Museum of Natural History. Some of Dr. Gunter’s (1945) collection is still in the possession of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission at Rockport (the balance being in the U. S. National Museum), and there are extensive collections (mainly fresh water) at Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College and at North Texas State Teachers College at Denton. Moreover, there are Texas fishes (some of them types) in the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard and the Natural History Museum at Stanford University. Several collections of Texas fishes are in the British Museum. One of these was presented to them by U. S. National Museum and contained specimens that were obtained by Girard, Another collection, containing at least 13 species, was purchased from Brandt, 18 52. Among these were a frhthy an Achirus, a ray, Pteroplatea micrura, and two puffers, one of which was Lagocepbalus laevigatus. Another collector, Farrer, presented them with carangids, gobies, cichlids, cyprinodonts and catfishes, all from Texas, while the old Haslar Hospital collection of Sir John Richardson, transferred to the British Museum in Gunther’s time, contains specimens from the Gulf, although from what part I do not know. Dr. R, Parnell sent in a number of species of fishes, taken in Lake Pontchartrain, as did M. Salle, who made extensive collections about New Orleans, among which may be noted a specimen of Acipemer, a sparoid (Lagodon or Archosargus?) , Batrachus, Belone, Hemirhamphus and Syngnathus. More recent than any of the foregoing are the collections made by the joint Woods Hole-Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory "Atlantis” expedition. Another comprising some 2000 specimens was recently made around Rockport by the author. There are also small collections at the University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew, Jamaica, B.W.I. and at the Southwest Technical College and School of Art, Longbridge Road, Dagenham, Great Britain. Both of these were made by biologists of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, while a third, in the Department of Zoology of the University of Texas was made by the members of that department. The great mass of this material is still untouched. However, specialists have made a few scattered reports on some of the collections, and the author ha^, during the past eight or ten years, accumulated still other material. This material and these reports form the basis of this present paper. The fresh water data are taken from the Bonham and Reed Ms., a good paper, too long unpublished. I am sure that there are omissions from this list, and that some of the material included herein will be subject to change as our knowledge grows. 120 The Texas Journal of Science Nevertheless, it will serve as a working basis for further study. I am indebted to Mr. Weed for permission to use much hitherto un¬ published material; to Dr. A. W. Herre and Dr. George S. Myers for data on the material at Stanford; to Dr. Reeve M. Bailey for identification of some of the eels; to Dr. Leonard F. Schultz and to Mr. Earl D. Reid for data on the National Museum collection; to Mr, Norman S. Buell, of the California Packing Company, for data on sharks; to Dr. W. C. Schroeder and Mr. Stewart Springer for identifications; to Dr, Ethelv/ynn Trewavas for a list of the British Museum material; to Monsieur L. Bertin, of the Jardin des Plantes, for a list of the French material; to Dr. Gordon Gunter for specimens, to Dr. A .C. Chandler, Miss Alice C. Dean, and Dr. W. S. Dix, of Rice Institute, for the use of laboratory and library facilities at the Institute, and to Mr. Stuart Adkins of Port Isabel, for aid in collecting in that area. In the collection of fresh water data, I was aided by Mr. Kirby Walker of Houston. To all of these I wish to express my most sincere thanks. The arrangement followed is that of Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930. Order AMPHIOXI Family branchiostomidae Genus Branchiostoma Jordan Despite the fact that biologists have collected in the Rockport-Port Aransas area for a number of years, it remained for Mr. T. E. Pulley of the University of Houston to dis¬ cover the first specimens of Amphioxus ever to be taken from Texas -waters. While dredging in Lydia Ann Channel near Beacon Number 145, on August 25, 1948, Mr. Pulley took a number of these animals on which, as yet, no specific determinations have been made. Order HYPEROARTIA Family petromyzonidae Genus Betromyzon Linnaeus Petromyzon gaigei Hubbs and Trautmann. Bailey, 1947: 146, Nacog¬ doches County, Texas. Order EUSELACHII Family orectolobidae Genus Gin gly mo stoma Mueller and Henle Ginglymostoma cirrattim (Gmelin). A five foot specimen of the shark, taken in a shrimp trawl off Port Aransas, during August, 1947, constitutes the first record of this shark for Texas. This specimen is now in the collection of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission at Rockport. Family triakidae Genus Must elm Linck Mustelus cams (Mitchill). Reed, 1941, Texas; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948 :244, Texas ; Baughman and Springer, 1950, Texas. Texas specimens are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Family carchariidae Genus Galeocerdo Muller and Henle Galeocerdo cuvier (Le Sueur). Not previously reported from Texas. A fuller account of this specimen will be found in Baughman and Springer, 1950. Genus Scoliodon Muller and Henle Scoliodon terra-novae (Richardson). Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948: 295-303, Texas. As far as can be determined, this is the first record from the state. For* a more detailed account see Baughman and Springer, op. cit. There is a specimen, in the American Museum of Natural History, that was caught at Freeport and Texas specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Genus Aprionodon Gill Aprionodon isodon (Muller and Henle) Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948: 303-308, Galveston. Presumably a new record for Texas. See Beaughman and Springer, 1950. Texas specimens are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 121 Genus Nega prion Whitley Nega prion brevirostris (Poey). Gunter, 1945; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948:310-315, Texas. Genus Carcharhinm Blainville CarcharhifiMs leucas^{Mxiller and Henle). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883b; 243, Galveston, as C. platyodon ; EVermann and Kendall, 1894 :95 ; Galveston, as C. platyo- don ; Reed, 1941:85, Texas, as C. commersoni and C. platyodon; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948 : 337-346, Texas. This is one of the large sharks of Texas. A specimen (F.M.N.H. 10921) was taken by Mr. Weed at Brazos Santiago Pass, while Mr. Norman Buell, of the California Packing Company, tells me that he examined a 250 lb. specimen of this shark taken at Galveston. The experimental shark fishery carried on by the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, in the summer of 1949, took large numbers of' this species. Carcharhinm porosm (Gilbert). Baughman, 1943, Texas, as C. cerdale, Galveston ; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948 : 394-399, north shore of Gulf of Mexico ; Baugh¬ man and Springer, 1950, Texas. Carcharhinm acronotus (Poey). A specimen of this shark, collected by Clyde Reed near Corpus Christi, is in the Chicago Museum of Natural History. Dr. W. C. Schroeder tells me that there is only one other record of the species from the northern Gulf of Mexico, a specimen having been taken at Biloxi, Mississippi. The Corpus Christi speci¬ men was identified by Mr. Loren P. Woods, and constitutes a new Texas record. Carcharhinm limhatus (Muller and Henle). Baughman, 1942a, Gal¬ veston as C. natator; Gunter, 1945, Lower Aransas Bay, Texas; Baughman and Springer, 1950, Port Isabel, Galveston. Specimens from Galveston are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Carcharhinm springeri Bigelow and Schroeder, 1944: 21-36, Florida to Yucatan. Presumably this range includes Texas. Genus Prionace Cantor Prionace glauca (Linnaeus). Baughman and Springer, 1950, doubtful sight records. Family sphyrnidae Genus Sphyrna Rafinesque Sphyrna tiburo (Linnaeus). Very common. Texas specimens are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Sphyrna tudes (Cuvier). New record for Texas. See Baughman and Springer, 1950. Sphyrna zygaena Linnaeus. Reed, 1941, Texas; other specimens in U. S. National Museum and at Stanford. Sphyrna diplana Springer. Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948: 415-420, Galveston. See Baughman and Springer, 1956. Specimens from Texas are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Family rhincodontidae Genus Khincodon Smith Khincodon typicus Smith. Baughman, 1947b: 280. Based on a sight record at Port Isabel. I now have another sight record from off Port Aransas. Mrs. D. H. Braman of Victoria, Texas, during the summer of 1948, had one of these fish alongside her boat for some time. She estimated the length of the fish at between 30 and 40 feet. The shark was accompanied by numbers of ling, Rachycentron canadus. Family alopidae Genus Alopias Rafinesque Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre) . Gunter, 1941, off Aransas Pass. Family lamnidae Genus Jsurns Rafinesque hums oxyrhynchm Rafinesque. Bigelow and Schroeder, 1948: 124-13 3, Cameron County, Texas. This shark has been taken at Port Isabel several times within the past nine years. A 71 cm, specimen, taken 4/7/49, from the snapper banks off Port Aransas, is in the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission collection at Rockport. Genus Carcharodon Agassiz Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus). A female, seven feet and six inches long, 12 miles Southeast of Port Aransas, in 15 fathoms, February 9, 1950. Another female, eleven feet and six inches long was taken in the same locality, on February 16. A third, twelve feet and two inches long, was caught on February 25. The first recorded occurrences in Texas. 1 122 The Texas Journal of Science Family squaIidae Genus Squalus Linnaeus Squalus acanthias Linnaeus. Reed, 1941, Texas. Order TECTOSPONDYLI Suborder SQUATINOIDEI Family squatinidae Genus Squatina Risso Squatina dumeril (LeSueur) Parks, 1939, as Squatina squat ina; Reed, 1941:85, Texas, as Squatina squatina; Gunter, 1941b, as Squatina squatina, from Aransas Pass. Four specimens of this odd fish have been caught in shrimp trawls off Port Aransas, On December 30, 1945, a female was caught, while on January 23, 1946, a male was obtained in the same locality. Slightly later, a second female was brought in. Two other specimens have been obtained in the same general area. The first was noted by Parks (1939). He gives no data in his paper as to the exact location at which it was caught, but in a letter to Dr. Gordon Gunter, stated that it was obtained in a shrimp trawl, in Corpus Christi Bay, in March, 1937. Another specimen was taken in 1929, about 5 miles off Port Aransas. This was the first specimen known, and the second one recorded from the Texas coast, according to Gunter, (1941). PSquafina argentina Marini. On February 21, 1950, the boat K.T. of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission brought in a three- foct shark tentatively identified as this species. A four foot specimen caught 2/27/50 exhibited the same unusual formation in the nasal cirri as did the first. If our identification is correct this is a tremendous extension of range and a new North American record. Order BATOIDEI Suborder SARCURA Family pristidae Genus Pristh Linck Prisfis pectinatus Latham. Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 245, Galveston; from Port Arthur to Brownsville ; Baughman, 1947b : 280, Port Isabel. I have recently ex¬ amined a saw of this species from Vera Cruz, and Gann (1926) illustrates, opposite p. 28, a specimen caught near Belize. Incidently this fish differs (as far as can be determined from a photograph) from the fish shown by Marden (1944^ pk 5, which was taken in Lake Nicaragua, and listed by him as P. microdon. The rostrum on the Lake Nicaragua specimen is apparently much more tapering than those of the Texas specimens, the teeth not so well developed, more nearly resembling those of P. pectinatus, and the whole struc¬ ture appears lighter and more fragile. Pristh pectinatus Latham. Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 245, Galveston; Kendall, 1894: 95, Galveston; Gunter, 1941b: 194-200, Texas coast; Reed, 1941: 85, Texas; Baughman, 1943c: 43-48, Texas coast. Specimens collected by Weed (F.M.N.H. 10922-24) are in the Chicago Museum of Natural History Family rhinobatidae Genus Khinobatos Linck Khinobatos lentiginosus (Garman). Reed, 1941: 8 5, pi. 11; "from about Corpus Christi.” One specimen (U.S.N.M. 120078) was collectde by Gordon Gunter at Port Aransas in 1941, and was forwarded to me. This guitar fish, while tentatively identified as lentiginosus, presented an important difference which was noted by Dr. Gunter. Since then other specimens have been obtained. In these, as in the first one, the color, which in Florida specimens is a grayish brown, heavily spotted with white ,is a deep, uniform brown. Mr. Stewart Springer is of the opinion that color is a distinct diagnostic character¬ istic for these fishes, and if it is true, then the Port Aransas specimens are not lentiginosus. However, they apparently agree in all other characteristics with that form. This is not a common fish on this coast, although I have seen 20 or 30 specimens over a period of some ten years. Family RAJIDAE Genus raja Linnaeus Ka]a texana Chandler. Chandler, 1921: 657-658, Galveston; Woods, 1942 : 191, “Within fifty miles of Corpus Christi” ; Gunter, 1945 : 21, Port Aransas. The six specimens recorded by the above authors were all that were known from the state, or that were recorded in the literature until the present note. There are specimens of this skate at Rice Institute and in the Houston Museum of Natural History. There are also a number in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, these last being part of the material examined for the forthcoming “Fishes of the Western North Atlantic”. There is only one other mention of this skate in the literature, (Springer, 1939). A specimen from Horn Island. Mississinpi, is in the Chicago Museum, and there are many, from verv small to very large, in the laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Com.mission at Rockport. Kaia stabuliforh Garman. Dr. Flerre identifies a 50 5 mm. specimen in the Stanford Museum from Freeport as this form (a new record for Texas), giving the tooth count as 36-38. Although Reed 11941) lists both R. eglanteria and R. diaphanes from 30-32 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 123 Texas, I have never seen any skate but R. texana Chandler .The specimen in question was collected by me, but at that time I was not as familiar with the form as I now am, and was not sure in identifying it as R. texana, although it is so marked in my journal. Until Bigelow and Schroeder’s forthcoming paper on elasmobranchs is published, and the validity of texana established or disproven, it seems well to allow Dr. Herre’s identification to stand. Raja eglanteria Bose. Reed, 1941: 85, Texas. Doubtful. Raja diaphanes Mitchill. Reed, 1941: 8 5, Texas. Doubtful. Suborder NARCACIONTES Family torpedinidae Genus T etranarce Gill Tetronarce occidentalh (Storer). Reed, 1941: 85; Texas. This specimen is now in the Chicago Museum of Natural History. Genus Narcine Henle Narcine brasiliensis (Olfers). Gunter, 1945: 21, Port Aransas and Laguna Madre; Fowler, 1945: 371; Corpus Christi. Additional material:- Rice Institute, one. Port Aransas; Chicago Museum of Natural History, six (F.M.N.H. 10942-44, 11189-91). Family dasyatidae Genus Dasyath Rafinesque Dasyatis americana Hildebrand and Schroeder. Reed, 1941: 85, Texas, (as D. hastatus) ; Gunter, 1945 : 22, Port Aransas and Aransas Bay. Additional material :- Chicago Museum of Natural History, three (F.M.N.H. 10957-59), Port Isabel; also specimens in the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission at Rockport. Dasyatis sabina (LeSueur) . Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 245, Galveston; Christi; Reed, 1941 : 86, Texas. Additional material:- Corpus Christi, one (U.S.N.M. 93616), in the National Museum. Dasyatis sabina (LeSueur). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 245, Galveston; Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 95, after Jordan and Gilbert; Gunter, 1941a: 203-208, Port Aransas ; Reed, 1941 : 86, Texas ; Gunter, 1945 : 22, Copano and Aransas Bays and Gulf of Mexico. Additional material:- Chicago Museum of Natural History five (F.M.N.H. 10955- 56, 60, 11192-93), Port Isabel; U. S. National Museum, accession number 156479, specimens from Aransas Pass and Galveston ; nine. Port Aransas ; British Museum, a number from Rockport ; Museum of Comparative Zoology, specimen from Galveston. Genus Pteroplatea Muller and Henle Pteroplatea micrura (Schneider). Gunther, 1870: 487, Texas; Reed, 1941: 86, Texas; Gunter, 1945: 23, Port Aransas. Additional material:- British Museum, two; Chicago Museum of Natural History seven (F.M.N.H. 10938-41, 11185-88), Port Isabel; three. Corpus Christi; U. S. National Museum, accession number 156479, specimens from Galveston; six, (U.S.N.M. 116452), Galveston. Genus Urobatis Garman Urobatis sloani (Blainville) . Reed, 1941: 86, Texas. The writer has never seen this ray from the Texas coast nor has Dr. Gunter, of the University of Texas Institute of Marine Science. Family aetobatidae Genus Stoasodon Canton Stoasodon narinari (Euphrasen). Gunter, 1941b: 196, no locality; Reed, 1941 : 86, from about Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1942 : 267-276, Port Aransas. The above are the only records of this species from the Texas coast. I have seen this ray at Freeport, where I once watched two of them feeding off the Velasco jetty. A sportsman at Galveston took one on hook and line in 1940. Another was caught there in July, 1947, and they are not uncommon around Aransas Pass. Our laboratory work boat took one in Lydia Ann Channel on May 30, 1947, and Mr. Harry Traylor, of Rockport, once told m^ that, in 1909, he once saw a huge school of these rays, “thousands and thousands of them” in Aransas Bay. There is a set of jaws from Port Isabel in the Houston Museum of Natural History, and Mr. Weed took three of them (F.M.N.H. 10985-87) in the same locality. One from Port Aransas was collected by Clyde Reed and is in the Chicago Museum, while we have one at the Marine Laboratorj'^ of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. Genus Aetohatus Blainville Aetobatus freminvillei (Le Sueur). Evermann and Kendall, Galveston, based upon a tail ;Reed, 1941 : 86, from Corpus Christi. These are the only records of this ray from our coast. Apparently there are no specimens from here in any collection. Family rhinoptertdae Genus Rhinoptera Ruble Rhinoptera bonasus Mitchill. Reed, 1941: 86, from about Corpus Christi. Until the present note this was the only evidence of this ray in our waters. Three specimens collected by Mr. Weed at Port Isabel (F.M.N.H. 10904-5-6) were never recor-^ed. lu July, 1945 the writer obtained a small specimen from a seine on Galveston west beach. This is now in the Houston Museum of Natural History. In a number of conversations with commercial seiners along the beach on the same day the consensus among them was that 124 The Texas Journal of Science the ray was occasionally found in their nets, but that it was not common. Since then we have obtained a number of specimens from Aransas Bay. Apparently the form is some¬ what more plentiful, especially during the summer, than we have hitherto thought. Family mobulidae Genus Manta Bancroft Manta birostrh (Walbaum). Reed, 1941: 86, from about Corpus Christi. These big rays are repeatedly mentioned in the newspapers from about Port Isabel, where they seem to be not uncommon. Moreover, during the summer of 1947, Messrs. Crook and Devine, who operated a flying service for the fishermen out of Rockport, re¬ peatedly saw these fish along the coast from Port Aransas to Port Isabel, singly and in schools. On May 9-10 they reported a considerable concentration at Yarborough Pass. Sportsmen occasionally take them by harpooning, and the writer examined one on Gal¬ veston west beach which had been caught in a seine. Two of them emptied the negro section of Galveston bathing beach some years ago. There was a cry of shark, and every negro in the water left, immediately, and without any argument. The rays, whicTi were quite large, cruised back and forth in a gully between the first and second bars for some time, apparently feeding, and could be plainly seen from the top of the sea wall. They swam with the tips of their pectorals above the water, and these fins looked remarkably like the dorsal fin of a large shark, except that they occurred in pairs that were always equidistant from each other, a formation unlikely in a school of sharks. The day follow¬ ing, one of these rays, or another, became almost stranded between the first bar and the beach, and remained there for some time, until the incoming tide covered the bar to a sufficient depth to release it. Charles Bering, of Houston, once told me some years ago he bought a specimen of Manta from a gill netter at Galveston. In preparing the same for removal to Houston, the fish was gutted. Contents of the stomach were a large and very solid ball of shrimp hulls, very much like the castings of an owl’s stomach, and imbedded in the same were two flying fish. The ball was more than a foot and a half in diameter, and very solid and hard packed. The flying fish were in the center of the ball. William Elliott (1859), a gentleman of South Carolina, hunted these giant rays for sport, spearing them from an open boat. During such an expedition, he observed a pair of these giant fish while breeding and, as such observations are rare indeed, I quote a literal translation of his account. He says “Suddenly, at the left — but too far off 'for me to hope to pierce them with a single thrust if I should cast my spear at them — I perceived two cephalopterous fishes locked in embrace. With bellies joined, with heads raised and lifted above the waves, with antennae interlaced lustfully, they were undoubtedly at that very moment (tunc) performing a rude coition through bodily contact, after the manner of the squalus kind. An unexpectedly fine opportunity (had) presented itself to me to kill the two cephalopterae or to transfix them with a single blow, were it not for the excessive distance. They avoided the approaching boat and threatening spear cautiously, and, concealing themselves for a little time in the deep water, they emerged again on the right side and renewed their lustful play. Then, as if in delight, tired of leaping (literally, dancing on air) into the air on both sides of the boat, they sought the open sea. In this encounter so rarely noted, the antennae of the white fish joined with the antennae of the black one like the muscles of human arms.” Order GLANIOSTOMI Family acipenseridae Genus Acipenser Linnaeus Aclpenser brevirostris LeSueur. Jordan and Evermann, 1902: 12, Texas. I doubt that this record is correct. Genus scaphirhynchus Fleckel Scaphirhynchus platorynchus Rafinesque. This species is reported by Evermann and Kendall (1894) in their “Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Basin” as occurring in the Red River system at Fulton, Arkansas, their authority being Jordan and Gilbert (1887). Cope and Yarrow (1875) report it from the Rio Grande system at Albu¬ querque, N. M. Neither of these is from Tc'xas proper, although both river systems pass through the state. So far as it is possible to ascertain, the only bona fide Texas recordis of a specimen taken at Eagle Mountain Lake, near Dallas, Texas, in 1940. The 24” specimen weighed 1 1/2 lbs. and was identified by one of the biologists of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, a short note on the fish being given in the publication of that state department. However, the circulation of the paper was so small that I ventured to include it here for the use of students from outside the state. Order SELACHOSTOMI Family polyodontidae Genus Polyodon Lacepede Polyodon spat hula (Walbaum). This, another of America’s large fresh water fishes, is reputed to have been fairly common in the eastern portion of the state in earlier times, and I have seen a sma,ll specimen in the collection of the Wildlife Unit at Texas A & M College. Dr. Kelshaw Bonham, then in charge of the collection, told me that it had been taken up near Caddo Lake. A specimen weighing twenty-five pounds was reported in the monthly bulletin of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission for August, 1941, and I have recently learned of 700 to 800 lbs. of these fish that were taken from a lake at Camp Strake, the Boy Scout Camp, near Conroe, Texas. There is a 36-inch specimen in the Houston Museum of Natural History, which came from the Trinity River. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 125 Order HOLOSTEI Suborder GINGLYMODI Family lepisosteidae Genus Lepisosteus LacepMe The literature of these species is so voluminous that, for the sake of brevity, I have omitted it in the case of this genus, Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus), Tliis gar is fairly common throughout the waters of Texas. A subspecies (L, o. leptorhynchus) is also found. Material, British Museum, three. Chambers County, Texas. Lepisosteus platystomus Rafinesque, British Museum, 13, Barbour’s Hill, Chambers County, Texas. U. S. National Museum, eight, Harris County, Texas. Chicago Museum of Natural History, two (F.M.N.H. 10993-94) Port Isabel. Lepisosteus productus (Cope). Apparently not as widely distributed as the foregoing. Lepisosteus spatula Lacepede. Generally distributed throughout the river systems of the central and eastern portions of the state. This gar enters brackish water frequently and will even tolerate the saline waters of the open gulf. _ Material British Museum, two, Chambers County Texas ; Chicago Museum of Natural History, one, Texas ; three (F.M.N.H. 10985-87) Port Isabel and two (F.M.N.H. 10991-92) Brownsville; Cmver- sity of Michigan, one, Galveston Bay, (Dr. Hubbs tells me that this is perhaps the smallest alligator gar in any collection, as it is only 17mm, in length) ; one, Galveston Bay, 25mm. U. S. National Museum, one, (U.S.N.M. 120061). These fish occasionally reach a very large size. Mr. T. S. Daniels, of Navarro County, reported two. One taken from Daniels Lake, about 1920, weighed 225 pounds, while another, caught in 1946, weighed 237 pounds. These were scale weights and the first was accompanied by ■ an affidavit. Order HALECOMORPHI Family amiidae Genus Amia Linnaeus Amk calva Linnaeus. The literature of this species is voluminous. It is v/idely distributed throughout the eastern portion of the state. Order ISOSPONDYLI Suborder ELOPOIDEA Family elopidae Genus Llops Linnaeus Elops saufus Linnaeus. Fowler, 1931: 46, Corpus Christi; Flildebrand, 1943 : 93, Aransas Pass ; Gunter, 1945 : 24, Copano and Aransas Bays and the Gulf of Mexico ; Fowler, 1945 : 372, Galveston ; Baughman, 1946 : 263, Barbour’s Hill, Texas, in fresh water. -Rather common along the entire Texas Coast. Additional material:- British Museum, six. Port Aransas ; Chicago Museum of Natural History, two (F.M.N.H. 10936-37) Port Isabel ; University of Michigan, one, leptocephalid, San Leon, Texas. Family megalopidae Genus Tarpon Jordan and Evermann Tarpon atlanticus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 246, Galveston, as Megalops atlanticus; Goode, 1884: 610, Texas, as M, thrissoides; Evermann and Kendall, 1894 : 105, after Jordan and Gilbert ; Goode, 1903 : 407, Texas ; Jordan and Evermann, 1902 ; 85, Texas; Babcock, 1920: 14, Texas; Fowler, 1931: 46, Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1945 : 25, Copano Bay. One of the common fish of the Texas coast. Babcock, in one edition, mentions a very small speciment from Port Aransas. F. M. Daugherty, Jr., of the laboratory staff, caught a 3%” specimen in a brackish water pond, near Freeport, during the summer of 1947. This is now in the University of Houston collection. A 7” specimen from Nine Mile Point, in Aransas Bay, and a 3 1/2” specimen from near La Porte (Caught by C, L, Bering in 1948) are both in the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Laboratory, Additional material Chicago Museum of Natural History, one (F.M.N.H. 10891), mouth of the Rio Grande, one (F.M.N.H. 10892), Brazos Santiago, one (F.M'.N.H. 10893) Pert Isabel; all collected by Weed. Suborder ALBULOIDEI Family albulidae Genus Albula (Gronow) Bloch and Schneider Albula vulpes (Linnaeus). Gunter, 1945: 197, Texas. This notice of Gunter’s is probably the first record of Albula from Texas, as my paper, to which he refers, was later withdrawn and not published. The specimen to which it refers, an adult, was taken on the coast between Corpus Christi and Palacios, and was on display in the offices of the Gulf Oil Comnany, at Houston, a short time ago. A small specimen, from San Leon, Texas, identified as this species, is in the National Museum, but as it is a leptocephalid, it might be Elops saurus, a species common in waters of Galveston Bay. 126 The Texas Journal of Science Suborder CLUPEOIDEl Family hiodontidae Genus Hiodon LeSueur Hiodon tergisus LeSueur. Soulen, 1941: 5, Texas. Genus Amphiodon Rafinesque Amphiodon alosoides Rafinesque. Bonham and Reed, Ms., Red River, rare. Genus Po-moloints Rafinesque Pomolobus chrysochloris Rafinesque. ?Bean, 1882: 69-70, Colorado River at Matagorda ; Jordan and Gillsert. 1883a : 247, Galveston ; Evermann and Kendall, 1894 : 105, after Jordan and Gilbert ; Anonymous, 1942 : 10, in the Colorado near Austin ; Gunter, 1945 : 25, Mustang Island. Two specimens were taken in Allyn’s Bight, Aransas Bay, January 24, 1949, by our laboratory seine crew. Genus Alosa Linck Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). Repeated efforts, by the old U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, to establish this fish in the streams of Texas were entirely unsuccessful. Genus Harengtila Cuvier and Valenciennes Harengula bmneralis (Cuvier). Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 105. Galveston and Corpus Christi, as H. arcuata ; 1 specimen from Galveston, accession number 156479, is in the National Museum, identified as Sardinella humeralis. Harengtila clupeola (Cuvier), Gunter, 1945: 25, Copano and Aransas Bays and Gulf of Mexico. A specimen (U.S.N.M. 93586) collected by Reed, is in the National Museum, as Sardinella macropthalma. Harengula pensacolae Goode and Bean. Storey, 193 8: 3 5, Galveston. Genus Opisthonema Gill Opisthonema ogUnum (LeSueur), Jordan and Gilbert, 1883: 247, Galveston, as O. thrjssa. Evermann and Kendall, 1894 ; 105, after Jordan and Gilbert. Gunter, 1945 : 25, Port Aransas. A number of these are in the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission collection at Rockport, others are in the British Museum. This fish is fairly common. Genus Brevoortia Gill Brevoortia patronm Goode. Goode 1879a: 39, Brazos Santiago, Texas, description based on U.S.N.M. 892 ; diagnosis and table of measurements based on U.S.N.M. 892 ; diagnosis and table of measurements based in part on specimens from the “Mouth of the Rio Grande” (U.S.N.M. 891), which are B. gunteri n. sp. ; 1879b: 26, 36, 289, Brazos Santiago (diagnosis copied, from original account) ; 1884 : 575, pi. 206 (common names, movements, parasites, reproduction, food); Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 105, pi. 21 (as B. p. tyrannus), Galveston; Jordan and Evermann, 1896: 434, (as B. p. tyrannus), Gal¬ veston; Jordan and Evermann, 1896: 434, (as B. p. tyrannus), Brazos Santiago; (?) Fowler, f931 ;47, Port Isabel; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1931:44; (?) Fowler, 1945:372, Galves¬ ton; Gunter, 1945 : 29, as B. tyrannus (not of Latrobe), Texas; Hildebrand, 1948:13-21, fig. 3, Texas. Brevoortia gunteri Hildebrand. Goode, 1879a: 39 (in part not patronus), Brazos Santiago and mouth of the Rio Grande; Gunter, 1945:27, Copano and Aransas Bays, Texas (recognized as differing from B. patronus in having more silvery, less green color, as having a sharper snout, a “differently-shaped head”, and much smaller scales); Hildebrand, 1948:31-37, fig. 7, Texas. Rather common in our bays. Family DOROSOMIDAE Genus Dorosoma Rafinesque Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883: 248, Galveston ; Jordan and Gilbert, 1887 :14, 24, New Braunfels ; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:105, Galveston Bay and Houston; Jordan and Evermann, 1896:416, Texas; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:46, Texas; Gunter, 1945: 30, Copano and Aransas Bays ; Baughman 1946:263, Barbour’s Hill. A specimen from Aransas Pass (U.S.N.M. 120048) is in the National Museum. This is a common fish in Texas. Dorosoma cepedianum exile Jordan and Gilbert. Jordan and Gilbert, 1883c :585, Galveston: Evermann and Kendall, 1894:105, in part; Jordan and Evermann, 1896:416, Galveston; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:46, streams of Texas. Specimens in the U. S. National Museum collection by Baughman in Bray’s Bayou and Spring Creek, and at Galveston, were identified as this species. Genus Signalosa Evermann and Kendall Signalosa petenensis (Gunther). Soulen, 1941: 6, Texas. Signalosa petenensis atchafalayae Evermann and Kendall. Soulen, 1941:6, Texas. Fowler, 1945 :372, Galveston. Signalosa petenensis mexicana (Gunther). Weed, 1925: 143, Browns¬ ville, as S. m. campi; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:47, after Weed; Soulen, 1941:6. Texas : Gunter, 1945 :31, Copano and Aransas Bays ; Grey, 1947 :186, after Weed. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 127 Family ENGRAULIDAE Genus Anchoa Jordan and Evermann Anchoa hepsetus hepsetus (Linnaeus). Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 106, Galveston, as Stolephorus brownii; Hildebrand, 1943 :59, Texas; (?) Gunter, 1945:32, C'opano and Aransas Bays and Gulf of Mexico at Port Aransas ; Fowler, 1945 :372, Corpus Christi. Anchoa hepsetus colonensis Hildebrand. Hildebrand, 1943:61, Mustang Island, Texas ; ( ?) Gunter, 1945 :32, Copano and Aransas Bays, and Gulf of Mexico at Port Aransas. Anchoa lyolepis (Evermann and Marsh). Gunter, 1934:33, Mustang Island and Lydia Ann Channel. Anchoa mit chilli mit chilli (Valenciennes). Fowler, 1945: 372, Gal¬ veston. Anchoa mitchilli diaphana Hildebrand, 1943:93, Texas; Gunter, 1945 :33, Copano and Aransas Bays and the Gulf of Mexico at Port Aransas. The following three species have not been recorded from Texas. How¬ ever, as Hildebrand (1943) outlines their range, there is a strong possibility of their occurrence in the waters of that state. Anchoa cayorum (Fowler). Range: — Gulf of Mexico (Florida, west coast, to Cabo Catoche, Yucatan, inclusive). Anchoa lamprotaenia Hildebrand. Range: -Ibid. Anchoa cubana (Poey) Range: -Ibid. Has been reported from Grand Isle, Louisiana. A fourth species, of another genus, Anchoviella perfasciata is also found within the same range as the three doubtful species of Anchoa, and the same remarks apply to it. Suborder SALMONOIDEI • -Family salmonidae Genus Oncorhynchus Suckley Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum), The introduction of this species into Texas waters was not successful, although planted here by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries in the last century. Genus Salmo Linnaeus Salmo spilurus Cope. Girard originally reported this fish, as Salmo virginalis, from the Upper Rio Grande, without deUnitely locating it in Texas. Bonham and Reid (Ms) definitely report it from this state. Salmo gairdnerii Richardson. The rainbow or steelhead trout was once introduced into the waters of Texas. However, so far as I know, none survived. Salmo trutta levenensis (Walker). The Loch Leven trout is another introduced form that did not, apparently survive. Genus Salvelinus Richardson Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). The eastern brook trout was once introduced in Texas, with what success I do not know. Order APODES Suborder ENCHELYCEPHALI Family anguillidae Genus Anguilla Shaw Anguilla bostoniensis (LeSueur). Kaup, 1856: 45, fig. 36, Texas, as a. texana; Girard, 1858:75, pi. 40, Rio Grande river, as A. tyrannus; Jordan and Gilbert, 1887, Rio Colorado at Austin and Rio San Marcos at San Marcos, as A. a. rostrata; Ever¬ mann and Kendall, 1894, pi. 26, Texas ; Gunter, 1941b ;195, Rockport. The San Marcos specimen (U.S.N.M. 36512) is large, 32 inches in length. This eel is fairly common along the Texas coast, in the rivers entering the Gulf. There is a specimen from New Braunfels in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and one from Galveston in the National Museum. Numerous specimens of this eel were taken from the Rockport boat basin during the summer of 1947. These were deposited in the National and British Museums. Family congridae Genus Neoconger Girard Neoconger mucronahis Girard. Girard, 18 59a: 77, St. Joseph’s Island; Girard, 1859:171, St. Joseph’s Island; Gunter, 1870:49, St. Joseph’s Island, (after Girard); Jordan and Gilbert. 1883b :360, St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard); Jordan and Davis, 1892:646. St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard): Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108, pi. 26, St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard); Jordan and Evermann, 1898:362, coast of Texas (after Girard); Breder, 1929:51, coast of Texas (after Girard); Woods, 1942:191; “Within fifty 128 The Texas Journal of Science miles of Corpus Christi”. The first eight notices are all based on Girard’s specimen. No other specim.ens of this eel were taken between 1858 and 1942, when Woods described a specimen collected by Reed. Family echelidae Genus Myropbis Liitken Myrophh piinctatm Liitken. Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 261, Galveston* as M. lumbricus; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108, Galveston and Corpus Christi; Jordan and Evermann, 1896:371, Texas; Gunter, 1941a :203, Rockport ; Gunter, 1945; vicinity of Port Aransas, from the stomach of a redfish, Scienops ocellatus. A small specimen of this eel was obtained at Galveston in the summer of 1947. Identification was made by Dr. S. F. Hildebrand, and it was present in the stomachs of redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus) examined at the marine laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission in the summer of 1948. Family opichthyidae Genus Bascanichthys Jordan and Davis Bascanichthys scuticaris (Goode and Bean). At the plant of the Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas, sea water constantly flows into the processing plant through a large canal, v/hich is screened at the intake pipes. The force of the current is sufficient to hold fish against the face of the screen, which must be cleaned frequently to prevent stoppage. Through the kindness of Dr. A. P. Beutel and Mr. C. M. Shigley of the Dow Chemical Company, these fish have been sent to the laboratory from time to time, and, in a shipment made in the early part of 1947, a specimen of this eel was included, the first to be reported from Texas. 'This is a westward extension of its previously known range, which is simply given in Jordan, Evermann and Clark (1930) as west coast of Florida. Genus Ophichihus Thunberg and Ahl Ophichthus gomesti (Castelnau). Jordan and Davis, 1892: 632, ^Tanges as far north as Galveston, Charleston and Pensacola” ; Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a, Texas, as Ophichthus macrurus; the species is represented in the University of Michigan collec¬ tions by a small specimen from Freeport, Texas. Weed obtained another (F.M.N.H. 11000) at Point Isabel in 1924. Genus Mysfriopbh Kaup Mystriophis intertinctus (Richardson). In two shipments of fishes from the Dow Chemical Company at Freeport, Texas, there were a number of large eels, which proved to belong to this species. Identification was made by Mr. J. T. Nichols. This is a westward and northwestward extension of range, and also the first record from Texas. Order COLOCEPHALI Family muraenidae Genus Gymnothorax Bloch Gymnot borax moringa (Cuvier). One specimen approximately two feet long was collected at Freeport and is in the collection of the University of Michigan (identified by Dr. Reeve M. Bailey). I recently saw another at Galveston. This mor^y has not previously been reported from Texas. Gymnotborax funebrh Ranzani. Recently I saw two very large eels at Galveston “from the snapper banks”. They were at least six or seven feet long, but other distinguishing marks were hidden by many coats of varnish and the distance from whTch I saw them (some 15 or 20 feet). On the basis of size it occurred to me that they may have been of this species. Gymnotborax ocellatus nigromarginatus (Girard). Girard, 18 59a: 76, pi. 41, St. Joseph’s Island, as Neomuraena nigromarginatus; Jordan and Davis, 1892:606, St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard) ; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108, St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard): Jordan and Evermann, 1896:399, St Joseph’s Island, as Lycodontis ocellatus nigromarginatus (after Girard); Breder, 1929:57, St. Joseph’s Island (after Girard). Order HETEROGNATHI Family characinidae Genus Astyanax Baird and Girard Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus (de Filippi). Baird and Girard, 18 54: 27, Rio Nueces: Girard, 1859a ;74, Rio Nueces, Rio Leona, Zoquito, Commanche Snrings, Elm Creek, Turkey Creek, San Felipe, Devil’s River, Brownsville, Rio Sabinal and the mouth of the Rio Grande, as Astyanax argentatus; Gunther, 1864:380, Texas, after Baird and Girard; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:105, as Tetragonopterus argentatus: Jordan and Ever¬ mann, 1896 :336, Rio Nueces, Rio Leona ; Zoquito, Texas : Comanche Springs, Elm Creek. Turkey Creek, San Felipe, Devil’s River, Brownsville. Rio Sabinal: Meek, 1905:85, after Baird and Girard; Regan, 1906-8:171, Texas, Rio Grande, Rio Nueces, Rio Leona, as Tetragonopterus mexicana ; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930; 96, Te^xas. The only characin in Texas. FRESH WATER FISHES There is a voluminous literature on the fresh water fishes of the state Random Notes on Texas Fishes 129 and a check list on them is long overdue. As a matter of fact, Kelley Bon¬ ham and Cecil W. Reid, of Texas A & M, prepared such a list, with excellent drawings, long before the war. However, it was buried in the files at that institution and has never been published. For the convenience of those interested in these fishes, the following list, taken from their Ms. is given. For completeness - a few references from Soulen, 1941, are given, and these are so noted in the text. Order EVENTOGNATHI Family catostomidae Genus Cyptinus Linnaeus CyprifiMS carpia (Linnaeus). An introduced fish. Genus Carassius Nilsson . Carassius auratus (Linnaeus). Introduced, Genus Tinea Cuvier Tinea tinea (Linnaeus). Baughmr.^, 1947c5 introduced. Genus Cyclepttis Rafinesque Cycle ptm elon gains (LeSueur). Genus Megastomatolms Fowler Megastomatobm cyprinella (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Genus Ictiobm Rafinesque Ictiobus niger (Rafinesque) , Rare. Ictiobus bubalm (Rafinesque), Genus Carpiodes Rafinesque Carpiodes carpio carpio (Rafinesque). Soulen, 1941. Carpiodes carpio elongatus Meek, Genus Erimyzon Jordan Erimyzon snccetta kennerlyii (Girard). Erimyzon oMongus claviformis (Girard), Genus Minytrema Jordan Minytrema melanops (Rafinesque) . Genus Moxostoma Rafinesque Moxostoma congestum (Baird and Girard). Moxostoma congestum albidum (Girard). Soulen, 1941. Moxostoma poeeilurum (Jordan) , Genus Gila Baird and Girard Gila nigreseens (Girard), Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930: 120, Rio Grande River. May include Texas. Family cyprinidae Genus Notemigonus Rafinesque Notemigonus crysoleucas seco (Girard). Genus Opsopoedus Hay Opsopoedus emiliae Hay. Genus Algamea Girard Algansea antica Cope. Cope, 1864, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 16:282, Texas; Giinther, 1868. Cat. Fish, Brit. Mus. 7:209, Texas; Fowler, 1913, as Rutllus anticus, rroc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 65 :69 ; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930 : 122, Texas Probably an incorrect record. Genus Notropis Rafinesque Notropis fumem fumeus Evermann. East Texas. Notropis umbratilh dileetus (Girard). Rare, Notropis percobromus (Cope), Rare. Notropis jemezamis (Cope). Rare. 130 The Texas Journal of Science Notropis swaini (Jordan). San Marcos, Comal and Colorado Rivers. Rare. Notropis amabilis (Girard). West Central Texas. Notropis simus (Cope). Laredo Notropis potteri Hubbs. Common in Brazos river and tributaries. Notropis xaenocephalus octoradms. Soulen, 1941, San Marcos, River. Notropis xaenocephalus roseus (Jordan). East Texas. Notropis venustus venustus (Girard). Notropis lutrensis hitrensis (Baird and Girard). Notropis lutrensis hlairi. Soulen, 1941. Notropis proserpinus (Girard). Notropis bairdii Hubbs and Or ten burger. Notropis sabinae (Jordan and Gilbert). Notropis amnis Hubbs and Greene. Notropis braytoni Jordan and Evermann. Notropis chihualxua Woolman. Notropis deliciosus deliciosus (Cope). Notropis atrocaudalis Evermann. Notropis volucellus volucellus Cope. Notropis volucellus buchanani Meek. Notropis volucellus nocomis (Evermann). Soulen, 1941. Genus Extrarius Jordan Extrarius aestivalis (Girard). Extrarius aestivalis sterletus (Cope). Soulen, 1941. Genus Khinichthys Agassiz Khinichthys cataractae transmontanus Cope. West Texas. Rare. Genus Ehenacobius Cope Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard). Genus Hybognathus Agassiz Hybognathus nuchalis Agassiz. East Texas. Hybognathus placitus amaris (Girard). Brazos River. Genus Dionda Girard Dionda episcopa couchi Girard. Dionda episcopa serena Girard. Nueces River. Dionda episcopa episcopa Girard. Pecos River. Genus Ceratichthys Baird and Girard Ceratichthys taurocephalus Hay. Trinity drainage. Ceratichthys vigilax Baird and Girard. South and west of San Jacinto River. Genus Pimephales Rafinesque Pimephales promelas confer tus Rafinesque. Genus Campostoma Agassiz Campostoma anomalom pullum (Agassiz). Campostoma anomalum plumbeum (Girard). Rare. Campostoma ornatum (Girard). Order NEMATOGNATHI The catfishes, being widespread, and very common, have provided in¬ numerable records from Texas. For the sake of brevity, this list is confined to the various species and genera, and only those references which apply to little known species. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 131 Family ariidae Genus Bagre Oken Bagre marina (Mitchill ) . One of the commercial fishes. Genus Galeichthys Cuvier and Valenciennes Galeichthys fells (Linnaeus). Common everywhere on the Texas coast, and a pest wherever it is found. Family ameiuridae Genus Ictalurus Rafinesque Ictalurus furcatus furcahis (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Ictalurus furcatus af finis (Baird and Girard). Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque) . Ictalurus lacustris lupus (Girard). Genus Ameiurus Rafinesque Ameiurus melas catulus (Girard). Ameiurus natalis (LeSueur) . Genus Pilodictis Rafinesque Pilodictis olivaris (Rafinesque). Genus Nottirus Rafinesque Noturus flavus Rafinesque. Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:155, south to Texas. Other than this the species has not been reported from Texas, and its presence in the state is extremely doubtful. Genus Schilheodes Bleeker Schilheodes gyrinus (Mitchill.) Schilheodes nocturnus (Jordan and Gilbert). Genus Trogloglanis Eigenmann Trogloglanis pattersoni Eigenmann. Eigenmann, 1919: 397, artesian well at San Antonio, Texas; Hubbs and Bailey, 3 947 :12, San Antonio. Genus Satan Ffubbs and Bailey Satan eurystomus Hubbs and Bailey. Hubbs and Bailey, 1947: 8, artesian well near San Antonio. Order INIOMI Family synodontidae Genus Synodus Gronow Synodus foetens (Linnaeus). Girard, 1858: 75; coast of Texas as Saurus mexicanus; Evermann and Kendall, 1894 : 106, pi. 21, Galveston; Gunter, 1945-41, Port Aransas. Not uncommon at certain seasons of the year, lizard fishes sometimes attain a length of fifteen inches in our waters. Specimens from Galveston and the Houston Market are in the Stanford collection. Family BARBOURISIDAE Genus Barhourisia Parr Barbourisia rufa Parr, 1945: 127, Alantis station 28 52, 27° T N., 94° 22’ W., Gulf of Mexico. This is the type and only specimen. Order HAPLOMI Family esocidae Genus Esox Linnaeus Esox vermiculatus LeSueur. Evermann and Kendall, 1894; 108, Neches and Trinity rivers ; Lamb, 1941 :45, San Jacinto river and tributaries. This little pike, which may attain a length of twelve or thirteen inches, is quite common in the drainages of eastern Texas. U. S. N. M. 120049 consists of four specimens from the San Jacinto bottoms, near Lynchburg. U. S. N. M’. 120050 represents forty specimens from Little Piney Island Bayou, Hardin County ; U, S, N. M. 120051 is comprised of twelve specimens from Spring Creek in Montgomery County. The Little Piney Island collecting station, a long, muddy borrow pit connected with the bayou, was alive with these fishes, and the 40 mentioned above were taken in one drag of a twenty foot minnow seine, while a good many more leaped over the net and escaped. The largest example was 13’ in length, the great majority being from 4” to 6” long. They make interesting aquarium fishes, but must be kept well fed at all times as they are inveterate cannibals. I once had eight or nine of them in a 30 gallon aquarium, and the small ones disappeared one by one, the smallest first, and the next smallest next, and so on. At last there were only two left, one about seven inches long, the other about six and these lived in apparent amity, until one evening, when, hearing a commotion in the aquarium, I found that the seven-inchc one had swallowed its smaller fellow by the head. 132 The Texas Journal of Science However, it had bitten off more than it could chew. The larger being unable to eject the smaller fish because of its gill covers, and equally unable to swallow it, because of its size, the two of them were in their death struggle, and thrashed about on top of the water until they died. This species, with Amia and the gars, undoubtedly constitutes a heavy drain upon other fishes found in the same waters. Esox niger LeSueur. Bonham and Reed, Ms.; reported from the streams of northeastern Texas. Soulen, 1941 :17, Texas. Order CYPRINODONTES Family cyprinodontidae Work on these species was done jointly by the author and Mr. Kirby H. Walker, of Houston, Texas, greatly aided by Dr. Carl Leavitt Hubbs and Dr. Reeve M. Bailey. The literature on this group is voluminous and so varied that no effort has been made to list it, particularly as Dr. Hubbs has done a great deal of work on this group, and in his numerous papers may be found full synomymies for most members of the family. Genus Lucania Girard Lucania parva venusta Girard is fairly common in the Texas coastal region. Genus Ftindulus Lacepede Fundtdus similis (Baird and Girard). An inhabitant of the shallows and flats along the Gulf coast, this fish occurs in both salt and brackish water, rarely ascending into the mouths of rivers and bayous. It is similar in form and size to Fundulus jenkinsi, but in similis the dorsal fin originates in front of the anal fin, instead of slightly behind as in jenkinsi. Also, in similis the body is marked with vertical dark bars. In both species the head is rather flat and broad, and the snout long. Fundulus grandis Baird and Girard. This is the largest species of fundulus occurring in Texas, reaching at least eight inches in length. It lives indifferently in fresh or salt water, and can be instantly changed from water halving a salt content of 18 to 20 ppm. to fresh water, or vice versa, without suffering any ill effects. It is a jumper of no mean ability, and extremely voracious, particularly after it reaches three or four inches in length, when it will attack and swallow other fish almost two-thirds its cwn size. Fundulus confluentus pulvereus (Evermann). Evermann, 1893:8 5, Dickinson Bayou, Buffalo Bayou at Houston, Oso Creek near Corpus Christi, as Zygonectes pulvereus; Evermann, 1893:85, pi. 35, fig. 3, Dickinson, Texas, as Zygonectes funduloides. Dr. Hubbs, in a yet unpublished manuscript, makes it clear that Zygonectes funduloides is the male of pulvereus. The male of this species does not correspond as closely to Ever- mann’s plate of Zygonectes funduloides as does the female to his plate of Z. pulvereus. The male of Fundulus jenkensi resembles the female of F. c. pulvereus, but may be distinguished from it by the dorsal fin, which is placed behind instead of slightly in advance of the anal fin, and by the fact that jenkinsi has about 2 more anal rays. Moreover, the head of jenkinsi is long and narrow, instead of blunt and rounded as in pulvereus. This form is quite common along the eastern Gulf coast of Texas. It is typically a fish of brackish marshes and ponds although often found in quite fresh water in the lower courses of streams. Mr. Walker has collected it in the lower Trinity and San Jacinto Rivers. Fundulus jenkensi Evermann. Evermann, 1893: 86, pi, 36, Dickinson Bayou near Dickinson; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:107, pi. 24; Garman, 1895:123, as Zygonectes jenkinsi; Jordan and Evermann, 1896 (1) :651, coast of Texas; Ibid, 1900(4) :3255, nl. 116, fig. 284; Hubbs, 1926:11, Texas (after Garman 1895, and Evermann 1893); Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:178, coast of Texas (as Zygonectes jenkinsi). Reported from Dickinson Bayou, Galveston Bay, and lower Trinity River (freshwater). The latter collected by Mr. Walker (identified by Dr. Reeve M. Bailey, UMMZ). This form is similar in habitat to Fundulus confluentus pulvereus, but is inclined to be more of a surface swimmer, Fundulus chrysotus Gunther. Chrysotus is a common fundulus in Southeast Texas. W'e have examined specimens from San Jacinto River, Brae’s Bayou, Spring Creek, and Galveston Bay. It is equally at home in fresh and brackish water, but is more typically a freshwater form. It ranges far inland in small streams and ponds. Fundulus dispar nottii Agassiz. The following field characters will serve to distinguish this species from Fundulus chrysotus. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 133 Fundulus dispar nottii MALES Fundulus chrysotus Small red spots evenly distributed over the sides from the head to the caudal fin. Spots arranged in lengthwise rows. Small dots present on the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. No vertical bars on sides. Mouth opening flush with top of head. 6 or 7 rays in dorsal fin. Dark blotch below the eye. Distinct yellow or cream-colored mark on top of head between the eyes. Red spots are larger. They are confined to the posterior two-thirds of the body, and are scattered at random. Spots are less numerous anteriorly, becoming more profuse posteriorly. Spots extend out on dorsal and anal fins. On the caudal fin they form concentric rows. In highly col¬ ored examples, the spots on caudal ped¬ uncle and caudal fin are so thick as to give the appearance of solid red color at a distance. Occasional individuals have black spots in addition to the red, 6 to 8 faint vertical bars are visible in some specimens. Mouth opening below the level of the top of the head (more terminal). 8 or 9 rays in dorsal fin. No dark markings on head. No light-colored mark on top of head. Both species have two small yellow dots on top of the snout, one on each side. In chrysotus, these are the only marks on the head. In dispar nottii, there is a third, much larger, oblong spot in the middle of the top of the head, between the eyes. Smaller — about 2 inches long. * Larger — about 3 inches long. FEMALES Fundulus dispar nottii Body olivaceous above, greenish on the sides, with narrow dark lines running lengthwise from behind the head to the base of the caudal fin. Fins plain. Other characters of difference males. Fundulus chrysotus Body olivaceous above, greenish on the sides, with numerous gold dots scattered at random over the sides. No stripes or other markings. Fins plain, to form and size, same as for Fundulus dispar nottii is a strictly freshwater form, and avoids the costal plain bor¬ dering the Gulf. It is fairly common in East Texas, swimming at the surface in quiet, weedy waters. We have taken it in Spring Grek, ten miles south of Conroe, Texas. Fundulus not atus olivaceous (Putman). This species is strictly a fresh¬ water fish. It does occur along the Gulf coast, however, and may venture into slightly brackish water. This is the most numerous fundulus in Texas, being present in the smallest streams as well as the margins and backwaters of the large rivers. Fundulus pallidus Evermann. Evermann, 1893:84, pi. 3 5, Galveston Bay, near Swan Lake; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:106 (after Evermann); Garman, 1895:96, Texas, as Fundulus grandis; Jordan and Evermann, 1896:638, (after Evermann); Hubbs, 1926:7, Texas as F. heteroclitus grandis; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:176, (after Evermann) ; Garman 1895 synonymizes this species with Fundulus grandis, using substantially the same synonymy given above, based on Evermann’s specimen. In this, Hubbs (1926) concurred. More recently, however, Nichols (1942) obtained a rather exten¬ sive series of small fish from Florida which he provisionally identified as pallidus. Until further revision of the family is made, and in view of this new material, it seems well to consider pallidus as still a valid species. A specimen identified as this species by Dr. Herre is in the Stanford collection, and came from Spring Creek, Montgomery County, which is F. dispar territory Genus Flancterus Garman Plancterus zebrinus (Girard). Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930: 179, Texas. Flancterus kansae (Garman). Soulen, 1941: 19, Texas. Genus Adinia Girard Adinia xenica (Jordan and Gilbert). Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930 :180, Texas, Fairly common. Genus Floridichthys Hubbs Floridichthys carpio (Gunther). Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930: 180, Florida to Texas. Probably an erroneous statement. Genus Cyprinodon LacepMe Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede Cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis Fowler. Cyprinodon bovinus Baird and Girard. Cyprinodon elegans Baird and Girard. 134 The Texas Journal of Science Family poecilidae Genus Gambmia Poey Gambmia nobilis (Baird and Girard) . Gamtmsia gaigei Hubbs. Gambmia af finis speciosa Girard. Gambnsia af finis af finis (Bair^ and Girard). Gambusia affinis holbrooki Girard. G. holbrooki is not a native of Texas. However, during the flood discussed under Mollienisia sphenops hybrids, quite a substantial number of perfectly acclimated holbrooki were released by the rising waters, and it is entirely possible that somewhere in the Buffalo Bayou-Galveston Bay complex, there may be a thriving colony of this species, although so far no specimens have been collected that would indicate this. Genus Mollienisia LeSueur Mollienisia latipinna LeSueur. In regard to this species we can do no better than to quote Hubbs (1933) “The best known species of the genus (is) Mollienisia latipinna. This is the common sailfin of the Southern States, ranging from Southern Georgia to Key West, thence around the whole Gulf coast to Texas, and down the east coast of Mexico. Over this long range the species breaks up into local races or subspecies, some of which rather closely approach velifera in size and development of fins. The salt water races of Key West and Pensacola Bay are particularly fine. Near Brownsville, Texas there occurs a small race of Mollienisia latipinna, which thought bright in color is much less like velifera (than the more eastern races). The dorsal fin is smaller, and has only 12 to 14 rays (as against the 16 to 19 of velifera). The relatively poor development of latipinna here (and about Tampico) may be due to the fact that its ancestors were none too careful in choosing mates, occasionally hybridizing with Mollienisia sphenops. Toward the north end of the range of the species, in northeastern Florida and southeastern Georgia, the species is also much reduced in size and general development, probably because the tem¬ peratures there are rather low for the genus.” MOLLIENISIA HYBRIDS For many years Mollienisia formosa (Girard), originally reported (Girard, 1856:201) from the Rio Mimbres in Mexico, was considered a separate species. However, Hubbs (1933, et seq.) has shown that it is a natural hybrid between Mollienisia latipinna LeSueur, and Mollienisia sphenops (Cuvier and Valenciennes). That such hybridization between species occurs everywhere in nature is a well known fact. There are occasional hybrids among the centraarchids, and I have seen a note upon such an occurence in a salt water family, the sciaenids. However, it is not often such an interesting case of hybridization occurs as that detailed in the following paragraphs. Mr. Kirby Walker collected from Bray’s Bayou, Houston, two specimens of poecilids (Univ. M'ich. Mus. Zool. 143058) which presented some exceptionally puzzling character¬ istics. These were forwarded to Dr. Hubbs who, after examination, said “The two 41.5 mm poecilids are puzzlers. They give no indication of being native fish — certainly not Gambusia affinis x Mollienisia latipinna hybrids. I make nothing out of them, but they can’t be M. latipinna. They seem to be M. sphenops or something very close thereto, but are not the type I’d expect to find in or near Texas. They might represent some subspecies of M. sphenops but if so I can’t place it at sight. My guess is that some local aquarist hybridized a black M. latipinna with M. sphenops subsp., then backcrossed the progeny to sphenops and found the result so nondescript that he chucked the fish into the nearest ditch or pond.” This observation of Dr, Hubbs is most interesting . In 1934 or 1935 Bray’s, White Oak and Buffalo Bayou rose far above their usual level, causing a disastrous flood in Houston. During this flood some of the outdoor ponds of Fischer’s Aquatic Garden were inundated, releasing the fish contained in them. Among the fish released were a number of Mollienisia latipinna, of the black variety, which were thoroughly acclimated. It is entirely possible that these may have been the fore-runners of the two specimens examined by Dr. Hubbs, as White Oak Bayou, on which the ponds were located, is connected with Bray’s Bayou, in which the fish were caught. Both are tributaries of Buffalo Bayou. The distance by water from one point to the other is probably not over ten miles. More probably, however, they owe their presence in the bayou to a similar, though later, accident. In 1943 a tropical hurricane flooded brood ponds of still another aquarist, releasing, through the sewer system, a large number of fishes. These sewers discharge into drainage ditches which in turn discharge into Bray’s Bayou, less than a mile from the brood ponds. Among the fishes so released were Mollienisia sphenops, of two different strains, Liberty, and original, as well as a large number of black Mollienisia latipinna. It is probable that some of these were the parents of the hybrids in question, rather than the fish which escaped from Mr. Fischer. Hubbs (Aquarium 10(6) : 167-168) discusses hybrids of Mollienisia extensively, and states that while the various species hybridize among themselves, no cross has yet been produced between any species of Mollienisia and any other members of the family. Males of Lebistes reticulatus, Gambusia affinis and Poecilistes pleurospllus have all mated with female Mollienisia, but no young had resulted at the time of writing. Random Notes on Texas Fishes 135 Order SYNENTOGNATHI Family belonidae Genus Sirongylura Van Hasselt Strongylura marina (Walbaum). Girard, 18 59a: 30, Brazos Santiago and St. Joseph’s Island as Belone scrutator; Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a :262, Galveston; Jordan and Gilbert, 1883b :960, as Isesthes scrutator, Galveston ; Jordan and Fordyce, 1886 :351, Texas, as Tylosurus marinus; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108, Galveston; Jordan and Evermann, 1896:714, Texas; Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1928:149, Texas; Breder, 1929:88, Texas ; Pearson, 1929 :136, Copano Bay ; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930 :196, Texas ; Hubbs, 1936 :207-209, St, Joseph’s Island, after Girard ; Gunter, 1942, Aransas and Copano Bays ; Gunter, 1945 :46, Copano and Aransas Bays, and Gulf of Mexico at Port Aransas ; Anonymous, 1947 :8, Colorado River near Austin (fresh water) ; Point Isabel specimens (F.M.N.H. 11318, 10995) are in the Chicago Museum of Natural History, identified by Weed. It is probable that two species are represented in the above synonymy. Hubbs (1936) says (speaking of Yucatan specimens of Strongylura scrutator) “These specimens correspond quite well with the original description and figure of Belone scrutator Girard (1859, 30, pi. 13), especially in regard to the depressed form, the relativity stout and short beak, the only moderately small scales and the total lack of a caudal keel. In these respects they differ from S. marina, as indicated in part by the figures given in table 23, which is based on 6 or 7 specimens from Campeche, on 2 or 3 young specimens of S. marina from near the type locality, and on the two specimens from ‘St. Joseph’s Island, Texas, referred by Girard to B. scrutator. Since these accessory types of B. scrutator seem referable to S. marina, the identification of our material with scrutator, is open to very serious question. The agreement with Girard’s figure is so good, however, that I provisionally assume that Girard had two species, the true scrutator from Brazos, Texas, and marina from St. Joseph’s Island, Texas. The figure is clearly based on one of the two ‘adult’ specimens from Brazos, for it represents a fish considerably larger than either of the ‘young’ from St. Joseph’s Island. The specimen figured should be regarded as the true tsrpe of the species, especially since the figure seems good, while the description is inadequate. '' “While admittedly inadequate, these figures show conclusively that the Campeche specimens are not referable to S. marina. Barbour and Cole’s (1906, 157) record of Tylosurus marinus from La Cienaga near Progreso may well have been based 'on the species we have. “A further difference exists in the interorbital region. This is relatively flat in the Yucatan specimens, with a broad and well-marked median elevation. In S. marina, the interorbital is somewhat more concave and has a much narrower and less distinct median ridge. “S. scrutator is perhaps more closely related to S. timucu (Walbaum), with which it agrees in most of the characters by which it differs from S. marina. It differs from the current descriptions of timucu (as Jordan and Evermann, 1896, 711) and from four specimens from Loggerhead Key, Florida, comparable in size with our young of S. scrutator, in the very distinctly depressed caudal peduncle, the shorter beak, and the less anterior position of the pelvic fins, which are inserted nearer base of caudal than posterior edge of the orbit, instead of reverse.” Strongylura not at a (Poey). Jordan, 1929: 108, Texas. Probably one of the foregoing species. Family hemiramphidae Genus Hyporhamphm Gill Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Ranzani). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 262, Galveston; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108, Galveston; Gunter, 1945:47, Aransas Bay and Mustang Island ; Fowler, 1945 :373, Corpus Christi. One specimen from Galveston (U.S.N.M, 120056) in National Museum. Genus Hemiramphus Cuvier Hemiramphus hrasiliensis (Linnaeus). Fowler, 1945: 373, one specimen from Corpus Christi. Family exocoetidae Genus Cypsehirus Swainson Cypselurus furcatus (Mitchill). Breder, 193 8: 5 5,* from about latitude 26° 10’ N., longtitude 95° 5’ W; Fowler, 1945:374, Corpus Christi, Texas. Genus Prognichthys Breder Prognichfhys gihbifrons (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Breder, 1938: 77-78; 1 from 26° N., 10’ W. 2 from 27° 34’ N., 95° 35’ W. Genus Danichthys Brunn Danichthys rondeletii (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Breder, 1938:76; 12 from 26° 6’ N., 95° 10’ W. ; 2 from about 26° 30’ N., 95° 30’ W. ; Baughman, 1941:19. Texas waters. I have seen one specimen of this fish from San Leon, on the shores of Galveston Bay. The water there is much less saline than that of the open Gulf, being almost brackish at times, and the presumption is that this was a stray, forced in from the open sea by a storm that had raged all the preceding week. A second, verv small, specimen was taken from the Galveston Municipal Pier during the summer of 1947, and during the 136 The Texas Journal of Science summer of 1948 they were found in the Port Aransas Boat Basin, and around Mills’ Wharf at the juncture of Copano and Aransas Bays, where the salinity, due to a dry year, was close to that of the Gulf. In addition to the 3 species given above two more have occurred so close to the Texas line that it is almost a certainty that they occur in Texas waters. These are: Genus Exocetus Linneaus Exocetus obtusirostris Gunther. Breder, 1938: 37; 3 from 25° 30’ N. and 94° 19’ W. Genus Cypselurus Cypselurus cyanopterus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Breder, 1938:45; 1 from about 25° N., and 94° 30’ W, Fowler, 1945:374; Corpus Christi. Order ANACANTHINI Family gadidae Genus Urophyck Gill Urophyck floridanm (Bean and Dresel). Gunter, 1945: 47, Port Aransas; Fowler, 1945 :374, 5 examples from Galveston; Miller, 1946:211, Galveston. Addi- tional material :- Stanford University, 1, Freeport, collector, Baughman. British Museum, 16, Port Aransas, collector, Baughman. U. S. National Museum, 2 (U.S.N.M. 120087), Galveston. Chicago Museum of Natural History, 4, Port Aransas, collector, Reed. This hake is quite common at some seasons of the year. Order XENARCHI Family aphredoderidae . Genus Aphredoderm LeSueur Aphredoderus say anus (Gilliams). A rather plentiful literature on this species is omitted for brevity. There are specimens in the collection of the University of Mich¬ igan, at Rice Institute, in the Stanford Collection, and at Texas A & M. All of these, except the A & M’ specimen, are from the vicinity of Houston. Fairly common in the fresh waters of Texas. Order HETEROSOMATA F'amily bothidae Genus Scopthalmus Rafinesque Scopthalmus aquosus maculata (Mitchill). Several specimens from Galveston in the U. S. National Museum proved to belong to this species which, so far as I can ascertain, is here reported from Texas for the first time. Genus Syacium Ranzani Syacmm gunteri Ginsburg. Ginsburg, 193 3: 7-10; Aransas Pass to Galveston. Gunter, 1945 :85 ; Port Aransas. Additional material :- U. S. National Museum, accession number 156479, Galveston. Stanford University, 9, Galveston ; 2, Aransas Pass. British Museum, 10, Rockport. According to Mr. W. W. Anderson, of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, this is the most common flatfish in the shallow waters of Louisiana and Texas, as well as in the open waters of the Gulf, where the bulk of the population is found. Syacmm papillosum (Linnaeus). Several individuals of this species, from Galveston, are in the National Museum (U.S.N.M. 120080) as is a specimen from Corpus Christi (U.S.N.M. 93952). Apparently this is the first report of the occurrence of this species from Texas waters. Genus Citharichthys Bleeker Citharichthys macro ps Dresel. Gunter, 1945:8 5. Additional material: U. S. National Museum, accession number 156479, Freeport and Galveston ; 12 (U.S.N.M. 120044), Aransas Pass. Citharichthys spilopterus Gunther. Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 119, Galveston; Fowler, 1931:47, Port Aransas; Gunter, 1945:85, Port Aransas; Fowler, 1945:- 374, Galveston; Additional material:- U. S. National Museum, accession number 156479, Galveston and Aransas Pass; (U.S.N.M'. 601-2), Corpus Christi. Stanford University, 7, Galveston. British Museum. Several from Port Aransas. Genus Etropus Jordan and Gilbert Etropus crossotus Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 305, Galveston; Ever¬ mann and Kendall, 1894:119, pi. 47, Galveston: Gunter, 1945:86, Port Aransas; Fowler. 1945:374, Galveston. An example from Corpus Christi (U.S.N.M. 936111 is in the National Museum and others from Port Aransas are in the British Museum. This species is com¬ paratively common along the entire Texas coast. Genus Engyophrys Jordan and Bollman Engyophrys sentus Ginsburg. Anderson and Lindner, 1941: 23-27; 19 specimens were taken west of 93° 31’ W., which is the eastern-most part of Texas, and Random Notes on Texas Fishes 137 north of 25° 50’ N., the southern-most point, thus falling within that portion of the Gulf that I have considered as Texan. Genus Cyclopsetta Gill Cyclopsetta chittendeni Bean. Reid, 1941, Galveston; Baughman, 1947 il49; Port Aransas. Prior to Reid (1941) no specimens were known from anywhere but Trinidad, the type locality. Baughman (1947) reported a comparative abundance from Port Aransas. The 14 specimens, on which measurements were given, are now in the British Museum. Cyclopsetta fimbriata (Goode and Bean) . Three specimens of this flat¬ fish, measuring from 67 to 92 mm, were taken at Galveston and are now in the Stanford collection. This constitutes a new record from Texas. Identification was made by Dr. Herre. Cyclopsetta decussata Gunter. Gunter, 1946: 27; 40 miles south of Port Aransas in 26 fathoms. The type and only specimen. Family paralichthyidae Genus Faralichthys Girard Paralichthys lethostigma Jordan and Gilbert. Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a :302, Galveston, as P. dentatus; Bean, 1883:431, Galveston; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:119, Galveston, Dickinson Bayou, Corpus Christ! ; Chandler, 1935:125, Galveston Bay; Reed, 1941:77, about Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1945:87, Port Aransas; Fowler, 1945:374, Galveston. Specimens from Galveston are in the National Museum (U.S.N.M. 120096). Chicago Museum of Natural History specimens (F.M.N.H. 10903, -11, -307-8) are from Point Isabel. Stanford specimens are from Freeport and Aransas Pass. British Museum specimens are from Port Aransas. Taken in commercial quantities in Texas, the fishery amounting to about 100,000 pounds per year. Paralichthys albigutta Jordan and Gilbert. Reed, 1941: 77, from about Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1945 :86, Port Aransas. Specimens from Galveston are in the National Museum and at Stanford. Not common. Paralichthys squamilentus Jordan and Gilbert. Two specimens of this flounder, measuring 46-49 mm were obtained in Galveston Bay and are now in Stanford. The identification was by Dr. Herre, and constitutes a new record for Texas. Genus Ancyiopsetta Gill Ancylopsetta quadrocellata Gill. Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 119, pi. 48; Galveston. Fowler, 1931:47; Port Aransas. Gunter, 1945:86; Port Aransas. Fowler, 1945:374; Galveston. Specimens from about Corpus Christi (U.S.N.M. 93598) and Galveston are in the National Museum, Others, collected by Mr, Weed (F.M.N.H. 11309-10) are in the Chicago Museum. Several specimens from Galveston and Freeport are in the Rice Institute collection of fishes. Stanford specimens are from Galveston and Aransas Pass. Specimens in the British Museum are from Port Aransas. ? Ancylopsetta dilecta (Goode and Bean). A specimen from a collection made by the Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, during the summer of 1947, was provision¬ ally identified as this species. This fish is now in the U. S. National Museum. If his identification is correct, it constitutes a new record for Texas and a very wide extension of the range. Family achiridae Genus Achirus Lacepede Achirus achirus (Linnaeus). Fowler, 1945: 374; Galveston and Corpus Christ!, Achirus fasciatus Lacepede. Gunther, 1862: 477, Texas; Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a :305, Galveston, as A. lineatus browni; Jordan and Goss, 1889:315, Texas; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:119, Galveston and Dickinson Bayou. Jordan, Everman and Clark, 1930 ;229, Texas ; Gunter, 1945 :87, Port Aransas. Additional specimens from Galveston are in the National Museum and Stanford. Gunther’s specimen was collected by 'Brandt, in 1852, and there are others in the British Museum from Port Aransas. Achirus lineatus (Linnaeus). Gunter, 1945: 88, Port Aransas. A num¬ ber of specimens from Galveston are in the National Museum (U.S.N.M. 120037), and Stanford, Genus Nodogymnus Chabanaud Nodogymnus texae Gunter. Gunter, 1936: 203-209, 5 figs.. Port Aran¬ sas. The only^ record of the species from Texas is contained in the description of the type (U.S.N.M. 94559). Since then others have been caught off Port Aransas. Family cynoglossidae Genus Symphurus Rafinesque Symphurus piger (Goode and Bean). One 130 mm specimen from Freeport is in the Stanford collection. This is a new record for Texas. Identified by Dr. Herre. Symphurus plagiusa (LinnaQus) . Evermann and Kendall, 1894:119, Galveston, Dickinson Bayou and Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1945 :88, Port Aransas ; Fowler. 1945:374, Galveston, U.S.N.M. 120081 is from Galveston; number 120082 is from Port Aransas. Numerous exam.ples at Rice Institute are from Freeport, Galveston and Corpus Christi. Specimens in the British Museum from Port Aransas. ' 138 The Texas Journal of Science Symphurus pusillm (Goode and Bean). This fish was first reported from the Atlantic coast of the United States. Little seems to be known about the species, consequently the specimen (U.S.N.M. 93854) collected by Reed, near Corpus Christi, is doubly interesting, presenting a wide extension of the known range of the fisB. It has not previously been recorded from Texas. Order BERYCOIDEI Family holocentridae Genus Holocentrus Bloch Holocentrus adscensionis (Osbeck). Baughman, 1947b: 280, Port Isabel. Order THORACOSTEI Suborder LOPHOBRANCHII Family ^yngnathidae Genus Syjignathm Linnaeus Syngnathm floridae (Jordan and Gilbert). Evermann and Kendall, 1894:108; Corpus Christi, as Siphostoma floridae; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:241, Texas. Evidently a misidentification as S. floridae occurs only on the Atlantic coast (E, S. Herald, personal communication). Syngnathus mackayi (Swain and Meek). Fowler, 1931:47, Corpus Christi Pass ; Gunter, 1945 :48, Copano and Aransas Bays ; Herald, 1942 : 130, Corpus Christi as S. m. mackayi. Syngnathm louhianae (Gunther). Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 109,’ Galveston and Corpus Christi, as Siphostoma louisianae; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930 :242, Texas ; Gunter, 1945 :48, Aransas Bay ; Fowler, 1945 :374, Corpus Christi. Specimens in the Stanford collection are from Galveston. Syngnathus scovelli (Evermann and Kendall). Evermann and Kendall, 1894:109, Corpus Christi. as Siphostoma fuscus (Storer) ; Evermann and Kendall, 1896:- 113-115: Corpus Christi; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:242, coast of Texas; HeraTd, 1942 :133, Corpus Christi; Gunter, 1945:48, Copano and Aransas Bays. There are specimens in the U. S. National Museum, at Stanford, and in the British Museum. Two other species probably occur in Texas. Herald (1942) gives the range of Oostethus lineatus as from South Carolina to Panama, and Micrognathus crinigems has been taken at Cameron, Louisiana, only 30 miles east of the Texas line. He suggests (personal com¬ munication) that Syngnathus pelageius probably occurs in the Sargassum weed. NOTE Gunter, in one of his papers, remarks that pipe fish were not caught on the Gulf beach, probably because of the lack of cover along the shore. Some years ago, the author and Captain E. T. Dawson, of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, were seining on Galveston West Beach. We obtained large numbers of small pipe fish in every haul, probably scovelli. This was over sandy bottom, with no cover. Subfamily hippocampinae Genus Hippocampus Rafinesque Hippocampus hudsonius DeKay. Ginsburg, 1937:5 51-560; Harbor Island, Aransas Bay, Corpus Christi and Rio Grande ; Reed, 1941 :63, from about Corpus Christi. Two specimens in the National Museum (^93,595) were collected by Reed, about Corpus Christi, and are evidently the specimens to which he refers. The form is not un¬ common, neither is it common. Occasional examples turn, up on the shrimp boats along the coast, kept by the fishermen, either through curiosity, or for good luck. Hippocampus regulus Ginsburg. Ginsburg, 1933: 563, Hog Island, Texas ; Ginsburg, 1937 :584-589, Harbor Island, Hog Island ; Gunter, 1945 : 48, Port Aransas. These are the only records of this species from Texas. Hippocampus punctulatus Guichenot. Not recorded from Texas, the species is included here only because the range gi¥en by Jordan, Evermann and Clark. 1939, presumably includes this state. Order AULOSTOMI Genus Fistularia Linnaeus Fishdaria tahacaria Linnaeus. On July 21, 1948, Mr. Stuart Adkins, of Port Isabel, sent me the following description of a fish taken in that area. “Fish was about 18 inches long. Shaped similar to our needle gar. Scaled body. Head shaped up like a sea horse’s, with snout being about five or six inchces long. Mouth, about one-half inch in diameter. Forked tail, similar to a mackerel, with a streamer from the center of the fork. Streamer about 18 inches long”. Unfortunately the specimen was lost before it could be sent to the laboratory. However, I judge that it was this, or a closely related species. Since Mr. Adkins’ report, we have received, during the week of July 5, 1949. a 16-inch specimen of this fish, taken by one of the shrimp boats operating south of Aransas Pass, and Mr. Adkins has reported still another. So far as I know, this constitutes the first record of this species from Texas. i Some Adaptive Features of the Porpoise Head 139 SOME ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF THE PORPOISE HEAD John G. Sinclair Medical Branch The University of Texas The porpoise in many ways is a miniature whale. It does not dive so deeply nor stay under water so long as the large whales. Since it is a mammal it must protect its lungs against the intake of water and yet carry on the capture and swallowing of food. It swims rapidly in shallow waters and must keep informed of any obstacles and of possible food supplies. As a species it must have a high reproductive efficiency since it raises only one pup each year and the death rate must be kept low. In order to carry out these functions the whole structure is altered from the pattern of land mammals. The tail is greatly expanded and ends in horizontal flukes operated by powerful trunk extensors and flexors. The lower limbs are gone and the upper limbs are used largely as rudders or vanes. The skin is thick and fat-filled to maintain heat efficiency. It lacks hair in the adult but shows rudimentary patches in the fetus, particularly on the lip. All signs of external ear are gone and the whole meatus is a pinhole size canal. The skull has been altered in the direction of a bird skull. Maxillary and mandibular bones are drawn out into a beak with rows of sharp conical teeth. The jaw has little lateral or sliding motion and the mandibular joint is nearly a simple hinge. On the other hand, nasal bones and ethmoids have been pushed back against the face of the cranium so that the nostrils curve upward from the pharynx to end in a single blow hole on top of the head. The lower end of this passage is plugged while under water by an enor¬ mously enlarged epiglottis and the upper end closes by valve and sphincter. Since the nasal passages cannot be used under water, while all food is found there, the olfactory nerves have degenerated and no tract can be seen in the adult. The fifth nerve serving the upper surface of the beak is well developed however and the region of the lips is quite sensitive. At first glance the brain of the porpoise seems as complicated as the human brain with many convolutions, sulci and gyri. When it is analyzed however, it is found that areas which are highly developed in the human brain are here simplified while the great specialization of this brain is in the temporal lobe especially the center for acoustic reception. The signifi¬ cance of this is not yet entirely clear. When we examine the auditory nerve we find a long nerve in contrast to all other groups of mammals or other vertebrates. It leads to a petrous bone that is not a part of the skull but lies ventral to it. This again is unique. The ossicles are fused and the middle ear cavity is nearly obliterated. Tliis means that the ear must operate as a sonar system using bone conduction though no one has yet worked out the mechanism. The porpoise is known to be very sensitive to vibrations produced in the surrounding water but there is little knowledge as to what it responds to in its ordinary activities that would call for such an elaborate mental mechanism. Its cerebellum like¬ wise is as complex as that of the lower primates indicating a well developed vestibular sense. We hope to obtain early embryonic material to follow the transfor¬ mations of some of these remarkable adaptations. The Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, at Rockport, furnished several skulls and one fetus for this study and has promised more material. 140 The Texas Journal of Science ACADEMY NEWS Dr. C. M. Pomerat, president of the Academy, and Dr. J. Brian Eby, immediate past-president, addressed the Texas Dow Institute at Freeport on the evening of February 23, 1950. It was a dinner, and about 200 officers and employees of the Dow companies attended the meeting. Dr. Pomerat discussed and showed motion pictures on the subject of "Living Skin Tissue.” Flis address was followed by an illustrated lecture by Dr. Eby on "The Mineral Resources of the Gulf Coast and Continental Shelf of Texas and Louisiana.” Dr. A. P. Beutel, manager of the Freeport plant, and Mrs. Beutel at¬ tended the dinner which was under the general direction of B. N. Haas, program chairman of the Texas Dow Institute. The program was presented by the Texas Academy of Science, under the auspices of the Texas Dow Institute. EDITOR’S NOTE For a long time your editor and others of the Executive Board have felt that it would be desirable to enlarge the Editorial Board in order that men from the various sciences might be more fully represented. To that end, at the last executive meeting, three new members were added and we hope, in the near future, to enlarge the board by the addition of two more. The present members are as follows: J. L. Baughman, Editor, Chief Marine Biologist, Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport. Dr. L. W. Blau, Research Consultant, Humble Oil and Refining Com¬ pany, Houston. Dr. John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston. Dr. J. C. Godbey, Chemistry, Southwestern University, Georgetown. Dr. Frank E. Luska, Sociology, Southwestern University, Georgetown. Dr, Charles F. Squire, Physics, The Rice Institute, Houston. Dr. J. Brian Eby, Consulting Geologist, Houston. We hope that you will like your board. The Editor The Texas Journal of Science 141 DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS L Manuscripts should be submitted to The Editor, Texas Journal of Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts" may .be subject, to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal, All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬ cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. 2. 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Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. Publications Committee J. L. Baughman, Editor L. W. Blau John G. Sinclair J. Brian Eby 1 Page 4.62 1.58 The Texas Journal of Science 143 Petroleum Products of proven quality HUMBLE Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation Electrical Well Logging Gun Perforating Houston, Texas General Has the Equipment, Men and Experience To Provide Reliable Results on Your Exploration Problems GENERAL GEOPHYSICAL COMPANY HOUSTON 144 The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Charter 44776 Houston, Tex. JOHN S. IVY : Geologist 1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Report^ Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph. Fairfax 7086 PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting 1 Horvitz Research Laboratories , Houston, Texas Ph. Keystone 35545 3217 Milam Street HUDNALL & PIRTLE Geologists James S. Hudnall 510 Peoples Bank Bldg. George W. Pirtle TYLER, TEXAS G. J. Loetterle 615 Alamo National Bldg. A. Bart Brown SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS MICHEL T. HALBOUTY Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone P-6376 E. E. ROSAIRE Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS, TEXAS SHERMAN NELSON - OIL — , Royalty ■ — Leases 1 Seguin, Texas ^ H. KLAUS Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Consulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5. TEXAS Consulting Geologists Appraisals Reservoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental Building DALLAS, TEXAS ; PAUL CHARRIN President PERFORATING GUNS ATLAS CORPORATION 913 Union National Bank Bldg. Houston, Texas PR-0060 FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS COMPANY, INC. Contractors and Engineers 3018 Leeland Plouston, Texas Phone AT-2451 The Texas Journal of Science 145 Professional Directory Continued COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys y Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our advertisers, please make mention of the fact that vou saw their advertisement in The Texas Journal of Science. c4lwa^3 Choose an Affiliated National Hotel! 32 Fine Hotels in 23 Cities AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS ALABAMA Hotel Hotel Admiral Semmes . Thomas Jefferson . . Mobile ..Birmingham DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Hotel Washington . ...Washington INDIANA Hotel Claypool . ..Indianapolis LOUISIANA Jung Hotel Hotel . DeSoto . .New Orleans New Orleans NEBRASKA Hotel Paxton . . Omaha NEW MEXICO Hotel Clovis . OKLAHOMA Hotel Aldridge . . Wewoka SOUTH CAROLINA Hotel Wade Hampton . . Columbia TEXAS Hotel Stephen F. Austin . Austin Hotel Edson . 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Moody, Jr., President CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Secretary; L, S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Editors: J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J. G. Sinclair Human health, hygiene and public health; C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor : Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities : Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc.; L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors : ^ ^ Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Relations R^earch, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton , Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent ; . ' . - „ O. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas Cocouncillors : Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin Cocouncillors: Health. Mrs. M. Hay^, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soili David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Osrster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State ParkSj Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Pood quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth Marine resources. J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocouncillors : Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur.. — - Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE; To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION ; The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections ; Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches: East Texas, South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of science” is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters. MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the spring of each year. DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one pa3maent. Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active members. SUBSCRIPTION RATES : Members $3 per year. 3« Mat ithscaxi U O O o RECORD PRINT, SAN MARCOS, TEX. TOe TEXAS JOURNAL SCIENCE Published Quarterly at San Marcus, Texas Volurnf^ ir. No. 2 June Su, 1950 (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Tex. March 21, 1949) CONTENTS Resources and Industrial Research and the South. Chester S. Davis _ _ _ _ _ Bird Sanctuaries of the Texas Coast. John H. Baker— A Survey of the Uranium Resources of the World. Frederick Haeberle _ _ _ Rev. G. Birkmann. R. W. Strandtman.. _ _ What Should Texas Expect from Social Science? Carl M. Rosenquist _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Public Opinion and National Debt. Aurelius Morgner. The Challenge of Our Future Economy. H. R. Mundh Natural Science as an Educational Continuum. W. Gordon Whaley The Need for Socio] Retards. CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical, Br. U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A & M College Station Secretary-Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Editor J. L. Baughman Marine Lab., G.F.O.C. Rockport Pres. Conserv. Coun. J. G. Sinclair Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Rep. to A.A.A.S. C. D. Leake Dean, Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston V President, Sec. I, Physical C. F. Squire Physics, Rice Institute Houston V. Pres., Sec. II, Biological S. H. Hopkins Biology, A. & M. College Station V. Pres., Sec. Ill, Social R. H. Sutherland Hogg Foundation, U. of T. Austin V. Pres., Sec. IV, Geological A. A. L. Mathews Geology, U. of H. Houston V. Pres., Sec. V, Conservation V. H. Schoffelmayer Texas Chemurgic Council Dallas Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Biology, A. & M. College Station Junior Academy Greta C^pe Chemistry, Ball High Galveston BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A. & M. College Station Secretary -Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Elected Director J. C. Godbey Chemistry, Southwestern U. Georgetown Elected Director W. Armstrong Price Geologist College Station Elected Director Gordon Gunter Marine Lab., U. of T. Port Aransas BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) W. R. Woolrich, Dean Engineering, U. of T. Austin L. W. Blau Humble Oil & Refining Co. Houston E. DeGolyer DeGolyer & McNaughton Dallas J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist Houston 0. S. Petty Petty Geophysical Co. San Antonio MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Bay lor Brownwood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christ! R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. Dallas E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Freeport C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow CSiemical Co. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith. Biology, S.W.T.S.T.C. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor CONTENTS — continued A Study of the Jackson Whites. Marcus Wliitford Collins - 182 The Reich — A Political Misunderstanding. Frederick E. Gaupp _ 192 The Relation of Mathematics to the Physical Sciences. Alston S. Householder - 196 X-Ray Diffraction Examination of Synthetic Mullite. J. L. McAtee and W. O. Milligan - 200 A Simple Diffraction Grating Spectrograph. T. Doman Roberts _ 206 Karl Fischer Titration of Solid Soaps and Detergents. Arthur L. Draper and W. O. Milligan _ 209 Dielectric Constant of Atmospheric Air. Cullen M. Crain _ 213 Growth Inhibition and Injury of Plants. Victor A. Greulach- 219 Molds and Yeast Present in the Air During Dust Storms in West Texas. M, Gerundo and Guy dell L. Schwartz _ 222 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis Var. John B. Loefer and Virginia M. Guido _ 22 5 Observations on the Vegetation and Summer Flora of the Stockton Plateau. Grady L. Webster _ 234 Random Notes on Texas Fishes — Part II. J. L. Baughman _ 242 A Review of Some of the Aspects of Land Bridges in the Tertiary. Frederick R. Haeberle _ 263 Philosophical and Scientific Synthesis. Thomas A. Hall _ 269 The Contribution of Social Science to the Stability of the Texas Family. Marguerite Woodruff _ 274 Non-Directive Psychotherapy. Lewis W. Field _ 280 JUL 1 1 1950 EDITOR’S NOTE Your Editorial Board is pleased to announce the appointment of two new members. They are. Dr. W. Frank Blair Department of Zoology The University of Texas and Mr. Clark Hubbs Department of Zoology ' The University of Texas The Editorial Board IN ORDER THAT THE MEMBERSHIP DUES OF THE ACADEMY AND THE MAILING LIST OF THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE MAY AGREE, IT WILL BE NECESSARY FOR US TO COLLECT THE DUES IN ADVANCE, IN SO FAR AS POSSIBLE. AT THE LAST MEETING OF THE EXECUTIVE BOARD IT WAS DECIDED THAT DUES FOR 1951 SHOULD BE SOLICITED IN JANUARY OF THAT YEAR RATHER THAN LATER AS HAS BEEN THE CUSTOM HERETOFORE. DUES FOR 1952 WILL BE SOLICITED IN NOVEM¬ BER, 1951. THE REASON FOR THIS IS THAT UNDER THE PRESENT SETUP THE MAILING LIST FOR MEMBERS CANNOT BE RE¬ VISED UNTIL LATE JULY. AS A RESULT MEMBERS WHO HAVE DROPPED OUT OR WHO ARE DELINQUENT MAY RECEIVE FROM TWO TO THREE COPIES OF THE JOURNAL FOR WHICH THEY HAVE NOT PAID, THUS ADDING UNDULY TO OUR PRINTING COST AND PLACING AN UNFAIR BURDEN ON THE ACTIVE MEMBERS. J. L. BAUGHMAN, EDITOR J. BRIAN EBY C. M. POMERAT GLADYS H. BAIRD L. W. BLAU J. G. SINCLAIR C. D. LEAKE NEWTON GAINES GORDON GUNTER FRANK E. LUKSA S. A. LYNCH PAUL H. WALSER CHARLES LA MOTTE GRETA OPPE Vol. II June 30, 1950 No. 2 RESOURCES, INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH AND THE SOUTH Chester S. Davis Editor’s Note: — The following article, by Chester S. Davis appeared in the Winston-Salem (N. C.) Journal and Sentinel, November 13, 1949. It applies not only to that area, but to our own as well, and it certainly is worthy of careful reading and considerable thought. For that reason we run it here. The paradox of the South is how any region could have so much and still be so poor. The Southern states are blessed with unbelievably rich and varied nat¬ ural resources. More than any other region they still have great, untapped pools of native born labor. But the South lacks the industrial plants needed to combine these re¬ sources into capital goods. Because so much of our wealth is potential rather than realized, we stand at the top of every national list of weaknesses and at the bottom of every list of strength. Henry W. Grady, one-time publisher of the Atlanta Constitution, told the story of the South’s problem this way: “I attended a funeral once in Pickens County in my State. It was a poor ‘one gallus’ fellow whose breeches struck him under the armpits and hit him at the other end about the knees . . . They buried him in the midst of a marble quarry ; and yet a little tombstone they put over him came from Vermont. They buried him in the heart of a pine forest, and yet the pine coffin was imported from Cincinnati. They buried him within touch of an iron mine and yet the nails in his coffin and the shoyel that dug his graye were imported from Pittsburgh. They buried him by the side of the best sheep-grazing country on earth, and yet the wool in the coffin bands and the coffin bands themselves were brought from the North. The South didn’t furnish a thing on earth for that funeral but the corpse and the hole in the ground.” A HISTORICAL HANG-OVER Mr. Grady told that story at a time when the South, because of the Civil War and the years of reconstruction, was too poor to do more than recognize its needs. Our needs today are much the same and we continue to explain them in the same way, limping along and trusting: that when the historical hang¬ over wears away the South will blossom. Because of our undeveloped resources and our idle manpower we have hammered at the idea that the South is industry’s last frontier. This may have been good advertising but it hasn’t always been good economics. Traditionally, frontier areas are exploited, and the South is no exception. A great part of our raw materials are pulled from the soil by un¬ skilled, underpaid workers and then sent North where highly-skilled and highly-paid labor processes them. For example, the Southern states produce the turpentine and resins that are the basis of important paint, lacquer, varnish and soap industries located north of the Potomac River. Texas, along with naval stores, leads the nation in the production of vegetable oils. Yet the Lone Star State doesn’t manufacture enough soap to wash its own face. And we grow the peanuts and then buy peanut butter, salted peanuts and peanut candy from the Yanks. Even our factories tend to concentrate on the least skilled, lowest paid processes. This is particularly true of our huge textile industry. As a general¬ ization you can say that we make the yarn and the rough cloth and the 142 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Northern mills finish the goods and make the garments. And along that road their workers get most of the money. In 1942, North Carolina and Tennessee used hydro-electric power to produce about one half of the nation’s aluminum. The ingots then were shipped North where skilled labor, drawing high wages and using hydro¬ electric power, fashioned them into pots and pans and sent them back for us to buy. OUTSIDE CONTROL Today few industrialists deliberately exploit Southern resources. Even so, a great part of our industrial growth is controlled by Northern capital. Branch plant industrialization unquestionably has helped the South. But branch plants have defects which, from our standpoint, are worth considering: 1. In most cases their profits flow out of the South. 2. Since the policies of branch plants are formulated outside of the South, the development of Southern resources tends to be along lines and at a pace set by persons who have no particular stake in this region. 3. Too frequently these branch plants continue the old policy of using the South only as a source of raw materials or semi-finished goods. This policy inevitably ties the South to a low wage scale. In our anxiety to develop the South we have gone ahead and exploited our own basic resources with no regard for the consequences. When plants like the Champion Fibre Company and the Ecusta Paper Company came to North Carolina we cheered. Yet, because we have no laws regulating industrial pollution, we permit those plants to so befoul the rivers they use that potential industrial sites located father downstream now are useless. These plants are examples of what has happened throughout the South. This one-plant-to-the-stream sort of thing permitted us to enjoy a quick flash of industrial development. But we now are beginning to pay for it because that policy put a low ceiling on our future growth. We simply are running out of industrially pure water. The forests, covering 56 per cent of the South’s land area, are another example of waste. Today we are cutting down trees faster than we are growing them. To make matters worse we are cutting the finest com¬ mercial timber and leaving the undesirable species as growing stock. The deterioration of the great Appalachian hardwood forest is the result of destructive cutting practices. Since major Southern industries — lumbering, furniture and pulpwood rre examples — depend on our annual forest growth, this trend is anything but encouraging. How can we possibly justify our rosy dreams of future industrial growth when the resources which must support that growth are going downhill? But exploited natural resources, an exporting-raw-material economy and unbalanced, branch-plant factory growth are by no means the only reasons why the South should pause and take a long look at its dream of rutomatic industrial development. That dream is based on the belief that American industry must have new physical frontiers to feed on if it is to expand. Fifty years ago that appeared to be true and the South, with its wealth of natural resources and manpower, looked like a logical area for development. But it is questionable if American industry depends on physical fron¬ tiers any longer. If you think back you will note that industry, to an in- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Resources, Research and teie South 143 creasing extent, has been turning from physical frontiers to the frontiers opened by science. The automobile, aircraft, electric light, radio, telephone, television, rayon and nylon industries are examples where scientific research has opened frontiers of its own. In the Du Pont Corporation alone there are 20,000 men and women working today on products which weren’t even known in 1936. Research has become one of the basic industrial resources, ranking right alongside raw materials and manpower in importance. We live in a time when research precedes industrial growth. The important question for us is: Where does this change leave the South? The brutal answer is that it leaves us in a mighty bad fix. We still have the raw materials and the manpower but we don’t have the research. The Southeastern states have fewer industrial and university labora¬ tories than any other region in the nation. We employ fewer research workers and they turn out fewer technical books than scientists in other regions. You would expect that the South would show strength in agricultural research, but that isn’t the case. In the period of 1939 through 1943 the entire South granted only two doctorates in agriculture. In that same period Nebraska alone granted four. You find the same story in other fields. There is an old bromide that says you can tell whether a State is wealthy or poor by the number of patents taken out by its residents. In 1940 Delaware was number one in the nation with 1,081 patents granted for every 100,000 population. In Mississippi, number 48 on the list, the rate was 17 per 100,000. The rest of the South didn’t beat Mississippi by much. THE NEED FOR RESEARCH The need for research in the South is clear enough. The frightening thing is that neither our secondary schools nor our colleges are meeting that need. In 1940 the Science Clubs of America conducted a national hunt for high school seniors with marked scientific talents. North Carolina and Wisconsin— both having some 3 5,000 high school seniors — participated in this hunt. Wisconsin came out with 45 honorable mentions and nine trip winners. North Carolina had two honorable mentions and no trip winners. That is the measure of the science training in our secondary schools. With the exception of a few institutions, like the Universities of Vir¬ ginia, North Carolina and Texas, Tulane, Duke, Georgia Tech and Vander¬ bilt, scientific training in Southern colleges and universities is far under that offered in Northern schools. They don’t have the staffs to begin with. In the Southeast, for example, we have 1 5 per cent of the nation’s college-level faculty and only 4 per cent of the men starred in American Men of Science for superior work. With 3 0 per cent of the population and 1 5 per cent of the college faculty, the South produces less than 5 per cent of the doctorates. Southern schools do not invest heavily in research. Only a short time ago the University of Illinois spent more in engineering research than the total spent by the Southeast’s eight top engineering schools. The same is true of industry. Just before World War II Connecticut had four times as 144 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 many men engaged in textile research as the combined total of the entire South. Perhaps this situation isn’t surprising. The important industrial and university research centers first developed in the North. When the research boom came it was easier to expand existing facilities than to build new ones. Moreover, because Southern industrialists have not shown any real awareness of the importance of research, there has been no incentive for large-scale scientific progress in the South. Because we lack the faculty and facilities, our finest technical talent has gone into the North for training. Those men, once trained, have stayed in the North because the universities and the industries there offered pay and laboratories we could not match. Of all our exports, this loss of brains has been most costly. In a day when research is accepted as a basic industrial resource, that isn’t a pretty picture. It is a picture that worries some of our business leaders and all of our scientists. THE SASI PROGRAM Back in 1940 Dr. George D. Palmer, then president of the Alabama Academy of Sciences, spoke on the need of research and urged Southern scientists to organize and word towards regional development through research. The following year Dr. Palmer’s suggestion was picked up when a group of laboratory men organized the Southern Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science. But a room-full of Ph. D.’s sitting in a circle and talking about the values of research is a case of the converted preaching to the converted. In 1942 the emphasis shifted from science to regional growth through re¬ search and the Ph. D.’s invited businessmen to join their new Southern Association of Science and Industry. The SASI has a long list of ambitious goals. But number one on the list is the development of the South through the combined resources of science and industry. This means encouraging the businessman to use research in his own plant. When industry demands technically trained men, the universities will begin to produce them. Until that happens the best we can hope for is branch plant growth fostered by work done in Northern laboratories. Since the South lacks trained manpower and adequate laboratories, the SASI is helping businessmen make the most of the facilities that are avail¬ able. The association also has taken on the large sized job of coordinating the efforts of some 650 state agencies and 3 8 regional groups now working for regional development. The SASI has been hampered by a lack of money. Moreover, this group has not been accepted too readily by the businessmen. In North Carolina, for example, there are only seven members: the Asheville and Kinston papers, the Progressive Farmer, the Wachovia Bank and Trust Company, the Ecrusta Paper Company, a Greensboro textile firm and the Carolina Power and Light Company. But the SASI has made progress in spite of these handicaps. Along with its annual meetings it has sponsored regional meetings on conservation 1950, No. 2 June 30 Resources, Research and the South 145 and on Southern development through education. The SASI also has its own publication, a slick paper monthly called "The Journal of Southeastern Research.” The association has had an important part in encouraging the estab¬ lishment of two new research centers; that of the University of Chatta¬ nooga and Birmingham’s Southeastern Research Institute. Thus far the association’s most important contribution has been the preparation of a series of 12 monographs on Southern resources and resource use. The first three in the series- — forests, industrially undeveloped raw materials of the South, and Southern research — have been published. They are excellent, A GRASS-ROOTS PROJECT The big problem facing the Southern Association of Science and In¬ dustry is to get its message across to our businessmen, too many of whom continue to look on research as a first cousin of charity. These men overlook the fact that their fast moving Northern com¬ petitors customarily spend from 2 to 3 per cent of their gross income on research because it pays off in (1) improved products, (2) new products, and (3) more efficient and less costly plant operation. They also forget that a great part of the South’s recent industrialization has come about solely because of research. Chemicals, now the South’s third largest industry, is a test tube baby, and so are rayon and nylon. Laboratory work done by the late Charles H. Herty created a newsprint industry fed by the Southern pine. William H. Mason of Laurel, Mississippi, founder of the Masonite Corporation, parlayed research into a multi-million dollar wallboard business. The Ecusta Paper Company came to North Carolina seeking pure water. But that plant came South only after scientists had perfected a new method of making cigarette paper. Some Winston-Salem industries are research conscious. The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company has, by Southern standards, a generous budget for laboratory work. The great Bell Telephone Laboratory in New York City (6,100 employees in 1948) creates skilled employment for Tar Heels working in Western Electric’s North Carolina shops. Smaller businessmen, even though they can not afford research pro¬ grams of their own, can take advantage of a service offered by the Wachovia Bank which puts them in contact with engineers and scientists who will help solve their problems. And small business can have its own research facilities by combining forces, possibly through a trade association. The furniture people have done this from the sales angle with their High Point exposition. They might try the same thing with research or risk a jolting when some distant laboratory now tinkering with metal alloys and plastics finds a new and cheaper way to furnish the American parlor. Regional development isn’t a narrow' program of "Buy Texas!” or "Patronize local merchants.” It is simply a matter of making the best use of the great wealth given us by a generous God. Unless we do develop the South to something near its real potentialities we will continue to be plagued with the problems of a low level economy. For great chunks of our people^ — labor, the merchants, the railways and 146 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Utilities — the only real hope of growth depends on continued and better balanced industrialization. Our engineers, scientists and educators know that the South has lagged behind in research. They also are aware of the importance of the laboratory in the development of any region. But the average Southern businessman has not recognized these facts. So far as research is concerned he has been content to leave it to George. One of the purposes of the Southern Association of Science and Industry is to open the eyes of the businessman to the fact that he is George. When that happens the South, combining natural wealth and ample labor with industry based on scientific research, can jack its economy up to the level where it should be. The beautiful thing about such a program is that everybody wins. BIRD SANCTUARIES OF THE TEXAS COAST John H. Baker, President National Audubon Society For more than a quarter of a century the National Audubon Society has been protecting concentrations of colorful water-birds on upwards of twenty islands or chains of islands on the Texas coast. In the old days, the birds were disturbed by the taking of their eggs and young for food; of the adults for their plumes for the millinery trade and decorative screens. In more recent years, and as of today, recreational use of Texas’ coastal waters has grown apace and the birds are now frequently disturbed by well-meaning people who are simply curious, or wish to cast for fish from the beaches of the nesting islands, or take pictures, or just walk around, looking at them through binoculars. To be successful in their nesting ef¬ forts, they continue to need protection from disturbance. This Society has provided such protection through warden service during the nesting seasons, as well as by the erection of warning signs. Generally speaking, the public has been, in recent years, cooperative. The Society also takes a vital interest in man-made projects that vitally alter the character of the habitat on which the birds are dependent. The Intra-coastal Canal has made great changes in the salinity of the bay waters, as well as having altered, in many instances, their depth. Naturally, this has had fundamental impact on the character of the food supply available to the birds. Moreover, there has been great increase in recent years in the amount of pollution of bay waters; this as a consequence of increased indus¬ trialization of coastal lands. It would appear that the laws of the State of Texas as to control of pollution need considerable revision and some teeth. Some of the islands are maintained as sanctuaries in accordance with the terms of leases granted by the state legislature; some through leases granted by the School Land Board; some through the granting of rights by private owners. The Vingt’un Islands sanctuary in Galveston Bay is a state sanctuary, created by law, through the sponsorship of the Garden Club of Houston. By agreement with the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, the Society has continued to furnish the protection needed in the nesting season. The Houston Outdoor Nature Club has taken an active interest in this sanctuary, first stimulating protective action by the National Audubon 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science Snowy Egret Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society American Egret Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 White Ibis Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank— Courtesy National Audubon Society Laughing Gull Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society The Texas Journal of Science June 30 1950, No. 2 Least Tern on Nest Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society Brown Pelicans Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank^ — -Courtesy National Audubon Society The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Reddish Egrets Photo by Ailan D, Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society Caspian Terns on Nesting Grounds Photo by Roger T. Peterson — Courtesy National Audubon Society 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science A Roseate Spoonbill Photo by Allan D. Cruickshank — Courtesy National Audubon Society The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Photo by Allan D. Glossy Ibis Cruickshank— Courtesy National Audubon Society 1950, No. 2 June 30 Bird Sanctuaries 147 Society and later by plantings to arrest erosion and increase nesting cover. It might well be asked, “Why shouldn’t it be the responsibility of the federal or state governments to protect these bird colonies?” Generally speaking, the agencies of those governments, such as the Fish and Wildlife Service and the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, have their hands full, with the funds at their disposal, in endeavoring to protect the game species, and it has therefore fallen to the Society to take action to “hold the bag” until such time as the governmental agencies may, as a result of popular pressure, be in a position to assume the responsibility in a satisfactory manner. As of today, the islands or chains of islands on which the water-birds annually produce the greatest crops of young are the Vingt’un Islands in Galveston Bay, the Second-Chain-of -Islands between San Antonio and Mes¬ quite Bays, Lydia Ann Island, just north of Port Aransas, the Swan Islands in Copano Bay, South Bird Island in the Laguna Madre, southeast of Flour Bluff, and Green Island in the Laguna Madre at the mouth of the Arroyo Colorado, east of Harlingen. Species of birds that nest on these islands in¬ clude roseate spoonbills, American and snowy egrets, threatened with extinc¬ tion early in this century, the reddish egrets. Ward’s and Louisiana herons, black crowned night herons, white and white-faced glossy ibises, brown and white pelicans, laughing gulls, oyster-catchers, willets, clapper rails, Cas¬ pian, royal, Cabot’s, Foster’s, gull-billed and least terns. The terns as well as the egrets were threatened with extinction in the heyday of the millinery trade in wild bird plumage, and the least terns at that time were often worn entire on hats. The come-back of these species in our generation proves that protection pays dividends in more birds. The two white egrets are now seen commonly almost every summer in the northern states, to which many of them disperse after the nesting season. The reddish egret colony on Green Island, with some 5000 nesting birds, is the largest in the United States; this species is known to regularly occur in this country only on the Texas coast and, to a very limited extent, in Florida Bay. The roseate spoonbill breeds commonly at the Vingt’un Islands and the Second-Chain-of -Islands. These beautiful birds, with their pink plumage, carmine epaulets and orange tails, are commonly known as “pinks,” or sometimes as “flamingos,” although they are very different from the true flamingo, which does not visit Texas. The large colony of white pelicans on South Bird Island is the only nesting colony of these birds in the southern United States, other than that at the Salton Sea in California. For reasons that are, as yet, none too clear, there are more or less continuous shif tings in the composition of the nesting colonies on the vari¬ ous islands, from year to year and decade to decade. Where the brown peli¬ cans have nested in numbers one year, there may be white ibises the next, and the pelicans may have moved on to an adjacent island in one of the chains. Numerous wardens have, with devotion to the birds and the conserva¬ tion cause, given years of devoted effort to the safe-guarding of these coastal nesting-bird colonies. One of them deserves special mention, as for 23 years he has watched over the destinies of the colony at Green Island. John E. Larson of Harlingen is still going strong, though a veteran of the Spanish- 148 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 American War. From the middle of March to September he lives in a cabin on the island and keeps close track of the nesting success of every species. It is our hope to inaugurate guided tours by boat, in season, to many of these islands, such that the citizens of Texas and, indeed, people from all over the United States with an interest in birds may see the beautiful spectacle that these sanctuaries provide, and do so under the guidance of a naturalist. The birds can be seen well from a boat anchored not far from the islands; it is not necessary to go ashore. In fact, many eggs may be cooked or chilled, and many newly-hatched young birds may die of ex¬ posure in a few minutes, through the thoughtless action of trespassers. The vast majority of the citizens of Texas are no doubt totally unaware of the existence of these great bird sanctuaries on their own coast. We aim to make it a simple matter for many of them to see and appreciate these thrilling spectacles. As one approaches the islands in a boat, one hears the thunder of the surf on the barrier-island beaches, strewn with the flotsam and jetsam of the Gulf and the purple balloons of Portugese men-o’-war. The islands lie shimmering in the sun, covered, as it were, with a multicolored quilt of blue, white, pink and brown. The vegetation on the islands is short, so that the birds are pretty much exposed; this is due, in large measure, to the effect of infrequent hurricanes. Picture yourself seated comfortably in a boat just off one of these islands. It is a June evening, and the sun is setting in a burst of golden glow. Great thunderheads, tinted lavendar and pink, tower over the Gulf, and rain squalls, stabbed with lightning, are scattered here and there. The waters of the bay are like a mirror, absolutely calm. From their day-time feeding grounds there come winging in great V’s and strings — -hundreds and even thousands — of egrets, herons, ibises and spoonbills. As they pass, silhouetted against the setting sun, there is no audible sound except the mass whirr of their wings, but there is great commotion in the sanctuaries before they settle down for the night, as though they were gossiping and swapping notes on the day’s events. Such are sights and sounds which delight us; which spell to us the attractions of the American outdoors and which we must contrive to pre¬ serve, not only for our enjoyment and benefit, but for that of our children and posterity. A SURVEY OF THE URANIUM RESOURCES OF THE WORLD Frederick Haeberle Standard Oil Company of Texas INTRODUCTION The development in the last few years of atomic energy has suddenly catapulted the mineral uranium to a position of worldwide importance. Formerly used as a source of radium, or to color glass and occasionally as an alloy metal, uranium has progressed to a position so valuable that release of production figures and methods might almost result in the overthrow of a government. Its importance to this government is easily demonstrated when one realizes that a bonus of ten thousand dollars is offered, over and above the market price of the ore, for the discovery of a new deposit in 1950, No. 2 June 30 Uranium Resources of the World 149 the United States that need only produce twenty tons of ore assaying twenty per cent UgOg. Never before has any mineral risen from such an obscure position to a point where it influences the activity of every government in the world. Scattered information has been available for years on the various de¬ posits of the world. While it has been recognized that uranium is present in minor amounts in most igneous and sedimentary rocks, Tarr estimated that there is .008% uranium in the earth's crust, a higher percentage than lead and zinc. It is believed that this is an opportune moment to stop and examine what is known about the deposits of the world. Commercial de¬ posits of uranium are known in only a few countries; the Belgian Congo, United States, and Canada being the principal producers today. URANIUM MINERALS When one mentions uranium, it immediately brings to mind pitchblende and carnotite, a seemingly simple assemblage. Actually they are only part of a very complicated group and it has been impossible in the past to assign a definite chemical composition to many of the variations. At least 34 differ¬ ent minerals containing uranium have been recognized, many being the decomposition products of pitchblende and carnotite. According to Dana’s classification the uranium minerals may be divided into two groups; the uranites, which include the uranium phosphates, vandates and arsenates, and the uranates, which include the crystalline and massive forms of uraninite. There are at least 23 minerals listed under the uranite group. They are formed from various combinations of hydrous phospates, arsenates or vanadates of uranium with other minerals such as copper, calcium, barium, potassium, bismuth and lead. Carnotite, the best known mineral of this group, is a hydrous vanadate of potassium and uranium. The formula K20-^U03- V205”^H20 is given, but the amount of water may vary ac¬ cording to the moisture in the atmosphere. It is generally found as a yellow crystalline powder, as a loosely connected mass, or occasionally in crystalline plates. The second most common mineral of the group, autunite, or lime uranite, is a hydrous phospate of uranium and calcium, with the formula given at Ca(U02) 2*^208 ■ *H20 or Cao-^U03-P205'®H20. Is is found in tabular crystals, or may be foliated or micaceous in appearance with a lemon to sulfur - yellow color. The uranate group is made up of the different varieties of uraninite, which are divided on the basis of crystalline and massive structure. Uraninite itself is a complex oxide of uranium, usually containing lead, with the rare elements radium, thorium, yttrium, helium and argon present in small quantities. The crystalline varieties are usually found in octahedral crystals, and may be either gray, green, brown or black in color. The massive varie¬ ties include pitchblende, the principal source of uranium today, and seven less well known varieties, most of which are the result of decomposition. Pitchblende is commonly associated with the sulfides of silver, lead, cobalt, mickel, iron, zinc and copper. GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF URANIUM Discovered in 1930, the world’s largest uranium deposit is that of Great Bear Lake, Canada, located north of the Arctic Circle near the MacKenzie 150 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 River. The rocks of the region are all Precambrian in age and consist of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks surrounded and intruded by granite batholiths. The oldest rocks, the Echo Bay group, are pophyritic andesitic volcanics, quartzites, conglomerates, cherts and limestones. These are over- lain unconformably by the Cameron Bay group — tuffs, cobble conglomerates and sandstones containing occasional pieces of ferriginous chert. The sedi¬ ments are folded and the folds trend in a general north or northwest direc¬ tion. The region is cut by three main faults that strike in a northeasterly direction. The northernmost fault dips vertically, while the others dip about 5 5 degrees to the south. The ores are found in the shatter zones and wall rocks of these faults. In the two most northern faults the ore is found only in the sedimentary wall rocks as apparently the faulting was not strong enough to shatter the vein material that fills the fault zone. In the southern¬ most fault, a shatter zone up to thirty feet in width is present, and ore is found in the veins as well as in the wall rock. The ore is not uniformly distributed, but occurs in shoots separated by barren sections. The shoots consist of stockworks and replacement lodes. As indicated by the appearance of ore in the fault zones and wall rocks, the minerals of the region were deposited in successive waves of mineralization separated by periods of faulting. At least 3 5 metallic and 5 non-metallic minerals have been recognized, the cobalt and nickel min¬ erals being the most distinctive. Kidd and Haycock (1935) recognized three stages of mineralization; (1) pyrometasomatic, (2) hydrothermal, and ( 3 ) supergene. The minerals of the first stage include magnetite, pyrite and arsenopyrite. The second period resulted in the deposition of pitch¬ blende, quartz, the cobalt and nickel minerals, lead, quartz, zinc and copper sulphides, with dolomite, rhodocrosite, copper and silver sulphides and native silver. Little is known about the supergene alteration of the region. The principal gangue minerals are quartz, barite and the carbonates. Pitchblende is the principal ore mineral and is believed to be of colloidal origin, related to the intrusion of the surrounding granitic masses. Uranium ores in the United States are comparatively rare. Many small deposits are known, but few that can produce commercially. The small deposits include those of North Carolina, Texas, South Dakota, Wyoming, Connecticut and Pennsylvania, where pegmatites containing small amounts of uraninite cut metamorphic and granitic rocks. Small amounts of two rare minerals, mixite and zeunerite, have been reported from the Tintic mining district of Utah. At Quartz Hill, Gilpin County, Colorado, a small amount of pitchblende has been found in the gold-bearing veins of the region. Sedimentary rocks in the region were intruded by a granite, the entire mass then being intruded by stocks and dikes of porphyritic mon- zonite and related rocks. The pitchblende is connected with the first of two periods of mineralization, and is only a minor constituent. The most important deposit in the United States is found in western Colorado and eastern Utah. The ore mineral is carnotite and some of the rarer minerals are present also. They occur in sedimentary rocks in bedding planes, fissures, small cavities, irregular masses and frequently have replaced fossil wood. Two petrified logs found near the San Miguel River yielded 105 tons of ore containing $175,000 in radium, $27,300 in uranium and $28,200 in vanadium. These deposits may have resulted from the weather- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Uranium Resources of teie World 151 ing of former veins and the deposit of the uranium as particles in a sedi¬ mentary deposit. The idea has also been advanced that some of the deposits may have resulted from, or been enriched by, the precipitation of carnotite from solutions. Certainly this is necessary in the case of the fossil logs. Where the minerals are exposed on the surface, they may have been dissolved and carried upward by capillary action. When the deposits are followed from the surface down into the ground, there is a gradual decrease in the quantity and grade of the ore. The famous deposits of Shinkolobewe, in the Katanga copper belt of the Belgian Congo were first discovered in 1915, although mining did not begin until 1921. It was originally thought to be a small copper deposit, but removal of only a few inches of surface soil revealed the extremely val¬ uable uranium minerals. The ore is found in an isolated mass of silicificed carbonate breccia on a divide between the drainage basins of the Mura and Panada rivers. The mass itself is made up of altered carbonates of the '^series des Mines” formation of Precambrian age. Surrounding this mass is the Kundalunga formation, a group of schists also of Precambrian age. Uranium occurs as pitchblende, and many rare unusual minerals, a large number being found only in this one locality. The uranium is found in isolated masses along the fault zones in veins of quartz, or scattered through the country rock. The veins occur mainly in groups rarely over forty feet in width and yield masses of ore. They pinch out in depth, and frequently a new vein begins somewhere below the old one. Accompanying minerals include copper, cobalt, nickel, vanadium, iron and gold. The de¬ posits are believed to be the result of deposition from high temperature solutions ascending from granitic magmas which have invaded most of the surrounding region. The uranium was probably the first mineral emplaced and is surrounded and often replaced by the others. This region is famed for its unusual and beautiful oxidation minerals, the result of extensive oxidation and leeching, affecting the rocks to a depth of over 200 feet. The oldest known uranium deposits are those of Czechoslavakia. In 1898, the Curies discovered radium from pitchblende mined at Joachimsthal, and some ore has been mined there ever since. A series of mica schists, talc schists and limestones are cut by dikes varying from granitic to basaltic in character. The entire region is cut by numerous veins containing an assort¬ ment of minerals, at least thirty have been identified. The principal gangue minerals are quartz, calcite and dolomite, while the main ore minerals are nickel, silver, cobalt and bismuth. At least two main periods of minerali¬ zation are recognized and referred to as the native silver and native bismuth periods. The first brought in hematite, silver, pitchblende, cobalt and nickel sulphides, galena and sphalerite. The second period resulted in replacement of the earlier minerals by bismuth, carbonates, quartz and copper minerals. Detailed studies of the pitchblende show that there were several distinct periods of pitchblende deposition, all occurring during the first period of mineralization. The pitchblende is widely disseminated and often difficult to find. The mines are being operated by the Russians at present, and are probably their main source of uranium. At various places in the Erzgebirge of Saxony, small amounts of uranium have been mined, largely before 1915. Veins of hydrothermal origin at Arnaberg are found in a gray gneiss cut by dikes of granitic and lamprophyric character. The veins of Schneeberg occur in contact-meta- 152 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 morphic clay slates and are underlain by granite. At Arnaberg the veins are of two ages; the older carry tin and lead, while the younger contain the silver-cobalt ores, nickel and bismuth. The gangue is composed of barite, fluorite, quartz and dolomitic carbonates. Pitchblende is occasionally found in the younger veins but is very rare. It is more common at Schneeberg, where the gangue minerals, calcite, ankerite, barite and fluorite have largely been replaced by quartz. The ore minerals include the different cobalt- nickel and bismuth minerals. Native silver and silver minerals are rare, but have been found. Between 1927 and 1930 a small amount of pitch¬ blende was taken from a magnetite mine at Schmiedsburg. While the amount of uranium taken from here is small, the Erzgebirge are being thoroughly prospected in the search for atomic rav/ materials. As far back as the Romans and Phoenicians the mining region of Cornwall, England has been famous for its tin deposits. Folded Paleozoic slates and sandstones have been intruded by a large granitic batholith or four stocks of Post-Carboniferous age. The minerals occur in veins that were emplaced shortly after the intrusion of the granite. This intrusion was closely followed by the emplacing of a series of dikes of granite porphyry. Tin and copper are the two principal ore minerals, while a less important series of veins contain lead, silver, cobalt, nickel and uranium. The region has been extremely faulted, which resulted in the frequent reopening of fissures accompanied by the successive deposition of minerals. The principal vein filling is quartz. While found primarily in the smaller and less im¬ portant veins, pitchblende also occurs as a subordinate mineral in some of the older tin and copper veins. Uranium production has always been small and is solely a by-product of the normal mining operations. Scattered deposits of uranium are known in at least four places in Australia. Those at Mt. Painter, in the Flinders Range, and at Radium Fiill, near Olary, occur in pegmatites in a region of metamorphic and granitic rocks. The ore mineral is carnotite while some of the rarer varieties are also found. At Cooglegong, in western Australia, fergusonite and a small amount of euxenite are found in the loose material of the surface. Near here, pegmatites intruding granite and Precambrian sediments have also pro¬ duced a small amount of ore. At Wodgina, a small amount of a rare hydrous silicate of uranium has been taken from an albite pegmatite dike which cuts lower Precambrian sedimentary formations. Western Australia is largely made up of Precambrian crystalline schists intruded by large masses of granite. Some quartzites and slates are also found and small amounts of metamorphosed limestone. Minor amounts of Australian ore have been mined and treated, either at Sydney or shipped to England. Portuguese deposits, near Sabugal and Guarda, in northern Portugal, have been mined intermittently by English companies over a long period of time. The ores are believed to be related to the late Carboniferous intru- sives of Spain and Portugal and are found in pegmatites. The supply of uranium is small, and no important production has come, or is expected to come from these deposits. While it is better known for its deposits of flake graphite, Madagascar has produced a small amount of uranium. The ore comes from deeply weathered acidic pegmatites in the eastern and central parts of the island. The uranium minerals are columbate and tantalates of uranium. The pegma¬ tites have been so deeply weathered that they are easily mined by natives 1950, No. 2 June 30 Uranium Resources of the World 153 using hand shovels. Only a small amount of uranium has been produced from this section, and it is unlikely that more than a very minor amount remains. An unusual deposit, that may be of great value some day, is that of the Witwatersrand gold-bearing conglomerate of South Africa, It has been known for years that the conglomerates contained a small amount of uran¬ ium, but only in recent years has this seemed of importance. The gold of the Rand occurs in conglomerate beds in Precambrian rocks. The sediments have been folded into a broad syncline over 180 miles long and 90 miles wide. The area has been faulted considerably and intruded by a number of dikes and sills of basic to intermediate composition. The ore occurs in shoots up to 5,000 feet long and 1,000 feet wide. The uranium, produced solely as a by-product, may or may not have the same origin of the gold; in any case, the amount of uranium present seems to be very large, extrac¬ tion not too difficult, and this may be one of the great deposits of the future. Whether the deposits are of sedimentary or hydrothermal origin has not been definitely proven at present. Only minor amounts of uranium are definitely known in the Soviet Union. Deposits have been known for many years near Ferghasam, in Russian Turkenstan. A deposit 100 km northeast of Ferghasam has been found re¬ cently. Following their usual policy, the Russians have released little or no information on their uranium deposits, but it is believed that the deposits in Turkanstan are related tO' a large granitic intrusive. It has been claimed that a large deposit of carnotite, similar to the deposits in Colorado and Utah, is known in the Caucasus Mountains. While few people in this country are well acquainted with the details of Russian geology, it is known that there is a large area of Precambrian sedimentary rocks intruded by granodiorite in the area around Lake Baikal. Associated with this intrusive are deposits of gold, lead, silver and many other minerals, and the possi¬ bility exists that uranium may be found in this region. Deep-seated intru- sives in the Ural Mountains, already known to contain pegmatites and as¬ sociated mineral deposits, may contain small amounts of uranium. . Uranium minerals have been reported from several areas in the Pre¬ cambrian deposits of the Fenno-Scandia shield in Norway, Sweden and Finland. These deposits are primarily granitic intrusives, and the possibility exists that mineable deposits may exist there. Efforts of the Soviet Union to work the deposits of Joamisthal and the Saxony Ergebirge and of the Petsamo' area, formerly belonging to Fin¬ land, might seem to indicate that Russian deposits are not as high grade as reported, or that Soviet industry is not capable of developing new and un¬ known deposits. The expansion of old deposits may also be an indication that the Soviets do not believe that they can spare the time to develop new deposits and still remain in the race for atomic weapons. In various places in the literature, mention is made of small undeveloped deposits. In the Gaya district of Bihar, India, a mica pegmatite contains a minor amount of uraninite. It is found in scarce nodular masses embedded in feldspar or in books of muscovite. These deposits are of Precambrian age. Uraninite has been found at Placer de Guadalupe, 72 miles cast of Chihuahua, Mexico. Flere, upper Jurassic formations are intruded by porphyry dikes which carry small amounts of uraninite in calcite veins, originally mined for gold. These deposits are of Tertiary age, possibly 154 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Mid-Miocene, and the youngest known. Small scattered reports of some of the complex uranium minerals have come from Minas Geraes province of Brazil. All occur in pegmatites that cut Precambrian and Mid-Paleozoic rocks of a crystalline complex. Pitchblende in a mica pegmatite associated with the Morogoro granite has been reported from Mt. Lukwengule in the northeast part of Tanganyika. Passing mention has been made of some rare uranium minerals from Rumania, while autunite has been reported from at least two localities in France. Many of the pegmatites in Canada have been experimentally mined for their small uranium content. Particu¬ larly famous is the Wilberforce uraninite from Parry Sound on Lake Ontario. There has also been a vague report of uranium deposits in Sinkiang Province, China, but nothing further has ever been released. Many of the black shales and phosphorite contain small concentrations of uranium, the Kolm shale of Sweden being especially famous. Unquestionaly, if the shales have not already been carefully scrutinized, they will be in the near future. SUMMARY Close examination of uranium deposits of the world disclose that there are three main types of deposits. They are those in igneous rocks, hydro- thermal vein and pegmatite deposits and deposits in sedimentary rocks. There is a noticeable preference of uranium for granitic rocks and acid peg¬ matites. It is so noticeable that it may be said that granitic magmas are the primary source of uranium in the earth’s crust. The majority of the uranium known today has come from mesothermal veins of two types, those in Gilpin County, Colorado, and those of the Great Bear Lake, Belgian Congo, and Saxon Erzegebirge type. In the first, the uranium is associated with lead, zinc, copper, gold and silver, while in the second type it is associated with cobalt and nickel minerals. The three most productive areas are the Katanga region of the .Belgian Congo, Great Bear Lake in Canada and Joachimsthal in Czechoslavakia. In all three deposits the ore occurs in veins cutting Precambrian sedimentary rocks, is associated with cobalt, and the principal gangue minerals are quartz and carbonates. Future sources of uranium will unquestionably come from areas con¬ nected with pegmatites and granitic intrusions, particularly those contain¬ ing cobalt minerals. The United States has undertaken, at the present, a vast program of pegmatite exploration by the Geological Survey. Efforts have, and are, being made to extract uranium from pegmatites in Canada and the United States. The Geological Survey is also undertaking a detailed reconnaissance of the sedimentary deposits in this country to determine the extent that they may be enlarged and further developed. Eventually, deposits that are not now commercially productive will become valuable, and min¬ erals such as thorium and monzonite of greater value. As a result of our own deposits and those to which we have access, the United States is in no great danger of immediately running out of uranium ore, and can unquestionably compare favorably with any country in a race to produce atomic weapons. Since the amount of uranium known in the world is not large, continued exploration will be necessary to main¬ tain this lead and to permit the use of atomic energy for peacetime pursuits. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Rev. G. Birkmann 155 LITERATURE CITED Bateman, A. M.--1946“Economic mineral deposits. John Wiley and Sons, New York City. Cooke, H. C. — 1947—Geology and economic minerals of Canada. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Bureau of Geology and Topography. 89 pp. Ford, W. E. — 1932- — Dana’s manual of mineralogy. John Wiley, New York City. Gustafson, J. K.— 1949— Uranium resources. Sci. Monthly, August, 1949 :115-120. Hess, F. L.— 1933 — Ore deposits of the western states. A.I.M.E. New York City: 455-480. - 1934 — Minerals yearbook. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. pp. 495-506. - 1935 — Minerals yearbook. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. p. 555. Holmes, A. — 1931 — Radioactivity and Geology. Age of the Earth. Bull Nat. Res. Council 80. Kidd, D. F. and Haycock, M. H. — 1935 — Mineragraphy of the ores of Great Bear Lake. G.S.A. Bull. 46:879-960. Lindgren, W.- — 1933— Mineral deposits. McGraw-Hill, New York City. Spurr, J. E.~1920— Political and commercial geology. McGraw-Hill, New York City. Pp. 204-207. REV. G. BIRKMANN 1854 - 1944 R. W. Strandtman Texas Technological College Lubbock, Texas A serious study of the aculeate Hymenoptera of North America brings one repeatedly to descriptions of types collected at 'Tedor, Lee Co., Texas.” The man responsible for these collections was Rev. G. Birkmann and al¬ though he carried on a rather extensive correspondence with the Hymenop- terists of his day, very little was ever known about the man. The following note therefore should be of interest to entomologists. I am indebted to Prof. Oswald Mueller of Houston, Mrs. Ella Martens of Giddins, Texas, and to the Giddings Star, issue of May 26, 1944 for most of the information con¬ tained below. 156 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Reverend Birkmann came to Texas in 1876 at the age of 22 and settled in east-central Texas, near Lexington in Lee county. This section of Texas is especially rich in wild flowers and anthophilous insects and Rev. Birkmann was fascinated by the natural beauty and abundance of the flora and insect fauna. He purchased books on botany and insects and spent much of his spare time studying the native flowers. Within a year he met Mr. Heiligbrodt ,an outstanding naturalist in¬ terested especially in aculeate Hymenoptera. Mr. Heiligbrodt lived in Austin and did most of his collecting up and down the Colorado river valley (of Texas). This meeting occurred at an exposition in New Orleans where Heiligbrodt had on display his collection of Texas insects. He gave Rev, Birkmann several issues of a small magazine called the Valley Naturalist, St. Louis, in which were published lists of Hymenoptera collected by Heilig¬ brodt and determined by E. T. Cresson, America’s outstanding Hymenop- terist. This visit so enthused Birkmann that he decided to collect butterflies and wasps, but because butterflies took up so much space in his collection boxes, he soon devoted his entire collecting time to the Hymenoptera. Most of his collecting was done in some seclusion for fear that his congregation might think him to be eccentric. He collected all over the Colorado and Brazos river basins but chiefly in his home territory around Giddings and Fedor. Mr. H. B. Parks, Curator of the museum at Texas A & M College, who knew Rev. Birkmann in his younger days says he was a very enthusiastic collector and liked nothing better than to go out with an insect net. He would collect large series of bees and wasps but rarely ever took any other forms. Mr. Parks has compiled a list of the Hymenoptera described from Texas and he finds that Rev. Birkmann’s name occurs in a greater number of lists, and relative to a greater number of bees than appears in Cresson’s Hymenoptera Texana, which was published about the time Birkmann first came to Texas. Very early in my own studies of Texas Hymenoptera I came across his name, and as my studies advanced I came across it more and more often. His enthusiastic collecting accounted for a very large number of new species, not only of bees, but of all the other groups of aculeate Hymenoptera as well. Nearly all bore the familiar label "'Fedor, Lee Co., Texas, Rev. G. Birkmann, collr.”, and the date of collection. Many of the species are named birkmanni; others are leensis, fedorensis, and texensh. Rev. Birkmann sent all of his collections to specialists in the East for determination, he himself being much more interested in collecting and field observations than in taxonomy as such. Entomologists to whom he sent specimens included Wm. J. Fox, Crawford, Viereck, Bruce, Melander, Friese, T. D. A. Cockerell, S. H. Rohwer, Titus Baker, and Nathan Banks, In 1899 he published under his own name a list of the aculeate Hymen¬ optera taken at Fedor, Lee Co,, Texas (Ent. News, 10, 244-5). He con¬ tinued to collect actively until about 1920 when he was forced to quit because of failing eyesight. Pastor Gotthilf Birkmann was born June 4, 18 54, in Waterloo, Illinois, where his father, the Rev. John G. Birkmann was pastor. At 13 years of age he entered college at Fort Wayne, Indiana, and at 19 the St. Louis Lutheran Theological Seminary. In 1876 at the age of 22 he completed his ministerial study and accepted a call to West Yegua, Texas (now Fedor). 1950, No. 2 June 30 ReVo G. Birkmann 157 After serving that congregation for three years he was called to the newly organized Zion Evangelical Lutheran Church at Dallas, but three years later he returned to Fedor where he remained until his retirement in 1922. He then went to live in his modest home in Giddings and remained there until the death of his wife in 1932. He then lived for a while with his son in Rose Hill but later returned to Giddings to live with his daughter, Mrs. Ella Martens, and there he remained until his death. He served as secretary of the Southern District of the Lutheran Synod from 1889 to 1912. In 1912 he was elected president of the Texas district and served in that capacity to 1920. In 1936 the Concordia Lutheran Theo¬ logical Seminary, St. Louis, awarded him the honorary degree of Doctor of Theology. He was a scholar of Hebrew and Greek and until his eyesight began to fail spent long hours reading the Bibles in the originals of these two languages. He was in the habit of reading until one or two o’clock in the morning by the light of a kerosene lamp and this may have been a contrib¬ uting factor for his failing vision in later years. After he was no longer able to read, friends and neighbors would come in when they could to read to him, thus serving to relieve the tediousness of time for Rev. Birkmann. Although he was deeply appreciative of these courtesies he nevertheless sometimes showed irritation because no one seemed desirous to read as late as 1 or 2 A M. At one time he was quite an ardent philatelist and once sold a collec¬ tion of stamps for $500 to help finance the education of his sons. He also devoted some of his spare time to the study of medicine. Even though his eyesight failed some 20 years before his death, Rev. Birkmann remained sound in body and retained a live interest in nature to the very last. He enjoyed strolls in the field with his young friends or grandsons and would have them describe to him in detail the structure of the flowers or the insect picked up by his young companions. But it is said that whenever he could not tell from these descriptions what it was he had in hand he would become quite vexed and dissatisfied with his lot. His contributions to natural science may be found at Concordia Semi¬ nary in St. Louis and at the University of Texas, and of course, in all of our larger Eastern museums. Infirmity confined him to his house during the last few years of his life, but his mind was alert to within a few days of his death. With joy he anticipated the dissolving of this earthly tabernacle and this was fulfilled just three weeks short of his 90th birthday at 3 AM. on May 17, 1944. 158 The Texas Journal of Science i^so No. 2 WHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FUOM SOCIAL SCIENCE? Carl M. Rosenquist University of Texas Austin, Texas What should Texas expect from the social sciences? Unless one is satis¬ fied with generalities and platitudes, this is no easy question to answer, and the writer does not pretend that he will be able to offer the last incon¬ trovertible word on the subject. The social sciences are numerous and varied, covering the entire wide field of human behavior, and at the same time they are new-— so new that they have not yet had time to make more than a tentative exploration of the work that awaits them. As Comte long ago pointed out, science began in an area far removed from human intervention, namely, in the study of the stars, and has slowly moved from the inorganic to the organic, from the non-human to the human. Comte’s statement calls attention to one of the more serious handicaps of social science. For despite the disclaimers of many persons in the social science field, the plain fact is that to maintain the detached, objective point of view so necessary to proper scientific ob¬ servation is extremely difficult for us. The social scientist almost inevitably finds himself a part of the situation he is investigating. The objects of his investigation are usually aware of his activities. While the scientific inves¬ tigations are in progress, both the observer and the observed tend to behave differently than they otherwise would. A human being becomes embarrassed, self-conscious, confused, or even angry if someone watches him closely to see what he is doing. In some cases results can not be published because they would identify individuals, presumably to their detriment. Many areas of human behavior are closed to investigation because of taboos current in our culture. The ingenuity of the social scientist is therefore taxed to the utmost to devise means of conducting his research without becoming personally involved in it. So far his success has been only fair. The stars, it may be recalled, do not vary their courses no matter how many telescopes are trained upon them, and they do not object if their movements are described to the world in the most intimate detail, A second factor complicating the problem grows out of the fact that no question of any importance to Texas can be answered for Texas alone. Texas is, to be sure, an administrative unit with fairly definite geographic boundaries. There are those who would say it is a distinct and separate cultural region, with its own history and destiny. But it is also a part of the nation and of the world. Texas cannot pursue an independent course of social development, disregarding everything outside her own borders. So complexly interrelated are we all that whatever happens in Texas is of significance elsewhere and whatever happens outside of the state is of sig¬ nificance to us who are within. It follows that almost no problem that arises is wholly and peculiarly Texan and, furthermore, that we in Texas can not shut our eyes to the fast-moving action in the world at large. I have said fast-moving advisedly, for it is clear that a third complica¬ tion is added by the unparalleled acceleration characteristic of change in the modern world. Development in communication has widened the spread of knowledge, thereby bringing to bear upon our culture the impact of an 1950, No. 2 June SO Texas and Social Science 159 ever-increasing number of nimble minds, each busy with extending still further the frontiers of science and invention. The success of these efforts is shown by the marvellous achievement of science and the application of techniques for utilizing the natural environment in the interest of man. Discovery follows discovery and invention follows invention faster and faster and faster. The result is well known. We have at our disposal greater power than we know how to use to best advantage. Thus it remains un¬ certain as yet whether atomic energy shall turn out to be a blessing or a curse. Here is where social science comes in and here unfortunately progress has not kept pace with that made and still being made in the non-social field. A fourth factor increasing the difficulty of answering the question we have posed comes into view at this point. The social sciences are new¬ comers, with comparatively little in the way of accomplishment to claim credit for. Their low status handicaps them in their efforts to secure funds for research. This retards them in their work and keeps them down, thereby perpetuating a vicious circle. What can social science do for Texas? It depends in large degree upon the answer to a preliminary question, a ques¬ tion so important that I shall give it more attention later in the paper. That question is. What will Texas do for social science? It is often said and rightly that science to be science must be completely impartial. With this statement no one can quarrel. It is ' a commonplace that the biased observer's reports are not to be trusted. Certain social prob¬ lems, as, for example, some of those connected with the consumption of alcoholic liquors, have all but escaped scientific analysis, because nearly everyone who has looked into the problem has had preconceptions about the solution. Any investigator of current human affairs is likely tO' be charged with partiality. Is he not himself human, and is not every human being prejudiced in some fashion or other? How much easier it is to study the movements of the stars or even the behavior of white rats. Should science then limit its activities to the study of stars and white rats? Manifestly no. For while science must remain impartial as to the out¬ come of its observations, it can not be impartial in its selection of problems to be investigated. True, science has directed its attention to many areas which appear to have been selected for study only through the whim or curiosity of the student. That many of the findings of science, worthless at the time of their discovery, have subsequently proved valuable, shows only that almost all knowledge may be potentially useful. Actually, of course, scientific investigation, like any other occupation, must earn its pay, otherwise it will not be paid for. This does not mean that every scientific discovery must at once lead to a new industrial process or a new labor- saving machine, but it does mean that in the long run science must con¬ tribute to human values. Science can not thrive on answers to meaningless questions. It follows that in the selection of its research problems, science can not afford to ignore human needs and desires. This would seem to be par¬ ticularly true of social science, since it is more immediately concerned with human life than, say, astronomy and geology. Furthermore, the field of social science is so vast that haphazard exploration could readily dissipate all our resources without giving us any really significant results. We must, then, even at the risk of being called unscientific, have in mind always as an ultimate goal the serving of mankind. 160 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 But every step raises another question. Here we must ask, What is human welfare? We can not well say what social science can do for Texas until we know what Texas needs and wants to have done. To this ques¬ tion, I believe, there is no scientific answer; perhaps, indeed, there is no final answer at all. Yet an immediate, tentative answer there has to be, unless we are to proceed haphazardly, blindly, completely without plan. Hence, since we must start somewhere, we may begin with an assumption, a simple one, to which most people will give ready assent, but an assumption nonetheless. It is this: Life is worth living. To many people the truth of this statement will seem obvious and self-evident. Actually it is not sus¬ ceptible of proof by any method known to us. We must take it wholly on faith, and if we do it will provide us with a sound basis for a blueprint to build by. For if life is worth living a number of other conclusions, corollary to it, immediately suggest themselves, corollaries which furnish plenty of objectives for human striving toward a perfect life. Thus a long life is better than a short one, and a healthy life is better than one marred by illness. Moreover, liberty is better than confinement and freedom is better than restriction. The means to the attainment of these ends are of course also important, such as food, clothing, shelter, medical service, edu¬ cation, democratic government. From the simple assumption we started with we can, in this manner, build up a detailed picture of the kind of world we want. As a matter of fact we have already gone far in the con¬ struction of the ideal plan. We recognize, however, a number of special problems which must be solved before the ideal can be realized. I have selected more or less at random some half dozen of these problems for consideration at this point, because I believe that social science must select its research topics with an eye on these and similar problems if it is to justify its existence. It will be obvious that no dearth of objectives for social science is in evidence. Perhaps the most conspicuous socio-economic circumstance which strikes us as we look about the world is the inequality of the distribution of wealth and income. It will be agreed that in its extreme forms at least this condition is not conducive to the maximum development of human life and happiness. Because of its fundamental importance to life itself, I have placed this problem first on the list, I am aware that for everyone in the world to have everything material that he wants seems at present an impossibility. The world is finite; our wants are unlimited. For the present we must restrict ourselves to a dis¬ cussion of a more modest objective, such as the meeting of actual need, enough of the means of life to sustain life satisfactorily. As we look about the mines, the fields and the factories of our own country, this objective seems modest enough to be readily attainable. Americans do not have everything, but almost. In some respects it appears we have too much, for we have adopted as regular governmental policy the limitation of produc¬ tion of a number of farm products, while private economic organizations have long since been doing the same thing in other fields. An incidental measure of our wealth may be derived from noting that we can easily take the entire population riding at the same moment in our great fleet of auto¬ mobiles. Oddly enough, even with so much wealth at our disposal, a good many Americans remain underfed, underhoused, undereducated. This naturally 2'950, No. 2 June 30 Texas and Social Science 161 gives us some concern, though when we compare ourselves with the rest of the world, we are bound to be impressed, not only with our own good for¬ tune, but also with the extreme ill fortune of others. It may be in some respects a source of pride to recall that America with only six percent of the population has nearly half the world’s wealth, but it is disquieting to realize how little must be the share of each of the others, fifteen times as many as ourselves, with a total income no more than equal to our own. It becomes apparent that a redistribution of the world’s wealth and income, under any arrangement approaching equality, while it would give most people a little more than they now have, would only result in everyone being hungry. The total food production of the world at present is far short of providing a satisfactory diet for all its people. The problem, then, is two-fold. First, there is the problem of securing a better distribution, but second, and more important, is the problem of increasing the production of economic goods. Many possibilities immediately present themselves. We might remove the restrictions upon trade and pro¬ duction, whether publicly or privately sponsored. We might put into actual, general practice the best known methods of production. Attempts to do these things would of course at once collide with long established patterns, e.g., with the mores of land tenure, with the economic interests of powerful minorities, with notions of right and wrong so firmly entrenched as to have the force of law. Here is a problem in social technique to challenge the ablest of social scientists. Sudsidiary to the main problem is another, or perhaps a group of prob¬ lems in the economic field. I have in mind the dislocations of socio-economic life caused by the sudden and rapid changes in economic production char¬ acteristic of modern times. Machine technology, assembly line production, division of labor, interdependency — all these have come to stay and human¬ ity must adjust to them. This means changes in folkways hallowed by time until they are harder to break through than walls of stone or steel. A third problem, also economic in character, arises from the fact that certain natural substances and materials needed by man are relatively scarce. They include numerous minerals, particularly those required in soil for crop production. In some regions they include also forests, grass and water. A few of these substances are replaced by slow processes of nature; others, once used up, are forever gone. The husbanding of our resources so as to use them sparingly rather than wastefully, and to encourage the processes of replacement, is known as conservation. Much more attention than currently given must be directed toward conservation if critical shortages in the future are to be avoided. Fourth on the list of problems I have placed education. As times goes on the accumulation of information possessed by man becomes more and more staggering in quantity. As recently as in the time of Benjamin Franklin a single man could learn and know all that science had up to then dis¬ covered. Now, two centuries later, it would take thousands of men to ac¬ complish what Franklin did alone. The continuation of our present com¬ plex existence depends upon the continuous availability of persons trained in innumerable roles demanded by society. There is no possibility that edu¬ cation will ever catch up with the need for it. Uneducated persons, children, are constantly entering the population, taking the place of their more or less educated elders. The problem here is to keep the process of education 162 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 abreast of the times and going on unremittingly, in the face of a changing and increasing body of knowledge and rising costs. A generation of neglect can produce a nation of illiterates. As the know-how grows so must also the show-how. Another problem of long standing and of increasing importance is that of health. As in many other fields of human endeavor great progress has already been made. The average length of life in the Western world has been trebled in the last two centuries. But here as elsewhere, our technology has far outrun our ability to apply it. Th healing arts have made long strides in recent years, without a corresponding development in our systems of medical care. The result is that our systems are inadequate to supply the people with what the doctors know how to give them. It may be noted, moreover, that a large majority of the people of the world have even now hardly any medical care worthy of the name. How to bring all this about without placing too great a strain on taxpayers, doctors and folkways is the question. People themselves constitute a problem for each other. In a few por¬ tions of the world they are too few to maintain the institutional setup re¬ quired by modern civilized life; in many more they are so numerous as to threaten each other’s comfort, health, safety and life. Rural areas tend to produce more children than can make a living on the land as adults; cities do not reproduce themselves and must therefore recruit their populations from the country. Vast areas of the world are virtually uninhabited, while others are swarming with people, too densely crowded to feed themselves on the tiny bits of land available to them. There is a strong possibility that as a whole the world is over-populated. Here is a problem of distribution and control that will challenge our ingenuity and patience to the utmost. Finally, in this list of sample problems we have the issue of war and peace. No organized human activity costs so much by far as the efforts of national groups destroy each other. And as organization improves and wars become bigger the costs increase still further. It is now possible to exhaust a people almost beyond the hope of recovery in the waging of a good-sized war. The destruction of civilization may well take place, unless we learn, and quickly, how to settle international differences without fighting. Per¬ haps no job of social science is so immediately pressing as this one. What, then, can social science do? The job seems overwhelming and progress to date has been disappointing. Here we must stop to take stock of our situation, to figure out, if we can, why we are moving so slowly and accomplishing so little. Texas and the world, no doubt about it, have great need for social science; they expect much, yet it is painfully evident that but little has been done to enable social science to do what it wants and is expected to do. In the past social science has labored under a cloud of suspicion and disapproval. So ignorant are many that they regard social science and socialism as identical and both irretrievably bad. Some say social science is not science at all and that it has no claim to its name. Its status as a subject in our schools is low. Many of the teachers who teach it have had no special training for their jobs. On the research level social science has been treated like the proverbial stepchild. Compared with the huge sums allocated to research in the non¬ social sciences, our own has had to be content with driblets. The big labora¬ tories full of expensive equipment do not house social scientists. The large 1950, No. 2 June 30 Public Opinion and National Debt 165 corporations which sponsor research do not have social scientists on their payrolls. Social science has no magic at its disposal. It cannot of itself generate the energy necessary in its pursuit. It can not make bricks without straw. If social science is to do anything for Texas, Texas must first do something for social science. Those of us who are directly concerned with social science have in this connection a duty to perform, namely, to educate the community to the needs and possibilities of our specialty. To the criticism that social science has done little or nothing we may fairly answer that the community has not yet given us the opportunity. At the same time we must not accept too readily the common judgment that social science has no achievements to its credit. This is not the place to enumerate the findings of social science, which are actually impressive enough, but it may not be amiss to mention one, the culture concept. It is a genuine achievement to have discovered that culture exists, that its values though imperative are relative, that man is parasitic upon it. This one discovery and its corollaries supplies a sound basis for progress in social science. With this beginning we shall, given time and support, learn to understand human behavior and human nature. To supply Texas and the world with this understanding is our high aim and purpose. Once attained this knowledge can help us build a better community, one in which life is made ever more worth living. When at last we understand man’s behavior, the social planners will have at their disposal the machinery to control society in man’s own interest. This means happily that we shall be able some day to increase the production of material goods and distribute them equitably; that we shall be able to save individuals from the damaging effects of our cultural conflicts; that we shall be able to give our people the maximum opportunity for develop¬ ment by providing the best that is available in the way of education and health. Finally, we may be able to demonstrate convincingly the fact, still not appreciated everywhere, that peace is better than war. PUBLIC OPINION AND THE NATIONAL DEBT Aurelius Morgner The A & M College of Texas The end of the government’s fiscal year, June 1950, is likely to be marked by a deficit of around five billion dollars. This means five billion dollars more will be added to our already huge 2 50 billion dollar national debt. The purpose of this paper is not to debate the issue of deficit financ¬ ing, it is simply to examine what problems the existence of a huge national debt involves. On the issue of the general inadvisability of all deficits a debate among economists could probably not be held. I believe there is hardly an economist today who would insist that government outlays must exactly equal receipts over a period of 365 ¥4 days. Astronomy does not fur¬ nish guides for economic action. Certainly the principle of equal receipts and expenditures over a solar year has never been insisted on for business units and there is no reason it should be insisted on for government. The 164 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 question that now divides economists is when is a deficit advisable, not whether all deficits are inadvisable. But so great is the cultural lag that a debate on when is a deficit de¬ sirable simply cannot be held among ordinary mortals outside the charmed circle of economists. The man in the street and both the Republican and Democratic parties know that the budget must be balanced each and every year. Mr. Truman faithfully repeats this in each public address. He believes this should be accomplished, of course, by higher taxes. Certainly Mr. Dewey is by no means deficient in this fundamental faith. He believes the budget should be balanced by cutting expenditure. Here then is something truly akin to religious mysticism. No one explains why the budget must be balanced, everyone simply knows it must be balanced. The politician in office wrestles with the budget problem knowing full well that only a balanced budget is morally right. But the force of circumstance, unemployed people or war, plus the public distaste for taxes forces him to do what he knows to be a sin. But all he feels is not lost by his lapse from grace. He may be forgiven if only he will promise not to sin again next year. On the basis of such yearly absolutions the Roosevelt administration carried on through thirteen consecutive budget deficits from 193 3 to 1946. The sins of deficits live on in national debts and are presumably visited thus upon the children even unto the seventh generation. The feel¬ ing that national debt places an enormous burden upon future generations plus the fact that the figures are so frighteningly large- — 2 50 billion dollars works out to a debt of about $1,700 for every man, woman, and new born babe — has convinced the man in the street that there must be something ominous about national debt. To allay such fears many economists in my opinion have performed an educational disservice when they have attempted to dismiss national debt on the grounds that it is owed by the people to themselves and is thus a matter of no signficance. While I think it can be demonstrated that the present national debt is not a particularly significant burden upon our economy, the attempt to make the problem disappear by a sort of legerdemain has only incensed the public and has tended to strengthen its belief that national debt must be an evil. Anxious to show the desirability of deficit financing as a means of stabilizing the wild gyrations of our economic system from depression to boom, economists have overlabored the point that "we owe the debt to ourselves.” If our government is in debt 250 billion dollars then true we as citizens of this government are obligated for this amount, but after all the $2 50 billion of government securities representing this debt are held by ourselves. National debt is thus not significant. Now certainly this truism that we owe the debt to ourselves can not be denied, but it is by no means the whole story. The economist by pointing out that the national debt is an asset as well as a liability cancels one aspect against another and makes the debt vanish. But the man in the street knows the debt is still there. What is wrong with the economist’s so apparently true answer he can not fathom, but something he is sure is wrong. This can’t answer the matter. Some economists at least have always felt that this did not fully answer the matter either. Odd as the statement at first may sound, economists today might well turn to the Mercantilist and Classical economists who wrote from one to three centuries ago for insights into the debt problem. True 1950, No. 2 June 30 Public Opinion and National Debt 165 the institutional arrangements of today are quite different. We have a highly developed banking system, central bank controls, a wide variety of types of government securities, etc., but still examination shows the essential prob¬ lems to be just about the same. For example the statement that *'we owe the national debt to ourselves and that therefore it can no be significant” is not a new idea. It can be traced at least as far back as the writing of the Mercantilist Dr. Charles Davenant in 1697, and incidentally Davenant felt that, while it was true, it was an inadequate statement. A brief resume of 18 th and early 19th century experiences with na¬ tional debts, along with an account of the thinking of contemporary econo¬ mists upon the matter, furnishes perspective in judging our present national debt problem and will at least assuage the man in the street’s fears when he discovers that the national debt problem of today is not so different from that experienced and successfully lived through some two hundred years ago. Let us confine our historical review simply to England. The English national debt dates back to 1694. Over two and a half centuries it has at times declined, but never has it at any time been completely paid off. The debt resulted originally as a result of war with France. The government se¬ curities issued at this time by the government of William and Mary were sold largely to the rising merchant class. It was argued that by virtue of their possession of these securities the merchant class must support the new sovereigns against the Stuart pretenders and their semi-feudal aristocratic supporters, who wanted to take back the English throne. Here we have an interesting argument that a national debt promotes political stability by giving people a financial interest in the maintenance of the existing social system. But of far more interest is what happened to the English national debt over the century that followed. This century, the 18 th, was for England a century of almost continuous warfare. In over 40 out of the 100 years of this century England was at war with someone. Budgets never seemed to balance despite new and higher taxes. This century in contrast to the thir¬ teen years of New Deal reform and war deficits might well be called a century of deficit finance, deficits having occurred in about 70 out of the 100 years. Naturally both the economists and the man in the street became as perturbed about this matter of deficits as their successors are today. Dire prospects of bankruptcy were foreseen, David Hume, the great philosopher, who was also a notable economist even went so far as to prophesy that bankruptcy would come within exactly fifty years. Adam Smith also wrung his hands in anguish over the national debt through twenty pages of the great wealth of nations, denouncing the politicians whose spending was driving the country to ruin. But other views were also expressed. Sir James Steuart, a much neg¬ lected figure in the history of economic thought, felt that the concern over the debt was exaggerated. In truth in Steuart we find not only a debunking of the terror of national debt, but an amazing anticipation of the argu¬ ments now advanced for deficit financing by contemporary economists. Steuart and others did not wildly talk of national bankruptcy. They knew there was no sheriff to take over the government and start selling its posses¬ sions on the auction block. They realized that government as long as it was sovereign could meet its obligations by virtue of its power to tax and 166 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 that if it was afraid to exercise this pov/er fully then it could meet its obligations by creating money. The creation of fiat money in a situation of full employment would mean inflation and resulting economic disorganiza¬ tion. This was the only meaningful terror that Steuart and others could see in a large debt. But as long as taxes were efficiently administered and the issuance of fiat money avoided they could see no danger. But Adam Smith and Hume, writing in the latter half of the 18 th century and decrying the huge national debt of their time, had no idea that their dire prophesies of disaster would within a century look foolish as England came to bear an even larger debt. For the financial impact of the Napoleonic Wars upon England was staggering. For almost eighteen years England was at war with France. During this time taxes were increased enormously-— in fact it was not until seventy years after this period that English taxes returned to the level of the Napoleonic period. Yet these taxes were inadequate to meet the financial needs of the war and the debt increased four fold. Possibly in 1815 at the end of the Napoleonic War England bore the greatest debt burden that has ever been borne by any nation without either repudiation or extensive inflation. Interest payments on the national debt accounted for over half of all government outlays. In the United States today interest payments account for about one-eighth of all government outlays. In 1815 interest charges took probably about 9 % of the British national income as against the 3 % that had bothered Smith and Hume so much a generation before. In the United States today interest charges on the national debt represent about 2^2% of the national income. Truly this national debt of England in 1815 was an important matter. Economists wrote material by the reams about it. Yet a few generations later the national debt was almost a forgotten subject. What had happened? Actually the national debt continued to be large, but the great growth of industry resulted in a rising national income that rapidly dwarfed the debt. By 1900 the national debt after eighty-five years had been reduced only one fourth, but so great had been the rise of national income during the period that the interest payments on the debt fell from 9% to 3% of the national income. It was not until World I, the Depression of the 30’s, and finally World War II that the topic of national debt was to return to economic discussions as an issue of importance. Certainly the experience of the past indicates that there has been a consistent tendency to overstate the burden represented by national debt. But this does not justify dismissing the national debt as wholly unimportant. Let us examine just what problems the existence of a large national debt creates. These problems I think are basically two in number. First there is a transfer problem caused by the existence of the debt. Secondly there is a monetary problem. Each of these problems has an effect upon the total quantity of goods that will be produced by the economy and upon the way they will be distributed. The adverse effect of the debt on production and distribution I believe is not great, at least it is certainly not great with the existing national debt, but it is worth noting. Now the statement that we owe the national debt to ourselves— which was mentioned earlier— is really an attempt to ignore the basic transfer problem that the existence of the national debt involves. Davenant, Smith, and many other economists who worried excessively about national debt saw this. True when a future generation pays interest on a national 1950, No. 2 June 30 Public Opinion and National Debt 167 debt or repays part of it, it simply repays itself. As taxpayer it collectively will pay out sums that it will receive back collectively as bondholders. The generation will pay itself. But this is not equivalent just to shifting money from one pocket to another pocket. To begin with our economy consists of millions of individual subpockets. While the total amount taken from all the pockets marked taxpayers is exactly equal to the amount received by all the pockets marked bondholders, the amount taken from each tax¬ payer pocket need not be the same as the amount that goes over to the matching bondholder pocket of the same individual. If the individual has no bonds nothing comes into the one pocket while something goes out of the other. Or more may well go out of the tax pocket than goes into the bondholder pocket. If this is true then more must go into someone else’s bondholder pocket than leaves his taxpayer pocket. Thus the existence of a national debt brings about a redistribution of national income. Since upper income groups tend to hold a disproportionate part of the national debt, a shift of income from lower to higher income groups is brought about. This is well to remember in an era when it is widely thought that the Federal budget does nothing but transfer money from the rich in taxes to the poor in subsidies. On balance, however, I think this impression that the Federal budget favors lower income groups is still correct. After all the ten billion dollars spent on veterans benefits and other welfare plans is largely received by the lower income groups. These groups probably— and this is only my own very rough guess — get 4 or 5 billion dollars more of government services than they pay for. Thus this more than offsets the two billion dollars that the Federal Reserve Board estimates is transferred from groups earning less than $5,000 a year to those earn¬ ing more than $5,000 by virtue of the yearly interest payments on national debt. But the transfer problem affects not only the distribution of income, but production as well. Taxes may well have adverse effects on production. Even if everyone was a recipient of bond interest to exactly the same extent that he was a payer of taxes, national debt would still be significant because now, though no change in income distribution resulted, production might be reduced. In other words there is a problem not cnly of what happens to the distribution of national income as interest payments are switched from taxpayer pockets to bondholder pockets, but a problem of whether some of the income switched may not disappear. A husband switching money from one pocket to another may lose some of it if the process is noted by his wife. Something comparable may happen in an economy. A good tax system which raises money yet does not seriously hurt incentives to either work or invest may avoid this problem. While the five billion dollars of yearly interest payments required by our present national debt contributes to our tax problems, it is still the more than thirty-five billion or other expenditures that brings the significant tax problems that beset us. That a complete overhauling of our Federal tax system is becoming more and more imperative seems to me to be obvious. By this I mean not that taxes should be increased or decreased, but that they should be levied in such manner as to least affect economic decision making and should not be subject to ready evasion as is for instance our present Federal income tax. Such reform would reduce considerably the significance of the transfer problem. 168 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 But beside the transfer problem the existence of a national debt in¬ volves certain monetary problems. This matter is rather technical, but briefly this is what is involved. An existing national debt can affect both the quantity of money in our economy and the rapidity with which that money circulates. In these two ways it may contribute either favorably or unfavorably to the inflationary-deflationary problems that beset our economy. Let us first consider the effect of the existence of the national debt upon the rapidity with which people spend the money incomes that they receive. In an economic system where people are large holders of govern¬ ment bonds it seems reasonable to believe that people will feel financially more secure than if they didn’t hold securities. Thus they will spend in all probability more of their income. Now if conditions are such that prices verge on an inflationary rise, the existence of the national debt will con¬ tribute to the inflation. This the national debt probably did in the period immediately after World War II, but with the slackening of economic activity that took place after 1948 the national debt probably exercised a favorable effect by helping to maintain money expenditures and thus help¬ ing to stave off deflation. Thus the effect of a higher rate of spending in¬ duced by the national debt will be of disadvantage in booms, but of ad¬ vantage in slumps. The existence of the national debt also affects the quantity of money as well as the willingness of people to spend. By the purchase of existing bonds owned by the people by banks, the people exchange their bonds for bank accounts thereby increasing the quantity of money. Similarly if people buy bonds formerly owned by banks they give up their bank ac¬ counts for bonds and the quantity of money is reduced. Such changes in the quantity of money may have an inflationary or deflationary effect upon the economic system. At present the insistence of the government upon a low interest rate policy has largely destroyed the effectiveness of the standard tools of monetary policy such as open market operations and changes in reserve requirements by which it was formerly thought that the quantity of money might be controlled and inflations and deflations checked. Despite this it seems quite reasonable that government without altering its low interest rate policy could control shifts of govern¬ ment securities between the public and the banks by simply requiring that banks maintain a part of their reserves in the form of government securities. While the problems connected with the existence of national debt which have just been catalogued may appear quite impressive, it is still well to maintain perspective in regard to them. Certainly it is unwise to dismiss the existing national debt as being of absolutely no significance, but certainly it is even far less wise to insist that national debt is somehow a dark and towering menace over us. Furthermore the significance of the national debt problem, it must always be remembered, is made continually less each year as national income grows. It appears reasonable now to expect that national income will continue to grow at a compound rate of two or three per cent annually over the years to come if we can avoid wars and major depressions. This means that within less than a generation the rela¬ tive statistical importance of national debt to national income will be reduced by about half. If, however, depressions threaten us, national debt is almost sure to rise. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Our Future Economy 169 But it appears that national debt could grow many hundreds of billions of dollars before it started to impose a severe transfer problem. If a transfer of 10% of the national income were considered a critically high mark this would nevertheless permit national debt to expand by 750 billion dollars or a three-fold increase over the present national debt. But this transfer prob¬ lem need never even be incurred. The government could borrow from the Federal Reserve Banks at zero interest rates. Whether this procedure will ever be accepted remains to be seen, but there is much to recommend it. In any case national debt does not present a problem that truly merits the concern of the man in the street. He might do well to reduce his worry and oratory on this subject by about 95%. Atomic energy control, full employment, and the problems of racial discrimination are more deserving of his attention. LITERATURE CITED Boar,d ©f Governors of the Federal Reserve System — 1946 — Public finance and full employ¬ ment. Davenant, Charles — 1695- — An essay upon ways and means. Hame, David — 1772 — Essays and treastises on several subjects. Smith, Adam — 1776 — The wealth of nations. Stuart, James — 1767 — Principles of political economy. U. S. Treasury Department — 1949 — Bulletin for November. THE CHALLENGE OF OUR FUTURE ECONOMY H. R. Mundhenke Texas Christian University I am sure all will agree that it is always interesting to speculate on the turn of events in the more or less immediate future. Some of us may wish to do so because we are plagued by fears, some may be intrigued by favor¬ able prospects, but many of us, simply interested in life, allow our curiosity full play and we enjoy speculating on what an unfolding history has in store. Such speculation is not as useless as might at first appear. In fact, a certain amount of such reflection is quite essential. It is most necessary that we do' some planning and make some decisions which will determine our actions over an appreciable period of time. This becomes more true as we make more and more long-time investments in durable products. As an illustration, West Texas is considering a water-conservation project which will cost upwards of $300,000,000. Obviously, this cannot be done in a day, to meet a temporary need. It must be based upon some judgment as to what life will be like or could be like in West Texas twenty or fifty or a hundred years from now. This obviously could profit from some intellectual effort, not to mention some imagination. This need for looking ahead is particularly valuable for social scien¬ tists, since such studies might reveal that we may have more important responsibilities than we now appreciate, responsibilities that we should know about. We social scientists, it is commonly said, are always lagging behind. Maybe some thinking about the future would help us, at least, to catch up to where we ought tO’ be now! So I invite you to dream awhile. And since all is conjecture we can be utterly honest with ourselves. Even just doing that has its rewards. 170 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Among economists in recent years an unusually large amount of atten¬ tion has already been directed toward what our economy might be like in the more or less immediate future. Only two years ago appeared the results of a voluminous amount of work by the Twentieth Century Fund, which was given the title Americans needs and resources, including estimates of what our economy would be like in 1950 and 1960. The following year appeared Sumner H. Slichter’s smaller volume on the American economy, ITS PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS, and in 1949 came Harold G. Moulton, head of the Brookings Institution, with his book entitled, controlling factors IN economic development. No doubt there are many others, but these three are sufficient to indicate the trend in the thinking that is going on. From these studies we obtain a very attractive picture of our Ameri¬ can economy. According to these very able students, the possibilities for in¬ creased productivity of goods seems boundless. WTiile the Twentieth Cen¬ tury Fund looked no farther ahead than 1960 and confined its judgment to a projection of the present trend-— which caused it to say conservatively that the buying power per person in 1960 would be no more than 40 per cent higher than it was in 1940 — it did say elsewhere, *'we can go on to economic and cultural heights as far and farther above those of today as those of today are beyond the imaginings of our great grandfathers of 100 years ago.’* This of course, is based upon the evidence that we have an abundance of all the factors needed for such production. Doctor Moulton in his recent volume agreed with this, stating that we could, if we made full use of our present resources, support "a population twice as great as at present at eight times the present average American standard of living.” If we can accept the judgment of such experts as reliable and good it would seem that the 300 billion dollar economy which Leon Keyserling, President Truman and others have been talking about recently is easily within the bounds of reason for the not-distant future. Without further ado I believe we can accept the proposition that our productivity of goods and services can be expanded to almost any limit. We have the raw materials, we have sufficient labor, we can create the capital needed, we have the know-how. If from this possibility in the area of pro¬ duction we can infer we shall have a high standard of living for all Ameri¬ cans, then our economic future looks bright indeed. At this point, two ”ifs” creep into the picture. The first of these is: If we can avoid war. For war, either hot or cold, could and would sap the lifeblood out of the most robust economy. If war breaks, we could expect economic chaos. A recent business week editorial, speaking of atomic bombs, philosophically stated: "No one now takes seriously the visions of civilization wiped out in a few hours. Even atomic bombs are unlikely to wreak destruction greater than that visited upon Berlin and Tokyo.” Only! But how would we fare if New York and Chicago, Detroit and Pittsburg, Fort Worth and Houston ended up as did Berlin and Tokyo! The cold war could be almost as serious, so far as economic progress in the United States is concerned. Recently a little news item appeared in the U. S. News. It referred to the fact that Secretary Acheson of the Department of State had received a report from a study committee to the effect that it will take at least 50 billions of dollars a year for the United States to guarantee to keep Russia contained. (And this would not guarantee safety to the American 1950, No. 2 June 30 Our Future Economy 171 people, since all agree there would be no assurance a shooting war would not break out.) Such direct budgetary outlays would not be the only cost of a cold war. A cold war would also require that all decisions in foreign trade be made by the military. Whether such trade would be desirable economically would become secondary. So, also, in doniestic affairs. Decen¬ tralization, maintenance of standby industries, subsidies, building of indus¬ tries underground — all this and more would eat up any economic progress we might otherwise be able to achieve. War, either hot or cold, would ruin any prospects for a higher standard of living. The second "if” is: If we are to realize an appreciable measure of greater economic prosperity some important changes or adjustments will need to come about within our economy itself. We are still in danger of slipping into depression at almost any moment. (Don’t misunderstand me here. I believe that business in 1950 will be better than it has been in 1949; but in 1951 or 1952— -that is something else.) We are not distributing in¬ come sufficiently well to provide the purchasing power needed to keep the goods moving through the markets. We have not solved or made any headway in solving the problem of monopoly— which not only tends to¬ ward inequitable distribution of income and eventual depression, but also restricts the full use of resources and private initiative. If present trends continue, also, consumers will continue to be subjected to increasing un¬ economic pressures— in advertising, high-pressure salesmanship, installment credit, shoddy goods. The day when the consumer and his needs is recog¬ nized to be the center of our economy is not yet in sight. In spite of our present calm and happy state it would be a bold economist who would not agree that our present economy is incapable of standing on its own feet and maintaining a high-level economy. If, however, we can look forward to some progress in these areas — and I believe progress is being made, although haltingly and against great odds— then it might be interesting to pause at this moment and note some of the characteristics of our imagined economy of the future. I have already suggested the first characteristic. If we can avoid war or the necessity of spending all our substance for preparation for war, and if we can resolve to some degree certain internal weaknesses, then we can expect an economy that can provide an appreciably higher standard of liv¬ ing than the American people are now enjoying. Second, in addition to greater productivity, a high-level economy will necessarily need to become more consumer-minded. The prosperity will need to be spread around in some way. Third, the trend now seems clearly to indicate that there will be wider participation in industry by all the factors affected. This refers particularly to the laboring group. Mr. Sumner H. Slichter is almost alone at present in calling attention to this most significant shift that is now oc¬ curring in our economy. He is saying that the American economy is becom¬ ing "laboristic,” meaning a rise in influence of the labor factor. The full consequence of this historic shift, of course, cannot yet be determined, but one result surely will be that labor will have a greater voice in the decisions affecting its welfare. And fourth, our economy of the future will be more social. It will be more social in that it will seek more earnestly to serve social ends- — ^such as social security and consumer needs. It will also be more social in that the social group-through its agent, the Government — will play a greater part. More economic activity will be carried on by Govern- 172 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 ment; more business will be under greater government controls. Time does not permit elaboration of these details. It might be appro¬ priate to observe here that all these characteristics-— a greater regard for consumer- welfare, a greater participation in production by all parties in¬ volved, a greater emphasis upon security, a greater participation and direc¬ tion by government — all these, if they come to pass, could mean a fuller realization of our dream of American Democracy. I here am using this term American Democracy in its broader, more comprehensive, twentieth-century meaning referring to a way of life, a philosophy of life — or as Charles E. Merriam of the University of Chicago has referred to it, the highest form of human association of which we have yet been able to conceive. In that true and full meaning of Democracy, concerned with realizing the fullest well-being for all individuals belonging to the group, all aspects of life will need to make their respective contribution. Our economic order can be no exception. If it can evolve into such a system that it makes possible a co¬ operative spirit, a feeling of belonging, a sense of responsibility, at the same time contributing consciously to the well-being of the greatest number, through social securities properly planned, enhancing self-respect and mu¬ tual respect, we would say such change is all to the good. The trends in our economy seem to be in that direction. If, then, we can overcome the two big ''ifs” we have noted earlier- war or militarism and the serious diseases now afflicting our economy; and the trends as noted develop— a higher standard of living, more consumer- concern, more security, more cooperative participation, more constructive government — then it would appear that our economic future is bright. These are big ifs, however, and the surmounting of them is far from certain. Remaining optimistic a little longer, however, let us imagine we are on the way to the realization of such an economic utopia. What prob¬ lems would arise? What pins might collapse our balloon? WTiat might set the brakes? I’ would like here to pose a few questions which I believe be¬ come very pertinent at this point — and I pose them in the greatest serious¬ ness as being of direct concern to our future economic welfare. If our eco¬ nomic future is really to be a bright one it is these questions which we shall need to answer affirmatively. No. 1. Can we stand prosperity? Can we as a people, as or if increas¬ ing prosperity comes, keep from getting flabby, careless, wasteful, lazy, with less incentive, inventiveness and motivation? No. 2. Can we avoid going crazy through fear of communism? Will we allow unreasoned fear to override all our economic and other judgments? No. 3. Can we quit kidding ourselves? Can we become willing, even anxious, to think straight and think things through— not willing receptors and willing purveyors of half-truths or outright untruths? No. 4, Can we reach a stage of human development when we shall allow our intellect rather than our emotions to make our major decisions? No. 5. Can we get beyond a narrow self-interest stage onto a level of enlightened self-interest? No. 6. Can democracy work, even in political affairs? No. 7. Can we reach a stage in our thinking in which our economy is recognized and treated as a servant, not as the overshadowing, dominant master of our lives? No. 8, Can we ever act as a nation of Christians? 1950, No. 2 Natural Science, An Educational Continuum 173 I use the word can in all these questions because I believe it is a ques¬ tion of being able. Do we as a people have the intestinal fortitude to make our individual private interests subservient to the greater public good? Are we capable of making human values our primary concern? Can we quit kidding ourselves by uttering half-truths or by taking positions that we ourselves know could not stand intellectual scrutiny and have been taken only because of some narrow self-interest? Do we honestly want democracy? These may be searching questions, but I believe they are true ones, and they are most pertinent. They bring out this point — which is the point I would like to leave with you' the real problems that will deter¬ mine the future of our economy are not economic problems, but rather questions that other social sciences must study and answer. The questions I have asked are questions for psychologists, sociologists, philosophers or students in religion. The question of the sort of economy we shall have in the future is not in the hands of the economists — it is in your hands as social scientists. We have plenty of resources and technology, and economic brains, for a very high level of economy. Whether we shall ever enjoy that high level is dependent upon non-economic forces and factors. This is why I am saying that the future of our economy should be a challenge to all social scientists. NATURAL SCIENCE AS AN EDUCATIONAL CONTINUUM W. Gordon Whaley, Director The Plant Research Institute Chairman, The Botanical Laboratories The University of Texas In the last half century American education has undergone a far reaching evolution. The changes wrought are many and the end is not yet. Enrollment in secondary schools has increased from less than 100,000 to more than 7,500,00; in colleges and universities from fewer than 75,000 students to over 2,500,000. These figures have a significance aside from the mushroom growth they depict. They reveal that whereas in an earlier day more than three-fourths of our secondary school students went on to college now only about one-third go. This fact has changed the character of our educational system. It naturally gives the secondary schools and the colleges and universities different aims while greatly increasing their responsibilities. No less important is the change in the subject matter of American education from a nucleus of the classics — literature and history, mathematics and rhetoric, to a diffusion of subjects too numerous to men¬ tion, but ranging from Greek history to typewriting, from theoretical physics to cooking. This educational expansion has accompanied a great general increase in the complexity of our society. Social changes have made us a nation of specialists and there result great pressures for specialized training by the schools. Competition for means of livelihood in which special training or a high development of skills is required is so great that specialized education has almost become a lifeline. This high degree of specialization has brought with it pressing needs for greater understanding of every man by his fellow 174 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 men, of one social group by another, and of all nations by every nation. The schools’ most important problem is a paradox — ^how to assure our citizens of a satisfactory means of living, through specialized education, while underwriting the stability of the social order with widespread human understanding and knowledge, through general education. At the same time we must avoid conflicting forces and tensions which will lay bases for lack of stability in individuals or social groups. The problem is an extremely difficult one, rendered still more difficult by its development during the period of rapid extensive evolution of the schools and their modern curricula and tremendous social changes outside the schools. It would take volumes simply to analyze the problem and list the factors involved. I shall concern myself with only one aspect of the problem and the bearing of natural science and natural science teaching upon this aspect. With the expansion of curricula and the increase of emphasis on special¬ ized training to meet the pace of social change, there has been a loss of the continua which at an early day constituted not only common learning for all students in the secondary schools but also a direct connecting thread between these schools and the colleges. At one time the principal continuum was, directly or indirectly, religion, or at least Christian ethics. Earlier it had been study of the cultures of the ancient civilizations, particularly those of Greece and Rome. At a later day, which corresponded with the early considerable growth of the American school system, the continuum was found in the study of the literature of Europe and America for its reflection of our developing culture and traditions. For reasons which have grown out of our social evolution none of these subjects is now wholly tenable as a practical continuum. We are at present without a satisfactory common ground in our educational system. It is in this relation that I should like to consider the natural sciences, particularly chemistry, physics and biology. I am going to suggest, cau¬ tiously, that this block of sciences may in part constitute a continuum which would give unity to our teaching. I must emphasize the need for treating this suggestion with caution and for considering these sciences as only an important part of a measure of common general learning. Let us examine these sciences in relation to our educational objectives. It is a part of our aim to endow our young people with the skill and train¬ ing requisite to making a living. In the last fifty years the impact of devel¬ opments in physics and chemistry and their engineering applications upon the daily life of individuals in this and most other countries has been great. We need but give thought to the long list of positions in manufacturing, transportation, and the communications fields to realize the significance which physics and chemistry have come to hold. To be sure, many positions in all of these fields are far removed from the level of the school-taught sciences themselves. Nonetheless, the same principles, concerning which we are so constantly amassing more knowledge, underlie them all; and thorough widespread understanding of these principles is essential to progress. The same is true of biology, most particularly in relation to agriculture and medicine, for both of which it is the blueprint science. For the increasing numbers of persons who must make their living at one or another level of the applications of these sciences their significance is obvious. But I am suggesting these sciences not as specialized subjects in the 1950, No. 2 Natural Science, An Educational Continuum Jnrifi HO ^ 175 curricula but as a unity-forming block in general education. As such they must be examined for different meanings, though these meanings, too, gain in importance directly as the lives of a greater number of people come to be ever more closely allied with the subject matter. My suggestion of chemistry, physics and biology as unifying elements is based upon three considerations. First, these natural sciences deal with the basic stuffs of life, with the manifestations which constitute life, and with the laws of the natural order. In the language of biology, with its roots in physics and chemistry, man is an animal subject to the same natural laws and regulatory processes as other animals. We grant him a considerable ascendancy over the other ani¬ mals and a number of characteristics not possessed by them. But, both as an individual and as a member of a social group, man’s power to make use of the superior characteristics with which he is endowed turns directly upon his knowledge of and his ability to deal with and control effectively his biological nature. This requires thorough understanding of the pro¬ cesses of his coming into being, his growth and maturation, the problems of nutrition, the phenomena of stimuli and response, the nature of disease and the maintenance of health, the factors of reproduction and their com¬ plex physiological and psychological relations, as well as the nature of the forces of heredity which reproduction brings into expression. A man in ignorance of these facts does not have a fair chance of either realizing his greatest potentialities or avoiding the pitfalls marked out by his limitations. We like to look upon man with a vision of hope. We cherish this hope above all things— -the hope for balanced life for all men, individually, communally, and internationally. This is the hope which must underlie freedom from want and freedom from fear. We shall not make this hope a reality in a day, nor by simple means. To make it a reality at all we must teach men about men. In doing this we must learn and teach many things. Basically we must begin with the design and pattern of man, the operation of the human machine. Such teaching means biological science in its broadest aspects, for the human machine is exceedingly complex and inextricably enmeshed with all the other organisms which inhabit the earth. It means putting before our students the facts of all life and pointing out the interrelations, supplying the young people with the factual data by which they may map the biological aspects of their own lives. It also means stimulating a few to attack key problems in biology -—the mystery of the way in which green plants convert for use nearly all the energy by which we live, the puzzles of development, and the riddles of heredity — so that we may provide better and more adequate landmarks for the guidance of future generations. And it means presenting physics and chemistry in the same way. They are the basic sciences upon which biology builds and we cannot interpret living organisms without them. Equally important, they are the descriptive sciences of the environments in which living organisms find themselves. Both in natural environments and in our artificial manipulations of environ¬ ment, in the use of heat, electricity and atomic energy, we are most inti¬ mately concerned with physical and chemical laws. The sciences of biology, physics and chemistry provide the chart for living. My second consideration is of a different sort. It has to do not with facts but with method. Science has progressed largely by devotion to what 176 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 is called the scientific method. In relation to the scientific method one should note several facts, remembering, however, that scientists have all too often made but bungling progress in their own work by giving only lip service to the principles of the method while building critical arguments on wholly unscientific grounds. One should note that there are obvious limitations to the method, that there are moments of vital importance in the life of every man when the experimental approach is not only insuffi¬ cient but even irrelevant. Too often have both the unlearned and the learned attempted to apply the method in the wrong place or at the wrong time. Nonetheless the attitude of experimentation, of detached, unprejudiced observation, involves a principle of increasing value. Given a fair trial ;t will present the means for solving a majority of the problems of everyday living, and its application would go far toward preventing the develop¬ ment of conflicts between individuals, groups and nations. Though the scientific method is not science, as it is often misinter¬ preted to be, it is nowhere as important as in the sciences. The development of what we may call the scientific attitude is of almost equal importance to our students whether they are to become acquainted with the facts of science or not. Our history books and our literature are filled with examples of lives sacrificed and careers ended because of individual or group desertion of the detached, observant attitude. These examples are but the conspicuous ones among the millions. Although years and the pens of writers often give them a romantic glaze we have an obligation to prevent such missteps. We have founded and subscribed to a system of law and order which pre¬ supposes that as individuals and groups we shall preserve this spirit of de¬ tached observation. In our teaching we must establish and develop it. The third justification for my proposition is concerned with neither facts nor method, but with the growing need for a wider understanding of science, its principles, and ultimately the meaning of its findings. In the preface of his book on this subject President Conant of Harvard Uni¬ versity makes a devastatingly cogent summary statement of one phase of this problem when he says simply that the American public has to learn to live with the problem of the atomic bomb. He goes on later to define the problem of absorbing science into our culture as a matter of first under¬ standing science. Here is a commandingly critical problem. Science has grown up within our culture and has become a major key in our daily lives, but remains still an unknown to the majority of our people. That the destiny of individuals and nations should be determined by forces they do not understand is noth¬ ing new. But when such a situation has prevailed for long the effects have always been disastrous. As individuals and as nations we are dealing, with increasing frequency and scope, with problems of science. We are coming to be called upon directly by our vote and indirectly in dozens of other ways to decide upon support for scientific research, upon utilization of scientific developments. In individual effort and public works we are dealing with scientific principles. By these things, increasingly, we shall shape our future. We can shape it to bring reality to our hopes only if we guide these develop¬ ments wisely. We can guide them wisely only if there is widespread under¬ standing of science. Such understanding is surely best developed by effective teaching of science itself. As a critical part of our educational continuum the block of natural 1950, No. 2 June 30 Need For Sociological Clinics 177 sciences thus has three important elements—fact, method, and the growing requirement for understanding. Development of these sciences to serve this purpose effectively will necessarily require increased attention to them, more careful preparation for teaching them, and new methods of presentation designed to emphasize their significance in each of the relations which we have discussed. These are all problems for teacher-training programs. In achieving a solution of them recognition must be given to secondary edu¬ cation as a means of conveyance of fact, method, and understanding to the citizenry. To the colleges and universities falls the task of increasing the accumulation of facts, and improving the methods. On all sides there are critical responsibilities. In relation to our attempts to meet these responsibilities I want to re-emphasize the 'hn-part” character of the constitution of a continuum of these natural sciences. There is still considerable question as to for just how much of a full life science alone can furnish the basis. We know that there are realms to which its extension should not, at least as yet, be attempted. Despite this fact, its value is critical, and the universal need for its teach¬ ing is beyond any debate. Argument about its importance as a thread which should be woven strongly through the education of all of our students is almost precluded. But natural science is hardly enough to stand alone as the unifying factor. It must be supplemented with the literature and history which present in their true light the evolution of our machine age culture of democracy. The absence of a common element in education has given us a divided and sub-divided educational system. There is a serious break between the secondary school and the college. This break makes for wasted effort and adjustment problems for the student. More important from the large view is the subdivision of secondary schools and colleges within their own fields, and conspicuous lack of a common meeting ground of knowledge among the people who are educated in the system. As life becomes more complex the need for a unifying element becomes greater. The church, and even the family, have lost in the social change a measure of unifying influence. This further increases the burden upon the schools. There must be a unity of common knowledge and experience. The practical value, the personal signifi¬ cance, the universality, and the increasingly great importance of the natural sciences all point to them as the most vital elements in this unification. THE NEED FOR SOCIOLOGICAL CLINICS Eugene S. Richards Texas State University for Negroes INTRODUCTION A sociological clinic is herein considered as an establishment initiated to make intensive studies of the human relations and group behavior of in¬ dividuals for the purpose of determining means by which human relations might be improved and group life made better. Specifically, the purposes of sociological clinics should be: (1) to ascertain the traits and behavior- patterns that are considered as desirable for socially mature persons, (2) to determine the extent to which these traits and behavior-patterns have been 178 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 adopted by the persons that are studied, and ( 3 ) to work out programs of action that will be of value in aiding persons who are socially immature to advance their degree of social maturity. Since the publication of social change by W. F. Ogburn in 1922, it has been the consensus among students of human relations that there is a lag in the development of human relations when these relations are compared with the development of most of the material traits in our culture. An ex¬ cellent illustration of this lag is presented on a frontispiece in society in TRANSITION by Harry Elmer Barnes entitled, "The Cave Mind in the Machine Empire.” Applying this illustration to human relations, it seems logical to say that we are living in the machine age, but that our human relations have not developed much since the cave age. Two quotations from a recent publication will be presented to support this view. President Sarah G. Bland- ing (1949) of Vassar College says that: Many forces combine to make the relations of man to man and of group to group the central issue of modern society. About the only thing every nation has in common today is that this central issue besets us all. Mankind has made great advances toward the solution of many of its ancient problems, but the problem of the relation of man to man, of group to group is not unsolved, but it has become greatly aggravated. In the same publication Everett R. Clinchy, President of the National Conference of Christians and Jews states that: Everybody willingly accepts the latest scientific advances which may mean better health, improved production of goods, or speedier transportation. When the doctor recommends penicillin for pneumonia, no one argues with him or resists with preju¬ dices and rigid habits. And yet the general run of people are content to see the vast and threatening problems of human relations treated in a vague, haphazard, pre-scientific manner. People actually look askance when they are told that the answers to social questions must come from scientific research. The preceding quotations suggest two questions that should be of much concern to social scientists: 1. Why are problems involving the rela¬ tions of man to man, and of groups to groups still unsolved problems? 2. Why will people accept the scientific findings of other scientists, but are in most instances ignorant of the scientific findings of social scientists, especi¬ ally those of sociologists? As a student of sociology, my answer to these questions is that only a few students of human relations have attempted to account for the lag between the development of human relations and that in other areas of life. Further, very few plans have been presented that are concerned with the reduction of the lag in the development of human re¬ lations. In this paper an attempt will be made to account for the lag, and a tentative plan will be presented. SOCIAL INFANTILITY AND SOCIETAL IMBECILITY In his writings and teachings, Clarence M. Case has probably attempted to account for the lag in the development of human relations more than any other student of the problem.^ He points out that social infantility and societal imbecility are responsible for much of the lag in the development of human relations in the social system of the United States. Social infan¬ tility is described as a condition under which persons who are fully normal from a mental and biological standpoint are not sufficiently socialized to behave rationally and maturely in group life. Societal imbecility is described as a group condition, one in which a group, "signifies the unintelligent, groping, blundering, self-defeating behavior most characteristic of social ^^The writer is indebted to Dr. Case, former Professor of Sociology, The University of South¬ ern California, for pointing out the need for study along this line, as well as for many of the ideas included in this paper. 1950, No. 2 June 80 Need For Sociological Clinics 179 groups” (Case, 1931). Any reflection on our present social system will show many illustrations of social infantility and of societal imbecility. Illustrations of societal imbecility can be observed almost anywhere groups exst in the United States. Any book dealing with social, economic, political, religious, racial, or educational problems will show that there is groping and blundering in dealing with these problems. In most of the areas of social life that have been mentioned, the human relations that have been established have not been subjected to rational and scientific thought. Rather they have developed by chance, and have been based largely on prejudice or personal interest. As an outcome of the bases on which present human re¬ lations are established, there are many factions in all areas of social life. These factions not only serve to separate group from group, but in many instances they serve as the source of intense antagonism among groups that should be working in the direction of the same aims and objectives. Many illustrations of self-defeating behavior among groups can be cited. The strife between capital and labor, the continuous competition among political parties, the confict and separation that exist among racial and nationality groups, or the rivalry among educational theorists could be used to show the self-defeating behavior that exists among groups that should be working in cooperation. However, it is believed that the separa¬ tion of religious groups offers one of the best illustrations of self-defeating behavior in the United States, The 1949 world almanac reported that 256 religious bodies existed in the United States in 1947, of which more than 90 per cent were denominations claiming belief in Christianity. In other words, more than 200 denominations of the Christian religion exist in the United States. Although all of these denominations claim belief in the principles of Christianity, there is a continuous rivalry among all of these denominations, and intense antagonism among some. They are supposed to be working to advance the same general principles, but they have not been able to work out a rational and objective program that would serve to reduce a large number of groups to all Christians. Such unintelligent, grop¬ ing, blundering, and self-defeating behavior could be shown for the other areas of social life mentioned, while it would be difficult to cite an illus¬ tration where scientific study and logical thought have served as the bases upon which human relations had been established. In other words, the evi¬ dence presented is sufficient to support the contention that there is much societal imbecility in the United States. What are social scientists doing to alleviate this condition? In discussing social infantility Case presents three approaches that might be used in checking the social maturity of individuals: (1) levels of social awareness, (2) behavior traits and attitudes, and (3) the size of the group (Case, 1944). There are three levels of social awareness: (1) awareness of the presence of others, which is the most infantile level; (2) awareness of the pleasures of others, which denotes the adolescent level; and (3) aware¬ ness of the welfare of others, which signifies social maturity if this aware¬ ness is applied to large groups. Those who have studied human relations in the United States will agree that most persons are still on the first level, that of the awareness of the presence of others. On the other hand, those who have studied human relations will agree that only a few persons have reached the third level, that of the awareness of the welfare of others, especially if this welfare involves other than their immediate families. The 180 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 reasons why it is difficult to get most people to extend the welfare principle to groups larger than that of their families is a problem to which very little, if any, scientific consideration has been given by students of human relations. Case describes a number of behavior traits and attitudes that indicate social infantility and social maturity. The thirteen traits and attitudes that are described as indicating social infantility are: (1) mess-making, (2) grabbing, (3) squalling, (4) racketing, (5) smashing, (6) slap-sticking, (7) Monologuing, (8) duologuing, (9 dialoguing, (10 ordering, (11) ego¬ leading, (12) personal criticizing, and (13) personal opposing.^ The twelve behavior traits and attitudes that imply varied degrees of social maturity are: (14) joining, (15) social conforming, (16) honest dealing, (17) truth telling, (18) fair playing, (19) peace preserving, (20) altro-leading, (21) social opposing, (22) ethical opposing, (23) nonconforming, (24) conscientious objecting, and (2 5) peacemaking. General observation will show that most of the first thirteen behavior traits and attitudes are fre¬ quent among children as well as among adults in the United States, and that only a few of the last twelve are usual among a large number of adults. The fact that many infantile behavior traits and attitudes continue into adulthood is an indication of the presence of social infantility. Social maturity, according to Case, can also be measured by the ex¬ tent to which persons are able to extend the welfare awareness to larger and larger groups. Eleven groups are included in his chart. These groups range from the family, which is the smallest and most intimate group to the internation group, which includes all of mankind. The most infantile per¬ sons are those who are only able to develop the "we feeling” in the family group. The most socially mature persons are those who have extended the "we feeling” to the internation group. The development of the we feeling in the groups that are ranged between these two extremes indicates various degrees of social maturity. However, observation will show that the we feeling of most persons has not extended far beyond the family group. The fact that only a few persons ever extend the we feeling to groups that are larger than the family group is a problem that needs clinical study. Sufficient data have been presented to show that there is a lag in the development of human relations, and that societal imbecility and social infantility are widespread in the United States. The major premise of this paper is that there is a need for the establishment of sociological clinics as agencies for seeking means by which the lag in the development of human relations might be diminished, and in an attempt to find ways by which the large amount of social infantility and societal imbecility might be re¬ duced. A PLAN It is folly to recognize a need without attempting to do something about it. With this thought as a lead the Sociology Department of Texas State University started working on a plan several months ago. After many discussions it was decided that the logical move would be to establish a Sociological Clinic. It was further agreed that the major purpose of the clinic would be to study the level of social development of a number of students at Texas State University for the purpose of determining whether ^See Case, 1944, pp. 10-15 for definitions of these traits as well as the twelve traits that will follow. 1950, No, 2 June 30 Need For Sociological Clinics 181 they are social infants or social adults. After this decision was reached the next, and most difficult step, was that of selecting techniques and planning a program that could be used in attempting to accomplish the selected objective. The program that finally evolved, and is yet in its infant stage, consists of two parts: (1) the selection of standard tests that can be used in attempting to determine the attitudes and general social outlook of persons, and (2) the formulation of some technique that can be used in checking the degree of social maturity of persons. TTiis program is in need of intense evaluation, and is being presented for constructive as well as de¬ structive criticisms. The following six tests have been selected as aids in determining the attitudes and general social outlook of the persons to be studied: 1. Hugh H, Bell, "The Adjustment Inventory,” Student Form, Stan¬ ford University Press, Stanford University, California. 2. E. A. Lee and L. P. Thorpe, "Occupational Interest Inventory,” Advanced, Form A, California Test Bureau, Los Angeles, California. 3. R. H. Johnson, "Johnson Temperament Analysis,” California Test Bureau, Los Angeles, California. 4. E. W. Tiegs, W. W. Clark, and L. P. Thorpe, "California Test of Personality,” Adult, Form A, California Test Bureau, Los Angeles, Cali¬ fornia. 5. "Sims Score Card for Socio-Economic Status,” Form C, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 6. S. L. Pressey and L. C. Pressey, "Senior Classification Test,” Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. This is our first selection of tests for the purpose of collecting data con¬ cerned with the attitudes and social outlook of persons. As the Sociology Department of Texas State University is anxious to improve this selection, we will appreciate any suggestion that can aid in its improvement. The second part of the present program is that of working out a device that can be used in checking on the degree of social maturity of persons. The foundation for such a device has been presented by Richards (1944). In this paper 155 action-patterns, that had been selected from more than 400, were presented as representing the behavior expected of a socialized adult in the United States.'^ The action-patterns included in the article had been collected over a number of years from many sources. All references as to what behavior is expected of a good American were noted and these were compiled in the original list from which the 15 5 were selected. At a recent date five levels of response to these action-patterns were formulated in an attempt to provide a means for measuring the extent to which these pat¬ terns are followed by adults in the United States. Thus, we have developed an experimental device that includes 15 5 action-patterns and five possible levels of response in our attempt to work out a device that can be used in checking the degree of social maturity of persons (copies of this experi¬ mental device will be sent on request). We are now working to improve this device, after which we will seek to standardize it. 3The concept action-patterns was adopted from von Wiese and Becker, 1932, p. 56, in which an action-pattern is described as “action carried out according to the intention of the acting person or persons, with reference to the behavior of others, and (this action) is oriented toward the behavior of those others throughout its course.” 182 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 ' SUMMARY It has been pointed out in this paper that there is a lag in the develop¬ ment of human relations, and that there exist many social infants and a high degree of societal imbecility in the United States. These facts should challenge the best thought of all citizens who are interested in social im¬ provement in the United States. However, as these problems should come within the scope of social scientists if they are to be treated in a scientific manner, it is about time for social scientists to start a program of action. It is recommended that social scientists^ — with sociologists taking the lead- should work to establish sociological clinics. The major purpose of these clinics should be to provide, through intensive studies of human relations and social behavior, data that can be used to aid in the improvement of human relations and in the reduction of the large amount of social infan¬ tility and societal imbecility that now exists in the United States. LITERATURE CITED Blandingr, Sarah G. — 1949 — A new concept of human relations for the world. Bull. Bur. Social Service 21 (3) : 29. Case, C. M. — 1931 — Social process and human progress. Pp. 129-172. Harcourt, Brace and Company. New York. - 1944 — Essays in social values, pp. 9-22. Univ. South. Cal. Press, Los Angeles. Clinchy, Everett R. — 1949— A new concept of human relations for the world. Bull. Bur. Social Service 21 (3) : 18-19. Richards, Eugene S.- — 1944— Action-patterns of a socialized adult in the United States. Southwest. Jour. 1 (2) : 77-88. Wiese, Leopold von and Howard Becker- — 1932 — Systematic Sociology. John Wiley and Son. New York. EVIDENCE OF INFLUENCES WHICH HAVE SERVED AS RETARDING FORCES IN THE PROCESS OF DISINTEGRATION IN A CUMULATIVE COMMUNITY A STUDY OF THE JACKSON WHITES Marcus Whitford Collins Texas Christian University Fort Worth, Texas INTRODUCTION In Rockland and Orange Counties in New York and in various places in Northern New Jersey today are descendents of a group of people who have been known since early post-Revolutionary days as "'Jackson Whites.” Even today, in the four distinct localities where groups of this ethnic mix¬ ture of bloods live together in considerable numbers, the appelation, "Jackson Whites,” is still used in reference to them^. Four groups of these people live today in more or less distinct communi¬ ties which are located as follows: 1. At the border of New York and New Jersey atop the Hovenkopf Mountain; 2. In the outskirts of Hillburn, New Jersey at the base of the Hovenkopf Mountain; 3. Near Goshen in Orange County, New York; and 4. Near Ladentown, New Jersey. 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Jackson Whites 183 Any study of the "Jackson Whites” will of necessity be a study of the whole people so designated; however, for this paper, the group living atop the Hovenkopf Mountain has furnished the basis for most of the current minute observations and references to particular instances. This is the locale of the initial racial strain entering into the composition of the current marginal people (Herskovitz, 1928) and the longest continuous habitat of any of them. At present, approximately thirty families live atop the Hovenkopf, a decrease in number from eighty families residing there some thirty years ago when Miss Dorothy Osborn did a genealogical research study among these people. Her study show that at the turn of the century "they were scarcely self-supporting and their living conditions were wretched.” And in describing the 1917 abode of a family which showed a marked degree of hereditary degeneracy, she states that it was “ a poor one-roomed shanty with only one bed, six people living in this place. It was in filthy condition.” Snedecor and Harryman (1940) suggest that although one finds con¬ ditions greatly improved among the group, they can still be found to be "living in tumbled down houses or shacks, on the same mountainside, amid squalor and unsanitary conditions.” The presence of many disintegrating influences will be shown in detail in this study. These influences, such as much inter-marriage, incest, isola¬ tion from contact with other groups, an occupational and economic struc¬ ture which has not been conducive to more than the barest means of exist¬ ence, very little contact with such institutions as law, education and the church, almost no social contact and restraints other than the rule in the group that "might makes right,” and little or no horizontal and vertical mobility (Sorokin, 1927) have been cumulative in effect in establishing the marginal position of this people for a number of years. In connection with these disintegrating influences and the sociological implications which they seem to indicate as being determinants of the specified traits of these people, it is my purpose also to catalog the improvements made in the last two decades as evidences of influences which have here presented some means of retardation of disintegrating forces in this, a cumulative community (Sorokin, Zimmerman and Galpin, 1930-32) i ORIGINS OF THE GROUP GEOGRAPHY The Hovenkopf Mountain is a peak in the Ramapo Mountains, a range conecting the Blue Ridge of Pennsylvania and the Matteawan Mountains of Putnam County, east of the Hudson in New York. The Ramapos are separated into many distinct ridges and peaks and are generally steep and rocky, being covered with some forest growth. Eastward, the soil tends to become fertile and the surface rolling, but that, in the more definitely mountainous portion, is thin and unproductive generally. Few roads have been made into these mountains and these which have been made are difficult to traverse. Geographically speaking, even to some extent today, the region offers as its prime asset that of isolation. INDIANS Up until 1700 the region seems to have been a hunting ground fre- 184 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 quented by the Hackensack (Hagingashackie) Indians, the Lenni Lenape family of the Iroquois. There appears to be no documentary evidence avail¬ able as to why they decided to forsake it, but it is definitely known that by the end of the seventeenth century, only a scattered few of this tribe re¬ mained in the mountains (Storms, 1936). These scattered Hackensacks were joined in 1714 by another group of Indians, a remnant of the Tuscaroras, who were driven out of the Carolina Colony because they did not choose to live peaceably with the colonists there (Johnson, 1881). It was the desire of this refugee group to join the Iroquois Federation, whose capital was situated a few hundred miles north of the Remapos. After the long trip up the Cumberland Trail, these Tuscaroras stopped in the Remapos. As Storm states it: Perhaps . . . because it afforded a secure haven in its mountain fastness ; per¬ haps it was because there were to be found congenial spirits among the remaining Hagingashackies and the wild renegades who were hiding in the mountairs. (Storms, op. cit.) Here it migh be well to note that the "renegades” mentioned in this quotation from Storm likely referred to individuals from the colonies who found it more comfortable for reasons of their own to be out of reach of law or the uncomfortable censure of their neighbors. Precautionary measures would indicate at any rate that the women and children and the aged, except the chief counsellors, would be left at some distance from the original destination, since there was naturally the possi¬ bility that suitable terms could not be arranged with the Iroquois. Storm states in this regard that It is probable that the original intentions was for those who were left behind to eventually follow their kinsmen further north. It is known that to this day there are occasional visits paid to this region by representatives of the tribes from the Central part of New York State. They seek certain places and conduct ritual serv¬ ices, probably in relation to some of their tribe who are buried there. It should be mentioned, however, that the suggestion that some of the Tuscaroras remained in the Remapos or even went there cannot be found in the work on the history of this tribe was Elias Johnson, a native Tuscarora chief. (Johnson, op. cit.) Besides the Tuscarora Indians and the Hackensackies, one authority lists also a remnant of Algonquin Indians, supposedly members of the Minsi or Wolf Clan, as being in this area (Jones, 1931). GERMANS AND DUTCH During the American Revolution a considerable number of battles took place near this region, the Battles of Brooklyn Heights and White Plains in New York, and the Battles of Trenton and Princeton in New Jersey being among them. As has been pointed out by historians, the line of demarcation between the controlling hand of the law or of the army was not far west¬ ward from the seacoast at this period in history. Escape for those who did not care for the existing social order or those who did not choose to light was not difficult (Harlow, 1925). On the rolls of the troops fighting for the crown of England against the colonials were several thousand soldiers who had been secured by the British from the principality of Hesse Cassel. These men, serving under duress in a fight for which they had no heart were a definite "out” group within the British army. As such their original disinclination for these battles for others in a foreign land was augmented by rough treatment from the British regulars, positions in the most dangerous places in battle and 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Jackson Whites 185 contempt from the English settlers as well. Their discontent was further aggravated by the certainty that there was little possibility of their return¬ ing to their native land. Consequently, the isolation of the Ramapos seemed inviting to these men, who left the battle lines and camps to settle for the unknown as preferable. Surnames of German origin today predominate among the Ramapos people, a testimony to the Hessian influx there, accord¬ ing to Faust ( 1909) . Certain names, corrupted from the original, which prevail in the neigh¬ borhood might be derived from either German or Dutch. In this connection it is well to mention what Frazer (1939), an authority on the Jackson Whites, and a member of this so-called marginal group and a Howard University graduate, has to say about this. It is her theory that the stock was further amalgamated by some Boers, brought there by the English for mining iron ore possibly. This informant is of the opinion that four Johns ■ — John De Groot, John Von Doonk, John De Vries and John Mann — along with others settled in this section and added their characteristics to the population. She would place these Boers as among the first in the area, even preceding the Tuscarora Indians. THE ENGLISH Indian, German and Dutch admixture was diluted with the strains of English blood. At one time during the Revolution, General Sir Henry Clinton of the British army had ordered that thousands of British soldiers be quartered in New York City. He was faced with the problem of con¬ taining the lusts of the flesh of his men so that they did not endanger the cordial relations of the English crown as represented by her soldiers and the Loyalists of the city, some 90,000 of the 18 5,000 inhabitants (Flick, 1901). Too much familiarity on the part of the soldiers in their relationships with colonial maidens could make the encampment position untenable, or at most, unpleasant and more trying to hold- To stave off such possibilities becoming actualities, a plan was adopted by the military command. ... A little judicious questioning and a man was found who would accept the undertaking. The man’s name was Jackson . . . A contract was entered into that Jackson was to secure 3500 women whom Eng¬ land felt it could very well dispense with, and transport them to America, to be¬ come the intimate property of the army quartered in New York City, thus relieving the tension now felt that at any moment these same soldiers might take to them¬ selves such of the residents as temporarily pleased their fancy, (Storms, op, cit.). Mr. Jackson did certain trafficing on the streets of London and secured his cargo. But disease and the hard trip took a toll, which Jackson sought to remedy by the addition of some Negro women from the West Indies. These women were quartered in a stockade prepared for them in a swampy district in what is now Canal Street from the North River to Centre Street and along Broadway in a long, narrow loop as far as Duane Street, a district known then as Lispenard’s Meadow (Storms, op. cit.). After the war, when the British army sailed for home, the women were left behind, as an unacceptable element in New York City. Movement from the established centers of populations being usually the most acceptable method of changing an untenable and undesirable social position or an eco¬ nomic one, these women followed routine procedure and migrated, some into the vicinity of Hoosick Falls in Rennsselaer County possibly and others into the Ramapos (Loc. cit.). In many cases these women had become the com¬ mon law wives of the Hessians, who also sought permanency in the moun- 186 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 tains and inaccessible regions. It is within the nature of human associations too that some of the British soldiers would have established an attachment for some of these women, enough so that they would prefer staying with them. Consequently, these British soldiers, along with some British soldiers who simply did not wish to return to England, as well as a few Tories who were fearful of the immediate wrath of the colonials in New York, made their way to the mountains also (Flick, op. cit.). NEGROES It must be remembered that women brought by Jackson were both white and colored, and both white and colored sought security in the Ramapos Mountains along with the Indians, the Hessians, the Dutch, the British soldiers and the Tories. The Negro element as represented by these West Indies women was added to by other Negroes — in some cases run-away slaves and in other cases Negroes released from slavery in nearby states. Usually these Negroes who were released had personal freedom but little economic opportunity in the sections dominated by white residents in sur¬ rounding settlements, and few of the rights accorded the white citizens (Cole, 18 84). Consequently, they sought the change as a means of im¬ provement. As early as 1774 mention is made in colonial records of Rockland County of the presence of free Negroes in the area (Loc. cit.). This was thirty years before the gradual emancipation act in New Jersey (Bassett, 1924), to take one example of a neighboring state. The surnames of many of these Negroes are those of prominent white families in New Jersey (Storms, op. cit). Specifically, two names are connected thus — one that of Sufferns, a family which supposedly lived in the area and maintained slaves, and these slaves later settled as free people with the Jackson Whites; the other, that of Rutherford, a large property owner in Northern New Jersey who allowed people to settle on his land wherever they chose. The name Suffern designates a town in the area today. OTHERS Two Sicilian brothers, Jiacomo (James) and Giuseppe (Joseph) Castaglionia, arrived in the vicinity of Hovenkopf Mountain about 1870, married women of the group, thus adding the Italian strain to the Indian, Negro, Dutch, German and possibly other strains (Storms, op. cit.). Some authorities, it might be mentioned, say that members of Claudius Smith’s gang sought the hills and mountains in this region after the Revo¬ lution when their speciality of stealing horses and cattle from the Whigs and selling them to the British proved no longer profitable. Smith himself was hanged on the Goshen Village Green in Orange County (W.P.A., 1940). This ended any great influx of peoples or outstanding admixture to the group for over a hundred years, and their characteristics and traits as a homonegeous and distinguishable group and as individuals of that group are derived from that period of association in one geographical locality with little diffusion of culture or racial stock from the outside world. 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Jackson Whites 187 TABLE I j. c. storms" estimate of the original composition OF THE JACKSON WHITES Continent Country Group Race Per Cent N timber Africa Congo Negro slaves Black 5 250 America U. S. Native White 4 200 Indians Red 15 750 Tories White 2 100 "Danglers” 1 50 Europe England women 60 3000 Germany Hessians 10 500 Italy Sicilians 3 150 Total 3 5 8 3 100 5000 In consideration of this table, it should be pointed out that these figures are estimates made by Mr. Storms and do not take into account the Dutch influence, for instance. Two of his terms perhaps need explanation: "Danglers” refer to the men who accompanied the English women, and Native Whites are the refugees who went to the mountains at various times. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP Physically, this amalgamation of peoples has resulted in definite char¬ acteristics, sometimes most closely related to the Indian, at other times ex¬ hibiting Negroid features, and all v/ith appearances common to the Cau¬ casian division of mankind. There are some with copper-colored skin and straight black hair; others have the nose and hair characteristics of the Negro, while still others are very fair with flaxen hair and blue eyes. Albinos have been found among the Jackson Whites also, and these have usually shown remarkable skill and talents. Much has been made of the fact that polydactylism (the presence of an extra toe or finger) has appeared in this group. This characteristic has been over-emphasized in popular journals, however. Dr, Snedecor did find cases of this sort among persons in one family group in the area; not enough, nevertheless, to justify surely the use of the term, "the town made famous by the extra toes” (Amer. Weekly, 1940). Immediately following this resume of the mixture of bloods in the make-up of the Jackson Whites and before limiting ourselves to one settle¬ ment of these people as they now live, it might be well to point 'out that complete amalgamation with no distinction for previous social stratification or ethnic group evidently did not occur even in the period of greatest iso¬ lation, for it has been recorded by one local informant that “there are in this section two distinct types of Jackson Whites — one set of the white variety, living on the other side of Suffern, exhibiting a great lack of in¬ telligence as compared with their fellows of the predominating Indian and colored types. ”2 Frazier in his "Negro in the United States” attributes this, not to any inherent superiority of the group mentally, but to their position nearer other groups where cultural contacts were naturally greater. Students of intelli¬ gence testing would tend to support this theory (Kolf, et al, 1946). Today this particular group of Jackson Whites attends the only Jim-Crow school 188 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 in the state of New York (Frazier, 1939). Members of this group in con¬ siderable numbers have finished high school; others have attended college and one is known to have received a doctorate. THE TERM, ^"jACKSON WHITES^^ There are conflicting stories as to the origin of the term, "Jackson Whites.” Some would say that this term originated with the English and West Indies women brought to New York by Jackson. Storms in his dis¬ cussion of these people considers this the most likely story. Indeed, news¬ papers of the time of the Revolution make mention of the fact that various companies visited "Jackson's Whites” and "Jackson’s Blacks” (Storms, op. cit. ) . There is logic in the suggestion that this appelation should follow these women into the mountains and attach itself to the whole group of people there. However, there are others who attribute the name to Negro origin. One of these stories has it that a slave named Jackson was the first of his kind to mingle with the Whites in the settlement and it is this fact that attaches the name Jackson to the group (Frazier, op. cit.) Still another authority says that freed slaves were called "Jacks” and the amalgamated group of Indians, Whites and Negroes were spoken of as Jacks and Whites, later contracted to Jackson Whites (Jones, op. cit.). But whatever the origin of the term, the present group so designated do not look upon the term with favor. JACKSON WHITES OF THE TWENHETH CENTURY Any changes which have tended to show a retardation of the disinte¬ grating process within the Hovenkopf group seem to have occurred since the turn of the twentieth century. Consequently, it is well to consider the group’s condition at that time. Contemporary accounts would indicate that the culture of the group was in some respects lower than that of any of the groups forming it. The lack of social control in the form of law — either civil or, in some cases, moral— -was apparent. State and county authorities found it not only difficult but decidedly unpleasant to venture into the group. As a result, control was by violence tempered by the mores and folkways of the group. Towards marriage, for instance, there was no sense of compulsion for a civil or religious ceremony, nor for any sanctity attached to a monogamous union. Changes were made in mates at will. According to a 1911 newspaper account The Mrs. Van Dunk of today became the Mrs. Mann, perhaps, of the day after. It was simply impossible to keep track of the ever-changing: relationships. Men and women lived together as husband and wife just as long as it was convenient. When they tired of each other, they parted without any ceremony and without any regard for the children of these temporary alliances. The children sustained themselves as best they could, living in the cabins of whoever would take them and working for a living. (Amer. Exam., 1911). Changes in mates might take place among the distantly related or the closely related — those in the isolated group almost always having some blood kinship. Incest was not uncommon. The presence of the same sur¬ names and a limitation of these names to several testify to the former fact. A hereditary degeneracy more common in this group than among sur¬ rounding peoples would tend credence to the fact of practices of inter¬ marriage and incest. However, such practices, though definitely distinguished 196 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 THE RELATION OF MATHEMATICS TO THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES Alston S, Householder Oak Ridge National Laboratory Recently I heard John von Neumann give a banquet speech on the subject "Scientific Method” to an audience that was half technical and half non-technical. This is something only von Neumann could have done. My own subject is less broad, and moreover, I assume that this audience is exclusively technical. But if I have any qualification for discussing this subject before experts, I suppose it is the diversity of fields to which I have attempted to relate my mathematics. I hope I may be forgiven if, in draw¬ ing on this scattered background, I seem to be speaking chiefly of the re¬ lation of mathematicians and the physical scientists. Perhaps it is true of every subject that it possesses two fundamentally distinct aspects, the one seen by the initiated and the one seen by others; but this seems to be especially true of mathematics. To the initiated mathe¬ matics is good in itself, and no questions are asked about whether a mathe¬ matical theory is applicable in physics or elsewhere in order to justify that theory. In fact a somewhat supercilious attitude toward all applications is not uncommon among mathematicians. G. H. Hardy, in giving "A Mathematician’s Apology,” states that "it is not possible to justify the life of any genuine professional mathematician on the ground of the 'utility’ of his work”; and he explains that useful mathematics is generally very dull mathematics. Indeed, there is a much quoted statement often attributed to Hardy boasting of the non-applicability of number theory, but he disclaims any statement so extreme. The more practical minded scientist, if I may call him such, is apt to care little for the aesthetic beauty of a mathematical theorem. His concern is with the extent to which the mathematics can assist him in making a descripion of a natural process. Mathematics is a tool subject merely. The applied mathematician must somehow stand with his feet in both camps. He is apt to be a poor mathematician if he cannot appreciate the subject for itself; but he must also sympathize with the scientist’s need for the tool. And it is as a tool that it becomes related to the sciences. The question is often asked, why, in this of all countries, has there never grown up a strong center of applied mathematics? It is certainly not that this country has been lacking in good mathematicians, and in so practical- minded a nation as we are supposed to be one might expect that the em¬ phasis would be predominantly on applications. I am not sure that I know the answer, but it occurs to me that it might be just this practical-minded- ness that has discouraged such a development. If this seems to be a paradox perhaps I can explain as I go along. Before the war mathematicians in government and industrial labora¬ tories were extremely few. It is true that during World War I Bliss went to Aberdeen and a few other mathematicians were called in on special as¬ signments, but very few remained when this war ended. Insurance com¬ panies had their actuaries, but mathematical background was by no means the only qualification, and top positions were more often the reward for experience in the company than for advanced academic training, in mathe¬ matics at least. A Fry and a SchelkunoflF could find places in the large Bell 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Reich 195 the poor Prussians — again thousands of German romantics dreamed of a Reich which should unite all Germans throughout the world under one Emperor. Finally, when Bismark’s Prussian-German empire had been de¬ feated in the First World War, Germany under the Weimar Constitution made the first hesitating steps to become nothing but the German Republic, a democratic member of the League of Nations, bound by international treaties to restrict itself to its political boundaries. But then again, in open defiance to all these obligations, the majority of the Germans could not forget the Reich, its greatness and power, or their own destiny to lead Europe in an open fight against international and inter-racial collaboration, against the rights and liberties of man which had been developed by the British people and are listed in the American and French Constitutions. Again the Germans were willing to build another Reich. They wanted a Hitler, and so they got him and his Third Reich — only fifteen years after the utter destruction of the Second Reich. We speak and read today almost exclusively about the great conflict between Communism and Western Democracy, about the struggle of the working masses for more privileges and better conditions of life in all countries. The ways in which these masses fight for their privileges are different. In the Communistic countries they dictate laws and life through their party; in the democracies they fight through their trade unions and parliaments. It is the same struggle everywhere and it absorbs all our po¬ litical interest. Let us not forget that the nations of this world are not yet united and that most national problems still are waiting for national — -not international — solutions. The future of all countries— and I am afraid not only of the European ones— depends widely on the complete rejection of another European Empire, a Fourth Reich, To destroy the last hope of an¬ other Reich in the minds of the Germans is the most urgent task for all countries. To stress the fact that this claim for world leadership is founded on a historical falsification and on usurpation is one of the main tasks of all teachers of world history. The world has fought two wars against the Reich in our century. The most terrible mistake which could be made today would be to develop Germany again into a strong military bulwark for the defense of the West or the East. A communistic German Reich would be as disastrous as a Western German Reich under an American and British protectorate. It would be disastrous because inevitably the Reich again would claim the racial supremacy of the German nation over her neighbors and over the rest of the world. Again she would fight against East and West, and again she would have a leader and builder of another Reich, regardless of his title, or whether he pledged to uphold a feeble communistic or democratic or authocratic constitution. Whoever will promise the German people a Reich will have the active support of millions^ — willing to work and to fight against the world for this idea. Recently a democratic US congressman openly suggested that the United States should allow the Germans in Western Germany to have their own army, under Allied control of course, as a part of the Western defense line against Russia. To this suggestion Schumacher, the leader of the socialists in Western Germany, remarked that if the powers of the Atlantic Pact are so weak that they need a few German divisions, it is not worth while to unite them. 194 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 pire is not definitely destroyed forever, and is branded as one of the great¬ est lies and falsifications in history. It is high time to show the world and especially the poorly prepared and inexperienced American people that this name of a German Reich is only a pretext for ruling over all countries in the political and cultural field. This claim is based upon the thousand years old idea of racial supremacy. It is the boldest hypocrisy which has ever been developed by a people and its leaders. It is not enough to hang the latest propagandists of this lie and to destroy their party organization— because the lie itself lives on. The Romans were the first to build a Western Imperium, but the idea is even older and was forwarded to the West by the great oriental empires and Alexander the Great. When the Roman Empire collapsed, it had already been infiltrated and decomposed by the idea of another worldwide kingdom which laid claim to spiritual control over all mankind: the kingdom of the Christian God. After the disappearance of the last Roman Emperor the leader of the new church, the Pope, took the first steps to the foundation of a new Christian empire of all nations, and Augustin developed the ideal structure of a "City of God’’ on this earth. The early Middle Ages saw the most idealistic and the greatest conception of a Western Empire ever to be invented by man. It was the greatest, because here, under the double leadership of Pope and Emperor, political and cultural leadership were in theory combined under the highest authority: the faith in one spiritual god, father of all mankind. It is true that this leading idea of the Middle Ages never was able to control the whole of Europe. England, the Nordic countries, later on also France remained outside the Empire. But the deadliest blow against its theory was made by the Germans who under Otto the First in 962 trans¬ formed the supernational post of honor of the emperor into a national office of the German nation. Against the protest of the pope, the imperial crown was bequeathed from now on exclusively to German princes. The Kingdom of God on this earth was transformed into the more than dubious Floly Roman Empire of the German Nation. This is what I call one of the greatest falsifications of world history. Only for short interludes the lead¬ ership of a Western Empire or Reich fell into the hands of the Spanish under Charles V or the French under Napoleon. Both these emperors showed clearly that also for them the Empire was more than a title: it involved world leadership in a political as well as a cultural sense. But they failed, and again the claim for the Reich returned to Germany where Prussia finally found the recipe and the weapons to build the new — the second — German Reich through military dictatorship. Let us not forget that ideas have a longer life and more strength than dynasties and political parties. Ideas are able to survive even after the most complete destruction of their materialistic source. Let us remember that after the Thirty- Years-War as well as after the First World War the im¬ perial power in Germany was completely bankrupt, but not the idea of a Reich. The idea recovered and got new strength among the younger Ger¬ man generations, those young Germans who considered Frederic 11 of Prussia (who even could not write German!) the great national leader. Fie had waged a terrible blow against the old imperial power in Austria and had expanded Prussia’s territory far to the east into Poland. When Napoleon’s Empire was torn to shreds by the Russians and the young regiments of 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Reich 195 world. This idea is the German Reich, the latest form of a Western Em¬ pire. What this Reich was and is-— yes, still is today in the minds and hopes of millions of people — -on what leading ideas its conception was and is founded, only few of our students can understand. I am afraid that even many of our congressmen and newspaper reporters completely misunder¬ stand this idea. The average American has acquainted himself with the word ''Reich” in the same way in which he added such words as "Der Fuehrer” and "Ersatz” to his vocabulary during the past years: as a mere title for Germany. Everybody has heard enough about Hitler’s Third Reich. It no longer exists. Even Germany seems no longer to exist; it is split up in an Eastern Russian and a Western American-British-French occupation zones with provisional German governments in both of them. Why, then, can it happen, that American newspaper reporters still use this word "Reich” in their headlines about any German problem? For no other reason than that it is a short handy word, and because the "Reich” has been identified with Germany for too long a time, and because they do not know what fascinat¬ ing and deep running meaning this word has today for millions of Germans in their hour of deepest humiliation. But it is not only the Germans themselves, who in their overwhelming majority, hope that once again they may be able to build a Reich, at first with the support of either the Russians or the Western powers, then inde¬ pendently from both of them— a Reich as the leading and centralizing power of the whole of Europe and of all the Germans all over the world. It is the Russians as well as the Western powers who use this word as a bait for their own attempts to tear down the iron curtain and to unite Germany again as a self-governing Reich, with a communistic or a demo¬ cratic constitution. How can one hope to educate the Germans for democ¬ racy and for a sense of international responsibility as long as they still are allowed to play with the fantastic name and illusion of a Fourth Reich? The political education of the Germans since the days of Emperor Otto the First in the tenth century has been founded on the idea of Ger¬ manic leadership, centered in the Imperium, the Reich. Whether during this long period the imperial power itself was strong or weak, a dictator¬ ship or a loose confederation, a brutal actuality or a romantic dream, the masses of the German people never knew anything else than that it was their fate, their destiny to have a Reich, a German Empire. Why do the Frenchmen call their country simply "France” but their German neighbors call it "Frankreich”? Why is "Austria” for them "Oester- reich”? Why did Hitler call his national-socialistic republic the "Third Reich”? Why did he promise a thousand years life to it? Because the only political term which is able to fascinate the Germans and to make them deadly foes or willing collaborators is the term Reich. And Reich means Empire, nothing else. Whether at the head of the Reich stands a king or an emperor or the president of a republic or a Fuehrer, this in the long run does not make much difference, as long as the man on top regards him¬ self not only as chief executive of what is actually Germany but of a German Reich (which is something quite different). The still living idea of another Reich is as terrible a danger for world peace as Communistic expansion or the atomic bomb. It is senseless to prepare for a society and organization of free united nations as long as the dream of a Western Em- 192 The Texas Journal of Science 1950. No. 2 June 30 Johnson, E. — 1881 — Legends, Traditions and Laws of the Iroquois and History of the Tus- carora Indians. Union Printing and Publishing Company. Lockport, New York. Kolb, J. H. and Brunner, Edmunds de S. — 1946 — A study of Rural Society. Houghton Mif¬ flin Company. New York. Mowrer, Ernest R. — 1942 — Disorganization, Personal and Social. J. B. Lippincott Company. Philadelphia. Osborn, Dorothy — 1917 — Report ^67. Eugenics Record Office. Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Snedecor, S. and W. Harryman — 1940 — Surgical Problems in Hereditary Polydactylism and Syndactylism. The Journal of Medical Society of New Jersey, September. Sorokin, P. A. — 1927 — Social Mobility. Harper and Brothers. New York. Sorokin, P. A., Zimmerman, Carle C. and C. J. Galpin^ — 1930-32 — A systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis. Storms, J. C. — 1936 — Origin of the Jackson Whites of the Ramapo Mountains. Park Ridge, New Jersey. The American Examiner — 1911 (Exact date unknown. Available in files of Eugenics Record Office, file 124, f 1). The American We.ekly — 1940— The Town Made Famous by Extra Toes. Dec. 22. Works Progress Administration, State of New York — ^1940 — A Guide to the Empire State. Compiled by the Workers of the Writers’ Program, American Guide Series. Oxford University Press. New York. THE REICH A POLITICAL MISUNDERSTANDING Frederick E, Gaupp Associate Professor of History and Government Southwestern University Historical knowledge is of practical use only in so far as it contributes to the understanding of current problems of one’s own country as well as of world politics. With this in mind, a history teacher can hope to edu¬ cate better citizens, better politicians, better newspaper writers and read¬ ers, and to develop independent self -judgment and a clear mind in regard to worldwide political questions. In a democracy this means congressmen with understanding of problems of foreign countries, and voters who are willing and able to control the actions of their congressmen. Such an understanding of fundamental facts and leading ideas, especi¬ ally in European history, is, however, permeated in the mind of the average student by regrettable prejudices and misunderstandings. These are almost regularly revealed in discussions about such historical matters as: the British Empire and Commonwealth, Socialism, race discrimination, the his¬ torical role played by the Catholic Church and its present position in all countries, the national aims of the last Russian revolution, the imperialistic idea of the Romans, the Germans, the British, the French and the dicta¬ tors of our twentieth century. These historical conceptions— and a dozen more could easily be added to this list!— -play a decisive role in modern world politics. Since it is the United States whose attitude to these prob¬ lems more or less determines current world politics, the responsible citizens of these United States should be taught to look with unprejudiced eyes on these problems. This article deals with one of such historical misunderstandings, with a special conception of European and even World History and politics. It is one of those never dying ideas in the development of our Western Civili¬ zation. It has shaped the world of the white man, it has brought pride, power, wealth— serfdom, war and death to millions of people all over the world. Although right now this idea seems to be very weak, is not being discussed openly, and, in the opinion of some idealists has definitely dis¬ appeared from the political scene — -it nevertheless is still living and cannot be overlooked by anybody who is actually interested in the future of the 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Jackson ’'X^hites 191 in the locality, probably as had other institutions from lack of cultural contact. CONCLUSION A recapitulation of the facts at hand regarding the Jackson Whites and an attempt to arrange these facts in some such order as to fit into our announced concept that this group demonstrates the idea that evidences are present of the interplay of influences which have slowed down the dis¬ integrating forces in what has hitherto been an isolated cumulative com¬ munity will bring to our attention a number of things. Isolation has been a prime factor in creating many of the conditions and results relating to this group of people (Davie, 1949), They are hybrids, and as such, in rela¬ tion to their neighbors, were limited to the status of marginal men. As isolated marginal men they gradually settled into a low economic and social status. Lack of cultural contact, intermarriage and incest added low mental status as a factor distinguishing them. All these factors led to per¬ sonal and social disorganization (Mowrer, 1942). Since historical and sociological evidence is lacking for information regarding these Jackson Whites for the nineteenth century, there is no way of determining just when the period of disintegration began, but we can assume with some reasonable degree of -certainty that it did have some fifty or seventy-five years in which to become effective. Over this period of time, the "community” of Jackson Whites lacked many of the things which distinguish the usual community — institutions and other bonds of community organization. However, the very fact of marginism, of opposition from the outside world whether in the form of an attempt at law enforcement or something else, tended to give the group cohesion and something of a community structure. Perhaps it is paradoxical that this one outstanding bond of community spirit which the group never lost was the one which had to be broken through the "outside” in order that other elements constituting a pro¬ gressive instead of a deteriorating community might become a part of the Jackson Whites. Acceptance of cultural intrusion when it has seemed to be beneficial has strengthened this continuing evidence of a community and still has let other evidences of community organization become a part of the group, enough so that it may be said that even though disintegrating forces and the effects of definitely inferior biologically transmitted genes are still evident, cultural infiltration, improvement in health standards, and education have retarded the progress of these disintegrating forces. Bassett, John Spencer — 1924 — Short History of the United States. New York, The Mac¬ Millan Company. Cole, David — 1884 — History of Rockland County, New York. J. B. Beers and Company. New York. Davie, Maurice R. — 1949 — Negroes in American Society. McGraw-Hill. New York. Faust, A. — 1909 — ^The German Element in the United States. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston. Flick, A. C. — 1901 — Loyalism in New York during the American Revolution. Columbia University Press. New York. Frazier, E. Franklin — 1939 — The Negro Family in the United States. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Harlow, Ralph Valney — ^1925 — Growth of the United States. Henry Holt and Company. New York, Herskovits, Melville J. — 1928 — The American Negro : A study in Racial Crossing. Alfred A. Knopf Company. New York. Jones, D.T.C. — 1931 — The Jackson Whites. Eugenical News 16. 190 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 A nurse and social worker, Miss Margaret Mack, was employed by Miss Snow to work with the Hovenkopf group, and through her efforts contact in various ways has been improved and social control exercised in many ways. Particularly successful has been the improvement in regard to the legalization of marriage. In several cases Miss Mack forced the ac¬ ceptance of responsibility on the part of fathers of illegitimate children. The unpleasantness associated with this forced acceptance of responsibility changed the outlook in respect to legality of the marriage institution. Con¬ sequently, now all marriages are licensed and contracted in neighboring towns. This has probably been some deterrence to immorality also, but how much is not known. For those who have remained upon the mountain, marriage within the circle of relatives has been almost imperative, since all of those in the community are related to some degree. Introduction of new blood into the group on the mountain has not been as simple as the introduction of new blood by marriage when one of the mountain inhabitants has changed his abode to another settlement or town. Improvement in educational and moral standards has been accompanied by some improvement in health as well. The care of a doctor in many cases of sickness is now common practice, ano the assistance of a doctor, even the use of hospital facilities, at childbirth shows a definite raising of standards which reflect increased knowledge, lessening of the child death rate and improvement in economic status. In the matter of economic status, the improvement most noticeable came with the introduction in the thirties of governmental relief and the Works Progress Administration. A money economy on a scale with which they had not been familiar was thus introduced. Some found the improve¬ ment in this regard of such value that they did odd jobs when such were available so as to supplement relief checks. A paradox regarding economic values seems to be evident. Whereas a certain acumen regarding the future made it desirable to the group mem¬ bers to hold to title of their homes, relief checks were spent at times on luxuries or expensive foods so that the first of the month was apt to be feasting time and the latter part, starving time. School lunches, a provision inaugurated during this period, improved the health of the children, however. Once accustomed to the idea of a lessening of isolation, the attraction of increased mobility as shown in the possible uses of the automobile be¬ came apparent. By 1940 most of the families on the mountain owned auto¬ mobiles. They soon established the habit among themselves common to many in rural regions, that of going into town on Saturdays, of seeing the movies at that time. All new social life is not the product of nearby towns, however. A clubhouse provided by Miss Snow and others who have become interested gives opportunity for group meetings for all ages, and many of these gath¬ erings are organized and supervised by Miss Mack. Within recent years a chapel has been built in the community, and, prior to that, Sunday school services were held in private homes. One student of the group is of the opinion that some years ago, prior to any great migra¬ tion of the group, a religion of the ‘"'Methodist type” was present in the community (Frazier, op. cit.). The social conditions prevailing at the turn of the century would indicate that this institution had become decadent 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Jackson Whites 189 as immoral by the standards of the usual American community, were not to be considered so much "immoral” as "unmoral” of the Hovenkopf Mountain group says Miss Osborn in her study. Their sense of morality did not condemn such practices (Osborn, op. cit.). Although force within the group seems to have been the might of the law for the group, comparatively few major crimes are listed or described as happening among these people. Other than what we term immorality, drunkeness seems to have been the major crime among the group. Economically, the condition of the group seems to have been very low. Hunting, fishing and cultivation of small fields would appear to have sup¬ plied food for the people. Migrants from the group took laborer positions wherever they went and added themselves to the lower stratum of the society into which they migrated. In the mountain group some handicraft was practiced. Because of the constant intermarriage and lack of social mobility, feeblemindedness was prevalent. Thirty or forty years ago this group was a self-contained one with little cultural contact outside, no schools, no civil law within the group, only an atrophied knowledge of religion, and with the physically-debilitating habit, almost of necessity, of in-breeding. The people had no great initia¬ tive, no productive energy and little economic resources if they had pos¬ sessed the energy. They were classed by those who knew of them as defi¬ nitely low in mentality as well as peculiar in appearance. Today there is evidence of improvement in many of these respects: illiteracy is no longer the completely normal state, marriages are legalized, many families have moved to more desirable localities, and the concept of close students of the group is that they have brains but won’t use them."' This is not to say of course that magic has taken place. The level of the group in most respects is lower than that of those in surrounding areas, but there is enough improvement to show that there are evidences within the Jackson Whites of influences which present some means of retardation of disintegrating forces in what hitherto has been an isolated cumulative community. No appreciable change seemed to have taken place among the group until the introduction of cultural contact with others. In 1902 a Mr. and Mrs. Francis Wheaton, according to Storms, bought a tract of land on Hovenkopf and started living there. Aloof at first, the Jackson Whites, some at least, on the mountain finally allowed their children to attend a school Mrs. Wheaton conducted in her own home. With this start and the influence of Miss Nora Snow, a wealthy landowner near the mountain, the state was forced to provide a school for the children of these people. Though presumably compulsory in nature, this school could and did function only effectively on a voluntary basis, for those who did not choose to take advantage of combating their own illiteracy had only to seek refuge in one of the mountain retreats. This beginning did not, nor has not, changed the group from one considered mentally low and unambitious. However, state law enforcement of school attendance is taken as a matter of course now, and all children attend the school until they reach the compulsory age limit of seventeen. Recently, some students have gone on to finish high school, something which had not occurred prior to 1940. * In conversation with Miss Mack, nurse and social worker with the group. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Mathematics and the Physical Sciences 197 Laboratories, but they were luxuries for which more modest establishments felt no need. In 1941 the American mathematical monthly published a report by Fry entitled '^'Industrial Mathematics.” The report opens with these words: "Mathematical technique is used in some form in most research and development activities, but the men who use these techniques would not usually be called mathematicians, "Mathematicians also play an important role in industrial research, but their services are of a special character and do not touch the development program at nearly so many points. "Because of this contrast between the ubiquity of mathematics and the fewness of the mathematicians, this report is divided into sharply differ¬ entiated parts.” The report goes on to state that these mathematicians who were in industry generally served as consultants, and were of necessity men of very high calibre. There was no place for mediocrity. The total number thus employed in non-actuarial work was estimated to be about 150 in the entire country, with demand for new personnel at the rate of about 10 per year. With the imminence of the war, the Services discovered mathematics, and the Applied Mathematics Panel and other war agencies made wholesale raids upon mathematics departments over the coimtry. When hostilities ceased, most of the mathematicians, and also most of the scientists, returned to their campuses. But not all. Some of the war agencies, like the Applied Mathematics Panel, have disbanded; others have continued, though generally at a reduced level, and possibly under new management, such as the Atomic Energy Commission. But we now find post-war creations like the National Applied Mathe¬ matics Laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards. Not only the Bell Laboratories, but old established governmental agencies like the Naval Re¬ search Laboratory in Washington are demanding the services of mathe¬ maticians to an extent far exceeding that of the pre-war days. Besides this, the Office of Naval Research is distributing substantial sums of money to the universities for research in pure mathematics as well as for basic re¬ search in other lines. The reason for this is not just that scientists, engineers, and adminis¬ trators have suddenly awakened to the potentialities of a professional class they had hitherto overlooked, as we members of that class might like to believe. It is true, and I believe everyone acquainted with the record will admit, that mathematicians made an impressive contribution to the prose¬ cution of this mechanized war. But I believe there would have been a sharp upturn in the demand for mathematicians at this period even if there had been no war. Fry predicts about a three-fold increase. The explanation is to be found in the increasing complexity of our science and technology, as reflected in the growing tendency to bring to¬ gether a diversity of talent in a research team for the purpose of making a coordinated attack on special problems. Unfortunately the most dramati¬ cally successful, as well as the most gigantic, of all such teams had for its single purpose the development of a particular military weapon. Many other projects, dwarfed only by comparison with the vast Manhattan Project, are also maintained for military purposes. But fortunately this 198 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 is not the whole story; even nuclear research is now by no means exclusively military in its purpose; and in any case, it is inevitable that among these teams of scientists and technologists there should arise a need for the perculiar talent of the mathematician. The mathematician who consents to join such a research team must first of all accustom himself to the fact that he is a member of a team. It is no place for the solitary genius, or for the spotlight seeker. Perhaps it is no place for any kind of genius. His freedom is measured by his own capacity to direct his interests along the channels imposed by the project at hand. The campus mathematician, consulted by a campus scientist, may take the problem or not according to his taste and his estimate as to the out¬ come. The member of a research team has less choice — possibly no choice at all. If a problem demands solution, a solution must be had, elegant if possible, but a solution in any event. And as coordinated attacks are made upon increasingly more complex scientific and technological problems, so the attendant mathematical problems become increasingly difficult and lie increasingly beyond the hope of a neat and elegant solution. At this stage mathematics becomes mechanized. One hears much about "electronic brains” these days, and the headline scanner might easily get the impression that soon we can push a few buttons and have all our thinking done for us. If this time comes, it will not be soon. At least the electronic brain does not put the mathematician out of business. Instead it places new responsibilities upon him. If we cannot write down the solution of a non-linear differential equation in terms of elemen¬ tary functions, we may be willing to settle for numerical solutions made for certain critical values of the parameters. This may require many million multiplications and additions, but to a machine that can perform a thousand or more per second this is by no means out of the question. On the other hand these machines, though incredibly fast, have only a limited repertory, and the reduction of a computation to a sequence of operations within this repertory is generally no small task itself. Thus at the same time that organized research develops a need for mathematical along with other specialized services, the scientists develop a new and unheard-of tool which, amazingly enough, demands the guidance of the mathematicians, and which presents the mathematicians with a new class of problems. Where previously a problem was considered solved if the solution was expressible as a convergent series of tabulated functions, we may now consider a problem solved if rules can be given for approximat¬ ing to a numerical solution within given limits of error by a finite sequence of arithmetic operations. I do not mean to imply, of course, that a solution in terms of tabulated functions is no longer of interest; or that qualitative studies of the prop¬ erties of solutions of equations are outmoded; or that any other of the classi¬ cal problems of pure or applied mathematics are rendered obsolete by the advent of high-speed computing machines. I mean only that these machines, instead of supplanting the mathematician, actually point up a field of mathematics that has been hitherto almost completely neglected. It may be of interest to consider a little more fully some of these new problems. Perhaps I should explain parenthetically that I am speaking only of the digital machines such as the ENIAC, the Marks I, II and III, the SSEC, 1950, No. 2 June 30 Mathematics and the Peiysical Sciences 199 and the several other such machines now in varying stages of design or construction. Doubtless similar remarks could be made of the analogue machines but these have interested me less. The older writers on numerical methods like Whittaker and Robinson, Runge and Koenigs, Scarborough, and others, were thinking in terms of relatively short sequences of operations of which the result at each stage can be examined. Operations upon the Marchant can be freely interspersed with reference to tables or graphs; if one begins to run out of significant figures the fact can be recognized and appropriate changes made in the routine. The situation is far different with a machine that performs a thous¬ and operations per second; and that follows literally every instruction you give it, however absurd the result may be, without ever stopping to wonder and ask you whether you really meant what you said on line 1567. In a million operations the round-off errors can become quite considerable and completely invalidate the entire result, especially if the machine has a fixed decimal position, as most of them do, or will. A few papers have appeared in the past several years giving bounds for round-off errors in matrix inversion. These have been extremely pessi¬ mistic, and in fact far in excess of the errors actually observed in many particular inversions. If the bounds cannot be improved in general, then it is highly desirable that feasible rules be developed for obtaining better estimates in special cases. The whole problem of how to do inversion of large matrices, not only so as to minimize the round-off errors, but even to get it done at all, is be¬ coming acute. One can begin to talk about the inversion of a 200 x 200 matrix as a feasible operation but this is only a start. This is an order of magnitude increase in a dimension of the matrix but three orders of magni¬ tude increase in the size of the undertaking. This seems only to whet the appetite and the military, for example, would like much more. This is one of the major problems under investigation at the Bureau of Standards’ In¬ stitute for Numerical Analysis at Los Angeles. Some beginnings have been made toward the assessment of ’ round-off and truncation errors in the numerical solution of differential equations. When the differential equation is replaced by an approximating difference equation, as it must be for numerical solution, there is an optimal interval in the sense that a shorter interval will lead to excessive round-off errors and a longer interval to excessive truncation errors. Rough estimates are available in particular cases but not in general. Most methods of solving algebraic, and especially characteristic, equa¬ tions depend upon the sequential determination and removal of the roots from those of largest modulus down. As the removal progresses the round¬ ing-off errors accumulate. If the degree is five this may not be serious, but what if it is 25? Definite integrals of many dimensions may exceed the capacity of even the speediest of the machines now proposed. The now famous Monte Carlo method is a method for making a statistical estimate of the value of such a definite integral in a number of steps that does not increase, as by direct methods it does, with the number of dimensions. While the method as such makes use of a principle long known to mathematical statisticians, the idea of using it as a computational technique is new and directly in¬ spired by the electronic machines. Use of the method raises problems analo- 200 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 gous to the problems of truncation and round-off involved in direct methods, but systematic studies are yet to be made. One could go on idefinitely. I do not know that this list would inspire Hardy to revise his judgment about the dullness of useful mathematics. But of this I feel very sure, that these are problems of great urgency, and their treatment requires mathematical ability and judgment of the highest order. On the other hand, speaking as an applied mathematician, I have never felt distressed by the paucity of good university centers of applied mathematics in this country. I would surely not wish to minimize the importance of the contributions of the sessions at Brown University on applied mathematics, or of Courant’s group at New York University. But on the subject of preparation for the applied mathematician, let me return to Hardy’s apology. '^^One rather curious conclusion emerges,” he remarks, "that pure mathematics is on the whole distinctly more useful than applied. A pure mathematician seems to have the advantage on the practical as well as on the aesthetic side. For what is useful above all is technique, and mathematical technique is taught mainly through pure mathematics.” In other words, the best training for an applied mathematician is a thorough apprenticeship in pure mathematics. The mathematician who joins a research team cannot generally anticipate the type of problems he will be called upon to deal with, and if he attempts to do this and spends his period of academic training concentrating on a special line he is apt to stunt his most valuable asset, versatility. He will commit himself to a particular point of view where the best contributions result from freshness and nov¬ elty. I believe this explains the success of the mathematicians during the war, in that they were able to bring to bear the full power of their tech¬ nique without being handicapped by preconceived, traditional notions. I would say that a school of applied mathematics would be most useful for post-doctoral, rather than pre-doctoral, training. I feel that the mathematician has found a permanent place on the re¬ search team. It becomes increasingly difficult for the scientist to act as his own mathematician. Furthermore, with apologies to Professor Hardy, I believe that even some of the more useful problems are not entirely devoid of intrinsic interest. X-RAY DIFFRACTION EXAMINATION OF SYNTHETIC MULLITE J. L. McAtee and W. O. Milligan Department of Chemistry The Rice Institute The anhydrous alumino-silicates such as cyanite (AUSiOr,)? andalusite (AHSiOs), sillimanite (AUSiOs), and mullite ( 3 AUOs • 2Si02) are not only of interest in mineralogy and ceramics, but also represent an important example of polymorphism of complex inorganic compounds. Sillimanite and m.ullite cf quite different chemical composition possess closely similar optical properties and almost identical x-ray diffraction patterns. The exact struc¬ tural relationships between sillimanite and mullite are not clearly understood. Although many earlier investigators did not recognize the chemical individuality of mullite, it was demonstrated by Bowen, Greig, and Zies 1950, No. 2 June 30 X-Ray Examination of Synthetic Mullite 201 (1924) that mullite has the composition of 3 AROs ■ 2Si02, and that crystal¬ line phases, often designated as sillimanite, appearing during the firing of clay-containing ceramic products, actually consisted of mullite. Bowen and Greig (1924) and Greig (1926) were able tO' establish a quite complete equilibrium diagram of the system A 120,3-5102, and concluded that mullite is the only compound of alumina and silica which is stable above 10 50° C, The close similarity of the x-ray diffraction patterns of sillimanite and mullite suggests that their structures are quite similar, despite the large variation in chemical composition. Indeed, Bragg (1937) has pointed out that slight differences in the diffraction effects are no- more marked than those resulting from inclusion of small amounts of titanium dioxide in sillimanite. Eitel (1926), Knapp (1928), Mark (1926), and Mark and Rosbaud (1926) expressed the opinion that sillimanite alone exists, with mullite being a mixture of crystalline sillimanite and amorphous alumina. On the contrary, Nakai and Hukami (1936), Tavasci (1936), and Zvanut and Wood (1937) considered mullite alone to exist, with sillimanite being a mixture of crystalline mullite and amorphous silica. However, it is evident from Williamson’s (1949) recent critical review of the mullite problem that both compounds exist. It is the purpose of this present investigation to study by x-ray diffrac¬ tion methods some of the conditions of formation of synthetic mullite pre¬ pared from alumina and silica. EXPERIMENTAL Preparation of Samples. Two separate series of samples in the alumina- silica system were prepared. The first series was made by the heat-treatment of alumina-silica gels prepared from aluminum nitrate and sodium silicate, respectively. The second series was made from gels resulting from hydrolysis of aluminum isopropoxide and silicon ethoxide. Series L An alumina gel was precipitated from 1.0 M aluminum nitrate solution with 1 5 M ammonium hydroxide, washed in a centrifuge until the supernatant liquid was free of nitrate ions, and finally allowed . to dry in air at room temperature. A silica gel was precipitated from a freshly prepared 2 5 percent solution of sodium metasilicate with an excess of 12 M hydro¬ chloric acid, washed in a centrifuge until the supernatant liquid was free of chloride ions, and finally dried in air at room temperature. Series IL Alumina was prepared from aluminum isopropoxide by the addition of twice the stoichiometric amount of water, washed with triple distilled water until the wash water was free of isopropyl alcohol, and was dried in air at room temperature. A silica gel was prepared by the slow hydrolysis of a solution of silica ethoxide in ethyl alcohol. The hydrolysis was assumed to be complete after two weeks, and the gel was washed free of alcohol and allowed to dry in air at room temperature. The air-dry gels were thoroughly ground in a motor-driven agate mortar, and aliquot portions were analysed for water content by ignition to constant weight. A complete set of samples of alumina-silica gels at 10 mole percent intervals, with respect to the anhydrous oxides, was prepared by mixing weighed amounts of the oxides (based on the known water con¬ tents). The composite samples were ground in an agate mortar for two hours, to ensure a homogeneous mixture. The samples in Series I are con¬ sidered to be contaminated with small amounts of sodium, whereas, the 202 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 samples in Series II are believed to be relatively free of inorganic impurities. Heat-Treatment. The samples in both series were heated for two- or four-hour periods at several temperatures in the range of 800 to 1400® C. in a thermostatically controlled electric furnace. One sample was heated for two hours in an acetylene flame at approximately 1750° C. X-Ray Diffraction Analysis. X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained for all of the heat-treated samples, using either a General Electric x-ray diffraction unit and no-screen x-ray film, or a Norelco recording geiger- counter x-ray diffraction apparatus. Chromium Ka x-radiation (V2O5 filter) was used in the photographic studies, and copper Ka x-radiation (nickel foil filter) in the Norelco apparatus. A number of the x-ray diffrac¬ tion patterns are reproduced in figures 1 and 2. The results are summarized in Table I, and will be discussed below. 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 % Mole % AI2O3 Si02 “sAigOa 100 0 90 10 80 20 70 30 60 40 50 50 40 60 30 70 20 80 10 90 Cr i stabol i te Mull i te 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 K Figure 1. X-Ray Diffraction Patterns for Silica- Alumina Samples Heated at 1300° C. for 2 Hours. DISCUSSION Formation of Mullite. It will be noted in Table I that the mixed alumina- silica gels (Series I) remain essentially amorphous after heating to tempera¬ tures as high at 1000° C. This behavior is in accordance with similar studies previously carried out in this laboratory on pure alumina and silica gels. The samples high in alumina tend to crystallize at 1100° C. to form a-AHOa, as would be expected from studies on pure alumina. At 1200° 1 ^ ^ - i 1 1 ! , i ; u,L. ! I ■■ ll ■ ! i, 1 . .! 1., ii .i, » : ) 1 . 1 1 .1 1 ^ i,.j, .1 il !. ! 1. i 1 si :! 1 II ■ 1* ! 1 ' 1 ill 1 111 !l i !. ! -i.i 1 II is . t 1 1 I 1 1 1 s ibl ill l| I : 1 1 1 ll 1 :i ill lilll 1 11 ! 1 1 1 i 1 1 1. . :..l ! 1 1 1 ' S ■ ' j 1 ! „ , .J ! ! • • 1 1 : 1 ■ ! ' ' 1 i 1 1 1 1| ! • 1 . ! 1 HIM lilll 111 ^ 1 < • 1 1.1 ! I 1 1 1 1 1 ! III! Ill 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 B ^ 1 1 I _ _ _ L _ _ i_^ _ 1 11! ll I.I 1 1 . 1.! 1 1 1 £ [ ! _ ! 1 ! ' i i i 1 1 ! i S 1 M: . ! 1 i 1 !> 1 i i 1 11 i ill i i II 1 II 1 1 ... .1, 1. ilii ..ik.. il 1 1 Ill 1950, No. 2 June 30 X-Ray Examination of Synthetic Mullite 203 to 1400° C. samples high in silica tend to crystallize to form a-cristobalite, and samples containing 30 to 60 mole percent Si02 contain an amount of mullite that increases as the time and temperature of heat-treatment is in¬ creased. One sample containing 40 mole percent Si02 consisted almost en¬ tirely of mullite after heating for two hours in an acetylene-oxygen flame. However, the x-ray results indicate the presence of a small amount of un¬ reacted alumina in the form of a-AHOs and silica in the form of a-cris¬ tobalite. The results clearly indicate that mullite is the only crystalline compound formed in the Al203-Si02 system under the conditions employed in this investigation. There is no evidence of displacement of the mullite diffraction lines, and therefore it is assumed that excess alumina or silica does not form a solid solution with mullite. The observed diffraction lines which are attributed to mullite are iden¬ tical in position for all samples, and increase in intensity, as the time and temperature of heat-treatment is increased. The results are also in accord 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 % SILLIMANITE (WYCKOFF) MULLITE (WYCKOFF) MULLITE (NAHMAIS) MULLITE (McVAY) MULLITE (MINERAL) MULLITE (SYNTHETIC) Figure 2. X-Ray Diffraction Patterns for Mullite and Sillimanite,- with the view that mullite has a composition of 3 AI2O3 ” 2Si02. Effect of Impurities. The samples in Series I contain a trace of sodium as an impurity. It is known that such impurities may have a marked effect on the crystallization of oxides. Milligan and Merten (1947) observed in this laboratory that traces of sodium or silica had an effect on the product obtained when Cr203 or Fe203 gels were heated to 400-500° C. Smith and Beeck (1948) have recently shown that activated y-alumina impregnated with sodium nitrate, dried, and heated for 6 hours at 10 50° C., is partially converted to ^S-alumina. Budnikov and Shmukler (1946) have demon¬ strated that certain "mineralizers” added to alumina-silica samples decreases the temperature of mullite formation by 100-200° C. The effect of the trace of sodium remaining in the oxides employed in this investigation was studied by heat-treating the samples of Series 11 under the same conditions as Series L The results of the x-ray examination of the heat-treated samples from Series II are essentially identical with those from Series 1. It is concluded that any possible effect of traces of sodium may be neglected. However, it was observed that traces of ammon¬ ium nitrate present in some samples, decreased the crystallization tempera- II 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 . .. 1 1 1 1 . . 1 1 1 1. 1 . 1 1 1 .ii .1 .. ll i. 1 111! lU 1 ll ! 1 1 , II II ll L I 1 ll 1 1 1 1. III. . iIl.. 1 ll 1 1 1 1 1 J i u X il„ 1, J _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 5.0 3.0 2,0 1.5 % 204 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 ture of a-cristobaiite. The ammonium nitrate impurity results from the fact that all of this salt produced by double decomposition during the preparation of the original alumina gel cannot be removed by washing in the centrifuge. For example, samples containing only 10 or 20 mole per¬ cent alumina yielded an x-radiogram corresponding to a-cristobalite, whereas the ammonium nitrate-free silica gel remained amorphous. Further¬ more silica deliberately contaminated with ammonium nitrate and subse¬ quently heated to 1300° C. likewise yielded the x-ray pattern of a-cris¬ tobalite, whereas the pure silica remained amorphous. Since the ammonium nitrate decomposes at relatively low temperatures, it is assumed that the enhanced crystallization is initiated at low temperatures, perhaps by the TABLE I Composition mole % Si02 Heat-Treatment (a) Temp. °C. Results of X-ray Analysis 0 - 100 800 All samples essentially amorphous. 0 - 100 1000 Samples low in silica ex¬ hibit a few broad bands of y-Al203. 1100 Samples low in silica ex¬ hibit the a-Al203 and 0 - 100 y-Al203 patterns. 0 1200 a-Al203 pattern. 10 - 70 1200 a-Al203, a-cristobalite, and mullite patterns. 80 - 90 1200 a-AHOs and a-cristoba¬ lite patterns. 100 1200 Essentially amorphous. 0 - 100 1300 Results similar to the 1200° heat-treatment, except for sharper lines and greater amount of mullite formed. 0 - 100 1300 (b) Increased amount of mullite. 0 - 100 1400 Results identical with the 13 00° heat-treatment for four hours. 40 1750 Pattern consists of mullite and a small amount of a-Al203 and a-cristobalite. (a) Two-hour periods. (b) Four-hour periods. 1950, No. 2 June 30 X-Ray Examination of Synthetic Mullite 205 formation of crystallites, or that the decomposition products of ammonium nitrate are the actual mineralizers. Structure of Mullite. In figure 2 there is given in chart form for pur¬ poses of comparison the interplanar spacings of synthetic mullite, and an exceptionally pure mineralogical sample of mullite obtained from Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, together with the data of Wyckoff, Greig and Bowen (1926) for both mullite and sillimanite, and the results of Nahmais (1933) and McVay and Thompson (1928) for mullite. It was mentioned above that the mullite sample heated for two hours at about 1750° C. still contained a small amount of unreacted a-Al203 and a-cristobalite. The alumina and silica diffraction lines are broader than the mullite lines, and are omitted from figure 2. It will be noted that interplanar spacings for the synthetic and mineral samples agree quite closely. Further¬ more, essentially all of the lines observed by Wyckoff, Greig, and Bowen (1926) agree. However, the first line at d/n value of about 5.38 A ob¬ served in the present investigation in both the synthetic and natural mullite was found by McVay and Thompson (1928), but was not reported by WyckofF et al (1926). This diffraction line cannot be attributed to any known crystalline forms of silica or alumina. The sharpness of the line agrees well with the other lines attributed to mullite, and it appears in all samples believed to contain mullite. It is also observed that both the syn¬ thetic and natural mullite give a strong pair of lines at a d/n value of about 3.4 A, which were not resolved in the patterns of previous investigators. These results suggest that further detailed x-ray diffraction studies should be made on both mullite and sillimanite. LITERATURE CITED Bowen, N. L. and Greig, J. W. — 1924 — J. Am. Ceram Soc. 7 : 238 Bowen, N. L., Greig, J. W., and Zeis, E. G. — 1924 — J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 14: 183 Bragg, W. L. — 1937 — Atomic structure of minerals. Ithaca, N. Y. Cornel Univ. Press. Budnikov, P. P. and Shmukler, K. M. — 1946 — J. Applied Chem. (U.S.S.R.) 19: 1029 Eitel, W. — 1926 — Ber. deut. keram. Gesel 7: 348 Greig, J. W. — .1926 — Am. J. Sci. 11 : 1 Knapp, O. — 1928 — Blashutte 58; 907 Mark, H.— 1926— Glastech. Ber. 4 : 297 Mark, H. and Rosbaud, P. — 1926 — N. Jb. Min. B-Bd. 54 ; 127 McVay, T, N. and Thompson, C. L. — 1928 — J. Am. Cer. Soc. 11 : 834 Milligan, W. O. and Merten, L. — 1947 — J. Phys. and Colloid C'hem. 51:521 Nahmais, M. E.— 1933— Z. Krist. 85 : 355 Nakai, T. and Hukami, Y. — 1936 — J. Soc. Chem. Ind. Japan 39 : suppl. binding : 230 Smith, A. E. and Beeck, O. A.— 1948— U. S. Pat. 2, 454, 227, Nov., 1948 Tavasci, B. — 1936 — Chemica e industria (Italy) 18:338 Taylor, W. H,— 1928— Z. Krist. 68 : 503 Taylor, W. H. — 1932 — Ceram. Soc. Trans. (England) 32 : 7 Williamson, W. 0.-1949— Am. J. Sci. 247 : 719 Wyckoff, W. G., Greig, J. W., and Bowen, N. L. — 1926 — Am. J. Sci. 211; 459 Zvanut, F. J. and Wood, L. J. — 1937 — J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 20: 251 206 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 A SIMPLE DIFFRACTION GRATING SPECTROGRAPH T. Doman Roberts Hardin-Simmons University ABSTRACT A spectograph utilizing a Con tax Camera with interchangeable lenses was employed to record spectra produced by a Wallace replica of a diffraction grating. The replica was mounted between the collimating lens, an 85 mm Zeiss Triotar, and the telescope, a 180 mm Tele-Tessar lens which also served as the camera lens. The 35 mm camera was mounted Dn the Tele-Tessar lens to record the spectra. By utilizing a transmission grating of suitable grating space the 24 x 36 mm film area can be occupied by the desired region of the visible spectrum. The spacing of the spectral lines is very nearly linear on a wave length scale. With highly corrected lenses the negative can be enlarged 10 to 80 times, enabling one to read the spectrum to within 10 Angstrom units of accuracy when the 24 x 36 mm negative is filled with the complete visible spectrum. This spectograph was used in the studies of light sources, the sensitivities of photographic emulsions, and filter transmissions. INTRODUCTION Accurate spectrographs are generally expensive and large. Relatively inexpensive and compact spectrographs are sometimes highly desirable. Preliminary steps have been taken to assemble a spectrograph utilizing certain of the high quality long focus lenses available fcr Zeiss Contax cameras, while employing the shutter and advance mechanism of the cam.era itself to record spectra. There are certain obvious advantages. The good miniature cameras are small and quite easy to handle. The Contax, Leica, Ektra, and other similar cameras are equipped with long and short focal length interchangeable lenses with very high correction. Other miniature cameras used by photographic enthusiasts, such as the Kodak 3 5, the Retina, the Bantam Special, the Medalist, etc., have excellent lenses that can be utilized. However, cameras with the longer focal length lenses are to be preferred because of the sharpness of detail they are capable of registering on the film. These lenses are somewhat faster than those ordinarily incor¬ porated in colorimetry and spectrometry. By utilizing a transmission grating of suitable grating space and ap¬ propriate focal length lenses the entire length of the film can be occupied by the desired region of the visible spectrum. The flat field of the anastig- matic lens employed leads to a uniformly sharp spectrum across the entire length of the film. Even though the film size is only 24 x 36 mm the accur¬ acy of adjustment and the correctness in the lenses are so great that enlarge¬ ments of 10 to 3 0 times are often attainable. Furthermore, the spacing of the spectral lines is very nearly linear on a wave length or wave number scale, and can be made accurately linear in an enlarged print by a slight tilting and bending of the graph paper on which the scale is plotted at the time of printing. The perforations on the edges of 3 5 mm film provide an accurate means for the precise superposition of spectra which have been obtained at different times. APPARATUS The spectrograph consisted of a Wallace replica of a Rowland grating having 1 5,260 lines per inch. The collimator was an 8 5 mm Zeiss Triotar lens, while the camera, or telescope, consisted of a 180 mm Zeiss Tele- Tessar lens on which was mounted the Contax camera. A narrow adjustable slit was placed in the principal focal plane of the Triotar lens. All these 1950, No. 2 June 30 A Diffraction Grating Spectograph 207 parts were securely mounted on an optical bench designed for photomi¬ crography. The 'Tointolite” light source, manufactured by the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, New York, was supported on a mov¬ able mounting so that optimum focusing on the slit was easily obtained. The camera lens formed the image of the slit on a ground glass screen which enabled the observer to focus the spectrum properly and make direct visual observations of the spectrum. When the screen was removed the camera was attached to the telescope, with the image now falling on the film. To facilitate the focusing of spectral lines on the ground glass, an eyepiece was used to observe the lines. The focusing lens was adjusted until fine lines in a reticle in the eyepiece exhibited no parallax with the spectrum lines. This eliminated the uncertainty that was usually present when the ground glass alone was used for focusing. NATURE OF THE RESEARCH The study of the usefulness of the spectrograph was primarily explora¬ tory with the following objectives: 1. To investigate the possible precision of such an instrument in re¬ solving individual spectrum lines and measuring their wave lengths. 2. To investigate the possibility of using this instrument for making spectral distribution studies of continuous spectra. Such spectra are useful in the study of light sources, emulsion sensitivity, filter transmission, and opaque colored objects. 3. To investigate the difficulties which this type of apparatus pre¬ sents for such continuous spectra studies. While many high precision spectrometers are complicated in design, the instrument under discussion is relatively simple in construction. Al¬ though it occupies a space of only a square foot it was found that wave lengths could be measured easily to one millimicron and probably to four Angstrom units from enlarged prints. The difficulties referred to in (3) are of two kinds: (a) those which arise from the form of the spectral distribution curves of the source and emulsion, and (b) those which arise from the necessity of precise photo¬ graphic manipulations such as the development of a film to a precisely determined degree of contrast. The density of any area of the spectrum on the film is determined by the relative intensity of the source for that particular wave length and also by the sensitivity of the emulsion to the same wave length. The density is also dependent on the time of development of the film in a carefully standardized solution. A significant study of a given source must accord¬ ingly presuppose a previous study of the emulsion sensitivity; and a simi¬ lar study of emulsion sensitivity must be interpreted in the light of a pre¬ vious knowledge of the source used. Much of this present study was de¬ voted to a preliminary comparison of currently useful sources and currently available films. In addition to the complexities introduced by the variations of the source intensity and emulsion sensitivity with wave length, the diffraction grating itself may introduce a variation in illumination with wave length. It is well known, for example, that the form of the cuts in the grating may affect the distribution of light over the spectrum, and it may indeed greatly modify the amount of light thrown into the various orders. By 208 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 suitable alterations in the groove form as much as 90 per cent of the light in the spectrum may be concentrated in a single order. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS In the course of this study spectra were photographed of the follow¬ ing sources: The "Pointolite,” an opal incandescent lamp, a fluorescent (daylight) lamp, and a helium discharge tube. The "Pointolite” concentrated a very bright beam on the slit of the spectrograph. To produce more even illumination of the slit, an opal glass plate was inserted just in front of the slit. Such even illumination is essen¬ tial for colorimetric work where broad spectra are needed. The opal incan¬ descent lamp also gave diffuse uniform illumination over the slit. The fluorescent lamp spectrum included a strong mercury spectrum plus the continuous bands due to the phosphors. Enough sharp lines are found in the helium spectrum and extend suffi¬ ciently over the visible spectrum to provide an excellent means of calibrat¬ ing the spectrographs. This spectrum was also used to study the sharpness of the lines which was possible with the_-present- equipment. Focusing was usually carried out with the line spectrum. Three widely different types of emulsions were used, all of which are commercially produced by Eastman Kodak Company: Panatomic X (type B, panchromatic), Microfile, and Infrared. Both Panatomic X and Microfile exhibited a strong band of sensitivity at about 540 millimicrons. The Microfile, however, had much more sensitivity concentrated in this general region than the type B emulsion, and showed quite definite bands of sen¬ sitivity in the ranges 4000 to 42 50 A and 5 000 to 6000 A. On the other hand the infrared was quite insensitive throughout the middle of the visible spectrum but regained considerable sensitiveness toward the blue and violet. The wedge spectrogram for infrared film, published by Eastman Kodak Company (data book on kodak films), shows a complete absence of sensitivity from 520 to 660 millimicrons, but in our negatives the bands are seen throughout the visible spectrum, indicating that the data in the wedge spectrogram are somewhat misleading. Strangely enough, considering the fact that Panatomic X is more uniformly sensitive across the spectrum than infrared, the best record of the bands which result from the grating was on the infrared film. Another important characteristic of an emulsion is its resolving power, which refers to its ability to record fine detail. Prints of spectra indicated that Microfile had by far the highest resolution. In making the prints the negative of the spectrum to be printed was placed in the film holder of a Leitz enlarger. A sheet of coordinate paper on which the location of the important helium and mercury lines was marked, was placed on the base board of the enlarger. A scale of one mm. per millimicron was found convenient since it permitted the entire visible spectrum to be included in the space of about 2 5 cm. The height of the lamp house and film holder was then adjusted so that the important lines of the helium spectrum fell as accurately as possible on the corresponding lines which were marked on the coordinate paper. It was found possible to match the coincidence quite accurately except at the extreme red end of the spectrum. It was apparent that this error could be corrected by a slight bowing of the support of the paper. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Titration of Soaps and Detergents 209 Since various amounts of contrast were required, appropriate papers were used in printing the negatives. Unfortunately most printing papers change their size when they become wet in the process of development, and they do not return precisely to their initial size as they dry. This constitutes a source of error. Some printing processes are available where such stretching is absent. Grateful acknowledgement is due Dr. Carl W. Miller, Professor of Physics in Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, for suggesting and directing the research of which this report is a condensation. This report is taken from a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Physics at Brown University. KARL FISCHER TITRATION OF SOLID SOAPS AND DETERGENTS Arthur L. Draper^ and W. O. Milligan Department of Chemistry The Rice Institute The Karl Fischer ( 193 5 ) titration method has been successfully used for the determination of water in numerous substances of interest in pure and applied chemistry (cf. Mitchell and Smith, 1948). This method has not been thoroughly investigated with reference to the water content of solid soaps and detergents, although Shreve, Pomerroy and Mysels (1947) and Parry and Taylor (1949) have reported that stoichiometric interfer¬ ence, often encountered in applications of the Karl Fischer reagent, is ob¬ served in the determination of water contents of certain aluminum soaps. The "'water content” of soaps and detergents is normally determined from the loss of weight of samples heated at an arbitrary temperature for an arbitrary period of time {cf. Blank, 1948: Ferguson, Rosevear and Nord- sieck, 1947; and Hattiangdi, 1949). The latter procedure does not yield absolute results because most soaps and detergents are temperature sensitive and decompose when heated, as shown by a continuous loss in weight and by discoloration. The limitations of this method are generally recognized and the results are, therefore, customarily reported as loss of ""volatile ma¬ terial.” Other absolute methods, such as distillation from inert organic media, the use of adsorption trains or complete combustion analysis, are time con¬ suming and complex. The Karl Fischer titration is a rapid and specific method for determining water, and has been applied in this investigation to the determination of the water contents of several solid soaps and deter¬ gents. EXPERIMENTAL The water contents of sixteen solid soaps and detergents supplied by the Procter and Gamble Company have been determined. The methods employed in the preparation cf man)^ of these samples are described by Ferguson, Rosevear and Stillman (1943). The samples listed in Table I were heated to constant weight at the temperatures specified. It was ob¬ served that some samples became discolored, and very large weight losses Procter and Gamble Fellow in Chemistry, 1948-50. 210 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 occurred, indicating a partial decomposition. It is evident that attempts to designate the loss in weight as loss of water is extremely arbitrary. The final column of this table gives, where available, the water contents obtained for aliquot portions of the same samples in a high vacuum (0.5 to 1.0 millimicrons) at low temperatures below the decomposition point, during the determination of precision dehydration isobars. A second group of samples, as listed in Table II, was examined by the Karl Fischer method, and the results have been compared with results ob¬ tained as above by low temperature vacuum dehydration. The usual precau- TABLE I % Loss in Weight % Water Vacuum Substance 110°C. 120°C. 130°C- 140°C. 150°C. Apparatus a-Sodium Sterate 3.3 3.5 5.6"- 17.9 - 3.8 /i-Sodium Stearate 3.2 3.4 4.6"- 16.9 - 2.2 8-Sodium Stearate 3.0 3.1 5.0"- 19.8 - 2.1 a-Sodium Palmitate 3.5 3.6 4.8 12.8"- - - w-Sodium Laurate 2.5 2.5 2.7 4.1 5.8"- 2.2 Sodium para- (2 -Do- • 5.2 5.5 5.7 7.1"- 8.0 4.2 decyl) Benzene Sulfonate Alkyl Sulfonate ^1 1.4 1.9"- 3.7 7.2 9.4 1.2 Alkyl Sulfonate §2 2.0 2.7"- 3.7 7.3 9.7 4.4 Sodium Tetradecane 1.2 1.4 3.5 5.6"- 11.6 0.2 Sulfonate Potassium Benzene 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.0 Sulfonate ^ Temperature at which color changed from white to tan or brown. TABLE II Substance % Water Karl Fischer Method Vacuum Apparatus a-Sodium Stearate 2-5 2.5 /8-Sodium Stearate 2.7 2.4 8-Sodium Stearate 1.3 1.9 (ij-Sodium Stearate 0.2 0.4 a-Sodium Palmitate 3.1 2.9 /3-Sodium Palmitate 1.4 1.7 8-Sodium Palmitate 1.4 1.2 w-Sodium Palmitate 1.2 1.2 (o-Sodium Laurate 2.4 1.0 Calcium Palmitate 2.7 3.0 Sodium Para- ( 1-Dodecyl) 2.2 2.2 Benzene Sulfonate Sodium para- (2-Dodecyl) 4.4 4.0 Benzene Sulfonate Sodium Tetradecane Sulfonate 0.4 0.2 Potassium Benzene Sulfonate 2.6 2.7 1950, No. 2 June 30 Titration of Soaps and Detergents 211 tions were taken to avoid exposing the samples or reagents to water vapor in the atmosphere during the titration, which was carried to the visual end-point on solid samples of the soaps and detergents. A suitable anhydrous, inert solvent or dispersant for the samples could not be found, to make it possible to take advantage of the high accuracy of back titration or electro¬ metric end-point methods (Mitchell and Smith, 1948). Several alcohols, acetone, and dioxane were tested without success. The low temperature vacuum dehydration method is based on the fol¬ lowing procedure. Weighed quantities of sample are placed in platinum buckets suspended from sensitive silica springs in a vacuum system. The multiple sorption-desorption apparatus employed is capable of producing fifteen simultaneous isotherms or isobars. More complete details of the ap¬ paratus have been previously described (Milligan and Rachford, 1947). The apparatus is shown in Figure 1, and a complete isobar for calcium palmitate is given in Figure 2. The loss in weight shown in Figure 2 agrees exactly with that calculated for calcium palmitate monohydrate. Inde- Figure 1. Multiple Sorption-Desorption Apparatus. pendent of any separate water analysis, one can deduce from the isobar, and the initial length of the silica spiral, the water content of the original sample. All of the water analyses reported in the right hand column of Tables I and II were obtained by this technique. 212 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Figure 2. Dehydration Isobar for Calcium Palmitate Monohydrate. DISCUSSION The water contents obtained by the low temperature vacuum dehydra¬ tion method are believed to be reasonably accurate, and it is obvious that the method of heating in air to constant weight at an arbitrary elevated temperature does not yield either accurate or absolute water contents. How¬ ever, comparative losses of volatile material may be useful in routine analyses, especially if it is previously shown that the arbitrary temperature chosen does not result in excessive decomposition of the samples. As shown by Table II, the Karl Fischer titration method yields values in good agreement with the results of low temperature vacuum dehydration, with the possible exception of w-sodium laurate. The large discrepancy in the case of the laurate is probably an experimental error in view of the corresponding result in Table 1, but the possibility of stoichiometric inter¬ ference reactions should not be overlooked. It is concluded that the Karl Fischer method is capable of successful application to the determination of the small amounts of water present in solid soaps and detergents, within an approximate error of <0.2%. It is suggested that future applications of the Karl Fischer titration method should give more consideration to preventing water vapor from the at¬ mosphere contaminating the sample or reagent during transfer and titra¬ tion, and that attempts be made to find suitable anhydrous solvents, in order to avoid the necessity of titrating the solid materials. LITERATURE CITED Blank, E. W. — 1948 — J. Am. Oil Cfhemists’ Soc. 25: 438 Ferguson, R. H., Rosevear, F. B. and Nordsieck, H. — 1947 — J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69 : 141 Ferguson, R. H., Rosevear, F. B. and Stillman, R. C- — 1943 — Ind. Eng. Chem. 35 : 1005 Fischer, K. — 1935 — Angew. Chem. 48: 394 Hatttangdi, G. S. — 1949 — Natl. Bureau Stds. J. Res. 42 : 331 Milligan, W. O. and Rachford, H. H., Jr.— 1947— J. Phys. Colloid Chem. 51 ; 333 Mitchell, J., Jr. and Smith, D. M. — 1948 — Aquemetry, the application of Karl Fischer re¬ agent. Chemical Analysis Series. Vol. 5. Interscience Publishers, New York. Parry, G. A. and Taylor, A. J. — 1949 — Nature 164:449 Shreve, G. W., Pomeroy, H. H. and Mysels, K. J.— 1947— J. Phys. Colloid Chem. 51 : 963 1950, No. 2 June 30 Dielectric Constant of Air 213 MEASUREMENT OF RAPID FLUCTUATIONS IN THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR Cullen M. Crain Department of Electrical Engineering The University of Texas The Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory at The University of Texas has, for the past four years, been conducting research in propagation of electro-magnetic energy of 3. 2 -centimeters wave length. While energy in this region was at first considered to be propagated essentially along the line of sight from the transmitter, it became apparent during the war that the problem was more complicated, and that the propagation was affected enough by changes in the dielectric properties of the transmitting medium along the path of propagation that these changes must be considered. The complex dielectric constant of a material is normally represented by a real part plus an imaginary part. The real part is a measure of the dielectric properties and the imaginary part is a measure of the loss factor of the material. The method used in this paper measures the real part of the di¬ electric constant. Measurements of the dielectric constants of dry air and water vapor had been made by many observers at frequencies in the order of one megacycle. It was assumed by original researchers in the field of microwave propagation that the dielectric constant of these cases was es¬ sentially the same at wave lengths near 3.2 centimeters as had been meas¬ ured at longer wave lengths by many observers; however in 1943, Saxton, in England, measured the real part of the dielectric constant of water vapor at wave lengths of 9 and 3.2 centimeters and published results showing that under similar conditions of temperature and pressure the dielectric constant was some 15% less at 3.2 centimeters than it was at 9 centimeters. It has been shown that if the real part of the dielectric constant undergoes a radical change, the loss factor of the gas also must change considerably; hence the change in the real part of the dielectric constant measured by Saxton was enough to indicate much greater attenuation along the trans¬ mitting path for 3. 2 -centimeter energy compared to 9-centimeter energy than had been measured experimentally. It was therefore thought that if the dielectric constant of water vapor and also dry air could be measured directly by some other means than Saxton used the above conflict could be perhaps clarified. The equipment which is described in this paper, then, was originally designed for measuring in the laboratory, under controlled con¬ ditions, the dielectric constants of dry air and water vapor. Measurements were made for not only dry air and water vapor but several other gases and the results have been previously published. The method used makes use of the change in resonant frequency of a cavity when a gas of dielectric constant differing from that of free space is introduced into the cavity. The apparatus used is illustrated in the block diagram of Figure 1. Two identical microwave oscillator circuits are used. These are so arranged that the frequency of oscillation is determined almost entirely by the resonant frequency of the cavity. The difference beat frequency between the two oscillators is measured with one of the cavities evacuated. Then the sample to be measured is introduced into the evacuated cavity and the change in 214 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 beat frequency observed. The dielectric constant of the sample is then calulated from this change in frequency as shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the block diagram of the stabilized oscillators. This cir¬ cuit was developed by R. V. Pound at the M.I.T. Radiation Laboratory. Briefly, the principle of operation is as follows: Energy at about 9,300 megacycles from a 2K2S reflex klystron oscil¬ lator is fed into arm ”T’ of magic-T ''A” where it divides equally between arms "2” and "4”. Energy from arm 'H” enters magic-T 'B’ where it again divides equally between arms "5” and '7k Arm "5” is terminated in a crystal such that there is no reflection from this termination. Arm "7” is terminated in a cavity resonator. There will be almost total reflection from this arm except near the resonant frequency of the cavity. Ffalf of the reflected energy from arm "7” enters arm "6” of magic-T "B” which con¬ tains a terminated crystal load 'kKT There would normally be no reflection from arm "6”, but the impedance of the crystal "X” is being modulated by the bulfer amplified at 30 megacycles. As a result, side frequencies 30 FIG. I BLOCK DIAGRAM f = RESONANT FREQUENCY OF A CAVITY WITH FIXED DIMENSIONS AND SAMPLE GAS. -^=/K= n = ^^=l+ ^ f, = RESONANT FREQUENCY OF EVACUATED CAVITY. K = DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF IN THIS CASE f=9340MC GAS IN CAVITY n = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GAS SO (yfK -!) I0®= (n-l) IO®= Af = CHANGE IN FREQUENCY WHEN GAS ENTERS EVACUATED CAVITY, IN CYCLES. FIG. 2 CALCULATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 1950, No. 2 June 30 Dielectric Constant of Air 215 megacycles on either side of the microwave frequency are reflected out of arm "6”. This is a suppressed carrier signal, which in part enters arm "5” of magic-T "B”, where it is added to the original microwave energy in arm ^'5”. The carrier frequency phase of the suppressed carrier signal in arm ^*5” is dependent upon the tuning of the cavity resonator and the micro- wave frequency, and rapidly goes through a 180-degree phase change as the cavity is tuned through the operating frequency. The length of arm ''7” containing the cavity is adjusted so that when the operating frequency is the same as the resonant frequency of the cavity, the side band components in crystal "Y” add to the original microwave component in quadrature. As a result, there is no 30-megacycle output from the crystal "Y”. As the operating frequency deviates from the tuning of the cavity, the phase of the sideband components will change, producing an output at 30 megacycles from crystal "Y”, with a phase angle at 30 megacycles in phase or in phase FIG. 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF STABILIZED OSCILLATORS opposition depending on whether the operating frequency was above or be¬ low the resonant frequency of the cavity. This 30-megacycle signal is then amplified and applied to the phase sensitive mixer, causing a variation in d-c plate voltage of the mixer with deviation of the operating frequency from the resonant frequency of the cavity. This voltage is supplied to the repeller electrode of the 2K2 5 oscillator in such a manner as to make the system degenerative. In other words, as the frequency of the oscillator tends to change, the output of the mixer provides a change in repeller voltage of the proper sense to bring the frequency of the oscillator back to the original frequency. With the system as actually used in our laboratory, the stabiliz¬ ing factor was of the order 5,000. For example, if some external disturb¬ ance would cause the frequency of the unstabilized oscillator to change one megacycle, the change of the stabilized circuit would be 1,000,000/ 5,000 or 200 cycles. The beat frequency between the two oscillators previously described was first determined when one of the cavities was evacuated. Gas was al- 216 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 lowed to enter the cavity previously evacuated while the temperature of, and the gas conditions in, the second cavity remained constant. The change in beat frequency was then measured and the dielectric constant or reflec¬ tive index for the gas in the first cavity was calculated from the relations previously given. Figure 4 shows the arrangement used for controlling the gas in one of the cavities. The cavity which was evacuated was sealed off from the wave guide through which it was supplied energy by a thin sheet of mica placed at the coupling between the guide and the cavity. The brass plate on which the bell jar was supported was also mounted at this coupling. Two of the assembly screws from the cavity were removed so that the gas could enter the cavity more rapidly. The temperature of the gas in the cavity was measured by means of a thermiocouple, and the pressure was measured by means of a manometer in the case of air and oxygen and by a modified Fortin type mercurial barometer in the case of water vapor. Listed below are values obtained for the dielectric constants of gases using the above method. F16. 4 GAS SYSTEM Dry air at standard pressure and 0°C: 1.000 5 72 ±.000002 Oxygen at standard pressure and 0°C: 1.000530±. 000002 Water vapor at 1 inch of mercury and 27°C: 1.000142±. 000002 The above values check within the experimental error quoted to values ob¬ tained by other observers of the dielectric constants of gases at lower fre¬ quencies. As indicated previously, to predict the nature of propagation of micro- wave energy along the surface of the earth, it is necessary that the varia¬ tions in dielectric constant be known along the path. It is particularly nec¬ essary that the variation of dielectric constant with height be known. The normal way that this has been determined is to take meteorological readings at various levels above the ground. These readings are wet- and dry-bulb temperature and pressure. From these readings the dielectric constant, or the change in dielectric constant with height, can be calculated. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Dielectric Constant of Air 217 It is quite desirable to be able to measure directly the dielectric con¬ stant of the atmosphere through which propagation is taking place, since the necessity of several meteorological measurements and calculations of di¬ electric constant from these measurements can, in most cases, be eliminated. In our laboratory, this problem has been approached by modifying the equip¬ ment previously described. Also, the equipment was modified for the pur¬ pose of measuring fluctuations that occur in the average refractive index of air over a small volume during a period of about one-tenth second or greater. It has not been possible to measure these fluctuations by meteorologi¬ cal means as the best device which has been developed to date which can measure with sufficient accuracy small variations in water vapor pressure (apparently the chief cause of dielectric constant variations) has a time constant of about 10 seconds. For the direct measurements, the cavity reso¬ nator of one stabilized oscillator was evacuated so that its resonant fre¬ quency would not change with atmospheric changes other than tempera¬ ture. The second cavity, which is exposed to air, was modified by drilling holes in one end plate, making about 20% of the end plate open. The plunger was reduced in diameter to give approximately the same open area on the other end of the cavity, A small blower was connected to the cavity so that air could be pulled through the cavity. Thus, a change in the di¬ electric properties of the air being pulled through the cavity will cause the output frequency of the oscillator to change accordingly. The beat fre¬ quency of the two oscillators is centered at 10.7 megacycles, and amplified in the i-f amplifier and then applied to the limiter and discriminator, as shown in Figure 5. The output of the discriminator is used to deflect a recording milliammeter. Thus the deflection of the ammeter can be made proportional to the dielectric constant of the atmospheric air in the meas- FIG. 5 EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING RAPID VARIATIONS OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 218 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 uring cavity. The equipment as built has a range of about 26 N units (where one N unit is (• ^ K“l)10^). The measurements are not absolute, but relative, as the mechanical setting of the cavities determines the actual refractive index calibration of the meter readings. This equipment has been tested in the field and the arrangement is quite satisfactory. Most of the measurements to date have been made two or three feet above the ground and surprising results have been indicated. Variations over a period of a fraction of a second of greater than 10 N units were common when the ground was wet. For drier ground conditions, the variations have been less, 3 or 4 N units being typical. The actual changes were greater than those recorded as the nature of the equipment is such as to smooth out the peaks in the variations. Obviously the cavity itself will have some smoothing effect due to its volume. In many cases, as is apparent from examining the recording, the time of response of the meter has limited the magnitude of the change indicated. This difficulty could be eliminated by adding a proper equalizing system, but since it is felt that the smoothing effect due to the time required to change the air in the cavity is of greater consequence, it would be of little value to com¬ pensate for the lag in the meter. It might be added that changes in refractive indext due to changes in temperature will be smoothed out, too, since the air entering the cavity will tend to assume the temperature of the walls of the cavity. However, the rate of flow of air should be such as to nlake this smoothing effect small. Another error can arise from the dimensions of the cavity varying due to fluctuation in temperature. However, since the invar cavity walls are 0.15 inch thick, the temperature time constant of the cavity will be such as to practically eliminate all erratic fluctuations about a mean tempera¬ ture. The long time variation in temperature will be fairly well compen¬ sated for since both cavities will change dimensions approximately the same. Corrections as necessary can be applied by measuring and recording the temperature difference between the cavities with a thermo-couple ar¬ rangement. Figure 6 shows a typical recording milliammeter trace of the di- TIME IN SECONDS 0 10 20 30 I _ I i I 1 1 i FIG. 6 REFRACTIVE INDEX RECORDING 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Inhibition of Plants 219 electric constant. The scale is such that from about one-tenth full scale to eight-tenths full scale, each tenth scale division represents approximately 2 N units. The speed was 6 inches per minute. The trace was obtained on a clear day at Austin, Texas. Wind was from the south at 10-20 miles per hour. The average dry-bulb temperature was 75° F, and the relative humid¬ ity was 27%. The cavity was 3 feet above a surface dry ground. * Sponsored by the office of Naval Research. GROWTH INHIBITION AND INJURY OF PLANTS BY MALEIC HYDRAZIDE Victor A. Greulach Department of Botany University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina Schoene and Hoffman (1949) reported that maleic hydrazide has *'a pronounced, but temporary, inhibiting effect on plant growth” and that ^'this eflfect is unique in that growth inhibition is obtained with little visible harm to the plants.” They also found that the maleic hydrazide did not inhibit the growth of leaves already formed or growth in diameter of the stem. They indicated that concentrations as high as 2000 ppm. could be used without injurious effects. In the preliminary experiments reported here the marked growth-inhibiting effects of maleic hydrazide were evident, but extended also to inhibition of the growth of leaves and stems in diameter. There were also a number of morphogenic and injurious effects, and al¬ though most of the plants eventually resumed growth, it was never from the inhibited terminal buds. Tomatoes were planted in 4-inch clay pots in a greenhouse on Novem¬ ber 8, 1949, and twenty days later five plants were given each of the fol¬ lowing treatments: 1. Sprayed with a 2000 ppm. aqueous solution of the diethanolamine salt of maleic hydrazide (MH) ; 2. Sprayed with the above solution with 0.2 5 per cent dreft added as a wetting agent (MHD) ; 3. Sprayed with 0.25 per cent dreft (controls); 4. Not sprayed in any way (unsprayed controls). Similar experiments were conducted simultane¬ ously, lima beans, peas, and wheat, but no unsprayed controls were used. The tomato plants sprayed with dreft did not differ in any respect from those which were unsprayed. The height of the plants was measured just before treatment and for five successive three-day intervals thereafter, and then at approximately weekly intervals for five weeks. Slow growth of the treated plants of all species occurred for about a week, but thereafter there was no growth from the terminal buds of any of the treated plants. The growth curves for the tomato plants (Fig. 1) were typical of all the species, except that in the others the plants sprayed with MHD were inhibited slightly more than those sprayed with MH, though none of these differences was significant, except in wheat. Wheat 220 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 plants sprayed with MH were inhibited about 50 per cent, while those sprayed with MHD were completely inhibited, and their leaves were about two-thirds the width of the leaves of the controls or the plants sprayed with MH. Although inhibition of growth in diameter of the stems and of the leaves was not evident in the peas or lima beans it was marked in both tomatoes and sunflowers. Nine days after treatment the leaves of both groups of treated tomato plants had attained their final lengths of from 3 to 5 cm., while the leaves of the controls were from 7 to 12 cm. long and continued to grow. Six weeks after treatment the stems of the treated tomato plants averaged 3.3 mm. in diameter while the controls averaged 9.5 mm. The comparable figures for the sunflowers were 4.4 and 8,8 mm. The leaves of the treated tomato plants were not only small, but also lacked the usual extensive division, the few lobes present being crenate. The blades curled up at the margins, as did those of the lima bean leaflets, but the sunflower leaves curled down at the margins. Several young sunflower leaves had deep notches at the apex. During the two weeks after spraying the tomato petioles bent upward slowly, until the angle with the stem Fig. 1. Influence of maleic hydrazide (MH) and maleic hydrazide with dreft added (MHD) on the growth of tomato plants, as compared with controls (C). Solid lines represent mean heights of the main stems, dotted lines the mean total heights including tallest branches formed when growth resumed. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Inhibition of Plants 221 eventually reached 20°, in contrast to the approximate 60° angle of the controls. Later most of the petioles twisted through about a 90° angle. A reduced, simple leaf about 4 mm. long was arched over the terminal bud of each of the treated tomato plants. Marked chlorosis developed along the veins of the younger lima bean leaflets and at the bases of the sunflower leaves within a week after spray¬ ing. The pea leaves were not affected, while the leaves of all treated tomato plants and of the wheat plants sprayed with MHD developed an unusually dark green color. All treated tomato plants formed abundant anthocyanin on the under sides of their leaves (indicating a carbothydrate excess) within ten days after spraying, but there was none in the leaves on the branches which developed later on these plants. Neither the tomatn con¬ trols nor any of the plants of the other species developed anthocyanin. The entire terminal internode of all treated lima bean plants died about two weeks after spraying, but the numerous lateral buds which subsequently began developing never grew into branches longer than 0.5 cm. In both tomatoes and sunflowers the lateral buds of the treated plants began devel¬ oping about three weeks after spraying, and in the sunflowers the portion of the main stem above the branches then died. In no case did a terminal bud resume growth. Some of the branches of both species were variously distorted. In both tomatoes and sunflowers the branches of the plants sprayed with MHD grew more rapidly and extensively than those of the plants which had been sprayed with MH. (Fig. 1). All of the tomato plants sprayed with MHD developed vigorous branches, but three of the five plants sprayed with MH died before the end of the experiment, one formed only short, stunted branches, and only one recovered as completely as the MHD plants. This differential influence is difficult to explain, since there was no differential effect on the growth of the main stems, and in particular since the wetting agent might have been expected to cause in¬ creased absorption of the MH. LITERATURE CITED Schoene, D. L. and Hoffmann, O. L. — 1949 — Science 109 : 688. 222 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 MOLDS AND YEASTS PRESENT IN THE AIR DURING DUST STORMS IN WEST TEXAS r.; . M. Gerundo, M. D., Ph. D/-' and Guydell L. Schwartz, B.S., M.A. Department of Laboratories Lubbock Memorial Hospital Lubbock, Texas This investigation was undertaken to determine the presence in the air of molds and yeasts during dust storms in West Texas and to discover, if possible, any relationship between dust storms and respiratory disease. MATERIAL AND METHODS Although some preliminary work had been already carried out previ¬ ously, the last dust storm studied in detail was that of January 2, 1949. The wind from the Southwest had been blowing since early morning at a veloc¬ ity of 3 5 miles per hour. At the time the plates were exposed, the velocity of the wind was declining to 18 miles per hour. Sterile Petri dishes contain¬ ing no medium were exposed for five minutes to the air outside a window at street level. After addition of melted Sabourand glucose medium, the plates were incubated at room temperature. In order to have a control of the normal air content, similar procedure wsa followed the second day after the storm when the air had cleared and a moderate West wind with a veloc¬ ity of 3 miles per hour predominated. One set of plates was exposed to the air outside the window and another set was exposed to the dust which had collected during the previous storm. RESULTS The plates exposed during the dust storm were laden with a very large number of colonies which soon became confluent. Those exposed to the dust the second day developed a much smaller number of colonies, whereas those exposed to the air at the same time showed only an occasional colony. For identification purpose, the works of Dodge (193 5), Clements and Shear (1931) and Wolf and Wolf (1947) were consulted. Sylloge Fungorum of Saccardo was not available to us. The species most commonly found during the dust storm were in order of frequency: (1) Fusarium species, belonging to the family of Tuberculariaceae, class of Deuteromycetes. Various types were seen. Mycelium branched and septate; chlomidospores ovoid; conidia fusiform or slightly curved contain¬ ing from 3 to 7 cells. No sclerotia were observed during the time the cul¬ tures were kept. (2) Micromonos par a species, belonging to the family of Actinomy- cetaceae. Unicellular mycelium without serial hyphae; spores born singly on tips of short branches developed from vegetative hyphae. This organism occurs abundantly in dust particles. * Present Address : Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, Nebraska I 1950, No. 2 June 30 Molds and Yeasts in Dust Storms 223 (3) Helmintho'Sporhim species, belonging to the family of Dematia- ceae. Thick unbranched septate conidiophores; conidia septate, thick-walled, fusiform. (4) Geotrichum species, belonging to the family of Moniliaceae. Colonies pasty, adherent to the agar. Mycelium well developed, in short segments; arthrospores and chlamidospores with thick wall. (5) AspergilUs species— White giant colonies, spores dark, conidio¬ phores spherical. This has been identified as Aspergillus ustus (Banier) Thom and Church. (6) Acfotheciumy belonging to the family of Dematiaceae. (7) FenicilUum species- — Colonies of a yellow color; polyverticillate type. (8) An unidentified form, producing a giant orange colony on the surface of other colonies. Because of its late appearance, it could not be isolated and classified properly. Among the yeasts and yeast-like organisms were found: (1) Candida albicans or an organism morphologically identical with it. Mycelium of light color; conidia forming verticels. No sugar fermenta¬ tions or animal inoculation were carried out to test its pathogenicity. (2) Torulopsis rubra {Saccbaromyces ruber Demne: Khodotorula rubra Lodder) . Colonies pale at first, becoming reddish chestnut. No fermen¬ tation tests were carried out. There were also many colonies containing coarse, septate hyphae, but no conidia. Some other white cottony colonies showed branched nonseptate hyphae, 2 to 3 microns thick, but no conidia during the time of observa¬ tion. These colonies are included among Mycelia sterilia for lack of char¬ acteristic features. DISCUSSION In West Texas, however, there is surprisingly a very small number of respiratory diseases directly attributable to fungi, in spite of the. heavy in¬ halation of dust which penetrates into the mouth, ears and eyes of the victims. The cultural studies reported above have demonstrated instead that the dust is laden with fungi which are harmful to plants and crops. Many of these species are common occurrences in soil, therefore it is no wonder that their spores are blown into the air with the more heavy particles of sand. For example, various species of Fusarium are harmful to cereals, grasses, potatoes and to a large number of horticultural crops. (Eriksson, 1930). Some species may give larger accumulation of ammonia in soil than any of the bacteria tested. (Russell, 1923). Helminthosporium causes dis¬ eases of cereal crops and of wild flowers. Geotrichum is usually found on decaying vegetation, although three species have been identified as patho¬ genic to man. (Plunkett, 1945). Aspergillus ustus is the most common form found in cultivated and forest soil and it may have a role in many decay processes. (Thom and Church, 1945). The only exception is the presence of organisms similar to Candida albicans. In the hospital laboratory often we have recovered yeasts and monilial organisms from the mouths of patients and in several patients with diagnosis of probably tuberculosis we have cultured Candida albicans. Whether there is any relationship between these infestations and dust storms 224 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 is a matter of investigations. It is not assumed here that the organism iso¬ lated in this investigation is the pathogenic form. Torulopsis rubra has been reported occasionally as the cause of diarrhea in children who drank contaminated milk. (Dodge, 193 5 ). Various species of Fusarium have been occasionally incriminated as pathogenic. It is noted at this point that we have cultured on several occasions Helminthosporium and Aspergillus from the hair of children suspected to have tinea. These fungi are probably accidental findings because particles of sand may have remained embedded in the scalp during play or after dust storms. It is likely that many of the species inhaled possess antibiotic activity. For example, Fusarium ]avanicum has been demonstrated to contain a sub¬ stance which displays highly antibiotic activity against gram-positive and acid-fast bacteria. (Arnstein et ah, 1946). Various species of Penicillium and some species of Aspergillus are known for their antibiotic activity. However, it is not implied that inhalation of spores belonging to these species serves to antagonize pathogenic organisms that may be present in the dust. From doctors who specialize in diseases of eye, ear, nose and throat we learned that there are many patients who complain of ear aches or eye troubles following dust storms, but cultural studies have failed to demon¬ strate growth of fungi. It is more likely, in our opinion, that ear aches are due to atmospheric conditions and to irritations caused by the dust particles penetrating into the ear canal. Congestion of the conjunctiva may be the direct result of trauma produced by sand which finds its way into the eye. It is notoriously difficult to culture pathogenic species in presence of an overwhelming number of saprophytes or phytoparasites, but this investi¬ gation is being continued with the hope of isolating pathogenic fungi or yeasts from the dust which gentle winds blow into West Texas. Whether the species isolated so far have any relationship to allergic manifestations is a problem which will be investigated in the course of these studies. The importance of the direction of the wind should be emphasized at this point, because it may indicate the source of origin of plant and human parasites. It is, we believe, a common superstition among West Texas farmers that winds blowing from a certain direction, from Southwest or Northwest, mean poor crops. This superstition — although it may appear to be mystic —is based upon observation through the years and has some foundation on the fact that a variety of harmful molds are carried by these winds. It is presumable that winds blowing from another direction may bring in a dif¬ ferent variety of molds and yeasts, some of which may be useful to the soil. We are, therefore, waiting for the opportunity to study in detail the content of other dust storms which are sure to come to West Texas during the coming months. SUMMARY An investigation was carried out to determine whether molds and yeasts are present in the air during dust storms in West Texas. Cultural studies demonstrated the presence of numerous fungi and yeasts, most of which belonging to species harmful to plants and crops. The only exception is perhaps an organism similar to Candida albicans, which may be pathogenic to man. In spite of the heavy inhalations of dust during storms, there are very few respiratory disturbances directly attributable to the presence of 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis 225 fungi. Study of possible relationship between allergic manifestations and contents of spores in the air is now being planned. LITERATURE CITED Arnstein, H.R.V., Cook, A.H., Lacey, M.S. — 1946 — An Antibacterial pigment from Fusarium javanicum. Nature 157 : 333-334. Clements and Shear — 1931 — The genera of fungi. Wilson Company, New York. Dodge— 1935 — Medical mycology. Mosby Company. St. Louis. Ertcksson — 1930 — Fungeous diseases of plants. Second Edition. Charles Thomas. Springfield. Russell, John — 1923 — Microorganisms of the soil. Longmans and Greene. London. Plunkett, O. — 1945 — Personal communication. Thom and Church — -1945 — The manual of the Aspergilli. Williams and Wilkins Company. Baltimore. Pp. 171-178. Wolf and Wolf — 1947 — The Fungi. 2 vols. John Wiley. New York. GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF EUGLENA GRACILIS VAR. BACILLARIS RELATIVE TO HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION John B. Loefer and Virginia M. Guido Foundation of Applied Research San Antonio A number of investigators have reviewed the relationship of pH to growth of protozoa. Loefer ( 193 5 ) listed pH ranges of growth for a number of species grown in bacteria-free cultures and later (1938) described its effect on growth and morphology of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria and its associated alga. Lackey ( 1938) related H-ion concentration to distribution of protozoa and the role of this factor relative to growth was also discussed by Jahn (1934; 1946). Many reports indicate that certain euglenoids are more acid tolerant than other protozoa. One of the first reports indicating this to be true was that of Zumstein (1900), who obtained good cultures of Euglena gracilis in peptone containing 4% citric acid, although Pringsheim (1912) was not able to confirm this result. Kostir (1921) found that E. gracilis remained alive for 24 hours in four parts per 100 of citric acid, while other euglenoids tested {Phacus anacoelus, E. oxyuris, E. ehrenburgii, E, geniculaia, E. acus and E. deses) were killed by 0.1-0.25 parts per hundred. Wermel (1924) found several species in the acidic waters of peat bogs, in which pH was as low as 2.0 or 4.0. Peterson (1928) found that E. polymorpha grew from pH 3. 6-7. 8. He stated that Euglena is more resistant to acidity than most species of protozoa. Alexander (1931) reported that growth of E. gracilis occurred from pH 3. 0-7. 7, although he regarded the absolute limit of life for this form as pH 2.3-11.0 and Jahn (1931) recorded the range for this species to be pH 3. 9-9. 9, growth at the alkaline extreme being very light. Dusi (1930, 1930a, 1933, and 1933a) recorded ranges for E. gracilis, E. anabaena var. minor, E. deses, E. klebsii, E. phciformis, E. stellata and E. viridis. E. gracilis was most tolerant and in a Beef peptone medium grew over the range pH 3. 0-8. 5, but actually survived the limits of 2. 5-9.6. Hall (1931, 1933) also reported more limited ranges of growth for E. phciformis, E. anabaena var. minor and E. deses in several types of Difco media. A re¬ stricted growth range, pH 5. 3 -5. 7, for E. stellata was noted by .Provasoli (1938). Lackey (1938a) found Euglena mutabilis to occur in pools and streams polluted by acid drainage from coal mines at acidities as high as pH 1.8. In another instance, E. mutabilis was found in waters as low as pH 2.9, 226 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 according to Lackey (1938), but three other euglenoids, E. acus, E. poly- morpha and E. viridis were never found in waters so acidic. E. mutabilh was carefully studied by Von Dach (1943). It was grown in a casein digest medium under bacteria-free conditions and survived for at least 12 days at pH extremes of 1.4 and 7.9. It multiplied at pH 2.1 and 7.7 although the most favorable range was between 3.4 and 5.4. This spe¬ cies, therefore, is capable of survival and growth at greater hydrogen-ion concentrations than any other species reported, except for Polytomella caeca, which also tolerated pH 1.4, according to Lwoff (1941). Certain studies we had made with Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris indi¬ cated that this species is unusual in many respects. It multiplies more rapidly than most euglenoids and exhibits a tolerance to certain antibiotics that far exceeds that of several other flagellates and ciliates. In view of these observed peculiarities, and the reports in the literature indicating unusual acid toler¬ ance by other euglenoids, it seemed worthwhile to investigate the pH range of this organism. materials and methods The strain of Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris used was the one isolated by Dr. L. Provasoli. It was maintained by subculturing in a Bacto-Casitone medium for more than 18 months. From this green strain a colorless variant was obtained by growing the flagellates with streptomycin (Loefer, 1949). In this publication the organism was erroneously designated as E. proxima. Cultures of this apochlorotic strain, even though since grown in regular media without the antibiotic, have remained colorless for more than 40 transfers to date. The culture medium contained the following ingredients: 0.02% NaH2P04-H20, 0.02% K2HPO4, 1% Bacto-Casitone and 0.2 5% Bacto- Yeast Extract. Strong HCl and NaOH were used to adjust portions of the medium to the pH desired. Measurements were made with a Beckman glass electrode pH meter. The recorded values, unless otherwise indicated, repre¬ sent pH after inoculation. Tube cultures were prepared, autoclaved, inocu¬ lated and incubated at 27° C in moderate light in the manner previously described by Loefer (1935a). Actively growing cultures 48 hours old were used for stocks. Appropriate numbers of organisms were transferred to a dilution flask, from which the inoculation into each tube was made, to obtain a relatively low initial count per milliliter (Xo). Cultures were gen¬ erally set up in quadruplicate and counts therefore represent averages (X = final count per ml). The method described by Hall, Johnson and Loefer (1935) was used for counting. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS In series 1 cultures of Euglena (green) were established in which respec¬ tive pH values after inoculation were as listed in table 1. Xo was 106; the reaction of the stock culture was pH 6.5. Counts were made after eight and 21 days. From the data shown in table 1 and Fig. 1 it is evident that multiplication occurred from pH 2.9 through 8,6. After eight days, popu- 1950, No. 2 dune 30 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis 227 lations at the most favorable hydrogen-ion concentrations had increased more than 120 times, and at 21 days more than 1300 times. At eight days the pH of even the best cultures did not vary appreciably, but at 21 days, these values had changed considerably. The extent of this pH shift as well as increased growth are indicated in table 1 and figure 1. In some cases the change amounted to as much as 0.9 pH. In the eight-day cultures, the Table 1. Series 1. pH and growth of E. gracilis var. bacillaris Initial pH Density of cultures (X in thousands) 8 days 21 days 2.3 0.1 0.1 2.9 1.5 68 3.6 8.0 95 4,3 12.8 148 4.7 13.5 132 4.9 12.7 127 6.1 8.5 120 6.8 10.0 96 7.0 11.3 97 7.3 11.0 126 7.8 6.5 117 8.2 6.0 31.0 8.6 1.0 18.6 9.0 0.1 0.1 range 7, 0-7. 3 appeared to be more favorable than pH values immediately above and below this, but at 21 days the range from 7.3 -8.0 seemed better. In series 2 cultures were established (Xo = 450) with hydrogen-ion 228 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 concentrations as shown in table 2. The stock (green strain) was three days old and at pH 6.5. The organisms were counted after incubating four days, and X/Xo ratios were computed from the data shown in table 2. Fission occurred at pH 2.5 and 8.8 as well as at all intermediate points tested. Growth was good over a wide range but appeared to be best between 5.6 and 7.5 in these young cultures. Table 2. Effect of pH on growth of Euglena. Series 2, Xo=450; Series 3, Xo=390 Initial pH Density of cultures (thousands per ml.) after four days Series 2, Series 3, green strain colorless variant 2.5 5.07 4.72 2.8 18.1 21.8 3.2 24.8 27.0 3.5 25.3 28.4 3.9 28.6 29.6 4.3 27.0 26.4 4.8 29.2 ‘25.4 5.1 30.5 28.5 5.4 33.2 26.5 5.6 35.0 30.7 6.0 40.3 29.2 6.6 35.3 31.6 6.7 42.4 35.4 7.1 41.7 34.4 7.4 34.3 28.9 7.7 30.6 31.6 8.0 28.5 28.2 8.3 14.8 23.5 8.5 10.4 16.0 8.8 7.40 7.09 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis 229 The media in series 3 was homologous to that used in series 2. It was inoculated with the colorless variant of Euglena, The organisms were in¬ cubated at the same time and under conditions identical with those of series 2. Xo was 390 and final counts are shown in table 2. It is evident that the growth range is similar to that of the green strain. The differences observed between cultures near neutral and those more acid is even less evident than in series 2. Series 4 was set up to determine, if possible, whether this species might show tolerance to even greater H-ion extremes than pH 2.5 and 8.8, if stock cultures grown near these limits were used to inoculate media more or less acidic than these respective points. A series of tube cultures was estab¬ lished at acidities greater than pH 2,5, and another group having acidities less than pH 8.8, as shown in table 3, The first group was inoculated from a stock culture which had grown at pH 2.6. These cultures were checked for viability and motility on the third and 14th days. The data in table 3 show that the flagellates survived pH 2.0 and the survival limit in this medium, therefore, lies somewhere between 2.0 and 1.75. Survival at pH 2.0 for six days was confirmed in a duplicate series which had been inoculated from a stock growing at pH 2.3. The second group, as shown in table 3, was inoculated from a stock culture growing at pH 8.5 5. Motile flagellates were seen at 13 days in all cultures up to and including those which had been at pH 9.65 immediately after inoculation. Organisms in media at pH 9.8 5 and 10.1 were not viable. The alkaline tolerance limit, therefore, lies somewhere between pH 9.6 5 and 9.85. DISCUSSION The results of series 4 indicate that a gradual change of environment is more conducive to survival than a sudden change from a greater extreme. For example, organisms growing at pH 2.6 actually withstood pH 2.0, whereas when transfers were made from stocks growing at pH 6.5, the FIGURE 1 3. EFFECT OF ACCLIMATIZED STOCKS CN pH-VIABILITY RANGE OF EUGLENA GRACILIS VAR. BACILLARIS 1 2.9 1 8. 6 Series 1. Stock culture, pH = 6.5 1 2. 5 L 1 1 1 8. 8 Series 2 & 3. Stock culture, pH = 6.5 1 1 1 1 1 2. 0 Series 4. Stock culture for acid range, pH = 2.6 Stock culture for alkaline range, pH — 8.55 9.65 pH 2 3 1 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 _ _ _ L_ _ _J _ 1 1 1 1 10 1 230 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 K) ^ b ►T3 3 3 3 ti & ts << < 3 !3 OO Os ^ t— 1 o© su rt n 3 3 3 3 3 3 crq o- > n 3 Qrq fD n 3- rt 3 ►n ft) 5’ cu 3 GTQ fti n £- rt 3 ►-S n> 3 ^ O ^ 3 3 £- II - 3 a. I O 3 ^ c II S O Ski •13 % "X o ^ ^ bs p 'T3 :r ^ 3 P o o It 3 P O 3 CTQ ^ ft 3, a ''w d QfQ 1— ft e-f O ft g O. ^ O ft 3 Table 3. Series 4. pH and viability of Eu, 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis 231 flagellates were unable to survive acidities as great as pH 2.3. Table 3 and figure 3 also show that the species can survive pH 9,65, if inoculations are made from a stock with a pH as high as 8.5 5, whereas transfers from regular culture stocks, as in series 1, 2, and 3, could not survive a pH as high as 9,0. Previous studies on acclimatization to artificial sea water by Loefer (1939) had also shown that after a gradual shift in the course of several generations certain protozoa could tolerate more concentrated solu¬ tions than on sudden transfer, Dusi (1933) reported that cultures of Etiglena gracilis at pH 3.0 grew at the same rate whether inoculated from stocks at pH 7.0 or 3,0, but he did not seek to extend the growth range by use of acclimatized stocks. Comparative growth ranges of some flagellates relative to pH of the medium in bacteria-free cultures are indicated in figure 4. Numerous reports show that the Euglenoids are relatively tolerant to high acidities. Pringsheim (1934) stated that the addition of substances like peptone may widen the pH range. Since the culture media used varied both qualitatively and quantitatively, it should be kept in mind that comparisons of growth and survival ranges as shown in figure 4 are only relative. The reports of Zumstein (1900) and Kostir (1921) show that Euglena gracilis withstood a pH of approximately 2.0-2. 5 (2.0 if medium contained only citric acid; 2.5 if the medium contained as much as 2% peptone). Later reports by investigators who used bacteria-free cultures found similar results. Dusi (1933), for example, reported survival at pH 2.5. Alexander FIGURE 4. pH GROWTH AND SURVIVAL (•) RANGES REPORTED FOR FLAGELLATES Species Investigator Chilomonas paramecium Loefer (1935) Provasoli (1938) Astasia chattoni Astasia longa, strain J Astasia quartana Astasia klebsii Provasoli (1938) Schoenborn (194‘') Provasoh (1938) Von Dach (1940) Euglena anabaena Euglena anabaena minor Euglena deses Euglena gracilis Dusi (1930) Hall (1933) Dusi (1930) Hall (1933) Alexander (1931) Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris Euglena gracilis var. urophora Euglena klebsii Euglena mutabilis Dusi (1933) Jahn (1931) Loefer it Guido Provasoli (1938) Dusi (1930) Hall (MSS) Von Dach (1943) Euglena pisciformia Euglena polymorpha Euglena stellata Euglena viridis Dusi (1930) Hall (1931) Peterson (1928) Dusi (1930) Provasoli (1938) Dusi (1936) Polytcmella agilis Poi>'tomella caeca Lwoff (1935) Pringsheim (1934) Lwoff (1941) Provasoli (1938) Polytoma caudatum var. astigmata Polytoma obtusum Polytoma ocellatum Polytoma uvella (4 strains) Lwoff 8t Provasoh (1935) Provasoli (1938) Provasoh (1938) Provasoh (1938) Chlorogonium elongatum Chlorogonium euchlorum Loefer (1935) Loefer (1935) Hyalogonium klebsii Provasoh (1938) Range Reported Comparative Scale } 5 7 9 11 232 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 (1931) indicated that its lowest limit was 2.3, but Jahn (1931) found no growth below pH 3.9. E. WAitabilh, according to Von Dach (1943), sur¬ vived at pH 1.4. The only other protozoan which has been reported to survive at pH 1.4 is Eolytomella caeca. This hardy species, according to Lwoff (1941), actually exhibits growth over the range pH 2. 2-9. 2. E. gracilis var. bacillaris, as shown by these experiments, survived and was motile for at least three days at pH 2.0. This flagellate, therefore, is among the most acid tolerant of protozoan species. The findings of Jahn (1931) and Dusi (1933) on Euglena gracilis are in near agreement for the upper pH limit, which they indicate to be pH 9. 6-9.9, as compared with 9.65 reported in these experiments. It seems un¬ usual that Alexander did not obtain good growth above 7.7, when he re¬ ported survival up to pH 1 1 . Excepting for the unusual ranges which Alexander (1931) reported for E. gracilis^ and Lwoff (1941) for Polyfomella caeca, E. gracilis var. bacillaris is tolerant of a greater pH range than reported for most other protozoa. Good growth of this species was obtained in the medium used over a wide range of H-ion concentrations. In cultures four days old, as in series 2 and 3, the optimum appears to be around the neutral point. In series 1, however, after eight and 21 days, growth was better around pH 4.5. Both the reports of Jahn (1931) and that of Schoenborn (1949) indicate that the time factor is very important for interpreting the optimum pH for growth. Comparison of the results of series 2 and 3 (figure 2) indicates that there is no appreciable difference between the growth responses of the green strain and colorless variant. Since the colorless variant was obtained by treatment of the green strain with steptomycin, it appears that this anti¬ biotic effected no noticeable change in the enzyme systems involved in heterotrophic nutrition, at least as far as growth in these experiments was concerned. Dusi (1933) reported that cultures of E, gracilis below pH 5.0 ap¬ peared faded. Similar discoloration was noted in our low pH cultures but when transferred to more alkaline media, the normal green color again be¬ came evident. SUMMARY Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris in bacteria-free cultures actively multi¬ plied in a buffered Casitone- Yeast medium over the range pH 2. 5 -8. 8. Its viability limits in these experiments were pH 2.0-9.65. Growth was excell¬ ent from 3. 2-8. 3, but less abundant below and above these points. There is an indication of an optimum around the neutral point. A colorless variant multiplied equally well over the same pH range. The pH-viability range was extended by using acclimatized stock cultures. Acid tolerance for this species is greater than that recorded for most other euglenoids or other protozoa and approaches the limits determined for E. mutabilis and Polyfo¬ mella caeca. Some comparisons made with the growth-pH ranges reported for 2 5 other species of flagellates show that only Polyfomella caeca has been reported to survive in an environment as highly alkaline as that tolerated by Euglena gracilis. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Growth and Survival of Euglena Gracilis 233 LITERATURE CITED Alexander, G. — 1931 — The significance of hydrogen ion concentration in the biology of Euglena gracilis Klebs. Biol. Bull. 61: 165-184. Dusi, H. — 1930 — Limites de la concentration en ions H pour la culture de quelques euglenes. C. R. Soc. Biol. 104: 734-736. - 1930a — Les limites de la concentration en ions H nour la culture d’Euglena gracilis Klebs. C. R. Soc. Biol. 103: 1184-1185. - 1933 — Recherches sur la nutrition de quelques eugl|nes. I. Euglena gracilis. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 50 : 550-597. - 1933a — Recherches sur la nutrition de quelques euglfnes. II. Euglena stellata, klebsii, anabaena, deses et pisciformis. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 50 : 840-890. - 1936 — Recherches sur la culture et la nutrition d’Euglena viridis Ehrbg. Arch. ZooL Exper. Generale. 78; 133-136. Hall, R. P. — 1931 — Relation of hydrogen-ion concentration to growth of Euglena pisciformis. Anat. Rec, 51 (Suppl.) : 83 (Abstract). - 1933 — On the relation of hydrogen-ion concentration to the growth of Euglena anabaena var. minor and E. deses. Arch. Protistenk, 79: 239-248. Hall, R. P., D. F. Johnson and J. B. Loefer — ^1935 — A method for counting protozoa in measurement of growth under experimental conditions. Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc. 54 : 298- 300. Jahn, T. L. — ^1931 — Studies on the physiology of the euglenoid flagellates. III. The effect of hydrogen ion concentration on the growth of Euglena gracilis Klebs. Biol. Bull. 61 : 387-399. - 1934 — Problems of population growth in the protozoa. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant, Biol. 2 :167-180, - 1946 — The euglenoid flagellates. Quart. Rev. Biol. 21 : 246-274. Kostir, W. J. — 1921 — The comparative resistance of different species of Euglenidae to citric acid. Ohio Jour. Sci. 21 :267-271. Lackey, J. B. — 1938 — A study of some ecologic factors affecting the distribution of protozoa. Ecol. Monog. 8 : 501-527. - 1938a — The flora and fauna of surface waters polluted by acid mine drainage. U. S. Public Health Rep. 53: 1499-1507, Loefer, J. B. — 1935 — Relation of hydrogen-ion concentration to growth of Chilomonas and Chlorogonium. Arch. Protistenk. 85 :209-223. - 1935a — The effect of certain carbohydrates and organic acids on growth of Chlorogonium and Chilomonas. Arch. Protistenk. 84 :456-471. - 1938 — Effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on the growth and morphology of Paramecium bursaria. Arch. Protistenk, 90:185-193 - 1939 — Acclimatization of fresh-water ciliates and flagellates to media of higher osmotic pressure. Physiol. Zool. 12(21 :161-172. - 1949 — Penicillin and streptomycin sensitivity of some protozoa. Tex. J. Sci. 1 ;92-94. Lwoff, A. — 1935 — La nutrition azotee et carbonge de Polytomella agilis ( Polvblepharidee incolore). C. R. Soc. Biol. 119:974-976. - 1941 — Limites de concentration en ions H et OH compatibles avec le de¬ velopment in vitro du flagell# Polytomella caeca. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 66 :407-416. Lwoff, A. and L. Provasoli^ — 1935 — La nutrition de Polytoma caudatum var. astTgmata et la synthase de I’amidon par les leucophytes. C. R. Soc. Biol. 119 :90-93. Peterson, H. — 1928 — The reactions of a natural protozoan community to some organic acids. Am. Jour. Hyg, 8 :741-758. Pringsheim, E. G. — 1912 — Kulturversuche mit chlorophyll-fiihrenden Mikfoorganismen. II. Zur Physiologic der Euglena gracilis. Beitr. Biol. Pflanzen 12 :l-48. - 1934 — Uber die pH Grenzen einiger saprophytischer Flagellaten. Naturwiss. 22:510. Provasoli, L. — 1938 — Studi sulla nutrizione dei protozoi. Estr. Boll. Zool. Agr. Bachicolt, Milano 9 : 1-124 pp. Schoenborn, H. W. — 1949 — Growth of Astasia longa in relation to hydrogen ion CDN con¬ centration. J. Exp. Zool. Ill: 437-447. Von Dach, H. — 1940 — Factors which affect the growth of a colorless flagellate, Astasia klebsii, in pure cultures. Ohio Jour. Sci, 40 :37-48. - 1943 — The effect of pH on pure cultures of Euglena mutabilis. Ohio Jour. Sci. 43:47-48. Wermel, E. — 1924 — Zur Biologie der Flagellaten eines Moortiimpels. Arch. Protistenk. 48:207-212. Zumstein, H. — 1900^ — Zur Morphologic und Physiologic der Euglena gracilis, Klebs. Jahrb wiss. Bot. 34: 149-198. 234 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETATION AND SUMMER FLORA OF THE STOCKTON PLATEAU IN NORTHEASTERN . TERRELL COUNTY, TEXAS Grady L. Webster University Herbarium University of Michigan INTRODUCTION The field work for this study was carried out in June and early July, 1949, in cooperation with Dr. W. Frank Blair and students of the Verte¬ brate Field Zoology class of the University of Texas. Mr. N. D. Blackstone generously allowed us full access to his ranch, where camp was pitched on a mesa-top in northern Terrell County about 13 miles south of the town of Sheffield. Observations on the vegetation were made chiefly in and above the canyon of Independence Creek on the Blackstone Ranch. Other field work was done on the Hicks, Chandler, and Dunlap ranches near the con¬ fluence of the creek with the Pecos River. The writer wishes to thank Mr. Blackstone for his many courtesies which helped to make the field work a success. Thanks are due Dr. Blair and Dr. B. C. Tharp for reading the manuscript and suggesting some im¬ provements. Dr. C. H. Muller furnished determinations on the collections of oaks. PHYSIOGRAPHY The Stockton Plateau as defined by Hill (1900) includes nearly all of Terrell County, a large part of Pecos County, and the Trans-Pecos portion of Val Verde County. Hill observed that this region could be considered part of the "Plateau Province,” and indeed it is really only the Trans-Pecos continuation of the Edwards Plateau, its features having been dissected from the same Cretaceous limestone mass. The region studied in northern Terrell County is one in which flat- topped mesas alternate with broad valleys which are relatively flat at the bottom. From the broad valleys lateral "header” canyons of varying width lead up between the mesa slopes to their heads near the rim-rock. The alti¬ tude of the mesa- top where camp was located was found to be 2,750 feet, and the undissected surface of the entire plateau in the northeastern corner of the county is probably fairly close to this. The edges of the mesa- tops are bordered by a thick rim-rock, which together with the narrow band of "shinnery” at its base gives the landscape a very characteristic appearance. Since the exposed rocks are all of Comanchean age, soil differences are due chiefly to physiographic details. The deepest soils have resulted from the accumulation of alluvium on the flood-plain of Independence Creek. Residual soils on the slopes and mesas are sparse and rocky; they are deepest in some grassy depressions on the mesa-tops where water stands for a while after rain. CLIMATE Rainfall records are lacking for northern Terrell County. The nearest weather station at Sanderson records an annual average of alaout 12 inches 1950, No. 2 June 30 Vegetation of the Stockton Plateau 235 of rainfall (U. S. Weather Bureau, 1932), but the Independence Creek region probably receives around 1 5 inches per year, as indicated on the precipitation map by Kincer (1922: fig. 2), The irregularity of precipitation in West Texas has recently been dis¬ cussed by Tharp (1944: 88-89) and York (1949: 50-55). Here it will suf¬ fice to observe that while the rainfall is spasmodic, the greater portion of it falls from June through September. In northern Terrell County the summer of 1949 was a favorable one from the standpoint of rainfall. During most of June the vegetation was still comparatively rich and green. The early spring flora of March and April was not investigated, but it would be expected to be rather poor due to the lack of precipitation. ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETATION The vegetation of the Stockton Plateau has received comparatively little critical attention from botanists, but this is not strange considering its bar¬ ren aspect and remoteness from centers of population. The first intensive ecological investigations on the plateau were those of Bray (1905), who however confined himself to reporting on the communities of strictly desert plants in the southernmost sector between the towns of Langtry and San¬ derson. Tharp (1944) has reported on the vegetation of the "Mesa Region” centering in Pecos County, on the northern edge of the Stockton Plateau. The region in northern Terrell County has scarcely been mentioned except for a few observations by Havard ( 1885: 465), who remarked that the valley of Independence Creek was an excellent grazing district. Differences in the vegetation are primarily due to the effects of topog¬ raphy, as may be seen in the following correlation: TOPOGRAPHIC UNIT PLANT ASSOCIATION Mesa- tops (central part) 1. Cedar savannah Mesa-top margins 2. Sotol— Lechuguilla Mesa slopes 3. Cedar--Ocotillo Rim-rock 4. Persimmon— Shinoak Narrow canyons and canyon heads 5. Cedar--Oak Broad inter-mesa valleys (flats 6. Mesquite— Creosote bush and gentle slopes) Flood-plains adjacent to streambeds 7. Mesquite— Sumac— Condalia 9. Hackberry 10. Live-oak Streambeds and wet flats 8. Walnut— Desert willow 11. Salt-cedar 12. Sawgrass— Willow Artificial association 13. Field It should be kept in mind that the word "association” as used here does not connote a vegetational unit of climax status. As Shreve (1942: 203) has pointed out, successional stages are scarcely discernible in desert areas, and for the purposes of this study it is irrelevant whether or not a unit of vegetation is considered to be climax. DESCRIPTION OF ASSOCIATIONS 1. CEDAR SAVANNAH ASSOCIATION- — This Community is restricted mainly to the mesa-tops, although where mesa slopes are gentle it may 236 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 descend down the sides and imperceptibly merge with the cedar—ocotillo association. The dominant species is Juniperus ashei, the common cedar of the Edwards Plateau. Between the shoulder-high, widely spaced cedars occur sotol (Dasylirion tvheeleri) and beargrass (Nolina texana) , and in de¬ pressions which catch part of the rainfall run-off grow patches of tobosa grass {Hilaria mutica) and buffalo grass {Buchloe dactyloides) . Besides the cedar, a number of other shrubs occur on the mesa-tops. Most of these grow in communities of lower altitudes as well. These in- clpde: Acacia roemeriana, Condalia lyciodes. Ephedra sp., Koeberlinia spi- nosa, Microrhamnus ericoides, Mimosa lindheimeri, Opuntia leptocaulis, Porlieria angtisti folia, Khus micro phylla, Rhus virens, and Yucca sp. Originally the dominant herbaceous species were probably Hilaria mutica and Buchloe dactyloides, but now great areas of the mesa-tops, as well as some of the slopes, are covered with Actinea odorata, the western bitterweed. Other conspicuous herbs are: Bouteloua trifida. Convolvulus hermannioides, Croton neomexicanus, Dalea aurea. Euphorbia dentata, Flores tina tripteris, Hedyotis nigricans, Physalis lobata, Sida lindheimeri, Solanum eleagnifolium, S. rostratum, and Triodia pilosa. 2. SOTOL— LECHUGUILLA ASSOCIATION — This association occupies the rocky, uneven margins of the mesa-tops directly above the rim-rock. The most abundant species is Agave lechuguilla, but sotol {Dasylirion Wheeleri) is present in large numbers. Grasses such as tobosa {Hilaria mutica) and grama {Bouteloua trifida) occur in pockets of deeper soil. At some places this zone merges with a "shinnery” vegetation of "catclaw” {Acacia sp. and Mimosa lindheimeri, shinoak (mostly Quercus vaseyana) , and yucca, making this strip of vegetation an often formidable one to cross. Among the rocks occur a number of herbaceous species, including: Actinea scaposa var. linearis, Castilleja latebracteata. Euphorbia acuta, Melampodium cinereum, Oenothera serndata, Physalis lobata, and Theles- perma simplici folium. In one form or another, the sotol— lechuguilla association is the com¬ munity which is especially characteristic of the Trans-Pecos desert region. As here defined in the Independence Creek region it is very similar to the mixed grama— lechuguilla community described by Tharp (1944: 86-87) from mesa-top margins in Pecos County. Its counterpart in the Glass Mountains of Brewster County differs in that it extends the entire height of the slopes in the northern part of the mountains (Warnock, unpublished). The lechuguilla--beargrass association from still further west in Presidio County (York, 1949: 5 8-59) is an equivalent one but even more highly modified. 3. CEDAR—OCOTILLO AssociATiON—This vegetational unit in general covers almost all of the mesa slopes. It varies a great deal in composition, depending on the angle and degree of exposure of the slopes. Two fairly distinct subordinate communities may be recognized. On exposed slopes which are not too steep the cedar may descend down the side until it meets the mesquite zone, while on steep rocky slopes (especially the sides of narrow canyons) a different group of plants occurs. Ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) may here occupy otherwise bare ledges without any plants im¬ mediately associated. In other more favorable portions of this "ocotillo community” a number of other shrubs occur, including the common mariola {Parthenium incanum) and: Acacia sp., Berberis trifoliolata, Bernardia obo- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Vegetation of the Stockton Plateau 237 vata, Conddia lycioides, Dasylirion wheeleriy Leucophyllum frutescens, Microrhamnm ericoides, Khns micro phylla, and Vigtiiera sfenoloba. Conspicuous herbs include: Bouteioua hirsuta, Castilleja latebracteosa, Chrysactinea mexicana^ Ddea ]amem^ Hedeoma nana, Heliotropium angmti- folium, Ipomoea lindheimeri, Lintim rigidum, Nicotiana trigonophylla, Passiflora tenuiloba, Polygda macradenia, Scutellaria microphylla, and Sela- ginella lepidophylla. 4. PERSIMMON--SHINOAK ASSOCIATION" — This is the vegetational unit especially characteristic of this portion of the Stockton Plateau. Around th^ edge of the mesa-tops an exposure of limestone "rim-rock” up to 30 or 40 feet thick forms a series of ledges and perpendicular cliffs. Seemingly rooted in solid rock is a highly specialized woody-stemmed beard-tongue, Pentste- mon baccharifolms, whose brilliant red flowers were seen to attract numbers of humming-birds and hawk moths. Less conspicuous but about as common are Hedyoth sp. and Salvia Roemeriana, and occasionally found are Centaur- ium lexeme and Laphamia laciniata. Several other herbs occur on ledges and between rocks, often in more mesophytic habitats. These include: Arhtida glauca, Mentzelia oligosperma, Muhlenbergia monticola, Paronychia sp., Physalis hederaefolia, Selaginella wrightii, Setaria macrostachya, Stipa emi- nens, Stre plant htis plalycarpus, and Triodanis coloradoense. On ledges, also, a number of shrubby plants may be found, including Bumelia lanuginosa var. texana, Cellis laevigata var, reticulata, Croton fruticulosus^ Dasylirion wheeleri, Ephedra sp., Juniperus ashei, and Querctcs vaseyana. At the very base of the rim-rock there is a dense thicket vegetation through which it is extremely difficult to walk. It is composed of Mexican persimmon (Diospyros texana), shinoak (chiefly Quercus vaseyana), cedar, cat-claw, symphoricarpos, and Mexican buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa). Less common is Leucena retusa, while Fendlera wrightii and Schaefferia cunei- folia are rare. 5. CEDAR--OAK ASSOCIATION — Occupying the heads and some stream- ways of canyons above the walnut--desert willow zone, this association con¬ stitutes the most common truly arboreal vegetation in this region of the Stockton Plateau. It is chiefly composed of Juniperus ashei, the common Edwards Plateau cedar, together with several species of oaks ( Quercus mohri- ana, Q. vaseyana, and more rarely Q. laceyi). In favorable localities these trees may reach 10 meters in height and approximate the size of their coun¬ terparts on the Edwards Plateau. Other trees or shrubs include: Bernard ia obovata, Celtis laevigata var. reticulata, Diospyros texana, Leucena retusa, Sophora secundiflora, Symphoricarpos sp., and Ungnadia speciosa. Due to the dense shade in this community, few herbaceous species occur, but some of those from the rim-rock may be found here, such as: Gilia incisa, Mentzelia oligosperma, Perezia runcinata, Physalis hederaefolia, and Streptanthus plalycarpus. The very rare Commelinantia anomala, here at its known western limit, is known in this region only from this com¬ munity. As the streamways in the canyons descend, the character of the vege¬ tation of course changes. In a few protected flats at elevations above the mesquite zone there is an open woods consisting of soapberry {Sapindus drummondii), Mexican buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa), prickly ash (Zan- thoxylum clava-herculis) , Leucena retusa, oaks (Q. vaseyana and Q. moh- riana), and cedar. At somewhat lower levels red-bud {Cercis canadensis var. 238 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 viexicana) appears. Buckthorn {Btnnelia lanuginosa var. texana) is present from the base of the rim-rock down to the level of the mesquite zone, but is nowhere very common. Hackberry {Cel f is laevigata var. reticulata) also has a similar range, and increases in numbers as well as in stature at lower alti¬ tudes. 6. MESQUITE— CREOSOTE BUSH ASSOCiATiON--“This association occupies the broad inter-mesa valleys. Its upper limit is determined chiefly by slope; the community stops abruptly at the foot of the mesa slopes, and no mes¬ quite or creosote bush plants were seen up on the sides. Near stream banks it is replaced by the mesquite-sumac— condalia and walnut--desert willow associations. This association is the local modification of the widespread cre¬ osote bush formation which dominates desert areas in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The dominant plant of the local association is the mesquite, Prosopis juliflora. However, this association is the most complex of all and could be subdivided into many smaller units. Seen from an over-all viewpoint, the vegetation is a complicated mosaic within which several species challenge the dominance of mesquite at different places. In some areas mesquite is almost completely excluded. Creosote bush (Larrea divaricata) is most often its competitor and for that reason is listed as a co-dominant, but in some places tarbrush (Flourensia cernua) and javelina brush (Microrhamnus eri- coides) may also form pure stands. Burro-grass (Scleropogon brevifolius) is widespread and often covers considerable areas. Associated with it are several species of Aristida (mainly A. longiseta) , and less commonly Triodia pulchella. Warnock (unpublished) describes a Triodia—Scleropogon associa¬ tion from the Glass Mountains which occurs in the desert scrub and which thus has a counterpart here within the mesquite--creosote bush community. In addition to those enumerated above, several other woody plants occur, including: Colubrina texensis, Condalia lycioides, C. spathulata, Ephedra sp., Koeberlinia spinosa, Lycium sp., Opuntia leptocaulis, Porlieria angustifolia, and Yucca torreyi. Other herbs which are conspicuous include: Argemone platyceras, Cervallia sinuata, Coldenia cane scans, Cyphomeris, gypsophiloides, Dyssodia acerosa, Gut tier ezia sphaerocephala, Haplo pappus spinulosus, Muhl- enbergia arenicola, and Nyctaginea capitata. Except for the tasajillo {Opuntia leptocaulis) and Mammilaria macromeris, cacti are inconspicuous. 7. MESQUITE— SUMAC— CONDALIA ASSOCIATION This Unit includes many of the same plants as the niesquite--creosote bush association, but it is more mesophytic and the plants grow much closer together, forming in fact dense, almost impenetrable thickets along the bank above the dry streambed of Independence Creek. This association seems to be best devel¬ oped where a steep bank separates the canyon floor from the stream-bed. Where the stream-bed and the canyon floor are on the same level, plants of this association may be found intermingled with those of the walnut- desert willow association. The most important woody species are mesquite {Prosopis jtiliflora) , smalled-leaved sumac {Rhus micro phylla) , and two species of condalia (Condalia lycioides and C. spathulata) . Other shrubs present are: Acacia greggii, A. wrightii, Aloysia lycioides, Atriplex canescens, Bumelia lanugi¬ nosa var. texana, Celtis laevigata var. reticulata, Diospyros texana, and ] uni perns ashei. Conspicuous herbaceous species include: Abutilon sp. aff. incanum, Andropogon barbinodis, Castilleja lanata, Elymus canadensis, Ero- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Vegetation of the Stockton Plateau 239 dium cicutarhim, Maurandya antirrhinoides, farthenium lyrafum, Katibida columnaris, and Tradescantia occidentdis. Along the banks of the Pecos near its confluence with Independence Creek are thickets which are similar to this association, but which differ in the prominence of certain species such as Xanthoxylum clava-herculh and Sporobohis wrightii. If intensive field work were done in these thickets it might be necessary to separate them as a distinct community. 8. WALNUT— DESERT WILLOW ASSOCIATION — -The Stream-bed of In¬ dependence Creek is entirely occupied by this community, which also ex¬ tends up lateral stream-beds until replaced by the cedar--oak association. The walnut (Jnglans rupestris) occupies low "islands” of soil in the middle of the Stream-bed, and occurs also on the level adjacent flood-plain. On the gravelly stream-bed proper the desert willow (Chilopsis linearis) is found. On gravelly banks at the edge of the stream-bed the Apache plum (Fallugia paradoxa) is often quite common. A number of herbs and shrubs occur chiefly or exclusively on beds of gravel or on the perpendicular stream-beds. These include: Cevallia sinuata, Cirsium austrinum, Eriogonum tenelhim, Euphorbia maculata, Helenmm microcephalum, Indigofera argen- tata, L Lindheimeri, Polanisia trachysperma, Polypteris callosa, Porophyllum scoparium, and Triodanis leptocarpa. An abundant and very conspicuous plant because of its silvery leaves and heads of dark purple flowers is Vernonia lindheimeri var. leucophylla. Below Hicks Ranch, seven miles above the Pecos, Independence Creek becomes a permanent stream, and a hydrophytic element is added to the community. Essentially the same herbs as listed above occur on the dry, gravelly parts of the stream-bed away from the flowing water. On wet banks and on rocks near the water may be found the following: Adiantum capillus-veneris, Aster spinosus, Bacopa monnieria var. cuneifolia, Dichro- mena colorata, Echinochloa coionium, Eleocharis geniculata, Eustoma rm~ sellianum, Euirena simplex, Paspalum dilatatum. Phyla incisa, and Samolus ebracieattis. Submerged in shallow water along the bank is Potomogeton lucens. 9. HACKBERRY ASSOciATioN-“-Near Gravel Springs at the edge of Independence Creek, about 20 miles south of Sheffield, stands a grove of tall hackberry trees of about an acre in extent. Associated with the domi¬ nant, Celtis laevigata var. reticulata, are soapberry (Sapindus drummondii) and buckthorn (Bumelia lanuginosa var. texana) . An herbaceous understory is almost lacking except for a few weeds. The persistence of this mesophytic community may well be attributed to the nearby springs. 10. LIVE-OAK ASSOCIATION— “Along the lower course of Independence Creek, where it is a permanent stream, this association occurs in sizeable groves which stretch on both sides of the creek for a distance of about four or five miles. This is the westernmost outpost of the live-oak {Quercus vir- giniana var. fusiformis) and is the community of greatest zoogeographic in¬ terest, since several species of vertebrates reach the western limits of their ranges here. Plant collecting here is very poor, however, as there are almost no herbaceous species growing under the oaks. Ruellia runyonii is by far the commonest herb, occurring in dense blankets near the Chandler ranch house. Hexalectris Warnockii was collected here, but seems to be quite rare. 11. SALT— CEDAR ASSOCIATION— -This association is restricted to low, muddy flats and terraces of the Pecos River floodplain. It is remarkably 240 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 uniform in character, there being no woody species besides the dominant, T amarix gallica. Herbaceous species are few and by far the most common is the grassbur {Cenchrus pauciflorus) . The others are: Dhtichlh strictaf Hcliotropium cMrassavicum, Nicofiana re panda, and Yerhesina encelioides. 12. SAWGRASS— WILLOW ASSOCIATION — Below the large springs at Hicks Ranch lies a large tract of swampy ground traversed by numerous swiftly-running water-courses. Thickets of willow {Salix nigra) cover the wet flats, and bordering the water-courses are dense stands of sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and cat-tail {Typha latifolia) . Among the reeds and on the channel edges grow such hydrophilous plants as Convoluhis sepium var. fraterniflorus, Hibhcns sp. alf. incanus, Lythrnm linearifolmm, and Teucrmm canadense. Adiantum capiUus-veneris is commonly found hang¬ ing from wet banks, and more rarely a colony of Dryopterh normalis may be found at the water’s edge. Outside the sawgrass area, switchgrass {Panicnm virgahim) occupies considerable areas of wet ground, and in slightly elevated, drier areas gives way to Yiguiera dentata, which forms dense stands around the edge of culti¬ vated fields and thus forms a transition to the following association. 13. FIELD ASSOCIATION — An artificial vegetation which was observed mainly at Hicks Ranch, this association consists of the plants, both culti¬ vated and weedy, growing in the fields and along those canals which were not occupied by plants of the sawgrass--willow association. The cultivated plants grown here were mainly corn and maize {Sorghum vtdgare). Wild plants seen here include: Convolvtdtis arvensh, Gaura parviflora, and Pyrrhopappus multicaulh. Yiguiera dentata, an unpleasant sunflower-like weed which chokes the waste ground just outside the fields, may best be assigned to this community. SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE VEGETATION Most ecological writers who have prepared vegetation maps of North America agree in including the less elevated portions of Trans-Pecos Texas within the desert area which is characterized by the dominance of creosote bush (Shantz & Zon, 1924: fig. 2; Shreve 1942: 212, and others). Shreve considers this area of west Texas to belong to the Chihuahuan Desert, and Dice (1943) includes all of the Trans-Pecos area in the Chihuahuan Biotic Province. As would be expected from similarities of climate and topography, the communities described by Tharp (1944) from Pecos County are quite similar to the associations in the Independence Creek area, with the glaring exception of the community which occupies the mesa-tops. In Pecos County the mesa-tops are dominated mostly by Flourensia and Larrea, while on sim¬ ilar topography in northern Terrell County these two plants are entirely absent and are replaced by Juniperus ashei. This difference is quite striking, and at first glance the cedar savannah association may not appear to belong in the desert shrub formation. Conse¬ quently, a question is raised as to whether the Independence Creek area can truly be placed within the Chihuahuan Desert, as indicated in the map by Shreve. If the structure of desert vegetation is understood as defined by Shreve, however, the difficulty can be resolved. That author (1942:242) observes that in the Chihuahuan Desert, ”It is true here, as it is throughout 1950, No. 2 Tune 30 Vegetation of the Stockton Plateau 241 the desert, that the most widely distributed and drought-resistant plants are the ones which dominate the interment plains.” If (as Shreve seems to infer) the plants which especially characterize a region as desert are those occupying the xeric canyon floors, then the Inde¬ pendence Creek region must be classified as desert, since the mesquite— creosote bush association which occupies the canyon is only a modification of the widespread creosote bush formation. This conclusion is supported by an analysis of the cedar savannah asso¬ ciation. It seems significant that some of the shrubs which share the mesa-tops with Juniperus ashei are important constituents of the mesquite- -creosote bush association. These include Condalia lycioides, Koeberlinia spinosa, Microrhamnus ericoides, Opuntia leptocaulis, and Porlieria angusti folia. The success of the cedars in occupying this region tends to overshadow the desert character of most of the other mesa-top plants. Similar cases are common in other parts of the desert, as indicated in the following statement by Shreve (1940:7): ""In many places in Nevada, Utah, and Arizona the juniper enters the desert for short distances and its presence tends to obscure the true position of the edge of the desert.” NOTES ON THE SUMMER FLORA OF THE INDEPENDENCE CREEK REGION Although the Independence Creek region may be considered to be a part of the Chihuahuan Desert, mesophytic and hydrophytic elements are also present, in part because of the permanent springs at Hicks Ranch. Most of the phytogeographic interest of this region is due to the stragglers from the floras east of the Pecos which have established foot holds here. Until further collecting has been done there is no point in giving a check list of species for this area, but it seems worthwhile to mention a few plants whose distribution is of especial interest. The numbers in parentheses refer to the author’s collections, which are deposited at the herbarium of the University of Texas. Dryopteris norm alts C. Chr. (481), a sporadically occurring but widely distributed fern, was discovered in the swamp near Hicks Ranch. Correll (1949: 261) does not list it for Trans-Pecos Texas, and it is apparently near its western limit here. Also found in the swamp was Convolvulus septum L. var. fraterniflorus Mack. & Bush (487). This seems to be the first collec¬ tion of this variety in Texas, and perhaps the first of the species. Tryon (1939) does not list the species for Texas, and I have seen no specimens although Cory and Parks (1938: 84) list the typical variety and var. pubescens as occurring in east Texas. In the lake below the springs at Hicks Ranch was collected Ludwigia natans Ell. var. rotundata (Griseb.) Fern. & Griscom (497), which is not reported from the Trans-Pecos by Munz (1944: 217). The colony of Quercus virgintana L. var. fusiformis (Small) Sarg. (491) along Independence Creek represents the known western limit of this species. This is also true of Quercus laceyi Small (439), collected in Little Horse-head Canyon on the Blackstone Ranch. Xanthoxylum clava- her cults L. (412), also reaching its western limit in this area, grows in thickets along the bank of the Pecos River and, as scattered individuals, in the cedar-oak groves of the plateau proper. An interesting range extension is provided by the discovery of Com- melinantia anomala (Torr.) Tharp (3 36) in Little Horse-head Canyon on 242 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 the Blackstone Ranch. This typical Edwards Plateau species has heretofore been known from no farther west than the vicinity of Kerrville, 150 miles to the east. Future collections which the author hopes to make in this area will no doubt establish extensions of range for other Edwards Plateau species. literature cited Bray, William L. — 1905 — The vegetation of the sotol country of Texas. Univ. Tex. Bull. 60: 1-24, 10 plates. Corr.ell, Donovan S. — 1949 — A preliminary survey of the distribution of Texas Pteridophyta. Wrightia 1 (5) : 247-278. Cory, Victor L., and H. B. Parks — 1938 — Catalogue of the flora of Tex. Agri. Exp. Stat. Bull. 550: 1-30, 1 fig. Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America, viii, 1-78, 1 map. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Havard, Valery — 1885 — Report on the flora of western and southern Texas. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 8: 449-533. Hill, Robert T. — 1900 — Physical geography of the Texas region. 1-12, 66 fig., 1 fold. map. Topographic atlas of the United States, Folio 3. U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington. Kincer, Joseph B. — 1932 — Precipitation and humidity. 1-48, 108 fig., 4 tables. In Atlas of American Agriculture. U. S. Dept. Agri., Washington. Munz, Philip A. — 1944 — Onagraceae, in Flora of Texas 3 (4) : 208-262. Shantz, Homer L., and Raphael Zon — 1924 — Natural vegetation. 1-29, 60 fig. Atlas of Amer- ican Agriculture. U. S. Dept. Agri., Washington. Shreve, Forrest — -1940— The edge of the desert. Yearbook Assoc. Pacific Coast Geographers 6: 6-11. - 1942 — The desert vegetation of North America. Bot. Rev. 8 ; 195-246, 1 map. Tharp, Benjamin C. — 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. Tex. Acad. Sci. 27; 81-91. Tyron, R. M., Jr. — 1939 — The varieties of Convolulus spithamaeus and of C. seplum. Rhodora 41: 415-423, pi. 557-558. U. S. Weather Bureau — -1932 — Climatic summary of the United States. Section 31 — South¬ western Texas ; 1-27, 1 map. Warnock, Barton H. — Unpublished — The vegetation of the Glass Mountains, Texas. Doctor’s Thesis, University of Texas. York, Christopher L-— 1949 — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribution in the Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. Journ. Sci. 1 (3) : 46-62, 2 fig., 1 table. RANDOM NOTES ON TEXAS FISHES PART II J. L. Baughman Chief Marine Biologist Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Order PERCOMORPHI Suborder PERCESOCES Family atherinidae Genus Menidia Bonaparte Menidla beryllina peninsulae (Goode and Bean). Evermann and Ken¬ dall, 1894:109, Galveston and Corpus Christi, as M. peninsulae; Fowler, 1931:47, Corpus Christi, as M. peninsulae; Gunter, 1945:49, Copano and Aransas Bays and the Gulf of Mexico; Fowler, 1945:347, Galveston, as M, beryllina. Specimens in the University of Mich¬ igan are from the Houston area. Genus Membras Bonaparte Membras vagrans (Goode and Bean). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 267, Galveston, as Menidia vagrans; Evermann and Kendall, 1894, after Jordan and Gilbert: Jordan and Evermann, 1896:795, Texas; Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930:248. Texas: Gunter. 1945 :50, Copano and Aransas Bays and the Gulf of Mexico. Specimens in the U. S National Museum (j^l20059) from Aransas Pass, Texas. Genus Labidesthes Cope Labidesthes siccidus (Cope). Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 109, Harris County, as Menidia sicculus; Jordan and Evermann. 1896:805, Texas: Jordan. Evermann 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 243 and Clark, 1930:251, Texas. There are specimens of this fish at Texas A. & M., Rice Insti¬ tute, and the University of Michigan. This is one of the more common fresh 'water fishes of the state. Family mugilidae Genus Mugil Linnaeus There is a voluminous literature on this genus. The two species found in Texas are: Mugil cephalus and M. curema. Mugil cephalus is almost too common to deserve any notice. However, I am not aware that it ordinarily grows to the size which is recorded in a newspaper article in the “Houston Post” for March 17, 1940. The fish was about 31 inches in length and weighed 13 pounds. It was caught by commercial fishermen about 50 miles south of Browns¬ ville, Texas. The weight is correct, because I examined the fish myself, after reading the newspaper account. Family sphyraenidae Genus Sphyraena Rose ?Sphyraena picudilla Poey. Despite the assertion of Colby (1943) that “the two barracudas which are found in the Gulf of Mexico are S, guachancho and S, bar¬ racuda,” a specimen (U. S. N, M. 120083), taken at Galveston in 1941, was provisionally identified by Mr. Reid as belonging to this species. This is the first Texas record of picudilla. Sphyraena guachancho Cuvier and Valenciennes. Reported by Gunter, 1945. The Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission obtained two more specimens of this fish in the summer of 1948. Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum). Baughman, 1947b: 280, Port Isabel. Occasionally taken on the snapper banks of Texas. Suborder RHEGNOPTERI Family acanthocybiidae Genus Acanthocyhium Gill Acanthocyhium solandri Gill. Baughman, 1941a: 15, Freeport and Port Isabel; Reed, 1941:76, Texas. I have since seen a specimen from Port Aransas, taken July 12, 1949. Genus Scomberomorus Lacepede Scombermorus cavalla (Cuvier). Baughman 1941a: 16; Reed 1941: 76, Texas. The following is a quotation from my earlier paper on the subject :- Tropical Atlantic in the open sea, coming in immense numbers to the Florida keys and ranging south to Africa and Brazil (Jordan and Evermann, 1896). Reported from as far north as Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts. Evidently common throughout the West Indies, off both coasts of Florida, and the shores of Mississippi and Alabama, but does not Seem to frequent the Louisiana littoral to any extent, probably because of the great turbidity of the water on most of that coast. Common off the Texas coast during the summer, frequenting reefs at Port Arthur (Sabine Bank), Galveston (Heald Bank) and various reefs at Freeport. Not reported except casually from Baker, Hospital or Aransas reefs at Port Aransas, but is probably found there and on similar reefs at Port Isabel, and along the northeastern coast of Tamaulipas. Reported by the Servicio de Pesca as being present off the Vera CVuz and Tabasco provinces and as far south as Campeche, Yucatan and the Territory of Quintana Roo. Mr. Martinez, of Merida, Yucatan, informs me that this fish is present in those waters throughout the entire year, considerable difficulty being occasioned the Mexican coastal patrols by fast sailing Cuban Hshermen, who fish for them without permits, as they are much in demand in the Cuban markets. Mr. E. J. Hofius, of Belize, British Honduras, says he believes that their fish are the same, but is not certain. The earliest appearance on the Texas coast during 1938-1940 was at Freeport, on April 8, 1938. The same day in 1939 one was caught. May 2, 1940, one was reported from fcmr miles offshore at Port Aransas. The heavy run started at Port Isabel on May 14, 1940, and on June 3 a school estimated to cover a square mile was reported from the same area. Fish caught on June 2 were full of spawn, not quite ripe, but so far it has not been possible to obtain specimens throughout the season. No immature fish have been taken, the average being from 24 inches to 30 inches in length, and 5 or 6 pounds in weight, although towards the latter part of the year larger fish are apt to be caught. Mr. John T. Connell, who operates a fleet of charter boats out of Gulfport, Mississippi, and who for many years has kept records of our Gulf fishes, believes there are two runs, one up the west coast of Florida, which follows the coast towards Texas ; the other orig¬ inating in the region of the Yucatan peninsula and following the west coast of the Gulf, but having no connection with the Florida run. This is conjecture, but probably not far out. Mr. Connell believes that the kingfish spawn off Yucatan, and it is possible that some of them do, but there are great numbers of them on this coast in breeding condition. The great proportion of the Texas catch consists of females very nearly in spawning condition early in June, and while they appear to be migratory along most of our coast, the schools keeping to the open sea, at Galveston, Freeport, and Port Arthur they congre¬ gate in such huge numbers about the reefs that thousands may be caught in a single day by the charter boat fleet. In contradiction to Schroeder (1924) whoh states that large king- fish are taken from muddy water close to shore, the Texas fish are a clean water fish : so much so that it is practically useless to look for them where the water is even slightly turbid. 244 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 There is some variation in measurement between the fish of this coast and the type, Texas fish being characterized by greater girth of body. Further study may prove that this is due to distension of the body by the ova. The meat is rather dark and somewhat drier than Spanish mackerel, which it resem¬ bles, It is fairly palatable, however, especially when baked with some sort of sauce. Present on the Texas coast during the entire summer. Scomberomorus regalis (Bioch). Burr, 1932:22. Texas; Baughman, 1941a :17, Texas; Reed, 1941:76, Texas. A large specimen of this fish was obtained at Port Aransas (where it is not too common) in the summer of 1948. “These fish,” says Bloch, “are called by the Dutch in the Indies, Conings-visch and Magelange conings-visch ; by the French Tazard and Tassard ; by the English the Kingfish ; by the Germans Konigs-fisch ; the Tamules of Tranquebar call them Wollramin; and in Ceylon they are called Aracola.” Evidently the name king-fish was a favorite, as it survives even to this day. King mackerel, sierra and Pintada are also in use, the latter probably from the spotting on the sides. Tropical seas, reported from Massachusetts to Brazil, and said to be very abundant about Cuba. Hubbs (1936) reports this species from the mouth of the Rio Champoton in Campeche, where he took four, varying in length from 36 to 50 mm. Barbour and Cole record it from Progreso, in Yucatan. The Mexican Service de Pesca report it from off the coast of Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and the territory of Quintana Roo. Hubbs’ specimens from the Rio Champoton were immature, measuring from 36 mm. to 50 mm., but presenting marked enough characteristics to allow identification. Prior to reaching this size, however, Hildebrand and Cable (1937) state that it is not possible to differentiate between the immature forms of this and those of the two other closely related species, S. maculatus and, S. cavalla. Consequently Hubbs identification is most interesting, forming as it does the only positive description of fry of this species. His statement that they came from the mouth of the river is also of interest, indicating their presence in brackish or semi-brackfih water, a habitat which would be most unusual for the adult, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill). The numerous listings of this fish in the literature of Texas fishes attest its presence here throughout most of the year. Young, less than 2 inches long appear in the surf during most of the summer. Baughman (1947b) notes ten small specimens from Port Aransas, and since then numerous others have been obtained at various seasons . A specimen from this area, examined by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, presented some dif¬ ferences from type, inasmuch as the tooth count is 30 for one side of the upper jaw against a normal count of 11 to 25. Meek and Hildebrand state (1923) that the tooth count of this species is extremely variable, but their highest count of fifty for the upper jaw is still less than that of the specimen in question. Family katsuwonidae Genus Katsuwonus Kishinouye Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus). During the summer of 1948, Mr. “Rip” Russell, of Port Isabel, brought into that port a bonito unlike any previously seen in those waters. Mr. Stuart Adkins, an experienced fisherman, writes me that this fish checked perfectly with La Monte’s (1945) description of this species. Genus Euthynnus Lutken Euthynnus alleteratus (Rafinesque) . Reed, 1941:75, Texas coast; Baughman, 1941a :18, after Reed. Reed’s specimen is in the Chicago Museum of Natural History. 1 I ' ! Family thunnidae Genus Sarda Cuvier Sarda sarda (Bloch). Chandler, 1941: 183, near Freeport; Baughman, 1941a :18, Texas coast; Reed, 1941:76, Texas waters. A 478 mm. specimen from Port Isabel and a 520 mm. specimen from Freeport are in the Stanford collection. Genus Thunnus South Thunnus thynnus Linnaeus. During the summer of 1948, Mr, Frank Knapp, of the staff of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Com¬ mission, observed a school of large, fusiforme fishes, between 8 and 10 feet in length, about 200 miles east of Tampico. On the basis of size and shape alone, there is a presumption that these may have been this species. Genus Neothunmis Kishinouye Neothunnus argentivittatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Baughman, 1941 :18, numerous sight records from Port Isabel. Genus Earathunnus Kishinouye Varathunnus atlanticus (Lesson). Baughman, 1941a: 18, Port Isabel; 1946b, Port Isabel. Family trichiuridae Genus T'richmrus Linnaeus Trichhirus lepturus (Linnaeus). One of the common fishes of the Texas coast. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 245 Series XIPHIlFORMES Family istiophoridae Genus Istiophoms Lacepede Istiophorus americanus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Baughman, 1941a, 1941c, 1941d, Texas coast; Reed, 1941, Texas coast; La Monte and Marcy, 1941, Texas coast ; Beebe, 1941, Port Aransas ; Baughman, 1946a, 1946b, Texas coast and Port Isabel. Genus Makaira Lacepede Makaira ampla ampla (Poey). Baughman, 1941a, Port Isabel; Reed, 1941, Texas coast; La Monte and Marcy, 1941, Texas; Baughman, 1946b, Port Isabel. Two more sight records from Port Isabel (7-14-49), one from 40 miles offshore in 37 fathoms and another from roughly the same area in 40 fathoms has been received. Makaira albida (Poey). Baughman, 1941a, sight record. Port Aransas. Doubtful. A second sight record has been furnished by Mrs. D. H. Braman, of Victoria, Texas, who raised one of these fish about 35 miles offshore from Port Aransas, in July, 1949. She saw it clearly and was thoroughly satisfied that it was a white marlin, with which she is quite familiar. Family xiphiidae Genus Xiphias Linnaeus Xiphias gladius Linnaeus. During the latter part of June, 1949, a speci¬ men of this fish washed ashore on the beach of Padre Island, Texas. The head and sword were cut off and brought into Port Aransas where a number of people saw them. David Kramer (1950), of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service records the specimen as having been taken on Padre Island, 45 to 50 miles south of Port Aransas, by Mr. Urschel. His paper gives considerable data on the sword. This constitutes the first record of the species from Texas. Series CORYPHAENIFORMES Family coryphaenidae Genus Coryphaena Linnaeus Coryphaena hippurus Linnaeus. Baughman, 1941a: 21, Freeport and Galveston ; Baughman, 1941b :117, Freeport and Galveston ; Reed, 1941, Texas. Two speci¬ mens of this fish, measuring 350 and 380 mm., are in the Stanford Museum. They were caught at Freeport. Fairly common along the Texas coast. Series STROMATEIFORMES Family stromateidae Genus Peprihts Cuvier Peprilus paru (Linnaeus). Common. Peprilus hurti Fowler. Fowler, 1945: 375, Galveston. Genus Poronotus Gill Poronofus triacanthus (Peck). Common. Chicago Museum of Natural History specimen (F.M.N.H. 11232) identified by Weed. Family nomeidae Genus Nomeus Cuvier Nometis gronovii (Gmelin). Baughman, 1941a, suggested the presence of this fish in Texas. A number of specimens collected in 1947 and 1948, offshore from Port Aransas and Galveston, confirmed this, constituting a new record for the state. Family carangidae Genus T rachurtts Rafinesque Trachurus lathami (Nicholas), Baughman, 1941a: 22, Galveston and Port Aransas ; Gunter, 1945, Port Aransas. Genus Hemicaranx Bleeker Hemicaranx amblyrhynchus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Gunter, 1945: 57, as H. rhomboides, Aransas Bay ; Fowler, 1945, as Alepes amblyrhynchus. Corpus Christi ; Baughman, 1947b ;280, Port Aransas. In addition to the above, one specimen of this car- angoid (U.S.N.M. 120055) was obtained at Galveston in 1941, and during the summers of 1947, 1948, and 1949, small specimens were frequently seen in Rockport harbor, generally beneath Aurelia jellyfish. There are several specimens in the collection of the Game, Fish and Oystem Commission at Rockport. This species makes an interesting small fish for the aquarium, the fins very often being a velvety black, much like the color of the aquarium variety of Mollienisia. 'T'Viodon hystrix Linnaeus. Reed, 1941: 62, from about Corpus Christi. I have seen one specimen of this fish that was caught from the Galveston .I'etty. Several specimens in the Houston Museum of Natural History may have also originated in this locality, but the Museum records contain no data whatever as to where they were obtained. We have also taken a specimen from the stomach of a tiger shark (Galeocerdo) caught off Port Aransas. Genus Chilomycterus Bibron Chilomycterus schoepfi (Walbaum). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a: 241- 307, Galveston; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:119, pi, 49, Galveston, based on Jordan and 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 257 Gilbert; Fowler, 1931:50, Port Aransas; Reed, 1941:62, from about Corpus Christi ; Gunter, 1945:84, Aransas Pass. Specimens from Texas in the National Museum are from Galveston (U.S.N.M. 120045) and Freeport. In the Chicago Museum are others collected by Mr. Weed at Port Isabel (F.M.N.H. 10969-72). The British Museum specimen from Texas was collected by Brandt, as Diodon rivulatus. Five specimens (36-138 mm.) from Galveston are at Stanford. Fairly common in shrimp trawls, and the very young are quite common in Rockport Harbor during June and July. Family molidae Genus Mola Koelreuter ?Mola mola (Linnaeus). During the week of February 4, 1950, Captain Buddy Worden, of the boat Barbara D., Rockport. was shrimping off the mouth of Cedar Bayou, at the north end of St. Joseph’s Island. Seeing a strange fish on the surface, he circled it for some time. His description sounded like Mola. Upon being shown a picture of the species, he identified it as the same fish. This is the first known occurrence in Texas. Order PEDICULATI Family antennaridae Genus Histrio Fischer Histrio histrio (Linnaeus). Evermann and Kendall, 1894: 119, Gal¬ veston, as Pterophyne histrio. Two specimens (U.S.N.M. 93612) collected by Reed at Corpus Christi are in the National Museum. Specimens so labelled in the Rice Institute collection (by the author) are probably the following species. Histrio gibbus (Mitchill). Several specimens in the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission at Rockport are of this species. So far as I know, this constitutes a new record for Texas. The species was very common in the sargassum weed during the early summer of 1949. Genus Antetinarius Lacepede Antennarius scaber (Cuvier). A specimen from the Gulf off Port Aransas, now in the collection of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, constitutes a new record for the state. Antennarius pleuropt halm its Gill. Numerous specimens in the collection of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission belong to this species. This is a new record for the state. Family OGCOCEPHALIDAE Genus Ogcocephalus Fischer Ogcocephalus vespertilio (Linnaeus). Jordan and Gilbert, 1883a, Gal¬ veston, as Malthe vespertilio; Evermann and Kendall, 1894:119, Galveston, after Jordan and Gilbert; Gunter, 1941a :196, Galveston; Woods, 1942:192. within fifty miles of Corpus Christi; Gunter, 1945:85, Port Aransas. Two specimens (U.S.N.M. 120070-1) from Galveston are in the National Museum. Ogcocephalus nasutus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Gunter, 1945:8 5, Port Aransas. There are 39 specimens of this species measuring from 45-210 mm. at Stan¬ ford. All of these came from Galveston. Ogcocephalus radiatus (Mitchill). Gunter, 1941: 196, Galveston. Fhave frequently seen numbers of this fish in the shrimp trawls at Galveston and Freeport, and two specimens in the National Museum were collected bv me in that locality. Two speci¬ mens collected by Reed, at Corpus Christi, are in the Chicago Museum of Natural History. Two specimens (216-235 mm.) from Freeport are in the Stanford collections. Genus H alien tichthys Poey Halieutichthys aculeatus fMitchill). Woods, 1942: 192, "A single specimen, F.M.N.H. 38704, collected within fifty miles of Corpus Christi.” NOTE During the 1942 storm referred to in the paragraph on Mollienisia hybrids, the following exotic species also escaped into Bray's Bayou. Houston. Macropodus opercularis (Linnaeus) Barbus nigrofasciatus Gunther Gymnocorymbus ternetzi Boulenger ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA In Part I of this paper (Tex. J, Sci. 2(1): 117-138) the following corrections should be made: Page 122, line 28, should read Pristis microdon Latham. Baughman, 1943c reported this fish (as Pristis perotteti). Page 123, delete lines 23, 24, 2 5. Page 130: Dr. Reeve M. Bailey points out (personal 258 The Texas Journal of Science 1950. No. 2 June 30 communication) that Notropis xaenocephalus octoradius, Notropis potteri^ and Notropis amnis are nomina mida. This comment is especially welcome in view of the extremely confus¬ ing mixture of publications, mimeographed sheets, etcetera, that have been issued on Texas fishes from time to time. Potter, in his zoological text book, has an illustration showing Notropis potteri Hubbs and the name has shown up in at least a half dozen or more mimeographed sheets and manuscripts on the fresh water fishes of Texas over a period of almost 1 5 years. It is to be hoped that this situation will be cleared up in the near future. Similar com¬ ments would apply to the other two species mentioned. It is regrettable that this confusion was not straightened out long ago. Since Parts I and II went to press, the author has accumulated several other records that should be added to the above list, during a cruise of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife vessel Oregon, between May 21 and May 25. This cruise extended from Galveston to Rockport, between the fifty and hundred fathom curves. Fish worthy of mention were Halieutichthys aculeatus (fair¬ ly common) ; Ancylopsetta dilecta; Pareques acuminatus (Bloch and Schnei¬ der), which is a new record for Texas; Dannichthys rondeletti, common on surface at night, under a light; numerous Kathetostoma albigutta, from 50 fathoms; numerous Trachurus lathami; a specimen of Lophius piscatorius, which also constitutes a new record for the state; and three specimens of Canthidermis maculaHis, a new record for Texas. One other addition should be made. Toole, Marion— -195 0— Fishes of Texas. The Lamprey. Texas Game and Fish 8(4): 15, 26 states that Ichthyomyzon castanens Girard probably occurs in Texas. LITERATUTE CITED Anderson, William W., and Milton J. Lindner — 1941 — Notes on the flatfish, Engyophrys sentus Ginsburg. Copeia 1941 (1) : 23-27. Anonymous — -1942 — (Fresh water skipjack caught below Lake Austin Dam). Texas Game and Fish 1 (1) : 10. — - 1947 — (Tylosurus marinus caught in Colorado River, near Austin). Texas Game and Fish 5 (9) : 8. Babcock, Louis L. — ^1920^ — The tarpon. Privately printed. Pg. 1-62. Bailey, Reeve M. — 1947 — Records of the lamprey Ichthyomyzon gaigei in Oklahoma and Texas. Copeia 1947 (2) : 146. Baird, Spencer, and Charles Girard — 1854 — Descriptions of new species of fishes collected by John H. Clark on the U. S. and Mexican boundary survey, and in Texas by Captain Stewart Vliet, U.S.A. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 7: 24-29 Baughman, J. L. — n. d. — Four hundred and fifty species of fish in Texas waters. San An¬ tonio Evening News. - — - 1940a — Gambusia affinis. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle, Oct. 27, 1940. ■ — — — - - — — ■ — ^1940b — Remora. Idem. Nov. S, 1940. ■ - 1940c — Sharks. Idem. Nov. 10, 1940. - 1940d — Sharks. Idem. Nov. 17, 1940. - 1940e — Mullet. Idem. Nov. 24, 1940. - 1940f — Barracuda. Idem. Dec. 29, 1940. - 1941a — Scombriforms, new, rare, or little known in Texas waters, with notes on their natural history and distribution. Trans. Tex. Acad- Sci. 24 : 14-26. - 1941b — On a heavy run of dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus off the Texas Coast. Copeia 1941; (2): 117. - 1941c — Biography of a sailfish. Houston (Texas) Chronicle, Jan. 5, 1941. - 194ld— Sailfish. Ibid. - - •1941e — On the occurrence in the Gulf Coast waters of the United States of the triple tail, Lobotes surinamensis, with notes on its natural history. Amer. Nat. 75. 569-579. - 1941f — ^Notes on the sailfish, Istiophorus americanus (Lacepede), in the western Gulf of Mexico. Copeia 1941(1) : 33-37. - 1941g — Gar in Buffalo Bayou. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. Jan. 12, 1941. - 1941h — Artificial hatching of fish. Idem. Jan. 26, 1941. - 1941i ■ — Conservation of Texas trout and redfish. Idem. Feb. 9, 1941. - 1941j • — Dolphins. Idem. Feb. 16, 1941. - 1941k — Annual seafood consumption in Houston. Idem. March 16, 1941. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 259 -1941 1 — Production of Texas fish hatcheries. Idem. March 30, 1941. —1941m — Tuna cannery in Houston. Idem. Apr. 6, 1941. — 1941n — Spanish mackerel in Texas. Idem. Apr. 13, 1941. -1941o — Shark liver oil. Idem. May 4. 1941. -1941p — Marine laboratory at Aransas Pass. Idem. May 25, 1941. -1941q — ^Texas tarpon. Idem. June 8. 1941. -1941r — Mystery of the sea. Idem. June 21, 1941. -1941s — Buffalo Bayou. Idem. July 27, 1941. -1941t — Exnerimental work on fish may solve cancer riddle. Idem. Sept. 7. 1941. ~1941u — What is happening to our salt water fishing? Southern Sportsman 1941 (6) : 3, 18-19. — 1942- — A shark new to the fauna of the United States. Copeia 1942 (3) ; 188. - 1943 — Additional notes on the occurrence and natural history of the triple tail, Lobotes surinamensis. Amer. Mid. Nat. 29: (2): 365-370. - 1943a — Some serranid fishes of Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 30: 769-773. — 1943b — The lutianid fishes of Texas. Copeia 1943 (4) : 212-215. - 1943c — Notes on sawfish, Pristis perotteti Muller and Henle, not previ¬ ously reported from the waters of the United States. Copeia 1943 (1) : 43-48. -1943d — Texas neglects abundant food supply in less popular fishes. Hous¬ ton (Tex.) Chronicle. May 2. 1943. -1943e — Raia stellaris a new name to replace Raia texana Leriche. Copeia 1943 (2) : 133. -1943f — Note on the Texas occurrence of a shark not previously known from th^ waters of the United States. Copeia 1943 (3) : 189. - 1944 — ^Notes on Serranidae and Lobotidae of Texas. Copeia 1944 (2) : 89-90. — 1945 — The black margate, Anisotremus surinamensis (Bloch) in Texas waters. Copeia 1945 (1) : 54. -1945a — Fish teeth. J. Houston Dental Soc. 17 (12) ; 14-15. - 1946 — An interesting association of fishes. Copeia 1946 (4) : 263. - 1946a — Texas sailfish. Texas Game and Fish 4 (9) : 6. — 1946b — Port Isabel. Texas Game and Fish 4 (11) : 10-16. -1946c — ^A research program for Texas fisheries. Sports News. Houston, Texas. May 31, 1946 : 3-4. -1946d — Dolphins. Texas Game and Fish 4 (6) : 11. -1946e — Thar she blows. Idem 4 (7) : 9. -1946f^ — Atomic fury. Idem 4 (8) : 4. -1946g^ — ^Pity the poor male. Idem 4 (10) : 29. -1946h — Do you know them? Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. Sept. 29, 1946. -1946i — So you want to go sailfishing? Texas Game and Fish 4 (12): 20-21, 31. -1946 j — Harvest from the sea. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. Dec. 22, 1946. - 1947a — Comparative measurements on a rare flatfish, Cyclopsetta chitten- deni Bean, from the Texas coast. Copeia 1947 (2) : 149. - 1947b — Fishes not previously reported from Texas, "with miscellaneous notes on the species. Copeia 1947 (4) : 280. - 1947c — The tench in America. J. Wildlife Management 11 (3) : 197-204. -1947d — Fisheries in Texas. Southern Fisherman 7 (3) : 180-181, 254. -1947e — Large fish loss from Texas freeze. Idem 7 (5) : 114-117. -1947f — New marine laboratory at Pockport, Texas. Idem 7 (7) : 28, 108-109, 113-115. -1947g^ — Old times in Houston. Texas Game and Fish 5 (2) : 4, 20-21. -1947h — A census of Texas waters. Idem 5 (2) : 16-17, 19-20. See J. L. Baughman, n. d. -1947i —Sharks. Idem 5 (5) : 8-, 14-15, 18-20. -1947j — Oil exploration in Texas waters. Southern Fisherman 7(4) : 107-109. -1947k — Tarpon. Texas Game and Fish 5 (4) : 6. -19471' — King of the tackle busters. Idem 5 (4) : 4, 27-28. -1947m — The spotted warrior. Idem 5 (4) : 6, 25. -1947n — Rockport fish bowl. Idem 5 (4) : 9-13. -1947o — Loss of fish due to freeze. Idem 5 (4) : 12, 13, -1947p — Fisheries in Texas. Idem 5 (6) : 5, 22. -1947q — Take your choice. Idem 5 (6) : 30-31. -1947r— Gars. Idem 5 (7) : 6-7, 18, 20-21. -1947s — A hunter’s dream. Idem 5 (8) : 4, 25. -1947t — The possibility of fish meal production in Texas. Idem 5 (8) : 13, 23. -1947u — Seismographic shots harm fish little, tests indicate. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. July 11, 1947 : 6. -1947v — A neglected gold mine. Texas Game and Fish 5 (10) : 8. -1947w — Is gar roe poisonous? Idem 5 (10) ; 24. -1947x — The Florida red tide. Idem 5 (12) : 6, 20. -1947y — Tigers of the sea. Idem 5 (12) : 12-13. -1947z — Coastal division. Ann. Kept. Tex. Game, Fish & Oyster Commission. 1946-47 : 11-13, 15-17. — 1948 — Scarcity of fish. Calhoun County News. March 25, 1948, -1948a — Redfish living habits. Idem. April 1, 1948. -1948b — Gulf of Mexico survey. Idem. April 8, 1948. -1948c — The Spadefish family. Texas Game and Fish 6 (3) : 21. 260 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 - 1948d — Texas production for 1947. Southern Fisherman 8 ; 339-340, - 1948e— Fisheries exploration urgently needed. Idem. May, 1948. - 1948f — More profit for gulf fishermen. Idem 8 (10) : 121-122. - 1948g — An added source of income. Rockport Pilot. July 29, 1948. - 1948h — Possible menhaden industry for Texas. Southern Fisherman 8 (9) : 55-57. - 1948i — Fisheries exploration in the western Gulf of Mexico. Seafood Business 1 (1) : 10, 44-45. - 1948j ■ — Mullet fishery. Idem 1 (2) : 10, 13. - 1948k — Marine laboratory. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. Oct. 10, 1948. - 19481 — Marine laboratory fouling program. Seafood Business 1 (7) : 10. - 1948m — Texas tuna fishery. Idem. 1 (11) ; 13. - 1948n — Utilizing Texas mullet resources. Atlantic Fisherman 29 (12) ; 17. - - - 1948o — Salt water cats. Seafood Business 1 (2) : 10, 13. - 1948p — Educational work of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Lab¬ oratory. Southern Fisherman 9 (1) : 127-129. - 1948q — Texas fisheries report 1947-1948. Idem, 8 (12) : 135-137. - 1948r — Annual report Marine Laboratory Game, Fish and Oyster Com¬ mission 1946-1947, - 1949 — Find shark resources off Texas Coast. Atlantic Fisherman 30 (8) : 19, ■ - 1949a — Shark. Seafood Business 2 (1) : 51-63. - 1949b — Menhaden by the millions. Houston (Tex.) Chronicle. Sept. 11, 1949. • - 1949c — Shark hunt. Idem. Oct. 9, 1949. - 1949d — Fisheries biology. Seafood Business 2 (1) : 15-16, 85, 90. - 1949e — Shrimp predominant in Texas fisheries but many unexploited species await utilization. Atlantic Fisherman 30 (4) : 15, 28. - 1949f — Silting is bays greatest menace. Seafood Business 2 (6) : 8-9. - 1949g — General review of menhaden fishery. Ann. Kept. Mar. Lab. Game, Fish and Oyster Commission 1947-1948; 16-23, (Mimeo). - 1949h — A short bibliography of papers on menhaden. Idem, 61-69. (Mimeo). - 1949i — ^A short bibliography of geological papers concerning Texas Coast. Idem, 105-109. (Mimeo). - 1949 j — The shrimp, fin-fish and shellfish fisheries. Idem. 145-186. (Mimeo). - 1949k — Night trawlers need special aids. Seafood Business 2 (3) ; 12. - 19491- — Studied facts about the menhaden. Idem. 2 (3) : 10-13. - 1949m — Texas shrimp harvest, Texas Game and Fish 7 (2) : 7, 19. - 1949n — Cooperation needed to improve fishing. Idem. 7 (3) : 6. - 19490 — Operation shark. Idem, 7 (H) : 8-10. - 1949p — ^The future of Texas fisheries. Proc. Gulf. Caribbean Fisheries In¬ stitute 15-19. - 1950 — More research needed on trout and redfish. Texas Game and Fish 8 (3) : 11, 18-19. - 1950a — An economic survey of the Texas fishery. (In press). - 1950b — Potentialities of the Gulf of Mexico fisheries and recommendations for their realization. (In press). - 1950c — The great white shark, or man eater. (In press). Baughman, J. L., and Stewart Springer — 1950 — Biological and economical notes on the sharks of the Gulf of Mexico, with especial reference to those of Texas and a key for their identification. Amer. Mid, Nat. In press. Bean, T. H. — 1881 — Movements of young alewives (Pomolobus sp.) in Colorado River. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 1: 69-70. — - ^ - 1883 — Catalog of the collection of fishes exhibited by the U. S. National Mu¬ seum at the International fisheries exhibit, London. Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum 27 : 387-510. Beebe, William — 1941 — A study of young sailfish (Istiophorus). Zoologica 26 (3) : 209-228. Bigelow, H. B., and W. C. Schroeder — 1944 — New sharks from the western North Atlantic. Proc. New England Zool. Club 23; 21-36. Bigelow, Henry B., Schoeder, William C., and Isabel Perez Farfante — ^1948 — Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. Part 1. Lancelets, C'ydostomes, Sharks. Mem. Sears Foundation for Marine Research 1 : xviii, 1-576, 106 figs., maps. Bonham, Kelshaw, and Cecil Reed — Ms — An illustrated guide to the fishes appearing in the fresh waters of Texas. Breder, C. M. — 1929 — Field book of the marine fishes of the Atlantic coast. Putman’s Sons, N, Y. xxxviii, 1-332, 16 pis., num. text figs. - 1938- — A contribution to the life histories of Atlantic Ocean flying fishes. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Instit. 6 (5) ; 1-126. Burr, J. G. — 1932 — Fishes of Texas. Bull. Tex. Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 5; 1-41. Num. text figs. Chandler, A. C. — 1921 — A new species of ray from the Texas coast, and the report of the occurrence of a top minnow new to the fauna of eastern Texas. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 59; 657-658. - 1935 — Parasites of fishes in Galveston Bay. Ibid. 83: 123-157, 12 pis. - 1941 — Two new trematodes from the bonito, Sarda sarda, in the Gulf of Mexico. Parasitology 27 : 183-184. Colby, Malcolm, Jr. — 1943 — Poisonous marine animals in the Gulf of Mexico. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26; 62-70. Cope, E. D. — 1880 — On the zoological position of Texas. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17 : 1-51. Cope, E. D., and H. C. Yarrow — 1875 — Report upon the collections of fishes made in portions of Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, during the years 1871, 1873 and 1874. U. S. Geol. Surveys west 100th Meridian 5 Washington. Cross, J. C. and Hal B. Parks — ^1937 — Marine fauna and seaside flora of the Nueces River 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 261 basin and adjacent islands. Bull. Tex. Coll. Arts and Ind. 8 (3) : 1-36, 2 maps. Eisrenmann, Carl H. — 1919 — Trogloglanis pattersoni a new blind fish from San Antonio, Texas. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 58; 397-400, figs. 1-2. Elliott, William — 1859 — Carolina sports by land and water ; including devil-fishing, wild-cat, deer and bear hunting, etc. 3rd ed. New York. (English ed. London, 1867). i-vi, 1-292. Everman, Barton Warren — 1893 — A report upon investigations made in Texas in 1891. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 11 ; 61-90, pis, 28-36. Evermann, Barton Warren, and E. L. Goldsborough — 1902 — A report on the fishes collected in Mexico and Central America, with notes and descriptions of five new species. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 21: 137-159. Evermann, Barton Warren, and William Converse Kendall — 1894 — The fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande basin. Bull. U. S. Fish Com. 12: 57-126, 40 pis. - 1895^ — Description of a new species of pipe fish (Siphostoma scovelli) from Corpus Christi, Texas. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 18: 113-115. Fowler, Henry W. — 1931 — A collection of fishes from the Texas coast. Copeia 1931 (2) : 46-50. - -1945 — A study of the fishes of the southern Piedmonte and coastal plain. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila, Monographs 7 : i-viii, 1-408, 313 figs. Garman, Samuel — 1895 — The cyprinodonts, Mem. Mus. Comp, Zool. 19 : 1-179, 12 pis. Ginsburg, Isaac — 1931 — Juvenile and sex characters of Evorthordus lyricus (Fam. Gobiidae). Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 47: 117-124. - 1931b — On the differences in the habitat and the size of Cynoscion arenarius and C. nothus. Copeia 1931 (3) : 144. - 1932 — ^A revision of the genus Gobionellus (Family Gobiidae). Bull, Bing, Oceanogr. Coll. 4 (2) : 1-51. - 1933 — A revision of the genus Gobiosoma (Family Gobiiddae), with an ac¬ count of the genus Garmannia. Bull. Bing. Oceanogr. Coll. 4 (5) : 1-59. - 1933a — Descriptions of new and imperfectly known species and genera of gobioid and pleuronectid fishes in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 82 (20) : 1-23. - 1933b — Descriptions of five new species of sea horses. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci. 23 (12) : 560-563. - 1934 — The distinguishing characters of two common species of Microgobius from the east coast of the United States. Copeia 1934 (1) : 35-39. - 1937 — Review of the sea horses (Hippocampus) found on the coasts of the American continents and Europe. Proc. U. S. Nat, Mus. 83: 497-594, 17 figs. - 1942— Seven new American fishes. Jour. Wash, Acad. Sci. 32 (12) : 364-370, - 1948 — Some Atlantic populations related to Diplectrum radiale (Serranidae), with descriptions of a new subspecies from the Gulf coast of the United States. Copeia 1948 (4) : 266-270. Girard, Charles — 1856 — Researches upon the cyprinoid fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of the United States west of the Mississippi Valley, from specimens in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 8: 165-213. - 1858 — Notes upon various new genera and new species of fishes in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, and collected in connection with the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, Major William Emory, Commissioner. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 10: 167-171, - 1859a — ^United States and Mexican Boundary Survey under the order of Lt. Col. W. H. Emory, Major First Cavalry, and the United States Com¬ missioner, Ichthyology of the boundary. Rept. U. S. and Mex. Bound. Survey 2 : 1-77, 41 pis. Goode, George Brown — 1879a — A revision of the American species of the genus Brevoortia, with a description of a new species from the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. N. M. 1 : 30-42. - 1879b — ^The natural and economical history of the American men¬ haden. Rept. U, S. Comm, Fish. 5: 1-531, 31 pis., 50 figs. - 1884 — The food fishes of the United States. Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States Part 3; 163-682. - 1903 — American fishes, new edition, revised and extended by Theo¬ dore Gill. 1-lxviii, 1-562, 6 col, pis. Dana Estes and Co. Grey, Marion — 1947 — Catalogue of type specimens of fishes in Chicago Natural History Museum. Fieldiana, Zoology 32 (3) : 109-205. Gunter, Gordon — 1935 — ^Records of fishes rarely caught in shrimp trawls in Louisiana. Copeia 1935(1) : 39-40. - 1936^ — ^Two new species of naked soles from the Gulf of Mexico, with notes on a third species. Copeia 1936 (4) : 203-209, 5 figs. - 1941a — ^Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas coast, January, 1940. Ecology 22 : 203-208. - 1941b — Relative numbers of shallow water fishes of the northern Gulf of Mexico, with some records of rare fishes from the Texas coast.* Amer. Mid, Nat. 26: 194-200. - 1942 — Contributions to the natural history of the bottle-nosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (Montague) on the Texas coast, with particular reference to food habits. Jour. Mamm, 23: 267-276. ■ - 1942a — -A new Scorpaena from the Texas coast with notes on Scorpaena mystes Jordan and Stark. Copeia 1942 (2) : 105-111, 1 pi. - 1945^ — ^Studies on the marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Mar. Sci. Texas Univ. 1 (1) : 1-190. — - 1946 — A new species of flatfish, Cyclopsetta decussata (Pleuronectidae), from the Texas coasts. Copeia 1946 (1) : 27-28. 262 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 - 1948 — Notes on fishes of the genus Scorpaena from the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, with descriptions of two new species. Copeia 1948 (3) : 157-166, 2 figs. Gunther, A. C. L. G. — 1861 — Catalogue of the fishes of the British Museum. Vol. 3. 586 PP. London. - 1862 — Ibid, Vol. 4. 534 pp. London. - 1864 — Ibid, Vol. 6. 368 pp. London. - 1870 — Ibid, Vol, 8. 549 pp. London. Herald, Earl Stannard — 1942 — Three new pipefishes from the Atlantic coast of North and South America, with a key to the Atlantic American species. Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 2 (4) : 125-134. Higgins, Elmer, and Russell Lord — 1926 — Preliminary report on the marine fisheries of Texas. App. 4. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1926: 167-182. Hildebrand, S. F, — 1943 — A review of the American anchovies (Family Engraulidae) . Bull. Bing. Oceanog. Inst. 8 (2) : 1-165. - 1943a — Notes on the affinity, anatomy, and development of Elops saurus Linnaeus. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 33 (3) : 90-94, Hildebrand, Samuel F,, and Wm. C. Schroeder — 1928 — Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 43 (1) : 1-366, 211 figs. Hubbs, Carl Leavitt — 1926 — Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprinodontes, VI. Misc. Pub. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 16: 1-86, 4 pis. - 1933 — Species and hybrids of Mollienisia. The Aquarium 1 (10) : 162- 168, fig. 1-3. 5-9. Hubbs, Carl Leavitt, and Reeve M. Bailey — 1947^ — Blind catfish from Artesian waters of Texas. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 499 : 1-16, 1 pi. Hubbs, Carl Leavitt, and Kelshaw Bonham — ^1940 — A revision of the toadfishes referred to Porichthys and related genera. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 86 (3060) : 473-496. Johnson, Samuel M. — 1879 — A Texas fish (Sphyraena picuda). Forest and Stream 13: 925-926. Jordan, David Starr — 1929 — Manual of the vertebrate animals of the northeastern United States. 13th ed. World Book Co. i-xxxi, 1-446. Jordan, David Starr, and Bradley Moore Davis — 1892 — A preliminary review of the .Apodal fishes or eels inhabiting the waters of America and Europe. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 16: 581-677, 8 pis. Jordan, David Starr, and Carl H. Eigenmann — 1886 — A review of the Gobiidae of North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 9: 477-518. Jordan, David Starr, and Barton Warren Evermann — 1896-1900 — The fishes of North and Middle America. Bull, U. S. Nat. Mus. Pts. 1-4; 1-3313, 392 pls. - 1902 — American food and game fishes. 1-XIX, 1-572 PP- Doubleday, Page & Co., N. Y. Jordan, David Starr, B. W. Evermann, and Howard Walton Smith — 1930 — Check list of the fishes and fish-like vertebrates of North and Middle America. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, for 1928. App. 2 : 1-670. Jordan, David Starr, and Bert Fesler — 1893 — A review of the sparoid fishes of America and Europe. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1889-91 (1893). 27; 421-544, 55 pis. Jordan, David Starr, and Morton W. Fordyce — 1886 — List of fishes collected in Arkansas, Indian Territory and Texas, in September, 1 884, with notes and descriptions. Proc. U.S.N.M. 9; 1-25. 9: 1-25. Jordan, David Starr, and Charles H. Gilbert — 1883a — Notes on fishes observed about Pensa¬ cola, Florida, and Galveston, Texas, with descriptions of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 241-307. - 1883b — A synopsis of the fishes of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 16: 1-1018. • - - - 1883c^ — Notes on a collection of fishes from Charleston, South Carolina, with description of three new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5 : 580-620. - 1886 — List of fishes collected in Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Texas, in September, 1884, with notes and descrip¬ tions. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 9 : 1-25. Jordan, David Starr, and David Kopp Gauss^ — -1889 — A review of the flounders and soles ( Pleuronectidae) of America and Europe. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1886 (1889) 14: 225-342, 9 pis. Kaup, Johann Jacob — 1856^ — Catalogue of the Apodal fishes in the collection of the British Museum. London. Kramer, David— 1950 — A record of the swordfish, Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, from the Texas coast. Copeia 1950(1) : 65. LaMonte, Francesca — 1945 — North American game fishes. Doubleday, Doran and Co., N. Y. i-XIV. 1-202 pp. LaMonte, Francesca, and Donald Marcy — 1941 — Swordfish, sailfish, marlin and spearfish. Ichthyol. Contrib. International Game Fish Assoc. 1(2): 1-24, 5 pis. Marden, Luis — 1944 — A land of lakes and volcanoes, Nat. Geog. 86 (2) : 161-192, 16 pis. in color. Meek, Seth E. — 1905 — The fresh water fishes of Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Series. 5: i-iviii. 1-252, 17 pis. Meek, Seth E., and Samuel F. Hildebrand — 1923-8 — The marine fishes of Panama. Ibid. 15, pis. 1-3, 1045 pp., 102 pis. Miller, Robert R. — 1946 — Distributional records for North American fishes, with nomencla- torial notes on the genus Psenes. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 36 (6) : 206-212. Nichols, John T. — 1937 — Notes on carangin fishes. Amer. Mus. Novit. 967 : 1-6. - 1942 — Fundulus pallidus on the Florida Gulf coast. Copeia 1942 (2) : 125-126. Nichols, John T., and Charles F. Breder, Jr. — 1922 — Otophidium welshii, a new cusk eel, with 1950, No. 2 June 30 Random Notes on Texas Fishes 263 notes on two others from the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 35: 13-15. Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de — 1535 — Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y terr-firme del mar oceano. Purchas translation. 4 vols., Seville, 1851-55. Parks, Hal B. — 1939 — Squatina squatina, the angel shark. Tech. Bull. Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College 1 (Tech No. 4). 1 pp., 1 pi. Parr, A. E. — 1945 — Barbourisidae, a new family of deep sea fishes. C'opeia 1945 (3) ; 127- 129, 1 pi. Pearson, John C. — 1929 — Natural history and conservation of the redfish and other com¬ mercial sciaenids on the Texas coast. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 44: 129-214, 44 figs. Reed, Clyde T. — -1941 — ^Marine life in Texas waters. Texas Acad. Sci. Pub. Nat. Hist. 2 : 1-88. Regan, C. Tate — 1906-8 — Pisces. Biologia Centrali Americana, i-xxxii, 1-203, 26 pis. London. Reid, Earl D. — 1941 — The flatfish Cyclopsetta chittendeni Bean from Texas, a new record for the fauna of North America. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 31 (5) : 1. Schultz, Leonard P. — 1944 — A revision of the American clingfishes Family Gobiisocidae, with description of new genera and forms. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 96: (3187) ; 47-77. Schultz, Leonard P. and Earl D. Reid — 1942 — Descriptive notes on the serranid fish, Garrupa nigrita (Holbrook). Copeia 1942 (1) : 29-30. Soulen, Gary H. — 1941 — Key to the fresh water fishes of Texas. Mimeo. Dept. Fish and Game, Texas A & M College. 28 pp. Springer, Stewart — ^1939 — The egg case of the Texas skate. Copeia 1939 (4) : 237. - 1950 — A revision of North American sharks allied to the genus Carcharhinus. Amer. Mus. Novitates 1451 : 1-13. Storey, Margaret — ^1938 — West Indian Clupeid fishes of the genus Harengula. Stanford Ichthyological Bull. 1(1): 3-56, 17 figs. Taylor, N. A. — 1878 — The striped bass in Texas. Forest and Stream 2 : 7. Weed, Alfred C. — 1925 — A review of the genus Signalosa. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser. 12 (2) : 137-146. - 1937 — Notes on sea basses of the genus Centropristes. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser. 20 (23) : 291-320, 2 figs. Whitten, Horace L., and Joel W. Hedgpeth — In Press — Marine biology of the government jetties in the Gulf of Mexico bordering the Texas coast. Woods, Loren P, — 1942 — Rare fishes from the coast of Texas. Copeia 1942 (3) : 191-192. note: Since the above was set, I have received a letter from Stewart Springer dated June 5, 1950. In part he says: ''"The snapper from deep water, the one with the deeply forked tail and large eyes, that resembled Ocyurus in shape, appeared in considerable num¬ bers in most drags, I ran it down as Pristipomoides macrophthalmtis (Muller & Troschel). The only other fishes I’ve had time to run down were some Hypsicometes goboides Goode, from 95 fathoms and the striped croakers, Eques actiminatus (Bloch and Schneider). The Pristipomoides is said to have some commercial value as a food fish in Cuba and it appears to be abundant in 50 fathoms or more.” A REVIEW OF SOME OF THE ASPECTS OF LAND BRIDGES IN THE TERTIARY Frederick R. Haeberle Standard Oil Company of Texas INTRODUCTION should one desire to hunt lions he goes to Africa, for tigers he goes to India, for polar bears to the Arctic regions. It is obvious that different types of animals live in different places. It is equally obvious that in the geologic past, different animals lived in different places. Students of geology are well acquainted with the fact that aquatic animals once lived in many areas that are now dry land, and that land animals have passed from one area to another by means of regions now under water. It is generally believed that the same species appearing in two areas now isolated by water barriers in¬ dicates the former existence of a land connection. The land snail, Helix hortensis, may be cited as an example. It is un¬ known in eastern Europe and Asia, yet is found in western Europe, Great 264 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Britain, Ireland, the Shetlands, the Faroes, Greenland, Labrador and farther south on the North American mainland. Certainly the environments of these places are extremely varied and it seems unlikely that the same species could develop in these scattered regions at exactly the same time. If the appearance is due solely to development of individual forms in the scattered regions, they should most certainly be found in eastern Europe and Asia, as the same environments are present there. More likely, in the recent geo¬ logic past, there has existed a land connection between western Europe and North America. Assuming that the various animals of the different places in the world did not all start in these places at the same time, they must have migrated from centers. Geological time, measured in millions of years, is not neces¬ sary for this migration. One species of snail previously unknown on the American continent, required only a few hundred years to migrate from Nova Scotia, where it was accidentally introduced by early explorers, to the states of Maryland and Pennsylvania. In the study of migration of animals, the mammals present probably the best examples. According to Matthew (1930), this is due to two rea¬ sons. First, their past history, in time and space, is better known than that of any other group. Secondly, while their skeltons are more complex than those of other groups, this same complexity enables more accurate identifi¬ cation. A single mammal tooth may tell more than a nearly complete skele¬ ton of some other group. The subject of migration and land bridges is so vast and complex, that it is only possible to touch briefly on a few points of each, and to more or less attempt to sum up what is known and accepted today. MIGRATION The fundamental impulse for migration, wandering, or the spreading of animals is, ultimately, the search for food. Other factors enter, such as climate and topography, but the never-ending search for food remains the primary cause. It is obvious that two animals require more food than one; if one requires three acres of grazing land a year, then one hundred would require three hundred acres, and a thousand would require three thousand acres. It might be necessary to spread over a much larger area to find three thousand acres of grazing land. This spreading is outward from a center, as the central areas are already occupied. The growth of food on grazing land may be seasonal, and where it is seasonal the animals will migrate at¬ tempting to follow the food supply. The result of the cumulative efforts of generations is a periodic migration, and not one that suddenly springs into existence. The animals that roam in the wrong direction die out, while those that roam in the right direction flourish and increase. The theory of migration as postulated by Bailey Willis (1932) states that life originated in definite limited regions. Using these regions as cen¬ ters, the life slowly and steadily expands, and the rule has been postulated, with some exceptions, that the area occupied by a form of life should be directly proportional to the age of that form. Matthew (1930) states that groups tend to spread from centers, the marginal forms are generally con¬ servative and primitive, while the central forms are progressive. The re¬ moteness of the marginal forms is not necessarily a matter of geographical 1950, No. 2 June 30 Land Bridges in the Tertiary 265 distance, but rather one of inaccessibility to invasion by other forms. He believes that environments have often migrated, as in the case of the tem¬ perate areas retreating south before the advancing ice sheets during the Pleistocene, and that the primitive species are those that have migrated with the environment, while the species that remained had to adapt themselves to a new environment and were thus altered. On the other hand, the author believes that the adaptability of the various species should be considered. The simple, more primitive types have a greater ability to adapt themselves to changing environment. It would seem that they might be better able to adapt themselves and stand the encroaching rigors of a colder climate than would the more specialized types, and that these advanced types might be the ones to migrate in an effort to find the same environment. The accepted pattern of migration, whether of primitive or specialized types, is generally considered to be steadily outward in all directions from a center, until a barrier is encountered. After a time the form contracts, not toward the original center of origin, but rather divides into separate areas and centers, and eventually disappears. The expansion involves actual movement of the mass outward, while contraction does not necessarily in¬ volve any large amount of movement inward, but more of a process of dis¬ appearance or extinction. Two important principles have been established in relation to migra¬ tion and differences in fauna forms. The first states that strong differences between approximately contemporaneous mammalian faunas of similar facies implies an intervening barrier between the two. The second, the reciprocal of the first, states that strong resemblances between such faunas denotes a connection between the two regions. The absence of a mammal in a region that has a suitable environment for that mammal, is often consid¬ ered to mean that it had no way to get there. In the cases of Madagascar and Australia, both sadly lacking in modern fauna and whose fauna is dif¬ ferent from any other, the faunal differences are believed to be the result of the absence of connections between them and nearby continents from early Tertiary times to the present, and the resulting evolution of the forms present on these islands at the time of their isolation. The cumulative environmental effect of climate and topography is occasionally overlooked. There are typical desert fauna, mountain fauna, temperate, arctic and tropical fauna. If one fauna is rapidly changed from one environment to another it has difficulty surviving. A tropical animal or plant moved to an arctic climate may survive, but it will not breed or replace its seed. If moved to a temperate region, it will gradually lose its specific features and assume others, eventually changing to a new species. A cold climate species is more likely to die in a hot climate, but if it sur¬ vives it will breed or replace its seed. Temperate species are more influenced by ascent to a cold zone than by descent to a hot land, and it seems that a colder environment is a more powerful factor in change than a warmer climate. If an environment changes to that of a colder one, many species would probably adjust themselves to the new climate. Some of the tropical species nearby would change to temperate ones, and there would be a faunal inter¬ mingling with a large number of new faunas developing. 266 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 LAND BRIDGES Since there are innumerable species and genera with a wide continuous, or discontinuous range, it is believed that they attained this distribution by spreading from centers where they made their first appearance. There are many means by which this migration may have taken place. All are classed under the general heading of land bridges, and according to Simpson (1940) may be subdivided into four groups. 1 . Corridors 2. Filter bridges 3. Sporadic transportation 4. Sweepstakes route Corridors are assumed to exist where no barrier is found between two regions and the faunas are very similar. Local differences may result from local changes in environment and attempts to survive. Europe and Asia are separated only by a low mountain range, the Urals, which were, and are, a poor barrier. Filter bridges derive their name from the ability to permit the crossing of only certain types of animals, and prevent the crossing of others. Once across, the new faunas, and those already present, intermingle, but do not necessarily form one fauna. The limitations of filter bridges result from the character of the crossing and of the faunas. No mammals from southern Asia crossed to North America, and none from southern North America crossed to Asia. Thus the bridge is considered to have been to the north and inaccessible to them. The limitations of migration across a bridge depend largely upon the environmental characteristics of the bridge and its ap¬ proaches. Mammoths were able to cross over the connection between North America and Siberia, but gazelles were not. Florses were able to cross the bridge between North and South America, but bison were not. Sporadic transportation involves animals or eggs or plants or seeds, being transported by rafts, wind or some other haphazard means. The chances of this seem small, but unquestionably some cases have occurred. Lizards, snakes and small mammals have been found on small rafts as far as one thousand miles from the mouth of the Amazon River, which tra¬ versed their original home. If this is the case, it is not difficult to see how individuals or eggs may have been transported to another shore. The sweepstakes route depends solely upon chance as to whether it is used or not. Animals may be perfectly capable of crossing a bridge, yet refrain from doing so, while others may use it freely. Simpson (1940) be¬ lieves that such a route now exists between Asia and Australia. The primary restriction on the use of a land bridge is the environment. The same environmental conditions, resulting in the same type of food and climate, must be present on the bridge as on the mainland. There is no such thing as a herd of animals waiting on the Siberian shore for a land bridge to pop up so that they might migrate to North America. Rather they cross leisurely in their search for food, unaware that they are on a bridge. After the emergence of the land bridge between North and South America, monkeys ventured out onto the bridge from the south as far north as Central America, but there they stopped. Where their environment ended, they halted their movement, despite the fact that the bridge con¬ tinued on to the North American mainland. With the exception of sporadic transportation, land bridges should be 1950, No. 2 June 30 Land Bridges in the Tertiary 267 able to operate in both directions. If a fauna may cross from one way, an¬ other fauna may cross the other way. Rarely do individuals or complete faunas cross a land bridge, more commonly an integrated assemblage com¬ pletes the transfer. On the basis of fauna and flora evidence, land bridges have been postu¬ lated all over the world. In this maze of bridges, it is often impossible to determine which bridges have a basis in fact, and which are merely based on wishful thinking. For the purposes of this paper only two of the most widely accepted bridges will be discussed. Bailey Willis (1932) has set up a subdivision of land bridges which he calls isthmian links. To quote Schuchert (1935, P. 568): "These are upthrust plutonic ridges uniting continents, and they result from the dynamic action of oceanic basins on either side. They are usually surmounted by volcanoes, which have built up the submarine ridges to above sea level.” Certainly this description applies to the present-day connection between North and South America. A study of the fossil forms of the region on either side of Central America gives somewhat of an insight to the past history of the area. Apparently there was no connection between North and South America prior to upper Cretaceous times. There is no relationship between the Stegocephalians of the Permian in the two continents, while the Glossopteria flora, although widespread in the southern hemisphere, did not spread into Central or North America. Land reptiles of the Mesozoic found in South America are definitely related to those of South Africa and India, but not to those of North America. In the late Cretaceous the land bridge was first established and North American mammals invaded the southern continent. The bridge seems to have existed until the late Eocene times, when it was again broken. It is believed that no connection existed during Oligocene times, and the South American Miocene fauna, amazingly preserved in the volcanic ash beds and tuffs of the Santa Cruz formation, are completely unlike anything of North America. The link again came into existence in late Miocene or early Pliocene times and is presumed to have been in place ever since. Before the link was completed for the last time. South America had 29 families of land mammals and North America had 27, of which only two were definitely related, and two possibly. In the Pleistocene, they had 22 families in common, 7 of South American origin, 14 of North American and one of doubtful origin. South America had 17 families still confined to it and North America had 9. In Recent times, there are 14 families common to both, 1 5 confined to South America, not all native, and 9 confined to North America. The intermingling did not produce identical fauna as South America is as rich as before the link developed although the fauna is different, while North American faunas are poorer, with the general composition not changed as much as that of South America. Some groups such as the moles, beavers, prongbucks and bison of North America, and the true sloths, anteaters and most of the armadillos of South America, were almost completely unaffected by the link. On the other hand, the in¬ vasion of South America by North American carnivores resulted in the extinction of nearly all the native carnivores and ungulates. No group from North America became extinct in South America and not also in North America, while several families became extinct in North America, but 268 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No, 2 June 30 found asylum in the south. The two faunas did not intermingle so much, rather the fauna from the north invaded South America. As a result of the studies of the Panama link between North and South America, one important idea has come forth; the sudden appearance of an animal in an area may be a good indication of the breaking down of a pre¬ viously existing barrier. The existence of a land bridge between Alaska and Siberia, across the Bering Strait is generally accepted. Migration across the bridge was largely in favor of Asiatic forms, but some American forms crossed the other way. Asiatic forms that crossed the bridge are believed to include the moose, bison, wapiti, deer, brown bear, sheep, cattle and the wooly mammoth. The horse, camel and musk-ox made the reverse crossing. Some interchange of flora also seems to have occurred. The general thought at present is that the land connection was in existence during Pliocene times, possibly some¬ what earlier, and lasted until early Pleistocene. It is possible that this connection may be another of Willis’ isthmian links. Certainly it connected continents, while the region around this area is, and probably was, extremely active. The area is crowded with extinct vol¬ canoes and several active ones, which form ridges extending out into the ocean, while the floor of the Strait is much shallower than the waters on either side of it. The Strait, today, may represent only a temporary break between the continents, much as existed between North and South America during the Oligocene and Miocene. The principal objection to land bridges has arisen from a belief that the idea would require a violation of the theory of isostatic adjustments, which maintains that continents and oceanic basins are permanent affairs. The discovery years ago, of the remains of aquatic animals on dry land shows that changes have occurred between dry land and water areas. Such discoveries show that there have been variations and changes in the earth’s equilibrium in the past. Gravity studies of different parts of the world show that many areas are not in equilibrium at present. Further studies show that some of the areas under consideration as land bridges are of granitic com¬ position rather than basaltic as is the case under the ocean. It is believed that the link between Asia and North America is so small that its uplift¬ ing above sea level would cause no more upsetting in equilibrium than exists at several places in the world today. CONCLUSION There seems little doubt that migration of mammals did occur in the geologic past, and over land bridges of various types. Whether the migrat¬ ing groups survived in their new environments, depended entirely upon their ability to adapt themselves to changing conditions. More complete fossil record will aid in further tracing and understanding these migrations and may cause changes in some of the ideas held today, but it is believed that any such changes will be minor; the major framework has been built. One fact stands out as contrasted to human experience. The mammal in his travels was not sightseer or explorer, but rather was searching for food. The migration was accidental. LITERATURE CITED Berry, E. W. — 1918— Paleogeographic significance of the C'enozoic flora of Equatorial America and the adjacent regions. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 29 : 631-636. Matthew, W. D. — 1915 — Climate and evolution. N. Y. Acad. Science Annual, 24: 171-318. 1950, No. 2 June SO Philosophical and Scientific Synthesis 269 — - 1918 — Affinities and origin of the Antillean mammals. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 29; 637-666. - 1930^ — Range and limitations of species as seen in fossil mammal faunas. American Bull. 41 : 271-274. Schuchert, C. — 1929— Geological history of the Antillean region. Bull. Geo. Soc, Amer. 40: 330-360. - 1935 — Historical geology of Antillean-Carribean region. John Wiley and Sons, New York C?ity. Scott, W. B. — 1916 — The Isthmus of Panama in its relation to the animal life of North and South America, Science, n. ser., 43: 113-124. Simpson, G. G. — 1940— Mammals and land bridges. Jour. Wash, Acad. Science 30 ; 137-163. - 1942 — The great animal invasion, Nat. Hist. Mag. 49 (4) : 206-211. Willis, Bailey — 1932 — Isthmusian links. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 143: 916-952. PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS Thomas A. Hall Lamar College Beaumont, Texas The first World War ended with a burst of cheers, with parades and with dancing in the streets. The second World War ended with a flash and a roar, and with sober looks of dismay. To be sure, we were glad that the second holocaust was over, but we had strong misgivings that this was not really the end, and we had a strange uneasiness knowing that new violence could erupt with new force. The interpreter sprang into action with dia¬ grams of numerous little balls stuck together with match sticks to explain just exactly what new thing had happened in human experience. It was a time of examination and appraisal. Some individuals reached an early decision representing a reaffirmation of faith in the machine and in the ballot to continue to solve our problems. Thinking men everywhere — technicians, researchers, engineers, and interpreters—continued to look sober. There are several possible explanations. Possibly they realized that the scientific methods that unlocked the forces of the machine could un¬ leash still further residual powers. Perhaps, too, they discerned behind the ballot the most mysterious of all complexes, the human being; and won¬ dered just how this complex could be brought under control. If they so wondered, it could well have been because they knew the limitations of scientific methods well enough to realize that science could only assume a value, that it could not disclose one; and that for every scientific demon¬ stration of technical superiority, there would be an assumption of long range human benefits since such benefits could not be demonstrated im¬ mediately. The engineers through their professional organizations promised a wider cultural education for under-graduate engineers. National committees on engineering education worked on and continue to work on the problem of general education in engineering curricula. Insofar as the writer knows, no exact blue print has emerged from these efforts (a fact for which we should be thankful rather than critical.) As a part of this movement toward increased general education in technical training, there seems to be a re¬ newed emphasis on the theoretical and the exploratory rather than on the empirical and the practical. The liberalization of technical curricula seems to be based on a renewed impression of the technician as a citizen; more important still, upon the technician as a human being. Efforts to discharge this increased responsibility toward the undergraduate technical student has been to expose him to an increased number of courses in literature, in the 270 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 arts, and in social studies: those courses that are known, broadly speaking, as the humanities. Along with this development in technical education, there has come a heightened realization that technical excellence in the particulars could not compensate for inadequacies in general theoretical backgrounds of the phys¬ ical sciences themselves. The lines between physics and chemistry, for ex¬ ample, are disappearing fast so that they are no longer the same distinct divisions of labor. The mathematical requirements for research in either field have become prodigious. And so, the men of the physical sciences have turned their attention to bringing about a scientific reorientation of the undergraduate student. The emphasis in this movement appears to be on theoretical resourcefulness rather than on immediate technical proficiency. The record of their efforts is summarized in a book, science in education, by Earl McGrath, dean of the College of Liberal Arts, the State University of Iowa.'’* The problem of developing understanding in the physical sciences ap¬ pears to be a two-fold one: (1) an understanding of all the forces that exert an influence in modern life, and of disciplines that give promise of shedding light; and, (2) developing a general theoretical knowledge of science and scientific method rather than providing training in specific techniques of individual disciplines. The first aspect of the problem the physical scientists are turning over to general education at a time when general education is ill prepared to cope with it. Dean McGrath writes in the preface of science in general educa¬ tion: "Higher education is in a state of ferment. There is scarely a college in the country which is not at the present re-examining its purposes and its program. Already a host of institutions have launched new programs in¬ tended to improve the preparation of youth for life in a highly complex and troubled world. Most of these ventures have to do with general educa¬ tion, that which prepares young people for their common activities as citi¬ zens in a free society.” A plan for meeting the second aspect of this problem, indoctrination with general scientific theory, is ably presented in this same book by Eric Rogers, a physicist reporting from Princeton University. He develops his theme by showing the limitations of traditional courses in science, and he proposed to give new vitality and meaning to science by changes in teach¬ ing methods and organization of materials. Pbllowing Professor Rogers’ re¬ port are the proposals of spokesmen of institutions of various size the country over as to how they have reconstructed the teaching of science in their departments. Without exception, their plans are similar to the main aspects of Professor Rogers’ proposals; viz., that materials be reorganized and methods of presentation be changed. Unfortunately for the scientific hope that general education will be able to accomplish one part of the objective of scientific education, we find a similar confusion in the social sciences, in the humanities; in short, in general education as there is in science. For example: the emergence of a number of separate disciplines from a parent philosophy (or natural phi¬ losophy) has led to dividing the human subject like a pie. Thus, we .have a economic man, a political man, a social man, a geographic man, and so * New U. S. Commission of Education. 1950, No. 2 June 30 Philosophical and Scientific Synthesis 271 on, and even the astute are not sure of getting Humpty Dumpty together again. Awareness of this problem in general education has been heightened during the war years. Leaders, teachers, spokesmen, too, have gone through the agony of self-examination, perhaps because of war-induced feelings of uncertainty— -if not feelings of guilt. General educators bestirred themselves to provide new curricula so that a post-war generation of college students could go on to new heights of higher education. War’s end was not long behind us before we were confronted with the harvard report on gen¬ eral EDUCATION. And, because a plan fashioned in Cambridge will not do for New Haven and points west, we saw in quick succession the formula¬ tion of a Yale Plan, an Amherst Plan, and so on. Soon, we were all doing it. The fruit of these many academic committee meetings is summarized in other books edited by Dean McGrath. One of these is social science IN GENERAL EDUCATION. This book follows the plan of the others, being a compilation of reports from institutions of various sizes and kinds on their plans and proposals for reorienting the college student. Much space is de¬ voted to the development of new categories to describe human environment, human history, and human experience. Almost all of these plans have the virtue of being boldly experimental. In this vein, they are of considerable practical importance and the writer earnestly hopes that his reluctance to embrace them completely as educational restoratives will not be considered niggling impatience nor ill-mannered envy. A review of the plans of instruction proposed show that they are devoted mainly to a discussion of three topics: the content of integrated social studies courses organized as survey courses, problems courses, or courses based on the development of western civilization; a discussion of the teaching personnel required for such courses in which mention is made of the number of teachers required, the personality of the teachers, and the professional training and experience of the teachers; and, finally, a dis¬ cussion of source materials for the courses, including textbooks, classical works, and trade books. The question of values is almost (but not quite) missing. Two exceptions recur to mind immediately. Arthur Naftalin, chairman of the Social Science Department, The University of Minnesota, frankly accepts Myrdahl’s statement of the American Creed as the necessary state¬ ment of value. The course at Minnesota, he reports, proposes to examine major social problems with a view of determining how well such values are realized. No further values are mentioned. The University of Chicago reporter, Milton B. Singer, chairman of social sciences, the College of the University, in a section on social policy and social action, states that the integrated social science program at Chi¬ cago is not to be charged with either “political indoctrination or ivory tower escapes.” He goes on to point out that the course indoctrinates but not for a particular course of action. He relieves himself from this para¬ doxical situation by expressing the conviction that habits of rational de¬ liberation lead to positive action in public policy. This seems to mean that implicit values become both explicit and determinative in going from pri¬ vate thought to public action. The age-old dilemma posed by personifica¬ tions of the Man of Thought and Man of Action is thus resolved in a new age of faith. 272 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 No niggling exceptions of the writer can disguise the fact that the faculty members of these many institutions have boldly accepted the chal¬ lenge in modern life and, in designing integrated courses in the sciences, in the social sciences, or in the humanities in general, have laid down struc¬ tures by means of which they and their students may hope to go forward to explicit statements of what thus far is only implied. The writer does reserve the right to doubt that the problem of values so carefully skirted in the preliminary skirmishes will be taken in hand in the all-out assault. On this score, he is probably revealing the deep influence of reading an article by John Dewey on the reflex arc, written nearly a half century ago, in which Dewey pointed out with masterly good sense the great importance of making explicit what is implicit in any argument. It is likely that this is exactly the problem Dean McGrath has in mind when he writes: *'Concern- ing the objectives of general education, there seems to be increasing agree¬ ment. Wide divergence of opinion still exists, however, with regard to the means that should be employed to reach the desired goals.” Probably any scientist — particularly a social scientist— -can remember his early indoctrination as an undergraduate. In each course in which he en¬ rolled, he was solemnly assured that the course undertaken was a true science and, therefore, anything that resembled the idle speculation of arm¬ chair philosophers would be eschewed. In later experience, in which he has had an opportunity to probe the limits of fact-finding science, he may be inclined to doubt the probit of ignoring the philosophical implications in any set of scientific facts. Even a brief excursion into scientific method is sufficient to reveal the limitations. The student of methodology may be quick to assert that science has many methods; that the survey, the data supplied by clinical proced¬ ures and historical approaches, comparative studies, and so on, are all parts of scientific methodology. The point can be admitted without detracting from the main body of the thought. Of the many methods that science employs, they are all dependent on the principal method of science, experi¬ mentation, and it is this method that serves to give force and vitality to the others. The steps of experimentation are prettv much the same in any science: the statement of the hypothesis, isolation of the factor to be observed, con¬ trol of all other factors leaving the scientist free to determine the inde¬ pendent and dependent variables of the observed factor, observation and recording of data, and comparison with the results obtained by colleagues. Early in the history of any science, students of methodology are prone to raise questions about the nature of the hypothesis. Since each science emerges in turn from the protective custody of philosophy, it is still pos¬ sible in the early stages of that science to question how the hypothesis can be anything but subjectively determined and how, once he has assumed it, the scientist can avoid thinking within that frame of reference even though the experiment is loaded against the intrusion of his precocious brain child. The easy answer that the scientist has to begin somewhere, that the hypothe¬ sis is only that which is yet to be determined, that it is only a shrewd ques¬ tion put to nature, does not entirely resolve the difficulty. The fact remains that the basic idea for the study had to come from somewhere, and that the experimenter had to be impressed, analogously or otherwise, with the practical or theoretical importance for doing it. 1950, No. 2 June 80 Philosophical and Scientific Synthesis 273 The second aspect of the problem of the hypothesis is covered by Lynd’s statement of the matter contained in his book, knowledge for WHAT? He writes: "Once stated, a problem can yield no further insights than are allowed by the constricting frame of its original formulation; al¬ though in a negative sense, the data discovered may serve to point the in¬ adequacy of the original frame of reference.” The second step in experimentation, isolation of the factor to be ob¬ served, can be passed over quickly since this is mainly brought about through the good offices of Step Three: the control of all other factors. But here, the question might be well asked: When does the experimenter know when all other factors are under control? The observation of minimal cues and his knowledge of the total area are invaluable, of course, but the reminder needs to be given that the organization of cues and knowledge may be highly subjective. In the process of observing and recording data, the scientist is a defi¬ nite component in his own experimental setup; he is, in short, a part of his own laboratory equipment. And, however simple or elaborate his ex¬ perimental gadgets may be, they are no better than the objectivity he achieves in making his observations. The careful investigator, of course, fashions his experimental procedure so as to guard in every way that he can against his own expectations. But the very fact that he is obliged to pro¬ ceed in this manner suggests that he has expectations or that he is fearful of having them. His work is submitted to a final check, to be sure, when he compares his experimental results with those obtained by colleagues. If he is fortu¬ nate enough to compare experimental results where experimental conditions are exactly the same, his task is a relativelv easy one. But he is seldom allowed that fortunate set of circumstances except where laboratory pro¬ cedures are slavishly followed step by step. And even here, it is helpful to remember the freshman laboratory instructor who finishes up rather lamely: "Well, these are the results we should have gotten if we had had all of the factors under control.” This brief examination of the scientific procedure of experimentation is not undertaken with a view to producing a scientific refutation. Science is not so easily refuted at this late date. Rather it is undertaken as a re¬ minder that the all-important facts from which we are so reluctant to disengage ourselves, do not constitute the absolute and permanent shelf they appear to be. The examination of methods is made here in the belief (misguided perhaps) that if facts are made to seem somewhat less vener¬ able, some slight opening might be made for the larger problem of mean¬ ing and value. In all fairness, let it be admitted that the competent scientist does not reach conclusions in terms of set facts, but rather, he sets forth theories that make the best run of available facts. The remainder here is that he cannot afford to set forth either theories or facts in logic tight compartments. Something more seems to be called for. Data do not speak for themselves. A scientist pausing before a work of art — modern or otherwise — might ask: What does it mean- — what does it say? Upon being told that it does not mean anything; that, indeed, it does not say anything; then, he is almost sure to ask: What is it for? Upon being told that it is a work of art, that it is its own reason for being, he might well snort out: Pretty 274 The Texas Journal of Science 1950. No. 2 June 30 is as pretty does — or something in that general vein. The point seems clear. He is able to reject in entirety any argument about art for art’s sake, but the effect of his current practices seems to be almost tantamount to an argument for science for science’s sake. In the same book previously quoted, Lynd writes: ^'Modern science tends to be atomistic. Its drive is to isolate smaller and smaller variables and to study these in the greatest possible detail with the aid of minute controls.” Scientists are attempting to free themselves from the bondage that this statement imposes by developing integrated courses in which the gen¬ eral and the theoretical will receive due emphasis. The larger problem of a total, integrated life pattern of meaningful experience remains. In the writer’s own field of psychology, the tendency to acknowledge the debt to philosophy is perhaps a little stronger. Possibly the reason can be seen in Professor Sargent’s statement in his book, basic teachings of GREAT psychologists: *‘In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries astron¬ omy, physics, and chemistry broke away from philosophy to become sep¬ arate sciences. Biology, less exact because it dealt with living things, be¬ came independent in the eighteenth century. Psychology hung on to its parent philosophy until nearly the end of the next century.” It is not proposed here that philosophy be restored to any imagined once great place in the minds of thinking men. Rather, the point is made that philosophical organization of thought on the basis of existing facts has been present all along. What remains is to acknowledge that presence with candor and with integrity. The writer has no more desire than most scientists to return to an era of speculation about the mystical differences of this and that. The debt is not to the past, but to the present. The scientist is called upon to assume his philosophical responsibility, to state specifically what he has to offer to the problem of meaning and value. Else he may find himself in the words of Auden: "Lecturing on navigation while the ship is going down.” The proposal contains an arduous challenge. The alternatives are not pleasant to contemplate either. THE CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE TO THE STABILITY OF THE TEXAS FAMILY Marguerite Woodruff Professor of Social and Political Science Mary Hardin-Baylor College Belton, Texas INTRODUCTION When human beings first manifested an interest in those whom they found as their associates in this universe in which we live, social science was born. From that time when men practiced a spirit of helpfulness to¬ ward their neighbors to this day in which sociologists assign technical terms to this spirit of neighborliness, the responsibility which has befallen those who would devote their lives to a study of the social sciences is that of heal¬ ing the hurt of human kind. Since the family is the basic unit of society and thus the most impor¬ tant, it would seem most vital to consider the contribution which social 1950, No, 2 June 30 Social Science and the Texas Family 275 science has made and needs to make toward the stability of the family. For a group of Texas social scientists, that area of immediate concern is the Texas family. With these facts in mind, an approach to the problem of the family’s stability will be made first by a consideration of the need for social science to make a contribution, second by an approach to the contribution which has been and is being made through education, and third by the contri¬ bution through counseling agencies. THE NEED FOR A CONTRIBUTION If a Study of statistics is any criterion of an underlying problem, then Texas has suffered, as have other states, from the increasing instability of its families. Flaving passed the '"all-time high” rate of divorces and marriages of 1946, the 1948 figures offer little consolation although they show a de¬ cided decline in both marriages and divorces. In 1948 there was a divorce in Texas for every 2.8 5 marriages, or expressed on a percentage basis, 3 5.06 per cent of all marriages ended in divorce as compared with 39.91 per cent in 1946. (Figures from the National Office of Vital Statistics show 112,898 marriages and 39,5 87 divorces in Texas for 1948.) Still another manipula¬ tion of the figures reveals a decrease in marriages which is 13.22 per cent greater than that of divorces for the two years mentioned. (There were 17,52 5 more divorces in 1946 than in 1948 and 20,194 more marriages.) This is significant not because it represents a sharper decline in marriages than in divorces for these two years alone, but because it is an isolated ex¬ ample of a trend which may be detected by studying comparative marri¬ age and divorce curves for the past eighty-one years. While the marriage curve for this period has fluctuated considerably, featuring some low points which prevent its steady incline, the divorce curve, on the other hand, has shown a gradual incline for these eighty-one years with only slight devia¬ tions. This is a disturbing factor for the sociologist and presents a great challenge for the meeting and answering of a current need. A second need, not unlike the first but rather related to it, is that of the effect of divorce upon the children of broken homes. It has been found in many instances that divorce perpetuates itself in the sense that children of divorced parents are more likely to become divorced parents themselves. There is the difficulty of adjustment to society which seems to become exaggerated in the case of the child from a broken home though appear¬ ing to be not so crucial for the child from a well-integrated home. Chil¬ dren who are involved in broken homes suffer immeasurably from the shattering of their feeling of security and trust in those whom they had loved. Doctor Lester A. Pierce, director of the University of Flouston’s psychological center, recently made a study of 2 5 5 secondary school pupils in which he found 81 who were seriously maladjusted. According to the newspaper report of Doctor Pierce’s findings, 90 per cent of these mal¬ adjusted children came from broken homes. fpORT worth star-telegram, morning edition, October 2 5, 1949.) The challenge to social science, then, is to preserve the home not only for the sake of husband and wife but for the sake of children who will be the husbands and wives and parents of the future. Coronet magazine made a survey some months ago concerning sex education in secondary schools. (Ferguson and Gilmer, 1949) ' The inter- 276 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 est shown in such a program was almost an inverse proportion when pre¬ sented to the young people themselves and to the adults. The young people felt the need of such education in order that they might save their genera¬ tion from delinquency and might build a more stable family life in the future. This brings us face to face with a third need to which social sci¬ entists may make a contribution. This need for sex education has mani¬ fested itself in increased sex crimes committed by juveniles. According to national survey, sex crimes average 40,000 a year and "latest figures reveal an increase in the number of murders and rapes committed by boys 17 and under — almost every one the admitted victim of sex repression or ignor¬ ance” (Ferguson and Gilmer, op. cit.). The recent outbreak of sex crimes in our nation is an evidence that something needs to be done. J, Edgar Hoover has outlined a program of action for dealing with the criminals which would seek to remedy the situation from the standpoint of those who have already evidenced criminal tendencies, but educators know that the only permanent way of eliminating such a problem is to educate the child correctly from his earliest days. We must work at a problem of this nature from both angles, that of dealing with those who have already committed crimes and those who are yet in the formative stage and who may be swayed one way or the other, depending largely upon their educa¬ tion. THE CONTRIBUTION THROUGH EDUCATION Social science can boast for itself a large number of colleages present¬ ing courses concerning marriage and the family. A survey which was made of Texas colleges is not at all complete since only forty- two of the eighty- five sociology departments contacted made response to the inquiry. How¬ ever, of these forty-two who responded, twenty-six offer courses in marri¬ age and family education. This is a percentage of 61.9 which, although not ideal, is at least well over half. Only seven (16.7%) stated that they offered no such course and did not consider it necessary. Five schools included at least two weeks of training on the subject in their general sociology courses. One school has offered the course in the past and has discontinued it, and another remarks, "I regret that we are not offering such a course as I regard it as being of great importance.” (Letter from J, C. Pace, Dean, Westminster College, Tehuacana, Texas.) In response to the question, "Do you feel that the course actually contributes to preparing young people for marriage?” twenty-two (84.6%) professors answered with a decided af¬ firmative, one stating that he would not teach the course if he did not feel that it was helping. Another professor remarked, We have found this course one of the most popular courses on the campus. It has not been a type of temporary popularity but popularity that has lasted through the ten years the course has been offered. Many students that have taken the course write back after some years telling of their appreciation of the course. Most of the stu¬ dents who take it think it should be required of all students in the college. (Letter from Dr. Daniel Russell, Professor of Agricultural Economics and Sociology, Texas Agricultural College, College Station, Texas.) All profesors stated that they emphasized the Christian approach toward solving problems in the home. The general trend of marriage and family education today is toward a more practical approach to the problem. A study which was made of col¬ lege textbooks on the family for the United States in 193 3 revealed that from prior to World War I to the early ’thirties the practical aspects of marriage jumped from 8.9 per cent to 28.5 per cent whereas the historical 1950, No. 2 June 30 Social Science and the Texas Family 277 and sociological aspects decreased from 46.3 per cent to 8.8 per cent (Hart, 1933). (Amer. J. Soc. 39: 224). Since this survey was made in 1933, the trend has continued to be upon the study "of the immediate problems to be met in present-day marriage’ (Thurman, 1946). Grata (1949) expressed the proper emphasis when he observed. If I were asked why divorce rates are alainiing in civilized countries, my answer would be: on the positive side, because there has been too much emphasis upon economy and efficiency : on the negative side, because the cultivation of affection and understanding among members of the family has been either taken for granted or else not considered a worthy educational objective. Many people take affection only in its biological meaning and as a result miss its social and spiritual significance altogether. These people are afraid that when young people are encouraged to talk about love and marriage, they will think first, last, and always of sex relationships. The remedy is to change the emphasis in marriage from those aspects which ma¬ terial wealth alone can provide to those which money cannot buy ; companionship, family affection, and solidarity, sympathy and understanding, the sharing of joys with each other, loyalty, and good will. In line with this changing emphasis, Texas colleges have also taken the more practical view of family education. Fifty per cent of those re¬ sponding to the survey stated that they emphasize strictly the practical as¬ pects of marriage while another 3 8.46 per cent emphasize both the socio¬ logical and practical with the major portion of the time being given to the practical application of everyday problems. Only two of the twenty-six give the strictly sociological emphasis. This is an encouraging sign for we as sociologists must realize perhaps more than any other group the need of making applicable to life the principles which we set forth in the academic training of our young people. The time has come when people are not as averse to the frank emphas- sis of such courses as they once were. In a family education survey which was made by sociology majors of Mary Hardin-Baylor College cutting across various economic and educational lines in the town of Belton, it was found that when the question was asked, "What factors do you consider most important in preparation for marriage?”, a decided majority of the answers included education. Two hundred wives were approached during this survey including an educational scattering of forty-seven (23.5%) with grade school training or no education at all, ninety-five (47.5%) with education from eighth grade through high school, and fifty-eight (29%) who had received some training beyond high school — nurses’ train¬ ing, teacher training, business training, or liberal arts college training. Of these two hundred women, only forty-one (20.5%) had received any train¬ ing on marriage and family. This training varied from that meager infor¬ mation which would be received in a course in Red Cross Home Nursing to that received in biology and home economics. Only two had received the training in the field of sociology. Four had been taught courses of this type in grade school, twenty-two in high school, twelve in college, and two in both high school and college. This small percentage cannot be excused by saying that they belonged to the older group v/ho received their edu¬ cation before such courses were being taught in our schools for half of the number interviewed were under forty years of age, 29 per cent were be¬ tween forty and fifty, only 21 per cent were over fifty years of age. This indicates that although social science is making great strides in education, still there is a long way to go. It may not be said, of course that a survey of the entire state of Texas would reveal such a low percentage of those who have received some training in preparation for marriage, but it may safely be assumed that these two hundred housewives of Belton are fairly typical of that same number in any other community where people of all 278 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 economic, racial, and educational groups are contacted. It is encouraging to know, however, that with only 20,5 per cent having received any train¬ ing, 78 per cent (32) of those did testify that the training had facilitated their making an acceptable adjustment in marriage. This makes the chal¬ lenge even more outstanding to sociologists when the testimony is favorable toward education. The need for education in our schools concerning sex is evidenced also by this survey. When asked who had first explained to them the matter of sex, only 86 (43%) stated that their mothers had told them. Most of them had just "picked it up,” indicating that the attitude they had toward sex was not healthy. When asked if they had a healthy attitude toward sex at the time they were dating, 39 confessed that they did not, 24 were not sure. As we offer courses on preparation for marriage, then, it would be wise to urge upon young people the importance of their teaching their own children the sacredness and at the same time the normality of sex life. The homemaking program in our public schools is contributing along this line. Not only are there over one thousand teachers in public schools who offer courses in homemaking education, but there are also 54 full¬ time teachers of adult courses in home and family living. Doctor Bernice M. Moore reports (Personal communication) that 74,891 adults were reached through this program during the past year. These teachers in secondary schools also act as consultants for elementary teachers in offer¬ ing experiences to the younger children in family living. THE CONTRIBUTION THROUGH COUNSELING AGENCIES A field which is even more in the formative state than that of educa¬ tion is the field of marriage counseling. It has been the primary difficulty of the writer to obtain any information concerning such services which are available in the state of Texas. Everyone from whom information was re¬ quested simply said, "I am sorry that I do not have that information but here are the names of some people who might be able to help you.” Of the colleges who reported classes in marriage and family, fourteen ( 53.8 5 %) give some emphasis to counseling looking toward family casework. One of the schools (Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College) has a sep¬ arate course for family case work, and another school (University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas) reports a Social Service Department where work is done with individuals on a casework basis. Two of the schools (Prairie View A. & M, and Wesleyan College) indicated plans for the establishment of a marriage counseling service, one of whom (Texas Wesleyan College) has already started a fund as a basis for the foundation. This is an encouraging report as Texas looks forward to better equipped personnel for dealing with family problems. According to report of the American Association of Marriage Counselors, there is only one individual in the state of Texas who has the qualifications for membership in this organization, (Doctor H, L. Pritchett, University Student Counselor, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas.) It may be, however, that there are others and only one has sought membership, since there are many others in the state who are rendering a service in this respect and many of them who are professionally trained. The Texas Council on Family Relations has outlined as a part of its program of action the setting up of "a directory for Texas available coun- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Social Science and the Texas Family 279 seling services for marriage and family problems and” the making known that "this information is available through the secretary of the Texas Council.” Other objectives of the Council include: 1. To establish and maintain a bibliography, available to groups and communities free or for a small cost charge, on research findings and publications on marriage, the family and the home. 2. To prepare a directory of Texas agencies and key personnel in the field of marriage and the family— for lectures or consultation services. 3. To offer counsel and advice in establishing courses or improving courses on marriage and family life in schools, colleges, churches, community centers and other organizations who request such information. 4. To study marriage and divorce laws of Texas and suggest legislation for their improvement. The program of this council is vital for the dissemination of informa¬ tion concerning counseling services. Of the two hundred women in the Belton survey who were asked the question, "If you wanted to ask advice concerning some marital problem, to whom would you go?” only one re¬ sponded that she would go to a counselor. Two did specify "a professional in the field” without calling that individual a counselor. One mentioned a psychologist, one a psychiatrist; sixty-six said, "mother,” thirty-five said, "pastor or priest,” and twenty- three said, "doctor.” This is indicative of the fact that counselors are not well known and that the over-worked profes¬ sionals in the field of religion and medicine must still offer advice in a realm for which no specific training has been received. Another aid to the making known of available counseling services is the sponsoring of a radio program by various agencies within our state. The American Broadcasting Company Public Affairs Department and the Family Service Association of America are presenting at the present time a program called "Family Closeups” over various affiliated stations each Sun¬ day afternoon. The program was originally scheduled for four P.M. but is now being heard at 3:30 P.M. This program is a dramatization of actual cases handled by the various family agencies and is an excellent presenta¬ tion of the type service available through these agencies. Practically all of our larger cities in Texas maintain a family service which includes counseling by professionally trained personnel. Austin has the Child and Family Service (located at 616 Trinity); Fiouston has the Family Service Bureau and the Jewish Family Service (contact through the Community Council, 1209^/4 Capitol Avenue); San Antonio has the Fam¬ ily Welfare Bureau (located on the fifth floor of the Courthouse) and a Catholic Welfare Bureau, neither of which is a counseling service but each of which does some casework; Fort Worth has the Family Service Associa¬ tion, It is assumed that other cities from which information has not been received maintain similar services. Although it is evident that the information presented in this report is incomplete, nevertheless there is enough information presented to en¬ courage social scientists in the belief that they have made a contribution even in this area of counseling. conclusion Sociologists may look with pride upon the accomplishments which have been made possible in Texas through their teaching, counseling, and con¬ stant research for better methods. Flowever, with every advance which is made opens a vast and unexplored new horizon of opportunities for ser¬ vice. The educational field is not as yet enlisted 100 per cent in the drive for education in marriage and family living. The courses which are offered 280 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 do not contribute 100 per cent to adequate adjustment in marriage. Those who need aid in marital adjustment have not all been informed that such aid is available through trained consultants. Our cities do not all have pro¬ fessionally trained marriage counselors. In light of all these facts, dare we sit back in complacency and say, "We’ve done such a good job we’ll just rest for a v/hile.” There is no stopping place short of complete victory. LITERATURE CITED Ferguson, Donita and Carol Lynn Gilmer — 1949 — Sex education, please! Coronet 25 1 73. Hart, Hornell — 1933 — Trends of change in textbooks on the family. Amer. J. Sociology 39 : 224. Grata, Pedro T. — 1949 — Education for home and family living. J. Home Economics 41 : 5-7. Thurman, Frances C. — 1946 — College courses in preparation for marriage. Social Forces 24 : 332. NON-DIRECTIVE PSYCHOTHERAPY Lewis W. Field University of Houston Houston, Texas From the amount of academic and professional disturbance that has arisen in the field of psychology since the devotees of "client-centered” counseling began evangelizing their technique a student new in the field might very well get the impression that more progress would be made if everyone would quit bickering and start doing something^ — at least some kind of a gambling instinct, it might be felt, wouldn’t hurt a lot of the old psychological "die-hards” whose scalp should have lived through even Custer’s last stand. On the other hand, a more reflective reconnaissance of the various psychopathological philosophies that regard this therapeutic youngster with raised eyebrows yields the conclusion that progress and stress have the same endings not only in spelling class but also in the world at large— that strife is life and psychology is certainly no privileged partridge whose feathers have never been ruffled. The salient feature of this new method of psychotherapy, non-direc¬ tive counseling, is the verbal catharsis on the part of the client of inner conflicts, confusions, and fears in a clinical counseling atmosphere of com¬ plete permissiveness. For the counselor, developing a total tolerance for "talking it out” is more elusive than one might think from the point of peripheral perusal. To the therapist who embraces this therapeutic philosophy nothing is immoral, amoral or moral; nothing is religious, irreligious or sacreligious; anything you say is all right with him- — you could say that you had turned cannibal and eaten your mother the night before and prob¬ ably the only response you would elicit from the non-directive therapist would be a recognitive "Uhmm.” He is the present participle of the verb to listen. But that isn’t all. He’s an active, interested, responding listener — on his psychological toes to catch the client’s feeling and reflect it. To him a human being represents a dynamic reservoir of personal meanings that have been organized and integrated in a manner peculiar to that human being and he has a deep respect for this personal integrity. Each stimulus travels by its own neural compass to its own interpretive destination in the individual’s hierarchy of personal meanings— sort of like a homing pigeon that only made one trip. These personal meanings or inter- 1950, No. 2 June 30 Non-directive Psychotherapy 281 pretations of the individual are his gyroscopic balance or imbalance and in proportion that his organization of personal meanings becomes less ac¬ ceptable to other people he becomes less and less adjusted and more and more a prospective counselee. A maladjusted individual is like a V-8 that is only hitting on 7. He is wired up wrong and he is the one that did the wiring. He may not and usually does not know it, but he does know there is something wrong— he can hear the old machine cough, spit, miss fire and die like a tired old man. When he puts his foot on the starter, gooses the throttle and yanks the choke he knows that the old buggy is "'buggy” somewhere inside. Finally when its chassis begins complaining of aches and pains, hot flashes and tachycardiac turmoil to the point where he no longer can put up with it, he goes to a garage where an examination reveals noth¬ ing more serious than faulty wiring. He watches the mechanic attach the right wire to the right spark plug and observes its symptoms disappear, almost magically as the motor begins droning its delirious pleasure at re¬ turning to normality. The non-directive counselor in a sense is a mechanic but he is lazy (purely figurative, so I am not apologizing) —he would rather see you do the work. This brings up the second salient feature of this method and that is the technique referred to as reflection. The therapist simply reflects the feelings you express and does nothing more. In other words, you messed up the wiring, now you straighten it out. He will be glad to listen to the elocution you emit when you burn your hand on the exhaust manifold or break the skin on your finger when the pliers slip, and he will sympathize with you through the whole operation, but he won’t turn a hand. Essen¬ tially he will repeat every word that comes out of your mouth, but he won’t tell you which wire goes where — not even if you ask him. He sounds and seems so much like you. Sometimes you wonder who is doing the fixing and who is doing the talking, or whether you have suddenly become twins. Or maybe you are just looking in a mirror and talking back to yourself. Anyway you get the feeling that you have gotten a load off your mind after you leave the counselor and you are willing, often eager, to come back for more. The famous quotation: "If we could see ourselves as others see us,” explains the non-directive counselor’s role in therapy. If he is skill¬ ful in his reflecting technique, returning to our metaphor a few paragraphs back, he temporarily becomes a dynamic reservoir himself of the meaning that was personal to no one else in the world but you. In other words you empty the contents (feeling) of your reservoir into his receptive reservoir and he in turn empties it back into yours for realignment and reorganiza¬ tion. He allows you, often for the first time in your life, to relax and see yourself in the true perspective without emotionally based distortion. It is a flow concept, this non-directive therapy. It is a flow of feelings from you to the counselor and back again; and it gives you a chance to see your feel¬ ings "as others see” them (i.e. objectively). You can observe this flow as you would a river from the vantage point of a ship’s gun’ale — you are a part of the flow and yet you are apart from it— you can see the direction of it, the environment through which it passes and most important the reaction of that environment to it. If the flow of a river is fast and un¬ compromising and oblivious of what lies in its path, it cut a deep and jagged chasm in the earth, but if the flow is slow, stable and resilient to contours, the landscape gives way gently before it and the land slopes easily 282 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 down to the water’s edge distributing its lush greenery lavishly along the shore. Likewise if the flow of one’s feelings is fast, thoughtless and in¬ considerate, one will find it cutting a deep, jagged and painful chasm in the social milieu through which it passes. On the other hand if the flow is slow, stable and responsive to its surroundings, the social environment through which it passes will make a pathway for it and even strew palms along the way. It’s the non-directive therapist’s job to help the client ob¬ serve this flow and if necessary, help him correct it. It is the therapeutic hope of the proponents of the non-directive tech¬ nique that the client re-experience his personal meanings (which is actu¬ ally what he does in the catharsis and reassimilation process described above) while objectively sensing the need to reorganize and reaalign these mean¬ ings into a dynamic pattern that will be more effective socially. It is hoped that the weakness and inadequacy of his old interpretations will stand out in glaring relief. This hypothesis of course is predicated on the idea that all individuals wish to get well—that they are not confronted with in¬ surmountable internal or external blocks—that, in fact, they had the strength to create the problem and therefore they have the strength to solve it. An interesting thought in connection with the idea that individuals have a fundamental urge to organize their own pattern of meanings, to work out their own solutions to the problems of living, to make their own adaptation to life, is the comment that as soon as the counselor suggests some sort of solution to a client the latter’s solution, no matter how inade¬ quate it may have been, is "put in a bad light,” and his suffering ego jumps to the defense of its position against all odds, thus burying even deeper the pattern of personal meanings that were the cause of his maladjustment originally, and the counselor becomes another one of those people who "just don’t understand.” Non-directive counselors believe with a soul-encom¬ passing passion that the integrity of the individual is inviolate — a structure of shrine-like sanctity that was born to its own destiny and its own way of working out its destiny. Mentally, the non-directive counselor hangs a "hands-off” sign around the neck of every client before he opens the inter¬ view. The question naturally presents itself — How about the counselor? At what level of emotional maturity must he be perched in order to assist others to attain growth? Here again the proponents of the "listen and re¬ flect” school have a ready answer-— he must have achieved deep and ade¬ quate insight into his own inner organization and accepted it without reser¬ vation. Otherwise he would not be practicing what he preached— -he would be sighting the goose in favor of the gander. Not only that, but he would be inviting censure and a negative reaction in his client, because of all people the maladjusted will (unless they are mentally deficient) instantane¬ ously recognize one of their own kind. If the counselor hasn’t matured the client will sense it almost from the time he shakes hands and the immediate pessimism engendered will nullify the most flawless reflective technique. In other words, it isn’t the technique Dr. Rogers and the others would have the neophyte know, it’s himself — -Hence the saying "Know Thyself.” Hang the technique, anybody can pick that up with practice— it is the way of life, the philosophy, the self-knowledge that supports the sure fire counselor. Shakespeare would have you "know thyself.” Dr. Rogers and entourage 1950, No. 2 June 30 Non-directive Psychotherapy 283 would have you "^know thyself and accept thyself.” Furthermore, once the psychotherapist has completely accepted this philosophy of counseling (and life) he has to stay with it, because if he attempts to combine it with some other approach "only confusion and con¬ flict” result in the patient. He must keep the atmosphere of the interview consistently permissive. Victory vanishes with vacillation. Further evidence of the effectiveness of the non-directive technique is the fact that it has been increasingly demonstrated that verbal, formal structuring of the interview (i.e. defining the counseling relationship to the client) is not necessary. As insisted by Dr. Axline and others, just your talking with him, your permissively being there is quite enough, and verbal, formal structuring, if used by the therapist, is still not effective except in proportion to the permissiveness experienced by the client. Psychological growth again according to Axline has been observed many times in children in a free undirected play situation. There, "very young, emotionally de¬ prived children” exhibit a "drive for self-realization and maturity.” They emerge from the therapy more mature, independent and adjusted. From this she concludes: "If a young child can work through serious problems by means of non-directive therapy, then surely an adult is capable of doing so, too.” Basic to the philosophy of non-directive counseling is the idea that the individual is motivated toward growth and that once he makes the ac¬ quaintance of his real self (and that means more than a speaking acquaint¬ ance) and accepts this new found friend with all his faults and weaknesses as well as his strength he begins to respect him and have confidence in him. After this experience he is better able to accept other people for what they are and thereby get along with them. He will find a much pleasanter social climate when the real forces within him can find release. Any solution to a problem must be the clients, not the counselor’s and the latter cannot assist the former by merely repeating his words like a phonograph recorder; rather he needs to become a sensitive, selective, emo¬ tional sounding board. He needs to create a "safety zone” completely de¬ void of judgmental restrictions, an "emotional hospitality to a troubled and confused individual.” There’s the story about the time Dr. Burleigh B. Gardner, President of Social Research, Inc., was introduced without cere¬ mony or title to a disgruntled railroad dispatcher by a supervisor who was on his last legs not knowing what to do with the man. Naturally Dr. Gardner non-directed the conversation and a few days later (after the man’s discomforts had disappeared) the dispatcher commented to his boss: "Say that fellow, Mr. Gardner, really knows railroading.” "Seeing is believing” and the "proof of the pudding is in the eating” sum up the non-directive therapists’ answer to the "doubting Thomases” and as their case files fatten with the fruits of their labor and research or¬ ganizes and disseminates what has been learned, orthodox psychology will throw the latch string out and turn on the welcome sign. Non-directive psychotherapy definitely has its predecessors, according to Martin G. Staiman, in the Freudian emphasis on the idea that in therapy you not only have to treat the disease, you have to treat the patient and that the patient is a unique organization of id, ego, and super-ego; however, Alfred Adler had to secede from Dr. Freud’s group and see his "Individual 84 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Psychology” of purposivism and the wholistic concept of behavior before the concepts of non-directive therapy could emerge. "Enhancing the plasticity of the therapteutive environment” is another way of describing the intensity with which the non-directive people go all out for giving the individual a maximum of opportunity for self-direction, self-development and personal growth. There is no doubt but what these non-directive therapists are fundamentally committed to the idea that strength and power to meet the problems of life are generated totally within the self, i.e. self-instigated. As a matter of fact, if you were to choose any one word in the English language that came closer to the core of non-direc¬ tive philosophy than any other it would have to be self- — not a static, passive self, but a dynamic, adaptive, adjustive, growing self. It is simul¬ taneously the raw material and the manufactured product of psychotherapy as far as non-directive therapy is concerned. This idea of inner consistency, oneness, uniqueness has some earmarks of Gesalt psychology. N-D conceives each person as pregnant, creative, and of necessity a growing, producing organism that will and does change for the better. A change in one part of a person inevitably and simultaneously causes a change in the rest of his personality. Within each individual there is a force, an impelling urge toward the achievement of harmony, both from within and without, a tendency toward making the personality both peripherally and internally a compatible, identifiable whole. Individual N-D therapy seems to have been expanded successfully into group N-D therapy according to Coombs and Cantor and in some colleges the "forgotten man” seems to have been the student. The followers of Dr. Rogers’ philosophy would stem the tide of directive pedagogy and bring "permissiveness” into the classroom so that each student’s personal poten¬ tial could contribute to the communal potential and at the same time gain strength for itself. In other words, the more you put your potential through its paces, the more potential you will have. Bearing in mind my neophyte-like acquaintance with this technique of psychotherapy I hesitate to generalize, and yet I can’t help feeling that when and if the twenty-first century psychologists attempt an evaluation of N-D’s contribution to mid-twentieth century psychology, they will rank first its "all out” focus on the individual as a dynamic, purposive organism that was born to a greater destiny than a psychotic’s cell and with the inherent ability to achieve that destiny. A superficial acquaintance v/ith N-D can very easily lead one to ques¬ tion the apparent passivity of the counselor in the therapeutic process. It might be said that anyone can be a good listener or that it doesn’t require an exceptional acumen to repeat back to a client something he has said. Right there Oliver H. Brown puts his foot down with a bang. Yes, an untrained counselor may be able to accept, structure, and reflect what has come out of the client’s mouth, but not understandingly. To fully comprehend an emotional Vesuvius that erupts in circuitous, elusive, and incognito ways requires more than leather bottomed chairs with faces above them. Quite the contrary, it demands a keen, human, respon¬ sive person who has lived enough of life to have more than a quoting ac¬ quaintance with philosophy and psychology ... a person whose clay has come from native soil and been molded in the kiln of reality; a person whose travels haven’t always been vacations and whose soul remembers its 1950, No. 2 June 30 Non-directive Psyceiotherapy 285 bitter as well as its better days. Not just anybody can be a successful N-Der no more so than anybody can be a salesman, teacher, or lawyer. It takes a certain amount of special native equipment with a number of special at¬ tachments that are added later — special skills that necessarily go with the profession and which are acquired by intensive practical study and work. Put all of this together, put it to work, and then watch the neurosis take a powder. The counselor has the very definite job of picking up emotional overtones, undertones, and in-between tones whenever they pop up and re¬ flecting them in their total client-centered significance; he must be eternally and unwaveringly committed to understanding the client and on the client’s terms, not his own. This understanding attitude on the part of the coun¬ selor must be the real thing, no facsimiles will do. A grandfather’s solici¬ tousness, a peeping paternalism, or a holier than thou puritanism are arsenic to the counseling relationship. It’s all or none with no half-breeds allowed —either you embrace the philosophy of permissiveness completely or you find the air a bit chilly and seek out a more compatible climate. Not that the N-Ders would freeze you out (that would be against their precepts of permissiveness and acceptance) rather you evacuate on your own ac¬ cord, realizing that the N-D technique was not like a suit of clothes, that you put on or take off to suit the occasion. However, in this connection it might be mentioned that in several instances directive and non-directive therapy have been combined- — -where a directive therapist who might have reached an impasse, an emotional block, turns the case over to a non¬ directive co-worker who, working with the client through the volatile area on his own terms, restores his emotional liability, and frees him once more to resume his progress with the directive therapist— a kind of complemen¬ tarity, as it were, between directive and non-directive people. An additional point that is worthy of consideration is the possibility of client-centered counseling being applied to vocational and educational guidance. An indication of a trend in this direction is the fact that the Veterans Administration has established and activated the professional position of personal counselor in all of its regional offices throughout the United States. Primarily, the personal counselor in a Veterans Administra¬ tion Regional Office functions in close liaison with the Rehabilitation Di¬ vision as well as the Mental Hygiene Clinic. These counselors have been reporting for some time now of the successful use of N-D counseling as an integral part of the veterans vocational and educational readjustment. It has been found by counselors and others working in other institutions, clinics, and guidance centers that many times a vocational problem is in reality an emotional problem, and that once the counselee is exposed to the proper permissive atmosphere and experiences a feeling of complete ac¬ ceptance, he begins talking about problems and conflicts which he would never have verbalized in a conventional vocational guidance set-up of tests, dispensation of occupational information, and job referrals. By this state¬ ment it is not meant that all vocational problems are rooted in emotional conflicts— rather there is good evidence to support the conclusion that the choosing of a vocation by an individual becomes a lot easier if he is freed of any emotional difficulties which he has. Several studies are in progress relative to this application of N-D psychotherapy, one of which has as its thesis the advisability of using vo¬ cational tests, protective techniques, and other forms of measurement in 286 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 connection with N-D counseling. Other studies have already shown rather conclusively in some instances that, in situations where you have a typical vocational guidance set-up with tests and interviewers, who tell the client what to do, it is possible to have an individual choose whether he wants to take the tests, choose what tests he wants to take and then, with the proper psychological set-up and after the test results have been graphically presented to him, allow him to interpret them himself. Other research has begun moving in the direction of objectifying the empirical and subjective data which is now the most convincing evidence available as proof of the personality changes which eventuate from suc¬ cessful N-D therapy. To boil the discussion in this paper down, the client boils over and the counselor doesn’t mind being scalded. Quoting Dr. Rogers: "'Amid the pressure of real life situations, it is almost never possible to do this (to express your real self). Some sort of defensive front must be maintained in every situation. But in the counseling relationship, freed from any necessity of being defensive, the client for the first time has an opportunity to take a frank look at himself, to go behind the front and make a true evaluation.” "As he finds this unconventional self, this hidden self, is comfortably accepted by the counselor, the client is also able to accept this hitherto un¬ revealed self as his own. In place of anxiety and worry, and feelings of in¬ adequacy, the client develops an acceptance of his strengths and weak¬ nesses as being a realistic and comfortable point of departure for progress toward maturity. Instead of striving desperately to be what he is not, the client finds that there are many advantages in being what he is and in developing the growth possibilities which are genuinely indigenous.” 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted to The Editor, Texas Journal of Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬ cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. 2. Each manuscript must be accompanied by two copies of an abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper. If the paper can be much improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes. 3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: — Title Name of Author Affiliation of Author Body of Paper Bibliography 4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in the text should be by author’s name and date of publication. The use of footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased time and raises costs. 5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis. - - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps. - — - 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis. The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all. 6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the Academy publishing budget. However, for the present it is desirable that they be kept at a minimum. All illustrations should be in black and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬ trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should be precise and included with the drawing and illustration. The Texas Journal of Science 1950. No. 2 June 30 7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬ sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography. Printing tables is very expensive. 8. Arrangements are being made with the publisher to furnish three sets of proofts to the editor so that one may be sent to the author for proof reading before publication. However, until we are able to get a sufficient mass of type set ahead, it will be very necessary to return this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author. 9. Arrangements are being made to furnish reprints. The follow¬ ing schedule of prices will apply, subject to change. They are identical with those charged by Copeia, the official Journal of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. It will be necessary for a check to accompany orders for reprints, which may be returned with the proof. This, of course, does not apply to institutional orders, but only to Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps book¬ keeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter despite the fact that in the past it has been the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual member. 100 Copies On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper Pages Pages Pages Pages 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 12 to 16 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 15.40 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84 Each Additional 100 Copies 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 5.81 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91 10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. Publications Committee J. L. Baughman, Editor L. W. Blau John G. Sinclair J. Brian Eby 1 Page 4.62 1.58 1950, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex. JOHN S. IVY Geologist 1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Reports Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 943 Mell’e Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph. FA-7086 PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas i LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting Horvitz Research Laboratories Houston, Texas Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street WILLKE’S DIXIE PHARMACY 1902 North Main Street Houston 9, Texas Complete Pr^eription Service MICHEL T. HALBOUTY Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376 E. E. ROSAIRE ^ Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS. TEXAS SHERMAN NELSON - OIL — Royalty — Leases Seguin. Texas H. KLAUS Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Consulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5. TEXAS Consulting Geologists Appraisals Reservoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental Building DALLAS. TEXAS PAUL CHARRIN President PERFORATING GUNS ATLAS CORPORATION 913 Union National Bank Bldg. Houston, Texas PR-0060 FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS COMPANY, INC. Contractors and Engineers 3018 Leeland Houston, Texas Phone AT-2451 _ _ _ _ The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 Professional Directory Continued COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas BOOK MART If the book is “out of print” or hard to find, let us find it for you. Our search service has been very successful in locat¬ ing thousands of “out of print” books. Send us yoar inquiries. Houston, Texas A MUST for Visitors When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you've had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf Grill. Don’t miss seeing one of the South’s finest eating rooms. Sam Maceo, Managing Director TURF GRILL 2216 Market • Galveston, Texas As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our adver¬ tisers, please make mention of the fact that you saw their adver¬ tisement in The Texas Journal of Science. 1950, No, 2 June SO The Texas Journal of Science Petroleum Products of proven quality HUMBLE W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY Domestic Export LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS for Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service Laboratories HOUSTON, TEXAS, U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA. SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC. 1007 South Shepherd Drive Houston, Texas Established — 1932 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 2 June 30 cp4lway.3 Choose an Affiliated National Hotel! 32 Fine Hotels in 23 Cities AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS ALABAMA Hotel Admiral Semmes . . Mobile Hotel Thomas Jefferson . ..Birmingham DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Hotel Washington . ...Washington INDIANA Hotel Claypool . .Indianapolis LOUISIANA Jung Hotel Hotel . DeSoto . 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BAROID SAIES DIVISION AAA NATIONAL LEAD COMPANY LOS ANGELES 12 • TULSA 3 • HOUSTON 2 CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. Collese, College Station Editors: J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J. G. Sinclair Human health, hygiene and public health: C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities: Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. ; L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors : Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent: C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas Cocouncillors : Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations, J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin Cocouncillors : Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort. Worth Wild Life, Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Auslin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Food quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth Marine resources J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocouncillors : Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur — . . . . . . . — Ceraihic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientifle workers together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and th® government on scientific matters; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections; Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches ; !^st Texas, South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP; “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of science” is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS; The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are Incorporated in THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters. MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the spring of each year. DUES; Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $60.00 in one payment. Sustaining Member, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active members. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each. The Lilarapy * ‘ SBithsonain iJisUtution wasMng.i;ojm 25, D. C» RECORD PRINT, SAN MARCOS, TEX. Published Quarterly at San Marcos, Texas Volume II, No. 8 September 30, 1950 (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Tex. March 21, 1949) CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE • . ' . CONTENTS Our Life Sustaining Land. Bentley Glass _ _ _ What Texas May Expect from Chemurgy. Victor H. Schoeffelmayer _ _ _ _ Ships of the Seven Seas. J. L. Baughman _ The South Looks Ahead. Dr. Paul W. Chapman _ Plankton. Willis G. Hewatt _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The Concept of Geographic Range. Karl P. Schmidt _ Nature with a Camera - - - - - - Natural History Notes on the Lemon Shark. Stewart Springer _ _ — _ _ _ _ - (Continued Inside) _ 287 296 301 _ 310 _ _ 321 _ 326 _ 335 EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical, Br. U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A & M College Station Secretary-Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Editor J. L. Baughman Marine Lab., G.F.O.C. Rockport Pres. Conserv. Coun. J. G. Sinclair Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Rep. to A.A.A.S. C. D. Leake Dean, Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston V President, Sec, I, Physical C. F. Squire Physics, Rice Institute Houston V. Pres., Sec. II, Biological S. H. Hopkins Biology, A. & M. College Station V. Pres., Sec. Ill, Social R. H. Sutherland Hogg Foundation, U. of T. Austin V. Pres., Sec. IV, Geological A. A. L. Mathews Geology, U. of H. Houston V. Pres., Sec. V, Conservation V. H. Schoffelmayer Texas Chemurgic Council Dallas Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Biology, A. & M. College Station Junior Academy Greta Oppe Chemistry, Ball High Galveston BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A. & M. College Station Secretary-Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Elected Director J. C. Godbey Chemistry, Southwestern U. Georgetown Elected Director W. Armstrong Price Geologist College Station Elected Director Gordon Gunter Marine Lab., U. of T. Port Aransas BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) W. R. Woolrich, Dean Engineering, U. of T. Austin L. W. Blau Humble Oil & Refining Co. Houston E. DeGolyer DeGolyer & McNaughton Dallas J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist Houston 0. S. Petty Petty Geophysical Co. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE San Antonio Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.O. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood E’. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. Dallas E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Freepoi*t C. M. Shigley, Research. Dow (Jhemical Co. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F. A. S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.C. Stephen ville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T, Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor NOTICE TO ALL MEMBERS This is the seventh issue of the Journal, and you will notice a number of changes. As a large part of the membership does not ordinarily express their opinion in regard to the publication, your editor and the editorial board are taking this means of finding out your reaction to the present volume. Please fill out this sheet and mail it to THE EDITOR, TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE BOX 867, ROCKPORT, TEXAS 1. Do you like this issue better than the previous ones? _ _ YES _ _ NO 2. Do you like the increased number of cuts? _ YES NO 3. Do you like the paper (which is the same used by the National Geographic) ? _ YES NO 4. Do you like the size of the Journal? _ YES NO 5. Do you like the cover _ _ YES _ _ NO 6. Please fill in the following blanks with numbers in the order of your preference. That is, after the name of the paper you like best, put a one, the second best, a two and, so on. Our Life Sustaining Land _ _ The South Looks Ahead _ _ _ Ships of the Seven Seas - - - The Concept of Geographic Range - - Plankton _ _ _ Notes on the Lemon Shark _ Natural History Photos _ _ Mammals of the Stockton Plateau _ Morphology of Loxytholacus _ Sperm Formation in Gambusia _ Treatments for Hypocalcemia _ Effect of Aluminum Chloride _ Wild Pot Herbs of Texas . Spermiogenesis of Insects _ Four Beam Color Television - _ _ Rural Sociology _ _ Bibliography of Entomology _ _ Climatic Conditions and Huisache _ What Texas May Expect from Chemurgy - Remarks (Use other side of sheet if necessary) : OCT 2 3 IS50 CONTENTS— continued The Morphology of Loxothylacus T exanus Boschma, A Saccuiinid Parasite of the Blue Crab. Edward G. Reinhard _ _ 360 Unusual Climatic Conditions in Texas 1949-1950. Gordon Gunter _ _ 366 The Mammals of the Stockton Plateau of Northeastern Terrell County, Texas. Jack A. Herrmann _ 368 Treatments for Hypocalcemia on Parathyroidectomized Cricetus Auratus Waterhouse. Edmund B, Steuben _ 394 Sperm Formation in Gambmia Af finis. Ammon B. Medlen.._. 395 Wild Pot Herbs of Texas. Julia Jones _ 400 The Effect of Aluminum Chloride in Small Concentration on Various Marine Organisms. T. E. Pulley _ 40 5 A Four Beam System of Color Television Transmission and Reception. Frank M. Wood, Jr. _ _ _ 412 A Review of Spermiogenesis in Insects, with a Study of the Process in Hippiscus Rugosus under the Phase Microscope. Lawrence S. Dillon _ _ 419 Bibliography of the Division of Entomology State Department of Health. Richard R. Eads _ 431 What Texas Should Expect from Rural Sociology. R. L. Skrabanek _ 43 3 Book Reviews _ : _ _ 43 8 Forecast of Things to Come . _ _ _ _ _ 443 W. Eugene Smith from Black Star THE VITAL RELATIONSHIP between the soil and living things is symbolized in this picture of a herd of Holsteins grazing near Pawling, New York. As they graze, the cattle obtain needed nutrients from the soil; but if a nice balance of elements in the soil is not maintained, the animals may become sick and even die. Not far from the scene of this photograph first appeared the baffling X-Disease described in Dr. Glass’ article. Texas Journol of Science Vol. II September 30, 195 0 No. 3 OUR LIFE-SUSTAINING LAND BENTLEY GLASS Associate Professor of Biology Johns Hopkins University Nothing stands alone. Our lives and our well being are inextricably bound together with all the other living things of this world, and all depend upon the soil itself. In this most interesting article, republished through the courtesy of Dr, Glass and the Johns Hopkins Magazine, is found an approach to questions which touch on the secrets of life itself. In 1939, a new and mysterious disease struck a herd of dairy cattle in New York State. The animals shed copious tears and drooled at the mouth. Then they grew listless and lost weight, even though they con¬ tinued to eat. Their skins became dry, and crusts of horny keratin devel¬ oped in scattered spots. Patches of their hair fell out; the growth of their horns was irregular and defective. Especially characteristic was the growth of glistening, fleshly papillae inside the mouth, over cheeks, gums, palate, and tongue. Finally, in a high percentage of the cases, the animals died. Since 1946, the puzzling "X-Disease” has been reported in many states. Losses have been serious. Scientists, analyzing carefully the facts sur¬ rounding it, have found them baffling. One herd might be hit severely; another, in a neighboring pasture, would remain in perfect health. All the calves in a diseased herd might be dead or dying; yet a young calf from another herd, brought in and put to milk to a sick cow, would remain un¬ harmed. Nor did the disease seem to pass from one animal to another. Their observations, summarized in a conference at the McCollum-Pratt Institute at Johns Hopkins last year, brought the scientists to the conclu¬ sion that the diease was not caused by an infectious agent — a virus, or bac¬ terium, or fungus. More likely, they decided, it came from the soil; perhaps some toxic substance, present in the land, had been transmitted to the cattle through the plants on which they grazed — -or perhaps a shortage of some necessary nutrient had brought on the disease. Man has become aware of the complex and vital effects of elements in the soil only in relatively recent times. True, he has sensed his de¬ pendence on the soil for as long as he has been capable of observing the processes of life, but only vaguely: plants grow in the earth; man is sus¬ tained by the plants and by the animals which feed upon them. But today, it is evident to man that there is far more to the relationship between life and the soil than he had previously suspected. There are nice balances of elements in the soil, he is beginning to understand, upon which his own welfare — and indeed that of all living things— —depends. The case of the cattle disease is an illustration of how little, actually, man does know about these things. Out of the accumulated experiences and knowledge of the many scientists who have worked with that prob- Joe Horowits from Black Star lem, there comes the conclusion that man’s whole concept of the soil and its effects on life needs clarification. One can get an idea of the urgent importance of learning more about such things from the clues which have already presented themselves. Vita¬ mins everyone knows of. But there are certain other vitally important con¬ stituents of the diet that are required in far smaller amounts even than vitamins. These are certain minerals in nutrition now called 'Trace ele¬ ments,” or micronutrients. The need for two of these minerals has been known for some time: iron and iodine. "Have you had your iron today?” has become almost as familiar an advertising slogan as some of those used to popularize vitamins. Sales of raisins and spinach have been boosted; Popeye became a national hero among the young fry. So it comes as rather a shock to learn that the human requirement for iron is only about one-third or one-fourth of that for vitamin C, and about equal to that for niacin, even though a greater amount of iron is needed than of any other trace element. The total amount of iron in your body is rather less than one-tenth of an ounce— about the weight of a small nail. More is known regarding the reason why iron is essentia! for health than about any other mineral element, for a shortage of iron brings about anemia. The red cells of the blood contain a substance necessary for carry¬ ing the oxygen of the air from the lungs to all parts of the body. This substance is hemoglobin, which owes its red color to the iron it contains. Since there are about 250 million red cells in each drop of normal blood, it might be supposed that, a lot of iron would be needed. But this is not so, for two reasons. First, only one atom of iron is needed for hun- 289 Ronny Jaques from Black Star dreds and hundreds of other atoms in the structure of a hemoglobin mole¬ cule. Second, the iron from wornout red cells is saved and used over and over by the body as it makes new blood cells. So only enough iron is needed to supply the increase in the amount of blood as one grows — plus a little to replace what becomes lost in one way or another. This is the chief need for iron, but not the only one. It is also essen¬ tial for the formation of some of the important enzymes that enable cells to use the oxygen brought to them and so to produce energy and do their work. It is characteristic of enzymes that they are not used up. After being used, they remain as before. So here again is an explanation why so little iron is needed in our food, even though it be so necessary for our health, (The same applies to vitamins, too. Most of them are used in making enzymes which are not consumed.) Our ideas of where to get the iron we need in our diet are mostly quite wrong. Twenty boxes of raisins a day, or a full pound of spinach, would be needed to supply the minute amount we must have to stay healthy. The over-refinement of certain foods, such as sugar and white flour, which were originally good sources of iron, has brought Americans to the brink of nutritional disaster. Children in institutions probably suffer from a deficiency of iron more frequently and more severely than they do from any other dietary lack. At least that was true until we started, about 1940, to "enrich” our white flour by putting back into it some of the things which milling had taken out. Bread enrichment will help to correct such situations as were common from 1880 to 1940. For example: 290 J. L. Charlton from Black Star Thirty per cent of 3,445 school children in Florida- — anemic; Eight per cent of pre-school children in Gary, Indiana — anemic; Forty-two per cent of breast-fed and seventy per cent of bottle-fed babies in London-— anemic; Sixteen per cent of adolescent girls and forty-five per cent of adult women in Aberdeen, Scotland — anemic. Iodine, next. The body needs only about one per cent as much iodine as iron. In fact, the amount of iodine required is less than one-tenth of the need for vitamin Bi (thiamin) and hardly one-twentieth of that for vitamin B2 (riboflavin). Yet without iodine for the thryroid gland, located at the base of the throat, to make its hormone, the activity of the body becomes sluggish. The thyroid gland itself overworks in the effort to produce enough hormone, and it often enlarges to form a goiter. Near the seacoast, where water and vegetables get plenty of iodine from the sea, this does not happen. But in regions where thousands of years ago the top-soil was scoured away by glaciers, as in Switzerland or our own Great Lakes region, goiter has been common. The animals, too, have suffered from the lack of iodine in these regions, and farmers were once greatly troubled because their cattle, horses, sheep, and goats, as well as their wives, so often had stillbirths or became sterile; for pregnancy, like adolescence, raises the need for iodine in the body. A hundred years ago the Frenchman Chatin discovered the connection between goiter and a lack of iodine, but it was not until 1916 that two American doctors. Marine and Kimball, showed by feeding small doses of sodium iodide to two thousand small school children in Akron, Ohio twice 291 Russell W. Walker from Black Star a year, and later to others in Cleveland, that iodine in the diet would make the goiters disappear. Among Detroit school children, goiter was cut from an appalling thirty-five per cent to one per cent in eleven years. Now everyone knows about iodized table salt, although not with the realization, perhaps, that only half the salt sold in the stores has the added iodine needed to prevent goiter. The most recent additions to the list of vitally needed minerals include copper, manganese, zinc, and cobalt. The amount of these in the human body are fantastically low; a few parts per million in food, milk, or water are adequate to keep the body replenished. Copper, like iron, is necessary for the formation of red blood cells. More than that, it is probably also required for the activity of one or more of those important enzymes which regulate the respiration of living cells. This is certainly true of zinc, which is known to be a part of the en¬ zyme that makes carbon dioxide and water combine readily into carbonic acid in the blood and reverses this process in the lungs. Were it not for this, the blood could not serve as an efficient carrier of carbon dioxide and bring about its elimination from the body. This brings us to the frontier of knowledge. Hov/ many more trace elements are important in food? It seems impossible to find out by the old method of looking for animals or persons who suffer from some lack of a micronutrient. Even of zinc, copper, or manganese so very little is needed that it is practically out of the question to find a natural diet that is deficient, or even to pre¬ pare one artificially. New methods are needed, such as those now being used and developed by the scientists at the McCollum-Pratt Institute at Weber — H U Illustrations HOW DO LIVING THINGS make use of the tiny traces of elements which they get from the soil? By making the elements radioactive, and then introducing them into the food of plants and animals, Hopkins scientists trace them with Geiger counters to find out. Above Dr. William D. McElroy, director of the McCollum-Pratt Institute at Hopkins, tests a plant for radioactivity. Hopkins, which was founded for the express purpose^ of further exploring the realm of trace elements in living organisms. Plants offer one clue. Many kinds of plants will show the effects of the tiniest deficiency in the amount of zinc, copper, manganese, or other trace elements they need by changes in their leaves. Tobacco leaves, for example, become dwarfed and checkered with small yellow dead spots from a shortage of manganese, or lose color and develop large yellow and brown patches if they have insufficient zinc. The upper leaves wilt permanently when it is copper that is too scarce. The study of plants leads to unexpected new discoveries, too. Not all the trace elements needed by animals and people seem to be required by the plants themselves. Vegetables from the seacoast, fortunately for us, con¬ tain a good deal of iodine; but the plants do not seem to need it at all. Molybdenum, on the other hand, is a trace element quite necessary for plants; yet to animals even the smallest amount seems to act as a cumula¬ tive poison. Molybdenum added to deficient soil improves the growth of clover and other legumes; it stimulates the activity of the bacteria on the roots — those bacteria that fix nitrogen from the air and make it available for the plants to use. But even five parts per million of molybdenum in GROWTH- DRY WEIGHT Spurbeck — J H U Illustrations JUST A TRACE. OF ZINC in the food of the tomato plant on the right, above, made the difference between its growth and that of the plant on the left, which is zinc-deficient. Both were started at the same time and grown under carefully controlled conditions at the McCollum-Pratt Institute. The chart shows how zinc in the plants’ food can affect their growth: too little zinc (left of chart) stunts their growth, while too much (right) may have the same result. In between, however, the proper quantity of the element helps the plants to flourish. 293 294 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 the plants they eat in their pastures make cattle sick. It may be the cause of the mysterious cattle disease described at the beginning of this article. One line the trace-element investigators at the McCollum-Pratt Institute are trying to pursue is to find out what such tiny amounts of molybdenum do in plants and why almost equally small amounts make animals — and perhaps people, too — sick. Any substance that is needed by a plant or an animal in such infinitesi¬ mal traces very probably belongs to the makeup of an enzyme which renders some vital process possible and regulates its rate. That has already turned out to be the case for most, if not all, of the vitamins. Consequently it seems easiest to detect the trace elements by isolating the enzymes, and then finding out what particular vitamins and trace elements they happen to contain. The connection between the vitamin and metal micronutrient may be very close. For example, when the new vitamin B12 was first purified during the past year, it was discovered to have a ruby-red color, attributed to cobalt. At least cobalt was present. Maybe the cobalt is a part of the vitamins, or maybe the cobalt and the B12 vitamin are both parts of the same complex enzyme system and have to work together. Whichever may turn out to be true, the association between a vitamin and a patricular trace element forms an important clue. One way of following up such a clue is to see whether or not the lack of a certain trace element — -zinc, for example — is in any way con¬ nected with altered amounts of certain vitamins or amino acids (the con¬ stituents of proteins) in the organism. Find such a relation, one of the Flopkins scientists says, and there is a good chance to discover specifically why the trace element is so important. Perhaps zinc, for example, is needed for some of the enzymes required for growth. Perhaps we can find out just what protein substances it helps to make. That would be a big step for¬ ward in understanding growth. Another way of following the clue — a way the Hopkins scientists are also employing— is to make the trace element radioactive and then intro¬ duce it into the food of an animal or plant. The radioactive isotopes of the metal elements come, of course, from the great atomic energy labora¬ tories at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Because enzymes are characteristically protein substances, and because every plant and animal must make its own proteins out of simpler substances, it is relatively easy to get the plant or animal to incorporate the radioactive trace element into one of its enzymes, if it normally uses that element in the synthesis of an enzyme. Then the tissues of the organism are analyzed. Geiger counters and other instruments are used to follow the radioactivity of the trace element while the various proteins are being separated and isolated by standard processes— until that particular enzyme into which the radioactive tracer was put by the plant or animal can be identified. New enzymes will thus be discovered and their uses learned. Then we will know why these fan¬ tastically small amounts of certain metal elements are needed in our food. Health is something positive— not just the absence of disease. That positive aspect of health resides in the constitution of the individual, for 1950, No. 3 September 30 Our Life-Sustaining Land 295 the constitution determines whether infection or injury will be transient or long-lasting, mild or severe. One’s constitution depends in great part on one’s unique assortment of genes, which determine whether or not the enzymes needed in the con¬ trol of growth processes and metabolism can be synthesized by the body. But the production of crucial enzymes also depends on the supply of nec¬ essary constituents from outside the body. Hence the importance of the trace elements in nutrition. A new chapter in the history of public health is being written by the men who work with enzymes and the infinitesimal quantities of micronu¬ trients needed to form them. The result may not extend the human life span beyond three-score and ten nor even greatly alter average life ex¬ pectancy. But it should help to produce a people at all ages healthy and vigorous and strong to resist disease. 296 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 80 WHAT TEXAS MAY EXPECT FROM CHEMURGY VICTOR H, SCHOEFFELMAYER Agricultural Consultant Southwest Research Institute San Antonio, Texas Agricultural surpluses are again beginning to trouble farmers and . agencies concerned with the farmer’s welfare. In past years American agriculture depended largely upon export outlets for crop and livestock surpluses. These foreign markets, however, have shrunk greatly, unless we simply want to give away our products and make up the deficit from the national treasury. The latter method is uneconomical, to say the least, and must stop somewhere. When that time arrives the answer to the ever- recurring problem of crop surpluses is in chemurgic utilization. Chemurgy aims to convert all surplus products of the soil and all wastes into useful articles of commerce, especially industrial goods aside from food and feed. Chemurgy goes still further. It finds new uses for such established fibers as cotton, or the cellulose from trees, the bagasse from sugarcane and the wastes from other crops. Through the application of chemistry and biology to plain wood fibers and sugars stored in our pines and hardwoods these raw materials become ethyl alcohol and acetic acid or livestock molasses to replace Cuban '"black¬ strap” or a food yeast containing 50 to 56 per cent available protein which either animals or human beings can consume, REGIONAL RESEARCH The four regional research laboratories set up in this country during the last seven years show the possibilities of chemurgy when the prob¬ lems of crop and animal product surpluses are attacked scientifically and logically. Texas, as the nation’s greatest agricultural state, stands to gain vastly from chemurgic research not only at those four regional chemical labora¬ tories located at New Orleans, San Francisco, Philadelphia and Peoria, where hundreds of the nation’s most eficient chemists, physicists, biolo¬ gists and engineers are discovering new uses for crop surpluses, crop wastes and by-products and for many long established raw materials of the farm, ranch and forest. Texas only needs to avail itself of this great reservoir of scientific knowledge to benefit not only its agriculture and horticulture but many other industries. Because Texas has largely remained a raw materials-producing state, shipping its cotton, grain sorghums, fruits and vegetables, wool and mo¬ hair, cattle and other livestock to Northern and Eastern outlets, or abroad rather than finishing these at home, its producers have had to content them¬ selves with nickels and dimes instead of the dollars which manufactured 1950, No. 3 September 30 Texas and Chemurgy 297 articles often bring. Chemurgic industries for our principal farm com¬ modities will change this unfavorable balance into one bringing to agri¬ culture and stock raising greater prosperity. Let us examine that statement in concrete terms a moment. Suppose that our nearly 100,000,000 pounds of Texas annual wool clip were pro¬ cessed at home, recovering the valuable chemicals in the dirt and grease as is now done in New England, and wool were made into innumerable articles of commerce, all these new industries would not only offer new jobs to our young men and women of the ranch country but their earn¬ ings would enrich our merchants and others wherever that money may be spent. Furthermore, if the lush Lower Rio Grande Valley, with its citrus and truck crops now moving to all parts of the nation, were in position to process, chemically or otherwise, many of its raw materials — -citrus, papaya, carrots, beets, spinach, alfalfa, grain sorghums and others — processing in a big way all by product materials now going to waste- — millions of dollars would be added to the Valley’s annual returns to growers and processors. TREES ARE CHEMICALS Similarly, if the East Texas pine and hardwood forest region ever looks at trees as something more than a source of lumber and fence posts, and thinks of them in terms of chemicals, our 11,000,000 acres of forest land could be made to return double and treble its present $100,000,000 of annual revenue. Our East Texas forests could supply many wood-using industries in addition to the present 600-odd lumber mills — industries mak¬ ing newsprint and kraft paper, cartons and shipping cases, replacing scarce white pine and spruce formerly used for these purposes. The larger lumber mills could add supplementary mills, to convert sawdust into glucose sugar or live stock molasses to fatten our pineywoods cattle, and thus pro¬ vide much needed carbohydrate feedstuff. Chemurgy will add rayon mills to our East Texas economy as our progressive industrialists follow the pattern of other forest states to make chemical use of the cellulose in our trees. All we need is to apply the sci¬ entific knowledge that is available. If we stop to think a moment and recognize the important chemical fact that every ton of sawdust contains approximately 1,000 pounds of sugar, besides 600 pounds of lignin (about which we know very little) we should realize that in that large quantity of raw sugar is the beginning of various great chemical industries — ethyl alcohol (needed by most chemi¬ cal industries in the making of dryers, paints, varnishes, lacquers, pharma¬ ceuticals, cosmetics, beverages, foods) and many others. We have not scratched the surface of the challenging possibilities still buried in our wonderful forest regions. East Texas needs more industries to replace those based on petroleum and natural gas, which sooner or later may become limited. We can grow our forests year after year under proper scientific management and reforestation. We can develop various chemurgic indus¬ tries to use those ever renewable raw materials— wood, crops, fruits — which are largely sunshine and air and take so little from the soil. 298 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Chemurgy will bring to Texas new crops and new opportunities. It will encourage such new soil-building crops as guar, which not only re¬ juvenates worn out cotton and rice lands, but will add many dollars to the farmer’s income from sale of Mannogalactan gum needed as a domestic source of mucilage and as a sizing for paper and textile products. Guar may become an established new winter cover for Central Texas flax fields and perhaps cotton fields, as farmers learn of its value. NEW CHEMURGIC CROPS chemurgy is adding such new crops as sesame, safflower, flax, sun¬ flowers and others as sources of vegetable oils — both food oils and indus¬ trial drying oils or bases for perfumes and cosmetics. Still other new crops having chemurgic uses are sweet goldenrod, on which the Texas Chemurgic Research Laboratory at Texas A ’& M College has been working to point the way to new enterprise, and perhaps Stillingia nuts, a source of vege¬ table wax that could take the place of imported Brazilian carnauba wax needed for floor polishes and furniture finishing. Let us not forget the mighty role of such chemurgic products in a wholly new field — the biological-— -in which moulds are made into pharma¬ ceuticals and medicinals to cure stubborn maladies. The growing of such moulds on muds, distilling slops, sugars and other hosts is truly the latest chemurgic industry. It is an application of chemistry and biology to raw material not dreamed of a dozen years ago. But let us not stop there. Why should the semi-tropical areas of Texas not undertake to raise some of those needed medicinal crops such as cortisone, the promising relief or cure for some forms of rheumatoid arth¬ ritis. Wild yams and an African vine (Strophantus) will probably be raised commercially in the lower Rio Grande Valley to meet the rising de¬ mand for this product, grown on land which will not be needed for cotton and many other staples as foreign lands become gradually more self suffi¬ cient in supplying their essential needs. Our cotton farmers should be thinking about some of these and other new crops and processes which have been neglected so long and which offer so much. NEW CHEMURGIC TRAILS Chemurgy will blaze the way to new enterprises. It is the leaven in an agriculture which often is threatened with stagnation. As our land owners and farmers, and industrial processors begin to think in new, pro¬ gressive terms they will help to infuse new life into areas which, without new crops or new uses of old crops, are doomed to die. We can prevent "ghost” towns by adding chemurgic industries wherever warranted. Everything that comes from the soil is a chemical raw material which can be put to various uses aside from the limited outlets supplied by the human or animal stomach. Many of these raw materials can take the place of iron, steel, copper, nickel, lead and zinc, petroleum and natural gas 1950, No. 3 September 30 Texas and Chemurgy 299 (all non-replaceable raw materials). Chemurgy makes plastics from wood, cotton, soybeans, sweet potatoes, milk and other farm products which are virtually equal to aluminum and light steel in building materials. Chemurgy is constantly developing substitutes for cotton, silk and linen, for paper and metals. Texas is destined to play a basic role in chemurgic develop¬ ment because of its climatic and other advantages, its wide array of raw materials and fuels, its forests, and its location on the Gulf of Mexico. And last but not least, chemurgy aids every movement to safeguard these natural resources— soil, water, trees, grass— as fundamental to Texas sta¬ bility and continued welfare. Courtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va. FIGUREHEAD of the American bark, Belle of Oregon. Who this young lady was, clothed with ruffles and flounces in the style of another day, we have no way of knowing, but often the woodcarver’s sweetheart or the ship¬ owner’s daughter served as a model for a figurehead. 300 THIS MURAL, by Griffith Bailey Coale, depicts graphically the development of the square sail, from a skin held by a lonely figure on a raft, to the towering masses of canvas that sent our tea clippers racing around the world. SHIPS OF THE SEVEN SEAS A MINIATURE HISTORY OF WATER TRANSPORTATION J. L. BAUGHMAN 1 Chief Marine Biologist Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Do you like the sea and ships? Have you ever seen a whale’s tooth? Do you like to build ship models? Do you get more thrill out of the ex¬ ploits of Leif Ericsson or the model of a Chinese pirate junk than you do out of a baseball game? If you do, then visit the Mariner’s Museum at Courtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va. 301 AN OIL PAINTING of the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, between the Christian forces of the Western world and the Turkish fleet. More than 600 vessels, mostly galleys, took part in this, the last great battle in which oar-propelled vessels were used. l-S ^ bJO JS rt ^ O) Oi o 'o ^ ■‘^ u a ^ lU -Q (U rj rt g O rt > > TS •-' oS c« 2 V. *0 S .S °H-^ a> cj Mh O oj CO .— Mh -go ^ u ^ ^ S 55 ^ a> I S a o O Q Mh X U o S ”co ^ aj a CO ^ a _G C • S CO rt (U o -So? <-(-1 -Q Mb O ^ ^ C/5 ^ m fa i S 2 Q, 52 0. S 53 ^ H cs w SSTft*' . CORNER of the marine library at The Mariner’s Museum. 305 Gotirtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va. cn SU Courtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va. SCALE MODEL of the Savannah, first to attempt to cross the Atlantic by steam, 1819. Model by F. A. Craven. Newport News, Virginia, where the history and the romance of all the oceans of the world are collected under one roof. Take Highway 60 out of Newport News, go four miles north, and turn left down Cedar Lane, a lovely, peaceful road which, under an arch of gnarled and twisted cedars, leads toward the River James. Follow the road, through Virginia pine, cedar and dogwood trees until you come to a great monument, whose inscription reads, "Devoted to the Culture of the Sea and its Tributaries, its Conquest by Man and its Influence on Civilization.” Here one enters another world, a world of wooden ships and iron men; a world that is as old and as new as the sea; a mysterious world, always the same, yet always diflferent; the world of the sea itself, which is a part of us all, since the day when time began. Just beyond the monument, the road turns again, and you come to the museum. 306 Courtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va. SELECTIONS from the marine china collection showing whaling scenes and various ships. Lower center: Blue Staffordshire platter "Landing of General Lafayette at Castle Garden, New York, 1824.” Faced by a heroic statue of Leif Ericsson, in bronze, with its doorway flanked by a pair of brass cannon, bearing the arms of the king of Spain, the building is a low, gray, ivy-covered m.ass, its front adorned with huge old anchors from the days of sail. Twisting in the breeze, above a giant globe which crowns the facade, a jaunty little galleon, under full sail, serves as a weather vane, reminiscent of days long gone, when the Santa Maria first bore Columbus to our shores. Inside is a sailorman’s paradise and a small boy’s fairyland. In the lobby giant mahogany steering wheels, brass bound and tall as two men, cover the walls. One of them is a double wheel of the kind which, before the days of the "iron mike,” was manned by three or four men during a storm, to keep the tail ships on their courses. Charts, binnacles, running lights and compasses are there also, to show how man has con¬ quered the sea and can chart his path across the trackless oceans. 307 308 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Electric doors separate the lobby from the Main Museum (which is built in the shape of a T) and as you enter these a new and wonderful sight meets your eyes. From windows far up along the walls light filters down over a be¬ wildering array of ship models, figure heads, cannon, fire arms, engines, pictures of ships and a thousand and one other things having to do with the sea. Facing you, a great wooden eagle spreads his eighteen foot wings. Fie was figurehead of the U. S. Frigate Lancaster. This proud old fighting ship was built in Philadelphia in 18 58, but it was not till 18 80 that the figure¬ head, which weighs 3,200 pounds, was added. Other figureheads adorn the walls. A wooden bear is from the old U. S. Coast Guard cutter "^Bear,” and numerous voluptuous ladies, some with clothes and some without, illustrate the practice in which the ship owner’s daughter or the wood carver’s lady love v/as often the model for the work. One of these, fully clothed and showing the ruffles and flounces of another day, served as a figurehead for the American bark "Belle of Oregon” until it came to its museum resting place. Along the walls of this main hall, and interspersed with the carven figureheads, are paintings depicting much of the lore of the sea. A great mural of Griffith Bailey Cole shows the evolution of the square sails from a spread skin, held by a lonely figure on a raft, to the towering masses of canvas that drove the tea-clippers racing round the world. An¬ other interesting oil shows the Battle of Lepanto. In this, the last great sea battle where oars were used as propelling power, more than 600 vessels, mostly galleys took part, and from that time on, for almost 150 years, sail was undisputed master of the sea. Fiere, too, in the central hall, are scale models of ships of all kinds and times. Some were built in the museum’s own model shop; others were contributed by shipping companies and individuals; still others were pur¬ chased outright. The smallest is a two inch, golden model of a Venetian gondola, the largest, a lengthwise half -section, is that of the Queen Eliza¬ beth. There is also a silver model of the steamer, "Commonwealth,” repli¬ cas of the Monitor and Merrimac, Eskimo oomiaks, Indian bull boats. South sea catamarans and outrigger canoes, as well as ketches, privateers, sloops. East Indiamen and all the thousand and one others listed by Jane and Roget, as well as Robert Fulton’s first steamboat the Clermont, and a model of the Savannah, first steamboat to attempt the Atlantic crossing in 1819. It is interesting to note, however, that while Fulton’s Clermont was the first successful steamboat, the idea of mechanical propulsion of ships is an old one. More than 200 years before the birth of Christ, transports powered by oxen in treadmills crossed the Straits of Messina in Italy. FFero, of Alexandria, described a primitive steam turbine as early as 13 B.C., and in 1707 a steamboat was built by a man named Papin, in Germany. The center room of the museum, in the south wing, makes one think of Mate Tommy Lawn in Albert Richard Wetjen’s immortal story of the sea, "Fiddler’s Green.” Of course there is no red and green oil for the running lights, and nowhere is there a section of hawser to compare with that used to anchor the Merry Dun of Dover, which, if we can believe The Man that Flogged the Dolphin, was a fathom and a half 1950, No. 3 September 30 Ships of the Seven Seas 309 through, but there is some piece of equipment from almost every type of boat or ship ever in existence. There are lovely pearl inlaid pistols and grim cutlasses that could well have been carried by Blackbeard him¬ self, as well as relics of the whalers; harpoons, flensing irons, boiling kettles and all the other articles used in pursuing the whale, including a full rigged whaleboat, complete with irons and clumsy cleat. There is evidence also, that, though the whalers were far from their home, their folks were often in their minds. Scrimshaw work fills several cases, and covers an assortment of articles carved from ivory whale’s teeth. There are jagging wheels, used by Nantucket housewives to crimp the edges of pies, decorated corset stays, a knot board to make every boy scout green with envy, ivory ship models, and many teeth of the sperm and other whales, showing sailing ships and whaling scenes carefully incised on the ivory, similar to those shown on pieces of china once used by famous mariners. Moreover, there is a library in the wing of the building which contains more than 30,000 books, 3,000 ship’s papers, 6,000 maps and charts and more than 45,000 photographs, all devoted to the sea. In a courtyard outside the building, reached through a hall devoted to light houses and life saving equipment, are nearly 100 actual small craft from all over the world. Here a Dutch tjotter jostles a Siwash canoe, and a Portuguese fishing boat stands cheek by jowl with a Jap two-man sub¬ marine, used for salvage. One could go on like this indefinitely, for there are so many interesting things to see that one could write a whole book on just a small part of them. However, I cannot close without mentioning the south wing with its collection of marine art. Here in this wing is housed a collection of marine paintings so extensive that not all of them can be displayed at one time. Spanish- American War battle paintings have plenty of color and splash, sometimes with little regard for perspective. The portraits are still and formal, with stern, rock-bound. New Englanders staring down, beset by mutton chop whiskers and full beards, but battle scenes of Spanish-Ameri- can war vintage and portraits are not all of the collection by any means. There are many paintings by competent and talented artists, show¬ ing the majesty and might of the sea, and recently a complete exhibition of the work of Thomas C. Skinner was shown by the museum. Mr. Skin¬ ner, a contemporary artist, is famous for his naval paintings, one of which, an oil of the flat-top U.S.S. Coral Sea, is shown. 310 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 THE SOUTH LOOKS AHEAD— 1950-60 DR. PAUL W. CHAPMAN Associate Dean, College of Agriculture University of Georgia The business outlook for 1950 is bright, favorable, and encouraging. This is the concensus of virtually all forecasters, government officials, and business leaders. In postwar years, all of which have been prosperous beyond belief, a favorable forecast is unique. In no previous year since the close of World War II, has a note of hope, confidence, or optimism been sounded in out¬ look reports. In the recent experience of the American people, a favorable year is no novelty. The past decade, which closed with 1949, saw an increase in annual spendable income, after paying living expenses, of more than 375 per cent. Never in the history of the nation has so great a gain been made in so short a period of time. Forecasts during these years have contained dire predictions of large- scale unemployment; yet new all-time peaks of peace-time employment have been attained. Fears concerning the loss of purchasing power have been expressed in high places; yet personal incomes increased every year during the past decade-sales volumes, year after year, have established new and higher records. Farmers have frequently been alerted for drastic declines in market outlets and prices; yet gross earnings have never been greater than during the postwar years. Grave doubts have been expressed as to the ability of corporations to maintain profits; yet earnings in the last year of the decade were twice as high as in 1945, and dividend payments to stock¬ holders increased every year during the entire decade. In spite of the fact that gloomy predictions of the recent past have been far from accurate, many forecasters, typically conservative, are still unwilling to extend their optimism, in terms of specific gains, further than six months into the future. On the other hand, there is every reason for looking to the future with implicit confidence. We should prepare now for a decade of growth and progress. This conviction is based upon the record of the past decade and the irrefutable fact that economic history tends to repeat itself. The economic pattern following major wars is always the same; the only fundamental difference is timing. After World War I, there was a short, sharp upswing followed by a sharp and equally short recession of adjustment period. The same pattern was followed after World War II; the only difference between the two was the degree of change and the length of the respective periods. Then after World War I, it will be recalled that in 1921 there began, for the economy as a whole, an 8 -year period of increasing business activity. We are now entering upon the corresponding long-time prosperity Reproduced by permission, from June, 1950, Progressive Farmer. 1950, No. 3 September 30 The South Looks Ahead 311 period that may be expected if economic history repeats itself, as it in¬ variably does. The only difference between the current situation and the prosperity years after World War I is that our present growth or expansion period should be of longer duration, certainly from 1950 to 1960. Of course, we may expect minor fluctuations, but the trend of the decade should bs steadily upward, unless a worldwide emergency occurs. A DECADE OF PROGRESS That we may look forward to what can be called a Decade of Progress has been recognized by a number of economists. Some forecasters have said that prior to 1960, we may reasonably expect to attain a national annual income of $300 billion. The President of the United States made such a prediction in a recent speech. The figure is conservative. To attain the $300 billion income level in a period of such potential prosperity will not be an achievement of government, but rather an obligation — an obligation to bring about such a favorable business atmosphere that the billions upon billions of new capi¬ tal required to produce a higher income will be supplied by the American people. Growth has always been the chief characteristic of our nation’s econ¬ omy; growth will continue to be the outstanding characteristic so long as the population continues to increase and risk-capital is adequately Je- warded. A $300 billion income prior to 1960 will require a gain for the decade of 44 billion dollars. This is bnt one-fotirth the gain made during the past ten years. It is but 1.7 per cent a year, as compared with the average annual gain of 2 per cent that has been made every year since the prosperity peak og $83 billion was attained in 1929. the south will outgain the nation But regardless of national business conditions that will obtain in 1950 and the years beyond, percentage gains for the South will, in all proba¬ bility, be greater than those for the nation as a whole. The only difference between the last decade and the one we are now entering is that the South’s progress in the future will go forward on a geometric ratio. This accelerated rate of gain will be the result of the sound foundation of economic adjustments laid during the past ten years. Every section of the South is making economic gains more rapidly than the nation as a whole. To an ever-increasing degree this progress is being recognized and publicized. Popular general magazines, as well as business publications, are regu¬ larly calling attention to the great progress and potential possibilities of the South. The following summaries of ten factors support the belief that the South, in 1950 and throughout the current decade, will maintain its rela¬ tive leadership in greater gains in earnings and business volume. 312 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 INDUSTRIAL GROWTH The South continues to carry forward industrial growth and expansion at a more rapid rate than the nation. According to the most recent census of manufacturers, the South added more than 16,000 new establishments between the years 1939 and 1947. ' When compared with the national gain of 6 5,000 new factories, it is found that the South made a gain of 50 per cent during the period as compared with 36 per cent for all other regions of the nation. An average of 7 new industrial plants opened their doors for business in the South on every working day during the past ten years. In addition, for every million dollars that went into new plants— that is, new corporations and concerns locating in the South for the hrst time — 15 million dollars went into the expansion of established industries long identified with the South. Industrial expansion is still going forward at a rapid rate. To cite any example of current growth is merely to detract from others of equal importance. But in Alabama, for instance, where 74 new industries located in 36 towns in 1949, the new 37-million“dollar Coosa Newsprint Plant, operated by Kimberly-Clark Corporation, opened its doors this year. This is but one of three new and important industries in the Childersburg area, which are parts of the same development program. The rate of industrial expansion in 1950 will not be so great as the average for postwar years, but it will be of big-scale proportions. This is revealed by an analysis of the industrial expansion for any state in the South, In Arkansas, for instance, where the peak expansion came in 1946 with 452 new industrial establishments, 130 plants were added to the in¬ dustrial roster in 1949. NEW INDUSTRIAL JOBS Industrial expansion in the South has created, since 1940, approxi¬ mately 1,2 500,000 new jobs in manufacturing. More than 75,000 new jobs in manufacturing have been created in each of the following states: Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. More than 100,000 new factory jobs have been created in Georgia and North Carolina; in Texas, there has been a gain of more than 200,000 new industrial jobs. Increasing industrial employment opportunities, which will continue to expand so long as the nation maintains a healthy business atmosphere, are bringing — for the first time in the nation’s history — -a well-balanced occupational pattern to the South. They are the keys to the higher regional income that is being realized; they are stimulating business activities along all lines and providing expanding local markets for farm products; they are contributing to a greater degree of economic stability throughout the entire nation. NEW BUSINESS ESTABLISHMENTS Industrial expansion is always associated with gains in business and service establishments; hence, it is no surprise to learn that in this factor 1950, No. 3 September 30 The South Looks Ahead 313 the South, during recent years, has made more progress than the nation as a whole. The Survey of Current Business (Dec., 1949) published by the U. S. Department of Commerce reports that, for the five-year period 1944-49, the national gain in new business establishments and related enterprises was 30 per cent. For the Southeast, during the same period, the gain was 43 per cent; for the Southwest, 45 per cent. In all phases of business-wholesale, retail, service, financial, real estate, insurance, transportation, and all others— the South outgained the nation during the postwar years by a margin of 14 per cent. In construction— a vital index to prosperity— the national gain in firms in operation at the end of the decade stood at .116 per cent. For the Southeast the construction gain was 185 per cent. For the Southwest, which ranked No. 1 among the nation’s seven regions, the gain was 229 per cent. In new businesses attracted, the seven states— Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee, and the Carolinas— led the nation by a margin of 8 per cent during the past five years. WAGES AND SALARIES It is estimated that spendable earnings from wages and salaries will increase in the nation 10 per cent in 1950. . But regardless of the rate of national gain, the percentage gain in the South will be larger than that for the nation. Total income payments to individuals, during a recent 8 -year period, amounted to a gain of 172 per cent for the nation. In the Southeast the gain was 215 per cent. And in the Southwest, the top-ranking region for the nation, the gain was 223 per cent. The favorable outlook for the South is based upon this recent record, upon expanding industrial employment, and the application of the 75-cent- an-hour minimum wage law, which went into effect in January. Only IV2 million workers will be affected directly by the law, accord¬ ing to the Department of Labor. But, of this number, 900,000 live in 13 Southern States; the remaining 600,000 live in all other 3 5 states. To meet the requirements of this new law, $300 million will be added to pay rolls; $200 million of this increase will be paid in the South. Of course the total sum involved, in relation to the total national pay roll, is small; less than one-half of one per cent. But in the South the effect will be far reaching. Not only will the program raise workers now earning less than 75 cents an hour, but all wages and salaries in the plants involved must be adjusted upward. When illiterate operatives at the simplest industrial jobs earn a mini¬ mum of $120 a month, there will develop competition for work in jobs covered by federal law and also dissatisfaction with current rates of pay in some jobs requiring a high level of skill, training, and intelligence. We may look for higher wage scales and salaries in the South. Most important among the industries that will loom large in the South are lumber, tobacco, fertilizer, furniture, and food. 314 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 ELECTRIC ENERGY OUTPUT No index factor is a more reliable guide to growth and economic out¬ look for a locality or area than the demand for electric energy. On the basis of this index, the South is the nation’s No. 1 Region for 1950 and for the decade 1950-60. In 1950 and the two years to follow, the South will lead the nation in the percentage increase of kilowatt hours made available through the completion of additional generating facilities. Consider, for example, the new facilities provided by and made avail¬ able to the Georgia Power Company: Facility KWH Per Annum Plant Yates~1950 (Newman Steam Plant) _ 1,200 Million Plant Mitchell — 1952— -No. 3 Unit) _ 150 Million New So. Ga. Plant — 1952 (No. 1 Unit) _ 200 Million Bartletts Ferry Plant — -1952 (No. 4 Unit) _ 3 5 Million Altoona Project — 1950 _ 150 Million Total Additions — 1950-52 _ 1,73 5 Million These additions will provide an expansion of 36 per cent in the present load of the Georgia Power Company by 1952. Of this new output, 40 per cent will be used by industries, 3 0 per cent will be commercial, and 30 per cent residential. These new facilities, large as they are, tell but part of Georgia’s growth story in the use and increase of electric energy. First of all, the Georgia Power Gompany does not serve the entire state. Second, the REA co-ops — one of the larger rural electrification units in the nation — -get additional energy from TV A. Third, in addition to Georgia Power developments, there are other projects under construction, the most important of which is the Clarke Hill Development of the government near Augusta on the Savannah River. The first unit will be completed in 1952. When finished, in 195 5, the project will have added 700 million KWH per annum to the locality’s available electric energy. Developments in Georgia and Florida are typical of those taking place throughout the South. A power survey, published in November 1949, by the Edison Electric Institute, gives the following facts relative to the in¬ creased electric output, by regions, for the years 1950, 1951, and 1952: 1950: Increased output in the Southeast, 8.8 per cent; South Central States (including Texas), 12,2 per cent. The nation as a whole, 6.2 per cent. Among the eight regions, the South Central ranks first. 1951: Increase in the Southeast, 8.8 per cent; the South Central, 8.4 per cent. The nation as a whole 6 per cent. Among the eight regions, the Southeast ranks first, the South Central second. 1952: The Southeastern increase, 7.3 per cent; the South Central, 7.2 per cent. The nation as a whole 5.8 per cent. In 1952, the Southeast will again rank first in the nation, and the South Central will again rank second among the regions of the nation. ELECTRIFIED FARMS Electrification of the nation’s farms has been one of the significant developments of the past decade; 8 3 per cent of all farms in the United 1950, No. 3 September 30 The South Looks Ahead 315 States are now wired for electric service according to the estimate of Electrical Merchandising, January 1, 1950. Of the 4,863,266 farm consumers listed in the report 48 per cent were located in 14 Southern States. NUMBER OF FARMS SERVED in 14 Southern States (as of January D 1950 .......... 2,240,976 1949 . 1,813,175 (948 . . 1,510,900 1947 . ........ .1,225,300 1946 . . . 1,010, 000 1945 . 866,600 (944 . 770,377 (943 . . . 749,700 (942 . 698,417 (94 ( . . 580,538 (940 . 420,700 Thousands _ 2,250 Source Edison Eiectric institute and Eiectricat Merchandising Thoutands (poo 750 500 250 (940 '4! '42 '43 '44 '45 '46 '47 '48 '49 '50 No region made such rapid expansion in new farms wired in 1949 as did the South; yet no region has such a vast potential for future expansion. In five Southern States (which now stand below the national average in the percentage of electrified farms) there are more than 1,000,000 farms yet to be wired. These states are Kentucky, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennes¬ see, and Texas. 316 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Rural electrification is important from a business point of view. For every dollar spent in extending electric lines, four or more dollars are spent for wiring and appliances. Increasing farm uses of electricity will promote efficiency, reduce man hours of labor, and increase income. The current policy of REA places increasing emphasis upon greater farm uses of electric energy rather than the extension of lines. In the decade of 1950-60, this will be the major development. RURAL TELEPHONES Rural telephone service is being extended in the South faster than in any region of the nation. Among the operating companies in the Bell System, Southern Bell Telephone Company ranks first in the extension of rural lines and the in¬ stallation of rural phones. Every rural county served by the Bell System has been mapped. The potential development on a five or ten year basis is known. Millions upon millions of dollars will be expended on new lines and new phones in the current decade. Rural telephone expansion in the South is important for a variety of reasons, including the fact that telephone service is one item used in com¬ piling the Index for Farm Living, published annually by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. In this development the South has lagged to such an extent that the item is lowest in the list from which the Index is com¬ puted, hence lowers Southern county ratings. With expanded phone service the rating of many counties will jump up 5 or more points within the next few years. INDEX OF FARM LIVING In the Farm-Operator Family Level-of-Living Index, compiled by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, the South has made greater gains for several years than other sections of the nation. As compared with 1940, gains for the several sections of the South, and for the nation are as follows: South Atlantic States _ 33% Gain East South Central States _ 37% Gain West South Central States _ 31% Gain Total U. S. _ 25% Gain CASH FARM INCOME During the favorable years for farming that have existed since 1942, the South has made great gains in cash farm income. In 1943 it reached $5 billion and by 1948 had risen to the all-time high of $8^/4 billion. Since 1940, the gain in cash farm income for the nation has been 23 3 % ; for the South it has been 272%. Recent price trends still find the South in a favorable position. If the maximum decline in farm income predicted for 1950 should develop Southern farmers will still receive about three times the prewar level and D/4 billion more than 1940 and 1941 combined. 317 1950, No. 3 September 30 The South Looks Ahead BRIGHT SPOTS IN THE SOUTh’s FARM OUTLOOK A. 1. Higher Net Income from Cotton 2. Higher Income from Reaches 3. Higher Income from Milk 4. Higher Income from Corn 5. Higher Income from Beef Cattle 6. Higher Income from Sheep and Wool 7. Higher Income from Tung Nuts 8. Higher Income from Forest Products 9. Higher Income from Fruits and Vegetables 10. Higher Income from Poultry 1 1 . Higher Income from Livestock These are expressions from leading economists of the Agricultural Colleges of the South recently interviewed. B. Expanding Southern Food Markets: With the exception of a few on the Pacific Coast, large cities are growing faster in the South than those in other parts of the nation; wages and salaries, percentagewise, are in¬ creasing faster than in other regions; non-farm employment is expanding at a rapid rate.' This favorable combination of conditions is improving local food markets in the South, In the typical Southern city in 1950 sales of milk, meat, poultry, eggs, citrus fruits, and frozen foods will be 100 per cent above the prewar level. C. New Markets Through Processing Farm Products: Of the more than 16,000 new industrial establishments that have opened recently in the South, 3 out of 4 are directly related to farming; that is, they either make farm supplies and equipment or buy and process farm products; ap¬ proximately 50 per cent buy raw materials for processing from local farm¬ ers. In this way many new and dependable markets for diversified products have been created. Merely to mention a few of the more recent typical developments, Quaker Oats located three grain elevators in Mississippi last year; Carnation Milk opened three plants in Kentucky; Pet Milk, with 19 plants in the South, went into Georgia; virtually all the nation’s meat packers have recently opened poultry dressing plants in the South; National Biscuit and Corn Products Refining went into Texas. Wood-using industries are increasing rapidly. In the paper industry, the South will soon hold the same dominant position among the regions of the nation that it has held for many years in textiles. Market outlets for citrus fruits are looking up, thanks to the develop¬ ment of new concentrate plants. Last year one-third of Florida’s orange crop was converted into concentrate; the percentage will be larger in 1950. LAND HOLDING STATES OF FARMERS IN THE 14 SOUTHERN STATES 1930 1935 1940 1945 Owner Operators _ 1,378,533 1,536,525 1,507,853 1,644,538 Tenants _ 1,776,036 1,815,754 1,435,358 1,153,856 Sharecroppers _ 774,407 714,320 539,422 444,985 2,550,443 2,530,074 1,974,780 1,598,841 Average Acreage per Farm _ 106.5 110.2 123.5 131.7 318 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 }.300 1930 1935 i940 OWNERS TENANTS SHARECROPPERS D. Gaim in Farm Management and Operations: Gains in farm owner-operators have been going forward faster in the South than in other sections of the nation. There is a marked decline in tenants and sharecroppers. FINANCIAL STATUS OF FARMERS IN THE 14 SOUTHERN STATES 1940 1948 Income _ $2,437,487,000 $8,2 5 0,407,000 Time Deposits _ 340,000,000 749,813,000 Savings Bonds _ 68,729,000 1,5 53,096,000 Demand Deposits _ 748,700,000 3,780,782,000 $3,594,916,000 $14,3 34,098,000 Percent Increase 1948 over 1940 — - 299% 1950, No. 3 September 30 The South Looks Ahead 319 Working capital is being increased. In terms of greater earnings in the future, this is the most important trend of the century in Southern farming. Crop production is being balanced with animal production. Breeding . stock is being increased on Southern farms faster than in other sections of the nation. Most important of all in relation to soil conservation and livestock profits, feed production is keeping pace with gains in animal population. Many Southern States are organizing 100-bushel corn clubs; Georgia has inducted 200 members in two years. Major emphasis is being placed on the development of improved pas¬ ture. The greatest opportunity lies in an all-year grazing system with maxi¬ mum grazing in the wintry months. Using such a system the South can produce cheaper milk and beef than most other sections of the nation. Poultry production is being expanded at a rapid rate. The South, in the Delmarva, Georgia, and Arkansas areas, is now supplying the major portion of the nation’s broilers. Dozens of new dressing, packing and freezing plants were added to marketing facilities last year. E. Rapidly Expanding Farm Mechanizations: Farm mechanization is going forward rapidly in the South. With 777,016 tractors on farms in the South, July 1, 1949, a gain of 186 per cent has been registered since 1940. Southern farm account for 61% of the Nation’s increase in farm owned trucks between 1945 and 1948. This striking fact is disclosed by a survey made by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. 320 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 3 September 3‘J This progress toward mechanization of Southern farming operations merely scratches the surface and lays the ground work for greater sales possibilities. Today the South is the nation’s greatest farm power and machinery market. More than 2,000,000 additional farms must turn to power ma¬ chinery and labor-saving equipment to meet demands for greater effici¬ ency and lower production costs. Conversion to machinery is more impor¬ tant in a falling farm market than is one that is moving upward. Mechanization of Southern farms will continue to go forward at a rapid rate. This fact is recognized by the makers of farm machinery, vir¬ tually all of whom have located plants, or enlarged service warehouses or both, in the South during recent years. F. Aggressive Farmer -Training Programs'. In all phases of agricul¬ tural education, research, and extension service, vigorous aggressive pro¬ grams are under way in the South. In no section of the nation are so many young men registered in farm training classes, including the vocational agricultural classes in rural high schools and Veterans Farm Training Classes. Of the 2 50,000 ex-service men enrolled in Veterans Farm Training in the nation, approximately 66 per cent live in 13 Southern States. These young men are farming now under the supervision of college-trained, farm-reared instructors. An excellent job is being done. These veteran farmers are, for the most part, mechanically trained. They are livestock and poultry minded. They believe in diversified, balanced farming. They are buying farms, tractors, livestock. In fact, they are carrying forward livestock development so rapidly that in most Southern States the full time of one man is required to locate and buy breeding stock for veteran trainees. Within six years, it is possible that one farm out of every seven in the South will be operated by a graduate of the Veterans Farm Training Program. The ten factors, discussed in this paper, highlight economic trends in the South. They tell a story of growth, progress, and confidence in the future. They lead to the conclusion that 1950 will be a favorable year for the region and that 1950-1960 will be another decade of progress. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Plankton 321 PLANKTON '‘ Willis G. Hewatt Department of Biology Texas Christian University During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries many biologists were engaged in describing the new forms of life which were revealed to them under the relatively crude microscopes available at that time. Not until, however, the middle of the nineteenth century did Johannes Mueller in¬ troduce to the scientific world the use of a plankton net for filtering of micro-organisms from natural waters. Since that time an extensive mass of literature has accumulated on the subject. A special terminology of Greek and Latin derivation has been developed in the field of plankton studies. "Plankton,” e.g., is derived from a Greek word meaning "wan¬ derer.” We now apply the term to those organisms which float, including many forms which swim but are not directive swimmers. All students of marine or freshwater biology have been introduced to such terms as zooplankton, phytoplankton, macroplankton, microplankton, nannoplankton, and many others. In the late 19th century and in the early part of the present century the biologists began to realize the important role of plankton in the metab¬ olism of the sea and in fresh water bodies. Anatomical and physiological studies revealed that the vast majority of marine organisms were depend- Figure 1. Diagram of a Food Cycle in an intertidal habitat showing the role of Plankton in the cycle (From Flewatt, 1937). “'Address given at Rockport, Texas, Oct. 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 322 The Texas Journal, of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 ent upon the plankton for their food supply. Limnologists and oceanogra¬ phers then turned their attentions to quantitative methods for determining the potential food supply of water basins. Various methods have been devised and are being used to estimate, as accurately as possible, the basic food supply in water habitats. The meth¬ ods may, for convenience, be classified as first. Indirect 'Methods and second. Direct Methods. I, The indirect procedure involves the quantitative determinations of the factors necessary to support the process of photosynthesis. Those factors, well known to all biologists, are; sunlight, carbon-dioxide, inor¬ ganic salts, water and others. Following Liebig's "Law of the Minimum*’ the quantitative determinations of all of these factors must be considered. There are several methods for determining the penetration of sunlight; the ^ecchi Disc and photoelectric recorders. The inorganic salts which are mainly responsible for supporting plank¬ tonic life are phosphates, nitrates and silicates. Standard procedures have been developed for the quantitative chemical analyses of these ions. The information on the abundance of the chemical and physical fac¬ tors necessary for photosynthesis has been found inadequate for estimating the productivity of water bodies. IL The direct procedure of estimating the quantities of food present in natural waters involves means of determining the numbers of plankton organisms present in those waters or measuring the relative amounts of plant pigments present in the waters. Chronologically, the oldest method of estimating the quantity of food present in a water habitat is the counting procedure. Many variations of the procedure have been used. The plankton may be collected by towing a plankton net for a cer¬ tain period of time behind a boat traveling at a known speed. Closing nets have been used by some. A more accurate procedure of collecting plank¬ ton is the filtering of a known quantity of water through a silk bolting- cloth net. Others centrifuge a known quantity of water for concentrating the planktonic organisms. For a rough estimate the dead plankton is permitted to settle in a graduated cylinder and the volume of the plankton is recorded. The vari¬ able shapes and sizes of the organisms makes this volumetric method highly inaccurate. For counting the organisms in the concentrate the procedure is uni¬ form. A counting chamber slide is always used. The Sedgwick-Rafter cell or Whipple slide is constructed to retain 1 c.c, of the concentrate. The entire contents of the slide-chamber may be counted under the low power of the microscope or, if there is a great abundance of organisms, then se¬ lected microscopic fields may be counted and the results can be calculated. Fiere, as in so many fields of quantitative biology, there is no uni¬ formity in the method of expressing the results. Some workers express the results in terms of "cells per liter”; others express their conclusions in terms -of "cells per cubic meter.” The counting procedure, although perhaps the most accurate method yet proposed, is cumbersome and laborious. Also there are certain definite inaccuracies involved, in the process. The plankton organisms are of various 1950, No. 3 September 30 Plankton 323 sizes and the quantities of useful food material in the multitude of species are not at all uniform. The results must be viewed with some reservation. In 1934, a British oceanographer, H, W. Harvey, introduced a sim¬ plified method of quantitative determination of phytoplankton in sea water. He ukd the old plankton net methods of concentrating the phyto¬ plankton. A solvent, eitW acetone or methyl alcohol, was used to extract the plant pigments. Color standards were then prepared in order to deter¬ mine the relative quantities of pigment present in the sample. There are, at present, several modifications of the Harvey procedure. The Fischer Electro-photometer is commonly used for approximating the intensity of the dissolved pigment. Most of the recent work on quantitative plankton studies has been directed toward a perfection of the colorimetric procedure for determining the productivity of natural waters. The colorimetric method is also con¬ fronted with its inaccuracies. There is quite an array of plant pigments found in plankton organisms: Chlorophyll A, Xanthophyll and Carotin are found in all of the classes of algae; Chlorophyll B is found only in Ghloro- phyceae (greens) ; Fticoxanthin is found only in the Bacillariophyceae and Chrysophyceae; Flavoxanthin, Fhycoerythrin^ Fhycoxanthin, Myxoxantho- phyll and Aphanizophyll are found only in Myxophyceae. The phytoplank¬ ton consists of all of these types of algae but the methods of extraction of pigments thus far devised will only extract specific ones of the pigments. By using the colorimetric procedure we do not visualize the complete pic¬ ture of the plant pigments. Although all of the methods used for determining the productivity of water bodies present inaccuracies which have not been overcome, it is pos¬ sible that all of the procedures give comparatively similar results (See H. W. Graham, 1943). Thus far we have been discussing only methods and procedures. Now let us turn to the results of the many investigations which have been con¬ ducted in marine waters. Naturally, the great fisheries regions of the seas were the first to receive the attention of oceanographers. The Danes, Swedes and the British first investigated the productivity of the North Sea and its contiguous waters. Those seas are better understood today than are any other water bodies of the earth. In our own hemisphere extensive marine plankton studies have been conducted in three significant areas where vast fisheries resources are lo¬ cated: (1) In our Northeastern Atlantic epicontinental seas; (2) along the entire Pacific Coast of the U. S.; (3) and in the Humboldt Current along the western coast of South America. Coming closer to home we find that the basic marine food resources of the Gulf of Mexico have been greatlv neglected. Along the Gulf shores the marine fauna and flora are relatively sparse and monotonous and have attracted little attention until very recent years. Plankton investigations in the Gulf have been almost non-existent. The earliest plankton studies v/ere conducted during the early years of this century at the Gulf Biologi¬ cal Laboratory on the coast of Louisiana. Plankton identifications and counts of a very limited scope were reported from Louisiana coastal waters (Carey, 1906a, 1906b, 1906c). In recent years Gordon Riley of Woods >24 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Hole Oceanographic Institution has reported a few pigment analyses in the Gulf (Riley, 1938a, 1938b). In 1944 I was invited to the Louisiana State University Marine Labo¬ ratory on Grand Isle, to conduct summer classes in marine zoology and to conduct a research program in that area. The tremendous shrimp indus¬ try of that region had been investigated rather thoroughly by Milton J. Lindner, Frank W. Weymouth and W. W. Anderson (1933), who were invited to Louisiana for that special study. The vast oyster industry of Louisiana coastal waters had received the attention of various investigators beginning with Dr. Moore of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (Moore, 1898). It appeared to me that far too little was know about the potential basic food resources of our Gulf coastal waters, A study of the plankton re- souces of Louisiana embayments was, therefore, begun in 1944. Under the direction of the Texas A & M Research Foundation, in the past three years, the plankton-food resources of Gulf waters have been rather extensively investigated. In my laboratory at Fort Worth we have completed the analysis of several hundred quantitative plankton samples ■ from the coastal waters of Louisiana and Texas. The studies are being continued and the results are not yet ready for publication. Some of the common planktonic diatoms found in brackish water of the Gulf coast are shown in the accompanying plate. LITERATURE CITED Carey, L. R. — 1906a — The conditions for oyster culture in the waters of the Parishes of Vermilion and Iberia, Louisiana. Gulf Biol, Sta. 4:7-27. - 1906b — Further studies on the oyster at Calcacieu Pass. Gulf Biol. Sta. 6: 7-28. - 1906c — A preliminary study of the conditions for oyster culture in the waters of Terrebonne Parish. Louisiana. Gulf Biol. Sta. 9:5-62. Graham — 1943 — ^Chlorophyll-content of marine plankton. Jour. Mar. Res. 5: 153-160. Harvey, H. W. — 1934 — Measurement of phytoplankton population. Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 19: 761-773. Moore, H. F. — 1898 — Report on oyster beds of Louisiana, U. S. Fish Ccmm. Rept. 24:45-10. Riley, G. A. — 1938a — The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological con¬ ditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Jour. Mar. Res. 1; 60-74. - 1938b — ^Plankton Studies. I — A preliminary investigation of the plankton of Tortugas region. Jour. Mar. Res. 1 : 335-352. Weymouth, F, W., Lindner, M. J. and W. W. Anderson — 1933 — Preliminary report on the life history of the common shrimp Penaeus setiferus (Linn.). Bull, U. S. Bur, Fish 48: 1-26, 11 figs., 4 tabs. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Plankton 325 PLATE I Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Amphiprora sp. Navicula bombus Kutz. Biddtdphia mobiliensis Bail. Surirella sfriatula Turpin. Nitzschia paradoxa (Gmelin) Coscmodiscm curvatulus Gran. . 326 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 THE CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHIC RANGE, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES By Karl P. Schmidt Chicago Natural History Museum The concept of total areal geographic range, as one of the indissoluble characteristics of the taxonomic units species and subspecies, seems to be by no means adequately defined or understood in current zoological litera¬ ture. The further concepts of generic range, or the geographic ranges of families and of still higher categories, require quite different interpreta¬ tions, and the present discussion is intended to be limited mainly to the species and infra-species levels. There are also radical differences between the distributions of marine animals and those of terrestrial forms; and while the distributions of fresh-water animals may also fall outside of the normal terrestrial patterns, their geographic relations are often obviously parallel with those of terrestrial life. There is an acute early discussion of the phenomena of geographic distribution in Wallace’s two books, The Geographic Distribution of Animals (1876) and the more readable and less outdated Island Life (1880), and some of the same material, since it bears directly on "The Species Problem,” is ably integrated with more modern thinking by Mayr, in Taxonomy and the Origin of Species (1943). Mayr employs illustrations mainly drawn from the distributions of birds; I wish to approach some of the same topics from a somewhat different angle, more specifically in connection with the concepts of geographic range as such, and with herpetological illustrations. I wish to point out that this is of necessity a preliminary and even tentative essay, intended to define the concepts bearing upon the geographic range of species in connection with the preparation of the sixth edition of the Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. The geographic range of a terrestrial species or of a fresh water species of animal may have an extent as small as a single spring, or a few square miles, perhaps sometimes even of only a few square yards, or it may cover all of the continents, as is the case with our own species. The term "habitat” in the sense of geographic range dates from Lin¬ naeus — as for example ^^Hab. in Indiis^^ — and was long persistent in descrip¬ tive zoology. It was given up by Wallace between 1876 and 18 80. This term is now exclusively used to refer to the kind of environment in which an animal lives, and more specifically to the ecological niche in which the species or subspecies is present. Wallace (1876, p. 4) refers to such char¬ acteristic ecological niches in which species are found as their "station.” This word has also been dropped from modern zoogeographic literature, persisting in the museum curator’s phrase as "collecting station.” In this latter meaning "station” has become divorced from the ecological conno¬ tation. In modern usage, the limits of the geographic range circumscribe the sum of the individual habitats. The most important characteristic of the geographic range of a species lies in its continuity or discontinuity. It is evident that only species toler¬ ant of a wide variety of ecological conditions, i.e., with a wide ecological * Presented at Rockport, Texas, April 6, 1950, at the Second Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Concept of Geographic Range 327 valence (Hesse, 1924, p. 17) and with great powers of dispersal, whether by active or passive means, i.e., with high vagility, can actually have con¬ tinuous geographic distribution in a more or less literal sense. Creatures with very extensive and at the same time ubiquitous distributions may be large animals; or extremely small ones. Large animals have wide individual ranges over which they move in their search for food and for a mate. Minute animals are widespread for the quite different reason that they may be wind-dispersed. In either case, what is meant by continuous distribution is a criss-cross web of the life-time paths of individual animals. Most animals are to some extent associated with a specifically limited range of environmental conditions. When the appropriate environmental conditions are discontinuous, the distribution of the animals limited to them appear to be equally discontinuous-— as of fresh water forms that occur in different drainages or in series of lakes. If the animal in question has sufficient powers of dispersal, so that individuals are constantly moving from one habitat "island’’ to an adjacent one, these habitat islands are evidently not "isolated” in any zoogeographic sense; and all the available habitats will be occupied. What is involved in continuity of range in this sense is the maintenance of genetic continuity— -the continuing interchange of genetic materials at a sufficient rate to maintain at least apparent uni¬ formity in the species. In other words this involves random contact of sexually mature individuals" throughout the range. Continuous ranges of this nature must be expected to have distinct, though not necessarily exact correlations with topographic, climatic, and vegetational factors in the environment. When they do not, there may be historical changes involved (i.e., paleoecological factors). I have demon¬ strated such a case for the small group of reptiles endemic in the Middle West, which are associated with the prairie peninsula and its antecedent "steppe corridor” extending eastward from the American grassland region north of the Ohio River and south of the Great Lakes. In any case, geo¬ graphic ranges are not on paper — they must make sense in nature. When genetic continuity between individual populations is lost, and when these appear nevertheless to be indistinguishable, discontinuity of the geographic range of a species exists. Such discontinuity appears to develop ordinarily from prior continuity, though the possibility of chance dispersal to a distant locality with subsequent development of an isolated population must be a frequent stage in the ancestry of island species. Since it is abun¬ dantly evident that some genetic drift leading to divergence of the isolated populations usually sets in as soon as genetic interchange is slowed down and even before it is interrupted, the condition of a species with a discon¬ tinuous distribution is usually the forerunner of differentiation into new species. It appears, however, that many climatic and geological changes and rearrangements of the physical geography of the world proceed at a much more rapid rate than do the evolutionary changes that lead to discernible divergence. In declining species there may be a hypothetical arrest of vari¬ ability of the expanding species. This may slow down the rate of divergence of isolated populations, and therefore prolong the appearance of isolation without divergence, i.e., of true discontinuity of the range of a species. For these reasons many existing species are regarded as having discontinuous distribution. 528 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Isolation of populations into a series of discontinuous geographic iso¬ lated areas may often be associated with developing differences in the en¬ vironmental factors in the separate areas; adjustment of the isolated popu¬ lations to these environmental differences then greatly accelarates the pro¬ cess of genetic drift, and what is more important, alters and controls its direction. A further crucial characteristic of isolated populations lies in their degree of genetic compatibility. As long as they remain fully capable of interbreeding, exchange of genetic materials from one to the other is at least potentially possible, and it is customary to subsume them as a single species. It is now clear that genetic compatibility in nature is subject to variation in degree of compatibility from the completely compatible to final complete incompatibility. Indeed, divergence of this kind has been shown to exist even when successive populations are essentially contiguous, and not broken up even into subspecies, as in the leopard frog, Kana pipiem (Moore, 1947). The amount of divergence between separate populations seems to be a function of the two variables vagility and distance, and of a further hypothetical one, the rate of evolution, all of which in turn may depend on a complex of factors. The leopard frog, Rana pipiens, thanks to the studies of John A. Moore, has become the most instructive example among Amphibia in the phenomena of distribution under discussion. The species ranges from beyond latitude 50° North in North America southward to the Central American tropics, and from the Atlantic coastal marshes to the Rocky Mountains. Effective dispersal of this frog is conditioned by its habit of spreading widejy during the summer from the ponds and marshes in which it hibernates and breeds to drier uplands. Its non-amphibious habitat in mid-summer is well-known to farmers and gardeners, who find it in their hay meadows and gardens. Such seasonal dispersal and reconcentration of its populations supply an adequate explanation of the great geographic range of the species. The great vagility of the leopard frog may be the result of population pressures that result in turn from its vast numbers of individuals. Almost throughout its range it is the most abundant species of frog. Even so, full genetic contact exists only between adjacent populations. When the interfertility of suc¬ cessively more widely separated populations is tested, it is found to decline with distance. The leopard frog extends from the Atlantic Coast quite to the alpine ponds of the Rocky Mountains, but not to the Sierras and Cascades. In the Great Basin the areas with habitats suitable for frogs of any kind are greatly reduced and widely separated. It is noteworthy that the leopard frog is the last species to disappear. The isolation of Great Basin stocks of leopard frogs has led to their description as distinct species (cf. Rana onca and Ra77a fisheri, Stejneger and Barbour, 1943). I shall return to the dis¬ cussion of these forms as test-criteria for the subspecific category. I should perhaps add also that I do not regard the question as to the existence of recognizable subspecific differentiation within the continuous range of Rana pipiens as closed. Differentiation of populations results, or may result, at an accelerated rate in species of animals with adjustments to the environment that lead to lessened vagility. Such decline is evident in secretive forms, and especi¬ ally in burrowing forms. Burrowing habits decrease the rate of dispersal, 1950, No. 3 Concept of Geographic Range 329 September 30 but it must be remembered that the factors of uniformity of habitat and numbers of individuals also govern rates of divergence. It seems evident that the common earthworms of Europe and North America must have spread northward through some hundreds of miles in postglacial time, with¬ out significant differentiation. Burrowing habits may be thought to have governed the course of speciation in such diversified genera of snakes as Atrachis, Calamaria, and Micrurus much more than in the burrowing frogs, which, even when mainly subterranean, usually assemble in great breeding congresses from which they again disperse to their burrows. Capacity for dispersal depends to an important degree on size, on food relations, and on specialized or unspecialized habitat relations. In species with individuals of small adult size, the range of each individual may be very small. As already mentioned, the individual range of larger animals, especially the larger carnivores, may be very great. Thus an active carnivore like the common African monitor Varanus nilo ficus may have an enormous range, in this species from the Lower Nile to the Cape of Good Hope and from Senegal to Somaliland, the length and breadth of Africa. This monitor illustrates another evident correlation, among many, between wide-range and riparian habits. Such habits promote rapid and wide dispersal by pro¬ viding an essentially linear and continuous habitat. It should be pointed out that even in reptiles and amphibians, small size may favor passive dispersal, and thus be correlated with great vagility and wide dispersal. Quite apart from the ecological relations that define the geographic ranges of species and affect the continuity of their populations is an evolu¬ tionary factor that first promotes continuity and then is associated with discontinuity. This is merely the age of the species in question. We may assume, as Wallace (1876, p. 64) points out, that a newly developed species, developed by adjustment to its environment, will be vagile by reason of expanding numbers, if for no other reason, and thus may be expected to have a continuous expanding range. Contrariwise, as soon as equilibrium with both biotic and non-living environmental factors is reached, the geographic range may begin to decline, fragment, and often to become discontinuous, in association with a loss of vagility that may be ascribable merely to the decline of population pressure. The vast importance of decline in population pressure if not, indeed, in some quite unknown "evolution pressure,” is attested in the taaxonomy of every group of animals. Wide uniform range is thus a characteristic of recency in most species, antecedent to the formation of well-defined subspecies and to the further evolution of species. This matter is adequately discussed by Simpson (1944, p. 144 ff.). Thus we return to the radical importance of the distinction between continuous and discontinuous range. In declining groups, the gaps between existing species define them sharply. It is a fallacy to carry over the simple concept of species based on such forms to the species of expanding groups. In an expanding species it may be quite impossible to definite the limits of species, and still less of subspecies. Rana pipiens, an expanding vagile species with great ecological valence, appears in a list of North American frogs juxtaposed to Rana palustris, whose range is not at all continuous and whose populations are relatively small. The classification of the constituent popu¬ lations of an expending species will vary from taxonomist to taxonomist, 330 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 and in the treatment of an individual taxonomist from year to year. This is by no means the case with the sharply defined declining species. Again, we need only compare Kana pipiens with Rana palustris as treated in the suc¬ cessive editions of the North American check list. When an expanding species reaches external insuperable limits, individual populations may tran¬ scend them by adjustment to the new conditions with rapid transformation into a new sub-species, or, when genetic continuity is lost, into a new species. There must frequently be an era of equilibrium in such expanded species in which distribution is essentially continuous, and such an equi¬ librium may well persist for eras that have geologic duration. Actually observed transformations of species within historic time are vanishingly few. Sharply defined ranges even in expanding species are to be found among animals inhabiting oceanic islands, especially when these have re¬ ceived their fauna by "fortuitous” oversea dispersal. When such coloniza¬ tion gives rise to a population and still is to be regarded as the "same species” with the mainland or other-island parent form, we may have a discontinu¬ ous range in an expanding species. Mayr (1943, p. 238) points out some interesting examples of sudden "natural” expansions of range of various species. These instances correspond quite closely to the rapid expansions of the many animals introduced by man on islands, or, for that matter, on continents. Turning now to the phenomena associated with such a reasonably stable geographic range, it is interesting to note that the limiting factors of various parts of the border of the geographic range of a given species of animal may be entirely different. For example, the range of the common five-lined skink, Eumeces jasciatus of the southeastern United States is strictly limited to the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The northern border of the range is no doubt limited on one hand by the length of the favorable summer season and on the other by the degree of winter cold. In this direction there would be slow northward expansion during a series of warm summers and sharp contraction of the range by a single severe open winter. This lizard at the northern border of its range occurs in widely separated colonies where conditions for hiber¬ nation and for summer warming of the soil are favorable. To the west, the limiting factors must be principally the presence of suitable cover, Eumeces fasciatus being found principally under loose bark and under or in rotting logs, and competition with other species. The primary physical factors are reduced rainfall and increased aridity, which cause the forest to give way to grassland. Competition with climatically adjusted and rock crevice inhabiting species of the same genus appears to be an effective biotic limiting factor. Thus we arrive at a "dynamic” concept of geographic range, in which the range borders tend to expand from population pressure, and may do so for a period of years under cyclic favorable conditions, only to be pushed back when the cycle comes to its unfavorable phase. A series of mild win¬ ters with abundant snow to protect hiberation sites from freezing would favor expansion at the northern boundary of the ranges of amphibians and reptiles in the temperate zone. A series of severe "open” winters, with deep freezing of soil and of ponds, would ten to contract them. It may be noted in passing that the combination of factors that make a total un- 1950, No. 3 September 30 Concept of Geographic Range 331 favorable balance may be expected to be quite different in cold-blooded animals than in warm-blooded. A range border in which competition with other species becomes a limiting factor must also be subject to geographic fluctuation. The range border may be sharply defined on one side and broken into isolated populations on another. The phenomena of variation of a given species at the border of its range must evidently be of the greatest importance to speciation*'’, i.e., to the development of recognizably distinct daughter forms from the parent species. It is at the borders of ranges that new environments, with new food supplies, challenge the capacity for further evolution of the expand¬ ing species. Thus it is of the utmost importance to evolutionary studies to define the borders of the ranges of species and subspecies of animals, in order to come to grips with problems as to the limiting factors. This has the practical aspect for students of animal distribution at the species level that as geographic limits of the species are important, individual locality records are important; locality records within the range of an abundant, well-known, and expanding species may be of negligible value when the habitat of the species has become known. Dr. E. R. Dunn and I {in litt.) have discussed the matter of the instructiveness of "spot maps,’’ coming to the mutual conclusion that the limits of supposed ranges shown on maps might well be supplemented by the actual spot records; but that records within the known ranges may indeed indicate only the distribution of her¬ petologists (Parker, 1935, p. 505), After isolation of the populations of an expanded species, when decline of its populations sets in, from whatever cause, and before the effects of genetic drift have become evident in structural characteristics, there is theoretically an era, often of geologic duration, in which the species as such has a discontinuous range. It is interesting to note, however, that the ex¬ amples of this phenomenon cited by Wallace have now all proved to be examples of subspecific differentiation or even of related but sharply defin¬ able allopatric species. When the isolated populations inhabit relict environments, like a series of islands or a series of mountain tops, in which the environment remains essentially stable, the next succeeding era of genetic divergence by mere drift (without discernible adaptive evolution) leads to the divergence of the isolated forms in non-adaptive characteristics, producing the allopatric species of Mayr (1943). The nomenclature of the well-recognizable repre¬ sentative forms of this nature has been the subject of sharp controversy, and of wide divergence in practice, one school regarding them as distinct species with binomial names, the other treating them as series of subspecies, with trinomials. Both schools wish to have the nomenclature reflect the facts of nature, the one emphasizing difference and lack of demonstrable inter¬ gradation, while the other wishes to show the evolutionary relations and "'The term "speciation” seems curiously ill-formed, but having become widely current for the phenomena subsumed under differentiation and di¬ versification of species, is accepted in this broad sense. It is here regarded as referring to all such phenomena at the species level and in the infra-species categories, rejecting the term "subspeciation” as quite missing the meaning of the parent term. 332 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 especially the evolutionary equivalence of the forms in question. The latter emphasis seems to me unquestionably the more important from the stand¬ point of biological interest, but also from that of usefulness equally to the student and to the specialist (Schmidt, 1944, p. 2 54; cf. for the contrary opinion Stejneger, in Stejneger and Barbour, 1943, p. v-vi) . Thus I should unhesitatingly refer Kana fisheri Stejneger to the Rana pipiens series as Rana pipiens fisheri. Quite obviously the conditions of variations at the borders of the ranges of subspecies differ from those in species ranges in so far as the range of one subspecies is confluent with that of another, with which it may potentially interbreed. The peripheral subspecies in a series will then be limited at the outer borders of their ranges by factors often quite dif¬ ferent from those at the inner borders. The primary geographic problem with regard to subspecies lies in the examination of their areas of inter¬ gradation. When the subspecies ranges correspond with natural areas within the total range of the species, the areas of intergradation should be readily definable, and may be narrow. When the variation from east to west or from north to south forms a uniform gradient, what is now known as a "dine,” (Huxley, 1940, p. 31) and if the populations at the two extremes be contrasted with those at the center of the range, it has been customary to name all three- — the two extremes and the intermediate one— -as sub¬ species. If, however, the variation gradient is indeed uniform, we might quite as well name five or seven or eleven subsecies as three. The only sen¬ sible solution with respect to variation of this nature seems to me to name none of the segments of the dine; or if it is genuinely useful to have the extremes named, to name these only. The traditional distinction between the western collared lizard Crotaphytus collaris baileyi and the eastern Crotaphytus collaris collaris (as to the proportion of specimens with a single row of scales between the orbits or a double one) exhibits such a dine from single rowed in the east to double-rowed in the west. On the basis of this character, in which the area of intergradation occupies most of the range of the species, I should not agree with Charles E. Burt and refer all populations to a single subspecies. I am, parenthetically, inclined to think that the collared lizard may well have subspecies recognizable on other grounds; but a critical study of this species remains to be made. Another example of a dine long familiar in North American herpetological literature is to be seen in the variation in leg-length of the woodfrog, Rana sylvatica, from extremely short-legged at the north to longer legged at the south. In this species also, so far as the stated characters are concerned, it would be much better to drop the subspecific arrangement. Examination of the last edition of the North American check-list shows the stated ranges of Rana sylvatica latirems and Rana sylvatica cantabrigensis as crossing over in Alaska, surely, in this case, a reductio ad absurdum. I strongly sus¬ pect that a critical review of the subspecies of many mammal and bird species, in which the Bergmann Rule is an evident mode of geographic variation, would radically reduce their number. A kind of variation gradient compatible with the traditional definition of subspecies is what Huxley has referred to as a "step-cline,” in which the "steps” correspond to the areas of intergradation between subspecies. In the course of some thirtyrfive years as a practicing systematic 1950, No, 3 Septemlser 30 Concept of Geographic Range 333 zoologist I have come to take a very dim view of the traditional proce¬ dures of taxonomy. The system of nomenclature, as formulated under an elaborate set of international rules, lends itself to being played as a game, with personal and group (museum) rivalries, and personal and group van¬ ities as the motivations instead of the advancement of science. Thus in the past most species and subspecies have been described without any adequate knowledge of what was being described; and the rush to describe and name makes it necessary to redescribe and recombine when more adequate knowl¬ edge accumulates. We probably cannot now reform our procedures very rapidly in this respect; but we may as well recognize that part of the contempt in which systematic zoology and botany have been held in many biological circles is deserved. When systematists engage in sound studies, in which accurately mapped ranges replace the guesswork of early descrip¬ tions of species, and in which the range of variation of the component popu¬ lations of the species begins to be understood, systematics may again take its rightful place among the biological subsciences as the essential back¬ ground for ecological and genetic and evolutionary studies. The complexities of geographic dispersal introduced by the considera- tion of evolutionary history are extreme. I have elsewhere shown by diagram something of the complexity of evolution in adaptation to specific habitats on the background of ecological succession (Schmidt, 1945). When a species has reached equilibrium with its environment, the following theses as to the main directions of subsequent long-term history may be defended: A. Long persistence of the environment in the same region will be ac¬ companied by persistence of many species over long geologic periods. Marine animals supply the stock examples, but it is not impossible that various protozoa may likewise include very ancient species. The species concept, as applied to such forms in relation to time, requires scrutiny. Lingula is the classic extreme example. B. Displacement of whole environmental areas may take place, and their faunas may be largely displaced by them. Resurgence after return to the original geographic zones may leave wide-spread relicts, and fre¬ quent disjunction of species ranges. When the lapse of time has been accompanied by some genetic change, there may be reamalgamation of the resulting moderately distinct forms. It is strongly suspected that the subspecies of the common American painted turtle (Chrysemys bellii) represent such reunion. Glacial southward displacement and subsequent interglacial and postglacial northward resurgence have given rise to these types of geographic range. C. Change of the environment may take place without a regional re¬ treat. Evolution into new forms is then the only refuge from extinc¬ tion. Some species meet the changes by generalized physiological adap¬ tation; others by adaptation to specific niches, with specialized mor¬ phological adaptation. In either case there will be none of the original species left, but the classification and distribution of the higher cate¬ gories will bear unmistakable evidences of this history. D. Emigration of single stocks, as result of any of the above phenomena and of many modes of evolution, reaching unoccupied regions, or re¬ gions with a relatively less saturated fauna, or otherwise favorable regions, will result in adaptive radiation on a small or large scale, the 334 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Australian and Madagascan faunas being classic examples, though less conspicuously so in reptiles than in mammals or^ amphibians. The phenomena of geographic range then repeat some of the above named cycles. E. Some species may be forced from saturated faunas into unfavorable or less favorable environments by biotic pressure. This will require physiological adjustment, and result in wide ranges of fewer species, as in the fauna in general of the arctic tundra and of the coniferous forest belt encircling the tundra (e. g. Rana temporaria and sylvatica.) It should be evident that it is scarcely possible to discuss the range of a species without consideration of the distribution of both ancestral and derived forms. I regard the whole Animal Kingdom as a continuum if an¬ cestral forms are included in one’s thinking; the extinction of ancestral forms on a vast scale produces the contemporary separation into species and other categories, whether composed of genetically connected popula¬ tions or of discontinuous ones. Species have been referred to as "Islands in a Sea of Death,” and this is an apt metaphor for species that have become distinct by evolutionary decline. As soon as there are two distinct species referred to a genus, the distri¬ bution of the genus evidently includes and may quite accurately represent a historical evolutionary phenomenon, and the higher the level of the cate¬ gory the longer the evolution and the more complex its distributional his¬ tory. Thus we have the sharp dichotomy of the distribution of species and subspecies, and of infra-species groups in general, as a mainly ecological phenomenon, to be studied in the light of contemporary environments as ecological animal geography; and the distribution of species, genera and higher categories, which composes the material of historical animal geog¬ raphy, to be examined in the light of geological history. You will note that by considering the species in both, I have allowed for the essential overlap of ecological and historical animal geography. LITERATURE CITED Hesse, Richard — 1924 — Tiergeographie auf oekologischer Grundlage. Jena, Fischer, xii, 613, 135 figs. Huxley, Julian S. (Ed.) — 1940 — The new systematics. Oxford, Clarendon Press: viii, 583, iJlus. Mayr, Ernst — 1943 — Systematics and the origin of species. New York, Columbia Univ. Press : xiv, 334, 29 figs. Moore, John A. — 1947 — Hybridization between Rana pipiens from Vermont and Eastern Mexico. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 33(4) : 72-75- Parker, H. W. — 1935 — The frogs, lizards, and snakes of British Guiana. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1935 : 505-530. Schmidt, K. P. — 1944 — The lower systematic categories in vertebrate zoology. Ecology 25 : 254-255. - 1945 — Evolution, succession, and dispersal. Amer. Midi. Nat. 33: 788-790, 1 fig. Simpson, G. G. — 1944 — Tempo and mode in evolution. New York, Columbia Univ. Press, xviii, 237, 36 figs. Stejneger, Leonhard, and Thomas Barbour — 1943 — Check list of North American amphibians and reptiles. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 93 : 1-260. Wallace, A. R. — 1876 — The geographical distribution of animals. London. Macmillan. 2 vols., illus. — - 1880 — Island life. London, Macmillan, xvii, 526, illus. NATURE WITH A CAMERA 335 -Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. BEAVERS WERE once the chief furbearing animals of Texas, being dis¬ tributed in suitable places throughout the state. Today, only small numbers are found, mainly in western Texas from Brownsville north to the Pan¬ handle, west to El Paso, and east to Colorado County. Along the Rio Grande, they occur at intervals; on Sweet Water and probably other suitable tribu¬ taries of the Canadian River, there are beaver colonies; and strangest of all, there are quite a number of beavers in the Hill Country, where, along the often bare and rocky streams, such as the Llano River, there are scattered colonies. The dam shown is one on Sweet Water Creek in Wheeler County. i' i' I i! ii 336 Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission LODGES ARE NOT often built by Texas beavers. They favor, especially in ||. the hill country of the Edwards Plateau, crevices or caves bordering streams r or ponds, shallow burrows in the banks and, in rare instances, piles of drift¬ wood. Occasionally barks of button brush, pecan, cedar, and Spanish oak are eaten, but they prefer cottonwood and willow to any of these. In recent years the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission has been active in transplanting individuals from populous colonies to suitable areas through- I out the state, with the result that they are becoming more widespread I and, in some localities are being trapped under strict supervision. 337 — Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. THE YELLOW-HAIRED PORCUPINE IS found in westcm Texas, west of the Balcones Escarpment. In spite of its large size, the animal is seldom seen even where it is common. Apparently, it moves much more often and farther than is generally believed. 338 — Courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Photo by E. P. Haddon. DON COYOTE IS as much a part of Texas as the mockingbird. Preferring the grass covered plains and the brush country, nevertheless, his cunning is so great that he is able to inhabit almost any portion of the state he wants, despite man. 339 — Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. THE BUFFALO formerly was found on the plains and blackland areas of Texas, reaching the Gulf Coast. However, the great herds, first mentioned by Cabeza de Vaca, are a thing of the past, most of them having been de¬ stroyed by about 1880. The greatest slaughter took place around 1877-78, when over 1,500 hide outfits were working in Shackelford County alone. During December and January of those years, over 100,000 buffaloes were killed, and from 1881 to 1891, over $3,000,000 worth of buffalo bones were shipped from Texas. 340 -Courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Photo by F. M. Dille. ELK WERE AMONG the Original inhabitants of Texas. Merriam’s Elk was found in the Guadalupe Mountains near the Texas-New Mexico border, but is long since extinct. However, in 1927, 44 head of Canadian Elk were released in McKittrick Canyon in the Guadalupe Mountains. In 1939, these had increased to 400 head and there was a smaller herd of about 20 indi¬ viduals in Jeff Davis County. 341 THE VIRGINIA OPOSSUM is probably one of the most familiar of all animals. Found in all but sixteen Texas counties, it is one of our most valuable furbearers, widely used for food by some sections of the population. 342 ■ — ^Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. THE VIRGINIA DEER IS our most plentiful big game animal and is found throughout the greater portion of the state. In fact, so plentiful has it become, that in many places the range is overstocked. However, this ap¬ pealing little fawn is not worried about that. 343 -i-s” — Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. THE JAVELINA OR PECCARY, our Only American wild pig, is found through much of West Texas and the brush country south of San Antonio. These youngsters were born on the Aransas Refuge, near Austwell, where a small herd is still found. When grown up, their food will consist of the big green pods and fruits of prickly pear, as well as roots, pods and beans of mesquite, sotol, lechugilla and yucca. These babies, if taken young, may be easily tamed and make most interesting pets. 344 -U. S. Forest Service Photo. THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE was oncc a common inhabitant of West and South Texas. John Bartlett, in his chronicle of the establishment of the Mexican boundary, mentions them frequently. They were even plentiful south of Corpus Christi. However, by early 1900, they had almost dis¬ appeared from out state. Careful protection and wise management of the remnants of the herds resulted in a rapid increase of the stock. Today, there are several thousand, mostly in the Trans-Pecos country. 345 GRAY OR CAT SQUIRRELS have Only a limited distribution in Texas, being found in the bottom lands of the rivers and larger streams in the timbered' eastern portion of the state, and at the present time they are not found west of Guadalupe County. Excessive lumbering has so changed the form of the forests that they are now more suitable for fox squirrels than for the gray, which originally formed the larger portion of the popula¬ tion. 346 THE BIG HORNED SHEEP was One of the Original inhabitants of our state, but as early as 1907, the herds were seriously depleted. Within recent years they have declined still further. In the Sierra Diablo, Baylor and Beech Mountains in Culberson County and Mariscal Mountain in the Big Bend, they either still occur or have been found until very recently. However, they are so reduced in numbers that they may soon become extinct. — U. S. Forest Service Photo. 347 ii -U. S. Biological Survey THE GRAY WOLF was formerly very plentiful, preying on the buffalo herds. Today, it occurs in the western portion of Texas in greatly reduced numbers if, indeed, it is not entirely extinct. Because of its great strength and extreme destructiveness to livestock, it has been the target of predatory animal trappers wherever found. The animal shown here is the famous $10,000 Split Rock wolf that was trapped in 1920, in Split Rock County, Wyoming. 348 1950, No. S September 30 Natural History of the Lemon Shark 349 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES ON THE LEMON SHARK, NEGAPRION BREVIROSTRIS STEWART SPRINGER U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service Pascagoula, Miss. DESCRIPTION The lemon shark, Negaprion hreviroUrh (Poey), is a moderately large shark; that is, an adult is somewhat larger than a man both in length and in bulk. The pectoral fins are quite large and particularly wide. The head is broad with a short and regularly rounded snout. The body tapers irregu¬ larly from the gill region to the base of the tail and the shark is normally neither chunky in appearance nor trim and streamlined. The name, lemon shark, is probably derived from the color which is most often yellowish. The young at the time of birth are grayish or blue- gray above, with white below, and generally with black edging on the fins. Adults are usually light in color, tan, yellowish, or light gray above and lighter below without trace of markings. The adults may be dark however, gray, brown, or almost black above. The darker color is frequent in injured individuals which are presumed to be solitary and in females found in shallow water at the time of birth of the young. No other shark in Gulf-Caribbean waters has in combination, a short rounded snout, second dorsal fin nearly as large as the first dorsal, and sharp teeth with single cusps. Even young lemon sharks may be readily identified on the basis of the characteristics given although with the Carcharhinidae in general, identification of the young is difficult. The teeth are well illustrated by the drawing used by Bigelow and Schroeder (1945, 117, fig. 41) and by a photograph of the jaws (Radcliffe, 1914, pL 40, figs. 1 and 2). Adult lemon sharks range from about 7 feet 7 inches to 9 feet 5 inches in total length. The mean length of the adults is 8 feet 5 inches. The young are about 24 to 26 inches long at birth. The outline drawing of the lemon shark, figure 41, page 117, given by Bigelow and Schroeder (1945) is an excellent one. In this drawing the pectoral fin is shown slightly smaller and the eye slightly larger in pro¬ portion than would be so if the drawing had been made to represent a large adult. The low, sloping first dorsal fin with a depressed tip is char¬ acteristic of the lemon shark at all ages, although in many of the Garchar- hinidae the condition is a juvenile characteristic. The lemon shark has a short, blunt snout; the distance from the front of the mouth to the tip of the snout 5.4% to 5.8% of the total length in 5 embryos near full term, 4.1% to 4.8% in young, and 4.1% to 4.7% in 5 adults. Table 1, which gives measurements of a series of lemon sharks may be useful for purposes of comparison. Some of the measurements such as the length of the gill slits, are subject to considerable error resulting from the position of the shark at the time of measurement. Measurements such 350 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 as the total length or the internasal distance are likely to be reasonably accurate. The skin of the lemon shark is comparatively heavy and the surface is rougher than in most species of Carcharinus. Radclilfe (1914, 2 54, fig. 11) includes an illustration of the dermal denticles Nega prion is defined here as a genus of moderate to large sharks of the family Carcharhinidae, with the snout short and broadly rounded; no spiracles; gill slits moderate, the last one or two over the base of the pectorals large and broad, not falcate; second dorsal fin nearly as large as the first dorsal; no ridge in the skin between the first and second dorsal fins; skin comparatively thick, rough; dermal denticles large, imbricate; teeth in both jaws with single high narrow cusps on broad bases, the cusps with entire edges and the bases either entire or crenulate or irregu¬ larly and finely serrate, but not regularly dentate and not strongly serrate. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION The lemon shark is a common species in the Caribbean region and in the tropical eastern Pacific. In the Atlantic its range extends northward along the coast of the United States at least as far as Chesapeake Bay. The species is particularly abundant off south Florida and on the Bahama Banks and has been taken by the author in the north Gulf of Mexico as far west as the mouth of the Mississippi River. A few specimens were collected in early 1949 off the east coast of Trinidad and its occurrence is reliably re¬ ported from the coast of Texas and the Caribbean coasts Honduras, Nica¬ ragua and Costa Rica. It is quite probable that the true range of the species is much more extensive than the records of its occurrence would indicate. In the eastern Pacific the lemon shark was described as Carcharias fronto Jordan and Gilbert, but under that name was subsequently .re¬ garded as inseparable from Carcharhinus milberti (Muller & Henle) by Garman, and, on much better grounds, by Beebe and Tee-Van as properly to be called Aprionodon fronto. The lemon shark, however, is neither closely allied to Carcharias macloti Muller and Henle, the type of Hypo prion of Muller and Henle, nor to Carcharias isodon Muller and Henle, the type of Aprionodon of Gill. Also, it is not identifiable with the various groups which make up the modern hodgepodge genus Carcharhinus. Dr. Robert Miller kindly made an examination of the type of Carcharias fronto (USNM 28167) for me and found (personal communication) the tooth count to be 29/29 or 29/30 rather than 20/20 as stated in the original description. Beebe and Tee- Van (1941, 105) note that the original description seems based on more than one type representing more than one species. Photo¬ graphs, a dry jaw, and measurements of an adult male taken off La Plata Island, Ecuador do not show any noteworthy differences in comparison with material from Florida. Throughout its range the lemon shark appears to prefer the shallower waters over sand or coral mud and although it does frequent areas near river mouths and muddy waters it is not partial to brackish water, DETERMINATION OF MATURITY The determination of the exact point at which sharks become mature is necessarily arbitrary. As in other Carcharhinid sharks, the claspers of the 1950, No. S September 30 Natural History of the Lemon Shark 351 male lemon shark at the time of birth are short and do not project beyond the tips of the pelvic fins. They grow relatively faster than the fins, and as maturity approaches extend well beyond the tips of the pelvics. At this time and until enlargement of the testes occurs, the claspers are moderately flexible. It is following full development of the primary sex organs that the claspers become stiffened as a result of enlargement and partial calci¬ fication of the cartilages. As Templeman (1944, p. 52) stated for Squalus acanthias, "Immature claspers even when as long as mature appear to be more slender.” Since calcification follows enlargement of the testes in the lemon shark, any doubt about sexual maturity of a male may be resolved by cutting off a clasper at its midpoint and checking the cross section for regions of calcification bordering the principal cartilage. Mature males, as determined for this study were functionally mature upon complete devel¬ opment of the claspers as intromittent organs. Consequently, some few sharks with enlarged testes were excluded from the sample of the adult population because of incomplete development of their secondary sex organs. No indication was obtained that there was any reduction in the size of the testes of the lemon shark following the breeding season. Possibly that point could have been determined from the material seen but recording was overlooked. The criteria for the determination of maturity in female lemon sharks were the presence of large ovarian eggs or embryos, or a combination of the presence of medium size eggs and oviducts developed to a point where admission of full size ovarian eggs appeared to be physically possible. The ovarian eggs of the lemon shark reach a diameter of an inch or more but in the course of this investigation these large eggs were observed in only one specimen. Immediately following the birth of the young, female lemon sharks have flaccid, somewhat distended and thin walled oviducts. Such individuals had ovarian eggs less than a half inch in diameter. Occasionally lemon sharks are taken which have deforming scars or have fins bitten off but old adult females normally show some or many scars centered dorsal to the pelvic fins and presumably resulting from activities of courtship. Since lemon sharks have narrow or awl-like teeth in both jaws the scars are not necessarily evident except on close examina¬ tion. The scar indication, when positive, is probably reliable evidence of maturity in the female. SIZE OF ADULTS Among Carcharhinid sharks the total length measurement of adults is a characteristic of great practical usefulness in the determination of species. The lemon shark reaches maturity at a length of 7 feet 5 inches or more and very rarely reaches a length of more than 9 feet 4 inches. The length frequency distribution of a sample of 140 adults (fig. 1) approximates the binomial distribution. Coupled with the proportionately small extent of the adult size range, this would be expected if growth is negligible after the attainment of sexual maturity, whether from cessation of actual length increment or from rigorous selection bearing on individuals of excessive size. Or, this distribution might be expected if growth in length continues at a moderate or reduced rate for a relatively short adult life span. The mean total length of the sample of 140 adult lemon sharks taken in south Florida waters between October 1945 and November 1947 was The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 352 V The solid line represents the observed frequency and the broken line represents the binomial distribution calculated for the data. 100.63 inches. This sample included 103 males with a mean length of 100.05 inches and 37 females with a mean length of 102.32 inches. In sev¬ eral other species of large Florida sharks there are clear cut differences in the size ranges of adult males and females. In the case of the lemon shark this difference appears to be slight. The smallest male in the sample was 89 inches and the largest 110 inches, while the smallest female was 92 inches and the largest 112 inches long. The term sample as used here means all of the sharks available to, and measured by the author as complete catches. In many instances sharks were examined but excluded from the sample because circumstances pre¬ vented measurement and journal entries for the entire catch, whether of one or several species. Most often the exceptionally large catches were not included because of the lack of time to complete the measurement of the entire lot. This method avoids the selection of particular sharks but orob- ably has some tendency to favor selection of both extremes in adult length because large schools appear to be made up of sharks of remarkably uni¬ form length, while small schools may run to unusually large individuals or unusually small ones. Another sample of adult lemon sharks taken on the east coast of Florida in 1948 and 1949 included 10 males from 93 to 109 inches, mean length 102.90 inches; and 69 females from 93 to 108 inches long, mean length 102.20. Table 2 showing hide lengths of lemon sharks from one area by months and illustrates the uniformity of length of adults taken at different sea¬ sons of the year. 353 1950, No. 3 September 30 Natural History of the Lemon Shark . 560 342 . 300 240 180 . 120 ] 70 L31 107 ’ 60 '11 S 16 31 Do “Ll. L ° 4 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 HIDE LENGTHS IN INCHES Figure 2. Hide-length frequency histogram. The data include all (1,114) available lemon shark hide measurements for sharks taken at Salerno, Florida prior to 1944. The hide-length frequency histogram (fig. 2) is based on 1,114 hides taken at Salerno, Florida and measured for the fishing station record. Hide lengths were measured at this station on the round shark as the shortest distance from the eye to the caudal pit according to a fixed routine. These data furnish some check on the validity of the sample illustrated in figure 1 with respect to its upper limits. But since some small proportion of the hides may have been taken from immature sharks the lower limit has no significance even though fishing at Salerno during the period covered by the data was concentrated at depths around 15 fathoms where young lemon sharks are normally absent. The absence of oversize lemon sharks is born out by hide records covering a larger series made at several stations on the Florida coast and representing m.easurements of upward of 3000 lemon sharks, VERTICAL RANGE AND SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION Adult lemon sharks are taken abundantly irf depths down to 20 fathoms by shark fishermen. A few have been taken in about 50 fathoms on bottom set lines, but although fishing has been carried on to some extent at greater depths, lemon sharks have not yet been taken. There is some indication that lemon sharks cruise offshore near the surface. An adult male lemon shark was collected by Dr. C. M. Breder, Jr. and Arthur F. McBride off La Plata Island on the coast of Ecuador near the surface but over water of considerable depth. Florida shark fishermen have told me of sighting lemon sharks swimming near the surface at night. These sharks were ob¬ served well offshore while shark lines were being pulled from about 100 fathoms under floodlights. However, all other available records relate to lemon sharks in shallow water and it seems probable that its presence in or over deep water is transitory. It is of interest that the eye of the lemon shark is small as compared to the eyes of other species of south .Florida Carcharhinid sharks. In general the larger eyes are found in species nor- 354 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 mally inhabiting deep water or in species with notably nocturnal feeding habits. Young lemon sharks are more abundant in shallower water than the adults and are rarely taken, for example, in water as deep as 10 fathoms along the Florida Keys or in the 10 to 2 5 fathom range near Salerno, Florida. As a rule the adults are frequent during the first six months of the year and less common in the second six months. The immature are often the most abundant species of shark in south Florida shallows after June but are in¬ frequently taken after the first hard norther in the fall or early winter. Immature lemon sharks to a length of 7 feet and preponderantly more than 4 feet long are quite abundant in the fall in the Florida bay shallows, while earlier in the summer the smaller sizes are relatively more common. Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the seasonal fluctuation in abundance of the adults. SCHOOLING Even where lemon sharks are common they are usually not to be seen from a boat. The species is not often encountered among the sharks that swim at the surface of the water, and, except when adult females move in on very shallow banks during the parturition period, visual observation of the species provides a negligible amount of information on schooling habits. Day to day fishing with set lines of from 150 to 400 hooks combined with examinations of the catches give some clues to the activity of the sharks caught. The usual daily catch of a single shark fishing boat in south Florida waters includes 4 or more species of large sharks and this enables the observer or fisherman to make comparisons and deductions concerning the ordinary or the unusual activities of particular species. My observations on lemon shark schooling and dispersal are of this indirect sort. Typical lemon shark groups are loose aggregations of a few up to 20 or more individuals. Aggregations of adult lemon sharks are less com¬ pact than is usual to most species of large Carcharhinid sharks. Lemon “ sharks appear at times to be widely scattered over areas of suitable bottom. The adults occur in runs or waves of abundance and usually with one sex predominating. Even when runs are gone, catches of single lemon sharks or a few lemon sharks are normal. The schooling tendency and segrega¬ tion by sex is apparent in adult lemon sharks but it is much less clear cut and definite than in species of Carcharhitius and Eulamia. Adult lemon sharks, for example, may be taken in an area of heavy fishing at a rate of a few a week or at a rate of a hundred a week, but appearances of large numbers are not abrupt and disappearances are not complete. Single lemon sharks may be caught over dead bottom or sections known for poor fish¬ ing. Dispersal is very uneven but in suitable depths it is very general. Lemon sharks may be taken in warm shallow waters where surface temperatures are above 8 5 degrees Fahrenheit and even at such high tem¬ peratures they remain alive on set lines for many hours. Among the com¬ mon large sharks of south Florida, the lemon shark shares this quality of resistance to high temperatures and restraint of free movement only with Carcharias taurns, Galeocerdo cinder, and Ginglymostoma cirratum. These species all have wide geographical distribution, and like the lemon shark are representative of genera having a small number of very closely allied and poorly differentiated species or of monotypic genera. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Natural History of the Lemon Shark 355 EMBRYOS The young lemon sharks develop in both oviducts. The number of young is typically 12 to 14 and the distribution between the right and left oviducts is approximately equal. Garman (1913, p. 121) notes the presence of 19 embryos about 18 inches in length taken from a lemon shark from the Bahamas. This is probably near the extreme number of young. The average number of a series of 24 sets of embryos from the Florida Keys was 11. A pseudoplacenta is formed by the time of comple¬ tion of absorption of the egg yolk by the embryo. There is no compart- mentation of the oviduct except by the shell membranes covering each embryo. The young are 24 to 26 inches long at birth. The new-born young with open pseudoplacental attachement scars are frequent in shal¬ lows and bays of south Florida and none have been observed from deep water. A series of female lemon sharks taken at Matecumbe in less than 10 fathoms from October 24, 1940 to January 23, 1941 were examined and the lengths of embryos were recorded. The smallest set, averaging 9 inches in total length, was taken on October 24th. The average length was 14 inches for November, 16 inches for December, 18 inches for early January and 19 inches for late January. The largest set, averaging 22 inches, was taken on January 17. In my judgment the sharks of this series were all representative of a single diffuse school or wave which was constantly present along the reef off Matecumbe for the period. Consequently, I be¬ lieve that the indicated growth increment of near 10 inches for embryos reflected the actual condition within this group of lemon sharks. This par¬ ticular aggregation appeared earlier than usual to the locality and only females were caught, most of which carried embryos. In general, the lemon shark run in the Florida Keys begins after the middle of January when females carry pups 18 inches or more in length. The climax of the parturi¬ tion period extends from April through June. In this particular observa¬ tion the situation after January was confused, probably by the arrival of other waves of lemon sharks. At any rate, the size range of embryos from February through April of 1941 was 18 to 24 inches. Early embryos of the lemon shark were not found but many obser¬ vations scattered over several years tend to confirm the impression that there is a rough parallel in size and rate of growth of embryo between the lemon shark and Eulamia milberti. E. milberti early embryos begin to appear in south Florida catches by July and the late embryos near full term are rare after May. An estimate of the period of gestation for the lemon shark of near 10 months seems to be in accord with the available facts. NURSERY RANGE Florida Bay, which has large areas of very shallow banks interspersed by channels of depths ranging up to 10 or 15 feet, is one of the important nursery ranges of the lemon shark, I observed adult females in large num¬ bers in this bay during May and June 1941 in water so shallow that their fins protruded. At that time, new-born pups were collected with a dip net and several adult sharks were harpooned. The adults all carried full term embryos capable of successful swimming when removed from their shell 356 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3- September 30 membranes. The adults were sparsely but evenly dispersed over suitable areas, or at least they were not in schools. The stomachs of the adults taken by harpoon were empty and although the sharks were working along the banks they did not appear to be feeding. Observation was simplified by the unusually good weather conditions at the time, and also by the dark color of the adult sharks over a bottom of light colored sand and coral mud. It seems evident that the adults left Florida Bay as soon as the young were born since none without pups were taken. Since large sharks are the chief predatory enemies of small sharks there are obvious advantages to the species of a nursery area free from activity feeding adults. . FEEDING HABITS Young lemon sharks feed to some extent on Crustacea and a few have been examined which had large quantities of small amphipods in their stomachs. The new-born lemon sharks readily take a hook baited with cut fish. Young and half -grown lemon sharks in Florida Bay are frequently found among schools of silver mullet and striped mullet. Apparently they feed on mullet. It is my impression from observation that the sharks are not especially successful or efficient in catching mullet, but they work very hard at it, and if the mullet are abundant enough, the sharks get a satis¬ factory fare. These sharks are quite voracious and will take almost any bait. Most adult lemon sharks taken on set lines are found with empty stomachs or with only bait from the set lines, however, fish remains, small sharks, and sea birds have been found in the stomachs of many specimens. The species may be caught on a baited hook both at night and during the day even in shallow water although night fishing is usually more successful. GROWTH Year classes by size are not apparent in the lemon shark catches from south Florida although the quantity of data available should be sufficient to demonstrate them if they exist. The lemon shark breeding season is spread over several months and although this condition would tend to obliterate evidence of year classes, it should not eliminate the evidence of them entirely unless growth is either very slow or very rapid. Not only is the absence of year classes characteristic of animals of slow and irregular growth, but also is characteristic of animals completing the major portion of their growth cycle within a period not much greater than the interval between breeding seasons. Unpublished data on catches of Carcharhinus leucas in the North Gulf of Mexico do show year classes and suggest a growth period to maturity of not more than three years following uterine development period of about one year. C. leucas is similar to the lemon shark in size of the adults. In contrast to this Templeman (1944) makes the estimate that the average female spiny dogfish in the North Atlantic takes from 7 to 8 years to grow to maturity following a uterine develop¬ ment period of almost 2 years. Conclusive evidence concerning the growth rate of the lemon shark is not shown by the available data. Nevertheless there are indications that young born in the spring of the year appear in the runs of the following year as adults. This hypothesis of extremely rapid growth may apply only to lemon sharks under favorable conditions in warm waters where an abundance of food is available the year around. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Natural History of the Lemon Shark 357 Springer (1939 p. 28-29) noted apparent increase in size in a litter of new born lemon sharks of about four inches during their first forty days. If this length increase were constant maturity would not be reached for 650 to 700 days. Observations on catches of the young lemon sharks in southwest Florida shallows suggests that young born in late May and early June (the most abundant group) reach a length of 6 5 inches or more by the end of November. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Since the lemon shark is a moderately large species with a heavy hide which makes leather of good quality, has large fins in demand for the Chinese trade, and has good quality meat, it is a valuable shark quite aside from its liver oil. The liver oil is its most valuable contribution but the value of it is determined largely by its vitamin A content which is subject to great variation. The oil characteristics are good (Rusoff and French, 1941). The highest potency which I have observed in lemon shark liver was 117,000 U. S. P. units to the gram of oil and this was from a Pacific specimen. Much lower potencies are the rule in south Florida (Springer and French, 1944). LITERATURE CITED Beebe, William and Tee— Van, John — 1941 — Fishes of the tropical eastern Pacific. Part 2, Sharks. Zoologica 26 : 93-122, figs. 1-34, pL 1-2. Bigelow, Henr,y B. and Schroeder, William C. — 1945 — Appendix A and B in “Guide to com¬ mercial shark fishing in the Caribbean area.” Anglo-American Caribbean Commission, Wash., 71-149, figs. 19-56. Same — reprint. Bulletin 135, U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Garman, Samuel — 1913 — The Plagiostomia. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 36:1-516. Gill, Theodore — 1861 — Analytical synopsis of the order Squali ; and revision of the nomen¬ clature of the genera. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 367-408. Jordan, D. S. and Gilbert, C. H. — 1882 — Description of four new species of sharks, from Mazatlan, Mexico. Proc. U.S.N.M. 5 : 102-110. Muller, J. and Henle, F. G. — 1841 — ^Systematische beshriebung der plagiostomen. Berlin. Poey, Felipe — 1868 — Repertorio fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba, Havana. Radcliffe, Lewis — 1914 — The sharks and rays of Beaufort, North Carolina. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 34 : 241-284, figs. 1-26, pi. 38-49. Riippell, Eduard — 1837 — Neue wirbelth. zu der fauna von Abyssinien gehorig. 11. Rusoff, L. L. and French, Robert M. — 1941 — Tests and standards for shark liver oil from sharks caught in Florida waters. Prcc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5 : 133-135. Springer, Stewart — 1938 — ^Notes on the sharks of Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 3:9-41, figs. 1-23. —and French, Prince M. — 1944— Vitamin A in shark liver oils. J, Ind. & Eng. Chem. 36: 19C-191. Templeman, Wilfred — 1944 — The life-history of the spiny-dogfish (Squalus acanthias) and the vitamin A values of dogfish liver oil. Newfoundland Dept. Nat. Resources Bull. 15: 1-102, figs. 1-19. Whitley, Gilbert P. — 1939 — Taxonomic notes on the sharks and rays. Austral. Zool. 9 : 227- 262, figs. 1-18, pi, 20-22. - 1940 — The fishes of Australia — Part 1 — The sharks, etc. Sydney, 1-280, figs. 1-299. 358 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Table 1. Measurements of lemon sharks in thousandths of the total length. SPECIMEN A B C D E F G Tip of snout to — front of mouth _ _ 58 47 52 48 45 47 41 first gill opening _ _ _ 189 193 189 182 185 189 191 last gill opening _ 227 222 233 238 228 234 232 base pectoral _ 220 202 231 215 230 213 Horizontal diameter orbit _ 20 14 13 13 5 9 8 Vertical diameter orbit _ _ 11 9 16 8 5 8 7 Height first gill opening _ 34 41 35 37 37 41 39 Height last gill opening _ 32 35 33 32 43 32 34 Width mouth (angle to angle) _ 83 85 93 82 97 96 87 Internasal distance _ 54 51 49 48 47 47 48 Length hiner margin clasper _ 40 _ _ 50 101 110 92 Snout to origin first dorsal _ 375 370 355 357 353 362 Anterior margin first dorsal _ 108 118 116 109 124 122 116 Free inner margin 1st dorsaL .. . _ 41 44 50 50 48 43 40 Base 1st dorsal _ 94 94 98 103 95 88 88 Interdorsal distance _ 187 182 190 189 191 179 199 Anterior margin 2nd dorsal _ 86 93 92 89 89 88 92 Free inner margin 2nd dorsal _ 32 33 35 33 33 31 29 Base 2nd dorsal _ 74 75 71 73 75 71 70 Upper caudal lobe 234 229 225 242 233 236 2-36 Lower caudal lobe _ 117 112 112 113 115 114 116 Outer margin pectoral _ 139 153 154 169 186 183 181 Free inner margin pectoral 59 56 65 63 63 63 68 Base pectoral (axil) 58 59 59 60 63 65 73 Anterior margin anal _ 74 71 86 93 82 83 87 Free inner margin anal 29 32 31 28 28 26 31 Base anal _ 65 55 59 56 58 59 54 Specimen A — An embryo, male, 5 5 5 mm. total length, Englewood, Fla., Apr. 29, 1938. Specimen B — A young female, 8 50 mm. total length. Charleston, South Carolina. Specimen C — A young female, 845 mm., Englewood, Fla., March 4, 193 8. Specimen D — -An immature male, 1510 mm., Matecumbe, Fla. Specimen E — -An adult male, 2 572 mm.. Venice, Florida, August 28, 1937. Specimen F — An adult male, 2 545 mm., Englewood, Fla., Sept. 17, 1937. Specimen G — An adult male, 2630 mm.. La Plata Island, Ecuador, Dec. 11, 1942. 359 Natural History of the Lemon Shark Length of hides of lemon sharks taken off Ft. Pierce and Salerno, Florida in depths where immature sharks are rela¬ tively uncommon. Hides were measured on the round sharks as the distance from the eye to the base of the tail (pit). YRS. MONTH NUMBER OF HIDES MEAN LENGTH OF HIDES 6 January 306 71.89 inches 6 February 187 73.48 inches 6 March 239 73.18 inches 6 April 370 73.11 inches 6 May 206 73.50 inches 6 June 194 73.56 inches 5 July 26 72.92 inches 5 August 43 72.22 inches 6 September 5 72.20 inches 5 October 40 73.50 inches 5 November 65 74.05 inches 5 December 66 73.35 inches Total number of hides 1,747; mean hide length 72.94 inches. Table 3. Lemon shark catch by months compared with catch of tiger shark (Galeocerdo) taken by a single fishing op¬ eration, at Salerno, Fla. The unit of gear is defined as 100 baited shark hooks or one 200 yard shark gill net set for a minimum of 10 hours. LEMON SHARK CATCH TIGER SHARK CATCH MONTH BY UNITS OF GEAR BY UNITS OF GEAR NINE YEAR AVERAGE NINE YEAR AVERAGE January _ .73 .36 February _ .40 .3 5 March _ .3 3 .29 April _ .5 5 .24 May _ .27 .20 June _ _ _ .23 .20 July - .04 .24 August _ .06 .24 September _ .02 .3 8 October _ .02 .65 November _ .02 .39 December _ _ _ .29 .45 1950, No. 3 September 3 Table 2. 360 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 THE MORPHOLOGY OF LOXOTHYLACUS TEXANUS BOSCHMA, A SACCULINID PARASITE OF THE BLUE CRAB EDWARD G. REINHARD Catholic University of America^ Washington, D. C. and Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Rockport, Texas In the Gulf of Mexico the edible blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, is infested by a rhizocephalan parasite of the family Sacculinidae. Boschma studied specimens of this parasite in the collections of the U. S. National Museum and described it in 193 3 under the name Loxothylacus texanus. The type material came from Matagorda Bay, near Indianola, Texas. At Rockport, on Aransas Bay, where the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission maintains a marine laboratory, the studies of Daugherty (194^) have shown that this parasite was present on 16,4 per cent of the blue crabs collected in that area during 1948 -49. The closely related Calli¬ nectes danae Smith, however, did not harbor the parasite. The only other host known for Loxothylacus texanus is Callinectes marginatus (A. Milne-Edwards) collected from the Panama coast and the Canal Zone (Boschma, 1933). Mud crabs (Panopeus and allied genera) are often infested with a sacculinid parasite along the shores of Florida, Louisi¬ ana and Texas but this is a different species, Loxothylacus panopei (Gissler). Since the blue crab parasite must be reckoned with in any attempt to establish large scale crab fisheries in Texas waters, an understanding of its morphology, life history and effect on the host is highly desirable. The purpose of the present paper is to give an account of the external and internal anatomy of the adult parasite to supplement the brief diagnosis of the animal given by Boschma when he established the species. Some of the external modifications induced in the host by the presence of the para¬ site have been previously studied by the writer (Reinhard, 1950). GENERAL APPEARANCE As in the case of Sacculina, to which the genus Loxothylacus is very closely related, the adult consists of two portions: the external sac and the root system. The sac is attached to the underside of the abdomen of the crab by means of a short stalk. The colorless roots of the parasite, which ramify through the body of the host, communicate with the external sac at the stalk of attachment. In life the sac of the mature parasite is usually yellowish in color. Immature specimens are white. A muddy brown or purplish color indicates that the eggs in the brood pouch have developed to the nauplius stage. The nauplius or first stage larva has a black eye and two small patches of reddish brown pigment and the color of masses of these larvae is visible through the walls of the sac. Senescent individuals may also develop a dark rusty color. As a rule, one parasite occurs on a single host, but instances of double infestation are not uncommon. Occasionally there may be three or four sacs present on the same crab. 1950, No. 3 September 30 A Sacculinid Parasite of the Blue Crab 361 EXTERNAL CHARACTERS In general, the shape of the parasite is reniform, with the concavity at the region of the stalk. Viewed from the right side, most specimens in the preserved state exhibit a longitudinal furrow running from the stalk to the mantle opening. This depression is caused by the median ridge of the crab’s abdomen which presses against the right side of the parasite. The left side, which faces the thorax of the host, usually has a slight longi¬ tudinal elevation which is caused by pressure against the grooved sternal plastron of the crab. When more than one parasite is attached to the same host, this symmetry is apt to be disturbed and one or more surfaces may become distorted. The mantle opening, which is directly opposite the stalk, marks the morphological anterior end of the animal, but since the right side is broader than the left and extends beyond the anterior margin, the mantle opening appears to be displaced slightly to the left. The area immediately surround¬ ing the aperture is elevated and thrown into a number of grooves and ridges (Fig. 1). The stalk, or peduncle, by which the parasite is attached to the host, is short and slanting, and but little chitinized. It measures about 5 mm. in thickness in full grown specimens. The external surface of the parasite appears smooth to the naked eye, wrinkled under moderate magnification, and beset with minute thorn-like processes when viewed under high magnification. The dimensions of the parasite vary considerably. Of 30 specimens measured, the length (antero-posterior axis) varied from 5 mm. to 17 mm., the thickness (dorso- ventral diameter) from 8 mm. to 24 mm. and the post. Figure 1. diagram of Loxothylacus texanm viewed from the surface (left side) that was resting against the thorax of the host. The mantle has been partially removed to show the position of the internal organs. Abbrevia¬ tions: d. mes., dorsal mesentery; 1. col. gL, left colleteric gland; 1. $ g. op., left male genital opening; 1. test., left testis; 1. vas df. left vas deferens; m. cav., mantle cavity; m. op., mantle opening; vs. mass, visceral mass. 362 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 breadth from 3 mm. to 8 mm. The average measurements were 8.2 mm. in length, 16 mm. in thickness and 5 mm. in breadth. This species is one of the largest known representatives of the genus Loxothylacus. INTERNAL ANATOMY The external cuticle of the mantle, in specimens of average size, varies in thickness from 12 to 52 fx. Its outer surface is thickly beset with minute thorn-like excrescences measuring approximately 3.5 to 6 /x in height (Fig. 2A). They are therefore much shorter than the spines present on the ex¬ ternal cuticle of LoxothylacMs panopei which may attain a length of 20 /x, and also differ in having the tops pointed instead of rounded. Like other species of this genus (Boschma, 1940), the spines are, as a rule, somewhat larger on the surface of the mantle which was in contact with the thorax of the host, than on the opposite surface. Figure 2. A — portions of the external cuticle of L. texanus, highly magnified and seen in section, from two different regions of the animal. B-— Surface views of three examples of retinacula occurring on the internal cuticle. 1950, No. 3 September 30 A Sacculinid Parasite of the Blue Crab 363 The middle portion of the mantle, 64 to 128 /x in thickness, is com¬ posed of longitudinal and circular muscle fibers and connective tissue. The mantle musculature is comparatively weak, with the exception of the sphincter around the mantle opening which is very well developed. Circular muscles appear to be lacking in young specimens. , The thin, internal cuticle bears numerous rosette-like retinacula con¬ sisting of a smooth basal prominence from which arise a cluster of barbed spindles (Fig. 2B) . The spindles number 9 to 1 1 (occasionally up to 15) per cluster and measure from 8 to 17 /x in length and from 3.5; to 6.5 /x in thickness. Retinacula are absent in the region of the mantle opening. The mantle is colorless and semi-transparent. The yellow appearance of the animal is due to the color of the visceral mass and the eggs in the mantle cavity. This cavity is narrow and empty in juvenile specimens, but broad and filled with developing eggs or larvae in mature specimens, except during the brief interval between successive broods. The eggs, during their period of incubation, do not lie loosely in the mantle cavity but are held together in branching gelatinous strings or bundles. A further provision to prevent their premature release from the brood pouch is the presence, on the inner lining of the cavity, of clusters of microscopic barbed spindles situated on papillae, the "retinacula” mentioned above. The visceral mass lies obliquely in the mantle cavity, due to the fact that the mesentery is attached to the mantle a short distance to the right of the stalk, which is a diagnostic feature of the genus. However, this was not pronounced in the case of the smallest parasite sectioned (length 5.8 mm; thickness 7.2 mm; breadth 1.5 mm) where the visceral mass is attached to the stalk itself in the median region of the body, although sections through the dorsal half of the body show the mesentery shifted slightly to the right of the stalk. Boschma (1940) has noted similar atypical variations with respect to mesenterial attachment of several other species of LoxothylacMs and concludes that "the sharp limit between the genera SaccuUna and Loxothylacus is not as pronounced as previous investigations seemed to prove.” The bulk of the visceral mass is made up of the genital organs, con¬ sisting of a voluminous ovary, two colleteric glands which function as ovi¬ ducts, and a pair of strongly curved testes with vasa deferentia that con¬ nect with the mantle cavity. It also contains the single ganglion of the nervous system. These organs are embedded in a parenchymatous frame¬ work with blood lacunae present principally in the region of the stalk and in the vicinity of the colleteric glands. Muscle fibers pass transversely through the mass, and others, close to the surface, run in a longitudinal direction. The visceral mass is covered by a thin chitinous cuticle which is continuous with the inner cuticle of the mantle. The ovary, as a rule, is crowded with oocytes, groups of which are enclosed in irregular thin-walled follicles. Embedded in the lateral surface of the ovary and sometimes protruding slightly, are the colleteric glands which occupy a position in the anterior half just above the mid-line. They comprise a well-developed system of branched tubes; as many as 8 5 sections of tubes per gland can be counted in some portions. The tubes are com¬ posed of one to three layers of epithelium and are provided with a fairly thick inner chitinous lining. The extent of the canal system along the 364 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 dcrso-ventral axis is practically coextensive with that of the male genital organs. The male genital organs are embedded in the posterior part of the visceral mass. They resemble two fused retorts lying side by side. The bulb of the retort is the testis proper, a large, strongly, curved sac; the tubular portion is the vas deferens. The testes are united at their closed ends, forming a common lumen (Fig. 3). Elsewhere they are contiguous, later¬ ally compressed, but not united. Starting from the closed end, the testis curves dorsad then bends sharply ventrad and merges into the much nar¬ rower vas deferens which proceeds in a ventro-lateral direction as a straight tube. As the vasa deferentia approach their termination they diverge to the right and to the left and open into the mantle cavity on the postero¬ lateral surfaces of the visceral mass. In some specimens all portions of the male genital organs are included in the horizontal sections through the stalk region; in others the testes begin in a more dorsal position. m€3. ou eggs fs. test. mes. stalk Figure 3. longitudinal section of a mature specimen of L. texanm through the region of the stalk. Fs. /cs/., fused testes; inc. eggs, incubating eggs; ov. eggs, ovarian eggs; other abbreviations as before. (Drawn by Nancy Patton). 1950, No. 3 September 30 A Sacculinid Parasite of the Blue Crab 365 The testes are comparatively thick-walled, especially in young speci¬ mens (Fig. 4) where the lumen is not yet very pronounced. They merge into the vasa deferentia which begin as thick-walled tubes that become progressively thinner. In mature specimens the vasa deferentia have internal ridges along part of their length. Their terminal portions are plugged with chitin. A thin muscle tissue surrounds the testis and vas deferens and is particularly noticeable where the organs are contiguous. A small ganglion, irregular or broadly triangular in shape, is located slightly anterior to the colleteric glands in the plane which bisects the stalk and mantle opening (Fig. 4). It is difficult to find in mature speci¬ mens, but shows up clearly in young specimens. Figure 4. Longitudinal sections of a young specimen of L. texanus. A-— Through the mid-region of the body. B—Through the dorsal half of the body near the mid-line. Mcs., mesentery; rt. test., right testis; rt. vas. df., right vas deferens; other abbreviations as before. (Drawn by Nancy Patton) . LITERATURE CITED Boschma, H. — 1933 — New species of Sacculinidae in the collection of the United States National Museum. Ti,idschr. ned. dierk. Ver, Leiden 3 (3) : 219-241. - : — 1940 — Biological results of the Snellius Expedition. VIII. Some Rhizocephala of the genus Loxothylaciis. Temminckia (Leiden) 5^273-372. Daugherty, F. M., Jr. — 1949 — Blue crab investigation 1948-49. Ann, Kept. Mar. Lab. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm, for 1948-49, (Unpublished). Reinhard, E. G. — 1950 — An analysis of the effects of a sacculinid parasite on the external morphology cf Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, Biol. Bull. 98 (3) : 277-288. 366 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 UNUSUAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN TEXAS IN 1949-1950 AND ITS RELATION TO THE SPREAD OF HUISACHE GORDON GUNTER Institute of Marine Science The University of Texas Port Aransas, Texas At the annual meeting of the Texas Academy of Science at College Station in 1942, the writer presented a paper before the Earth Sciences section giving the results of some work by Dr. W. Armstrong Price and myself. It was stated that evidence from recent biological and geological changes in South Texas had brought us to the conclusion that a climatic change to drier and warmer had recently taken place in this area, probably beginning about 1870. Newspaper reporters got hold of the information and began to inquire how soon Texas would turn into a desert. Our bio¬ logical colleagues gave their criticism without stint. The unknown referees of a widely read national journal were quite derogatory when they criti¬ cized and rejected the paper. Because of these remarks and the fact that weather data did not extend far enough back in South Texas for us to check our thesis, the writers toned down their statements considerably and later published the paper in the Academy journal, Price and Gunter (1943). Since that time there has come a plethora of suggestions and evidence that the climate in various parts of the United States has become drier and warmer. A recent article in a national magazine (Chapman, 1950) clearly shows the fact has been accepted as a tenet of the Department of the Interior in its future plans concerning water resources. Kimble (1950) has reviewed certain instances of recent climatic change. One of the evidences on which Doctor Price and I based our conclu¬ sions was the rapid extension northward from the Rio Grande region of the various kinds of chaparral brush. A recent event concerning part of this brush has so far gone unnoted in print, although I have discussed it with several botanists. The huisache. Acacia farnesiana, now extends north and east to College Station and possibly beyond. During the cold spell of January 1949, which was extensive enough to do damage to the citrus groves in the Rio Grande valley, most of this plant was killed north o-f Cuero. According to Weather Bureau records, the January of 1949 was the coldest since 18 88, with the exceptions of 1930 and 1940. In great contrast to the previous year, the winter of 49-50 was extremely mild. By the first week of February mesquite was beginning to bud all over South Texas and by the middle of February the huisache was in heavy bloom. Where it was thick, the countryside was yellow with huisache blos¬ soms. On a trip from Aransas Pass to Austin on February 20 the writer saw less than ten living huisache north of Cuero along the highway. Hun¬ dreds and probably thousands of dead trees were seen as evidence of the previous year’s kill. From Victoria southward thousands of living trees remain and the line of demarcation between cold-killed and surviving 1950, No. 3 Unusual Climatic Conditions in Texas 367 September 30 huisache seems to be fairly sharp between Cuero and Victoria, a distance of 2 5 miles. A great deal of huisache was also killed between Austin and San Antonio. So far as I know mesquite brush was not killed back. The growth of noxious brush on range lands is a very serious problem in Texas. It is pertinent to call attention to the fact that the huisache, an important member of the encroaching chaparral brush from the south¬ west, is approaching the northern geographic limits of its tolerance to low temperatures in a belt extending north from Cuero to College Station. This brush plant has taken over large areas of open country and natural range in this region. During the next few years this land will have some respite and range botanists will be able to study the process, rate, etc., by which huisache re-infests the land from which it was killed back by the cold spell of 1949. LITERATURE CITED Chapman, Oscar L. — 1950 — Will there be enough water for you? American Magazine 149(2) : 24-25, 126-128. Kimble, George H. T. — 1950 — The changing climate. Scientific Amer. 182 : 48-53. Price, W. Armstrong and G. Gunter — 1943 — Certain recent geological and biological changes in South Texas, with consideration of probable causes. Proc. and Trans. Texas Acad. Sci. 26: 138-156. 368 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 THE MAMMALS OF THE STOCKTON PLATEAU OF NORTHEASTERN TERRELL COUNTY, TEXAS JACK A. HERMANN Department of Zoology * University of Texas INTRODUCTION This report concerns an ecological survey of the mammals in the northeastern part of Terrell County, Texas. A survey of this nature has never been made in this area, although Blair and Miller (1949) made a similar survey in the Sierra Vieja region. Previous surveys in the Chihua- huan biotic province in Trans-Pecos Texas have been made by Blair (1940) in the Davis Mountain region and by Borell and Bryant (1942) in the Big Bend area of Texas. Previous work in Trans-Pecos Texas has been, in general, restricted to the mountain regions. The work here reported was done on the Stockton Plateau in the eastern part of the Trans-Pecos region. The survey on which this report is principally based was made from June 4 to July 9, 1949, by a summer field party consisting of 22 advanced zoology, botany and geology students of the University of Texas under the supervision of Dr. W. Frank Blair. Dr, Blair, A. G. Flury, C. E. Miller, H. W. Phillips and W, A. Thornton made a preliminary reconnaissance of Terrell County in April, 1949. W. W. Milstead, J. S. Mecham and I spent two days in the area in September, and Thornton, Milstead and M. J. Fouquette spent five days there in November. I am indebted to the 'mem¬ bers of the summer field party for furnishing the bulk of the material for this report. F. H. Stevens, R. L. Elam and J. L. Yelvington studied the distribution and ecology of the carnivorous mammals. The life habits of the javelina were studied by W. L. Gustafson and C. T. McCarver, and the results of their work appear in this report substantially the same as they have been drawn up in an unpublished report. The small mammals were studied by William Kohn, Mark Eidelbach, G. L. Webster, R. P. Maner and Curtis Franks. D. J. Edson and Edwin Silverberg investigated the dis¬ tribution and ecology of the gophers, and 1 am including their report with only minor revisions. The floral distribution and ecology were studied by G. L. Webster (1950). The Texas State Department of Health sent an entomologist, William Hightower, with the field party to make a study of the ectoparasites found on the mammal specimens collected. I am indebted to him for the information here reported regarding these ectoparasites. The field party is also indebted to N. D. Blackstone, who not only permitted the work to be carried out on his ranch but who also contributed in innumerable ways to the successful completion of the work. We are likewise indebted to W. C. Dunlap, Joe Chandler and L. H. Hicks for permission to work on their ranches. I am particularly indebted to Dr, W. Frank Blair, whose constant advice, direction and patience were tirelessly given in the preparation of this report. 1950, No 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 369 ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS Terrell County lies in the Chihuahuan biotic province as designated by Blair (1940), Dice (1943) and Blair (1950). The Pecos River, com¬ prising the eastern boundary of the Chihuhuan biotic province, serves also as the northeastern border of Terrell County. The climate of Terrell County falls in Thornthwaite’s (1948) E type climate, designated as arid, with a moisture index of -60 to -40. The mean annual temperature is 65.8° F. at Sonora. The average annual rainfall is 12.08 inches at Sanderson and 22.71 inches at Sonora. These figures are based on relatively short records, 12 years for Sanderson and 15 years for Sonora (U.S.W.B., 1934). The elevations in Terrell County range from 1300 to 3600 feet, our camp-site was situated at an elevation of 2 540 feet, absolute altimeter. This area has not been studied previously by animal geographers or ecologists. Most of the work was done on the Blackstone ranch, 13 to 20 miles south of Sheffield. This area, typical of the northern Stockton Plateau, consists of valleys and canyons some 300 feet below the surrounding mesas and plateaus. The flood plains are generally wide and flat, but the numerous canyon headers are frequently steep and precipitous. G. L. Webster (1950) has worked out in detail the vegetational rela¬ tionships in the area. Treatment of the following associations, delimited by Webster, is here only general in scope. Cedar savannah Association. This association is restricted to the mesa- tops and to the uneven margins of the mesa-tops directly above the rim rock. The most conspicuous species are J uniperm Ashei and Agave lechu- guilla, and sotol {Dasylirion leiophylluin) occurs in considerable quantity. This association is sparsely populated by mammals. The lechugilla is a favorite food of javelinas (Tayassn angulatum) and these animals may fre¬ quent this association for feeding. Where considerable soil has accumulated patches of tobosa (Hilaria mutica) and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) are found. In general, the soil is thin and compact, a residium of clays derived from decomposition of the limestone. From this association two Citellm mexicanm, two Berognathm mer- riamiy one Procyon lotor and two Tayassu angidatum were taken (Table 1). These seven specimens represent 3.16 percent of the 221 collected speci¬ mens. Cedar— Ocotillo Association. The cedar — ocotillo association occurs on the mesa slopes. In some places the slopes descend gradually from the mesa-tops to the valley floor without any marked abruptness. In other places the slopes become steep, rocky and precipitous before reaching the valley floor. The dominant species of plants are J uni perm Ashei, Acacia, ocotillo, (Fouquieria splendens) and mariola (Parthenium incanum) . Small mammals were very scarce in this association. Specimens collected included one Pipistrellm hesperm, four Citellm in ter pres, two Thomomys bottae and one Cratogeomys castanops. Persimmon— Shinoak Association. This association occurs on the rim rock, which may extend from the margin of the mesa-top to 20-40 feet below the margin, and on a narrow strip along the base of the rim rock. The rim rock is very sparsely covered with the red-flowered beardtongue (Pentstemon baccharifolius) , Hedyotis polypremoides and Salvia Roemeriana. The base of the rim rock supports a dense growth of Diospyros texana. 370 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 TABLE 1 Number of mammals collected in each of the ecological associations of northeastern Terrell County, Texas. The symbol t indicates sight records. The symbol indicates other signs. Species Recorded Records in Ecological Associations C C rt > rS -73 r3 c« C ^ O u ^ »— I cn ^ ^ ^ Myotis velifer 1 Pipistrellus hesperus 1 t 35 Antrozous pallidus 2 Tadarida mexicana 2 Dasypus novemcinctus t Lepus californicus t t t Sylvilagus floridanus t t 1 Sciurus niger t 1 1 1 1 Cynomys ludovicianus 1 Citellus interpres 4 1 Citellus mexicanus 2 15 Citellus variegatus 10 Thomomys bottae 2 Cratogeomys castanops 1 29 Perognathus merriami 2 38 1 5 14 Perognathus nelsoni 2 Dipodomys merriami 1 Castor canadensis Peromyscus leucopus 4 Peromyscus pectoralis 6 3 1 1 Sigmodon hispidus 6 Neotoma sp. Urocyon cinereoargenteus t t 1 Bassariscus astutus 2 2 1 t 1 Procyon lotor 1 t 3 1 t . Mephitis mephitis 2 t t Spilogale leucoparia 2 1 Conepatus mesoleucus 1 Tayassu angulatum 2 t t t Odocoileus virginianus t t t 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 371 SymphoricarpMS sp. and Ungnadia spechsa. Twenty-one mammals were taken from this association, including specimens of Citellus inferpres, Citel- hts variegatus, Verognathm nelsoni, Peromyscus pecforalh and Bassariscus mtutm. These 21 specimens represent 9.50 percent of the mammals col¬ lected. Cedar — Oak Association. The narrow canyons and canyon-headers are occupied by the cedar— -oak association. Oaks of several species and the common cedar Juniperus Ashei^ are the major vegetational components of this association. The smaller shrubs and herbs form dense cover in some of the canyon-headers. Although this association was worked by members of the field party numerous times, only three specimens were collected. These included three of the 1 1 collected Perogmysctts pectoralis. Mesquite— Creosote bush Association. The broad inter-mesa valleys are occupied by the mesquite — creosote bush association. The vegetational cover is proportional to the proximity of the species to water and to alluvial deposits. Mesquite, (Prosopis juliflora) , is the dominant plant in the area. However there are interspersed patches wherein no mesquite is found. Other patches include stands of tarbush (Flourensia) , creosote bush (Larrea tri- dentata) and the small-leaved buckthorn (Microrhamims ericoides) . Web¬ ster (1950) reports that this is the most complex of the associations and could be subdivided into smaller units. The mesquite — creosote bush asso¬ ciation apparently had the largest population of small mammals of any as¬ sociation in the region. Of the 221 specimens collected, 132 came from this association and included Piphtrellus hesperus, Perognathtis merrlami, Cratogeomys castanops and Citellus mexicanus as the most abundant mam¬ malian species. Mesquite — Sumac — Condalia Association. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), small-leaved sumac (Rhus micro phylla) and two species of condalia (Con¬ dalia lycioides and C. spathulata) are the major floral elements of this as¬ sociation. These species form dense thickets in some places along the banks of Independence Creek. One cottontail (Sylvilagus florid anus) and one raccoon (Procyon lotor) were taken in this association. Sight records were obtained in this association for Lepus californictLs. Hackberry Association. This association was found in only one local¬ ity, where it covered an area of approximately one acre. This is found at the Gravel Springs on the Blackstone ranch, some 20 miles south of Shef¬ field. Soapberry (Sapindus Drummond ii) and buckthorn (Bumelia lanuginosa var. texana) were the plants associated in this community with the domi¬ nant Celtis reticulata. One Spilogale leucoparia was collected in this associa¬ tion, and it was shot out of a crotch of a tree, some 20 feet from the ground. One fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) was also taken in this association. Milstead reports sight records of Mephitis mephitis and Bassariscus astutus from this area, and numerous Procyon lotor were seen in this association by Fouquette, Milstead and Thornton on their later trips to Terrell County. Live-Oak Association. The live— oak association is very restricted in extent in this area. Chandler *s ranch house is some 30 miles south of Shef¬ field, and here Independence Creek is a permanent stream emptying into the Pecos River less than a mile east of the ranch house. A strip of live — oak association parallels the course of the creek in this area and for some five miles upstream. Webster considers this the westernmost extension of 372 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 3 Quercus virginianay which is the principal plant species in this association. One SciMTMs niger and one Peromyscus pectoralis were taken in this associa¬ tion, and armadillos {Dasypus novemcinctus) were seen here. Salt Cedar Association. This association is found on the low flats of the Pecos River floodplain, where it is remarkably uniform in character. There is no woody species in this association other than the dominant Tamarix gallica. This area was trapped by Kohn and myself for a three day period and one Perognathtis merriami was collected. Although none of the animals was seen, several tree stumps indicated the presence in the area of the beaver, (Castor canadensis) . Fresh Procyon lotor tracks were also found in this association near the banks of the Pecos River. Walnut — Desert Willow Association. This is the characteristic asso¬ ciation in the stream beds. Jtiglans rupestris and Chilopsis linearis are the two dominant species in the association. Where these streams receive a rela¬ tively fair amount of water a number of herbs are found in the beds of gravel or on the sides of the stream bed. Seven (3.16 percent) mammals were taken, one Sciurtts niger, five Perognathm merriami, one Bassarisctis astutus. In this association white-tailed deer (Odocoiletis virginianus) were see'n by almost every member of the field party on various occasions. Field Association. On the premises of Hick’s ranch there is a strong growth of cultivated plants as well as weeds. These are found paralleling the irrigation ditches leading from the springs on the Hick’s property. This association is considered as an artificial one, and 24 specimens (10.8 per cent) were taken. These included T4 Pero gnat bus merriami, four Pero- myscns leucopus and six Sigmodon bispidus. ANNOTATED LIST OF MAMMALS There were 2 5 species of mammals taken in the Terrell County area. Fifteen additional species are indicated as having been reported or collected in this area by the ranchers or by Bailey (1905). I have taken the ranchers’ word as authority on five of the species we did not collect. The remaining ten species which we did not collect and which I am including are re¬ corded by Bailey (1905). I have included only those species which are re¬ ported by Bailey no farther from the area in which we worked than Fort Lancaster and Sanderson. The nomenclature is that of Miller (1924) except where subsequent revisions have been made. I am following Simpson’s (1945) classification. The specimens collected are on deposit in the Texas Natural History Collection at the University of Texas. Myotis velifer incauttis (J. A, Allen). Cave Bat. Only one specimen of this bat was taken, and it was collected by Blair on July 1 over a tank in the mesquite— creosote bush association. This specimen compared closely in pelage color and measurements to other specimens from Travis County. Pipistrellus besperus maximus Hatfield. Canyon Bat. This was the most common bat in the area. It was collected over several tanks, all lo¬ cated in the mesquite- — creosote bush association. Thirty-six specimens in all were taken. A number of the members of the field party reported see¬ ing these bats at dusk flying over the persimmon-— shinoak association. They were evidently coming from the not too infrequent caves found in the rim rock. McCarver, Gustafson and I saw one of these bats in a shallow cave in which a javelina was found. Bat guano was present but not abundant 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 373 in many of the shallow rim rock caves m the area. A few specimens were lost to bass (Micropterus salmoides) in the tanks after being shot and before they could be retrieved. Two specimens in the Texas Natural History Col¬ lection were collected by Blair in this association on April 8, 1949. Hightower reports the following ectoparasites taken from these bats: Acarina: Ornithodoros sp,, Liponyssus robustipeSj Liponyssus haemotophagus, and Spinturnix sp. Siphonaptera: Myodopsylla collinsi. AfitfozoMs pdlidm pdlidus (Le Conte). Pallid Bat. Two of these bats were collected by Blair over tanks in the mesquite— creosote bush associa¬ tion of Ligon Canyon, where they were in feeding flight over and around the mesquites. They were collected on June 14 and June 19. These bats were seen in no associations other than the one in which they were collected. Tadarida mexicana (Saussure). Freetail Bat." Two specimens of this bat v/ere shot on April 18 over a tank in the mesquite— creosote bush associa¬ tion at West Martin well. No specimens were taken of this bat in the June- July survey. Bailey (1905) states that this is one of the most common bats in the West-Texas area. Dasypus novemcinctus texamis (Bailey). Armadillo. Although no specimens of the armadillo were taken, the skeleton of an adult was seen by Mecham in the live-oak association on Chandler’s ranch. Thornton, Milstead and Flury reported seeing an adult and a juvenile in the live-oak Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission ARMADILLO {Dasypus novemcinctus texanus) 374 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 association at Hick’s ranch on July 1. (Bailey (1905) reports armadillos from the Fort Lancaster area. Leptis californicus tcxianns Waterhouse. Jackrabbit. Although the jack- rabbit was not scarce, no specimens were prepared. Stevens killed and used several of this species in trapping for the carnivorous mammals. These were from the mesquite — -creosote bush association. Other associations in which this rabbit was seen include the mesquite- — sumac-— condalia and the cedar savannah, indicating that there is no restriction of the species to the mesa- tops or to the inter-mesa valleys. Hightower found the following ectoparasites infesting these rabbits: Siphonaptera: Hoplopsyllns af finis. Acarina: Haemaphysalis le poris- pains fris, Dermacentor paruma p ferns, Sylvilagns floridanus chapmani (Allen). Eastern Cottontail. One speci¬ men of the cottontail was collected by Blair on June 22 in the mesquite — sumac — condalia association. Sight records of this species were also made in the cedar- — savannah association and in the mesquite^ — creosote bush associa¬ tion, indicating a similar distribution pattern for the cottontail as was found for the jackrabbit. I have compared this specimen with chapmani from Hidalgo and Live Oak Counties. The upper parts of the Terrell County specimen are con¬ siderably lighter with more gray pelage evident than in the Hidalgo County specimens. In comparing the Terrell Countv specimen with the Live Oak County specimen it is evident that the former is darker with a more melanistic pelage than is the specimen from Live Oak County. Scmrtis niger liniitis (Baird). Fox Squirrel. Four specimens of the fox squirrel were taken. Each of these was taken from a different association: one from the mesquite — creosote bush association, where it was shot as it came to a watering tank; one from the walnut-desert willow association; one from the hackberry association and one from the live-oak association. Numerous fox squirrels were seen near Chandler’s ranch house in a grove of large live-oak trees. Thornton, McCarver and I saw these squirrels in the persimmon — shinoak association of Ligon Canyon, although no speci¬ mens were collected there. Blair reported seeing one of these squirrels in a clump of soapberry trees (Sapindns Drninmondii) in the bed of Independ¬ ence Creek. He reported seeing holes in the trees which were in use by the squirrels, and the squirrel was in such a hole when seen. The specimens collected are similar in color and size to specimens of limitis from Gillespie, Burnet, Live Oak, Hays, Karnes, Travis and Bandera Counties. Hightower found specimens of Anoplura (Neohaematopinus scinrinus) and Siphonaptera (Orchopeas howardi) infesting the fox squirrels collected. Cynomys Indovicianus arizonensis (Mearns). Prairie Dog. Two miles east of Sheffield, in Pecos County, and about 300 yards north of the Shef- field-Ozona Highway, there is a prairie dog town of some 300 mounds. This area is flat or very slightly rolling and has a rather heavy cover of mes¬ quite. One specimen was collected from this town. The specimen collected was compared with specimens from Jeff Davis County and the measurements compared closely. The Terrell County speci¬ mens compared closely with the type description of arizonensis (Hollister, 1916). Citellns inter pres (Merriam). Antelope Squirrel. Five specimens of the 1950. No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 37f Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission PRAIRIE DOG {Cynomys ludovicianus arizonemh) Fror-i ail old print A PRAIRIE DOG TOWN 376 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 antelope squirrel were collected. Four of these were taken from the cedar— ocotillo association and one from the persimmon— shinoak association. These specimens were collected by shooting. Eighty trap nights with large live traps in an area where several of these small squirrels were seen failed to take any specimens. The antelope squirrels are extremely wary and very rapid in movement when disturbed. Their activities are restricted to daylight hours. Early afternoon, when the temperature is the highest, seems to be their preferred time for activity away from their holes. However, Jurgens and 1 have ob¬ served these squirrels out and active as early as 7 A.M. and as late as 7 P.M. The preferred nesting site of the antelope squirrels is in between boul¬ ders and under rock ledges where they are able to go back sveral feet from th entrance. Jurgens saw one squirrel use five holes in the same area. The majority of the antelope squirrels seen were found ranging from the bottom of the mesa-slopes to some 50-60 feet up the slopes. Some were seen near the mesa-tops, but these were always in canyon headers which were rela¬ tively shallow. None was seen on the tops of the mesas. The specimens collected are closely similar to specimens of interpres from Presidio County, Texas. CitellMS mexicamis parvidens (Mearns). Mexican Ground Squirrel. The Mexican ground squirrel is the most abundant squirrel found in this local¬ ity. Seventeen specimens were collected, 15 from the mesquite— creosote bush association and two from the cedar savannah association. A4ost of these specimens were taken from the vicinity of Blackstone’s ranch house where a large quantity of grain was available. The specimens collected there were all taken by large live traps. One attempt at flooding a hole to get a squifrel was unsuccessful, although over 30 gallons of water were used. There was at least one squirrel in a hole that was being flooded, as evi¬ denced by the digging sounds heards after each tubfull of water was poured down the hole. Two other holes connected to the same system of tunnels were plugged by the squirrel during the process of flooding. This particular species was not found in the canyons and on the mesa slopes, where the other species of squirrels were found. Several specimens were seen on the mesa-tops and two were collected there. Near Blackstone’s ranch house, where food for the squirrels was plen¬ tiful, holes were found in the driveway, in small clumps of grass and other¬ wise located without particular covering protection. On the mesas and in other localities where the Mexican ground squirrel was seen, the holes v/ere always found under some thorny bush which afforded some protec¬ tion for the squirrels against predators. One hole was found in camp, under a Microrhamnus bush, and a Mexi¬ can ground squirrel was seen entering this hole during- our stay at the campsite. Jurgens and I dug the hole out to determine its size and plan. One nest chamber was found with cedar bark being used as matting. Four other chambers were present but no food or droppings were present to in¬ dicate the function of the chambers. Jurgens observed that more than one squirrel may inhabit the same system of tunneling at the same time. Whether this is true for the breed¬ ing season only was not determined. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 377 This ground squirrel has a high-pitched, trilling, alarm signal which is used when the animal is frightened or suspicious of possible danger. The picket-fence attitude is generally assumed by these squirrels when they are frightened, and any other movement or noise by the intruders will send these squirrels scurrying down their holes. The feeding habits of this species were studied by field work, and Jurgens fed various diets to two captives in camp. In the field, seeds are the predominant foods taken. Near Blackstone’s house there was a good supply of maize and the squirrels could be seen scurrying to and from the cache. Mr. Blackstone reported that he has seen the squirrels eating Agave lechuguilla seeds. Croton seeds were found in the jaw pockets of several specimens. In camp, the squirrels were offered and readily took samples of apple, dried apricot, watermelon and wheat. The traps used in the field were baited with wheat. The activity of these squirrels paralleled that of the antelope squirrel. They were most active from noon until 3 P.M. but they could be seen and heard away from their holes from sun-up to sun-down on reasonably warm and clear days. These specimens are similar in size and color to specimens of parvidens from Bee, Crockett, Dickens, Fisher, Hidalgo, Kerr, Live Oak and Travis Counties, Texas. Citelhis variegafus couchii (Baird). Rock Squirrel. Ten specimens of the rock squirrel were collected, and all of these came from the persim¬ mon — shinoak association. The period of activity of these squirrels is similar to that of the ante¬ lope and Mexican ground squirrels. They are most commonly seen during the hottest part of the day, but also were seen early in the morning and just before sunset. There was no means of determining the home range of the squirrels, although one was observed to run along a rock ledge for a distance of over 150 yards. The holes of the rock squirrel were found high on the canyon slopes and generally in between boulders. Some squirrels, however, were found using holes in solid rock, and I found two of these practically cylindrical and worn smooth by the activity of the squirrel getting in and out of the hole. Each of the specimens collected, incidentally, showed marks just be¬ hind the shoulder region where part of the fur had been worn away in their movement in and out of their nests. Feeding stations were found under rocks and between boulders where there were no nests. Foods found in and around these feeding stations in¬ cluded Mexican walnuts, croton seeds and mesquite beans. One squirrel had 20 Mexican walnut fruits in the cheek pouches. The ten specimens from Terrell County compared closely in total body length, tail length, left hind foot length and left ear length with specimens of cotichii from Jeff Davis and Presidio Counties. However, the pelage of the head and shoulders is slightly more melanistic in the Terrell County specimens than in the others. I believe that these specimens more closely approximate cotichii as described by Howell (1938) than they do grammurus. The specimens show a considerable amount of variation in melanistic coloring “and I believe that these specimens are intergrades between grammurus and couchii. 378 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 Septemben 30 Hightower reported the following ectoparasites from the rock squir¬ rels: Siphonaptera: Pulex irritans, Echidnophaga gallinacea, Diamanus mon- tanus; Anoplura: Neobaematopinus scmrinus; Acarina: Ixodes cookei, Der- macentor pariimaptertts; Mites: Atricholaelaps glasgowi. Ehomomys bottae confinalis Goldman. Mountain Pocket Gopher. Two specimens of this species were collected. Most of the Thomomys workings were found along the rim rocks just below the top of the mesas in the cedar — ocotillo association. Only a few workings were found in the entire region, and only a small number of these were recent. The limited vertical range of these pocket gophers along the slopes is probably due to ,a combi¬ nation of suitable soils and available palatable foods. A few workings were observed on the mesa-top in the cedar savannah association, but no speci¬ mens were taken there. The burrowing habits of the mountain pocket gophers are somewhat different from those of the plains pocket gopher. This is probably due to the thin soil and rocky cover of the mesa edges. Several burrows were par¬ tially dug out in an attempt to find suitable locations for traps. The bur¬ rows were much less extensive than those of the plains gopher and were seldom over one and one-half inches in diameter. The depth of the tunnel floor below the surface of the ground varied from three inches when run¬ ning horizontally to an undetermined depth when turning vertically to pass between two large rocks. Since the soil was chiefly loose gravels and the burrows were shallow, most of the burrows were found under large plants or rocks large enough to support the roof of the tunnels. A few chambers were uncovered which were probably used for nesting. These were approximately four inches in diameter and not over two inches high. They contained no grasses to pad them as was the case with the plains gopher. No food stores or accumulations of fecal materials and other waste were found. The few short lateral tunnels were terminated in plugged openings beneath clumps of lechugilla plants. Lechugilla is probably the principal food of this species, and in many places large patches of dead lechugilla were associated with the gopher’s workings. These were apparently killed by the destruction of their roots by the gopher. This relationship between the mountain pocket gopher and the lechugilla was first reported by Bailey ( 1905). Burrov/s were also found under catclaw and under dead yucca and sotol. While the plains gopher seems to subsist on leaves and stems of woody plants, the mountain pocket gopher lives primarily on roots. Cratogeomys castanops lacrhnalis Nelson and Goldman. Plains Pocket Gopher. In this region the plains pocket gopher is largely restricted to the mesquite — -creosote bush associations due to the soil’s greater depth, greater moisture content and the therefore more abundant food supply than in other associations. Of the 30 specimens collected, 29 were taken in the mesquite— creosote bush association, and the remaining one was taken at the foot of a slope occupied by the cedar— -ocotillo association. This gopher is one of the most numerous mammals found along the Independence Creek floodplain, and where the soil is under cultivation it is a serious nuisance. The floodplain soil is relatively loose and contains a large amount of lime¬ stone and chert gravels. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 379 Several burrows were partially excavated, and one was completely dug out and its tunnels mapped. The depth of the tunnel floor below the sur¬ face of the ground varied from four inches near the entrance to 23 inches at other places. A typical cross-section of a tunnel had a dome-like shape which measured about three inches vertically and about three inches across the base. The main tunnel of the completely excavated burrow was 96 feet in length. There were several subsidiary branches from the main tunnel, with the two longest branches measuring 17.5 and 14.5 feet in length. The terminal branches were all plugged with packed soil and gravel for several inches below the surface. Due to the nature of the soil it was im¬ possible to trace tunnels which had been plugged for several feet and ap¬ parently for a long period of time. Some of these abandoned tunnels also contained an abundance of dried grasses and fecal matter which tends to indicate a certain amount of neatness on the part of the gopher. There were, however, some recent droppings and fragments of fresh vegetation along the floor of the main tunnel. Most of the fresh vegetation found in the burrow was stored in short lateral branches off the recently excavated portion of the main tunnel. These storage chambers were located about 1 5 to 20 feet from the most recent entrance to the burrow, and some were abandoned surface tunnels which had been plugged to within 10 to 12 inches of the main tunnel. This burrow contained assorted cuttings of tasajillo, mesquite, bitter weed, a type of ragweed (Dyssodia acerosa) and Flottremia. Some of the pieces of mesquite and tasajillo were up to a foot in length. Other burrows contained a type of black brush and purple ground cherry (Physalis locata) . No food preference could be definitely established for this gopher, since various gophers within the same association merely fed upon the vegetation most abundant in the vicinity of their burrows. Food prefer¬ ence tests were made with several individuals in captivity. These indicated that sotol, small-leaved sumac, cedar and bitter weed were unpalatable to the gopher, but all were taken when no other food was available. These gophers would cut off pieces of vegetation about two inches in length be¬ fore eating it. They v/ould then hold it in their fore-paws and start chew¬ ing from one end, thoroughly masticating it. Examinations of the stomach contents revealed an amorphous mass of vegetable matter, which also in¬ dicated how completely the food is ground up prior to being swallowed. Further tests made on two of the captive gophers disclosed additional information about the actual digging of the burrow. Each was tied by the hind foot with a light cord, which apparently did not hinder activity as no attempt was made to remove it. Selecting a spot where the soil was relatively loose, each gopher began digging at a rapid rate with its fore¬ paws and simultaneously removed some of the lossened dirt with the hind feet. When no dirt could be removed in this manner the gopher would turn around by somersaulting and twisting. Then it would shove the dirt out ahead with its fore-paws as it pushed itself along with the hind legs, which were braced on the walls of the tunnel. The gopher can apparently dig in any position, as those studied would turn on one side or even on their backs to dig or gnaw overhanging roots encountered in the path. The entrance tunnels into the burrows dipped 20 to 30 degrees from the horizontal before leveling off into the main tunnel. An adult male and an adult female, when placed in the same cage. 380 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 fought viciously until separated, but the same pair when tied as described above ignored each other when brought into contact. The general incom¬ patibility of these gophers is indicated also by the fact that only on one instance were two gophers found in the same burrow, and in this case both were females, and one of these w^as immature. Four nest chambers were found in the burrow which was completely excavated. Two of these chambers were open, while the other two had been filled with dirt, dried grasses and feces. These were elliptical chambers, set an inch or two from the main tunnel and filled to the level of the main tunnel with vegetation. The floor of each nest chamber was approximately an inch below the level of the main tunnel. The dimensions of the nest chambers were approximately the same in all cases, and the axes averaged as follows: parallel to the main tunnel— eight inches; at right angles to the main tunnel- — six inches; and the vertical— four and one-half inches. Invertebrates indigenous to the gopher burrows were trapped by set¬ ting jars, containing some molasses, level with the floor of the tunnel and then sealing the entrance to prevent outside species from entering. Some invertebrates were removed during the actual excavation of the burrows. The camel cricket {Ceuthophilus sp.) was the most numerous form found, with minor elements of scorpions, termites, beetles and a few spiders. ' Thirty-nine traps were sprung or found sprung in the morning, and 26 were found sprung late in the evening, so no definite conclusions may be drawn as to the periods during the day of greatest activity. No gophers were sighted above ground during the daylight hours, and it is probable that most feeding and burrowing is done during the night or early morn¬ ing when the temperature is not excessively high. Hightower reported the following ectoparasites: Mallophaga: Geomy- doecus geomydis; Acarina: Hirstionyssus sp. Perognatbus merriami gtlvus Osgood. Merriam Pocket Mouse. This species was by far the most abundant terrestrial, small mammal in the region. The number of specimens collected, 60, was greater than for any other species. This species and the canyon bat were apparently the most common species of mammals in the region. Ten other Merriam pocket mice were caught but irreparably mutilated in the traps by ants. Two specimens were collected from the cedar savannah association. Thirty-eight were taken in the mesquite — creosote bush association either by trapping or by capturing them by lantern light after dark. One was caught in the salt cedar association on the banks of the Pecos River. Five were collected from the walnut — desert willow association along Independence Creek, and 14 were obtained in the field association on Hick’s ranch. Milstead, Mecham and I collected two specimens on September 12 at night on the road from Chandler’s ranch to Sheffield. The 60 specimens collected con¬ stitute 27.1 percent of the mammals taken. Hightower reported finding a few Androlaelaps sp. of the Order Acarina on this species of mouse. Perognatbns nidsoni coll is Blair. Rock Pocket Mouse. Two specimens of this species were taken, both from the persimmon — -shinoak association. Intensive trapping was done in this association and why this rock-loving species was as scarce as the results indicated was not determined. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 381 Dipodomys merriami Mearns. Kangaroo Rat. On July 13, Webster caught one specimen of this species in the mesquite— -creosote bush asso¬ ciation and subsequent extensive trapping in this association failed to take additional specimens. Castor canadensis sp. Beaver. In the salt cedar association on the banks of the Pecos River several tree stumps were found, the results of the tree¬ felling habits of the beaver. None of this species was seen, and this one re¬ stricted site of beaver-cut trees was the only indication we had of this species in the area. The ranchers confirmed their presence. Peromyscus leucopus tornillo (Mearns). Wood Mouse. At Hick’s ranch, in the field association, four specimens of this species were taken. I have compared these specimens with specimens of tornillo and texanus, and us¬ ing the character of broader and heavier molar teeth (Osgood, 1909) as indicative of tornillo, I have been unable to distinguish between the two races. I am therefore assigning these specimens tentatively to tornillo, using Osgood’s distribution as authority. These specimens are unquestionably intergrades between tornillo and texanns. Peromyscus pectoralis laceianus Bailey. Encinal Mouse. Eleven speci¬ mens of the encinal mouse were collected. Six of these were taken from the persimmon"— shinoak association. Three were caught in the cedar— oak as¬ sociation. One was obtained in the mesquite— creosote bush association. One was trapped in the live oak association. Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission STUMP OF TREE felled by beavers 382 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 3 September 30 Onychomys leucogaster pallescens. Merriam. Grasshopper Mouse. The only record we have of this species in this area is given by Bailey (1905), and he states that a specimen was collected at Fort Lancaster and that the range of this mouse includes the Pecos Valley. Onychomys torridus (Coues). Scorpion Mouse. No specimens of the scorpion mouse were taken. Bailey (1905) gives a record for this species at Fort Lancaster and states that its range overlaps that of Onychomys leuco- gaster pallescens. Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri Baird. Cotton Bat. Six cotton rats were taken in the field association on Hick’s ranch. This association is actually an artificial one which has developed due to the cultivation and irrigation of the land by water from springs on the ranch and by the diversion of water from Independence Creek. Neotoma sp. Pack Rat. Bailey (1905) includes this region in his mapped range for Neotoma micro pns. We were unsuccessful in trapping for specimens of this species, although some old pack rat workings were found in the persimmon — -shinoak association. Cants latrans Say. Coyote. No specimens of the coyote were seen in this region. The ranchers informed us that coyotes have been held in check Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission COYOTE {Cants latrans) 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 383 if not completely extirpated by the ranchers in protecting their flocks of sheep. Vuipes macrotis neomexicanus Merriam. New Mexico Desert Fox. We collected no specimens of this fox, although several of the members of the field party reported seeing them at irregular intervals in the mesquite- — creosote bush association. The ranchers describe a small fox which we be¬ lieve answers the description of neomexicanus. Blackstone and other ranch¬ ers in the area claim that this fox is not particularly scarce but that it is less common than the gray fox. Urocyon cinereoar genteus scotti Mearns. Gray Fox. Milstead collected one specimen of gray fox on November 24th in the mesquite — creosote bush association. Several were seen in this association during the summer field trip. Two skulls of this species were picked up by Gustafson. The ranchers report the gray fox to be numerous in this area. Bassarhcus as tutus flavus Rhoads. Ringtail. Six specimens of the ring¬ tail were taken. One adult specimen was collected by Stevens at night in the bed of Independence Creek. Blair shot one adult ringtail in the mes¬ quite- — ^creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon. Dennison collected two baby ringtails during the last week of June. They were taken from their nest which was approximately a foot in diameter and filled with unidenti¬ fied plant materials. The nest was located in the persimmon— -shinoak as¬ sociation and under rock fragments. These ringtails were brought to camp but they survived only a few days under the artificial habitat. During this same week Beemon collected two immature ringtails in the cedar-— ocotillo association. He found the nest in a crack of a 10-12 foot rock cliff, the Courtesy Texas Game, Pish and Oyster Commission GRAY FOX {Urocyon cinereoar genteus) 384 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 entrance of which was partly obscured by a condalia. The mother ringtail and another baby ringtail moved into the recesses of the nest and were in¬ accessible. No attempt was made by the mother ringtail to protect her young. No accurate measurements of these two ringtails were taken, Beemon estimates that they were about 6 inches in body length. The ringtails col¬ lected by Dennison and Beemon were collected between 1 0 and 1 1 A.M. This species is common in all the associations with the possible excep¬ tion of the cedar savannah association. Fresh dropings were found fre¬ quently in all the associations other than on the mesa tops. The ranchers verified our belief that this species was one of the most common of the larger mammals. Hightower reports specimens of Pulex irritans, Order Siphonaptera, taken from the ringtails. Procyon lotor ssp. Raccoon. The raccoon was very abundant in this area. The field party collected five specimens. One was obtained on June 13 in the mesquite- — sumac— condalia association. One was shot by Elam on June 21 in the mesquite — -creosote bush association. Two were trapped on June 30 in the mesquite — -creosote bush association of East Martin Canyon. One was collected in the cedar savannah association. The number of these animals present far exceeded the indications given by the numbers of specimens collected. Thornton, Milstead and Fouquette reported that in November there were large numbers of this species seen in various associations, especially in the mesquite— creosote bush association. Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission RACCOON {Procyon lotor) 1950, No. 3 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 385 September 30 We believe that the raccoon is the most abundant carnivorous mammal in the area. Chandler reported that 50 specimens were trapped in a corn-field on his ranch where they were doing extensive damage. Hightower lists the following ectoparasites taken from the raccoon: Siphonaptera: Pulex irritans, Echidnophaga gallinaca; Acarina: Ixodes crookei. Taxidea taxus berlandieri Baird. Badger. No specimens of the badger were taken. The ranchers report that this species is in this area but that it is not abundant. Mephitis mephitis varians (Gray). Striped Skunk. Two specimens of the striped skunk were taken. One was trapped by Stephens in the mes- quite-— creosote bush association. The other specimen was trapped by Elam in the same association. Blackstone and one of his foremen state that these skunks are often common in the area. However, during the June-July survey this species failed to constitute an important component of the mammalian population. Spilogale leiicoparia Merriam. Little Spotted Skunk. One specimen of the spotted skunk was collected by Blair on May 2 in the hackberry asso¬ ciation. This specimen, a lactating female, was shot from a crotch in one of the hackberry trees, some 20 feet above the ground. Conepatus mesolettcus mearnsi Merriam. Hog-nosed Skunk. One speci¬ men of this species v/as shot in the mesquite— -creosote bush association. Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission HOG-NOSED SKUNK {Coiie [)atus mesoleiicus) 386 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Felfs concolor stanleyana (Goldman). Cougar. No specimen of this species was taken. Milstead reported that Chandler said one specimen was killed on the Chandler ranch in 1948 and that Chandler’s father had killed 56 of these carnivores in one year when the country was first being settled. Bailey (1905) reported that the cougar, at the time of writing, was still common in the Rio Grande and Pecos Canyons. Felts pardalis limith Mearns. Ocelot. I have no record for this species in this area other than Bailey’s (1905) report that when his survey was made the ocelot was still common in the Pecos Valley and up to the vi¬ cinity of Fort Lancaster. The control of the cougar, the ocelot, and the bobcat has been effectively carried out by the sheep ranchers. Mr. Dun¬ lap reported to Blair that a few ocelots are still seen in the area. Felts rufus baileyi (Merriam). Bobcat. Although no specimens were taken, Blackstone reports that the bobcat is still not uncommon, especially in the canyon-headers. During our stay in the area we met a professional trapper who had been hired to trap this species. Tayassu angulaftim angulafum (Cope). Javelina. Two specimens of the javelina were collected. These were taken in steel traps in the cedar savannah association. Gustafson and McCarver spent five weeks studying the habits of the javelina. This species prefers to remain either in the cedar- — oak or cedar — ocotillo association. In these associations trails were frequent, especially in Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Uysier «.^omnuijsion BOBCAT {Felis rufus) 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 387 the canyon-headers, and their condition of wear indicated frequent use. In these associations the javelinas either root around or bed down during the hot part of the day. Several caves were found in the persimmon- — shinoak association with droppings in them. In most instances the drop¬ pings were old, and it was concluded that the caves were probably used principally during the colder months of the year. On three different occas¬ ions a total of five javelinas was observed in caves. Four of these were in caves during a rainy cold period, and the other one ran into a cave when disturbed by an observer. Caves which had well protected entrances of brush or rocks and which had sandy floors contained the most signs of javelina inhabitance. Caves with rocky floors and exposed entrances had few or no signs. Periods of activity were not determined accurately, al¬ though those javelinas observed from 9:30 A.M. to 11:30 A.M. appeared to be moving either toward a well shaded area or already in one. Mid¬ morning was the period when more of these animals were seen than at other times, yet their activities are not restricted to any part of the day¬ light hours. Eidelbach and I disturbed one of these javelinas one evening about 7:30 P.M. as it was coming to the watering tank of Little Horse- Head Canyon. In the groups of javelinas observed there did not appear to be a leader. Gustafson and McCarver saw eight javelinas in a single group and other members of the field party reported seeing groups of as many as 15. Since the javelinas encountered on trails - or in caves either turned and ran or simply remained in the cave, it is concluded that they were not particu¬ larly aggressive. It is generally thought by the ranchers that javelinas may prey on lambs, but we have no evidence to support this. The principal foods of the javelina appear to be sotol, mast, lechugilla Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission JAVELINA MOTHER and young (Tayassu angulatum) 388 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 and yucca. Opurifia sp. is probably taken as an emergency food. It was observed that free water is taken when available and several wallows, in rain pools, were found high in the persimmon— shinoak association. Hightower reports the following ectoparasites from the javelinas: Siphonaptera: Juxfapulex porcinus; Anoplura: Haemafospinus sp. Odocoileus hemionm crooki (Mearns). Mule Deer. Bailey (1905) re¬ ported that the mule deer was more or less common at one time in this area and included Fort Lancaster in its range. This is the only record I have of the species in this area. Courtesy Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission MULE DEER BUCK with homs Still in velvet {Odocoileus hemioims crooki) Odocoileus virginiamis texanus (Mearns). White-tailed Deer. On num¬ erous occasions members of the field party saw the white-tailed deer, usually in the mesquite — creosote bush association. No study of this species was made, and the only information I have concerning them in this area is that they are relatively abundant. Fawns were sometimes seen with does, but only a few bucks were seen during the course of the field work. 3S9 390 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Antllocapra americana (Ord). Antelope. I have no information on the antelope in this region other than Bailey’s (1905) reference to them in the vicinity of Fort Lancaster. Courtesy U. S. Forest Service ANTELOPE {Antllocapra americana) BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE MAMMALS Terrell County lies in the northeastern part of the Chihuahuan biotic province. The area in which we worked lies in the northeastern part of Terrell County. This area is but a few miles west of the Pecos River and is intermediate in floral and faunal relationships between the Balconian and the Chihuahuan provinces of Blair ( 1950). Our records of mammalian species, either collected by the field party, or recorded by the ranchers or by Bailey (1905), substantiates, I believe, this relationship clearly. The fol¬ lowing percentages are inclusive for all the mammals noted in the anno¬ tated list with the exception of Neotoma, for which no species could be determined. Twelve species (30,7 percent) are characteristic of the Chi- huhuan biotic province. Two species (5.13 percent) are characteristic of the Balconian biotic province. Twenty-five species (64.17 percent) occur characteristically in both the Chihuahuan and the Balconian province. In regard to the variation in mammalian species between the Terrell County area, a definite intermediate zone, and the Davis Mountain area, a typical Chihuahuan area, 68 percent of the species recorded from Terrell County were also recorded in the Davis Mountains by Blair (1940). 1950, No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 391 The twelve species characteristic of the Chihuahuan biotic province that are recorded from Terrell County are Citellus inter pres, Perognathus nelsoni, (these two being restricted to the Chihuahuan province), Cratogeo- mys casfanops, Tioomomys bottae, Cynomys ludovicianus, Pipistrellus hes- perus, Antrozous pallidus, Dipodomys merriami, Onychomys torridus, Vidpes macrotis, Odocoiletis hemtonus and Antilocapra americana. The two sp>ecies characteristic of the Balconian biotic province are Sciurus niger and Sylvilagus floridanus, and these forms reach their western limits in the area covered by our survey. The twenty-five species characteristic of both the Chihuahuan and Balconian provinces are Odocoiletis virginianus, Urocyon cinereoargenteus, Procyon lotor, Mephitis mephitis, Felis concolor, Felis riifus, Perognathus merriami, Peromyscus pectoralis, Tayassu angulatum, Citellus mexicanus, Conepatus mesoleucus, Dasypus novemcinctus, Tadarida mexicana, Felis pardalis, Myotis velifer, Citellus variegatus, Onychomys leucogaster, Lepus calif ornicus, Cants latrans, Bassariscus astutus, Spilogale leucoparia, Taxidea taxus, Sigmodon hispidus, and Peromyscus leucopus. The species characteristic of the Chihuahuan province represent three faunal elements. Two species (Citellus inter pres and Perognathus nelsoni) are restricted to the Chihuahuan province. The Great Plains element is represented in the Chihuahuan province b}^ only one species, Cynomys ludo¬ vicianus. Nine species are distributed widely in western North America. The Balconian province is characterized by two species, Sciurus niger and Sylvilagus floridanus. These are primarily eastern forest forms which reach their western limits in the area surveyed. Species characteristic of both the Chihuahuan and Balconian provinces represent four faunal elements. Nine species have mexican affinities. Five species have wide distribution in western North America. Ten species range throughout most of North America, one of these, Spilogale leucoparia, now given specific rank, may upon subsequent investigation prove to be a geographic race of the wide ranging Spilogale interrupt a. Only one species, Taxidea taxtis, is representative of the Great Plains faunal element. With twelve species characteristic of the Chihuahuan province, 2 species characteristic of the Balconian province, and 2 5 species character¬ istic of both of these provinces, I believe it is correct to consider the area studied as intermediate in its faunal relationships. POPULATIONS OF MAMMALS The small rodent population in this area was extremely low. A total of over 16,000 trap-nights over a period of five weeks took 106 specimens of eight small rodent species. The gopher, Cratogeomys castanops, not included as one of the small rodents in the above total, was the only rodent which was comparatively abundant. Eight of the ten species of small rodents re¬ corded by Bailey (1905) for this area, were taken during our survey. We failed to take specimens of Onychomys leucogaster and Onychomys torridus which Bailey indicated as occurring in this area. Populations of the predator species, on the other hand, were high. The raccoon, (Procyon lotor), was extremely common. Droppings from this species were found in eight of the 1 1 associations. Thornton reported that upon his return to the area in November, "raccoon were seen in almost every other tree in the hackberry association.” Chandler trapped 50 indi- 392 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 every other tree in the hackberry association.” Chandler trapped 50 indi¬ viduals of this species in one of his corn-fields. The members of the field party studying this species found several of their traps sprung each morn¬ ing with raccoon droppings in abundance throughout the area trapped. The ringtail, (Bassariscus astutus), was also plentiful, the high frequency of fresh droppings in most of the associations testifying to its abundance. Numerous sight records were obtained for the gray fox (Urocyon cinereo- argenteus) although only one specimen was taken. The skunks were very scarce, and only two records of Mephitis, one of Conepatus, and one of Spilogale were obtained. The results of our survey indicated an abnormal predator-prey rela¬ tionship with much smaller populations of the prey species than would be expected in a situation where the carnivorous species were so abundant. These predators were forced to turn to emergency foods to supplement their diets, and a commonly used food was the lubber grasshopper (Brachystola magna). Fruits of the hackberry (Celtis reticulata) were also used by the carnivorous mammals. Additional evidence of the use of these emergency foods was found by Thornton, T. E. Kennerly Jr. and C. H. Strachn in the bird populations. They determined by stomach analyses that forms such as the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) , Cooper’s Hawk (Accipter cooperi), Screech Owl (Otus asio) and the red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis), which normally are strong predators on the mice population, had of neces¬ sity fed on the lubber grasshopper. Certain of the snakes were also feeding on lubber grasshoppers. Mecham and Milstead found, by stomach analyses, that of 3 5 Crotalus atrox only one specimen yielded identifiable remains of a Berognathus merriami and two others yielded small unidentified mammal remains. The analyses of this form (Crotalus atrox) and of Coluber flagel¬ lum showed that the lubber grasshoppers were part of their diets. Crotalus atrox, normally heavy predators of small rodents, were in abundance, yet the mouse population was surprisingly low. The cause of this unbalanced situation was not determined. Thornton reported that the return trip in November found the raccoon and ringtail populations even higher than they were during the summer survey. Addi¬ tional trapping for small rodents at this time gave no indication that the populations of these species had increased. The average annual rainfall for this area is approximately 16 inches. A period of drought preceded our survey and we feel that this may have had an indirect effect on the populations of mammals. During the year of 1948, only 8.65 inches of rain were recorded at the station at Sheffield, Texas and from January to April 1949 the total precipitation measured 2.40 inches. This area is very extensively grazed by sheep, and the effects of their competition for food with the other mammals may well have been partially responsible for the low mammal populations. Under drought con¬ ditions competition from domestic stock is probably more severe than ever. During the period of April to October of 1949, 14.4 inches of rain¬ fall were recorded at Sheffield, resulting in a much more abundant vege- tational cover. This increased source of food for the rodent populations may promote recovery of the prey populations. SUMMARY A survey of the ecological distribution of the mammals in northeastern 3 950. No. 3 September 30 Mammals of the Stockton Plateau 393 Terrell County, Texas was made from June 4 to July 9, 1949. This area, definitely a part of the Chihuahuan biotic province, is close to the Pecos River boundary between this and the Balconian biotic province of Blair (1950). Two hundred and twenty-one mammalian specimens, representing 2 5 species, were collected. Fifteen other species occur or have occurred in this area according to the ranchers in the area and according to Bailey (1905). Of the 40 species from this area 12 species (30.7 percent) are charac¬ teristic of the Chihuahuan biotic province. Two specie^ (5.1 percent) are characteristic of the Balconian biotic province. Twenty-five species (ex¬ cluding Neotoma for which no species was determined) occur in both the Balconian and Chihuahuan provinces. Nine of these 2 5 species have Mexican affinities. Five species have wide distribution in western North America. Ten species range throughout most of North America. One species is rep¬ resentative of the Great Plains faunal element. The predator-prey relationship was considerably out of balance. Cer¬ tain carnivorous mammals in the area were plentiful. More extensive trap¬ ping was done for the prey species than for the predator species which tends to explain the difference in specimens of each group taken. Stomach analyses of some of the birds and snakes collected showed also that these normal predators on rodents were utilizing such foods as the lubber grass¬ hopper, and fruits of the hackberry. A serious moisture deficiency in 1948 and in part of 1949, coupled with over-grazing by sheep, is considered to be direct cause of the un¬ balanced predator-prey relationship. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, Vernon — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna 25: 1-222, 16 pis., 24 text figs. Blair, W. Prank — 1940 — A contribution to the ecology and faunal relationships of the mam¬ mals of the Davis Mountain region, southwestern Texas. Misc Pub. Univ. Mich. M'us. Zool. 40 ; 1-30, 3 pis., 1 map. - 1950 — Biotic provinces of Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 2 (1) ; 93-117. - and Clay E. Miller' Jr. — 1949 — The mammals of the Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 1 (1) : 67-92. Borell, Adrey E. and Monroe D. Bryant — 1942 — Mammals of the Big Bend area of Texas. Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 48 (1) : 1-62, 5pls., 1 text fig. Dice, Lee R.^ — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, v-viii, 1-78, 1 map. Goldman, E. A. — 1935 — Pocket gophers of the Thomomys bottae group in the United States. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 48 ; 153-158. Hatfield, D. M. — 1936 — A revision of the Pipistrellus Hesperus group of bats. Jour. Mam¬ mal. 17 ; 257-262, 1 map. Howell, A. H. — 1938 — Revision of the North American grovind squirrels. North Amer. Fauna 56 : 1-256, 32 pis., 20 figs. Miller, Gerrit S. Jr. and Glover M. Allen — 1928 — The American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyx. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mils. 144 : 1-218, 1 pi., 12 maps. Nelson, E. W. — 1909 — The rabbits of North America. North Amer. Fauna 29:1-314, 13 pis., and 19 figs. and E. A. Goldman — 1934 — Revision of the pocket gophers of the genus Cratogeomys. Prcc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 47 : 135-14. Osgood, W. H.^ — 1909 — Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. North Amer. Fauna 28 : 1-285, 8 pis., 12 text figs. Simpson, G. G. — 1945 — The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85 : i-xvi, 1-350. Thornthwaite, C. W. — 1947 — An approach toward a rational classification of climate. The Geographical Review 38 : 55-94. United States Weather Bureau — 1934 — Climatic summary of the United States. Sec. 31 (Southwestern Texas) : 1-27, map. United States Department of Commerce^ — 1948 — Climatological Data. Texas. Annual Sum ¬ mary Vol. 53. - 1949 — Climatological Data. Texas. Annual Summary Vol. 54. Webster, G. L. — 1950 — Observations of the vegetation and summer flora of the Stockton Plateau in northeastern Terrell County, exas. Tex. J. Sci. 2(2) i 234-242. 394 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 TREATMENTS FOR HYPOCALCEMIA ON PARATHYROIDECTOMIZED CRICETUS AURATUS WATERHOUSE EDMUND B. STEUBEN Department of Biology Baylor University Waco, Texas The primary function of the parathroid glands is to control the amount of calcium and phosphorus which circulates in the blood. Ten hamsters se¬ lected from three respective litters were numbered and placed in separate cages. Each was fed a balanced diet to assure normal growth. The normal vitamin C requirements were not included in the diet since hamsters, like rats, synthesize it. The operative schedule was prepared as soon as the youngest hamster reached full maturity. The parathyroids were excised, sectioned, and examined to verify iden¬ tification. The operation was performed on hamsters 2-10, number 1 being held as a control. Hamster 1 received a normal diet; hamsters 2-10 were given varied post operative diets, but all were given triply distilled water. The diet of each hamster is listed in the table below, along with the results obtained. The parathyroidectomized hamsters with a calcium-free diet and those having vitamin D alone in their diets lost weight rapidly. Tetany was not marked; control of extremities, however, was slow and deliberate. By the fifth day the hamsters were dull and listless and offered little or no re¬ sistance to handling. The parathyroidectomized animals on a calcium rich diet with dehydrotachysterol added, aside from a slight weight loss, ap¬ peared almost normal, as their calcium levels were only slightly below the established level. Calcium determinations were made by the Schwartz titra¬ tion method since the blood drawn from the hamsters amounted to less than 4 milliliters of scrum. The findings were checked by the Rouy photrometer. Hamster Number Age Mon. — Days Administered Amounts in ml. of Pentobarbital Sodium - Based on Weight Wt. in grams Before Para - thyroidectomy Post Operative Diet and Daily Supplements Wt. in grams After Para¬ thyroidectomy .Actual wt. Loss in grams mg. Co Per too ml. Ser¬ um After Treatment ! 5 12 .0 (Control ) 96 A Normal diet Control None 14.2 2 6 2 .U lOS.O Co Free— A 89.7 15.3 11.4 3 5 12 .! 97.4 Co Free— A 86. t 11.3 ll.l 4 4 19 .09 81.1 Ca Free—B 74 .4 6.7 12.7 5 6 2 .13 119.1 Ca Free 105.0 14.1 ll.l 6 4 19 .09 81.7 B — A 76.3 5.4 12.9 7 6 2 .12 114.5 B — A t08.4 6.t 13 .! 8 5” 12 .1 91.4 B — A m.2 5.2 13.1 9 5 12 .1 97.9 Ca Rich Diet — C 93.5 4.4 13.9 to B 2 J2 109.0 Ca Rich Diet — C 104.3 4.7 14.0 A — 4 mg. standard irradiated ergostero! - tOOO micragrams erystiHine calciferal. B — Calcium gluconate. C — . 04 mg. dehydrotachysterol. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Sperm Formation in Gamhtma Af finis 395 SPERM FORMATION IN GAMBUSIA AFFINIS AMMON B. MEDLEN Department of Biology Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas INTRODUCTION Studies of teleost germ cells have been confined largely to three lines of investigation. The first has been to recognize the germ cells in the embryo from their point of origin to their final lodging place in the gonad. The second line of investigation has been to determine the effects of gonado-tropic, estrogenic, and androgenic hormones . upon either the gonad itself or upon some dimorphic structural character whose presence and structure were dependent upon the amount of a sex hormone present. The third line of investigation has been cytological which is the approach of this paper. Duesberg (’18) described the chondriosomes in the testicular cells and the stages of spermatogenesis while the seasonal cycle in the gonads of Fundulus as well as the histology of the testis and spermato¬ genesis was described by Matthe\^s (’38). Turner (’19) reported the seasonal cycle of the spermary of the perch as well as the microscopic structure and spermatogenesis. The history of the germ cells and the structure of the testis in Coitus bairdii was investigated by Hann (’27). Spermatogenesis in Lebistes reticulatus was described by Vaupel (’29) while Goodrich, Dee, Flynn and Mercer (’34) reported the gonadal differentiation of the same species. The account of the sex cell migration and the nascent condition of the sex chromosomes in this species was presented by Dildine (’36). Essenberg (’23) gave a description of spermatogenesis in Xiphophorus helleri. The paper on the structure of the testis and sperm formation in Platypoecilus maculatm by Wolf appeared in 1931. Bennington (’36) in¬ vestigated spermatogenesis in Beit a splendens. Geiser (’22 and ’24), em¬ phasizing the first portion of development, correlated the seasonal changes in the testis and spermatogenesis in Gambusia holbrooki { — Gambtisia af finis af finis) . Since the author is investigating the effects of sex hormones upon Gambusia af finis and since the development of the phase microscope, it would appear that a restudy of spermatogenesis in these animals might be profitable. MATERIALS AND METHODS Specimens of Gambusia affinis were collected during the month of April (representative of the peak of reproductive activity) from streams and ponds of Brazos County, Texas, where they thrive in great numbers. The specimens were anaesthetized by placing them in cold water. Some of the testes were immediately removed and placed in Flemming’s Solution and in Bouin’s Solution as fixatives. They were embedded in paraffin and sectioned serially. The staining was with Heidenhain’s iron-hematoxylin, and the counterstaining was with eosin. Immediately after removal other testes were placed in Holtfretter’s solution or in Amphibian Ringer’s solu¬ tion where they were minced on the slide and crushed under the cover slide. The edges of the cover slide were sealed with paraffin in order to 396 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 reduce the rate of dessication. The living germ cells were then observed under the phase microscope. Spencer dark phase contrast M and B- objectives were used as well as Bausch and Lomb dark phase contrast objectives. Some of the best results were obtained with the Spencer B- objectives. OBSERVATIONS Gross and microscopical examinations show the structure of the testis to be essentially like that described by Geiser (’24) in Gambusia holbrooki. In the adult the two testes are fused to form a single gland (hereafter called a testis) lying just below the posterior portion of the swim bladder and anterior to the muscular structure controlling the gonopod (Potter and Medlen, ’35). However, there is an externally visible groove where the fusion of the original two testes occurred, and microscopically the sections showed the division of the gland is continued internally (Fig. 1). The testis varies in size with the season and the environment (Medlen, in manu¬ script) . There is no prominent connective-tissue core in the testis of Gambtisia such as Turner (’19) describes for the perch. The testis of Gambmia con¬ sists of a tenuous, diffuse, connective tissue stroma, in the interstices of which the cysts (acini) of spermatogonia are closely packed (Fig. 1). The younger and smaller cysts of multiplying spermatogonia lie in the periphery of the testis. Internally, the maturing cysts are seen near the testicular canals (Fig. 2). A cross section of the mature testis at the height of the repro¬ ductive cycle showed a branched testicular canal (Fig. 1) in each original half of the testis with the cysts around them. The two testicular canals unite at the edge of the testis to form the single vas deferens which courses ventrally and posteriorly to enter the ejaculatory mechanism (Collier ’36). While all stages may be present in a single individual, the majority of cysts Figure 1. Longitudinal section of the testis, ft, vertical band represent¬ ing lines of fusion of testes; tc, testicular canals; tcb, branch of the testicular canal; vd, vas deferens. 5lX 1950, No. 3 September 30 Sperm Formation in Gambusia Af finis 397 are predominantly of one stage of spermatogenesis, and within one cyst all of the germ cells were in the same stage of maturation. The Sertoli cells are arranged around the periphery of the cyst. The spermatids group about the Sertoli cells in such a manner that the spema- tozoa develop with their filaments or tails toward the lumen of the cyst. The head pieces are arranged around the inner surface of the Sertoli cells in such a manner as to give an undulating appearance to the peripheral portion of the young cyst (Fig. 3). The number of Sertoli cells in the cyst varies, but the average is ten. When one sees an immature cyst in cross sec¬ tion, the ring of spermatids is incomplete, and the number of the Sertoli cells is easily counted by the interruptions (Fig. 2), When the spermatozoa are mature, they crowd the Sertoli cells peripherally and form a compact ring around the periphery of the cyst. (F’ig. 2). The transformation of the spermatids into spermatozoa resembles VaupeFs {'29) description of Lebisies reticulatus. The mature sperm head is flattened in the short diameter so that two shapes appear in profile view as is common in higher vertebrates. The long diameter of the mature sperm is approximately five microns, and the short diameter is approximately one micron. As the cysts mature, they apparently migrate toward the testicular canals and assume a position adjacent to one of the many branches of the longitudinal testicular canal. When mature, the cyst fuses with the wall of Figure 2. Section of testis lateral to testicular canal, ic, immature cyst; ics, immature cyst showing imcomplete ring of spermatids; mb, mature cyst beginning the penetration of the testicular canal; mp, testicular canal almost penetrated by mature cyst; sc, Sertoli cell. 46 IX 398 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 the testicular canal (Fig. 2) and the contents pass into the lumen of the canal after which the cyst wall and Sertoli cells were no longer observed (Fig. 4). The exact way in which the cyst wall fuses with the wall of the testicular canal was not determined. The spermatozoa remain congre¬ gated in the testicular canals in essentially the same manner as in the cysts. These aggregations have been termed spermatozeugmata by Geiser (’24). The spermatozeugmata congregate in groups in the testicular canals with Figure 3. Enlarged view of a cyst, sc, Sertoli cell; st, spermatids. 46 IX Figure 4. Enlarged view of the testicular canal, cm, collagenous sub¬ stance; ep, epithelium of testicular canal; epd, depleted epithe¬ lium of the testicular canal; sz, spermatozeugmata. 46 IX 1950, No. 3 September 30 Sperm Formation in Gambusia Af finis 399 the individuals closely packed. Soon a collagenous substance collects around and in the spaces between the spermatozeugmata (Fig. 4). The source of the collagenous material probably is the cuboidal cells which line the testicu¬ lar canals for the cells lining the canal where spermatozeugmata are present appear flat and depleted, while those lining the canal where spermatozeug¬ mata are absent appear much taller and non-depleted (Fig. 4). It may be assumed that the collagenous material contains a nutritive substance for the maintenance of the sperm and perhaps a mucilagenous substance to cause the spermatozeugmata to adhere to one another. In Fig. 26, page 153 of WolFs report (’31) there appears to be a similar substance in Platypoecilus maculatus, but no mention of it occurs in the paper. i A number of investigators have failed to demonstrate the presence of interstitial cells in the stroma of the testis of Gambusia af finis. It is probable, therefore, that the secretory cells which line the testicular canals also pro¬ duce androgen. They appear to be the only cells present whose observable activity coincides with external evidence of hormone production. However, it is well to remember that positive proof of hormone production by cells cannot be demonstrated by cytological studies alone. Additional experimen¬ tation is needed to determine the chemical nature of the product, or products, secreted by the cells lining the testicular canals. — CONCLUSIONS 1. The testis shows internal evidence of its bilateral origin. 2. There is no prominent connective tissue core in the testis as has been reported in some fish. 3. Spermatid transformation into spermatozoa closely resembles that of Lebistes reticulatus. 4. Two longitudinal testicular canals are found within the testis which stores the spermatozeugmata. 5. A collagenous material appears to be secreted by the epithelial cells lining the testicular canals. 6. Androgen is probably secreted by the epithelial cells lining the testicular canals. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is indebted to Dr. Charles LaMotte for his valuable advice and assistance. LITERATURE CITED Benninirtun, N. L. — 1936 — Germ cell origin and spermatogenesis in Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens. J. Morph. 60 : 103-126. Collier;, A. — 1936 — The mechanism of internal fertilization in Gambusia. Copeia 1936 ; 45-53. Dildine, G. C. — 1936 — Studies in teleostean reproduction. I. Embryonic hermaphroditism in Lebistes reticulatus. J. Morph. 60 ; 261-277. - Dnesberg, J. — 1918 — Chondriosomes in the testicle cells of Fundulus. Amer. Jour. Anat. 23: 133-154. Essenberg, J. M. — 1923 — Sex differentiation in the viviparous teleost, Xiphophorus helleri. Biol. Bull. 45 : 46-96. Geiser, S. W. — 1922 — Seasonal changes in the testis of Gambusia holbrooki, the top minnow. Anat. Record 23: 104-105. - 1924 — Sex ratios and spermatogenesis in the top minnow, Gambusia holbrooki. Biol. Bull. 47: 175-203. Goodrich, Dee, Flynn, and Mercer— 1934 — Germ cells and sex differentiation m Lebistes reticulatus. Biol. Bull. 67 : 83-96. Matthews, S. A. — 1938 — The seasonal cycle in gonads of Fundulus. Biol. Bull. 75: 66^74. Medlen, A. B. — Preliminary observations on the effects of temperature and light upon reproduction in Gambusia affinis. In manuscript. Potter, G. E. and A. B. Medlen — 1935 — Organography of Gambusia patruelis. J. Morph. 57: 803-16. Turner, C. L. — 1919 — The seasonal cycle in the spermary of the perch. J. Morph. 32: 681-705. Vaupel, J. — 1929 — The spermatogenesis of Lebistes recticulatus. J. Morph. 47 :555-587. Wolf, L. E. — 1931 — History of the germ cells in the viviparous teleost, Platypoecllus ma¬ culatus. J. Morph. 52 ; 115-153. 400 The Texas Journal of Science 1950. No. 3 September 30 WILD POT HERRS OF TEXAS JULIA JONES 8705 Irvington Blvd., Houston 22, Texas It is not in nature’s plan that man should go hungry. She all but puts food in his mouth, as witness the prodigality with which she scatters suc¬ culent pot-herbs over the country, a veritable treasure-trove of those vita¬ mins and minerals, so essential to human health. And still, as a nation, less than half of us eat enough green vegetable products to supply dietary needs. Everyone cannot have a garden in which to grow the plants of his choice. In fact, but a small proportion of our population is so blessed. The vast majority of us rely upon markets and vegetable wagons for our supply of leafy vegetables, that frequently are so wilted and unattractive and robbed of value that we pass them by as useless. It might be thought that here in Texas, where a genial climate as¬ sures us of cultivated greens the year around, it would not be necessary to resort to nature’s planting for our supply of these foods, but the con¬ ditions of our living make it impossible for the majority of us to have home gardens. There are the apartment and hotel dwellers, that great army of 40,000 migrants; those who do not have the time, and those who do not have the desire to cultivate and harvest their own plants, and for all of those there is the abundance of wildlings, free for the taking. For all of these, it would be a good thing if the 'Voods wisdom” of our forebears could be restored, so they could go into woodland and pasture, recognize and gather the edible plants, and withal have fun in doing it, for one finds some deep and elemental pleasure in foraging for his food. There is a vast sense of achievement in having it served on the table before him. Moreover, there is a piquancy to the wildlings that is not to be found in well behaved ones of the cultivated gardens. Undomesticated and unbroken in spirit, they bring to the bored palate a stimulating gaminess, a biting tartness that gives zest to a jaded appetite. For the sake of better eating and better health, the author has com¬ piled the following list of sixteen pot-herbs growing wild in Texas, and the nine botanical families to which they belong: I AMARANTHACEAE (Amaranth) Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) II BRASSICACEAE 1. Mustard (Brassica alba L.) (Boiss) III CHENOPIACEAE (Goosefoot) 1. Lambsquarters {Chenopodmm album L.) 2. Russian Thistle {Salsola pestifer A. Nels) IV COMPOSITAE (Composite) 1 Wild Lettuce (Lactuca canadensis L.) 2 Corn Sow Thistle (SonchMS arvensis L.) 3 Hill Sow Thistle (Sonchus as per L.) (Hill) 4 Ragweed (Ambrosia var. elatoir L.) 5 Burdock (Arctium minus schk.) 6 Dandelion (Krigia virginica L.) (Willd.) Wild Pot Herbs of Texas 401 1950, No. 3 September 30 V EUPHORBIACEAE (SpUrgc) 1 Milkweed {Euphorbia marginata Pursh.) VI NYMPHACEAE (Waterlily) 1 Youquepin {Nelumbo lutea Willd.) Vn PHYTOLACCECEAE 1 Poke Root, or Poke Weed {Phytolacca descandra) VIII POLYGONACEAE (Buckwhcat) 1 Sour Dock {Rumex crispus L.) 2 Sheep Sorrel {Rumex acetosella) IX URTiCACEAE (Nettle) 1 Stinging Nettle {Tragia nepetaefolia Cav.) I ( 1 ) Pigweed Other common names: Amaranth; Careless weed. Pigweed is the name of perhaps a hundred different plants, so called because man has noticed pigs’ fondness for them, and has found that he, too, can use them. In some sections pigweed, lambsquarters and redroot are used interchangeably, but they are not the same plants. The most prominent members of the amaranth family are our Princess Feather or Coxcomb. The name is of Greek origin, meaning ’'never fading’. The true pigweed is a mild-flavored herb, with leaves lance-shaped and slightly hairy, with petiole nearly as song as the leaf blade, growing to a height of 4 feet. The stem is angled, slightly hairy, mostly simple, the young stem succulent. Flowers are greenish-white, parts ending in weak prickles, in terminal or avillary spikes. If not liked in the usual way of cooking greens, try this recipe: Chop raw leaves and sprinkle thickly over buttered slices of brown bread. Make hollow in center of slice and drop into it an egg, sprinkle with salt, pepper and grated cheese, and place under broiler until egg is cooked to one’s liking. Service while hot. II ( 1 ) Mustard Other common name: *Mostaza.’ Of the several varieties growing in this state, the black, Brassica nigra, is the most desirable for greens. Its leaves are long-petioled, lobed, large and toothed. Its seed are globular, almost black, its pods Vi to 1 inch long, smooth, closely appressed to stem. It has peppery-tasting leaves and clus¬ ters of sulphur-yellow flowers. Another of the family, Bursa-pastoris, is Shepherds Purse, so called from the shape of its seed, resembling a purse, which in Latin is 'bursa’. Wild mustard is desirable only in the early spring, when young and tender, and because of its strong, pungent flavor, it is best when cooked with other, milder-flavored herbs, such as pigweed, lambsquarters, or some of the cultivated greens. Orientals combine different varieties of the plant with lean pork and dried shrimp which they flavor with ginger and a sauce made by subject¬ ing cooked soy beans to fermentation. III ( 1 ) Lambsquarters Other common names: White goosefoot; Wild spinach; Frost-bite; Bacon weed This is a tall weed, frequently 5 feet high, found in old gardens, or¬ chards, and fields, where it is available all spring and summer. The leaves 402 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 are pecticled, triangular or rhombic, covered with, mealy scales, about 10 inches long. The young plant is gray, mealy, succulent. The stem is smooth, either simple or branched, angled and usually red or green striped. The flowers are in small, greenish clusters. When gathered young, the entire plant is cooked; when older, the leaves only are used, though they, when crushed, have a disagreeable ammonia or urine-like odor. Its mild flavor makes it an admirable choice for cooking with strong-flavored plants, to make them more palatable. It can be served with butter and lemon juice or vinegar, as with other greens, or it can be made into a luncheon dish, following the recipe given for pigweed. Lambsquarters is an old herb, formerly used in France and England, and still popular in Mexico, where it is called "epazote,” The French knew the plant as 'Bonus Henricus’ or Good King Flenry, because under the beneficient reign of Henry IV the populace were able to dine on chicken each week, while this herb was used to fatten the chickens, as well as to flavor chicken stews. Of the cultivated greens, beets and spinach also belong to the Chenopod family. III (2) Russian thistle Other common name: Saltwort A much-branched, annual tumbleweed growing about 18 inches high, with rigid, sharp-pointed leaves, tender and succulent when young. Roots negligible. IV (1) Wild lettuce Other common names: Prickly lettuce; Compass plant; Goose weed; Mouse ear; Wild cabbage; Sow thistle Leaves are narrow, sometimes deep-lobed, with spine-tipped teeth and spines at the midrib. Stem is leafy below, branched above, and covered with prickles. The flower is small, elongate, with yellow heads. A biennial with copious milky juice, sometimes 5 feet tall. Called com¬ pass plant because of the odd arrangement of its leaves, in north-south directions. Young leaves are delicious in salads and, when shredded, mixed with chives or shallots or other vegetables are to be mixed with French dress¬ ing. Or they may be added to other greens and cooked. IV (2) Corn sow thistle Other common names: Field sow thistle Another troublesome weed introduced from Europe. It has leaves from 4 to 12 inches long, narrow, lobed and cut, with a clasping base. The stem is branched above, leafy below, growing from a creeping root stock. Flow¬ ers are yellow, borne in heads with a base of long black sticky glands, and fruit is such as that of dandelion. Its preparation for the table is the same as that for dandelion. IV ( 3 ) Hill sow thistle Other common name: Spiny-leaved sow thistle A simple stemmed herb, whose first leaves are basal, forming the characteristic rosette. Leaves are narrow, spiny-toothed, with clasping base, of 4 to 10 inches long, and flowers are similar to those of Corn sow thistle, but smaller and without the glands. It is native to Europe. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Wild Pot Herbs of Texas 403 IV (4) Ragweed Other common name: Bloodweed IV ( 5 ) Burdock Other common names: Cockle button; Cuckold dock; Beggars but¬ tons; Burr-burr; Stick button; Hardock; Bardane A coarse unsightly common weed, introduced from Europe, in first year produces only a rosette of large leaves from long tapering root. In second year grows to large size, from 3 to 5 feet high. Stem is round, fleshy, much branched, with leaves sometimes measuring 18 inches long. Flowers, ap¬ pearing second year are purple, borne in small clustered heads armed with hooked spines that give way to spiny burs that are a great pest, as they attach themselves to clothing, or to the wool or hair of stock. There is a large fleshy tap-root extending 2 or 3 feet deep. IV (6) Dandelion Other common name: Blow ball Leaves of this plant are from 3-12 inches long, narrow, blunt, lance¬ shaped and deeply and irregularly lobed. There is a short crown, upon which the leaves develop, a deep, fleshy tap-root and bright yellow bloom, while on its summit grows the "blow-ball” of fine white hairs that become parachutes in every breeze. In all parts of the plant there is an abundant, bitter white juice, and the cooked greens have a somewhat bitter taste, so it is better to mix them with others. Tender leaves can be eaten as raw salad, chopped fine and mixed with sweet cucumber pickles and other vegetables, with salt, pepper and vinegar, or with a hot sauce made from vinegar, seasoning and melted butter or salad oil. The name of the plant goes back to about the tenth century when Arab physicians used the root of 'tarakhagun’ in their medications. Its common name meant 'lions tooth’, or 'dens leonis’, which the French called 'dent de lion,’ that soon was corrupted to 'dandelion.’ V (1 ) Milkweed Other common names: Snow-on- the-mountain; 'bolo de niene’; Snow-in- the-summer; Mountain euphorbia; White- topped spurge A common weed in the south, this plant is grown in the north as a border plant for value as contrast foliage. Its white tops are not flowers, but rosettes of white-margined leaves. Asclepias texana (Heller) has as common names Texas milkweed; Rattlesnake milkweed; 'Yerba del visoto’. The genus is named for Asklepios, the Greek god of medicine. Money milkweed, Asclepias nummularia (Torr) is the most peculiar and best looking of the family. Native to the Trans- Pecos region, it has flowers shading from white to pink. Bull. 5 51 from A & M College says: "Should be grown in every rock garden and collec¬ tion of rare plants. Some nursery should make this available to the public.” When at its most palatable, milkweed resembles asparagus in richness and delicacy of flavor, and should be cooked and served like the latter plant. When the tender, succulent stem is young, with the small leaves folded against it, it should be gathered. VI (1) Youquepin Other common name: Youcapin; Chinquepin Grows in swamp land, or pools. When young, the entire plant, leaves 404 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 and stalk, can be prepared and eaten as spinach is. After blooming, the seed form in clusters. These are palatable nuts, closely resembling, though somewhat smaller and with heavier hulls, than hazel nuts. They are relished by humans, while wild fowl are so fond of them that they will almost al¬ low themselves to be walked up on and caught while feasting on them. VII ( 1 ) Pokeroot Other common names: Poke weed; poke berry; Pigeon berry; American nightshade; Poke salad; Red ink berry; Cancer jalop; Redweed; Scoks; Pocan; Coakum; Garget; Virginia poke; Inkberry This, one of the most striking in appearance of our native plants, is found in every section of Texas, but grows most abundantly in sandy, shady places. Its flowers are white, numerous and very small, that give way to clusters of dark purple, nearly black shiny berries, much loved by birds and chickens. It is by far the most popular wild pot-herb. Cooks are advised to parboil it for several minutes, drain from that water, then finish cooking in small amount of water, in which there is a liberal amount of bacon fat. VIII (1) Sour dock Other common names: Curly leaf, or Narrow dock A small slender annual of sandy regions, the young stems having a pleasant acid taste. Leaves are green with wavy margins and prominent veins, lanceolate with narrow, round, or sometimes heart-shaped base, 4 to 12 inches long. Fruit is much like buckwheat, enclosed in 3 paper-like bracts. Flowers are whorled on a tall stalk. Besides this particular member of the family there are Peachleaf, Bitter, Fiddle, Swamp and still other docks. VIII (2) Sheep sorrel Other common names: Sour grass; Vinegar grass This plant also is of the buckwheat family. Leaves and stems have agreeable, sour taste. Salts of lemon are obtained from a member of the family, Oxalis acetosella. IX ( 1 ) Stinging nettle Several species of this plant grow in the valleys, along hillsides and in moist places throughout the state. To prepare them for the table, they should be cut when but a few inches tall. Leaves are green, ovate to lanceolate, toothed and covered with coarse, stinging hairs. Petiole is slender, ^ to nearly as long as the leaf blades. Stem is greenish or gray, hairy. Flowers are small, greenish, produced in branched spikes. In flower language, nettle is a symbol for rudeness, or insult. An English folk rhyme, called 'Chant of the Nettle’ says: "Tender hearted seize the nettle And it stings you for your pains. Seize it like a man of mettle And it soft as silk remains.” 1950, No. 3 Effect of Aluminum Chloride on Marine Organisms 405 THE EFFECT OF ALUMINUM CHLORIDE IN SMALL CONCENTRATION ON VARIOUS MARINE ORGANISMS T. E. PULLEY Department of Biology University of Houston With the increasing industrial development of the Texas coast it is inevitable that a certain amount of pollution of the coastal waters will occur. What the final effect of this pollution will be is uncertain, as so little is known about the effect of the various polluting materials on the balance of life in the marine habitat. A beginning toward an understand¬ ing of the problem can be made, however, by determining the immediate effect of a given substance in varying concentrations on a number of rep¬ resentative organisms. While the information gained from such a study cannot be regarded as representing the entire effect of the substance being studied, it does provide the logical basis for guiding industrial practice and further research. Financed by a research grant from the Monsanto Chemical Company of Texas City, a series of experiments was conducted in the biology labora¬ tories at the University of Houston to determine the effect of aluminum chloride on some of the local marine animals. The tests were conducted using six gallon aquaria, each containing twelve liters of sea water to which sufficient aluminum chloride was added to produce concentrations of 9, 44, 88, 132, and 176 parts per million aluminum chloride. Two aquaria received no aluminum chloride and served as controls. The tanks were aerated by bubbling compressed air through stone air breakers, and in each of the aquaria all efforts were made to assure uniform conditions, except for the amount of aluminum chloride. The animals were placed in the aquaria at the time the aluminum chloride was added, for in previous trial runs it was found that uniform results could not be expected if the aluminum chloride-sea water mixture had been allowed to age for varying lengths of time. The results of these experiments are shown in Table I in which ”alive at end of _ days” indicates that the animal was alive when that run was concluded. TABLE I Effect of Aluminum Chloride on Marine Organisms Shrimp (Petiaeus seti ferns) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 4 All alive at end of 21 days 9 2 Both alive at end of 21 days 44 2 One alive at end of 21 days, one dead in 2 hours. Probably injured in transfer 88 2 One alive at end of 21 days One dead in 2 ^2 days 176 2 One dead in 1 hour, one in lYz hours 406 The Texas Journal of Science i950 No. ^ September Speckled Trout (Cynoscion nebulosus) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 2 One alive at end of 11 days, one dead in 9 days 9 1 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 1 Alive at end of 14 days 88 1 Dead in 7 days 132 1 Dead in 30 minutes Redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 2 Alive at end of 1 1 days 9 1 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 1 Alive at end of 1 1 days 88 2 One dead in 2 hours, one in 30 minutes 176 1 Dead in 45 minutes Grand Killifish (Funduhis grandis) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 5 AU alive at end of 1 1 days 9 1 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 3 All alive at end of 1 1 days 88 3 All alive at end of 1 1 days 132 2 One dead in 4 hours, one in 4 days 176 3 One dead in 4 hours, two in 1 day Gulf Killifish (Fjindiilfis similis) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 3 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 1 Alive at end of 1 1 days 88 1 Dead in 8 days 176 2 One dead in 4 hours, one in 1 day Sheepshead Minnow (Cyprinodoti variegatus) ppm AlCl 3 No. tested Days lived Control 2 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 1 Alive at end of 11 days 88 1 Dead in 9 days 176 1 Dead in 1 day Mullet (Mugil cephalus) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 1 Alive at end of 14 days 88 1 Dead in one day 132 1 Dead in one day 176 1 Dead in 4 hours Oyster (Ostrea virginica) ppm AlCls No. tested Days lived Control 4 Alive at end of 1 1 days 44 2 Alive at end of 1 1 days 88 2 Alive at end of 1 1 days 132 2 One alive at end of 1 1 days, 1 dead in 9 days 176 2 One dead in 10 days, 1 in 1 1 days sSember^30 EFFECT OF ALUMINUM ChLORIDE ON MaRINE ORGANISMS 407 A survey of Table I indicates that aluminum chloride in concentra¬ tion up to 44 ppm does not have a lethal effect on any of the organisms studied; 88 ppm kills some quickly while others are not killed; and con¬ centrations of 132 and 176 ppm are universally lethal. Fish in dilutions of 44 ppm or less displayed no signs of discomfort and remained quietly near the bottom in the dark corners of the aquaria, while those in higher con¬ centrations reacted variably in abnormal fashions such as swimming near the surface, flaring of the gill openings, leaping out of the water" or swimming excitedly from one end of the aquarium to the other. While the cause of the deaths was not determined, an apparent cor¬ relation was noted between the pH of the medium, due to the addition of aluminum chloride, and its toxicity. On one of the runs the pH of each dilution was periodically checked, with the results shown in Table IL TABLE ii—pH Changes in AlCJ ‘i Mixtures From Table II is seemed that the buffering effect of sea water was sufficient to effectively overcome within a short time lowered pH due to concentrations up to 88 ppm aluminum chloride, while in concentrations of 132 ppm or greater the buffering effect was considerably retarded. It was also noted that deaths of fishes usually occurred during the time that the pH in their tank was considerably lowered. It was found, however, as is shown in Table III, that concentrations of aluminum chloride which were highly toxic when freshly prepared and with a low initial pH were still toxic after standing as long as 193 hours and returning nearly to neutrality. The time required to kill fish in this aged solution was somewhat longer. 408 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 TABLE III — Reduced Toxicity in Aged AICI3 Mixtures Organism ppm AlCla Age of Mix- No. ture in Hours Tested Days lived Shrimp 176 20 2 One dead in 2 days, one in 3 days 176 73 2 Both dead in 4 days Speckled 176 193 2 One dead in 4 days, one alive at end of 14 days Trout 176 193 1 Dead in 2 days Redfish 176 193 1 Dead in 2 days Grand Killifish 176 193 2 Both dead in 2 days Gulf Killifish 176 23 3 All dead in 1 day 176 193 1 Dead in 2 days Sheepshead Minnow 176 193 2 Both dead in 2 days Although from Table III it is evident that pH alone is not the cause of toxicity of aluminum chloride, it was decided to continue the experi¬ ments to determine the effect of the aluminum chloride on bacteria and the possibility of bacteria influencing the pH changes. For this phase of the investigation fifteen sterilized one gallon bottles were placed in three groups of five each. To the first group of bottles fresh unsterilized sea water was added, sterile sea water was added to the second, and sterile distilled water to the third. In each group, one bottle was left as a control while in the other bottles aluminum chloride was added to give concentrations of 44, 88, 132, and 176 parts per million. Periodic checks were made on the pH and plates were poured in sea water agar medium to determine the bacteria count. The resulting pH changes are shown in Table IV. A study of Table IV reveals that the pH of AICI3 in sterile dis- stilled water does not undergo appreciable change. The sudden rise in pH after 117 hours was possibly caused by removal of Venetian blinds in the laboratory allowing full sunlight to fall on the bottles during most of the day. The other bottles were subjected to lesser amounts of direct sunlight as they were placed nearer the center of the room. Previous to this time, no sunlight had fallen on any of the bottles. The differences in the pH of the series made up in sterile and unsterile sea water are insignificant except in the concentration of 8 8 ppm. In this concentration the pH of the two solutions was not appreciably different 1950, No. ; September 30 Effect of Aluminum Chloride on Marine Organisms 409 VO 5-( Ws Vs ^oo-«ij-^T^’^'^^Tf'<^vooot\ "w Tt" Tf" ^ s cu Wh^VO'OVO«--sO^W-s«,^W-nKoOCS to 'ii K 4-) ^ g«.»^»^OOool\0©«^OS'^«<^ ^KKKK^'vOVoso’vovcvo K . -rt" 'tJ- ••^ 'I" . VO : O s ^ Vs vs ^^KoosososoKSO'^ooKK 'M rt oo»-HTj-vo'>f«^KoovoKvoK oo ••«•....••. ?u BO & <2 o C;^^'^000©ONOS^vovoooo«^^KSOoo ^°®M-^g^w^«^«^VoSOSOSOVOSO a> 1^ S SDsdsoSo'so'vovoKKKK J;5N,SOf^^T-lO Or-^^^■^>.*^00 ^KKKKKKtxKKKK u §0 scopy. When observable, the acrosome and acroblast appear as semiopaque 1950, No, 3 September 30 SPERMIOGENESIS IN InSECTS 429 vesicles. The latter, in the earlier stages, lies nearly opposite the nebenkern but later migrates posteriorly to lie adjacent to this last named structure. Then it apparently disappears. 6. A grain left anteriorly upon the nucleus by the acroblast develops into a large vesicle. As this acrosome enlarges, a second vesicle forms an¬ terior to it. This anterior vesicle remains apparent throughout the subse¬ quent periods of diminution and elongation on the part of the acrosome, during the formation of the sperm head. 7. The centrioles are but poorly discernable with phase microscopy. LITERATURE CITED Baumgartner, W. J. — 1902 — Spermatid transformations in Gryllus assimilis, with special reference to the nebenkern. Kans. U. Sci. Bull. 1 : 47-73, pi. 1-3. Blackman, M. W. — 1905 — The spermatogenesis of the Myriapoda. III. The spermatogenesis of Scolopendia heros. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 48 : 1-137, 9 pi. - 1905 — Spermatogenesis of the Myriapods. IV. On the karyosphere and neucleolus in the spermatocytes of Scolopendra subspinipes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts, Sci. 41 : 331- 344, 1 pi. 1907 — Spermatogenesis of the Msrriapods. V. On the spermatocytes of Lithobius. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 42: 489-520, 2 pi. Boldyrev, B. T. — 1929 — Spermatophore fertilization in the migratory locust, (Locusta mi- gratoria L.) Reports on Applied Entomology (Russian) 4: 189-218, 18 figs. Bowen, R. H. — 1920 — Studies on Insect Spermatogenesis. I. The history of cytoplasmic com¬ ponents of the sperm in Hemiptera. Biol. Bull. 39: 316-361. - 1928 — The methods for the demonstration of the Golgi apparatus. I. Anat. Rec., 38 : 293-320. - 1928 — The methods for the demonstration of the Golgi apparatus. III. Anat. Rec. 39 : 231-284. Cholodowsky, N. — 1910 — tlber die Spermatophoren, besonders bei den Insekten. Trav. Soc. Imp. Naturl. St. Petersburg 41 : 128-129. Davis, H. S.-^1908 — Spermatogenesis in Acrididate and Locustidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 57-159, pi. 1-9. Dublin, I. L. — 1905 — The history of the germ cells in Pedicellina americana (Leidy). Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 16: 1-64, 3 pi. Fedorov, S. M. — 1927— Studies in the copulation and oviposition of Anacridium aegyptium L. Trans. Ent, Soc, London 75: 53-61, pi. 5-8. Gresson, R. A. R. — 1942 — A study of the cytoplasmic inclusions during the spermatogenesis of the mouse. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Ser. B, 61: 197-208, 2 pi. Hickman, C. P.— 1931 — Spermiogenesis of Succinea ovalis Say, with special reference to the components of the sperm. Journ. Morph. 51: 243-273, 8 pi. Hirschler, J. and Z. Hirschlerowa — 1930^ — Sur la existence d I’appareil de Golgi, du vacuome, et les mitochondries dans les cellules sexuelles males chez Gryllus campestris. C'omptes Rendues Soc. Biol. 104: 952-954, 13 figs. Holmgren, Nils — 1903 — tlber ben Bau der Hoden und die Spermatogenesis von Staphylinus. Anat. Anz. 19: 449-461, 1901. - 1903— tlber ben Bau der Hoden und die Spermatogenesis von Silpha carinata. Anat. Anz. 22: 194-206. Iwanowa, S. A.— 1926 — Zur Frage fiber die Spermatophorbefruchtung bei den Acridodea. Zool. Anz. 65: 75-86, 10 figs. Kirkman, H. and A. E. Seceringhaus — 1937 — A review of the Golgi apparatus. I. Anat. Rec. 70: 413-431. - 1937 — A review of the Golgi apparatus. II. Anat. Rec. 70 : 557-573. - — 1938 — ^A review of the Golgi apparatus. III. Anat. Rec. 71 : 79-103, Lucas, F. F. and M. B. Stark — -1931 — A study of living sperm cells of certain grasshoppers by means of the ultraviolet microscope. Journ. Morph. 52 : 91-107, 4 pi. Mark, E. L. and M. Copeland — 1906 — Some stages in the spermatogenesis of the honey bee. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 42: 101-111, 1 pi. McClung, C. E.^ — 1902 — The spermatocyte divisions of the Locustidae. Kans. U. Sci. Bull. 1: 185-239, pi. 7-10. Medes, Grace — 1905 — The spermatogenesis of Scutigera forceps. Biol. Bull. 9 : 156-186, 5 pi. Mukerji, R. N. — ^1929 — Later stages in the spermatogenesis of Lepisma domestica, with a note on its vacular system. Journ. Roy. Micro, Soc., Ser. 3, 49 : 1-8, pi. 1-3. 430 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Payne, F. — 1927 — Some cytoplasmic structures in the male cells of Gelastocoris oculatus. J. Morph. 42; 299-346, 1927. Pollister, A. W.- — 1930 — Cytoplasmic phenomena in the spermatogenesis of Gerris. Journ. Morph. Phys. 49: 455-506, pi. 1-6. - and P. F. Pollister — 1943 — The relation between centriole and centromere in atypical spermatogenesis of viviparid snails. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 45 ; 1-48, 5 pi. Popa, Gregor T. — 1927 — The distribution of substances in the spermatozoon (Arabacia and Nereis). Biol. Bull. 52; 238-257. Rustum Maluf, N. S. — 1939 — The blood of arthropods. Quart. Rev. Biol. 14: 149-191. Snodgrass, R. E. — 1935 — Principles of insect morphology. N. ., p. 1-667, 1935. - 1935^ — The abdominal mechanisms of a grasshopper. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 94(6) : 1-89. - 1936 — ^Morphology of the insect abdomen. Part III. The male genitalia. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 95 (14) : 1-96. Sokolow, A. J. — ^1926 — Zur Frage der Spermatophorbefruchtung bei der Wanderheuschrecke (Locusta migratoria). Das Weibchen. Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. 127: 608-618. Voinov, D. -N. — 1903 — La spermatog§nese d’et| chez le Cybister roeselii. Arch. Zool. exp. et gen. Ser. 4, 1; 173-260, pi. 2-6. Wilcox, E. V. — 1895 — Spermatogenesis of Caloptenus femur-rubrum and Cicada tibicen. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 27: 1-32, 6 pi. - 1896 —Further studies on the spermatogenesis of Caloptenus femur-rubrum. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 29 : 193-208, 3 pi. Wilson, E. B. and A. W. Pollister — 1937 — Observations on sperm formation in the centrurid scorpions with special reference to the Golgi material. Journ. Morph. 60 : 407-443. 431 Bibliography of the Division of Entomology )tember 30 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH RICHARD R. EADS State Department of Health Austin, Texas Since the demonstration by Smith and Kilborne, 1890-1893, that a tick, Boophilus annnlatus, is the vector of the protozoan causing Texas cattle fever, a vast amount of evidence has accumulated showing the importance of arthropods in the transmission of human and animal diseases. This knowledge is reflected in the increasing emphasis being placed on the study of medical entomology in colleges, at both graduate and under¬ graduate levels. It is hoped that this summation of entomological papers published by State Department of Health personnel will be of value as a source of readily accessible reference material relative to medical entomology. Reprints of many of the papers are available. DIPTERA Eads, R. B, — 1943 — A description of the larvae of Culex abominator Dyar and Knab. Jour, of Econ. Ent. .36 (2) : 336. - 1946 — A new record for Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann in Texas. Jour, of Econ. Ent. 39 (3) : 420. - and Menzies, G. C. — 1948 — Additionai records of bat parasites of the family Nycteri- biidae. Ent. News 59 (9) : 244. - 1950 — Distribution records of Mansonia Blanchard (Diptera, Culicidae) in Texas. Mosquito News 10 (1) : 3-5. McGregor, T. and Eads, R. B.^ — 1943 — Mosquitoes of Texas. Jour. Econ. Ent. 36 (5) : 938. O’Neill, K., Ogden, L. J. and Eyles, D E. — 1944 — Additional species of mosquitoes found in Texas. Jour. Econ. Ent. 37 (4) : 551. Randolph, N. M. and O’Neill, K. — 1945 — Mosquitoes of Texas. Bull. Texas State Dept, of Health 1-100. Thurman, D. C., Ogden, L. J. and Eyles, D. E. — ^1945 — A United States record for Culex interrogator. Jour. Econ. Ent. 38 (1) : 115. Eads, R. B. — 1949 — A second record of Lipoptena mazame Rondani (Diptera : Hippoboscidae) from cattle. Jour. Econ. Ent. 42 (1) : 158. HEMIPTERA Eads, R. B. — 1950 — An additional report of a Reduviid bug other than Triatoma attacking man. Jour. Parasit. 36 (1) : 87. Cowan, F. A., McGregor., T. and Randolph, N. M. — 1947 — DDT dust for the control of head lice. Jour. Trop. Med. 27 (1) : 67-68. Menzies, G. C. — 1949 — Polyplax serrata (Brunieisterl and Linognathus setosus (Olfers) re¬ corded from the house mouse, Mus musculus Linnaeus. Jour. Parasit. 35 (1) : 184. Sullivan, T. D., McGregor, Theodore, Eads, R, B, and Davis, D. .1. — 1949 — Trypanosoma criizi Chagas’ in Texas (I) incidence of T. cruzi in Triatoma (Hemiptera, Reduviidae). Jour. Trop. Med. 29 (4) : 453-458. SIPHONAPTERA Eads, R. B. — 1945 — Control of the sticktight flea on chickens. Jour. Econ. Ent. 39 (5) : 659-660. . - 1946 — A new species of Rhopalopsyllus Baker (Siphonaptera) from Texas. Journ. Parasit. 32 (4) : 407-408. - 1946a — A new species of flea from the field mouse, Baiomys taylori. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 39 (4) : 545-548. - 1950 — An undescribed Orchopeas (Baker) from the fox squirrel, Sciurus niger. Lin¬ naeus. Proc. Wash. Ent. Soc. 43 (1) : 46-48. - - 1949 — Recent collections of Colorado fleas. Jour. Econ. Ent. 42: (1) : 144. - and Randolph, N. M. — 1946 — Gross infestations of Rattus rattus with ectoparasites. Jour, of Econ. Ent. 39 (4) : 538-539. - — and Menzies, G. C. — 1948 — An undescribed Anomiopsyllus Baker from the pack rat, Neotoma micropus Baird. Jour. Kans. Ent. Soc. 21 (4) : 134-136. 432 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 39 - 1949 — A new flea from the pocket gopher. Jour. Parasit. 35(1). - 1949a — Mering-is bilsingi ( Siphonaptera : Hystrichopsyllidae) a new ectoparasite of the Ord kangaroo rat, Dipodom3's ordii Woodhouse. Proc. Wash. Ent. Soc. 51 (3) : 116-118. — - 1949b — A preliminary list of the Siphonaptera of Texas. Texas Sci. 1(4) : 33-39. Eads, R. B) — 1950 — The fleas of Texas. Bull Tex. State Dept, of Health 1-85. ACARINA Bilsing, S. W. and Eads, R. B. — 1947 — An addition to the tick fauna of the United States. Jour. Parasit. 33 (1) : 85-86. McGregor, T., Eads, R. B. and Thurman, D. C. — 1942 — ^Ornithodoros talaje, a possible vector of relapsing fever in Texas. Texas Pub. Health 1. Randolph, N. M. — 1916 — DDT to control the relapsing fever tick. Jour. Econ. Ent. 39(3) : 396. Strandtmann, R. W. and Eads, R. B. — 1947 — A new species of mite,Ichoronyssus dentipes (Acarina: Liponyssinae) from the cotton rat. Jour, Parasit. 33 (1) ; 51-56. - and Menzies, G. C.^ — 1948- — A new species of mite, Hypoaspis murinus frequently taken from Rattus spp. Ann, Ent. Soc. Am. 41 (4) : 479-482. Eads, R. B. — 1949 — Notes on Ixodes .scapularis Say with an additional lizard host. Ent. News. 40 (9) : 238-240. - and Menzies, G. C. — 1949 — ^Prevalence of Amblyomma casennense in Texas with an additional locality record. Bull. Brook. Ent. Soc. 45 (1) : 26-27. - — -Hendei^on, H. E. and McGregor, T. — 1950— Relapsing fever in Texas i distribution of laboratory confirmed cases and the Arthropod reservoirs. Am. Jour. Trop. Med. 30(1) : 73-76. GENERAL ECTOPARASITES Eads, R. B. — 1948 — Ectoparasites from a series of Texas coyotes. Jour. M'amm. 29 (3) : 268-271. Randolph, N. M. and Eads, R. B. — 1946 — An ectonarasitic survey of mammals of Lavaca County, Texas. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 39 (4) : 597-601. - Ogden, L. J. and Eads, R. B. — 1948 — Entomological studies on typhus in .Lavaca County, Texas. Texas Repts. on Biol, and Med. 6(4): 444-452. Eads, R. B. and Menzies, G. C. — 1950- -Fox ectoparasites collected incident to a rabies con¬ trol program. Jour. Mamm. 31 (1) : 78-80 - and Hightower, B. G. — 1950 — Arthropods of possible medical significance collected in Terrell County, Texas. Ent. News 61 (4) : 106-108. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Rural Sociology 433 WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT FROM RURAL SOCIOLOGY R. L. SKRABANEK Assistant Professor of Rural Sociology Texas A. and M. College Considered as the study of human association in rural environment, rural sociology covers a very wide scope. Although, as a field of investiga¬ tion and teaching, the discipline is young in years— relatively speaking— it has reached a maturity beyond its chronological age, and Texas should logically expect a great deal from it. In an attempt to bring some logical ordering into the discussion to follow, what the writer believes Texas should expect from rural sociology may be classified under two major fields of endeavor: (1) in teaching; and (2) in research. In addition, the state should expect certain things of the rural sociologist. WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT IN THE TEACHING OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY We, who possess a consuming interest in the teaching and research phases of rural sociology, like to feel that we are a part of a field of intel¬ lectual endeavor that is progressing. We want to see development and growth come from our efforts. Although progress is the keynote every¬ where, the discipline has not developed rapidly in the state. In fact, the word "slov/” might be better used in describing its development. An in¬ vestigation of bulletins and catalogs of more than thirty institutions of higher learning in Texas reveals that slightly less than three out of hve (57,1%) of them are offering a course in rural sociology during the cur¬ rent academic year. This condition exists in a state which in 1940 (the last year in which an actual count of Texas’ population was taken) had over one-half (54.6%) of its population residing in rural areas. Tn actual numbers this includes over three and one-half million people. Texas should, therefore, expect its institutions of higher learning to provide the oppor¬ tunity for students to enroll in a course in rural sociology if they so desire. Much attention has been devoted to the teaching of values to be gained by organizing farmers for soil conservation and increased crop pro¬ duction— yet the teaching of values to be gained in organizing farmers for public libraries and public health units has attained comparatively little recognition. This sense of value judgment has been neglected to the ex¬ tent that only one other state has a poorer system of public rural libraries than does Texas (Davis, 1945). Only three other states have a higher infant mortality rate than is found in rural Texas. This condition is aggravated by the fact that in 1940 less than one out of ten adults in our farm popu¬ lation had completed high school, a record which places rural Texas thirty- eighth in a ranking with the other states. These are our rural people who form the ""seed bed” of the state and from whence the bulk of our future population will come. If Texas, as a state, is to progress, more attention should be devoted to our rural society and to the study of rural social problems. 434 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 It is realized, of course, that the focus of attention in the state is on the urban and industrial aspects of society. This "urban complex” is prob¬ ably due to the fact that a majority of our leaders live in these areas. In short, the state is beginning to be urban-dominated. Even so, many would agree that Texas, despite her recent urban development, is a state of rural backgrounds and traditions. In fact, writers have often argued that if we are to understand the ways and social attitudes of the urban dweller, we must first comprehend those of the rural person, for few are the families of native stock that do not trace back to the soil within two generations. Therefore, Texas should expect at least one course in rural sociology to be offered in more of its institutions of higher learning in the state. Texas should expect the different schools in the state to fit their rural sociology courses to the needs of their students and society. Since rural sociology is part of the college curriculum its goal should be consistent with the goals of the college. The teacher should not slavishly follow stan¬ dardized texts, but should make the best use of research findings that are available. WTiere rural sociology is principally a "service” course, as is fre¬ quently the case at the present time, perhaps best results may be obtained where the main goals are merely to acquaint the student with the nature of rural social problems and to train him in practical techniques for their solution. Our future leaders need to be acquainted with the background of rural people and should be told the facts and conditions of our rural popu¬ lation. The average Texan points with pride to some of our accomplish¬ ments in the technical phases of agriculture; however, seldom is he ac¬ quainted with the facts confronting the human side of agriculture. Gen¬ erally speaking, he is not aware of the fact that in 1940 rural Texas ranked forty-eighth when compared with other states in pellagra rates (a disease directly attributed to an improper knowledge of diet); that in 1945 almost two out of five (37.6%) farmers in the state were tenants; that the aver¬ age rural family possesses inadequate medical facilities and knowledge of diseases; and that the rural person is more apt to test his cows for tuber¬ culosis than he is to test his own drinking water for purity. Texas should expect these conditions to be remedied, and it should expect the rural sociology teacher, extension worker, and researcher to play a vital part in bringing about the much-needed changes. As Davis {op.cit.) so aptly states: the most valuable crop produced in rural areas are the rural people, not the physical products of agriculture. Thus Texas should expect rural sociology to be an important source of understanding and insight for her people. The individual can not begin to understand the need for certain changes or where to start unless he is offered the oportun- ity to examine new ideas and is given the feeling that they are worth while. If rural sociology fails to help the people to realize the nature of rural social problems and to inspire them to participate in the reshaping of so-' ciety, then it has failed the state as well as her people. Neither teaching — whether in the classroom or extension work-— nor research should be neglected in our efforts to improve the social order. Yet, in Texas the extension function is being neglected more completely than is the teaching of rural sociology. 1950, No. 3 September 30 Rural Sociology 43 5 WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT OF RESEARCH IN RURAL SOCIOLOGY It hardly seems necessary to remark that research is a m.ost important function of educational institutions. It is the source of information for teaching, extension, social planning, and social adjustment. It is, therefore, a major, not an incidental, function of an educational institution. Such being the case, Texas should expect the field of rural sociology, through the institution of research and education whose responsibility it is to lead the way to rural progress, to have successful programs in operation. Yet, al¬ though Texas has more rural people within its boundaries than has any other state in the union, it ranks near the bottom when compared on the basis of the amount of money which is devoted to support of rural socio¬ logical research. In fact, to the best of the writers’ knowledge, if added together, the support given to rural sociological research in the state would not be enough to pay the salary of one full-time researcher in the field. In rural sociology, research success means not only getting dependable results, but also getting them used. The objective should be to help rural people, rural leaders, and the public generally to visualize their social prob¬ lems more clearly. To this end, studies in rural population characteristics and changes; of rural health conditions and facilities; of the rural social institutions, such as the family, church, school, and government; of com¬ munity and social organization; and of many other such problems should prove effective instruments towards rural progress. We can not expect a solution to rural social problems to come about automatically. Instead, programs for rural human progress must be moti¬ vated, organized, and implemented in such a way that they will make for a better and more progressive life not among rural people alone but in the entire state. A good research program should pave the way for such action. For research to be the most effective instrument for rural progress, it must not be made a sideline to teaching or other functions. Teachers who get the chance to undertake research must have sufficient relief from teaching loads to do it aggressively. Worthwhile research must be continu¬ ously pursued until the objectives set forth are reached. This requirement can be met only when positions are reasonably secure, professional oppor¬ tunities and rewards are attractive, and the researcher is happy and content in his work. In conducting research, the rural sociologist should not only be asked to analyze and interpret social trends, study public institutions and move¬ ments, and furnish social statistics, but he should also be ready to answer a large number of specific questions about effective and normal social or¬ ganization and behavior. There is a wide gap between what the professional rural socioligist knows about social living and what the general public has learned about social problems. The rural sociologist, then, must have a channel not only for the purpose of acquainting the people of the state with what he knows but also for the purpose of reporting the results of his research projects. He needs to publish his findings in the form of re¬ ports, bulletins, and monographs so that the studies may be useful for intelligent social action. In addition to the teaching and publication outlets, a large part of the accumulated knowledge should be put to use through the established 436 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 channels of governmental agencies and the extension service. Close and effective working relationships between the teaching, research, and exten¬ sion functions should do much towards putting the researcher’s findings to use more-or-less automatically. WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT OF THE RURAL SOCIOLOGIST Texas should expect the rural sociologist to develop and maintain something more than a speaking acquaintance with other fields of science than his own. The success of rural sociology is perhaps far more dependent on the findings of the physical and biological sciences and the social sciences than is generally recognized. The problems of society are many-sided. Before the rural sociologist can correctly understand or appraise social problems, he must be acquainted with all of these sides. Thus the race prob¬ lem is not only a matter of color or race, but it must first be understood in its economic and historic significance. Properly integrated, all of the sciences work together toward the common end of human progress; there¬ fore, it is imperative that the rural sociologist know something of the findings of other fields of science. Texas should expect the rural sociologist to teach objectively and from the scientific point of view. He should remember that the primary goal of rural sociology in many schools is not to train scientists or to de¬ velop scholars. It is to give the life of the student new meaning, to help him acquire sound attitudes, to provide him with meaningful ideas which can illuminate for him the kind of v/orld he is living in and the role he might play in making it a better environment in which to live. Thus the rural sociologist should aid man in making more satisfying and efficient adaptations. Since natural science has become "dehumanized”, as Robinson (1923) so clearly describes, its adherents have in large measure become so specialized that they give little consideration to the effects of their discov¬ eries on the population. It is therefore left for the social sciences, and for the rural sociologists as members of this group, to make the social phe¬ nomena amenable to scientific understanding and control. The rural sociolo¬ gist may have other objectives as a teacher or research worker, but as a scientist his main objective is expected to be the discovery of principles that govern the social relations of rural people. Thus to discover these prin¬ ciples by which society functions in rural areas is not only to build a sci¬ entific rural sociology, but to build the foundation for the practical devel¬ opment of a much better rural social life in the state. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In summary, it might be well to restate that this paper is divided in three parts, namely: ( 1 ) What Texas should expect in the teaching of rural sociology; (2) What Texas should expect of research in rural sociology; and (3) What Texas should expect of the rural sociologist. Needless to say, the time factor precludes a lengthy discussion of any of the three topics under consideration, but in conclusion, attention should also be called to what the rural sociologist should expect from Texas. For example, there are certain things necessary to enable rural sociologists to perform their functions and assume leadership in social planning and reali¬ zation, Among these things are: (1) that they should have adequate tools 1950, No. 3 September 30 Rural Sociology 437 with which to work; (2) that they should have opportunity and freedom with which to perform their functions; and (3) that the people of the state should realize that the rural socioligist possesses certain knowledge and skills about rural social life above what the man on the street already knows. A problem for the rural sociologist is the emotional outlook of the average citizen, for very often he does not want to approach the problems of rural social life in an objective manner. In everyday life, each person is his own rural sociologist, and the effort to see rural society operate in perspective is made ‘difficult by the fact that he is so close to it. The study of man and his relations should be pursued in the manner of science rather than in the manner of individual judgment and ready prescription. There is a strong tendency for the individual to view the field in personal problem terms. So long as one looks at society in terms of his personal problems, he will see only personal problems in society. On the other hand, when one views society with scientific interest he will observe in man’s behavior significant generalities. It is the rural sociologist’s conviction that by study¬ ing man and his behavior scientifically, he will be able to offer society not only a coherent system of ideas about human relations, but a consistent set of principles which can be utilized by man for his individual betterment. Texas, along with the rest of the nation, is gradually becoming socio¬ logically conscious. Apparently the people are beginning to make a more intelligent effort to answer the social questions than was possible in the past. Men are beginning to ask themselves what can be done to solve the frightening difficulties into which our modern inventions and ingenuity have led us, and they are beginning to look to the social sciences and to recognize that it is possible to apply scientific procedures to the problem of comprehending, predicting, and intelligently controlling, human be¬ havior. The main emphasis in this paper has been on rural sociology. It goes without saying, however, that rural-life problems can not be resolved in¬ dependently of urban life, or of the life of the state as a whole. Let us hope, therefore, that both the agricultural and non-agricultural institutions of research and education in Texas may envision alike the basic sociological problems of the state and that these institutions may harmonize their forces in efforts to bring about the improvements sought. LITERATURE CITED " Davis, Dan R. — 1945 — The needed philosophy for agriculture. Farm and Ranch 64: (4) : 14, Robinson, James Harvey — 1923 — The humanizing of knowledge, Doubleday-Doran. New York. 438 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 BOOK REVIEWS Your editor is pleased to announce that from now on this will be a regular section of The Journal. Dr. W. Frank Blair of the Editorial Board has agreed to assemble a competent group to review the latest scientific literature, and these reviews will be included in the forthcoming issues for the use of our members. THE EFFECT OF FISHING ON STOCKS OF HALIBUT IN THE PACIFIC. W. F. THOMPSON, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS. 1950. 60 PP., 17 FIGS. Dr. Thompson’s magnificent contributions to ecology of the Pacific halibut have been widely interpreted as affording the decisive evidence for a general theory of fishery regulation which is being applied by many of the world’s governments. However, it has recently been suggested that the ef¬ fects of natural change may have outweighed those of the fishery. The work here reviewed offers a defense of the thesis that restriction of the catch of halibut has been the chief cause of increase in availability. To begin, the term ‘"'normal” catch per unit of effort (Cn) is intro¬ duced, and defined as the quotient of "normal” catch (Cn, meaning the average yield of the fishery during a selected period of years) divided by the effort in a particular year (f). Thus, Cn is the reciprocal of f; and also, the deviations of Cn from the actual catch per set (Cr) correspond to the deviations of an average availability from the actual. The relationship be¬ tween Cr and f in the halibut fishery from 192 5 on "is actually a high negative curvilinear correlation, obviously far beyond any probable coin¬ cidence between the economic changes in the fishery and natural fluctua¬ tions. Its existence should set at rest any doubt as to the dominant part played by the fishery in determining the stock of fish.” This correlation provides the chief foundation for the remainder of the essay. It may here be remarked, however, that f=Cr/cr (and was in fact 90 derived, from data on annual total catch and on annual average catch per unit by a sample of the fleet). Therefore, the correlation between f and Cr must in part at least be spurious. To quote a standard elementary work on statistical methods, "Any explanation of a correlation between Xi and the sums or ratios involving it would seem to require knowledge of ri2 as well.” If the correlation of log Cr with log Cr is examined for the western grounds in 1924-’45, an r of less than .4 is obtained; which, at d.f. = 19, would hardly be regarded as sufficient for rejection of the null hypothesis (and which, if not the result of chance alone, could probably be referred to the deliberate regulation of Cr in relation to Cr after 1931). Therefore, the high correlation (-.9) between the logarithms of f and Cr for the same place and period, which the essay points out, seems wholly attributable to the fact that the relationship examined in the essay is really that of Cr with itself. The belief, that the high correlation demonstrates that fishing gov¬ erns abundance, is thus mistaken. 1960, No, 3 September 30 Book Reviews 439 Next, as a ''more direct way of showing the reciprocal relation” be¬ tween f and Cr in the halibut fishery, the one is plotted against the other, together with a curve which represents the relation of Cn to f at the given "normal” yield (Figs. 3, 4). Attention is then drawn to the resemblance of the pattern created, when the points Cr against f are connected in time- sequence, to one obtainable in a simple hypothetical case of changing fish¬ ing mortalities acting on a stock with constant increment at selected rates (Fig. 5). Ffowever, the doubtful significance of the resemblance between the above-mentioned hypothetical case and the actual ones can be shown to advantage if Cr is plotted against Q instead of f. One resemblance between the curves if so constructed is given by a precipitous drop in actual catch from 1929 through 1931, at a hardly changed catch per unit. But this market-governed fall in production provides no evidence that the actual rates of exploitation were so high as those assumed in the hypothetical case. The other resemblance is given by a relatively low level of the ratio of actual catch to actual catch per unit from 1931 on. But, when regulation began in 1931, the catch was deliberately restricted with reference to catch per unit, and therefore could not have returned to the relative levels of the 1920"s, even had market demand permitted. Evidence to confirm this interpretation might be obtainable from records of price changes. A critical difference from the hypothetical case results from the rise in the actual catch per unit after 1936 to levels above expectation on the hypothesis of constant increment (cf. Figs. 8 and 9). With reference to the western grounds, where this discrepancy is especially marked, it is stated (p. 36) that "The timing of this secondary increase [after 1936] . . . is a very strong argument in favor of the explanation that the spawn¬ ing stocks were restored and are beginning to provide new young in the catch.” Ffowever, it is not explained how an increase in brood stock not beginning before 1930 could have caused so early and large an increase in catch per unit as that of 20% from 1936 to 1938, in a fishery so selective for size that the entire fraction of western landings younger than about eleven years was only some 15% in 193 6, and apparently declined there¬ after {cf, 1949, Kept. Int. Fish. Comm., 14: 20; and Burkenroad, 1948, Bull. Bingh. Oc. Coll. XI, 4: 104-109). Next, it is proposed to measure the absolute magnitude of the stock, by calibration of the percentage change in catch per unit during a given period, against the difference between the sum of actual catches during the period and the sum of "normal” catches during a period of equivalent length. This method of estimating absolute levels of fishable population rests on the premises that the fishery constitutes the chief affect of the stocks, and that catch per unit has a rectilinear relation to fishable stock. Granted these premises, the excess of actual over "normal” catch during a temporary period of decline in catch per unit could approximate a re¬ duction in fishable stock proportional to the reduction in availability. However, the former premise is based upon the misinterpreted spurious correlation between effort and catch per unit, and upon the questionable resemblance to a selected hypothetical case, already discussed above. The second premise does not give adequate consideration to the fact that ratio of fishing effort to rate of fishing mortality differed markedly on the south¬ ern and the western grounds, according to measurements around 1927. 440 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 This difference is the reverse of that to be expected from the effects of dif¬ ferences in degree of competition of gear and in average size of fish. It there¬ fore affords reason for suspecting that there might be significant variation, of an unexplained sort, in the percentage of the fishable population which is captured by a unit of effort in the same area in different years; and in¬ deed, a heavy decline in the ratio of catch per unit to population in Area 2 during the last two decades is suggested by the International Fishery Commission’s brief summary of the results of recent tagging experiments (1949, p. 21). The absolute magnitudes of stock estimated by the above-described method thus represent an assumption of points at issue. Reasoning based merely upon these magnitudes can therefore add no evidence for the es¬ say’s conclusion, that a "vague cycle or unknown natural cause” is not needed to account for the changes in availability of halibut.' As a matter of fact, it can readily be demonstrated that the method by which these estimates were made is not valid. Having obtained the surprising result that the annual catch of halibut at times approached or even greatly ex¬ ceeded the estimate of fishable stock, the essay points out that the stock measured by the average catch per unit is merely the average standing crop during the fishing season. Therefore, if annual increment were suffi¬ ciently large and were appropriately distributed in time of entry, a fishery could remove more than the average amount of stock present; which, it is claimed,' the halibut fishery did. Against this, in the first place, the halibut fishery is now restricted to a fraction of the year (as short as one month in Area 2 in 1948). If a catch representing a high proportion of the initial standing crop plus the whole annual income were removed during a limited period, either most of the increment must be added in the same period, or abundance must fall heavily during the fishing season (unless the average stock were to increase from season to season much more rapidly than catch per unit suggests). It seems improbable that increment is restricted to the open season for fishing, in view of the considerable age of the fish at the begin¬ ning of their vulnerability. Data concerning change in catch per unit dur¬ ing the course of the fishing season have not been published recently, but no great decline is suggested by the International Fishery Commission’s serious precautions against post-season poaching (1949, p. 13), which seem to demonstrate that availability does not fall to unattractive levels. It is true that a few important fisheries do harvest during the year an amount greater than the standing crop at any given time (shrimp of the southern United States, for example). However, such a stock must display a high rate of mortality and a correspondingly small proportion of old individuals. The International Fisheries Commission has published what to me seems conclusive evidence, from commercial categories of halibut landed, that a large majority of the catch from the grounds west of Cape Spencer in the late 1920’s and early 1930’s had been exposed to the fishery for many years (and a degree of confirmation of the Commission’s data is obtainable from Federal records of Seattle landings). In contrast, a cor¬ responding catch produced from the western stock as estimated in the essay could not have included more than a small minority of fish which had been exposed to the fishery for as much as two years (Fig. 11). The Commission has further published, in part, what to me seems conclusive 1950, No. 3 September 30 Book Reviews 441 evidence from tagging experiments that total mortality among the com¬ mercially available western stock of halibut in 1927-’30 could not have been anything like so high as the 54%-60% of carryover plus income which the above-described estimate of the population requires for fishing mortality alone. The essay’s only recognition of these conflicts between actual data and hypothetical requirements is the comment (p. 52) that "the sampling of the catch for tagging purposes, age analysis, etc, seems to me to have been so neglected as to very seriously impair the use of such . . Such sweeping disregard of data which are unquestioned though incomplete does not seem legitimate, even for their author. Tlioughtful consideration of Dr. Thompson’s essay thus strengthens the doubt whether limitation of the catch of halibut has not been greater than can be justified. Tlie implications for fishery research and adminis¬ tration, which are complicated and extensive, will be discussed elsewhere.— MARTIN D. BURKENROAD, Institute of Marine Science, University of Texas, and Ecos, Bogue Sound Road, Newport, N. C. AN ANNOTATED CHECK LIST OF THE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF TEXAS. BRYCE C. BROWN. BAYLOR UNIVERSITY STUDIES. BAYLOR UNIVERSITY PRESS. 1950. 250 pp. One of the first things apparent to anyone studying the natural history of Texas is the lack of knowledge of the various phyla and the vast and disorganized mass of notes and short papers that must be consulted in any attempt to gain an integrated view of the subject. Where various other states have made it a point to encourage, either through research at their universities or encouragement from their acad¬ emies of science, jcomplete natural history surveys, Texas has long been woefully wanting in this department. There is no book on the birds of Texas, there is no book on the fishes, and the only material so far pub¬ lished on the animals that is even partially comprehensive, is Davis and Taylor’s bulletin on the mammals. Mr. Brown’s 'Annotated Check List’ is all the more welcome then in that it presents the first comprehensive and detailed list on any of the fauna of the state. To quote from the foreword by Hobart Smith, "no larger and more significant step of statewide proportions may be hewed in this country than that unveiled here. Texas has almost double the known herpetofauna of any other state, yet lags far behind its nearest competitor, California, in the completeness with which its populations are known. The herpetological frontier, as indeed many others, has shifted from the far West to the hastily by-passed Southern Midwest. "Two important and far-reaching results of this work are important. For one, the vast, poorly-organized, and incompletely recorded information concerning the multifarious species of reptiles and amphibians of Texas is for the first time in history collected with a considerable degree of completeness in one place. For the other, the extraordinary inadequacy of knowledge concerning geographic variation of these animals in Texas and adjacent areas is made painfully apparent,” An interesting comparison is made of the difference in status of Texan reptilian and amphibian families, genera and forms in 1915 and 1948. Mr. 442 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Brown’s check list has added 3 families, 10 genera, 44 actual forms and 22 hypothetical ones to our knowledge. All species known to occur in the geographic boundaries of Teaxs have been included in this check list. There are certain other species which are believed to occur, or on reasonable grounds may occur, within the state, which have also been included. There is a list of 29 species of the reptiles and amphibians which have been re¬ ported previously but which Mr. Brown has omitted from his check list for lack of sufficient evidence of their normal and natural occurrence in the state. He discusses the diverse natural conditions occurring in Texas and gives an extensive table on the ecological distribution of the reptiles and amphibians in the natural regions of the state. For the 22 5 species which Mr. Brown lists, representing 26 families and 86 genera, he gives a synonymy that "includes first a reference to the original description of the form; a citation of the first appearance of the names used, including the intermediate references leading to the use of that particular combination; references to the original descriptions of all synonyms with type localities in Texas; a reference to an available plate or photograph where possible; and reference to any pertinent work the nature of which is usually indi¬ cated.” In the annotations Mr. Brown has given a complete list of locality records that should be exceedingly valuable to any student. One new subspecies, Thamnophis sirtalis annectens is described from Travis County. Students of herpetology in Texas will welcome this work, as will work¬ ers elsewhere. It is extremely valuable in that it gives the first collected picture of the reptiles and amphibians of the state. — j. l. baughman, Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport, Texas. BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER BIRDS. WITH COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS OF EVERY SPECIES BY LILIAN MEDFORD. MELBOURNE; GEORGIAN HOUSE. LONDON.* PHOENIX HOUSE. The birds of paradise are all natives of New Guinea, with the excep¬ tion of three species which live on the east coast of Australia. The gorgeous nuptial plumes which are borne by the males of the group have attracted attention ever since the early sixteenth century, when the first skins were brought back to Europe by the one ship which survived of the five which set out with Magellan. The early skins, collected by natives, were mutilated in such a way as to give rise to the legend that these birds flew without wings, and never landed upon earth as they had no feet. The latter part of this myth is enshrined in the name Paradisea apoda, which Linnaeus gave to the Greater Bird of Paradise, one of the two species named by him in 175 8. The less spectacularly ornate Bower Birds and their allies are more widely represented in Australia, though some are also found in New Guinea. They used to be thought to be closely related to the Birds of Paradise, and though this view is not now taken of them Mr. Iredale has, for old times’ sake, so to speak, included them in his book. The mountain forests of New Guinea are the chief home of the birds of paradise, many of which have very local distribution, and occur only between certain well-defined boundaries of altitude, one species, or group 1950, No. 3 September 30 Book Reviews 443 of species, succeeding another as the mountain is ascended. A striking number of puzzling forms are found, and there has been a tendency to regard these as hybrids~a suggestion upon which Mr. Iredale pours scorn. He treats them all as specifically distinct and includes pictures of them. A great deal of information is contained in this book, but unfortu¬ nately Mr. Iredale is a somewhat unmethodical compiler. In particular his text is often infuriating from the absence, or paucity, of dates, so that if the reader does not already carry in his head the whole history of the sub¬ ject he is often sadly astray among the years. Many of the entries in the so-called "bibliography”™ in fact, an alphabetical list of persons, many of whom were not even authors — -are quite undated and so scrappy that they are of little value. The great merit of the book lies in the 3 3 colored plates, each containing from three to five figures, by Miss Lilian Medland (Mrs. Iredale) . These are admirably reproduced by lithographic color process, which allows much softness and variety of tone and suits the rendering of the birds’ plumage very well.-— times literary review. FORECAST OF THINGS TO COME Your editor is pleased to be able to announce that forthcoming issues of The Journal will contain a number of exceptionally fine papers, some of them from men who are national or international authorities in their fields. DR. CARL L. HUBBS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, is preparing a paper on three new minnows from Texas, aided by dr. kelshaw bonham, formerly of Texas A. & M. MR. ALEXANDER SPRUNT, JR., of the National Audubon Society, whose recent book, "South Carolina Bird Life,” is one of the finest we have seen, has contributed an excellent article on hawks which prey on the great colonies of bats that occur in Texas caves. From the Department of Chemistry at Texas College of Arts and Industries there is a most interesting short paper on the "Selenium content of the soils of the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas.” Botanists and ecologists alike will welcome the paper on "Mesquite,” by DR. EDWIN R. BOGUSCH. From the University of Texas we have a good paper on the reptiles and amphibians of the Stockton Plateau. The State Department of Health is also a contributor, through dr. richard b. eads’ paper on the biology of T riatoma. Of more general interest is an article by a, w. martinez on the use of electron microscope and super-speed microtome in cancer research. DR. F. K. PENCE, Chairman and Director of the University of Texas Research Laboratory in Ceramics, has contributed an account of the work being done there. From the Shell Oil Company Research Laboratory at Houston we have received a very good resume on the establishment of the laboratory and its activities. A similar article is on its way from the Celanese Cor¬ poration Laboratories at Bishop, Texas. A third, on the history and develop¬ ment of paper is in preparation. The iron ores and steel industry of Texas will be dealt with in a fourth. Two of the Editorial Board are recent contributors. 444 Forecast of Things to Come 1950, No. 3 September 30 DR. CHARLES F. SQUIRE, of Rice Institute, has sent in a most interesting paper on "Operations Research/’ which is, he says, "the scientific, quanti¬ tative study and evaluation of operations involving men and equipment.” He points out that, while little has been written about this type of re¬ search, yet its technique and scope are of the utmost importance, both in war and peace. DR. w. FRANK BLAIR is the author of a thought-provoking paper on the "Evolutionary Significance of Geographic Variation in Population Density.” MR. LEONARD B. FREESE, of the University of Houston, has in prepara¬ tion an extensive manuscript on the phytoplankton of the Gulf of Mexico, and we have a short paper by MR. Thomas j. white, of the Mathematical Department, Rice Institute, on "One-dimensional shock waves.” MR. ISAAC GiNSBURG, of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, one of the outstanding fisheries taxonomists of our time, has for years been engaged in a survey of the great collection of fishes from the Gulf of Mexico that is now housed in the U. S. National Museum. This work has at last began to bear fruit, and I am proud to announce that The Journal has, awaiting publication in the December issue, his fine manuscript on a "Review of the Western Atlantic Triglidae (Fishes).” Equally as fine in the field of shrimp as Mr. Ginsburg is in the field of fishes, MR. MARTIN D. BURKENROAD (who worked at the University of Texas Marine Institute this past summer) is preparing for the Journal a paper on these succulent crustaceans. Dr. Brian Eby tells me that in the near future we may expect a paper on animal husbandry, the emphasis being placed on cattle, and in the files are others on the research being done on sugar cane and citrus fruits. In addition, I am sure that the December meeting at Dallas will bring forth much excellent work from other members of the Academy. 1950, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted to The Editor, Texas Journal of Science, Box §67, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal, All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬ cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. 2. Each manuscript must be accompanied by two copies of an abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper. If the paper can be much improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes. 3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper:— Title Name of Author Affiliation of Author Body of Paper Bibliography 4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in the text should be by author’s name and date of publication. The use of footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased time and raises costs. 5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — Doe, John, and W. C. Eowe— 1943— How to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis. ” — — " - - -1943a— How not to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps. — — -——1947— Mistakes often made in preparing a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis. The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all. 6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the Academy publishing budget. However, for the present it is desirable that they be kept at a minimum. All illustrations should be in black and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬ trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should be precise and included with the drawing and illustration. The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬ sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography. Printing tables is very expensive. 8. Arrangements are being made with the publisher to ^furnish three sets of proofts to the editor so that one may be sent to the author for proof reading before publication. However, until we are able to get a sufficient mass of type set ahead, it will be very necessary to return this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author. 9. Arrangements are being made to furnish reprints. The follow¬ ing schedule of prices will apply, subject to change. They are identical with those charged by Copeia, the official Journal of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. It will be necessary for a check to accompany orders for reprints, which may be returned with the proof. This, of course, does not apply to institutional orders, but only to Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps book¬ keeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter despite the fact that in the past it has been the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual member. 100 Copies On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper Pages Pages Pages Pages 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 12 to 16 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 15.40 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84 Each Additional 100 Copies 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 5.81 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91 10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. Publications Committee J. L. Baughman, Editor L. W. Blau John G. Sinclair J. Brian Eby 1 Page 4.62 1.58 1950, No. 3 September SO The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex. JOHN S, IVY Geologist 1124 Niels ^person Bldg. Houston, Texas LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Report Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 948 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph, FA-7086 PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting Horvitz Research Laboratories Houston, Texas Ph. KB-5546 3217 M’ilam Street WILLKE’S DIXIE PHARMACY 1902 North Main Street Houston 9, Texas Complete Prescription Service MICHEL T. HALBOUTY ' Consulting I Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376 E. E. ROSAIRE Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS, TEXAS ; SHERMAN NELSON — OIL — f' Royalty • — Leas® Seguln, Texas H. KLAUS ; Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Consulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5. TEXAS Consulting Geologists Appraisals R®ervoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental Building DALLAS, TEXAS PAUL CHARRIN Pr®ident PERFORATING GUNS ATLAS CORPORATION 913 Union National Bank Bldg. ■ Houston, Texas PR-0060 FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS COMPANY, INC. Contractors and Engineers 3018 Leeland Houston, Texas Phone AT-2451 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 Professional Directory Continued COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys Esperson Building 1 Houston 2, Texas BOOK MART If the book is “out of print” or hard to find, let us find it for you. Our search service has been very successful in locat¬ ing thousands of “out of print” books. Send us your inquiries. Houston, Texas HERSHAL C. FERGUSON Consulting- Geologist and Paleontologist Esperson Building HOUSTON, TEXAS 8251^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La. COCKBURN OIL CORPORATION 1740 Commerce Building HOUSTON 2, TEXAS As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our adver¬ tisers, please make mention of the fact that you saw their adver¬ tisement in The Texas Journal of Science. A MUST for Visitors When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you've had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf Grill. Don't miss seeing one of the South's finest eating rooms. Sam Maceo, Managing Director TURF GRILL 2216 Market • Galveston, Texas 1950, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science Petroleum Products of proven quality HUMBLE General Has the Equipment, Men and Experience To Provide Reliable Results on Your Exploration Problems GENERAL GEOPHYSICAL COMPANY HOUSTON SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC. 1007 South Shepherd Drive Houston, Texas Established — 1932 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 c4lwayj Qioode an Affiliated National Hotel! 3^ Fine Hotels in 23 Cities AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS ALABAMA Hotel Hotel Mobile Thomas Jeiferson . ..Birmingham DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Hotel Washington . ...Washington INDIANA Hotel Claypool . ...Indianapolis LOUISIANA Jung Hotel Hotel . DeSoto . .New Orleans New Orleans NEBRASKA Hotel Paxton . . . . Omaha NEW MEXICO Hotel Clovis . . Clovis OKLAHOMA Hotel Aldridge . SOUTH CAROLINA Hotel Wade Hampton . . Columbia TEXAS Hotel Stephen F. Austin . . . Austin Hotel Edson . . Beaumont Hotel Brownwood . 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He is trained to help you the most for your premium outlay. American National Insurance Company W. L. Moody, Jr., President TO SERVE! YOUR (iW DEALER The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 3 September 30 f UOIIS W I N E S L I Q U B U.R S’ ■A N D C H A M:^ A G N_E S , r Froiri' the WorM^s L Markets! HOUSTON, TEXAS QUINBY LTi'cT'"' “A name worth remembering” You can benefit from our many years' experience in the personnel field. Executive, Office, Sales and Technical Personnel Member National Employment Board, Chamber of Commerce and Employment Counselors 409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg. Houston 2, Texas i GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS } 3806 Cedar Springs Rd. Dallas 4, Texas & 1152^2 North Second St. Abilene, Texas FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM San Antonio Texas “Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz (Collector’s Item) . $6.00 (Collector’s Item) — $6.00 “Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . . . $3.00 “Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00 (Limited edition) Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles — Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector’s Item) . $1.25 CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President; John O. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas Secretary; L^ S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, Collie Station Editors; J. L. Banghman, L. W. Blan, J. G. Sinclair Human health, hygiene and public health; C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. ; C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional Qualities; Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc.; L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station .Cocouncillors;' Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, Collide Station Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houstou Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin . A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent; . , C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Tmtas Cocouncillors; Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin .■ Cocouncillors; ■ . ; Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Food quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth Marine resources J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport W^ild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocounclllors ; Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor, Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur........ Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals ■ Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L, Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE; To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workmi together and by publishing the results of their investigations; to advise individuals and the government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections; Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the . Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas, S'uith Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes th© organization -of science clubs In colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP; “Any person engaged in scientific Work, or inter^ted In the promotion of science*’ is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in THE TEXAS JOURNAL OP SCIENCE, published quarterly. . Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters. MEETINGS; State-wide annual meetings are held in the fail, and regional meetings in the Pimng of each year. . DUES ; Annual members, $6 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one pasrment. Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active membeTs. SUBSCRIPTION RATES; 'Members $8 per year. Single copies $1.25' each.^ RECORD PRINT, SAN UARCOS, TEX. •0*cr *30 iKoq.'Su'pjS'BAl x{Of'J.n•r^•s^■SI^I tii'euosrqrj.'jiRg - - ,*503X1 93X iiM Volume II, No. 4 Published Quarterly at December 30, 1950 San Marcos, Texas (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Tex. March 21, 1949) CONTENTS War Against Cancer. A. W. Martinez _ Texas Steel. R. H. Startzell _ Hawk Predation at the Bat Caves of Texas. Alexander Sprunt, Jr. _ _ _ The Shell Oil Company Exploration and Production Research Laboratory. H. Gershinowitz _ Ceramic Engineering and Research at the University of Texas. F. K. Pence _ .. Operations Research. Charles F. Squire _ Review of the Western Atlantic Triglidae (Fishes) . Isaac Ginsburg _ A Bibliography on Mesquite. E. R. Bogusch _ The Effects of Sodium Acid Pyro-Phosphate on Ostrea Yirginica Gmelin. F. M. Daugherty, Jr _ Selenium Content of the Soils of the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Andres Estrada and F. F. Mikus _ The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Stockton Plateau in Northern Terrell County, Texas. William W. Milstead, John S. Mecham and Haskell McClintock _ Book Reviews _ Editor’s Note _ _ _ News and Notes _ CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Ijy^TEXAS JOURNAL SCIENC EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical, Br. U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A & M College Station Secretary -Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Editor J. L. Baughman Marine Lab., G.F.O.C. Rockport Pres. Conserv. Coun. J. G. Sinclair Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Rep. to A.A.A.S. C. D. Leake Dean, Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston V President, Sec. I, Physical C. F. Squire Physics, Rice Institute Houston V. Pres., Sec. II, Biological S. H. Hopkins Biology, A. & M. College Station V. Pres., Sec. Ill, Social R. H. Sutherland Hogg Foundation, U. of T. Austin V. Pres., Sec. IV, Geological A. A. L. Mathews Geology, U. of H. Houston V. Pres., Sec. V, Conservation V. H. Schoffelmayer Texas Chemurgic Council Dallas Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Biology, A. & M. College Station Junior Academy Greta Oppe Chemistry, Ball High Galveston BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1950) President C. M. Pomerat Medical Br., U. of T. Galveston Ex. Vice President C. C. Doak Biology, A. & M. College Station Secretary-Treasurer Gladys H. Baird Social Sciences Huntsville Im. Past President J. Brian Eby Geologist, Esperson Bldg. Houston Elected Director J. C. (Jodbey Chemistry, Southwestern U. Georgetown Elected Director W. Armstrong Price Geologist College Station Elected Director Gordon Gunter Marine Lab., U. of T. Port Aransas BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) W. R. Woolrich, Dean Engineering, U. of T. Austin L. W. Blau Humble Oil & Refining Co. Houston E. DcGoIyer DeGolyer & McNaughton DaUas J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist Houston 0. S. Petty Petty Geophysical Co. San Antonio MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE Chairman — G«orge E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine 6. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, G^logy, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. Dallas E. P, Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Freeport C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Go. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F, C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor NOTICE TO ALL MEMBERS The results of the questionnaire in Volume 2, Number 3, were so successful that it has been decided to repeat it in this issue. As a large part of the membership have never, prior to this time, expressed their opinion as to what they like in The Journal, the data gathered in this manner has been exceedingly valuable to your editor. Please fill out this sheet and mail it to THE EDITOR, TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE BOX 867, ROCKPORT, TEXAS Please fill in the following blanks with numbers in the order that you preferred the articles. After the one you liked best, put a one, after the next best, a two, and so on. DO NOT SIMPLY CHECK THE NUMBERS, GIVE THEM A NUMERICAL VALUE, PLEASE. War Against Cancer Texas Steel Hawk Predation at the Bat Oav^ of Texas The Shell Oil Company Exploration and Production Res^rch Laboratory Ceramic Engineering and Research At the University of Texas A Bibliography on Mesquite The Effects of Sodium Acid Psnro-Phosphate on Ostrea Virginica Gmelin Selenium Content of the Soils of the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Stockton Plateau in Northern Terrell County, Texas Review of the Western Atlantic Triglidae (Fishes) Remarks (Use other side of sheet if necessary) - The Texas Journal of Science - ★ - EDITOR IN CHIEF J. L. Baughman Box 867, Rockport, Texas ASSOCIATE EDITORS Charles F. Squire The Rice Institute Houston, Texas W. Frank Blair The University of Texas Austin, Texas EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist, 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Dr. L. W. Blau Research Consultant, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Houston, Texas Dr. J. C. Godbey Dept, of Chemistry Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. John G. Sinclair Dept, of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston, Texas Dr. Frank E. Luksa Dept, of Sociology Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. Clark Hubbs Dept, of Zoology University of Texas Austin, Texas ADVERTISING MANAGER Guy N. Turner 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Volume II Number 4 THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE, onc of man’s foremost weapons in the war againt cancer. Courtesy Steelways RESEARCH WORKER Joan Bardet feeds a specimen of tissue at half a milli¬ meter a minute against a razor blade moving at half the speed of sound, cutting slices thin enough for photomicrographs. WAR AGAINST CANCER A. W. MARTINEZ On a humid afternoon in August of 1946, three research men at a west New York laboratory were bent intently over a curious kind of photograph. Except for a laconic notation at the bottom, the picture could have been mistaken for an aerial view of a bombing attack. There was a vague sug¬ gestion of land and water masses, a harbor and small streams. Dark blotches in the center had the appearance of bomb craters. Actually, the picture was a phenomenal enlargement of human tissue — 20,000 times its original size. The resemblance to an attacked area was not far from wrong, however. The "land masses” were human cells stricken by one of the most baffling of all mankind’s diseases — cancer. The "water areas” were normal cells and the dark blotches the cell nuclei. The three men — Dr. Albert E. Gessler, Clifflord Grey and John Kelsch — had been examining photomicrographs of human tissue for two years, some of them enlarged to 100,000 diameters. But this time they saw some¬ thing which had eluded them before — something so effectively concealed that the camouflage seemed deliberate. There, buried deep in the amorphous mass of cell tissue, were the dark outlines of a suspected invader, infinitesimal even in this submicroscopic world. It was the first time any such presence had been observed in a human cancer cell. More important, it was the first time any such marked differ¬ ence had been detected between normal cell structure and cancerous cell structure. 446 JAN 2 2 1951 The discovery made by the three men that day led to the opening of an important new line of cancer research. It is adding fresh and what may be conclusive evidence to the theory that human cancer is caused by a virus. Behind that discovery was a curious mechanical device called the microtome, and an ordinary steel razor blade- — the kind you can buy around the corner at your neighborhood drug store. The story starts some 12 years ago with Dr. Gessler, a biochemist who is Research Director of the Interchemical Corporation. Dr. Gessler believed that scientists could find significant differences as yet unknown to mark a healthy normal cell from one which was a part of a cancerous growth — if the cells could be studied at close enough range. But a study of this kind was impossible at the time. The most powerful microscope was unable to enlarge a section of tis¬ sue sufficiently to show a physical difference so subtle and infinitesi¬ mal. Courtesy Steelways PHOTOMICROGRAPH of canccrous human breast, magnified 20,000 times, showing dark bodies clus¬ tered on collagen fibrils Then in 1939, construction of a practical electron microscope was announced by RCA. It opened a new vista in the study of viruses too small to be seen under an ordinary in¬ strument. The fourth electron microscope built by RCA was bought by the research laboratories of Dr. Gessler’s company, a firm which manufactures chemical coatings, printing inks, paints, dyes and other products. In a gesture of public spiritedness. Interchemical permitted its research staff and its new microscope to be used to investigate the theory which Dr. Gessler shared with other eminent scientists. Another source of aid came in 1944 when the Lillia Babbitt Hyde Foundation gave the doctor a cancer grant on the basis of the work he had outlined. It was soon clear, however, that the microscope was not enough in spite of its astonishing powers of enlargement. The beam of electrons — which, in the electron microscope, replaces the light beam of the ordinary microscope — did not have enough energy to penetrate the thinnest slice of tissue that could be cut at that time. To examine tissue, it was necessary to crush the cells or break them up and make a solution from them. This destroyed the cells and completely altered their natural arrangement. Dr. Gessler needed a knife that would slice a section thin enough to 446 1950, No. 4 December 30 War Against Cancer 447 allow the electrons to pass through. How thin? In mathematical terms, one tenth of a micron or l/2 5 0,000th of an inch. This is about one thous¬ andth the thickness of a human hair. The closest approach to such a knife was the familiar microtome used in ordinary medical tissue sectioning. It works somewhat like a delicatessen slicing machine. The operator turns a wheel and the moving specimen is forced against a precision knife edge. While the standard microtome could not produce the kind of uniformly thin specimens required, it served as a starting point. At about the same time, the idea of a microtome with a superspeed revolving blade and a device to feed the specimen was suggested in the magazine science by two University of Pittsburg research workers. Dr. Gessler decided to try out the idea at once. In a tiny spare room of Interchemical’s laboratory, he and two of his associates, Ernest Fullam and Clifford Grey, began work on the world’s first high speed microtome. Their materials at first came from neighborhood hardware stores: a small electric hand grinder, clamps, braces, and copper tubing. These they worked with their own machine tools to the close tolerances required. For example, a steel wheel which was to travel at half the speed of sound had to be ground and fitted to near perfect balance. Even so, in early tests the turbulence of near sonic bursts of speed caused the wheel to explode and its jagged parts were imbedded in the wall like shrapnel. Fortunately nobody got hit. Courtesy Steelways The greatest problem proved to be the critical cutting edge of the knife itself. This was a small blade mounted on the rim of the wheel in such a way that it would chip off a slice of tissue as the wheel re¬ volved. For months, the men tried every kind of costly material. They experimented with sapphires, special alloys, imported Swedish and Sheffield steels. Finally, in desperation, they hit upon the idea of an ordinary American steel razor blade. Without this prosaic item it is doubtful that the new CONNECTIVE TISSUE from a nor¬ mal human breast, magnified 30,- 000 tim.es. The fibrils are free of the bodies shown in the preceding figure, which Dr. Gessler thinks may be viruses. 448 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 microtome would have been able to carry out the job. No other cutting edge had withstood the stress. Today’s streamlined model uses the same kind of blade, shaped to the right size but untreated in any other way. The cutting edge is already so sharp that the scientists never need to touch it. Three early high speed microtomes were failures. The fourth model was both successful and somewhat fantastic. It was about the size of a table model sewing machine. Its spinning disc cut the air at more than 60,000 revolutions a minute and gave forth an anguished wail like a police siren. It had to be operated in bursts like a machine gun because the long- sought specimens actually piled up too fast on the collecting screens! Thousands were produced in less than a minute. The usable specimens were five times as thin as a wave length of blue light. The present high speed microtome is a modified design of this earlier model. It works better at a slower speed of approximately 12,000 r.p.m. The specimen to be cut is imbedded in paraffin and inserted in a slender tube pointed at the razor’s edge. As the disc spins, a separate motor and mechanism move the protruding specimen in toward the knife at a half a millimeter per minute. At the same time, the paraffin imbedding the speci¬ men is kept from melting by a stream of refrigerated air flowing across the tube. The blade literally scrapes off the tiny chip of specimen. Directly under the wheel, the chips are thrown on specially coated wire mesh screens and remain fixed there. To select the most usable specimens, the screens are examined under an ordinary light microscope and the useful portions are punched out by a special process. After months of work on details of specimen preparations, the first slides were placed in high vacuum under the focused electron beam. The research men tried an enlargement of 3,000 diameters — then 5,000, 10,000 and eventually 16,000. Through the viewing port, they saw wire-sharp images on the fluorescent screen. So distinct were photomicrographs taken at these magnifications that they could be blown up to 100,000 diameters if necessary. A single human cell became a world in itself. Cell walls, con¬ nective tissue, cytoplasm and minutely fine fibrils were visible for the first time in extraordinary detail. The inner sanctum of the cell nucleus, even the protoplasm within the nucleus, could be carefully studied. During the next years the high speed microtome turned out better and better sections, but if some quantity X in cancer existed it remained se¬ curely hidden. Then, on that August day in 1946, Dr. Gessler and his as¬ sociates detected something strange in some pictures of fatty gland tissue. At enlargements of 10,000 to 15,000 diameters, fibrils in the tissue showed up as thin stalks or stringy masses. Attached to these clearly defined masses were the small dark spherical bodies which had never before been seen. Could these bodies be mere artifacts — some irrelevant presence intro¬ duced by technical aberrations in the method or equipment? The research¬ ers changed their technique of preparing specimens. They went back over old pictures and made new ones. In each case the same sinister bodies could be seen clumped around a group of cells — just as they had first been seen on the elongated fibrils. Most significant of all, no trace of the suspected invaders could be found in photomicrographs of healthy tissue! Further studies were even more revealing. They showed that the dark, unidentifiable bodies could change in dimension. In fast growing cancers, 1950, No. 4 December 30 War Against Cancer 449 they appeared to multiply in size and number. In some pictures there were a few vague specks of matter. In later phases, the invaders showed up on the face of the photomicrograph like a spattering of buckshot. In its last stage of life, the doomed cell was surrounded by heavy clumps of the foreign bodies. When Dr, Gessler’s findings were presented before Yale University in 1947, the work had been carried on thus far without outside confirma¬ tion. But in 1948, the laboratories of the Rockefeller Institute made an ex¬ citing report. Cancerous tissue taken from mice and artificially cultured showed traces of dark unidentifiable bodies. A year later, Columbia Uni¬ versity reported that the milk from cancer-infected mice contained sub- microscopic spheres of foreign matter. This has since become known as the solution and put in a centrifuge. Late this spring, the Interchemical Laboratories were ready to isolate the spherical bodies they had found for closer study. This meant separating from a piece of tissue something as infinitesimally small as a virus and get¬ ting its image on a photographic plate. To do it, the specific gravity of each of the component parts of the cell had to be estimated. When this was known, the infected tissue was cut up and homogenized into a milky solution and put in a centrifuge. It took four to six centrifuge operations to remove successively lighter solids from the mixture until nothing was left but the tiny spherical bodies. In the last stage the centrifuge was whirled at 30,000 r.p.m., producing a force 50,000 times gravity. The operation left millions of the dark pellets on an incredibly fine screen and made possible three dimensional shadowed pictures of the specimens. Under all circumstances, the dark bodies proved to be uniform in size, shape, weight, and density — eliminating any effect produced in fixing the specimens for study. What does all this mean in terms of cancer research? It bears out the virus theory of cancer, one of three main and some¬ what interrelated lines of cancer research on which many other scientists are working. This much is known from Dr. Gessler’s work. The unknown dark bodies are protein in composition just like viruses and cell nuclei. They look and behave like viruses. They may multiply and grow in size and ac¬ tivity under certain conditions. They seem to destroy cell life by reproduc¬ ing themselves and breaking down the cell structure. When animal tissue containing these bodies is transplanted into healthy laboratory animals of the same species, cancer develops. It has been established that viruses do cause cancer in ducks and chickens. The conditions for transmitting the disease are rigid, however. The duck or chicken must be approximately seven weeks old. After that, the virus may not take. When it does, the fowl is usually dead within one month. It is also known that a certain strain of mice, inbred for cancer susceptibility, will in 90 per cent of the cases develop cancer at a certain age. But one strain of animals apparently cannot infect another strain — even if they are of the same species. Another important point is that the exposure must take place in the animal’s infancy. Assuming a human cancer virus, all this evidence bears significantly on a chain of baffling questions. Why do cancerous cells multiply lawlessly 450 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 to create a growth? Why does repeated injury to a certain area of the body apparently lead to cancer in some individuals? And why not in others who are apparently immune to cancer? Dr, Gessler’s findings tend to support the theory that a cancer virus may be transmitted in infancy and passed from one generation to another; that the virus may remain inactive throughout a man’s life until some part of the cell structure is weakened by injury or in other ways made susceptible to the influence of the dark bodies; that malignant tumors result from an upset of delicate biological balances which has been caused by the division and multiplication of healthy cells under virus attack. These are not claims, for medical science is never more cautious than when it is dealing with cancer. Until he knows by all possible proof, Dr. Gessler will not call his discovery a virus. But today, the research men at Interchemical are on the last mile of a job started more than 12 years ago. They have begun to inject the isolated dark bodies into live baby mice, which are markedly similiar biologically to human beings. If these injections transmit the disease, the bodies will have passed every known test used to identify viruses. The little instrument with its whirling steel blade will have completed its mission and one more battle will have been won in the ceaseless war on mankind’s second dead¬ liest disease.“STEELWAYS. Sheffield Photo IN THIS PLANT near Jacksonville Cass County ore is processed prior to shipment to the Houston blast furnace. TEXAS STEEL R. H. STARTZELL Sheffield Steel Corporation Houston, Texas A century-old dream of a permanent metal industry, built on the red iron ores of East Texas, has come true at last. Today, instead of the crude blast furnaces that produced pig iron for the Confederacy, Sheffield Steel Corporation’s massive mill on the Houston Ship Channel, with its great blast furnace, open hearths, and busy rolling mills, has become a symbol of the industrial progress of Texas and the teeming Gulf Coast. Here, a fully integrated steel industry by an intricate process of smelting, refining and fabricating, converts East Texas ores into finished products, such as nails, fence wire, reinforcing rods, bars and slabs. Virtually all of this production remains in the Southwest, where it is used to manufacture hundreds of products. 451 452 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 4 December 30 ORE REGIONS of East Texas 1950, No. 4 December 30 Texas Steel 453 Sheffield Photo RIVER OF MOLTEN IRON—Herc workmen '"tap” the big blast furnace. The photograph shows a stream of molten pig iron produced from the red ores of East Texas. Of course, production of iron from the East Texas ores is nothing new. It has been done spasmodically, usually under stimulus of war demand, for more than a century. Blast furnaces of the past rose above the piney woods and prospered for a time, only to sink into ruin and oblivion. Texas iron could not compete with pig iron from Birmingham, where coal and iron lay in rich veins almost side by side. 454 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Iron ore deposits checker the hills of 22 East Texas counties. However, deposits which can be profitably worked are restricted to an area of less than 1000 square miles. Federal surveys indicate that a very large propor¬ tion of the production could be obtained from an area of less than 100 square miles in Cass, Cherokee, Marion and Morris counties. In addition, An¬ derson, Henderson, Upshur, Nacogdoches and Smith counties might con¬ ceivably produce some ore if sufficient demand should arise. However, the bulk of Sheffield’s ore comes from mines near Jacksonville and near Linden, in Cass county. As a result of extensive surveys in recent years, the quantity and qual¬ ity of proven iron ore reserves of Texas have been greatly increased. In East Texas both siderite and limonite exist where the ore deposits occur in strata forming the cap rocks of low mountain ranges. Although the amount of ore is known to be great, no definite estimate of tonnage can be made. Metallic content ranges usually from 2 5 to 5 5 per cent. The history of blast furnace operations in the East Texas district ante¬ dates the Civil War, going back to about the year 18 59 when the first re¬ corded furnace, the Nash Furnace, was established in Cass County. There also was production from furnaces at Kelly ville, near Jefferson, and at Jef¬ ferson prior to the Civil War, and production continued in various parts of East Texas until 1909. The early furnaces turned out iron for the manu¬ facture of simple household articles, plows, and other agricultural imple¬ ments. At an extra session of the State Legislature in 1861, a joint resolution was passed which pointed out that inexhaustible supplies of iron ore, to¬ gether with several successful foundries, existed in Cass and Marion coun¬ ties, and invited the Government of the Confederate States "to consider the propriety and importance of establishing a foundry and manufactory for the manufacture of ordnance and arms for the Confederate States.” The invitation v/as accepted. Eckel ( 1938) ''•* says the Confederate Government took charge of and operated several of the existing furnaces and erected others. In addition to the works constructed by the Govern¬ ment, a few others were erected by private capital. After the war all of them finally fell into disuse. The State of Texas went into the business in 18 83 by erecting at New Birmingham, near Rusk in Cherokee County, a furnace known as "Old Alcade,” which was put in blast February 27, 18 84. It was rebuilt by the state in 1896 with a capacity of 10,000 tons annually, and operated until 1903 as a charcoal furnace, as had been all previous Texas furnaces. Then in 1903 it was converted to a coke furnace and the capacity raised to 23,000 tons annually. The state also owned and operated a cast-iron pipe factory in connection with the furnace; both were operated for a number of years with convict labor from the Rusk penitentiary. Production continued with but few interruptions until December, 1909, when the furnace went out of blast permanently. New Birmingham was also the site of the Tassie Belle furnace, built in 1889-90, and having a capacity of 13,500 tons of pig iron annually. Blown in with charcoal fuel, supplied by large beehive ovens erected near the fur- * Eckel, Edwin B, — 1938 — The brown iron ores of Eastern Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 902; i-vi, 1-157, 20 pis. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Texas Steel 455 Sheffield Photo STEEL FOR THE souTHWEST^ — Here a heat of steel is being "tapped.” The huge overhead crane, whose massive hooks are seen in the foreground, waits for the big "bucket” to fill, before traveling on to the open hearths to charge them with this molten "pig.” nace, the Tassie Belle produced car wheel pig iron from November, 1890, until some time in 1896 when it was shut down and never reopened. Today, the only evidence of the furnace, or of New Birmingham, is the presence of a little slag and charcoal and a few bricks, all nearly hidden by second growth pine. New Birmingham, once the center of a flourishing char¬ coal furnace industry, is now numbered among the "ghost towns.” 456 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 CHARGING SCRAP — In addition to hot metal from the blast furnace, fine steel requires scrap metal and other ingredients. Here scrap is being charged into one of eight open hearths in the Houston plant. It remained then, for Sheffield to bring to Texas the first plant to produce steel on a major scale, and it operates the only open hearths in the state. Although it did not get into production until 1942, the Houston plant’s history goes back to 1931. Officials of the company were convinced, as a result of surveys launched in 1956, that Texas and the Gulf coast were not only rich markets for finished steel, but just as rich sources of scrap metal, a basic raw ma¬ terial needed to make steel by the special open hearth process developed by their research experts. Option on a site was acquired in 1940. The land was purchased in 1941 and construction of the plant began the same year. In March, 1942, the first heat was tapped, and the plant began to produce steel for ship plates and forgings of heavy shells. Three open hearths and rolling and finishing mills were installed origi¬ nally. However, to increase badly needed production, the government added two more open hearths, a blooming mill, a plate mill, and other facilities, including coke ovens and a 700-ton blast furnace. As not enough scrap was available to satisfy the great wartime demands, recourse to the extensive deposits of ore lying untouched in East Texas was necessary. Lease rights were obtained to thousands of acres of ore land and a source of coking coal 1950, No. 4 December 30 Texas Steel 457 was developed in Oklahoma. The output of the blast furnace, used as hot metal in the steel making process, made it possible to virtually double the plant’s wartime output. At the end of the war, Sheffield purchased the government-owned properties from War Assets Administration, and increased the number of open hearths from five to eight. With hot metal from the blast furnace boosting output of the open hearths, production was pushed past the wartime peak. The plant’s present ingot capacity of approximately 840,- 000 tons annually is three and a half times that of the original plant when it went into production in the spring of 1942, Additional facilities under construction will increase capacity to nearly 1,000,000 tons by May, 1951. The Houston plant is what is called a "fully integrated mill.” This means it starts with raw ores and other raw materials, and in the end pro¬ duces finished products ready for use by the consumer. The manufacturing process begins at the coke ovens, where coal is converted into coke, and at the blast furnace, where this coke is combined with ore and limestone to produce approximately 800 tons of pig iron daily. Three types of iron ore, limestone and coke are charged into the blast furnace by automatic equipment. The majority of ores come from mines at Jacksonville and Linden, Texas. These ores are blended with some ores im¬ ported from Durango, Mexico. Limestone comes from Central Texas, and coke is manufactured from Oklahoma and Arkansas coals. The blast furnace derives its name from the fact that the air to support combustion must be forced into it under pressure because of the resistance offered by the column of material within the shaft to the passage of the combustion gases. The application of this process presupposes continuous operation, as obviously, any interruption would be detrimental to the econ¬ omy of production. In the case of the blast furnace, the operation consists fundamentally of the continuous reduction of iron oxide by the combustion of solid carbonaceous fuel. The furnace is "tapped” every seven hours. Molten iron is poured into "bottles” mounted on railroad cars for transportation to the open hearths, where it is used as part of the charge in making steel. The slag is tapped off and hauled by rail to a plant where it is ground into road building material. Carefully controlled quantities of hot metal from the blast furnace, scrap metal, carbon, manganese, and in some cases chromium, nickel, silicon, molybdenum, and other alloying metals are "cooked” in the open hearth furnaces, until a homogeneous steel of required analysis is obtained. This is a most versatile process, and more than 22 5 standard grades, from ingot iron to alloy steel, are made by the open hearth method. These furnaces get their names because the molten steel lies on a saucer¬ like hearth, or floor, and is exposed to flames which provide temperatures around 3,000 Farenheit. The hearths are fired partially by natural gas used on a 50% B.T.U. basis with oil. In the cooking process, limestone combines with impurities, carrying them to the top as slag. When refining is complete, the "heat” of steel is "tapped” or emptied into huge ladles, holding one hundred and fifty tons. This molten steel is then "teemed” or poured into ingot moulds, and after the metal solidifies, the ingots are stripped from the moulds. 458 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Sheffield Photo READY FOR ROLLING MiLL~To bring Steel mgots weighing thousands of pounds to uniform temperature for rolling, they are placed in "soaking pits.” When white hot, they are removed, as shown in the photograph, and sent through the blooming mill and other rolling mills. Some of the steel winds up as plates 40 feet long which are then fabricated into pipe for the oil and ga industries. Before the ingots can be properly rolled, they must be reheated in a soaking pit until their temperature is uniform throughout. From here they pass on to the blooming mill, a two-high reversing mill using rolls 36” in diameter by 86” long. Rolling is controlled by two men located in a "pul¬ pit” twenty feet above the roll line. One man, the "roller” controls the distance between the rolls, which progressively reduce the ingot in size and cross sectional area and lengthen it to a rectangular bloom or slab. The other man, the "manipulator,” operates controls to edge or turn the bloom 90 degrees and guide it into position back and forth between the rolls. After the ingot has been reduced to specified size, the long bloom or slab is sheared into lengths and transferred to the other mills for further processing into merchant bar flats, squares, rounds, structural I-beams, angles, channels, plates, rods, etc. In addition to furnishing blooms and slabs for the structural and plate mills, the blooming mill, by means of a continuous roller line, delivers hot blooms to the 19” mill where they are rolled into small billets, such as 2” X 2” squares for the rod mill and 2 5/2” x 3 14” billets for the merchant mill. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Texas Steel 459 Sheffield Photo EiNiSHED PRODUCT— One of the finished products is barbed wire for farms and ranches of the Southwest. A corner of the Sheffield wire mill, where barbed wire is made by high speed automatic machines, is shown here. The finished product is seen staced in the foreground. The raw steel is now ready to be received by several different plants where it is processed into consumer goods. The product of the blooming mill goes to five different departments: the plate mill, structural mill, mer¬ chant mill, rod mill, and wire mill. At the plate mil! slabs from the blooming mill are sheared to length and transferred to the stock yard where they are conditioned by use of scarfing torches to remove any surface defects before being rolled into plates. Slabs are then charged into two continuous slab reheating furnaces where they are brought to rolling temperature and rolled into plates. After rolling to desired width and thickness, the plates are passed through a stress-relieving furnace and through a leveller which levels them to a com¬ pletely flat and smooth section. They then travel on a caster bed to the shears, where they are squared and sheared to customer’s specifications. Besides supplying plate for a variety of other industrial uses, the plate mill also turns out special plate or skelp, fabricated to rigid specifications, which is converted in a nearby plant into 40-foot lengths of 30-inch pipe. This mill can produce plate up to 115 inches wide and 40 feet long for pipe up to 36 inches in diameter. At present it is turning out, in addi¬ tion to ordinary plate, special skelp for a thousand miles of 30-inch pipeline which will transport natural gas from South Texas to the Chicago area. 460 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 The structural mill shears to length the blooms or billets from the blooming mill and reheats them in a long continuous bloom furnace. They are then re-rolled into finished structural shapes such as I-beams, channels, angles, rounds, etc., in the 26” structural mill. This mill is made up of three stands of 3 -high rolls in line. The first is the roughing stand; the second, the intermediate stand; and the third, the finishing stand. On each side of these sets of rolls are traveling tilting tables that take the hot bloom from the roller line and pass it progressively back and forth through the rolls until the finished section has been pro¬ duced. The finished section is then delivered from the finishing pass to the hot saw and cut to proper lengths. Later, after cooling, the section is straightened through a cold-roll straightening machine. Billets from the 19” mill are transferred to the rod mill where they are reheated in a continuous reheating furnace and then rolled into coiled rods or bar shapes and reinforcement bars. This mill is made up of 17 roll stands which reduce the 2” x 2” square billets to coiled rods varying in size from No. 5 rods (about the size of a lead pencil) to %” coiled rods. Also on this mill, bar size shapes and reinforced bars are rolled into long bars which pass from the finishing stand to the same cooling bed used by the merchant mill. A 400-pound 2” x 2” billet, when rolled into a coiled No, 5 rod, will make a rod a half mile long, or one ingot will make seven miles of coiled No. 5 rods. Each successive set of rolls is speeded up to take care of the elongation of the bar due to reduction in diameter. The merchant mill also takes sheared billets from the 19” mill. After reheating them to proper rolling temperatures in a continuous billet furnace, the billets are passed through a series of reducing rolls by means of roller lines manipulated by operators stationed in pulpits on each side of the mill. These operators accurately control the movement of the rolls, passing the bar back and forth through the series of roll stands, until the bar is fin¬ ished on the finishing stand to the customer’s specifications. The long bar is then transferred to an automatic cooling bed and allowed to cool before being sheared into desired lengths. From the rod mill, hot rolled rods, coiled on pouring type reels, are transferred to the wire mill. Before drawing, these rods are immersed in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid from 30 to 45 minutes. The cleaned and baked rods are transferred to the wire drawing department where they are cold drawn through tungsten-carbide dies on continuous wire drawing machines. These rods are reduced in size, in some cases, to as small as 20 gauge wire (about l/32”). One 400-pound coiled rod will make a contin¬ uous length of 23 miles of 20 gauge wire. The fiinished wire is then trans¬ ferred to the various finishing departments, each having its own specifica¬ tions. Nail wire is transferred to the nail mill where nails are formed on cold heading nail machines in a wide range of sizes from small brads long, 20 gauge to 12” spikes, 3/8” in diameter. The speed of these machines varies from 150 nails per minute on the largest nail machine to 5 50 nails per minute on the small brad machines. In the wire galvanizing department, the bright wire is annealed or nor¬ malized by passing it through a hot lead bath to relieve the hardness built up by the cold drawing. After passing through a vat of muriatic acid to thoroughly clean the wire, it is passed through a bath of molten zinc or 1950, No. 4 December SO Texas Steel 461 spelter, then pulled through asbestos wipes where the excess zinc is removed, leaving a smooth coating of zinc on the finished wire. It is then coiled on take-up frames and transferred to the fence department for processing into fence and barbed wire, or bundled into coiled stock. Other bright wire is transferred to the welded mesh or fabric machines where it is electrically welded into coils of road or building fabric or sheared into sheets of road or building fabric. It is through these many varied and intricate processes that iron ore from East Texas hills, Texas limestone, and scrap metal gathered throughout the Southwest are combined to make carbon and alloy steels which are con¬ verted into many finished consumer products familiar to all, providing steel sinews for the expanding industrial development of the Southwest. Courtesy Don Bleitz RED-TAILED HAWK — A bat prcdatot 1950, No, 4 December 30 Haw^k Predation 463 ENTRANCE TO THE NEY BAT CAVE, Medina County, Tcxas: This is the site of a government operation during World War II when bats were being tried out as carriers of some incendiary bombs. So successful was this project, that the experimenters were succesful in burning up a great deal of U. S. property and only the development of the "A” bomb prevented our Texas bats from being shipped to Japan. HAWK PREDATION AT THE BAT CAVES OF TEXAS ALEXANDER SPRUNT, JR. National Audubon Society The Crescent Charleston 50, South Carolina Aside from the intensely spectacular aspect afforded by the so-called bat caves of Texas, in the evening emergence of the animals themselves, the attraction of predators to such areas, is most interesting. Doubtless, the entomologist would be more "in his glory” than any other, but mammalo- gist and ornithologist can both have their innings to advantage. It is from the latter viewpoint that the follov/ing facts are presented, and if interest in readers is aroused to some proportion of that experienced by the writer, he will be gratified! 464 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 NEY CAVE, just inside the entrance: The velvety appearance of the walls in the upper portion is due to the thousands of Mexican free-tailed bats which cling there just prior to taking off on their evening flight. While it is the case that his observations herewith have been carried out at only one of these caves, it is certainly a typical one and probably exhibits no variant with others, or vice versa. It is definitely preeminent in bats, for no other cave in the United States has anything in population to equal, or even approach it, as far as is now known. This cave is situated at the top of a limestone hill of the Edward's Plateau, some ten to twelve miles south of Bandera, just across the line in Medina County. It is called Ney by reason of the name of the owning fam¬ ily. Access to it lies across the Middle Verde Ranch, the property of Mr. Joseph Morris of San Antonio, and permission to traverse this area is neces¬ sary. Formerly, the property was owned for many years by Mr. Ben Gerdes. During the summers of 1949 and 1950 the writer was stationed at the Audubon Camp of Texas, at Kerrville, as instructor in birds. Field trips to Ney Cave were made during each of the five sessions both summers, plus preliminary surveys, thus a total of twelve trips have been made, and the bat flight, with it attendant sidelines of interest, observed. On ten of these, predation by certain birds of prey has been noted. No claim of originality is made for these observations. Indeed, the con¬ dition has been witnessed and commented on previously by others, a few have published their findings. However, some original data are contained 1950, No. 4 December 30 Hawk Predation 465 herein, as well as variation on the part of behavior of the aerial predators, with those formerly reported, which is interesting. (Two articles dealing with this subject directly may be found in the CAVES OF TEXAS, Bulletin 10 of the National Speleological Society, April, 1948. "Falcons Prey on Ney Cave Bats” by Kenneth E. Stager, page 97, and "Great Bat Colonies Attract Predators” by Denny G. Constantine, from notes furnished by Jack C. Couffer, page 100.) Some understanding of the general behavior at the cave is necessary to visualize the situation. Emergence of the bats varies considerably in time. Usually, but not always, there is a preliminary flight lasting from a very few minutes to as much as twenty, or more, and of some intensity. Cessation then occurs for as much as from a half hour to an hour, perhaps more. Then the mam flight occurs and may last until midnight and after. The writer has never witnessed the return flight. Time of emergence has varied from about 5 p.m. to as late as 6:30 p.m. CST in the summer of 1950. Typical of the variation are the following jot notes made on loca¬ tion, of two flights the past summer (1950). “July 21st. 1st bats emerged 5:55 p.m. Heavy flight by 6:00; slacked sud¬ denly 6 :05 ; stopt 6 :07 ; 2 bats returned 6 :09 ; 1 at 6 : 12 ; 2 or 3 emerged 6 :45 ; many appeared 6 :50 ; virtually stopt 7 :05 ; 2 bats returned 7 :20 ; small emergence 7 :37 ; heavy flight 7 :48 ; continuing at departure 8 :15” “August 4th. Flight emerged 5 :09 p.m., very heavy ; high level ; stopt 5 :40 p.m. Weak emergence 6:34, increased 6:37, heavy at 6:40; slacked at 7:00 but did not stop ; ceased 7 :13 briefly^ — began again 7 :15 ; stopt 7 :20 ; began 7 :30 tremendous numbers, was continuing unabated at 7 :50 on our departure.” About ten or twelve years ago, an early afternoon flight was, appar¬ ently, not unusual, according to Stager. This occurred as early as 3 p.m. Courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service THE MEXICAN FVce-tailed Bat Courtesy Don Bleitz THIS MAGNIFICENT FLIER—The Duck Hawk— is one of the chief predators feeding on the bats of the Ney Cave. The strength, swiftness, and beauty of its flight are almost indescribable to anyone who has never seen it in action. No bird of prey is more universally distributed throughout the world. It has been the favorite of falconers since pre-historic times. The Egyptians trained it for hunting in the days of the Pharaohs, and it is still used today for the same purpose. This picture was made by Mr. Don Bleitz from a blind constructed on the face of a cliff near Los Angeles, California. Mr. Bleitz went down a rope to the blind, which was built on a tiny ledge about 8” wide by 30” long. Hanging on to the rope with one hand, he got this magnificent picture. It is through his courtesy that it is reproduced here. Almost invariably, before emergence takes place, the hawks put in an appearance, doubtless awaiting the flight. They have, in the writer’s experi¬ ence, been of four varieties as follows: Sharp-shinned (Ac dpi ter velox) , Cooper’s (A. cooperi). Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and Duck hawk (Falco peregrinus anatum) . Thus three families of the birds of prey are represented, Accipiters, Buteos and Falcons. Turkey vultures (Cathartes) are always present but of course, do not participate except as carrion feed¬ ers. No collecting of the birds has been done, therefore the exact identity of the red-tails cannot be stated. Both the Eastern and Fuertes are present on the Edward’s Plateau in summer, and it is the writer’s belief that most birds occurring about the Ney Cave are of the latter form (Buteo ]amaicen- sis ftiertesi) . No sparrow hawks (Falco sparverius) have been noted, but they have been observed at other bat caves. 466 1950, No. 4 December 30 Hawk Predation 467 Courtesy American Museum Audubon’s plate of the Sharp-Shinned Hawk Acci[yiter velox, another Ney Cave predator Appearances before the bat flight are usually very brief. Almost invari¬ ably the birds appear from behind the crest of the hill (NW) and soar out over the valley fronting the cave, which is traversed by the bat stream. A high ridge lies opposite the cave at a distance of between a half, and three quarters of a mile. The red-tails often call at such times. Occasionally, a duck hawk will cruise by, rarely circling at all. None of the behavior described by Stager (preliminary diving and screaming about the mouth 468 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 W. E. Shore from National Audubon Society cooPERS HAWK at nest. This species has been observed feeding on bats. of the cave) has ever been witnessed by the writer. Nor has he ever ob¬ served the falcons in the numbers seen by Stager (6 at a time). No more than three, and usually only two, or even a single bird appears. It is the writer’s belief that these falcons are a family reared nearby, the parents and progeny being present each season. The opposite cliff affords excellent nesting sites, but thus far, no time has ever been available for a close examination. When the living river of bats issues forth and streams across the valley, the attacks transpire, and take various methods. The big red-tails "stoop” at times, almost like a falcon, descending from above with half -closed wings and plunging through the bat stream to zoom upward beneath with a bat in the talons. Again, they will parallel the stream, then veer sharply into it and either emerge on the other side, or re-appear on the same flank, with prey. They very seldom missed. This seems at variance with Couffer’s obser¬ vations for he states that the red-tails "would soar through the compact stream . , . five or six times before catching one in their talons.” In the writer’s experience, the "hits” very far exceeded the "misses.” The latter stand out because of their scarcity! Occasionally, a red- tail would fly straight through the stream from side to side. The procedure of the duck hawk varies also. Not always do they fol¬ low typical falcon tactics. The stoop is of course, indulged, but so was parallel flight with sudden swerves into and among the bats. Now and 1950, No. 4 December 30 Hawk Predation 469 C. Huber Watson from National Audubon Society SPARROW HA^'\•K---another bat predator then, a straight course at right angles to the stream was taken. Again, a bird would come under the bats and shoot upward, reach out with the feet and seize prey. On one occasion the past summer, a duck hawk was seen to do this, and miss its strike, whereupon, in almost the same instant, it reached sideways with one foot and caught a bat. It just happened that the bird was in the field of a 9x3 5 binocular at the moment. At no time, during the two summers, on any trip, with many bats secured, was a single duck hawk heard to utter a sound. Here again, is utterly different behavior from that witnessed by Stager at the same place, years previously. During 1950 a striking feature of falcon behavior was noted, while not an instance of it was observed the previous summer. This was aerial feeding. On several occasions, after a bat had been taken, the bird made a meal of it on the wing. It fed exactly like a Swallow-tailed kite {Elanoides forfi- catus) ^ bringing the foot with the prey forward, bending the head back and down to meet it, and tearing the bat to pieces, discarding the wings, which fluttered downward like dark leaves. Never before has the writer seen this habit indulged anywhere. In the case of the Cooper’s and Sharp-shinned hawks, bats were seized as the birds flew through the stream on a fairly straight course. Both of these Accipiters were much in the minority at any time, and often were lacking completely. 470 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Although the duck hawks were never seen in the numbers mentioned by Stager, the writer doubts that there is much change in the local status over the past decade. Stager mentioned that Ben Gerdes and his sons killed the birds at every chance, because of their depredations on poultry, and the bats. The ranch has changed ownership recently, and though the atti¬ tude of the present owner toward the hawks is not known to the writer, they are certainly still present there. It is to be sincerely hoped that they will not be persecuted. The maximum number of hawks preying on bats at one time, as far as the writer’s knowledge goes, was at the James River Bat Cave in Mason County. Here, about ten years ago, Henry Hahn, of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, saw ten specimens working at once. Most of them were red-tails. The predation of hawks at the Ney Cave on bats, or indeed any other, is inconsequential. The population of Ney has been estimated by authori¬ ties on the subject to be somewhere between twenty and thirty millions. The hawks feed for approximately one to two hours of afternoon time, and may make three to five kills each. With three red-tails, three duck hawks, and a Cooper’s or sharp-shinned, this runs to about two dozen bats. Assuming that some feeding is done about daylight, and thereafter, as the bats return, we might double that number or enlarge it somewhat. Fifty plus bats per day. When one descends into any of these caves and sees the teeming, crawl¬ ing millions of young and adult bats which cover the walls and ceiling in veritable layers, a loss like this seems trifling! For the ornithologist how¬ ever, as indeed for anyone with any interest in the out-doors, the sight of these splendid birds of prey at work, particularly that superb huntsman, the Duck hawk, is something that constitutes a red-letter day in observa¬ tional highlights, and is something every visitor to the Edward’s Plateau ought to witness. Courtesy of Shell Oil Company IN ORDER TO CONSOLIDATE and enlarge its facilities for exploration and production research, Shell has built a modern, fully equipped laboratory in Houston, Texas. The basic principle of design has been functional adapta¬ tion to the work to be done within. THE SHELL OIL COMPANY EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION RESEARCH LABORATORY H. GERSHINOWITZ Director, Exploration and Production Research Shell Oil Company Houston, Texas Never in history have demands for oil products been as heavy as they are today. The demand continues to mount as the number of products made from oil, now over 1200, continues to increase and grow in use. The result is a greater need to discover additional petroleum reserves, and produce oil more efficiently. At the same time, with more easily found reserves already located, it becomes more difficult and more expensive to find those still hidden. 471 472 The Texas Journal of Science 4 December 30 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company COMPARATIVE STUDIES of cores from oil wells are made in one of the chemical laboratories. Shell, like other members of the industry, has recognized this problem for many years and has worked steadily to overcome it. Much successful research has been done. Experience has shown, however, that centralized, coordinated research is the most elfective. In order to consolidate and en¬ large its own facilities for exploration and production research, Shell has built a modern, fully equipped laboratory in Houston, Texas. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Shell Laboratory 473 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company PHYSICAL CHEMISTS iisc high pressui'c and temperature apparatus to study the thermodynamics -and phase relationships of fluids under reservoir con¬ ditions. FACILITIES The basic principle of design has been functional adaptation to the work to be done within. Since the nature of research continuously changes with its own development, flexibility is a prerequisite for any laboratory. At the same time, rigidity and stability of structure are essential for many kinds of experiment. By careful choice of basic plan and of structural ma¬ terials, a compromise between these conflicting requirements has been made. 474 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company THE APLICATION OF RADAR to Surveying has been important in marine exploration in the Gulf of Mexico. Here research men are modifying a 10 cm. range unit. A standard unit, consisting of a large laboratory and two small adjoin¬ ing offices or studies, is repeated throughout the building. These units have been designed to provide maximum adaptability to all presently conceived requirements; but consistent with the requirement of flexibility, the divid¬ ing walls have been made free of all structural load so that they may be removed. These walls are of glazed hollow tile in pastel colors, providing an easy-to-clean, attractive surface. The laboratory units have usual services available: gas, hot and cold water, steam, compressed air and Acicuum. Also several kinds of electrical power can be furnished through a central switch board. The wiring is either twisted or coaxial cable to minimize electrical interference with sensitive apparatus. All utilities are run through a four foot space between the first and second floors so that they may easily be brought to any point in any room, either up through the floor or down through the ceiling. The laboratory furniture is also designed for maximum flexibility. All steel, except for table or desk tops, it is built up from small units which can be moved around within a room or from room to room whenever necessary. These moves can be made without expensive plumbing or wiring changes since the utilities run along the walls in units separate from the cabinets or tables but fitting smoothly together with them. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Shell Laboratory 475 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company A STANDARD UNIT Consisting of a large laboratory and two small adjoining offices or studies, is repeated throughout the building. These units have been designed to provide maximum adaptability to all presently conceived re¬ quirements; but consistent with the requirement of flexibility, the dividing walls have been made free of all structural load so that they may be removed. These walls are of glazed hollow tile in pastel colors, providing an easy-to- clean, attractive surface. The structural load of the building is carried on a welded steel frame which is set on footings deep beneath the surface in order to obtain a foun¬ dation firmer than that which would be provided by the soil around Hous¬ ton. Poor surface drainage and a high average level of the water table make it difficult to keep basements dry in this region. As a consequence, the heating and cooling equipment, generally located beneath the ground level, is in this building contained in a third-floor penthouse. Controlled temperatures and humidities and freedom from dust and pollens are essential not only for the health and comfort of the staff but also for the proper operation of delicate laboratory apparatus. Accordingly, all year round, the air entering each laboratory or office space is automatically controlled to maintain temperature and humidity required for the work being done or for maximum comfort of the workers. High potential elec¬ trical precipitators remove all dust and pollen, and ultraviolet lamps destroy microorganisms. The long rows of windows do not open but serve only to admit light and provide a relaxing view. The glass absorbs both infrared 476 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company FOR MAKING PRECISION TOOLS used in research work, the laboratory has a well equipped shop staffed with skilled craftsmen. and ultraviolet light, reducing the heat and glare without distorting color relationships. A spacious library, designed to hold 10,000 volumes, is equipped with easy chairs in addition to the usual work tables and chairs. There are two machine shops: a large one manned by a professional staff of instrument makers and machinists; the other, small so that research men can drill a hole or cut a bit of metal without disturbing the skilled workers engaged in precision work. There are also glass-blowing and photography shops. For the frequent round-table discussions and scientific meetings there are two conference rooms, the larger designed to accommodate seventy-five people comfortably and equipped with a projection room and all the para¬ phernalia needed for lectures. Facilities are provided for recording and reproducing the reports of the research workers so that they may be circulated to those concerned with held applications. An on-premise parking lot has been provided for the convenience of employees who drive their own cars. Finally, for mid-day refreshment and relaxation, there is a large cafeteria and adjoining outdoor covered terrace. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Shell Laboratory 477 Courtesy of Shell Oil Company TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY is an important part of exploration and pro¬ duction research. METHODS The general program of research is conceived as an assault on the problems of exploration for oil and exploitation of oil reservoirs by the combined and coordinated resources of the physical, chemical, and geologi¬ cal sciences. Although much is being done toward the improvement and better understanding of already successful methods and techniques, consid¬ erable attention is being given to fundamental studies of the physics and chemistry of the earth and to geology, since only from this fundamental knowledge may come the radically new tools and techniques of the future. In oil-field operations, a distinction is usually maintained between ex¬ ploration (the search for oil fields) and production (the subsequent exploi¬ tation of discovered fields). Many petroleum industrial research laboratories keep this distinction in their ov/n organization. It is the opinion of those responsible for Shell’s research that many problems in the fields of explora¬ tion and production are closely related and that research in one field con¬ ducted independently of that in the other would be wasteful. Accordingly, the research division is divided not into exploration and production depart¬ ments, but into chemical, physical, and geological departments. Strong efforts are made to break down the barriers between the sciences, with each scientist expected to aid and to be benefited by his associates. 478 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Cooperation and coordination between research and the field is also a keynote of the program. This, together with the need for frequent excur¬ sions to the field to conduct experiments, determined the geographical loca¬ tion of the laboratory. For within a radius of a few hundred miles of Houston is one of the world’s greatest concentrations of oil fields and po¬ tential oil fields of a wide variety of types. As a consequence of the need for experiments in the field there are, as part of the research division, in addition to the laboratory and its normal apparatus, a fleet of instrument trucks and trailers. The physicists study the propagation of elastic waves in the earth, the origin and magnitude of the earth’s gravitational, magnetic, and electric fields. They investigate the physical properties of rocks and of the fluids contained in the rocks. Some of their most important and difficult prob¬ lems arise from attempts to develop instruments and techniques for measur¬ ing these properties and phenomena from the surface of the earth to depths of five miles or more. For these studies, the laboratory is equipped with the most modern equipment. Neutrons and gamma rays are used to penetrate rocks and disclose their composition and contents. Delicate seismometers can measure displacements no greater than the diameter of a single molecule. Radar and other ultrahigh-frequency techniques are used for surveying and for corpmunication. An artificial oil well makes it possible to carry out tests in the laboratory under pressures up to 10,000 pounds per square inch at temperatures as high as 300° F. The work of the chemists is closely coordinated with that of the physicists and geologists. Practically all branches of chemistry are repre¬ sented in the research program. Colloid chemists and inorganic chemists study the chemical composi¬ tion and physio-chemical properties of the rocks which are contained in the outer crust of the earth and also help to develop drilling fluids or muds, without which modern rotary drilling would be impossible. Physical chemists use high pressure and temperature apparatus to study the thermodynamics and phase relationships of fluids under reservoir con¬ ditions. They study the effects of viscosity and of surface tension on phase equilibrium and on the flow of the fluids. They also study the rates and mechanisms of the reactions which have transformed loose sediments into hard rocks through geologic time. Analytical chemists develop the tech¬ niques of identification required by the other chemists and attempt to find ways for location of deeply buried petroleum by chemical evidence at the surface. Besides conventional analytical equipment, four kinds of spectro¬ meters have been provided to make measurements ranging from the X-ray region through the infrared. Geologists are also well represented in this organization. They work with the chemists and physicists as consultants, to make certain always that the theoretical assumption or the conditions of laboratory experiments cor¬ respond to geologically plausible situations. Their most important work, however, is as geologists. As stratigraphers, they strive to provide improved methods for identifying and correlating subsurface strata; to provide detailed data on the properties of the subsurfaces bases for studies of fluid flow; to achieve a better understanding of the relationship between (a) present-day properties and characteristics of subsurface strata and (b) the 1950, No. 4 December 30 Shell Laboratory 479 features of the original environment and subsequent changes; all with the ultimate aim of improving or developing methods for identifying and delimiting oil-bearing horizons. For the structural geologists the problem is to determine with the aid of physicists and mechanical engineers the relationships between geological structures and the formation, migration and occurrence of oil, or to predict the magnitude and detailed structure of geological formations. The facilities for this geological work were designed by geologists as the optimum for their requirements. Special equipment is provided for sample washing and preparation, for microscopic examination, for classifi¬ cation and filing. 480 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 CERAMIC ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS F. K. PENCE, DIRECTOR Ceramic engineering is a specialized type of industrial engineering which has to do with the utilization of the mineral resources of the earth exclusive of metallic ores and carbonaceous minerals such as coal, gas and petroleum products. In other words, the raw materials of ceramic opera¬ tions are drawn from the field of non-metallic minerals. Prominent in this field are clays of all types, bentonites, silica sands, as well as rock formations such as feldspar, quartz, serpentine, and many other related minerals. In addition, there are the widely distributed deposits of limestone, dolomite, gypsum and related minerals which are the raw materials for extensive in¬ dustrial operations which belong in the ceramic field. It would not be proper in a report of this kind to go into further detail on the subject of the many ramifications of the ceramic field, but we have taken the trouble to set forth the foregoing as preliminary to a classi¬ fication of the natural resources of Texas and the part that is being played by the state in forwarding their economic utilization. The natural resources of any state divide themselves broadly into two fields, first those resources which spring from the soil and constitute the ranch and agricultural products; second, the minerals which come from beneath the surface and which support vast manufacturing operations. The mineral resources, par¬ ticularly in Texas, may be divided into three classes, (a) the carbonaceous minerals which include coals, natural gas and petroleum products, (b) non-metallic minerals, and (c) metallic ores, and sulphur. Let us now take a look at the attention which the state has given to the development of these various fields. As would be expected, we find that the agricultural resources have received major attention. In fact, the state supports an entire college which has as its major activity the field of agri¬ culture. In the mineral divisions the development of petroleum products has been forwarded over a period of many years by state supported depart¬ ments of petroleum engineering equipped with buildings and all of the necessary facilities for efficient operation. While metallic ores occur in Texas in limited quantity, a school of metallurgy at El Paso has been main¬ tained over a period of many years. Surprising as it may seem, the record shows that during all of the years the other fields have been receiving at¬ tention, the very broad and fundamental field of non-metallic minerals was almost entirely overlooked. In response to requests coming from various parts of the state the Bureau of Industrial Chemistry at The University of Texas made physical tests on samples of clay submitted to them for commercial evaluation. The Chamber of Commerce of San Antonio set up a laboratory for investi¬ gation of clays which was reported in a bulletin published in December, 1929. It was not until 1940 that a definite division of ceramic research as a part of the activities of the Bureau of Industrial Chemistry, was estab¬ lished at The University of Texas. The personnel of this ceramic division consisted of three student assistants and the writer. The budget for mainte¬ nance was a very meager one and provided for only the minimum of equip- 1950, No. 4 December 30 Ceramic Engineering 481 ment for the grinding, forming, and firing of clay samples. There was an immediate interest on the part of students which resulted in request for classwork instruction in ceramic engineering. In response to student demand, the writer taught two fundamental courses covering the minerals which are blended in the fabrication of clay products and the composition of glazes and mineral colorants used in coating and decorating these products. These were the only two ceramic courses taught between the years 1940 and 1945. The rapidly increasing statewide interest in a ceramic development program resulted in the organization of the Texas Ceramic Society in 1942 consisting of the various ceramic companies already operating within the state. This group attracted the support of leading citizens in almost every county in the state which culminated in a substantial appropriation by the State Legislature authorizing a full-fledged ceramic department and re¬ search bureau at The University of Texas. These were set up September 1st, 1945. The Board of Regents of The University of Texas took an active part in requesting this appropriation and gave tentative assurance that adequate physical facilities, including a new ceramic building, would be provided. Preliminary drawings were made for such a building and a building site was allocated. Pending the availability of funds for the erection of an ade¬ quate building, the Department and Research Bureau were temporarily as¬ signed space in the Chemical Engineering Building. In 1947, a section of a post-war temporary building 54’ x 60’ was assigned for use as a Research Laboratory in Ceramics. In spite of these limited facilities, the strides made by the ceramic set-up have been phenomenal compared to any similar program in other states of the nation. The result has been that the Department of Ceramic Engineer¬ ing at The University of Texas is now second to none in the entire country in the quality of its instruction. Upon the occasion of its first inspection by the national engineering accrediting body (E.C.P.D.) in the spring of 1948, the Department of Ceramic Engineering at The University of Texas was fully accredited. The laboratories of the department have been equipped with the most recent advanced types of scientific apparatus for the inves¬ tigation of clay minerals. The department has been turning out graduate ceramic engineers who are taking their place in furthering the rapid advance in ceramic industry which has been so pronounced since the department was established. Outstanding among these new ceramic industries which have recently come to Texas are floor and wall tile, sanitaryware, refractories or firebrick, enamel iron plants, art potteries, and glass. Many other ceramic products are not yet represented in the list of Texas factories. The field is especially wide open for dinnerware, electrical porcelain and hotel china. The Ceramic Department at The University of Texas is the only one of its kind in the Southwest, the nearest ones being in California, Missouri and Georgia. Graduates of the department have obtained positions with a number of the new Texas industries and are rapidly becoming advanced to positions of executive responsibility. A number of the old established plants outside of the state have called for additional ceramic engineers following the hiring of some of the first graduates; for example. Gladding, McBean Company, largest ceramic manufacturers on the west Coast, have recently hired their fourth engineer from the department. This speaks well for the 482 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 quality of service which our graduates are able to render. Anyone interested in further information regarding the department are invited to address the writer, Department of Ceramic Engineering, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas. In closing may I again call attention to the fact that of the three out¬ standing natural resources of the State of Texas, viz., agriculture, petrol¬ eum products, and non-metallic minerals, the last has not been developed in comparison with its possibilities. Recent advances in science have brought non-metallic minerals into the limelight. These minerals are the only ones that can measure up to the specifications involved in nuclear power opera¬ tions, particularly those involving high temperatures. The fact that Texas is rich in these minerals places this state in line for leadership in this new and vital field. Texas also possesses all of the other factors such as cheap fuel, labor supply and climatic advantages which enable it to become the outstanding center of ceramic manufacture in the nation. It is the history, however, of all those states that have become prominent in ceramic manufacture that the state in every case has given continuous and substantial support to the development. This is due to the fact that the development of ceramic manufacture comprises a multitude of compara¬ tively small industrial operations. It is this very characteristic that makes such operations logical in many small towns and cities throughout the state. It may also be noted that this type of operation affords the graduate in Ceramic Engineering a fertile field for the application of his knowledge and ingenuity. With the start that has been made at The University of Texas, the Department of Ceramic Engineering and the Research Bureau which was established in 1945, has demonstrated its worthiness to become the corner¬ stone upon which the ceramic development of the state can be firmly con¬ structed. If the ceramic program at The University of Texas is given the same type of support that has been given to agriculture and petroleum products, this result in the field of ceramic manufacture can be fully ac¬ complished. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Operations Research 483 OPERATIONS RESEARCH CHARLES F. SQUIRE Professor of Physics The Rice Institute The opportunity to discuss Operations Research with the members of the Texas Academy is timely because of our war with the Communists and because it is of interest to scientists in both the biological and physical sci¬ ences. The research group with which the author worked for three years on this subject was made up of mathematicians, physicists, chemists, biolo¬ gists, and engineers. Very little has been written"' about this type of research and yet its techniques and scope are of importance both in war and in peace. Let me begin by defining the term Operations Research; it is simply the scientific, quantitative study and evaluation of operations involving men and equipment. In peace time pursuits one may point to the field of communications as an operation involving men and equipment, and in war the air bombing of enemy installations or the hunting and killing of enemy submarines. These operations, whatever their nature, must occur often enough and be similar enough so that data may be gathered on their results. In this way numbers can be obtained and scientific methods can be applied to discover the parameters which control their outcome. There are some¬ times parameters which accidentally influence such an operation but these factors will be regarded as statistical fluctuations which need not hamper an understanding of the process. In this way Operations Research takes on the nature of biological science, and indeed it was found that men trained in biological science were the most able to contribute. WTiat is important is that once the basic parameters of a given operation are understood, a pre¬ diction can be made of the probable outcome of a new but similar operation. We quote from Admiral E, J. King’s Final Report to the Secretary of the Navy issued in December 1945 concerning an operations research group with which the author collaborated. ''Operations research, as it developed, fell into two main categories: theoretical analysis of tactics, stategy and the equipment of war on the one hand; and statistical analysis of operations on the other. Each type of naval operation had to be analyzed theoretically to determine the maximum poten¬ tialities of the equipment involved, the probable reactions of the personnel, and the nature of the tactics which would combine equipment and personnel in an optimum manner. Action reports, giving the actual results obtained in this type of operation, were studied in a quantitative manner in order to amplify, correct, and correlate closely the theoretical analysis with what was actually happening on the field of battle. The knowledge resulting from this continued cross-check of theory with practice made it possible to work out improvements in tactics which sometimes increased the effectiveness of weapons by factors of three or five, to detect changes in the enemy’s tactics in time to counter them before they became dangerous, and to calculate force requirements for future operations.” '^’Kittel, Charles — 1947 — Science 105: 1. Steinhardt, Jacinto — 1946 — Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 72:649. McGraw-Hill — 1947 — Selected techniques for scientific and industrial research. 484 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 4 December 30 "Operations research, bringing scientists in to analyze the technical import of the fluctuations bewteen measure and countermeasure, made it possible to speed up our reaction rate in several critical cases.” From this quotation you can understand that the main function of an operations research group is to analyze actual operations, using the data to be found in action reports, track charts, dispatches, intelligence summaries from interviews with operating personnel, etc. In wartime the operations research man studies weapons and equipment from the "user” point of view, both in training and in field use. The study of peacetime operations would also involve the gathering of data which could be regarded as signifi¬ cant and then submitting it to analysis. The data is observational rather than experimental because of the lack of rigid control. Statistical analysis is not fruitful unless there are available for study a large number of reports on operations which are roughly similar in nature. In warfare, bombing operations on a target of a given type satisfy these requirements for a number of such operations are carried out under similar weather conditions and under somewhat similar conditions of enemy opposition. Aircraft escort of convoys through waters containing enemy submarines may occur so many times that data on this operation may lead to a highly satisfactory interpretation. Anti-shipping strikes by our own submarine forces occurred in the last war frequently and an analysis led to evaluation of our weapon performances and to enemy tactics. In peacetime, the building of a new community occurs frequently enough so that we should be able to gather statistics which would reveal what people really want. For their homes, how much space should be allotted to sleeping quarters, to eating quarters, and to the other operational pur¬ suits of living. The question of heating and airconditioning, of building materials and their strength could all probably be answered more fully by gathering statistical data. The location of shopping centers, of schools, and other public buildings could be determined on the basis of their opera¬ tional function. Bus lines and highway routes for rapid communication are already showing improvement in many cities by the results of the type of statistical study which we call Operations Research. Many industries have applied such methods to their own products. A department store will analyze the wealth of the people who come into their store and will carry those goods which the people can and will buy. Thus a store might carry a large number of cheap fur coats for women and no really expensive furs because their customers buy only the cheaper grade. Operations research then depends upon gathering statistically signifi¬ cant data and then submitting it to an analysis which will determine the principle factors which govern the outcome of such an operation. These methods need some amplification. During the past war our planes were sent on anti-shipping strikes and all combat information came back to an opera¬ tions research center. The research group was close enough to operations so that interviews with squadron commanders, pilots, and intelligence offi¬ cers could be obtained v/ithin a reasonable time after operations. After sev¬ eral months the operations data on some 17 squadrons revealed the follow¬ ing data on the failure of bombs to release from the bomb bay of the aircraft. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Operations Research 485 Type Aircraft Number of Bombs Failed Bombs Failed Incidents to Release to Explode A 40 4 (10%) 1 B 9 1 (11%) 0 C 33 3 (9%) 0 D 177 8 (4.5%) 0 Total 259 16 (6.2%) 1 This meant that better maintenance on the bomb shackles could be expected to pay off up to 10% in improvement. From the point of view of operations research this was a small improvement and more important factors were examined. Analysis of the number of bombs dropped in a single attack as a function of ships sunk by the bombs revealed a curve somewhat like this: Probability of Sinking Ffere then one finds pilots whose performance could be improved by a factor of nearly 10 by requiring them to drop at least 4 bombs in a row in a single attack on an enemy ship. The overall performance from all pilots could then be expected to improve by such a doctrine by an amount of some 2 ships sunk per unit time over what had been accomplished. Looking fur¬ ther into the statistics from an even greater number of attacks revealed other parameters governing a well executed attack. The term probability of success enters into every operation and the data which is important to gather is that which comes from the actual use of equipment and men under full stress. For example the radar in an aircraft has a certain proba¬ bility of detecting a submarine on the surface at a distance of 12 miles be¬ cause of a number of operational factors which enter into the combination of equipment and men who run it. In other words, the result of an indi¬ vidual trial cannot be predicted exactly in advance. What can be predicted, if we analyze the problem thoroughly is the probability of certain events occurring, which can be expressed in terms of the distribution function or the probability density. Thus there may be an 80% probability of detection of an enemy submarine on the surface by an aircraft flying 12 miles away. Everyone knows that the probability of tossing a coin and getting heads is just 1/2 and that of throwing a 3 with a die is l/6. Such a toss or throw is to be considered as a random event. This process may be looked upon as a line of unit length: 486 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 4 December 30 The probability of throwing a 3 corresponds to l/6 of the length of the line. The probability that a 3 will not be thrown is just 5/6 corresponding to the length of the rest of the line. The probability that a target will be hit with a bomb may be simplified by the following consideration. Suppose the projectiles are dropped on the target whose area is A such that they form a uniform density over its surface. The probability of a bulls eye is a/A where "a” is the area of the bulls eye. 0 J 1 The bombardier will recognize this type of thinking as part of the theory going into the number of bombs and the number of planes needed to destroy a given bulls eye. True, the bombs do not form a uniform density over the area A but peak up perhaps so: 1950, No. 4 December 30 Operations Research 487 ability density for a given event involving men and equipment. Sometimes the tactics m.ay be shown to be operationally hopeless and new techniques must be evolved. The predictions of operations research play an important role in setting up the new tactics. In other words, operations research often forms the basis for a command decision. The mathematical science behind the laws of probability is one of the aids to straight thinking which have made Operations Research pay off so well. Heaven help us if our top military leaders become such square- jawed, two-fisted men that the conclusions of probability mathematics is considered "too theoretical” simply because it is not grasped in a ten min¬ ute briefing. Take another example which has a bit of complication in it but which can be bro.ught into a clear understanding with mathematical aids; an aircraft is sent out to search the ocean in an area of one-hundred miles by fifty miles because it is believed from radio direction finding equip¬ ment that a life raft is somewhere in that area. If the life raft comes within the radius R of the aircraft it will be discovered. "Wliat is the prob¬ ability that the life raft, if it is discovered, comes into view at a relative bearing, O, from the nose of the aircraft? The answer can be worked out quite well and the lookouts from the aircraft should be in greater number in the forward looking positions but not to the exclusion of search to the side. One final example of Operations Research data which gave such a simple answer that one is surprised by the result. During the last war an -90° o' 90‘ 488 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No, 4 December 30 analysis of the losses in North Atlantic merchant-vessel convoys showed that the average number of ships sunk in a convoy was a constant, inde¬ pendent of the size of the convoy. It was, in fact, found that the percent¬ age casualties, L, were given approximately by the equation, L = c/SE where S is the number of ships in the convoy, E the number of escort vessels, and '^'c” is a constant. As a direct consequence of this analysis early in 1943 the time between convoys was lengthened so that each convoy was larger and protected by more escorts. This command decision resulted in greatly diminished losses. Incidentally these facts and figures were worked out by a well known biologist on that particular operations research job. ; V . Finally the question should be discussed as to hpv/ operations research findings are translated into command decisions. The methods which are found to work best in war are very likely also the best ones with respect to peacetime decisions. In the first place a problem which is to be studied should be one which those who make command decisions are interested in having solved. This very often means that the research group must first sell the problem — that is, they must show that the problem exists and that the answers would be worth knowing. Most often those who make com¬ mand decisions already know what the problem is but neither have the time nor the scientific approach to cope with it. Such problems should always get top priority with the research group because they get prompt attention and build confidence between the top command and the research team. At the same time it must be emphasized that like all research problems the answers cannot be obtained by the usual business methods of handing out orders to go and turn the product out. The research group cannot be ordered about in the strict sense; it may be given certain channels of operation or certain broad directives. The Texas Academy of Science has a Conservation Council which in some respects acts like an operations research group. It studies many of our peacetime problems such as health, education, soil and wildlife conservation, and economy. The data is gathered and the predictions of future perform¬ ance are fairly accurate. Those who make command decisions about a great many of these problems are for the most part indifferent to the studies made by the Texas Academy. Very likely they would call the studies "'too theo¬ retical” which for the most part means they haven’t read the report and could not understand it if they did. The approach made by the Texas Academy is wrong. The Conservation Council should stop deciding what it thinks important and go find out what the top command wants to know. For example, during the next ten years this may be concentrated on the problems of health and of water supply. Give them the answers to the problems they are interested in and then go to work selling a few of the problems thought to be interesting and important. The strong position of the Texas Academy is that it takes no money from the State of Texas and therefore cannot be told or ordered to do anything. What work is done is free of influence from at least one side of the picture. The author is pleased to acknowledge the stimulating research guidance of Professor P. M. Morse during the years we all fought the Hun on the high seas. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the pioreer work of the Operations Research Group, now Operations Evaluation Group of the United States Navy, for their splendid effective support during this period. 1950, No. 4 December 3< Western Atlantic Triglidae 489 REVIEW OF THE WESTERN ATLANTIC TRIGLIDAE (FISHES) ISAAC GINSBURG U. S, Fish and Wildlife Service Washington, D, C, The American species of the family Triglidae have been notoriously difficult to distinguish and identify by the use of current accounts. A systematic revision of this family has long been an urgent need in ichthyol¬ ogy. In attempting to determine the species of this family occurring in the Gulf of Mexico, I found it necessary to make an extensive comparative study of all the western Atlantic species. The results of this study are em¬ bodied in this paper. The only revision of the American species published heretofore is that of Jordan and Flughes^ of the species of Frionotus, which includes most American species of the family. What is virtually the account of these authors, with some changes and additions, has been incorporated in Jordan and Evermann’s "The Fishes of North and Middle America.”^ A large part of the difficulties in the use of these accounts for the identification of the species, is that the published keys are practically unworkable. These authors use the size of the mouth and the development of certain spines on the head in the major and secondary division of the species, respectively. Flowever, there are all degrees of differences in the size of the mouth — besides the fact that its relative size changes intraspecifically with growth and Varies considerably with the individual — -and in most instances it is of only minor or no value in the identification of the species. Characters referring to the spines on the head are of greater value in the distinction of the species, but the spines change with growth, and unless such characters are correlated with the size of the fish they might prove misleading. Still another difficulty is that these authors do not give the intraspecific range and degree of variability of such important specific characters as the number of fin rays, gill rakers and scales. The frequency distributions of these characters have been determined and are presented in the accompany¬ ing tables. By the precise use of the counts of meristic characters together with characters hitherto largely neglected, the characters of the spines as correlated with size, and other characters of minor importance, the distinction and identification of the species loses a great deal of its difficulty. The species of sea robins are then not harder to distinguish than most other closely re¬ lated species of fishes, and a great deal easier than some other species. Under the family description given below, the characters common to the species here treated are included. Therefore, the family description does not constitute its definition on a world wide basis. Under the descriptions of the several species only the characters that distinguish the species are stated. Characters which are common to the species to a greater or lesser degree and given under the family heading are not repeated under the ac¬ counts of the species. 1 Proc. U. S. Nat, Mus. vol. 9, pp. 327-338, 1886 - Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 47, pt. 2, pp, 2147-2177. 1898 490 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Family TRIGLIDAE Body elongate, moderately compressed, tapering, caudal peduncle rather slender. Head large, encased in bony armor, with spines and ridges, their relative development differing with the species, and intraspecifically with growth to a marked extent; upper anterior quadrant of eye with a protrud¬ ing serrated ridge, the serrae increasing in strength from below upward, or subequal except highest one abruptly longer and stouter; a short spin¬ ous projection on upper orbital rim (postorbital) preceded by a serrate ridge; a transverse occipital groove, somewhat curving, with the concave side posteriorly, between the two postorbital spines, nearly in a line with posterior margin of eyes, present in the young of most species, usually partly or wholly disappearing with growth; 4 lengthwise ridges usually or often ending in spinous points, behind occipital groove, or in that position when groove is absent, as follows: two short ridges (sphenotic and pterotic) directly behind eye in a line with upper margin of pupil or a little higher, often coalescent; a ridge (parietal) at some distance behind occipital groove and nearer midback; a ridge (posttemporal) placed still farther backward, on a lengthwise line between the lines through the ridges previously de¬ scribed, ending in a strong point in most species, constituting posteriormost point of armature on top of head; a small area on midback in front of dorsal between the posttemporal ridges, rounded anteriorly, unarmed; opercle and preopercle with a moderate or long spine; shoulder girdle with a moderate or short spine; preopercular spine with a supplemental, smaller spine at its base in most species; lateral edge of snout rather finely serrate, with two spinules (rostral spines), one behind the other, in most species; cheek with a spinule (buccal) in most species at center of radiation of striae or in that position when striae indistinct; supplemental preopecular, rostral and buccal spines, in the species having such spines, relatively longer in the smaller specimens, the buccal disappearing with growth in nearly all species, the others disappearing in some species, persistent, in diminished size, in other species; lachrymal plate serrate on its free part forming anterior margin of snout, partly or wholly covering premaxillary and anterior portion of max¬ illary, truncate or rounded or moderately or notably projecting, depending on the species. Profile of snout rising moderately or very steeply. Mouth inferior, the lower jaw included, the gape on ventral aspect, except terminal in P. stearnsi. Maxillary ending on a vertical in front of anterior margin of eye in most species, to under anterior margin of eye or a little behind in others. Teeth small, subequal, in bands of moderate width on jaws, vomer and palatines; bands in jaws interrupted at symphysis, that on vomer usu¬ ally continuous, often interrupted or partly continuous (the dentition differs with the individual and there might also be some average specific differences, but the intraspecific individual variability was not adequately determined; the dentition in stearnsi differs moderately from the other species and is separately described under its account). Gill opening large; gill mem¬ branes free, narrowly united far forward in advance of eve. Pseudobranchiae moderately or well developed. Gill rakers short or moderate, few or in mod¬ erate numbers. Body covered with ctenoid scales; a variable roughly tri¬ angular area between pectoral and ventral fins scaleless; ventral aspect scaled or naked as far as anal origin, depending on the species; small area behind head armature and in front of dorsal scaled, except in B. militarh and B. 1950, No. 4 December 30 Western Atlantic Triglidae 491 egretta; caudal scaled' at its base for a moderate distance; also scaled for a variable area along upper and lower margin in most species; other fins and fleshy pectoral base scaleiess. Lateral line continuous, nearly straight, slight¬ ly curved in front, beginning near posttemporal spine and ending a little beyond caudal base, placed at a moderate distance below dorsal profile; caudal with two rows of modified, elongate, narrow, partly fused, chan¬ neled scales, one row above and one below, along second branched ray, their nature and function probably akin to that of lateral line. Two separate dorsal fins. F’irst dorsal normally having 10 or 11 spines (in the species here treated, depending on the genus), first, second or third spine longest, depending on the species, posterior spines behind second to fourth rapidly decreasing in length; last spine very- short stumpy, sometimes represented by a mere low bony protuberance, penultimate and antepenultimate spines sometimes also very short (care must be taken not to omit last one or two spines from count). Second dorsal rays 11-14, all segmented; first two branched or unbranched, depending on the species and on individual vari¬ ability. Anal rays 9-13, first ray shorter than following, unsegmented (see below). Pelvic inserted a little behind base of pectoral, its base altogether on ventral aspect, with a well developed spine and 5 segmented and branched rays, increasing in length from spine to fourth ray, fifth ray slightly shorter, except in P. ophryas third ray longest; membrane uniting inner ventral ray to belly more or less developed. Pectoral placed low, close to ventral aspect; of moderate length to excessively long; the lower three rays detached from one another, thickened; the attached rays 11-15. Caudal rather short to moderate, truncate to emarginate. A typical color mark of the species is the presence of a black spot be¬ tween the fourth and fifth dorsal spines. In some species usually and in others occasionally, the spot extends before the fourth and behind the fifth spine. Also, in some species the spot is sharply marked in the young, and dis¬ appears with growth, more or less. Of Prionotus ophryas very small speci¬ mens are not available, while those of P, stearnsi are seemingly faded and these two species possibly lack the spot even in the young. However, there is some individual variability in the character of the spot. In species in which the spot normally persists throughout life, it is sometimes absent or faint, or nearly so, even in small specimens; while in species in which the spot disappears with growth, it occasionally persists to some extent in large specimens. The use and limitations of some of the characters employed for dis¬ tinguishing the species here treated are as follows. The number of dorsal spines is relatively constant with the number of variants from the normal very few. The number of spines normally is either 10 or 11, and this character divides the species into two seemingly natural groups. It is, therefore, used for separating the Atlantic species into two genera, Prionotus normally having 10 spines, and Bellator 11. This is apparently a better character than the one hitherto used for separating the genera, namely, the filamentous condition of the anterior dorsal spines. This latter character differs with sex in egretta and is unknown for brachychir , It remains to be determined whether the number of dorsal spines can be used as a generic character for the family as a whole. The number of dorsal, anal and pectoral rays is fairly constant, with the extent of variability relatively moderate. These counts are of primary 492 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 importance in separating the species. The last dorsal and anal ray is split to its base and the two main branches have been counted as one. The anterior anal fin support is flexible but unsegmented, and homologically it is prob¬ ably a flexible spine; but it has been included in the count with the seg¬ mented rays in this study. The number of gill rakers is of importance as a specific character, in distinguishing some of the species at least. There is some difficulty in the precise determination of that number. Some tubercle-like outgrowths, some¬ times called '"'rudiments” by authors, are present at the attached end of each limb of the outer gill arch. These tubercles cannot be included in the count, because often some of them are so coalescent that the individual tubercles are not distinguishable, and sometimes they are so small as to be hardly perceptible. Usually the line of demarcation from the gill rakers to the tubercles is abrupt. In some cases the transition is not so abrupt, and in such cases the count may differ by one because of the personal equation of the ob¬ server. Even so, allowing for this possible slight error, this count is of im¬ portance as a specific character. In table 2 and under the species diagnoses the gill raker counts on the upper and lower limbs are given separately, and also the combined or total number. The gill raker which stands at the angle of the arch and in a favorable light may be seen to have a biforked "root,” one tine of the fork on the lower limb and the other on the upper limb, has been uniformly included in the count of the lower limb. Small specimens, including the smallest examined, also have both kinds of outgrowths on the gill arch, gill rakers and tubercles; but there is a slight average difference in the gill raker count as between small and large specimens. Evidently, with growth one gill raker sometimes becomes a tubercle, occasionally perhaps two gill rakers change so. However, in most species the age difference is so slight that it is omitted from their accounts. In Atlantic tribtdus this growth change is somewhat more pronounced than in other species. As the number of gill rakers is of considerable importance in distinguishing tribulus and evolans, the frequency distributions of the gill rakers of these two species are separated into two size groups in table 2. The presence or absence of the buccal, rostral and supplemental pre- opercular spines is of considerable importance in separating the species, but in using the spines as a character in classification, the state of growth or the approximate size of the fish must be taken into consideration. These spines, when present, are better developed in small fish and greatly diminish in size or disappear altogether with growth. In the following descriptions statements regarding change with growth, referring to the approximate sizes at which the change takes place? are included. But the given sizes are very roughly approximate, or they refer to the near maximum size at disappearance, as there is much individual variability in the size in which these spines dis¬ appear, and no attempt was made to determine with precision this intra¬ specific individual variability. The number of scales is also of some importance as a specific charac¬ ter. The difficulty here is that the scales are usually rather irregularly ar¬ ranged and a precise determination of their number is usually not possible. However, I made repeated counts on each one of a number of specimens, and the extremes of the repeated experimental counts usually differed by 3 or 4 or less. Allowing for these moderate errors in observation, the count 1950, No. 4 December 30 Western Atlantic Triglidae 493 is still of value in specific distinction; but care must be exercised in using a uniform method of counting. My method was to determine the number of vertical rows above the lateral line, beginning with the row at the base of the first dorsal spine and ending at the caudal base. The rows are not strictly vertical, but are somewhat inclined forward or backward in differ¬ ent areas of the same specimens. But my aim always was to count the vertical rows or those very nearly so. The shape of the pectoral, a character hitherto neglected, is of much importance in separating the species. The length of the pectoral is also im¬ portant; but the intraspecific range of variation is usually considerable, and its relative length also changes with growth. In some species, at least, it apparently changes more than once during the life of the fish. Very small specimens were examined of a few but not all species, and such specimens have the pectoral relatively short; but in some species it becomes- long rather early in life, the approximate size at which it nearly assumes the adult length, probably differing somewhat with the species. Further¬ more, some evidence was adduced showing that in some populations, the pectoral again decreases in relative length in large specimens. Table 4 shows that in pectoralis and paralahis, the pectoral averages shorter in the larger than in medium size specimens. This condition apparently obtains also in very large specimens of the Uruguay population of punctaHis as noted below on page 513. The extent of scalation on the ventral aspect is of specific importance. In some species this character is fairly constant, in others the intraspecific range of variation is considerable. In the following descriptions the range of variation is stated where possible, and also the approximate size at which the adult scalation is developed in the different species. Species differences in the shape of the spinous dorsal are of some value, and are hereafter stated under the species accounts, with reference to the relative length of the first 4 spines. This method seems to describe such species differences adequately. The structure of the first dorsal ray has some limited value as a spe¬ cific character. For instance, in carolinus the first ray is nearly always un¬ branched, while in the closely related scituhis it is nearly always branched, with the number of variants from the normal comparatively few in both species. In the very small specimens the first ray, and the following rays, are unbranched in scitulus also; but the adult character, in this respect, is developed early in life. As noted above, Jordan and Hughes and Jordan and Evermann, use the size of the mouth for the primary division of the species in their key, expressing this difference by the extent of the mandible and the ratio of the maxillary to the head length. However, this character is of but limited value in distinguishing the species. In the following accounts this character is expressed by the relative extension of the maxillary backward, according to the usual procedure in taxonomic descriptions of fish. The extent of the mandible, or its point of articulation, is in all species a short distance behind the end of the maxillary. The maxillary length also has been determined on a few specimens and stated as a percentage of the standard length under the accounts of the separate species. Statements in the following descriptions referrtng to the pectoral length, the position of the maxillary end, and the state of development of the 494 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 lachrymal plate and its anterior serrature, are based on the larger specimens of each species. In small specimens, the pectoral is relatively shorter, the maxillary end is placed farther backward with relation to the eye, and the lachrymal plate and its serrature are not as prominently developed anteriorly. Measurements given under the accounts of the species and in the tables are expressed as a percentage of the standard length. In the accompanying tables giving the frequency distributions for the species and subspecies, of some meristic characters that are of specific importance, the same characters are further segregated, in some instances, to show differences or possible difference by populations of lower taxonomic rank than subspecies. For example in carolinus and evolam the scale count and the pectoral length appears to change with latitude. The data for these characters for these two species are, therefore, subdivided by geographic regions. The Texas population of latifrons, the Barataria Bay population of pec tor alls, the Panama population of punctatus, and some of the northern populations of evolans, appear to show some differences in the fin ray counts. While the samples examined are not sufficiently extensive to evaluate^ prop¬ erly the biological significance of these differences, yet they are stated sep¬ arately in the tables in order to call attention to such possibly significant differences. Where no probable population differences have been noted in the determined data they are not further subdivided. For instance, the given fin ray counts for carolinus represent the data for the entire geographic range of the species. Likewise, the gill raker counts for the species and subspecies are not further subdivided by minor populations; because no obvious population differences were detected in the samples examined. One possibly valid species from the western Atlantic, Prionotus murieli Mowbray^, was not available during the study. This species is described as having the upper two pectoral rays filamentous, and this condition is also shown on the figure. This character is unlike that in other western Atlantic species, and if it is a normal structure murieli is a valid species. However, the shape of the head and first dorsal, and the presence of a tentacle on the eye and a filament on the nostril, as shown in the published figure, are markedly as in P. ophryas. It is, therefore, within the realm of probability that the single specimen on which murieli is based is an example of ophryas which has the pectoral mutilated — perhaps injured at some time during its life and partly regenerated- — or otherwise abnormally formed. Bull. Vanderbilt Marine Mus. 1 (1) : 26, pi. 5, fig. 2, 1928 1950, No. 4 December 30 Western Atlantic Triglidae 495 Table i. - Frequency distribution of dorsal, ana! and attached pectoral spines and rays in western Atlantic trig/ids Spedes and Minor Populations First Dorsal Second Dorsal Ana! Pectoral m N 9 to n 12 13 14 S 10 Ii 12 13 P (S 1} 14 (5 Prionotus carolinus k 64 6C 6 1 64 / 53 ft mortis / / 52 2 50 / 45 / scitulus latifrons West Florida Louisiana Texas roseus / 60 2 56 3 §9 P ? 3? 34 33 / 3! 3 / 33 18 / 15 2 / 17 17 / 17 3 14 n 2 IS 48 / 45 2 / 46 j / <4 J ophryos / 25 / 24 / 3 23 26 Stearns! / 26 26 / 2 25 4 23 rubio punctatus Miscellaneous Panama pectoralis Miscellaneous Barataria Bay nudigula / 64 60 5 2 61 2 / 64 25 / 23 / 25 25 3 2 / 3 3 P3 22 / 22 / 2 2! 3 t 2 f ’ 2 3"' 5 5 5 5 crassiceps 68 / 5 62 2 64 / 5 63 I tribulus 58 / 4 54 8 51 5 53 / evolans Massachusetts Great Satth Boy,L.I. fkw Jersey to Chesapeake Bay North Carolina to Florida beaiii paralatus / 48 3 4 4! 7 4 43 3 2 47 ? 2 32 2 2 3! 3 t 30 5 3 33 29 ! 25 3 / ?6 3 / (7 (7 / 16 17 ! / I 1 // // / 9 / I 10 a/atus Bellator egretfa brachechir 29 3 / 29 2 I 3/ 29 / 30 ! 17? i 4 4 4 mUitaris 2 44 I 43 2 1 4! 4 45 1 496 The Texas Journal of Science I960, No. 4 December 30 KEY TO THE WESTERN ATLANTIC SPECIES OF THE FAMILY TRIGLIDAE A Dorsal spines normally 10 (for variants see table 1), dorsal rays modally 12 or 13 _ _ Friofiotm (p. 500) B Pectoral having its posterior edge moderately convex, or almost truncate transversely or obliquely, not emarginate. C Anal rays modally 12, varying 11-13, 11 in 6 per cent or less of the specimens, depending on the population. Dorsal rays modally 13, varying 12-14, 12 in 6 per cent or less of the specimen, except per¬ centage of variants higher in Texas population of latifrons. Buccal, 2 rostral and supplemental preopercular spines moderately devel¬ oped in small specimens, disappearing with growth. D Attached pectoral rays modally 14, varying 13-15, 13 in about 8 per cent of specimens or less. Chest fully scaled. E Gill rakers on lower limb usually 11-13, rather infrequently 10. No black spot between first and second dorsal spines. Atlantic coast of the United States _ _ _ carolinus (p, 500) EE Gill rakers on lower limb usually 9-10, varying 8-11. A black spot between first two dorsal spines. Gulf coast of the United States _ _ _ marth (p. 502) DD Attached pectoral rays modally 13, varying 12-14, 14 in about 6 per cent of specimens or less. Chest usually incompletely scaled, a variable area in front scaleless, infrequently almost completely scaled. Spot between first and second dorsal spines usually present, some¬ times absent _ scUmIms (p. 503) F Gill rakers on lower limb modally 11, varying 10-13. Scales 107-144, Atlantic coast of the United States _ scitnlus scitulus (p. 503) Tablt 2 - Frequency dietributien of the number of gill rakers on the outer gill arch of western Atlantic trl^lds SPECIES Upper Umb Letter hmb Total on both limbs 0 J 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 io 6 7 8 9 1C 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 2! 22 23 24 Prionotus carolinus mortis scitulus latifrons roseus ophryas steernsi punctalus pestoroUs nudiaula crassiceps (32-l2Bmm,) 1 60 3 1 19 36 10 2 17 34 12 / n 6 3 / 1 6 / 2 57 2 9 39 9 4 36 9 5 3 64 2 14 3B 17 2 n 39 17 3a to 2 3! 13 2 2 26 13 7 26 14 12 14 12 27 2 20 5 2 so 5 2 62 3 32 25 4 4 32 24 4 / 26 / 7 17 / 6 16 5 25 ,, 6 16 4 6 16 3 1 4 4 / 3i 7 38 3 J 15 24 6 7 13 22 4 2 MMu» (43-W9mmJ tvolonw ($!- IZ9mm.) crassicees(l33-322mml t fibulas Il36-340mm.l evoians (I30‘42lmm.) beenii pgretafuS atetus Balletor earetfe brachvchir mlliferls 24 16 4 10 17 6 2 3 5 19 6 5 2 49 38 3 10 m 26 17 13 3 i w'^ 14 23 16 II n 4 , 5 15 ! 3 6 10 ! 2 7 2 9 2 16 1 8 4 4 3 / 8 3 4 2 / 21 21 2 3 12 to 3 ! 2 3 7 7 15 4 3 ! / ! / 8 3 7 3 , 5 4 2 29 3 it 19 2 n 17 3 / 19 to ! 10 16 2 7 13 7 4 t 2 / 1 2 / 33 13 i 10 27 3 , 8 22 n 4 I960, No. 4 December 30 Western Atlantic Triglidae 497 FF Gill rakers on lower limb modally 10, varying 9-11. Scales 103-130. Gulf coast of the United States _ scitulm latifrom (p. 504) CC Anal rays modally 11, varying 10-12, 12 in 9 per cent or less of the specimens, except higher in the Great South Bay population of evolam and the Barataria Bay population of pectoraln. Dorsal rays modally 12, varying 11-13, 13 in 10 per cent of the specimens or less, except in the Massachusetts population of evolans and the Barataria Bay population of pectoralh. G Rostral, supplemental preopercular and buccal spines absent in speci¬ mens over 30 mm; except rosetis having the anterior rostral spine only persistent to a larger size, sometimes up to 165 mm. Maximum size 22 5 mm. H Pectoral long reaching to over base of ninth anal ray in specimens 80 mm or longer, varying to a little beyond caudal base; to over sixth or seventh anal ray in specimens of roseus 5 5-65 mm. Scales 89-105. I Attached pectoral rays modally 13, varying 12-14, 14 in about 6 per cent of specimens. Eye without a tentacle; nostril without a fila¬ ment. Gill rakers on lower limb usually 8-10, rather infrequently 7. 3.- Fff^ttmey aiglributim ^ the number of $ee/ts in western Atlantic teigMs, Classes headed by their mid-nnmbers. Species md minor popuMims 54 57 SO S3 $6 m 72 75 78 8! 84 87 90 93 96 99 m m m Ht 114 II? ec I2i 129 02. m m m Primotm eemlims Mmsaehuaetts Newport, NJ. to Cheaapeoke Bay Beoufort.N.C. to Key Wes t, Fla. marfis seltulus tetifmns rosem oghms 4 3 8 3 2 2 5 B 4 3 / 1 5 8 4 3 2 1 4 / 1 / 2 2 5 n H n 7 4 3 2 / 5 3 6 H 14 to 8 S 3 2 ! 9 2! f 2 2 5 5 U / stmrmi ruth punetatm 2 3 5 5 to 2 / 3 7 // IS 17 B 2 3 8 9 5 ! peeteraUs mdimlo tribah/s eyokms Masseehusetts Grmt Smith my, L.l. NewJerse/ te Chesapeake Boy North CaroHm to Florida bemii porototus i 8 S 5 3 ! / / 3 7 12 14 2! 12 2 4 4 7 13 14 n J 2 / 10 12 If n / 5 7 9 12 2 ! 2 8 7 9 4 2 2 4 5 / 2 / i / / 7 / 2 alatm BelMor egretm S n // 3 / 2 3 3 to 7 4 bmehyeMr 2 1 / mi/itoris 3 8 17 16 2 498 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 Pectoral usually with blue spots. Anterior rostral spine sometimes present up to 165 mm _ roseus (p. 505 ) II Attached pectoral rays 14. Upper part of eye with a stout tentacle; nostril with a rather long filament. Gill rakers 6-7. Pectoral without blue spots. Rostral spines absent in the smallest specimens examined. _ ophryas (p. 507) HH Pectoral short, reaching to over base of second anal ray as a maximum, without spots. Scales 78-93. Attached pectoral rays 12-13. Eyeball with a group of papillae or tabs, often one or more of them in form of a tentacle or filament; nostril without a filament. Gill rakers on lower limb 9-1 1 _ stearnsi (p. 508) GG Two rostral, supplemental preopercular and buccal spines present; the buccal disappearing at different sizes depending on the species and individual variability; the rostral and supplemental preopercular more or less reduced in size with growth, but either one or both kinds persistent, at least as a trace, except in large specimens (about 3 30 mm) of evolans. J Total number of gill rakers on both limbs 8-15, except varying to 18 in Atlantic tribulus. No longitudinal dark streaks on body. K Scales 88-115. Interorbital 4-6, less than eye diameter except in very large specimens of piinctattis. Head 3 5-43. Spines on head rather moderately developed. L Chest altogether scaled or nearly so. M Longest caudal lobe 29-3 6; pectoral 40-56; ventral 26-31. Pectoral having its posterior margin slightly rounded or truncate, reaching »Wr 4. - Frt}> >fi i^> ij» tfi tf« ^ i^* »|« >j« i»^< »|< >|< i}< >!«•»$« ^ «{« »$«■ ^ *1* •*?* *** *** *i* *•!* *** *** *** *j* *»•* *1* *F *** *1* t % •J* •> •I* ❖ 4* GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS 3806 Cedar Springs Rd. Dalles 4, Texas & 1152*/2 North Second St. Abilene, Texas 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* ‘'F4*4*4‘4*4*4''4*4*4*4*4*'^4*4*’4*4*4*4‘'4*'4*'4*'4*4''4''4''4*4‘'4*4*4*'4‘'4'*'4*4*4‘4*4*4*4'’4*'4‘4*4*4*4*4*4*4*4^4*4' FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9 “Wild Flow^ers of San Antonio and Vicinitj^’’ — Schulz (Collector’s Item) . $6.00 (Collector’s Item) — $6.00 “Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . . $3.00 “Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00 (Limited edition) Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles — • Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector’s Item) . $1.25 The Texas Journal of Science 1950, No. 4 December 30 AMERICAN BRAHMAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION 2711 S. MAIN EMBLEMATIC OF THE BEST IN MODERN AMERICAN BEEF BRAHMANS • HOUSTON 2, TEXAS CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Toxm Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Human health, hygiene and public health : C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dyisgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities: Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. : L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors ; Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Itelations Research, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent : C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas Cocouncillors ; Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin Cocouncillors ; Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. 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